MINERALS

Definition of Mineral
The following definitions on what constitutes a mineral were taken from several different sources and are
arranged by year:
-"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as
a result of geological processes" (Nickel, E. H., 1995).
-"Minerals are naturally-occurring inorganic substances with a definite and predictable chemical
composition and physical properties." (O' Donoghue, 1990).
-"A mineral is a body produced by the processes of inorganic nature, having usually a definite chemical
composition and, if formed under favorable conditions, a certain characteristic atomic structure which is
expressed in its crystalline form and other physical properties" (Dana & Ford, 1932).
-"A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered atomic arrangement" (Mason, et al, 1968).
-. It is used in reference to the many inorganic chemicals that organisms need to grow, repair tissue,
metabolize and carry out other body processes. Mineral nutrients for the human body include: iron,
calcium, copper, sulfur, phosphorus, magnesium and many others.
- Naturally occurring or prepared water that contains dissolved mineral salts, elements, or gases, often
used therapeutically. (mineral water)
To be a mineral in the geological sense of the term, a substance must satisfy five conditions:
1. naturally occurring
2. inorganic
3. solid
4. definite chemical composition
5. ordered internal structure

"Naturally occurring" means that people did not make it. Steel is not a mineral because it is an alloy
produced by people. "Inorganic" means that the substance is not made by an organism. Wood and
pearls are made by organisms and thus are not minerals. "Solid" means that it is not a liquid or a gas at
standard temperature and pressure.

"Definite chemical composition" means that all occurrences of that mineral have a chemical composition
that varies within a specific limited range. For example: the mineral halite (known as "rock salt" when it is
mined) has a chemical composition of NaCl. It is made up of an equal number of atoms of sodium and
chlorine.

"Ordered internal structure" means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating
pattern. The structure of the mineral halite is shown in the illustration at right. Halite is composed of an
equal ratio of sodium and chlorine atoms arranged in a cubic pattern.


TYPES OF MINERALS
Minerals are divided into different groups based on their chemistry.
1. Silicate minerals-The most common mineral group on Earth is the silicate minerals. Most silicate
minerals form when molten rock cools, either at or near the Earth's surface or deep underground.
The silicate minerals make up the largest and most important class of rock-forming minerals,
constituting approximately 90 percent of the crust of the Earth. They are classified based on the
structure of their silicate group which contains different ratios of silicon and oxygen. (Silicate
minerals all contain silicon and oxygen -- the two most abundant elements in the Earth's crust;
neosilicates, Sorosilicates, cyclosilicates, Inosilicates, Phyllosilicates, and tectosilicates.)

2. Non-silicate minerals- There are many different groups of other minerals that are known as non-
silicate minerals. Some of these groups form when magma cools, while others form when water
evaporates away leaving mineral crystals behind, or when other minerals decompose. There are six
sub groups of non-silicates they are; Carbonates, Oxides, Sulfides, Sulfates, Halides, and Native
metals.


PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Hardness- This is an indirect measure of the bond strength in the mineral. It is exhibited in the form
of resistance to abrasion on a relatively smooth, fresh surface. Friedrich Mohs (1773-1839)
developed relative harness scale for minerals we still use today.
- Describes the scratchability of minerals








In 1822, a German scientist by the name of Frederick Mohs set up a scale to
determine the approximate hardness of minerals. He arranged the minerals in his
scale from softest (Talc) to hardest (Diamond). The minerals get increasingly harder
as you read down the scale, but they do not increase in hardness at a constant
rate.
2. Cleavage- Cleavage is the ability of a mineral to split repeatedly along a given planar direction,
producing smooth surfaces. These planar fractures are an expression of the orderly alignment of
atoms along planes within the mineral structure. Between these planes the bonds are weaker
than in other directions. The cleavages can be described as excellent, good, or poor,
depending upon the quality of the surface produced. More than one direction of cleavage
may be characteristic of a mineral, and it becomes important to note the number of cleavages
(directions), and the angles between the planar fractures.
3. Fracture- If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions
called fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed.; (1. Conchoidal
fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces; 2. Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way
wood breaks; 3. Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges. 4. Uneven or Irregular - rough
irregular surfaces.)
4. Crystal Form- regular polyhedral form, bounded by planer surfaces, which is the outward
expression of a periodic or regularly repeating internal arrangement of atoms.
5. Color- As a diagnostic property, the color of a mineral must be used with care, because small
amounts of impurities within the mineral structure have a marked effect upon the color. The
color in part therefore, gives us a clue to the composition of the mineral. It is determined in part
by the elements in the mineral and the quantum state of the electron cloud about the atoms,
hence the type of bonds which exist.
- Color is the easiest of the properties to see, but it is not always the best way to
identify a mineral. Many minerals have more than one color because of impurities
that were present during the formation of the mineral. Quartz is an example of a
mineral with many different colors. Quartz can be clear, white, blue, brown, and
almost black. Amethyst is a quartz crystal with a purple color. The Impurity that
makes amethyst purple is manganese.
- In some minerals, color is a very useful property.
6. Streak- Streak is the color of the powdered mineral when rubbed on a hard porcelain plate. The
finely powdered mineral tends to absorb more light, and at the same time because of the
smaller amount of impurity substances, the effect of exotic colors is diminished.
7. Luster- Reflection of light from the surface
- It is the quality of and intensity of light reflected from a surface of a mineral
Metallic Luster gives a substance the appearance of being made of metal. Metallic
minerals shine like metals.
Non-metallic Luster non-metallic minerals vary greatly in their appearance
Glassy / Vitreous Luster gives a substance A glazed appearance, like glass or
porcelain
Earthly Luster resembles the surface of unglazed pottery; it is a common
characteristic of various clay minerals. Minerals with an earthly luster look as
though they are covered with dirt or dust
Pearly Luster is iridescent, glows like a pearl.
Greasy Luster looks like the mineral is covered with grease, the mineral
definitely shines
8. Specific gravity- Ratio of the mass of a body to the mass of an equal volume of water at a
specified temperature (generally 4C, greatest density of water)
Sp. Gr. = wt. of body/ wt. of equal vol. water
= wt. In air/ (wt. In air wt. In water)



Rocks and Rock Cycle
Rocks
Rocks are naturally occurring solid aggregate composed of one or more minerals. For example, the common rock granite is a
combination of the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals.

Classification of Rocks
There are many types of rocks and they are classified based on how they are formed through specific processes, they are:
Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Igneous Rocks
These are rocks that are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava.







Igneous rocks are further classified according to where they are cooled and solidified, These are:
Intrusive - Magma that are cooled and solidified slowly within the earths crust forms intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks.
Extrusive Lava that is cooled quickly on the earths surface forms extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks.
Crystal Formation
As magma cools, minerals that have been melted tend to solidify into specific shapes called crystals. Since extrusive igneous
tend to solidify more quickly, the crystals tend to be small or fine grained. Examples: Basalt and Rhyolite.

Intrusive igneous rock that cools slowly can form a mixture of large crystals and are said to be coarse grained. Example:
Granite

Some extrusive igneous rocks cool so quickly that crystals are not formed at all. If this happens the lava has very little dissolved
gasses, the rock will then be a glass-like rock. The most common being obsidian.


Sedimentary Rocks
These are rocks that are formed from compaction and cementation of sediments.
Sediments are fragments of rocks that have been broken down as a result of weathering.
Compaction happens when sediments are deeply buried, placing them under pressure because of the weight of overlying
layers. This squashes the grains together more tightly.
Cementation refers to the process where minerals crystallize and join particles of sediment together into one mass.

Three Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rock: Made of rock fragments that are carried away from their source by water wind or ice and left as
deposits. Over time these fragments become cemented/compacted together.




Breccia Conglomerate
Chemical Sedimentary Rock
These are sedimentary rocks that are formed from evaporites, which are minerals left behind when water evaporates from
oceans or any other water reservoirs.


Rock salt Dolomite
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
These are sedimentary rocks which are formed from decayed plants and/or animals. Examples are Coal which forms as plants
remove carbon from the atmosphere and combine with other elements to build their tissue and limestone that is formed from
skeletons of organisms such as corals etc.



Limestone coal
Metamorphic Rocks
These are any rocks (may be igneous, sedimentary or older metamorphic rocks) that are changed as a result of exposure to
intense heat and pressure.





Contact Metamorphism
These are metamorphic rocks that are formed by existing rocks coming in contact with heat. Famous examples are when
magma comes in contact into surrounding rocks or country rock.








Regional Metamorphism -These are metamorphic rocks that results from great pressure.





Rock Cycle
Transition to Igneous Rock
When any rocks are pushed back under the earths surface they may melt into magma due to heat and if they are in a
condition to solidify or cooled they will become igneous rocks.
Transition to Sedimentary Rocks
Rocks exposed to the earths surface may subject to the processes of weathering and erosion. Weathering and erosion break
the original rock down into smaller fragments (sediments) and undergo compaction and cementation to form Sedimentary
rocks.
Transition to Metamorphic Rocks
Rocks that are subjected to high pressure and/or heat change chemically and physically, examples are when body of rocks
collide with each other due to continental collisions often caused by earthquakes produce metamorphic rocks.