Reading Material

for
Basic Electricity
Reading Material for Basic Electricity
Electrical & Electronics Laboratory
Centre for H R D
Durgapur Steel Plant
BASIC ELECTRICITY
CONTENT
SI. Topics Page No.
1 Source of Electricity 1
2 Ohm's Law 1
3 Laws of Resistance,Resistance in series and Uses of Series Resistance.
2 -3
4 Resistance in Parallel and Uses of parallel Resistance.
3 - 4
5 Principle of Inductor, Behavier of L-R Ckt with DC
4
6
Behavier of R - C Ckt with DC
5
7 Charging & Discharging of Capacitor with DC
6
8 Di- Electic Strenth of Capacitor 7
9 Capacitor in Series & Parallel 7
10 Defination & Nature of AC Volages 8
11
RMS Value of an AC Voltage / Current, Electromagnetic Induction
9
12 Resistance & Capacitor Colour Code chart 10 - 12
13 Practical Assignment on Resistive Ckt at AC / DC
13 - 15
14 Practical Assignment on Inductive Ckt at AC
15- 16
15 Practical Assignment on Capcitive Reactance ( X c) 16 - 17
16 Practical Assignment on Inductive Reactance ( X L) 17 - 18
17 Practical Assignment on Series RC ckt. 18- 19
18 Practical Assignment onSeries LR Ckt. 19
19 Practical Assignment on impedence of a Series CR Ckt & application. 20 -22
20 Practical Assignment on impedence of a Series LR Ckt & application. 23 - 24
21 Practical Assignment on impedence of a Series LCR Ckt & application. 25 - 26
22
Practical Assignment on Parallel and application 27--29
23 Working Principle of a Transformer, E.M.F. Equation 29 - 30
24 Power at AC ( 1 Ph & 3 Ph)
30-31
25 Meggering 31- 33
26 Safety Precautions for Electricians. 34-35
27
Treatment of Electical shock for Artificial Respiration 36 -
Source of Electricity
Electrical energy may be produced in several ways. Basically there are five methods
of
providing voltage and current.
Friction
This method allows for the separation of electrons and protons by the work
of rubbing two dissimilar materials together which, in turn produces static electricity
because of the separation and storage of opposite charges.
Chemical energy this method is generally found in dry cells or storage batteries.
Fundamentally, it involes a chemical reaction between two dissimilar metals and
electrolyte in which charges of opposite polarities are produced. The metals which
becomes deficient in electrons becomes the positive plate, and the metal with ;:r1
abundance of electrons becomes the negative plate. The chemical action continues
until no further transfer of electrons is possible.
Photoelectricity thought are use of the photoelectricity effect, light energy can t-.4, ;
converted into electrical energy. The process involes coating the surfaces of
metals with photosensitive materials such as selenium or caesium. Where
strikes the materials, P_ hotoelectrons are emitted and create a current flow by tho,!
steady movement.
Thermal Energy as the name indicates thermal energy involves the convers:cn
heat into electrical energy. This can be accomplished by heating metals which
turn supply energy to the free electrons. The electrons in turn break away from Olt.:
atoms, creating a current.
Magnestism Motion can be applied to a conductor which, when allowed to move
a magnetic field create a current. This is basically the principle of generaro
operation.
OHM'S LAW
Temperature and other physical conditions remaining constant, the potential different
across the two terminals of a current carrying conductor is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it.
Frv A B is a conductor and the potential at points A & B are VA and Vg
;:.pose VA > VE, So potential difference is VA ..V3 = Say V )
Let us assume that when the conductor is connected to battery B (of emf = V), current
( I ) flows through the conductor.
According to Ohms law ; VA VB ) cc I
or, V I or V = IR ( As VA VB = V )
where R is the resistance of the conductor and its unit is ohm Unit of voltage and that of
I is Amp.
Page No. 1
V
I V
Laws of resistance
R oc p L / A
where, P = Specific resistance, L= Length of the conductor,
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor.
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the conductor.
Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross section of the
conductor.
Value of the specific.resistance of the conductor depends upon the properties
of conductor material and the temperature of the conductor. Thus a nichrome
wire
Has about Sixty six times more resistance than a copper wire of the same
dimensions at same temperature.
RESISTANCE IN SERIES
R2
Notice that the sum voltage across each resistor is equal to the applied voltage
(V) i.e. total voltage. V = Vi+ V2+V3
According to Ohm's law this can be expanded as IR=IRi + IR2 + IR 3 As
resistors are connected in series, the same value of current (say I ) must flow in
the circuit. So R1 = R1 +R2+ R 3 This Shows that for resistors in series, the
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the resistors in series.
This formula can be written as: R1 =R1 +R2 +R3 + Rn for any numbers of
resistances in series.
Page No. 2
Use of series resistor
We know that in a series circuit there is only path for the current to flow, but in an open
circuit will flow through the circuit .Therefore, series connection are not generally used
for house wiring.
These connections are used as given below :--
Where a variable voltage is to be given to the load , a variable resistance is
connected in series with the load , e.g a fan regulator is connected in series
with the fan.
Where many lamps of low voltage are to be operated in the main supply , they
are all connected in series with each other.
Where a load of low voltage is to be operated on a higher supply voltage, a
fixed value of resistance is connected in series with the load.
Resistors connected in parallel
Notice that the sum of the currents through each resistor is equal to the total current (It).
IT= IR1 +IR2
B y using Ohm's law, this can be expanded to :
V/ RT = V/Ri + V/R2
As the voltage across each resistor is equal to he circuit voltage , we can simplify the
formula as :
1/ RT = 1/Ri + 1/R2
This shows that for resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to
the sum of the reciprocals of all the individual resistors in parallel. This formula can be
expanded to :
1/ RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 +1/Rn (For any number of resistors in parallel).
R2
Note that for two resistors in parallel:
RT = R1 R2 / Ri + R2
Page No. 3
Use of parallel connection
Parallel connections are used in all types of house and power wiring . Because in this
connection the working voltage of the load is equal to the supply voltage. In1840's
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff discovered two laws about resistance networks the state :
1. The algebraic sum of all currents at any node or junction is zero (KCL).
2. In a closed circuit , the algebraic sum of all the voltages around the circuit is zero
(KVL).
BASIC PRINCIPAL OF AN INDUCTOR (O
Like resistor, inductor is another very important basic circuit component which has got
some special characteristics. If we connect an inductor in series with a circuit , the
inductor will never the circuit current to increase or decrease suddenly. That means an
inductor always tries to oppose the circuit to change. Like capacitors, inductors also can
store and release energy but cannot consume it. If we make a coil of an insulated
conductor, that will be an air-cored inductor. And the value of inductance will depend on
the total no. of turns in the coil, current through the coil and flux produced in the core.
By definition inductance is the co-efficient of self inductors, and the unit of inductance(L)
is Henry.
Behaviour of an L-R Circuit with DC.
Look at the figure below . Had there been no L in the current would be V / R . But for the
presence of L in the circuit the current will be zero at the instant of switching on the
circuit and the circuit will be slowly increasing following all exponential curve to reach
the final steady value which is equal to V / R . Now look at the following current curve.







L




CAA.7 re 44--
Page No. 4
Capacitor
C
Vo tka.5e
-t.-t.rir 7 C
741-1c.
Behavior of R-- C Circuit with DC.
In our earlier assignment we have known about condenser or capacitors. Now for
knowing its nature with DC voltage we shall see the following figure. Here the action wiii
opposite to that in the circuit using an inductor. The initial current will be and the current
will start decreasing until the current become zero and capacitor gets fully charged . The
current curve will be like the following figure.
R
Page No. 5
-r:414_
Charging

Discharging
CAPACITOR
Capacitor can be defined as two conductors separated by an insulating dielectric. It is a
device to store electrical energy and to release it when required. In figure a simple
parallel plate capacitor is connected with a battery.
Battery
C
CHARGING OF CAPACITOR
Working Principal :-- Suppose plate A is connected to +ve pole and plate B to -ye pole
of DC supply. On closing the switch there will be momentary flow of electrons in the
direction indicated some electrons are withdrawn from the plate A leaving it positively
charged and transferred to plate B giving it a negative charge. This flow of electrons
gives current which decreases and finally ceases when the voltage across the capacitor
plate has become equal and opposite the applied voltage. A capacitor then blocks DC
circuit . The charged capacitor is now a store of energy. The practical units of capacity
is farad. A conductor is said to possess capacity of one farad if its potential is raised by
one volt when one coulomb of charge is given to it.
One farad = 1 Coulomb / 1 voltage
Sub-units of Farad are micro and pico farads.
1p F =1 MF = 1/ 1000000 farad
1pp F or 1 pico farad = 1/ 1000000000000
Factors on which the capacity of capacitor depends :
The area of the plate of the condenser (directly proportional).
The distance between the plate ( inversely proportional).
The nature of dielectric, i.e. dielectric constant.
[ C = K* A/d where A = Area, D = distance , K = dielectric constant ].
Page No. 6
V3 V2

voltage


Di- Electric Strength
The maximum kilovolts per millimeter or Volts per mm which a medium can withstand
without break-down, is known as its Di-electric strength .
The insulating materiel which resists the break-down is called its dielectric strength e.g.'
Glass = 200 -250 KV / mm
Mica = 500-1500 KV / mm .
The various factors on which the dielectric strength depends are :
Thickness' of material. Break-down voltage (E) is not proportional to the thickness
(T). E = A* t 2 / 3 ) where A is materiel constant .
Temperture. It decreases with rise of temperature .
Absorbed moisture content affects inversely .
Shape and size of electrodes.
Capacitor in series
Let C1, C2, C3 = Capacitance of the capacitors connected in series (figure )
V1, V2, V3 = P. D. drop of
three Capacitors
respectively. ,
V =The total applied
C = Joint capacity
Now in series, V = V1 + V2+ V3
or Q/C = Q/C1+Q/C2+Q/C3 ( since V = Q/C in condenser)
or 1/C = 1/C1+1/C2+1/C3 (Taking Q as common ) .
In series combination, charge of all capacitors is the same, but P.D. across each is
different. In this case the reciprocal of the total capacitance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of individual capacitance's.
Capacitors in parallel
The three capacitors C1,C2 and C3 are connected in parallel to supply voltage V.
Let the charged on the capacitors be Q1, Q2,& Q3.
Then Q1 = C1 V , Q2 = C2 V, Q3 = C3 V
Let C = Equivalent capacitance, then Q = Q1+Q2+Q3
therefore C = C1+C2+C3 .Thus the total capacity is equal to the sum of the
individual-capacitance's .
ci C2

C3
Page No. 7

Vmax
Vp-p
Triangular wave
Square wave
DEFINITION AND NATURE OF A.0 VOLTAGES
So far we have default with pure D.0 voltage and that too only constant magnitude . But
there are other voltages too e.g. varying D.C. voltages of various shapes. Now let us
look at the various wave from below to understand what A.C. voltage is,
The polarity of an A.G. voltage always changes after the completion of every half cycle
and after every full cycle the full wave shape repeats it self . In case of pure A.C. wave
from the area of 'positive' and 'negative' half cycles are equal. Then. of full cycles which
occur in one second time is called frequency of the A.C. voltage. In fact, all voltage
generated out of rotating machines are basically A.G. voltage. But in case of D.C.
generators it is the commutator that converts the A.C. to D.C. voltage. Moreover voltage
level changing in case of A.G. can be done very easily. So we must have a knowledge
of A.G. voltages.
Page No. 8
R.M.S. VALUE OF AN A.C. VOLTAGE / CURRENT
As the instantaneous values of any AC. waveform are always changing, when we
measure the magnitude of an A.C. voltage by an AVO meter we actually get its R.M.S.
value ( Root Mean Square value). The R.M.S. value of an alternating current is giving
by that steady ( D.C.) current which when flowing through a the same circuit for the
same time.
For example, RMS ( for a sine wave ) = V peak /
or RMS ( for a sine wave) = I peak / -42
ELECTRO-MAGNETIC INDUCTION.
Whenever there is a change of flux linked with any circuit ,an emf, is induced in
the circuit. This is known as Faraday's 1st law of induction. The amount of emf enduced
will depend on the time rate of change of flux linkage . This refers to the 2nd law of
Faraday. The direction of induced emf will always oppose the cause producing the
induced emf. This is called Lenz's law.
Page No. 9
R & CAPACITOR INDENTIFICATION CHART
Colour
Band
A
Band
B
Band C Band D
( Multiplier ) ( Tolerance )
Band E
Resistor Capacitor Resistor
-
1%
10pF
Capacitors
Resis-
for
---
---
20%
Poly-
-ester
Capa-
-citor
---
---
Upto
2pF
0.1pF
Over
10pF
1%
Black --- 0 10 10
----1
Brown 1 1 10'
1F-
101
10-2-
103
Red 2 2
2%
---
---
---
2%
2.5%
250w
---
---
--- Orange
3 3 103
Yellow 4 4 10 0 --- --- --- ---
Green 5 5 105 --- ---
---
0.5pF
---
5%
---
___
---
---
---
Blue 6 6 106 ---
Violet 7 7 107 --- --- --- --- ---
---
Grey 8 8 108 0.01pF --- 0.25pF --- --- ---
White 9 9 109 01 pF ---
10%
1pF
---
10%
---
---
---
---
--- Silver --- --- 0.01 ---
Gold --- --- 0.1 --- 5% --- --- --- ---
Pink --- --- --- ---
--- --- --- --- Hi-
Stab
None --- --- --- --- 20% --- --- ---
Resistor & Capacitor letter And Digit code ( BS1852)
Preferred value
E 12 Series
1.0 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.7 5.6 6.8 8.2 and their
decades.
E 24 Series
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3
3.6 3.9 4.3 4.7 5.1 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1 and their
decades.
Resistor & Capacitor letter And Digit code ( BS1852)
Resistor values are indicated as follows:
0.4752 marked R47
152 marked 1R0
4.70 Marked 4R7
47Q Marked 47R
100Q Marked 100R
1k0 Marked 1K0
10k0 Marked 10K
10MQ marked 10M
A letter following the value shows the tolerance. F =1%: G =2% : J = 5% :
K = 10% : M = 20% : R33M = 0.33Q20% : 6KSF = 6.81(Q1%
Page No. 10
Capacitor values are indicated as follows :
0.68 pF Marked p68 6.8 of Marked 6n8
6.80 pf Marked 6p8 1000 nF Marked 1p0
1000 pF ' Marked 1n0 _ _ 6.8 pF Marked 6p8
Tolerance is indicated by letter as for resistors. Values up to 999 pF are marked in pF
from 1000pf.to999000pF = 999nF as nF 1000pF = 1nF and from 1000nF( = pF
upwards as pF.
Some capacitors are marked with a code denoting the value in pF (first two
figures)followed by a multiplier as a power of ten (3 =10 ).Letters denote tolerance as for
resistors but C = 0.25pf. E.g.123J = 12pF x 103 5% =12000pF (or 0.12pF).
Tantanum Capacitors
Color 1 2 3 4 Color 1 2 3 4
Black ---- 0 x1 10V Blue 6 6 ---- 20
Brown 1 1 x10 ---- Violet 7 7 ---- ----
Red 2 2 x100 ---- Grey 8 8 x0.01 25V
Orange 3 3 ---- ---- White 9 9 X0.1 3V
Yellow 4 4 ---- 6.3V Pink 10 10 ---- 35V
Green 5 5 ---- 16V
Reactance of Capacitors at spot frequencies.
50Hz 100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz 100MHz
1pF ---- ---- ---- ---- 1.6M 160k 16k 1.6k
10pF ---- ---- ---- 1.6M 160k 16k 1.6k 160
50pF ---- ---- 3.2M 320k 32k 3.2k 320 32
250pF ---- 6.4Mm 640k 64k 6.4k 640 64 6.4
1000pF 3.2M 1.6M 160k 16k 1.6k 160 16 1.6
2000pF 1.6M 800k 80k 8k 800 80 8 0.8
0.01pF 320k 160k 16k 1.6k 160 16 1.6 0.16
0.06pF 64k 32k 3.2k 320 32 3.2 0.32 ----
0.1pF 32k 16k 1.6k 160 16 1.6 0.16 ----
1pF 32k 1.6k 160 16 1.6 0.16 ---- ----
2.5pF 1.3k 640 64 6.4 0.64 ---- ---- ----
5pF 640 320 32 3.2 0.32 ---- ---- ----
10pF 320 160 16 1.6 0.16 ---- ---- ----
30pF 107 53 5.3 0.53 ---- ---- ---- ----
100pF 32 16 1.6 0.16 ---- ---- ---- ----
1000pF 3.2 1.6 0.16 ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
Page No. 1 1
Reactance of Inductors at spot frequencies
50Hz 100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHZ 100MHz
1pH ---- ---- ---- ---- 0.63 6.3 63 630
5pH ---- ---- ---- 0.31 3.1 31 310 3.1k
10pH ---- ---- ---- 0.63 6.3 63 630 6.3k
50pH ---- ---- 0.31 3.1 31 310 3.1k 31k
100pH ---- ---- 0.63 6.3 63 630 6.3k 63k
250pH 0.16 1.6 16 160 1.6k 16k 160k
1mH 0.31 0.63 6.3 63 630 6.3k 63k 630k
2.5mH 0.8 1.6 16 160 1.6k 16k 160k 1.6M
10mH 3.1 6.3 63 630 6.3k 63k 630k 6.3M
25mH 8 16 160 1.6k 16k 160k 1.6M ----
100mH 31 63 630 6.3k 63k 630k 6.3M ----
1H 310 630 6.3k 63k 630k 6.3M ---- ----
5H 1.5k 3.1k 31 310k 3.1M ---- ---- ----
10H 3.1k 6.3k 63k 630k 6.3M ---- ---- ----
100H 31k 63k 630k 63M ---- ---- ---- ----
Page No. 12
ASSIGNMENT ON RESISTIVE CURCUIT AT AC / DC
OBJECTIVE To investigate a resistive circuit at AC
PROCEDURE Connect the power supply unit to the mains supply line. DO NOT
switch on yet.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
We wish now to see how a resistor behave at a. c.
Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure.
Ensure the variable d. c. vo cage control knob is turned fully counterclockwise, then
switch on the pus. Very the d.c control slowly, and observe the two meters.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Resistors are used at a. c. in
similar ways to those d.c applications of earlier assignments. There is no phase shift
across a true resistance, and the ratio of voltage to current shown by a resistance is
constant with frequency, so the behavior at a/c is no different from its behavior at d.c.
When calculating power dissipation at a.c, rms. values of voltage and current must
apply.
PRACTICAL CONCIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Resistors are used at a.c
in similar ways to those d.c applications of earlier assignments . There is no phase
shift across a true resistance , and the ratio of voltage to current shown by a resistance
is constant with frequency , so the behaviour at a.c is no different from its behaviour at
d.c. When calculating power dissipation at A.G., rms values of voltage and current must
apply.
Practical Assignment on CAPACITIVE ckt. at AC
OBJECTIVE To investigate a capacitive circuit at a. c.
PRELIMINARY PROCEDURE We known, from assignment 8, that the relationship
between charge, voltage and capacitance is : Q = CV also we known :Q = It, where I is
current and t is time. From these we can say that if a capacitor of C farad is charged
from OV to V volts, in t seconds then : charging current, I= charging current = capacitor
x rate of increase of voltage. Let us see what happens when a sinusoidal alternating
voltage is applied to a capacitor. Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching
diagram of figure , corresponding to the circuit diagram of figure
Page No. 13
2.2 micro F
AC
CH1
CH2
100 R
Corn
Set the function generator to give a 10Vpeak-to-peak sine waveform at 250Hz.Set the
Oscilloscope as follows : Y1 channel 1V/cm. Y2 channel 500mV/cm .Time base to
1ms/cm. Zero both the traces and then observe the two waveforms on the oscilloscope.
Mathematically, if the voltage waveform is denoted by the formula :
V = Vmax sin t
then as i = C x rate of change of voltage
I = C / dv /dt = CVmAx d /dt (sin w t)
I =CV Ax cos w t
Thus if v is sinusoidal , i.e the same shape , but leading by 900 .
This is because cos t =sin( t+90)
If we were to plot the voltage and current waveforms in the capacitor by that method we
would require two vectors . Both vectors would rotate while keeping a constant 900
angle between them , as shown in figure. As we go on we shall find it useful to think in
terms of these vector, but rather confusing if they are always rotating. Usually it is the
relationships between them that are important, as for instance the 900 angle between
those in figure .These relationships can be studied conveniently in a
Page No. 14
CHI
CH2
Corn
Inductor
T

Resistor



FG
diagram where the vectors are shown at rest. The vectors are then said to be
represented by 'phasor' and the diagram is a 'phasor diagram'. Figure is phasor
diagram corresponding to figure.
The voltage phasor is taken as the reference and is drawn horizontally pointing to the
right (3 'o'clock). The current phasor leads the voltage phasor by 900 and is thus drawn
900 counterclockwise from the reference. When an alternating voltage is applied across
a capacitor an alternating current flows. Yet when a.d.c voltage is applied, after an initial
flow of charging current, no d.c current flows. This behaviour is different from that of a
resistance. Never the less if an a.c voltage and an a.c current can exist, the ratio
between them is likely to be interest, and the ratio is therefore given a different name. In
an a.c circuit the ratio of voltage to current is called 'impedance' and is denoted by Z.
Thus in an a.c circuit Z = We shall examine this idea further in other assignment. For
the moment it may be noted that impedance may be taken as the ratio of two phasor,
and therefore has both magnitude and phase. Magnitude = Z = Phase of the
impedance is the angle between the phasor. The impedance of a capacitor has a phase
of 90 radians Impedance's of 900 phase angle have special properties and are
given the special name 'reactance'.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS The applications section of
Assignment gives details of capacitors in general, but there are a few more points which
appear at high frequencies(hf).Due to the form of construction' wound capacitors of any
type possess appreciable inductance, thus do not act as pure capacitors. The effects of
this inductance are greater at high frequencies and thus wound from of capacitors is
inferior at h.f. Mica capacitors, ceramic tubular and disc capacitors, and air dielectric
capanitnrs are ideal fnr high frequency work Capacitors normally have a stated
maximum voltage rating above which they cannot be used safely. When used at a.c the
peak or crest value of the voltage must be used to determine wher ther the capacitor is
within rating.
PRACTICAL ON ASSIGNMENT INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT AT AC
OBJECTIVE To investigate an inductive circuit at a.c.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE From assignment 12 we have found out that the
relationship between induced emf, current and inductance in a system is : e = - L or :
(Induced emf ) = - (inductance)(rate of change of current) We will now examine what
happens when a sinusoidal alternating voltage is applied to an inductor. Connect up the
circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure 16.2, corresponding to the circuit
diagram of figure
Page No. 15
Set the function generator to give a 10V peak-to-peak waveform at 250Hz. Set the
oscilloscope as follows : Y1 channel(current) to 1V/cm Y2 channel(voltage). to50OrnV
/cm Time base to 1ms/cm. Zero both traces, the observe the two wave forms on the
oscilloscope. Draw the two waveforms you see, showing their relative positions with
respect to each other.
PRACTIAL CONSIDERTIONS AND APPLICATIONS By its nature of operation an
inductance will create a magnetic field around it. With an alternating current flowing
through the inductor the magnetic field around it will be alternating. If the inductor is the
presence of other components or conductors this alternating magnetic field will link
with these conductors and induce emfs in them. These emfs will generally be unwanted,
and give rise to noise, hum, or interfering signals.. For this reason, inductors are often
magnetically screened in cans, or housings made from a non - magnetic material such
as mumetal or aluminium. When designing inductors care must be taken in the selection
of type and gauge of wire used. Obviously the lowest possible resistance is desired and
at low frequencies this means the thickest possible wire gauge consistent with a
reasonable sized winding, however at high frequencies multi-stranded litz wire is often
better to minimise the skin effect.
ASSIGNMENT on CAPACITIVE REACTANCE ( Xc )
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impedance of a capacitor to an a.c sinusoidal waveform
and see how this varies with frequency.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE In a capacitor a sinusoidal current and voltage are
always 900 out of phase with one another , so that the phase of the impedance is
constant .The magnitude varies however, in a manner which we shall now discover.
connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure . corresponding
to the
circuit diagram of figure.
C
Copy the results table as shown in figure, reproduced at the end of this assignment. Set
the frequency of the function generator to 800Hz. Adjust the output of the generator to
give 1V rms as read on the matter. Take the reading for this voltage. Reset the voltage
output of the generator to 2V rms. Record the resultant current. Repeat this procedure
for voltage of 3V, 4V, 5V and 6V rms. Record your results and calculate the ratio of rms
voltage to rms current.
Page No 16
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS capacitors show an infinite
impedance to d.c but their impedance is infinite to a.c and decreases as the frequency
of the a.c increases. Therefore one of their used is in coupling between circuits or parts
of circuit, where it is wanted to block any d.c transmission but to allow a.c signals to
pass. Large value electrolytic capacitors are often used in 'smoothing' circuits in which a
d.c voltage which has an a.c ripple voltage superimposed upon it is applied to the
capacitor. The capacitor has no the effect on d.c component of the wave form, as its
impedance to d.c is infinite, but by passes to earth the a.c. This is shown in figure .
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT ON INDUCTIVE REACTANCE ( XL )
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impedance of an inductor to a sinusoidal a.c
Waveform .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE We have said that impedance , Z is given by
Z = V rms rms
And that , for a capacitor , its impedance termed capacitive reactance,. X c .
Similarly we can determine the INDUCTIVE REACTANCE of an inductor. Inductive
reactive is given the symbol XL .Connect up the circuit as shown on the patching
diagram of figure 18.2, corresponding to the circuit diagram of figure 18.1
L
Page No.17
R3
Copy the results table as shown in figure reproduced at the end of this assignment.
Adjust the generator to give a frequency of 4kHz and an output of 1V rms sine wave, as
shown on the mater. Record the current reading for this voltage. Readjust the output
amplitude to 2V rms and record the resultant current. Repeat this for voltage steps of 3V
4V ,5V and 6V rms. Record your results and calculate the impedance for each step.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLCATIONS the inductor is the converse
of the capacitor in that it shows an impedance which is practically zero to d.c but
increases with frequency .Like a capacitor , an inductor can also be used in smoothing
circuits, but it is used in series with the d.c line instead of across it. See figure . The d.c.
is passed without effect while the a.c is greatly impeded by the inductor. In this
application the inductor is often called a 'choke'.
L


tt+vie..



When an inductor contains magnetic material such as iron , it can only maintain its
inductance over a limited range of current . Excessive current cause the 'iron' to
saturate (i.e fail to permit more than a limited amount of flux). The inductance for
therefore decreases. This is why you were advised to omit any reading for which the
current exceeded 60mA.
ASSIGNMENT THE SERIES C R CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE To investigate the series CR circuit and determine the relationships
governing amplitude and phase shift .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE We know that voltage and current are in phase in a
resistive circuit , and that , for a capacitive circuit , the current leads the
voltage by 90
Lets us investigate what happens in a circuit consisting of both capacitance and
resistance . Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure
corresponding to the circuit diagram of figure .
V
.....
......... ...... ....
....... ................
.........

-0-
C
ol
Page No. 18
Set the Function generator frequency to 50Hz , and its output to 20V peak-to-peak ,
Sine wave as shown on the Y1 channel of the oscilloscope .
Have the oscilloscope set to : Y1 channel(Vin) to 5V / cm . Y2 channel ( ) to 5V /cm
Time base to 5mS / cm . Zero both the oscilloscope traces .
With link 1 connected as shown in figure 19.2 , ie by passing the resistor chain so that
resistor is zero , observe the waveform for and Vc . They should be superimposed .
Measure their amplitude . Now connected link 1 between point A and D to leave the
1 kS1 resistor in series with the capacitor .Measure the amplitude of Vc and the phase
shift may be measured as follows :
ASSIGNMENT THE SERIES LR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE To investigate the series LR circuit and determine the relationships
governing amplitude and phase shift .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE We have investigate what happens in a series RC
circuit when R is varied , let us now see what happens when R is varied in an LR circuit.
Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure corresponding to the
circuit diagram of figure .
.....

.......
................. ..........

...........

0--
R1 R2
--o-H 1*-1
R.3 k
Page No. 19
0
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT IMPEDANCE OF A SERIES CR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE To investigate the series CR circuit and determine the relationships
governing amplitude and phase shift .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE We have investigate the impedance ( or reactance ) of
a purely capacitive and an inductive circuit , and arrived at formulae relating impedance
with frequency and capacitance or inductance . Let us now see if we can arrive at some
formulae for the series CR circuit of figure . Connect up the circuit as shown in the
patching diagram of figure corresponding to the circuit diagram of figure .
A
Set the frequency of the function generator to 100Hz Adjust the output of the generator
to give 1V rms as read on the meter . Take the current reading for this voltage .
Reset
the voltage output of the generator to 2V rms .Record the resultant current .Repeat this
procedure for voltages of 3V ,4V and 5V rms . Copy the results table as shown in figure
, reproduced at the end of this assignment and tabulate your results . Work out the
magnitude of impedance of the circuit at 100Hz , calculating the value at each voltage
step and taking an average of these .
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS As well as a phase shftng
network , the RC circuit can be used as a frequency dependent circuit as part of a 'thter .
A filter is a circuit which will pass some frequencies but attenuate (reject) others
Consider the circuit in figure .
R

2 _
0
By the potential divider relationship V2 = V1 (Xc / Z )
/ WC V1 / COC
R2 + ( 1 / 0.)C )2 Nr(co CR)2 + 1 [ now when co CR
1 V2 V1 I
and when w CR > 1,
V2
V1 / CO CR
Page No. 20
C
At low frequencies the capacitor takes little current , so the voltage drop in R is small .
At high frequencies the capacitor short-circuits the output , and most of the input voltage
is dropped across R .When oCR = 1, f = 1/ 2TrCR and at this frequency
V2 =V / '12 ie 0.707 x
Around the frequency a transition occurs between these conditions , as shown in figure
vi
4-
4 2 /7-ck
This type of circuit is known as a low pass filter , as it passes all frequencies below the
frequency known as the cut-off frequency , f c , and attenuates all those
above f c.
Now consider the circuit of figure.
C

p4)



In this case :
V2=V1 (R/Z)
V1 / R
R2 + ( 1 / coC )2
/ ()CR
r(c.0 CR)2 + 1
now when co CR (c 1, V2 ^* COC R V1
and when CO CR 1, V2 V1
At low frequencies the high reactance of the capacitor restricts the current flowing in R ,
and therefore also the output voltage . At high frequencies the capacitor virtually
connects the output and input directly together . Similarly around the frequency 1/ 2nCR
there is a transition between these two states , as shown in figure .
Page No.21

~~
-jc ' R.
This type of circuit is known as a high-filter , as it passes all frequencies above the cut-
off frequency , f , and attenuates all those below f c .
Filters are used extensively in electronics- .High-pass and low-pass types are both
common , as is a combination of the two types , called a band-pass filter , which passes
all frequencies within a certain band , called the pass band , and attenuates all other .
Drawings of a band pass filter and its response are given in figures
CA
Owt- tt.t.4-
2 _
2_
C.
V

lei
Page No.22
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT ON IMPEDANCE OF A SERIES LR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impedance of series LR circuit to an a.c sinusoidal
waveform ,and see how this varies with frequency .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Using a similar technique to that employed in
Assignment 21 , we now wish to investigate the impedance of a series LR circuit .
Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure corresponding to the
circuit diagram of figure .
tyo 44,14
L
Set the frequency of the function generator to 800Hz , and adjust the sinusoidal output
of the generator to give 1V rms as given on the meter .
Take the current reading for this voltage .
Reset the voltage output to 2V rms and record the resultant current .
Repeat this procedure for outputs of 3V , 4V and 5V .
Copy the results table as shown in figure , reproduced at the end of this assignment ,
and tabulate your results .
Work out the average impedance for the LC circuit at this frequency .
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Like CR circuits , LR circuits
may be used as filter networks .
Consider the circuit figure .
L-
Page No. 23
With this circuit :
V2 -

vi
/R2 +X L2
R
V2

Vi
/R2 + (27cfL )2
Vi
V2
/ R12 + 1
This gives a low- pass response similar to that in figure . The inductor has a low
impedance to low frequencies (if) , thus the circuit behaves as a shunt resistance at i.f.
and at high frequencies (h.f) the inductor has a high impedance and attenuates h.f
signals .The converse of this is shown in the circuit of figure .

7



V


Here : XL
V2 -

V,



1R2 +XL2
(DL

V2 -



'1R2 + (COL )2
Vt

V2
This is the equation for a high-pass filter .At low frequencies the inductor shunts the
output to earth , whilst at high frequencies it has a high impedance and the circuit
appears just as a series resistor .The band pass form of the LR circuit is shown in figure




VI









Page No. 24
R

.S
PRACTICAL ASSIGNMENT ON IMPEDANCE OF THE LCR CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impedance of a series LCR circuit and compare it with
the impedance's of its constituent components .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Let us investigate a series circuit containing
inductance , capacitance and resistance as in figure .
We know , from kirchhoff ' Voltage Law , that the phasor sum of VR VL and Vc will equal
Vin . Connect up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure corresponding to
the circuit diagram of figure .

11(0




I 6-epi41 H
F C,
Connect the voltmeter across the input to the circuit ( points marked P and S on figure)
and adjust the generator output to give 4V rams output at 500Hz .Record the resultant
current . Transfer your voltmeter to read the voltage across the resistor ( measure
across points P and Q) . Record this voltage . Measure and record the inductor voltage
( points Q and R) and the capacitor voltage (points R and S) .Copy the results table as
shown in figure , reproduced at the end of this assignment , and tabulate your results .
Draw to scale , a phasor diagram showing Vin , VR , VL and Vc
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS The LCR network can be
used as a low-pass , a high-pass , or a band-pass network depending on which
component the output voltage is taken across .
Consider the circuit of figure .
Page No. 25
V
1
Here :
X c
-
. 1 " R 2 + ( X L X c )2
1 I coL
V2
- R2 + (coL -- 1 / (.0C )2
This gives a low-pass response , but above the cut-off frequency both L and C influence
the rate of cut-off . At high frequencies the inductor has a high impedance and the
capacitor has a low impedance , thus the attenuation above f c is at a greater rate than
for the CR or LR filter .
For a high-pass filter the connection is as in figure .
c.
U
2-
This gives a high-pass filter response , as at high frequencies the capacitor is virtually a
short circuit , and the inductive reactance is very high . The circuit acts like a series
resistance at h.f .
The band-pass circuit form is shown in figure .
Vi
R.
Page No.26
ASSIGNMENT PARALLEL IMPEDANCES
OBJECTIVE To investigate the impedance of parallel connected components to a
sinusoidal alternating current .
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE So far we have investigated series circuit of RC ,RL
and found formula for their impedance's , and how these impedance's vary with
frequency . Let us now look at parallel connected impedance's .For series connected
impedance's the reference that is common to all components is that of current , and the
phasor sum of the voltage drops around the loop is zero .For parallel connected
impedance's the common reference is voltage , and the phasor sum of the currents at
any node is zero . This is illustrated in figure .
The voltage v is applied to all of the impedance Z1 , Z2 and Z3 in common , and
considering instantaneous currents ,
+i2 +i3 i = o
Set up the circuit as shown in the patching diagram of figure corresponding to the
circuit diagram of figure .
I










Set the function generator to give an output voltage of 4V rms at 1600Hz , as shown on
the meter .
Disconnect link 1 and insert the 0 5mA millimeter .
Record the total current , I . Disconnect the meter 0 5mA meter and replace link 1.
Remove link 2 and connect the meter instead . Record the resistor current , IR .
In similar fashion , measure and record the inductor current , IL , and the capacitor
current ,Ic
Page No. 27
Copy the results table as shown in figure , reproduced at the end of this assignment ,
and tabulate your results .
jL
qt
eurrehl x
Draw a phasor diagram of the currents IR , IL and lc .Use V as your reference direction .
You can use either the completion of a parallelogram or drawing each phasor from the
tip of the previous one to find the resultant . Figure combines phasor both techniques in
order to show how the reactive current ; if several resistors were connected in parallel
their currents would be numerically added to find the total resistive current . The total
current is than
1R2 lx2
Where IR is the total resistive current and lx is the total reactive current .
In the circuit of figure the total resistive current is simply IR as marked in the diagram ,
and is given by
IR = V / R
Where R is the resistance , V the voltage .
The reactive current lx is given by
Ix V/XL+V/Xc=V/X
Where XL = coL is the reactance of the inductor ,
Xc = - 1 / coC is the reactance of the capacitor
And X is the combined reactance of the parallel combination .
Notice that this combined reactance of two parallel reactance's is found by a similar
formula to that used for parallel resistances ,i.e, 1 /X = 1 /X1 + 1 / X2
This dose not mean that resistances and reactance's can be mixed in the same formula
It dose make it easy to calculate reactance's however , and this is one of the reasons
why capacitive reactance is defined to have a negative value . If it were not so the
formula would be different , and one would have to know whether each of X1 and X2
were inductive or capacitive
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS AND APPLICATIONS Circuits which include a
number of parallel branches are often more easily analysed using the admittance
formula rather than the impedance formulae . Calculations should be carried out in
terms of the admittance of the branches and then , if a final impedance value is
required, the reciprocal of the final admittance should be taken .When taking the
reciprocal of a phasor quantity it is necessary to find both the magnitude and the angle
Page No.28
of the reciprocal . The magnitude of Z is simply found as the reciprocal of the
magnitude of Y . The phase angle of Z is minus the phase angle of Y . Figure illustrates
this . V and I are the total circuit voltage and current respectively in the two diagrams
shown , but in one diagram V is the reference phasor , and in the other I is the reference
phase. Since the phase angle is reckoned from the reference to the other phasor the
signs must be different in the two cases .
Working Principle of a Transformer
A Transformer is a static device by means of which electrical power in one ckt. is
transformed into electrical power of the same frequency in another ckt. but with a
corresponding decrease or increase in current / Voltage. The physical basis of a
transformer is a mutual induction between two ckts. linked by a common magnetic flux.
It consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically linked
through a path of low reluctance. One coil is connected to a source of alternating supply
Voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked with
the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f. ( Faraday's laws of
Electromagnetism induction e = M dl / dt ). The second coil is closed a current flows in it
and so electric energy is transferred from first coil to second coil. The first coil which fed
supply is called Primary winding and second coil which power drawn out is called
secondary winding.
In brief, Transformer is a device that
a) Transfers electrical power from one ckt to another ckt.
b) It works without any change of frequency.
c) It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction.
d) Where the two electrical ckt are mutual induction influences of each other.
E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer:
Let, N1 =No. of turns in primary winding
N2 =No. of turns in secondary winding
(I) =Maxm. flux in core in webers =B * A
B =Maxm. flux density, A =Area of the core
f =Supply frequency in herz ( H)
Average rate of change of flux =Maxm. flux / 1/4f =4f wb/s or Volt
Average e.m.f. per turn = 4IVolt
Page No.29
If flux varies sinusoidal, then r.m.s. value of induced e.m.f. is obtained by multiplying
the average value with FORM FACTOR.
FORM FACTOR. = r.m.s. value / average value = 1.11
Therefore, the RMS value of the induced e.m.f. in the whole of primary winding equal to
induced e.m.f per turn into the number of primary turn.
Voltage Transformation Ratio :
El = 4.44 f N Bm A
E2 = 4.44 f N Bm A
From equation No.(i) & (ii) we get, = K ( K is the constant )
'K' is the Voltage Transformation Ratio.
Condition :- a) If K > 1, i.e. N2 > N1, then transformer is called step-up
transformer.
b) If K <1, i.e. N2 < Ni, then transformer is called step-down
transformer.
c) If K = 1, i.e. N2 = Ni, then transformer is called isolation
transformer.
Why Transformer Rating is in 'KVA' and not in ' KW ' ?
Copper loss depends on current and Core loss depends on Voltage, hence total
transformer loss depends on VOLT- AMP (VA) and not on Phase angle between
Voltage and Current i.e., it is independent of load power factor. This is why rating of
transformer is in KVA and not in KW.
Power at AC
Average Power in AC ckt = V I Cos Active Power in Watts ( KW / MW )
The Product of V & I , i.e. VI is called the Apparent Power ( VA / KVA / MVA )
Power factor = The ratio of Active power (Watt) to Apparent power ( VI )
= Watt / VA
It is the factor by which the Apparent power (VI) must be multiplied to give the active
power.
The power factor ( p.f. = Cos0) in a purely resistive ckt.equal to one
The power factor ( p.f. = Cos,#) in a purely inductive ckt.equal to Zero
The power factor ( p.f. = Cosf) in a purely Capacitive ckt.equal to Zero
Reactive power = V I Sini( Reactive Volt-Amp in VAR )
Active power = V I Cosf( Active Volt-Amp in Watt
Page No.30
POWER
in A
C 3 Phase System
Active Power in one Phase =Vp Ip Cosa) Watt
For all the three phase power ( algebraic sum ) =3 Vp Ip Cosh Watt
Vp =Phase Voltage

VL =Line Voltage
Ip =Phase Current

IL =Line Current
Three Phase Power =VLIL Cos cD Watt/ KW
For Star (Y ) Connection : = Vp = VL / 43 and Ip = IL
All the Three Power = 3 Vp Ip Cos (13 Watt
Three Ph Power = q3 VL IL Cos (1) Watt
For Delta (D ) Connection : = Vp = VL and Ip =1L /
All the three Phase Power -4 3 Ph Power = 3 Vp Ip Coscb Watt
3 Ph Power = q3 VL IL Cos (1) Watt
MEGGERING (Practical Assignment )
A Megger is mainly used for testing Insulation resistance. Insulation resistance is
the resistance offered to the passage of current across the surface of the insulation. In
any electrical m/c I.R. can be measured between two conductors which are separated
by some insulation or it may be measured between a conducting part and the body /
earth of the machine. Normally all electrical conductors / live parts are insulated with
rubber, PVC, enamel varnish etc. and the insulating material may deteriorate in course
of time. So checking insulation resistance at regular intervals becomes very important
from the view point of safety and reliability. Normally minimum value of insulation
resistance between two electrically separated conductors or between a conductor and
body / earth should be 1 MO it is less than 1 gp,the electrical equipment under test will
have to be sent for repair/ reconditioning.
Insulation resistance is measured with a megger or insu-tester or motor checker
etc. The unit of measurement is Mega-ohm (M41-.)
Objectives
The objectives of meggering are to :
Test & Measure the Insulation resistance between Stator winding & Body/Earth.
Test & Measure the insulation resistance between different windings.
Test & Measure of Stator & Rotor windings and Slip-Ring & Rotor.
Page No. 3 1
Procedure :
A. Insulation resistance test between winding & body / Earth.
This test is carried out to determine how much insulation resistance is
offered between Stator or Rotor winding and earth.
Steps -1 Ensure main supply is disconnected to the motor.
Steps -2 Before measuring insulation resistance, ensure that the body of the motor is
properly earthed. To do so, connect the L terminal of megger to the body of the motor
& the E Terminal to earth and rotate the megger handle. If the reading becomes Zero,
the earthing is O.K.
Steps -3 Now take Stator terminals ( may be marked A,B, C / Al ,B1,C1-A2, B2, C2 )
Steps-4 Rotate the megger handle at about 160 r.p.m. and note the reading. It
should not be less than 2 m-n ( two Megaohm ).
Steps - 5 Next remove the L terminal of the megger and connect stator coil individual
( Al / A2 & Bl/B2 , Bl/B2 & Cl/C2, C1/C2 & Al/A2 )
Steps-6 Rotate the megger handle at about 160 r.p.m. and note the reading. It
should be 2M-ohm ( Two Megaohm ) or more.
B. Insulation resistance test between Stator windings and Rotor Ckt.
This test is done for measuring insulation resistance between armature and field wdgs.
Steps -1 Take a AC motor which is not connected to main supply line.
Steps -2 Connect the megger L and E terminals to Stator terminal, say A / B /C
and Rotor terminal,
Steps-3 Rotate the megger handle at about 160 rpm. and note the reading. It
should be 2 M-Q ( Two Megaohm ) or more.
C. Continuity test
This test is carried out to determine the continuity of a particular winding.ln Insu-tester
or motor checker, low Voltage (9V) range is used for continuity testing. To determine
any loose contact in the winding, testing with a series test lamp is preferred,
Steps -1 Take a AC motor which is not connected to main supply line.
Steps -2 Connect two terminals of the continuity tester to Stator coil terminals.
If a beep is heard or very low resistance is found then it is o.k.
Steps -3 Connect two terminals of the continuity tester to Rotor terminals. If a beep is
heard or very low resistance is found then it is o.k.
Page No. 32
F:-- - olarization Index ( P. I. )
It is the ratio between the I.R. value ( meggering value ) in 60 seconds and I.R. value
( meggering value ) in 15 seconds. P.I. is a good appraisal of the condition of the
insulation, clean dry wdgs will have a much higher index than moist or dirty ones. P.I. of
less than 1.3 indicates the need for reconditioning. Index values of 4 or more indicate
the insulation to be in very good condition. An index of less than 1 indicates the
development of carbonized paths through and around the insulation.
Megger Application Grade
(i) For Low Voltage : 50 Volt Insulation Tester ( Battery Operated )
(ii) Low Voltage Upto 440 Volt : 500 Volt Insulation Tester ( Megger ) with hand
hold and battery operated.
(iii) For 1.1 KV : 1000 Volt hand hold Megger
(iv) For 3.3 KV : 2.5 Killo Volt hand hold Megger
(v) For 11 KV : 5 Killo Volt hand hold Megger
Leakage Current must not exceed 1 / 1000 th (0.0001)mA of Full load Current.
Page No.33
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICIANS
Introduction
Safety precautions for electricians are the guidance to mold the habit of
electricians to be more responsible to alertness and consciousness to the hazards in
their day to day work.
TYPES OF SAFETY PRECAUTIONS FOR ELECTRICIAL HAZARDS
1. Electric shocks are easily received and easily be avoided , RISK is not apparent , should
be carefull .
Beware of live conductors , either bars or insulated .
Never disconnect a plug point by pulling the flexible card .
Always connect live wire through a switch .
5. Always switch "OFF" before replacing a blown out fuse.
6. Never touch an overhead line unless you have made sure that the line is
electrically dead.
7. Put on safety belt when working above ground on a pole .
8. Never put a switch "ON" unless you are sure that all the men are not working in
the line .
9. When mixing sulfuric acid in water , add acid to the water and not water to the
acid.
10. When cells are charged "in a room" maintain good ventilation and never bring
maked light near accumulator (battery).
Use correct size and quality of fuse wire when rewiring blown out fuse wire.
If a ladder is used it must be hold by another person so that it may slip away .
Do :lot use wire with poor insulation .
Always use portable hand lamp of insulated safety type and provided with a
rubber , plastic or wooden and wire guard .
15. Safety demands good Earthing . Hence always keep earth connections in good
conditions .
16. Beware working on Motor or other rotating machinerise make that it can not be
set in motion without your permission .
Page No. 34
B e w a r e
s t a r t i n g
3 work always follow "FOUR" principles rs.f FIP,Trica! Safety .
ISOLATE ( i.
e. SWITCH OFF , FUSE AND PUT
DANGER BOARD ).

TEST ( i.e. CHEACK THAT THE CIRCUIT IS DEAD) .

LOCK ( i.e. SECURITY AGAINST UNAUTHORISED SWITCHING) .

SHORT ( i.e. EARTHING OR SHORTING AGAINST ACCIDENTAL CHARGE )
18
Disconnect the supply immediately in case of fire rlar electrical apparatus .
19 Do not use fire extinguisher on Electrical equipment unless it is clearly marked
an suitable for that purpose use sand or blanket instead .
20 Do not throw water on live Electrical equipment's in case of fire. It is dangerous for
you
21 Do not work on energized circuit without taking extra precautions , Such as the use
of rubber glovan and wooden handless .
22 Do not wear loose clothing , metal watch straps, bangles, finger rings while working
on electrical applicances
23 Before supplying current to electrical, equipment , it should be ascertained that the
equipment is properly earthed .
24 Before using portable Electrical things , see that these are well earthed .
25 Do not use a plier as a hammer .
26 Do not put a sharp edged tool in your pocket .
27 Do not use tools like file , knife ,screw driver etc. , without handle otherwise it can
injury the hand .
28
Preach and practice safety at all times. good work
be spoiled by an accident.
Page No. 35
YOURS SAFETY IS IN YOUR HAND
TREATMENT OF ELECTRIC SHOCK FOR ARTIFICAL RESPIRATION
This treatment should be continued for at least five hours if necessary .
A person apparently dead may be revived by the method (SCHAFER'S) describe below
Remove the body from contact with the wire , cable or other conductor .
By
Breaking or Disconnecting the circuit ,
Dragging the patient away by his coat tails .
The hand being protected by Indian Rubber gloves or any dry woolen materials,
such as a cap folded several thickness if possible , wood or any men conducting
material may be used , If possible without discontinuing the treatment , send for a
doctor .
AFTER REMOVAL
Do not wait to under the clothing .
Place the patient on his chest with head turned to one side .
Kneel at his side and grasping the lower ribs with both hands ,
Gradually throw your weight on to his body .

Spring quickly back and repeat the movement fifteen time a minute .
Do not leave the patient or stop artificial Respiration , until a doctor arrives
Keep the patient warn .
***
Page No. 36