Networking & Internet

WHAT IS A NETWORK ?
A network is simply two or more computers that
are linked together.
The most common types of networks are:
Local Area Networks (LANS) and
Wide Area Networks (WANS).
The primary difference between the two is that a
LAN is generally confined to a limited
geographical area, whereas a WAN covers a
large geographical area. Most WANs are made
up of several connected LANs.
Client/Server Networks
In a client/server network
arrangement, network
services are located in a
dedicated computer whose
only function is to respond to
the requests of clients.
The server contains the file,
print, application, security,
and other services in a
central computer that is
continuously available to
respond to client requests.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network,
the networked computers
act as equal partners, or
peers, to each other.
As peers, each computer
can take on the client
function or the server
function alternately.
Local-area Networks (LANs)
Wide-area Networks (WANs)
Metropolitan-Area Network (MANs)
A metropolitan area network
(MAN) is a computer network
that usually spans a city or a
large campus. A MAN usually
interconnects a number of local
area networks (LANs) using a
high-capacity backbone
technology, such as fiber-optical
links, and provides up-link
services to wide area networks
(or WAN) andtheInternet.
Storage-Area Networks (SANS)
A storage area network (SAN) is a
dedicated network that provides access to
consolidated, block level data storage.
SANs are primarily used to make storage
devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries,
and optical jukeboxes, accessible to
servers so that the devices appear like
locally attached devices to the operating
system. A SAN typically has its own
network of storage devices that are
generally not accessible through the local
area network by other devices.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
A virtual private network (VPN) is a
private computer network that
interconnects remote geographically
separate networks through primarily public
communication infrastructures such as the
Internet. VPNs provide security through
tunneling protocols and security
procedures such as encryption. For
example, aVPNcouldbeusedtosecurely
connect the branch offices of an
organization to a head office network
through the public Internet. A VPN can
also be used to interconnect two similar
networks over adissimilar middlenetwork;
BENEFITS OF A NETWORK
Information sharing: Authorized users can use other
computers on the network to access and share information
and data. This could include special group projects,
databases, etc.
Hardware sharing: One device connected to a network,
such as a printer or scanner, can be shared by many users.
Software sharing: Instead of purchasing and installing a
software program on each computer, it can be installed on
the server. All of the users can then access the program
from a single location.
Collaborative environment: Users can work together on
group projects by combining the power and capabilities of
diverse equipment.
RISKS OF NETWORK COMPUTING
The security of a computer network is challenged
everyday by:
Equipment malfunctions
System failures
Note: equipment malfunctions and system failures
may be caused by natural disasters such as floods,
storms, or fires, and electrical disturbances.
Computer hackers
Virus attacks
Concepts of Communication
Communications activity associated with
distributing or exchanging information.
Telecommunications technology of
communications at a distance that permits
information to be created any where and
used everywhere with little delay.
Today it, involves
Data: digital and analog
Voice: spoken word
Video: telecommunication imaging
Essentials for Communications
Workstation/PC Workstation/PC Medium
1 2 3 4 5 6
Source Transmitter Transmission Receiver Destination
Source System Destination System
1. Text input information
2. Input data digital bit stream
3. Transmitted analog signal
4. Received analog signal
5. Output data digital bit stream
6. Text output information
Simplex Transmission
Simplex transmission is a
single one-way baseband
transmission.
It is also called
unidirectional because
the signal travels in only
one direction.
An example of simplex
transmission is the signal
sent from the cable TV
station to the home
television.
Half-Duplex Transmission
In Half-Duplex Transmission
only one side can transmit at
a time.
Two-way radios, such as
Citizens Band (CB) and
police / emergency commu -
nications mobile radios,
work with half-duplex
transmissions.
Full-Duplex Transmission
In Full-Duplex Transmission
Traffic can travel in both
directions at the same time.
A regular telephone conver-
sation is an example of full-
duplex communication. Both
parties can talk at the same
time, and the person talking
on the other end can still be
heard by the other party
while they are talking.
Communication Devices
Synchronous communication uses a
clock signal separate from the data
signal- communication can only happen
during the tick of the timing cycle.
Asynchronous communication does not
use a clock signal- rather, it employs a
start and stop bit to begin and end the
irregular transmission of data.
Network Topologies
The Network Topology defines the way in which computers,
printers, and other devices are connected. A network
topology describes the layout of the wire and devices as well
as the paths used by data transmissions.
Networks have both a physical and logical topology:
Physical topology: the layout of the devices and media.
Logical topology : paths that signals travel from one
point on the network to another.
Types of Topologies
Networking Media : Coaxial-cable
Networking media can be defined
simply as the means by which
signals (data) are sent from one
computer to another (either by
cableor wirelessmeans).
Coaxial cable is a copper-cored
cable surrounded by a heavy
shielding and is used to connect
computersinanetwork.
There are several types of coaxial
cable, including thicknet, thinnet,
RG-59 (standard cable for cable
TV), and RG-6 (used in video
distribution).
Twisted-pair is atypeof cablingthat
is used for telephone communi-
cations and most modern Ethernet
networks.
A pair of wires forms a circuit that
can transmit data. The pairs are
twistedtoprovideprotectionagainst
crosstalk, the noise generated by
adjacent pairs.
There are two basic types, shielded
twisted-pair (STP) and unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP).
Networking Media : Twisted-pair
Categories of Twisted Pairs
Category Max Data Rate Usual Application
CAT 1 Less than 1 Mbps Analog Voice (plain old telephone
service) Integrated Services Digital
Network (ISDN)
CAT 2 4 Mbps Mainly used in the IBM Cabling System
for token ring networks
CAT 3 16 Mbps Voice and data on 10BASE-T Ethernet
CAT 4 20 Mbps Used only in 16Mbps Token Ring
CAT 5 100 Mbps 100 Mbps - 155 Mbps Asynchronous
Transfer Mode
CAT 6 250 Mbps Voice and data using upto 10-Gigabit
Ethernet
Fiber-optic cable is a
networking medium capable
of conducting modulated
light transmissions.
Fiber-optic refers to cabling
that has a core of strands of
glass or plastic (instead of
copper), through which light
pulses carry signals.
Signals that represent data
are converted into beams of
light.
Networking Media : Fiber-optic
If the cost of running cables is
too high or computers need
to be movable without being
tethered to cables, Wireless
is an alternative method of
connecting a LAN.
Wireless networks use radio
frequency (RF), laser,
infrared (IR), and satellite
/microwaves to carry signals
from one computer to another
without a permanent cable
connection.
Networking Media : Wireless
Networking Devices
Networking Devices : Hub
A Hub is a device that is
used to extend an Ethernet
wire to allow more devices
to communicate with each
other.
Hubs are most commonly
used in Ethernet 10BASE-T
or 100BASE-T networks,
although there are other
network architectures that
use them.
A Switch is a more sophisticated device than a hub,
although the basic function of the switch is almost same as
of hub.
Allow different nodes of a network to communicate directly
with each other.
Allow several users to send information over a network at
the same time without slowing each other down.
Networking Devices : Switch
A Bridge is a product that connects a local area network
(LAN) to another local area network that uses the same
protocol (for example, Ethernet or token ring).
The basic functionality of the bridge resides in its ability to
make intelligent decisions about whether to pass signals
on to the next segment of a network.
Networking Devices : Bridge
Networking Devices : Bridge
Routers connect two or more networks having same or
different protocol and forward data packets between
them. When data arrives from one of the segments, the
router decides, according to it's routing table, to which
segment to forward that data.
Networking Devices : Gateways
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to
another network. On the internet, in terms of routing, the
network consists of gateway nodes and host nodes.
Host nodes are computer of network users and the
computers that serve contents (such as Web pages).
Gateway nodes are computers that control traffic within
your companys network or at your local internet service
provider (ISP)
Networking Devices : Modem
An illustration of data sent using a modem and a regular telephone line.
A Modem is a device that converts digital data originating
from a terminal or computer, to analog signals used by voice
communication networks such as the telephone system. At
one end, modems convert the digital pulses to audible tones
and convert audio tones back to digital pulses at the other.
The word "Modem" stands for "MOdulator-DEModulator".
Networking Devices : Firewalls
Firewalls are systems that establish access control policies
among networks. They can block information from entering
a network or from getting out of that network, they can
permit different users to perform different kinds of
operations, according to the user's authorizations.
Networking Protocols
Networking Protocols
Protocol are used for communication between computers
in different computer networks. Protocol achieves:
What is communicated between computers?
How it is communicated?
When it is communicated?
What conformance (bit sequence) between computers?
Key elements of a protocol are:
SYNTAC: Data format and signal levels
SEMANTICS: Control information for coordination and error
handling
TIMING: Synchronization, speed matching, and sequencing
Examples of protocols:
WAN Protocol: TCP/IP
LAN Protocol: Media Access Control; Contention; Token Passing
Programmers
Do
Not
Throw
Sausage
Pizza
Away
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Provides connectivity and path selection between
two hosts
Provides Logical address
No error correction, best effort delivery.
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Networking layers : OSI Model
Encapsulation in layers
Data
Segments
Packet
Frame
Bits
Data
Data
TCP/IP Model
TCP/IP Model
Network access: data transfer between neighboring Network access: data transfer between neighboring
network elements and Physical: bits on the wire
-- ppp, ethernet
Internet: routing of datagrams from source to
destination -- ip, routing protocols
Application: supporting network applications
-- ftp, smtp, http
Transport: host-host data transfer -- tcp, udp
Data in TCP/IP Model
What is an Address ?
An unique number IDassigned to host or
interfacetoidentifywithinanetwork
MACAddress:
Manufacturer allocated permanent and
unique ID, six pair of hexadecimal number,
suchas01-23-45-67-89-ab
IPAddress:
Atemporary32bit address(IPv4) dividedinto
four octate and separated by a dot, such as
192.168.100.12
IP Address Types
IPaddressescanbeoneof threetypes:
Unicast: This type forwards the packet
to a single target host (one-to-one
forwarding).
Multicast:Thistypeforwardsthepacket
to all hosts that havejoined amulticast
group(one-to-manyforwarding).
Broadcast: This type forwards the
packet to all hosts on a subnet or
network(one-to-all forwarding).
IP Address Classes
Class First Octet Used For
A 1126 Very large networks
B 128191 Medium to large networks
C 192223 Small networks
D 224239 Multicasting
E 240255 Reserved (experimental)
Subnet Mask
A 32-bit address used to partion Network
Id and Host Id to determine whether a
givenaddressislocal or remote. Two types
of subnet masksare:
Default subnet mask: Partitions IP
addressesintotheir networkIDandhost
IDportions
Customsubnet mask: Further partitions
the network ID into a number of
separate subnets by using a process
calledsubnetting
Subnetting
Subnetting: Partitioning a single network into multiple
subnetstoreducenetworkcongestion.
To subnet an IP network, you take the assigned network ID
and borrow bits from the host ID to establish a group of
subnet IDs(subnettednetworkIDs), onefor eachsubnet.
If aclassBnetwork 172.16.0.0needstobesubnettedinto6subnets,
a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 can be used. Each subnet can be
showntosupport amaximumof 8190hosts. TheIPaddressblocksfor
these six subnets can be selected fromthe eight possible subnets:
172.16.0.1 to 172.16.31.254
172.16.32.1 to 172.16.63.254
172.16.64.1 to 172.16.95.254
172.16.96.1 to 172.16.127.254
172.16.128.1 to 172.16.159.254
172.16.160.1 to 172.16.191.254
172.16.192.1 to 172.16.223.254
172.16.224.1 to 172.16.255.254
Supernetting
By using Supernetting, contiguous blocks of class C
addresses can be combined and used for networks
larger thanasingleclassCblockcansatisfy.
Supernetting is the opposite procedureinstead of
borrowingbitsfromthehost IDto increasethebitsfor
the network ID (thus increasing the number of
networks), supernettingborrowsbitsfromthenetwork
ID to increase bits for the host ID, thus combining
smaller networkstocreatelarger networks.
For example, asupernettedsubnet maskof 255.254.0.0
identifies eachclass Baddress as having15networkID
bits and 17 host IDbits, thus creatingfewer networks,
each with more hosts, than when using the default
subnet mask.
Setting of IP Addresses
IP addresses for hosts on a LAN can be assigned in two ways:
1. Manually assigned by the network administrator
2. Assigned by a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) server
What is DHCP?
Themost commonandefficient wayfor computersona
large network to obtain an IP address is through a
DynamicHost ConfigurationProtocol (DHCP) server.
DHCP is asoftware utilitythat runs on acomputer and
isdesignedtoassignIPaddressestoPCs.
WhentheDHCPserver receivesarequest fromahost, it
selects IP address information fromaset of predefined
addressesthat arestoredinitsdatabase.
What is Default Gateway?
A computer located on one network segment that is
tryingtotalktoanother computer onadifferent segment
sendsthedatathroughadefault gateway.
The default gateway is the near side interface of the
router, the interfaceon the router to which the network
segment or wireof thelocal computer isattached.
What is DNS?
Most hosts are identified on the Internet by friendly
computer names known as domain names.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is used to translate
computer names such as cisco.com to their
corresponding unique IP address.
The DNS server keeps records that map computer
(host) names and their corresponding IP address.
These record types are all combined in the DNS table.
What is Domain Names?
To remember IP addresses of all our favoriteWebsites is
very difficult.
Its easy to remember words rather individual IP addresses
and that is where domain names come in.
www.google.co.in
Top-level domain Sub-domain Host name
Some Common Top-Level Domains:
COM-- commercial Web sites, though open to everyone
NET-- network Web sites, though open to everyone
ORG-- non-profit organization Web sites, though open to everyone
EDU -- restricted to schools and educational organizations
MIL -- restricted to the U.S. military
GOV-- restricted to the U.S. government
US, UK, RU, BD, IN and other two-letter country codes -- each is
assigned to a domain name authority in the respective country.
What is HTML ?
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard
formatting language used to publish information on Web
serversfor deliverytoWebbrowsersover theInternet. HTML
allows linked sets of documents (that is, hypertext) to be
created, stored, and accessed from Web servers using
UniformResourceLocators(URLs).
An example of classic Hello world in HTML:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
<head>
<title>Hello HTML</title>
</head>
<body>
<p>Hello World!</p>
</body>
</html>
Web page: A file of text information formatted using
Hypertext MarkupLanguage(HTML).
What is HTTP?
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A protocol that defines
howWebbrowsersdownloadinformationfromWebservers.
HTTP clients: The most common example of an HTTP client is
the Web browser, such as Internet Explorer or Firefox.
HTTPservers: It can communicate or serve web pages by
means of HTTP with a client such as a Web browser.
Microsoft IIS and Apache are the example of HTTP/Web
server.
What is URL ?
In computing, a uniformresourcelocator (URL) is a
specific character stringthat constitutes a reference
toanInternet resource.
How email works
How email works
1. The sender uses a Mail User Agent (MUA) to
composeanemail.
2. The mail is sent to a Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
whichisresponsiblefor sendingtheemail to the
receipientsMTA.
3. An MTA transfers mail messages between
computersviatheSMTPprotocol.
4. The recipients MTA receives the email and
passesit ontoaMail DeliveryAgent(MDA).
5. AnMDAmanagestheusersmailboxandhandles
mails for delivery to the MUA using either the
POPor IMAPprotocol.