1

st
lecture
The Maxwell equations
There are four basic equations, called Maxwell equations, which form the axioms of
electrodynamics. The so called local forms of these equations are the following:
rot H = j + D/t 1!
rot E = " B/t #!
di$ B = % &!
di$ D = '!
(ere rot or curl in )nglish literature! is the so called $ortex density, H is $ector of
the magnetic field strength, j is the current density $ector, D/t is the time deri$ati$e of the
electric dis*lacement $ector D, E is the electric field strength, B/t is the time deri$ati$e of
the magnetic induction $ector B, di$ is the so called source density and is the charge
density.
+hile the abo$e local or differential forms are easy to remember and useful in
a**lications, they are not so easy to understand as they use $ector calculus to gi$e s*atial
deri$ati$es of $ector fields li,e rot H or di$ D. The global or integral forms of the Maxwell
equations are somewhat more com*licated but at the same time they can be understood
without ,nowing $ector calculus. They are using *ath, surface, and $olume integrals,
howe$er:

G
H

dr = - + -
.-/0
1!

G
E

dr = "
1
/t #!

A
B

dA = % &!

A
D

dA =

V
d2 '!
where
- is the electric current - =
A
j

dA,
-
.-/0
is the so called dis*lacement -
.-/0
=
A
D/t!

dA, and

1
is the flux of the magnetic induction B
1
=
A
B

dA.
-t is im*ortant to reali3e that there are two $ariables to describe the electric *ro*erties
of the electromagnetic field namely E and D, and also two $ariables for the magnetic
*ro*erties of the field H and B. This is necessary when some materials are *resent with
oriented electric and magnetic di*oles. -f the electric di*ole density is denoted by P, and the
magnetic di*ole density by M, then we can use the following definitions for D and B:
D =
%
E + P and,
B =
%
H + M .
(ere
%
and
%
are the *ermitti$ity and the *ermeability of the $acuum, res*ecti$ely. -f we are
in $acuum P = %, M =% ! then the Maxwell equations can be written in the following form:
rot H = j +
%
E /t 1!
rot E = "
%
H /t #!
di$ H = % &!
di$ E = /
%
'!
Thus we can see that in this case there are only one $ariable for the electric field E, and
another $ariable H for the magnetic field. -n other words the introduction of two more
$ariables D and B or P and M ! is necessary only if we ha$e not only $acuum, but some
material is also *resent. To determine j, P, and M for a certain material we use the so called
material equations
j= jE, E
i
!, P = P E!, and M = M H !.
(ere E
i
includes all non electromagnetic forces. The $arious functions in the material
equations can be different for each material, but they are often linear. -n that case the material
equations are written in the following form:
j= E+ E
i
!, P =
e

%
E!, and M =
m

%
H !,
where is the electric conducti$ity,
e
is the electric and
m
is the magnetic susce*tibility.
Thus the go$erning equations of electromagnetism include the ' Maxwell equations
and the & material equations. 4inally one more equation is needed to establish a connection
with mechanics e.g.
f = E + jxB
where f is the mechanical force density force acting on the unit $olume!. 5nother *ossibility
to establish the connection to mechanic is

))
= 6 ED + HB !,
where
))
is the electromagnetic energy density, that is the energy stored by the electric and
magnetic fields in the unit $olume. The conce*t of force and energy were de$elo*ed already
in mechanics.!
7lassification of $arious cha*ters of electrodynamics
based on the Maxwell equations
The four Maxwell equations can be sim*lified omitting certain terms regarding the dynamics
of the *rocess.
)lectro" and magnetostatics :
no current: j=%, no change in the magnetic induction B/t = %, no change in the electric
inductions D/t = %.
Thus basic equations of electrostatics
di$ D = , and
rot E = % .
)quations of magnetostatics:
rot H = %, and
di$ B = % .
5s we can see in statics there is no connection between the equations of electricity and
magnetism.
/tationary fields direct current!:
+e ha$e already current j%, but the magnetic and the electric fields are not changing:
B/t = % and D/t = %.
-n this case the Maxwell equations can be sim*lified to the following form:
rot H = j 1!
rot E = % #!
di$ B = % &!
di$ D = '!
8uasi"stationary fields e. g. alternating current!:
+e ha$e electric current j%, and the magnetic field is changing B/t %, but the rate of
changing o the electric field can be neglected D/t %.
-n this case the Maxwell equations can be sim*lified to the following form:
rot H = j 1!
rot E = " B/t #!
di$ B = % &!
di$ D = '!
9a*idly changing electromagnetic fields electromagnetic wa$es!:
-n this case we ha$e to regard all terms of the Maxwell equations. There is a s*ecial
situation, howe$er, when electromagnetic wa$es are *ro*agating in $acuum. -n this case the
following sim*lifications can be a**lied:
no current: j=% no electron beam or other *articles conducting current!
= % no charge in the s*ace!
Thus the Maxwell equations for electromagnetic wa$es:
rot H =
%
E /t 1!
rot E = "
%
H /t #!
di$ H = % &!
di$ E = % '!
(ow the wa$e equation can be deri$ed from the abo$e four equations will be shown later.