EC2353 -Antenna and wave propagation

Introduction
An antenna is an electrical conductor or system of conductors
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and
reception
An antenna is a circuit element that provides a transition form a guided wave on a
transmission line to a free space wave and it provides for the collection of
electromagnetic energy.
In transmit systems the RF signal is generated, amplified, modulated and applied
to the antenna
In receive systems the antenna collects electromagnetic waves that are cutting
through the antenna and induce alternating currents that are used by the receiver
CONCEPT OF VECTOR POTENTIAL
ert!ian dipo"e
A simple practical antenna is a doublet or !ert"ian dipole #see a figure below$. It
is very short length of wire over which the current distribution can be assumed uniform.
%a&well's e(uations show that such an antenna when energi"ed by a high fre(uency
current is associated with an induction field which decreases inversely as s(uare of the
distance and a radiation field which decreases inversely as distance only. The later is still
measurable at large distances from the doublet and is well-)nown radiation field used in
radio communications
#EFINITION$
Radiation Inten%it&' In a given direction, the power radiated form an antenna per
unit solid angle.
#irective (ain' In a given direction, *+ times the ratio of theradiation intensity in
that direction to the total power radiated by the antenna.
#irectivit&' The value of the directive gain in the direction of its ma&imum value.
Power (ain' In a given direction, *+ times the ratio of the radiationintensity in
that direction to the net power accepted by the antenna from the connected
transmitter. ,-T./0 #1$ 2hen thedirection is not stated, the power gain is usually
ta)en to be thepower gain in the direction of its ma&imum value. #3$ 4ower gain
does not include reflection losses arising from mismatchof impedance.
)ea*widt+ is the angular separation of the half-power points of the radiated
pattern
)andwidt+ is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff fre(uencies
of,for e&ample, a filter, a communication channel, or a signal spectrum, and is
typically measured in hert". In case of a baseband channel or signal, the andwidth
is e(ual to its upper cutoff fre(uency. 5andwidth in hert" is a centralconcept in
many fields, including electronics, information theory, radio communications,
signal processing, and spectroscopy
(AIN
6ain is an antenna property dealing with an antenna7s ability to
direct its radiated power in a desired direction, or to receive
energy preferentially from a desired direction. !owever, gain is
not a (uantity which can be defined in terms of physical (uantities
such as the 2att, ohm or 8oule, but is a dimensionless ratio.
As a conse(uence, antenna gain results from the interaction of
all other antenna characteristics.Antenna characteristics of gain,
beamwidth, and efficiency areindependent of the antenna7s use for
either transmitting or receiving. 6enerally these characteristics are
more easilydescribed for the transmitting case, however, the
properties apply as well to receiving applications.
Radiation re%i%tance
An important property of a transmitting antenna is its radiation resistance which is
associated with power radiated by the antenna. If I is the r.m.s #root mean s(uare$
antenna current and Rr is its radiation resistance, then the power radiated is I3Rr
watts where Rr is a fictitious resistance which accounts for the radiated power
somewhat li)e a circuit resistance which dissipates heat. The larger the radiation
resistance the larger the power radiated by the antenna. In contrast, for receiving
antenna its input impedance is important. The input impedance is defined as the ratio
of voltage to current at its input and it must be generally matched to the connecting
line or cable. The input impedance may or may not be e(ual to radiation resistance,
though very often it does. In most case Rr may be calculated or it can be determined
e&perimentally.
a",-wave"engt+ dipo"e
This type of antenna is a special case where each wire is e&actly one-(uarter of
the wavelength, for a total of a half wavelength. The radiation resistance is about 9:
ohms if wire diameter is ignored, ma)ing it easily matched to a coa&ial transmission
line. The directivity is a constant 1.;*, or 3.1< d5. Actual gain will be a little less due
to ohmic losses'
Fo"ded dipo"e
A folded dipole is a dipole where an additional wire #=3$ lin)s the two ends of the
#=3$ half wave dipole. The folded dipole wor)s in the same way as a normal dipole,
but the radiation resistance is about :>> ohms rather than the 9< ohms which is
e&pected for a normal dipole. The increase in radiation resistance allows the antenna
to be driven from a :>> ohm balanced line.
RECIPROCIT-.
An antenna ability to transfer energy form the atmosphere to its receiver with the
same efficiency with which it transfers energy from the transmitter into the
atmosphere
Antenna characteristics are essentially the same regardless of whether an antenna
is sending or receiving electromagnetic energy
An antenna with a non-uniform distribution of current over its length ? can be considered
as having a shorter effective length ?e over which the current is assumed to be uniform
and e(ual to its pea). The relationship between ?e and ? is given by0
E,,ective aperture
The power received by an antenna can be associated with collecting area. .very
antenna may be considered to have such a collecting area which is called its effective
aperture A. If 4d is a power density at the antenna and 4r is received power, then0
4olari"ation is the direction of the electric field and is the same as the physical
attitude of the antenna
A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically polari"ed wave
The receive and transmit antennas need to possess the same polari"ation
Antenna (ain
Relationship between antenna gain and effective area
G @ antenna gain
Ae @ effective area
f @ carrier fre(uency
c @ speed of light #A : B 1>C m=s$
@ carrier wavelength
Radiation Pattern
Radiation pattern is an indication of radiated field strength around the antenna.
4ower radiated from a =3 dipole occurs at right angles to the antenna with no
power emitting from the ends of the antenna. -ptimum signal strength occurs at
right angles or 1C>D from opposite the antenna
Radiation pattern
6raphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna
Eepicted as two-dimensional cross section
5eam width #or half-power beam width$
%easure of directivity of antenna
Reception pattern
Receiving antenna's e(uivalent to radiation pattern
Antenna Te*perature
# $ is a parameter that describes how much noise an antenna produces in a given
environment. This temperature is not the physical temperature of the antenna. %oreover,
an antenna does not have an intrinsic Fantenna temperatureF associated with itG rather the
temperature depends on its gain pattern and the thermal environment that it is placed in.
To define the environment, we7ll introduce a temperature distribution - this is the
temperature in every direction away from the antenna in spherical coordinates. For
instance, the night s)y is roughly * HelvinG the value of the temperature pattern in the
direction of the .arth7s ground is the physical temperature of the .arth7s ground. This
temperature distribution will be written as . !ence, an antenna7s temperature will
vary depending on whether it is directional and pointed into space or staring into the sun.
For an antenna with a radiation pattern given by , the noise temperature is
mathematically defined as0
This states that the temperature surrounding the antenna is integrated over the entire
sphere, and weighted by the antenna7s radiation pattern. !ence, an isotropic antenna
would have a noise temperature that is the average of all temperatures around the
antennaG for a perfectly directional antenna #with a pencil beam$, the antenna temperature
will only depend on the temperature in which the antenna is Floo)ingF.
The noise power received from an antenna at temperature can be e&pressed in terms of
the bandwidth #B$ the antenna #and its receiver$ are operating over0
In the above, K is 5olt"mann7s constant #1.:C I 1>J-3: KLoules=Helvin @ L=HM$. The
receiver also has a temperature associated with it # $, and the total system temperature
#antenna plus receiver$ has a combined temperature given by . This
temperature can be used in the above e(uation to find the total noise power of the system.
These concepts begin to illustrate how antenna engineers must understand receivers and
the associated electronics, because the resulting systems very much depend on each other.
A parameter often encountered in specification sheets for antennas that operate in certain
environments is the ratio of gain of the antenna divided by the antenna temperature #or
system temperature if a receiver is specified$. This parameter is written as 6=T, and has
units of d5=Helvin Kd5=HM.
N,IT O3 /IRE ANTENNA$ AN# ANTENNA ARRA-$
!alf wave antenna
0uarter wave or unipo"e antenna
The (uarter wave or unipole antenna is a single element antenna feed at one end,
that behaves as a dipole antenna. It is formed by a conductor in length. It is fed in
the lower end, which is near a conductive surface which wor)s as a reflector #see
.ffect of ground$. The current in the reflected image has the same direction and
phase that the current in the real antenna. The set (uarter-wave plus image forms a
half-wave dipole that radiates only in the upper half of space.
Antenna array is a group of antennas or antenna elements arranged to provide the
desired directional characteristics. 6enerally any combination of elements can form an
array. !owever, e(ual elements in a regular geometry are usually used.
PATTERN 12LTIPLICATION
The pattern multiplication principle states that the radiation patterns of an array of N
identical antennas is e(ual to the product of the element pattern Fe( ) #pattern of one of
the antennas$ and the array pattern Fa( ), where Fa( ) is the pattern obtained upon
replacing all of the actual antennas with isotropic sources.
LOOP ANTENNA
The small loop antenna is a closed loop as shown in Figure 1. These antennas
have low radiation resistance and high reactance, so that their impedance is
difficult to match to a transmitter. As a result, these antennas are most often
used as receive antennas, where impedance mismatch loss can be tolerated.
The radius is a, and is assumed to be much smaller than a wavelength #aPP
$. The loop lies in the &-y plane.
Figure 1. /mall loop antenna.
/ince the loop is electrically small, the current within the loop can be
appro&imated as being constant along the loop, so that I@ .
The fields from a small circular loop are given by0
The variation of the pattern with direction is given by , so that the
radiation pattern of a small loop antenna has the same power pattern as that of a
short dipole. !owever, the fields of a small dipole have the .- and !- fields
switched relative to that of a short dipoleG the .-field is hori"ontally polari"ed
in the &-y plane.
The small loop is often referred to as the dual of the dipole antenna, because if
a small dipole had magnetic current flowing #as opposed to electric current as
in a regular dipole$, the fields would resemble that of a small loop.
2hile the short dipole has a capacitive impedance #imaginary part of
impedance is negative$, the impedance of a small loop is inductive #positive
imaginary part$. The radiation resistance #and ohmic loss resistance$ can be
increased by adding more turns to the loop. If there are N turns of a small loop
antenna, each with a surface area S #we don7t re(uire the loop to be circular at
this point$, the radiation resistance for small loops can be appro&imated #in
-hms$ by0
For a small loop, the reactive component of the impedance can be determined
by finding the inductance of the loop, which depends on its shape #then
Q@3IpiIfI?$. For a circular loop with radius a and wire radius p, the reactive
component of the impedance is given by0
/mall loops often have a low radiation resistance and a highly inductive
component to their reactance. !ence, they are most often used as receive
antennas. .&aples of their use include in pagers, and as field strength probes
used in wireless measurements.
Loop antenna
A loop antenna has a continuous conducting path leading from
one conductor of a two-wire transmission line to the other conductor. All planar loops are
directional antennas with a sharp null, and have a radiation pattern similar to the dipole
antenna. !owever, the large and small loops have different orientations with respect to
their radiation pattern.
$*a"" "oop%
A loop is considered a small loop if it is less than 1=* of a
wavelength in circumference. %ost directional receiving loops are about 1=1> of a
wavelength. The small loop is also called the magnetic loop because it is more sensitivie
to the magnetic component of the electromagnetic wave. As such, it is less sensitive to
near field electric noise when properly shielded. The received voltage of a small loop can
be greatly increased by bringing the loop into resonance with a tuning capacitor.
/ince the small loop is small with respect to a wavelength, the
current around the antenna is nearly completely in phase. Therefore, waves approaching
in the plane of the loop will cancel, and waves in the a&is perpendicular to the plane of
the loop will be strongest. This is the opposite mechanism as the large loop.
Large "oop%
The #large$ loop antenna is similar to a dipole, e&cept that the
ends of the dipole are connected to form a circle, triangle #$ or s(uare. Typically a loop is
a multiple of a half or full wavelength in circumference. A circular loop gets higher gain
#about 1>R$ than the other forms of large loop antenna, as gain of this antenna is directly
proportional to the area enclosed by the loop, but circles can be hard to support in a
fle&ible wire, ma)ing s(uares and triangles much more popular. ?arge loop antennas are
more immune to locali"ed noise partly due to lac) of a need for a groundplane. The large
loop has its strongest signal in the plane of the loop, and nulls in the a&is perpendicular to
the plane of the loop. This is the opposite orientation to the small loop.
A1 "oop%
A% loops are loops tuned for the A% broadcasting band.
5ecause of the e&tremely long wavelength, an A% loop may have multiple turns of wire
and still be less than 1=1> of a wavelength. Typically these loops are tuned with a
capacitor, and may also be wound around a ferrite rod to increase aperture.
#irection ,inding wit+ "oop%
?oops are somewhat directional along the a&is of highest gain,
but have a sharp null in the a&is perpendicular to their highest gain. Therefore, when
using a loop for direction finding, the plane of the antenna is rotated until the signal
disappears. As planar loops have a 1C> degree symmetry, other methods must be used to
determine if the signal is in front or behind the loop.
Fre(uently, a dipole and a loop are used together, to obtain a
combined cardioid radiation pattern with a sharp null on only one side.
2ni,or* "inear arra&
$"ot antenna% are used typically at fre(uencies between :>> %!" and
3* 6!". These antennas are popular because they can be cut out of whatever
surface they are to be mounted on, and have radiation patterns that are roughly
omnidirectional #similar to a linear wire antenna, as we7ll see$. The polari"ation
is linear. The slot si"e, shape and what is behind it #the cavity$ offer design
variables that can be used to tune performance.
Sonsider an infinite conducting sheet, with a rectangular slot cut out of
dimensions a and b, as shown in Figure 1. If we can e&cite some reasonable
fields in the slot #often called the aperture$, we have an antenna.
Figure 1. Rectangular /lot antenna with dimensions a and b.
To gain an intuition about slot antennas, first we7ll learn 5abinet7s principle #put
into antenna terms by !. 6. 5oo)er in 1T*;$. This principle relates the radiated
fields and impedance of an aperture or slot antenna to that of the field of its
dual antenna. The dual of a slot antenna would be if the conductive material
and air were interchanged - that is, the slot antenna became a metal slab in
space. An e&ample of dual antennas is shown in Figure 30
Figure 3. Eual antennas.
,ote that a voltage source is applied across the short end of the slot. This
induces an .-field distribution within the slot, and currents that travel around
the slot perimeter, both contributed to radiation. The dual antenna is similar to a
dipole antenna. The voltage source is applied at the center of the dipole, so that
the voltage source is rotated.
5abinet7s principle relates these two antennas. The first result states that the
impedance of the slot # $ is related to the impedance of its dual antenna # $
by the relation0
In the above, is the intrinsic impedance of free space. The second ma8or result
of 5abinet7s=5oo)er7s principle is that the fields of the dual antenna are almost
the same as the slot antenna #the fields components are interchanged, and called
FdualsF$. That is, the fields of the slot antenna #given with a subscript S$ are
related to the fields of it7s complement #given with a subscript C$ by0
!ence, if we )now the fields from one antenna we )now the fields of the other
antenna. !ence, since it is easy to visuali"e the fields from a dipole antenna, the
fields and impedance from a slot antenna can become intuitive if 5abinet7s
principle is understood.
,ote that the polari"ation of the two antennas are reversed. That is, since the
dipole antenna on the right in Figure 3 is vertically polari"ed, the slot antenna
on the left will be hori"ontally polari"ed.
#ua"it& E3a*p"e
As an e&ample, consider a dipole similar to the one shown on the right in
Figure 3. /uppose the length of the dipole is 1*.* centimeters and the width is 3
centimeters, and that the impedance at 1 6!" is ;<U81< -hms. The fields from
the dipole antenna are given by0
2hat are the fields from a slot at 1 6!", with the same dimensions as the
dipoleV
Nsing 5abinet7s principle, the impedance can be easily found0
The impedance of the slot for this case is much larger, and while the dipole7s
impedance is inductive #positive imaginary part$, the slot7s impedance is
capacitive #negative imaginary part$. The .-fields for the slot can be easily
found0
2e see that the .-fields only contain a phi #a"imuth$ componentG the antenna is
therefore hori"ontally polari"ed.
!orn antennas are very popular at N!F #:>> %!"-: 6!"$ and higher
fre(uencies #I7ve heard of horns operating as high as 1*> 6!"$. They often
have a directional radiation pattern with a high gain , which can range up to 3<
d5 in some cases, with 1>-3> d5 being typical. !orns have a wide impedance
bandwidth, implying that the input impedance is slowly varying over a wide
fre(uency range #which also implies low values for /11 or W/2R$. The
bandwidth for practical horn antennas can be on the order of 3>01 #for instance,
operating from 1 6!"-3> 6!"$, with a 1>01 bandwidth not being uncommon.
The gain often increases #and the beamwidth decreases$ as the fre(uency of
operation is increased. !orns have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is
roughly e(ual to its gain.
!orn antennas are somewhat intuitive and not relatively simple to manufacture.
In addition, acoustic horns also used in transmitting sound waves #for e&ample,
with a megaphone$. !orn antennas are also often used to feed a dish antenna, or
as a Fstandard gainF antenna in measurements.
4opular versions of the horn antenna include the .-plane horn, shown in Figure
1. This horn is flared in the .-plane, giving the name. The hori"ontal dimension
is constant at w.
Figure 1. .-plane horn.
Another e&ample of a horn is the !-plane horn, shown in Figure 3. This horn is
flared in the !-plane, with a constant height for the waveguide and horn of h.
Figure 3. !-4lane horn.
The most popular horn is flared in both planes as shown in Figure :. This is a
pyramidal horn, and has width B and height A at the end of the horn.
Figure :. 4yramidal horn.
!orns are typically fed by a section of a waveguide, as shown in Figure *. The
waveguide itself is often fed with a short dipole, which is shown in red in
Figure *. A waveguide is simply a hollow, metal cavity. 2aveguides are used to
guide electromagnetic energy from one place to another. The waveguide in
Figure * is a rectangular waveguide of width b and height a, with bXa. The .-
field distribution for the dominant mode is shown in the lower part of Figure 1.
Figure *. 2aveguide used as a feed to horn antennas.
Re,"ector Antenna
To increase the directivity of an antenna, a fairly intuitive solution is to use a
reflector. For e&ample, if we start with a wire antenna #lets say a half-wave
dipole antenna$, we could place a conductive sheet behind it to direct radiation
in the forward direction. To further increase the directivity, a corner re,"ector
may be used, as shown in Figure 1. The angle between the plates will be T>
degrees.
Figure 1. 6eometry of Sorner Reflector.
The radiation pattern of this antenna can be understood by using image theory,
and then calculating the result via array theory. For ease of analysis, we7ll
assume the reflecting plates are infinite in e&tent. Figure 3 below shows the
e(uivalent source distribution, valid for the region in front of the plates.
Figure 3. .(uivalent sources in free space.
The dotted circles indicate antennas that are in-phase with the actual antennaG
the &7d out antennas are 1C> degrees out of phase to the actual antenna.
Assume that the original antenna has an omnidirectional pattern given by .
Then the radiation pattern #R$ of the Fe(uivalent set of radiatorsF of Figure 3
can be written as0
The above directly follows from Figure 3 and array theory #k is the wave
number. The resulting pattern will have the same polari"ation as the original
vertically polari"ed antenna. The directivity will be increased by T-13 d5. The
above e(uation gives the radiated fields in the region in front of the plates.
/ince we assumed the plates were infinite, the fields behind the plates are "ero.
The directivity will be the highest when d is a half-wavelength. Assuming the
radiating element of Figure 1 is a short dipole with a pattern given by ,
the fields for this case are shown in Figure :.
Figure :. 4olar and a"imuth patterns of normali"ed radiation pattern.
The radiation pattern, impedance and gain of the antenna will be influenced by
the distance d of Figure 1. The input impedance is increased by the reflector
when the spacing is one half wavelengthG it can be reduced by moving the
antenna closer to the reflector. The length of the reflectors in Figure 1 are
typically 3Id. !owever, if tracing a ray travelling along the y-a&is from the
antenna, this will be reflected if the length is at least . The height of the
plates should be taller than the radiating elementG however since linear antennas
do not radiate well along the "-a&is, this parameter is not critically important.
The Parabolic Reflector
Antenna (Satellite Dish)
The most well-)nown reflector antenna is the parabolic reflector antenna, commonly
)nown as a satellite dish antenna. .&amples of this dish antenna are shown in the
following Figures.
Figure 1. The Fbig dishF of /tanford Nniversity.
Figure 3. A random FdirecTW dishF on a roof.
4arabolic reflectors typically have a very high gain #:>-*> d5 is common$ and low cross
polari"ation. They also have a reasonable bandwidth, with the fractional bandwidth being
at least <R on commercially available models, and can be very wideband in the case of
huge dishes #li)e the /tanford Fbig dishF above, which can operate from 1<> %!" to 1.<
6!"$.
The smaller dish antennas typically operate somewhere between 3 and 3C 6!". The large
dishes can operate in the W!F region #:>-:>> %!"$, but typically need to be e&tremely
large at this operating band.
The basic structure of a parabolic dish antenna is shown in Figure :. It consists of a feed
antenna pointed towards a parabolic reflector. The feed antenna is often a horn antenna
with a circular aperture.
Figure :. Somponents of a dish antenna.
Nnli)e resonant antennas li)e the dipole antenna which are typically appro&imately a
half-wavelength long at the fre(uency of operation, the reflecting dish must be much
larger than a wavelength in si"e. The dish is at least several wavelengths in diameter, but
the diameter can be on the order of 1>> wavelengths for very high gain dishes #X<> d5
gain$. The distance between the feed antenna and the reflector is typically several
wavelenghts as well. This is in contrast to the corner reflector, where the antenna is
roughly a half-wavelength from the reflector.
In the ne&t section, we7ll loo) at the parabolic dish geometry in detail and why a parabola
is a desired shape.
To start, let the e(uation of a parabola with focal length F can be written in the
#!"#$ plane as0
This is plotted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Illustration of parabola with defining parameters.
The parabola is completely described by two parameters, the diameter $ and
the focal length F. 2e also define two au&illiary parameters, the vertical height
of the reflector #%$ and the ma& angle between the focal point and the edge of
the dish # $. These parameters are related to each other by the following
e(uations0
To analy"e the reflector, we will use appro&imations from geometric optics.
/ince the reflector is large relative to a wavelength, this assumption is
reasonable though not precisely accurate. 2e will analy"e the structure via
straight line rays from the focal point, with each ray acting as a plane wave.
Sonsider two transmitted rays from the focal point, arriving from two distinct
angles as shown in Figure 3. The reflector is assumed to be perfectly
conducting, so that the rays are completely reflected.
Figure 3. Two rays leaving the focal point and reflected from the parabolic
reflector.
There are two observations that can be made from Figure 3. The first is that
both rays end up travelling in the downward direction #which can be
determined because the incident and reflected angles relative to the normal of
the surface must be e(ual$. . The rays are said to be collimated. The second
important observation is that the path lengths AE. and A5S are e(ual. This
can be proved with a little bit of geometry, which I won7t reproduce here. These
facts can be proved for any set of angles chosen. !ence, it follows that0
All rays emanating from the focal point #the source or feed antenna$ will be
reflected towards the same direction.
The distance each ray travels from the focal point to the reflector and then
to the focal plane is constant.
As a result of these observations, it follows the distribution of the field on the
focal plane will be in phase and travelling in the same direction. This gives rise
to the parabolic dish antennas highly directional radiation pattern. This is why
the shape of the dish is parabolic.
Finally, by revolving the parabola about the "-a&is, a paraboloid is obtained, as
shown below.
For design, the value of the diameter $ should be increased to increase the gain
of the antenna. The focal length F is then the only free parameterG typical
values are commonly given as the ratio F&$, which usually range between >.:
and 1.>. Factors affecting the choice of this ratio will be given in the following
sections.
In the ne&t section, we7ll loo) at gain calculations for a parabolic reflector
antenna.
The fields across the aperture of the parabolic reflector is responsible for this
antenna7s radiation. The ma&imum possible gain of the antenna can be
e&pressed in terms of the physical area of the aperture0
The actual gain is in terms of the effective aperture, which is related to the
physical area by the efficiency term # $. This efficiency term will often be on
the order of >.;->.9 for a well designed dish antenna0
Nnderstanding this efficiency will also aid in understanding the trade-offs
involved in the design of a parabolic reflector. The efficiency can be written as
the product of a series of terms0
2e7ll wal) through each of these terms.
Radiation E,,icienc&
The radiation efficiency is the usual efficiency that deals with ohmic losses,
as discussed on the efficiency page. /ince horn antennas are often used as
feeds, and these have very little loss, and because the parabolic reflector is
typically metallic with a very high conductivity, this efficiency is typically
close to 1 and can be neglected.
Aperture Taper E,,icienc&
The aperture radiation efficiency is a measure of how uniform the .-field is
across the antenna7s aperture. In general, an antenna will have the ma&imum
gain if the .-field is uniform in amplitude and phase across the aperture #the
far-field is roughly the Fourier Transform of the aperture fields$. !owever, the
aperture fields will tend to diminish away from the main a&is of the reflector,
which leads to lower gain, and this loss is captured within this parameter.
This efficiency can be improved by increasing the F&$ ratio, which also lowers
the cross-polari"ation of the radiated fields. !owever, as with all things in
engineering, there is a tradeoff0 increasing the F&$ ratio reduces the spillover
efficiency, discussed ne&t.
$pi""over E,,icienc&
The spillover efficiency is simple to understand. This measures the amount
of radiation from the feed antenna that is reflected by the reflector. Eue to the
finite si"e of the reflector, some of the radiation from the feed antenna will
travel away from the main a&is at an angle greater than , thus not being
reflected. This efficiency can be improved by moving the feed closer to the
reflector, or by increasing the si"e of the reflector.
Ot+er E,,iciencie%
There are many other efficiencies that I7ve lumped into the parameter . This
is a ma8or of all other Freal-world effectsF that degrades the antenna7s gain and
consists of effects such as0
$ur,ace Error - small deviations in the shape of the reflector degrades
performance, especially for high fre(uencies that have a small wavelength and
become scattered by small surface anomalies
Cro%% Po"ari!ation - The loss of gain due to cross-polari"ed #non-
desirable$ radiation
Aperture )"oc4age - The feed antenna #and the physical structure that
holds it up$ bloc)s some of the radiation that would be transmitted by the
reflector.
Non-Idea" Feed P+a%e Center - The parabolic dish has desirable properties
relative to a single focal point. /ince the feed antenna will not be a point
source, there will be some loss due to a non-perfect phase center for a horn
antenna.
Ca"cu"ating E,,icienc&
The efficiency is a function of where the feed antenna is placed #in terms of F
and $$ and the feed antenna7s radiation pattern. Instead of introducing comple&
formulas for some of these terms, we7ll ma)e use of some results by /. /ilver
bac) in 1T*T. !e calculated the aperture efficiency for a class of radiation
patterns given as0
TYpically, the feed antenna #horn$ will not have a pattern e&actly li)e the
above, but can be appro&imated well using the function above for some value
of '. Nsing the above pattern, the aperture efficiency of a parabolic reflector
can be calculated. This is displayed in Figure 1 for varying values of and the
F&$ ratio.
Figure 1. Aperture .fficiency of a 4arabolic Reflector as a function of F&$ or
the angle , for varying feed antenna radiation patterns.
Figure 1 gives a good idea on design of optimal parabolic reflectors. First, $ is
made as large as possible so that the physical aperture is ma&imi"ed. Then the
F&$ ratio that ma&imi"es the aperture efficiency can be found from the above
graph. ,ote that the e(uation that relates the ratio of F&$ to the angle can be
found here.
In the ne&t section, we7ll loo) at the radiation pattern of a parabolic antenna.
In this section, the :d radiation patterns are presented to give an idea of what
they loo) li)e. This e&ample will be for a parabolic dish reflector with the
diameter of the dish $ e(ual to 11 wavelengths. The F&$ ratio will be >.<. A
circular horn antenna will be used as the feed.
The ma&imum gain from the physical aperture is G the
actual gain is 3T.: d5 @ C<1, so we can conclude that the overall efficiency is
99R. The :E patterns are shown in the following figures.
As can be seen, the pattern is highly directional. The !452 is appro&imately <
degrees, and the front-to-bac) ratio is appro&imately :: d5.
LEN$ ANTENNA.ZAnother antenna that can change spherical waves into flat plane waves is the
lens antenna. This antenna uses a microwave lens, which is similar to an optical lens to straighten the
spherical wavefronts. /ince this type of antenna uses a lens to straighten the wavefronts, its design is
based on the laws of refraction, rather than reflection. Two types of lenses have been developed
to provide a plane-wavefront narrow beam for trac)ing radars, while avoiding the problems
associated with the feedhorn shadow. These are the co'ducti'( #acceleration$ type and
the dielect)ic #delay$ type. The lens of an antenna is substantially transparent to microwave energy that
passes through it. It will, however, cause the waves of energy to be either converged or
diverged as they e&it the lens. Sonsider the action of the two types of lenses. The conducting type of lens
is illustrated in figure 1-1>, view A. This type of lens consists of flat metal strips placed parallel to the
electric field of the wave and spaced slightly in e&cess of one-half of a wavelength. To the wave
these strips loo) li)e parallel waveguides. The velocity of phase propagation of a wave is greater in a
waveguide than in air. Thus, since the lens is concave, the outer portions of the transmitted
spherical waves are accelerated for a longer interval of time than the inner portion.
Helical Antenna
Antennas ?ist Antenna Theory !ome
!eli& antennas have a very distinctive shape, as can be seen in the following
picture.
4hoto courtesy of Er. ?ee 5oyce.
The most popular helical antenna #often called a 7heli&7$ is a travelling wave
antenna in the shape of a cor)screw that produces radiation along the a&is of the
heli&. These heli&es are referred to as a&ial-mode helical antennas. The benefits of
this antenna is it has a wide bandwidth, is easily constructed, has a real input
impedance, and can produce circularly polari"ed fields. The basic geometry is
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. 6eometry of !elical Antenna.
The parameters are defined below.
$ - Eiameter of a turn on the heli&.
C - Sircumference of a turn on the heli& #C@piI$$.
S - Wertical separation between turns.
- pitch angle, which controls how far the antenna grows in the "-direction
per turn, and is given by
N - ,umber of turns on the heli&.
% - Total height of heli&, %@NS.
The antenna in Figure 1 is a left handed heli&, because if you curl your fingers on
your left hand around the heli& your thumb would point up #also, the waves
emitted from the antenna are ?eft !and Sircularly 4olari"ed$. If the heli& was
wound the other way, it would be a right handed helical antenna.
The pattern will be ma&imum in the U" direction #along the helical a&is in Figure
1$. The design of helical antennas is primarily based on empirical results, and the
fundamental e(uations will be presented here.
!elices of at least : turns will have close to circular polari"ation in the U"
direction when the circumference C is close to a wavelength0
-nce the circumference C is chosen, the ine(ualites above roughly determine the
operating bandwidth of the heli&. For instance, if C@1T.;C inches #>.< meters$,
then the highest fre(uency of operation will be given by the smallest wavelength
that fits into the above e(uation, or @>.9<C@>.:9< meters, which corresponds to
a fre(uency of C>> %!". The lowest fre(uency of operation will be given by the
largest wavelength that fits into the above e(uation, or @1.:::C@>.;;9 meters,
which corresponds to a fre(uency of *<> %!". !ence, the fractional 52 is <;R,
which is true of a&ial helices in general.
The heli& is a trave""ing wave antenna, which means the current travels along the
antenna and the phase varies continuously. In addition, the input impedance is
primarly real and can be appro&imated in -hms by0
The heli& functions well for pitch angles # $ between 13 and 1* degrees.
Typically, the pitch angle is ta)en as 1: degrees.
The normali"ed radiation pattern for the .-field components are given by0
For circular polari"ation, the orthogonal components of the .-field must be T>
degrees out of phase. This occurs in directions near the a&is #"-a&is in Figure 1$ of
the heli&. The a&ial ratio for heli& antennas decreases as the number of loops N is
added, and can be appro&imated by0
The gain of the heli& can be appro&imated by0
In the above, c is the speed of light. ,ote that for a given heli& geometry #specified
in terms of C" S" N$, the gain increases with fre(uency. For an N@1> turn heli&,
that has a >.< meter circumference as above, and an pitch angle of 1: degrees
#giving S@>.1: meters$, the gain is C.: #T.3 d5$.
For the same e&ample heli&, the pattern is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. ,ormali"ed radiation pattern for helical antenna #d5$.
The !alf-4ower 5eamwidth for helical antennas can be appro&imated #in degrees$
by0
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Antennas ?ist Antenna Theory .com
The -agi-2da antenna or Yagi is one of the most brilliant antenna designs. It is
simple to construct and has a high gain, typically greater than 1> d5. These
antennas typically operate in the !F to N!F bands #about : %!" to : 6!"$,
although their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of the
center fre(uency. You are probably familiar with this antenna, as they sit on top of
roofs everywhere. An e&ample of a Yagi-Nda antenna is shown below.
The Yagi antenna was invented in Lapan, with results first published in 1T3;. The
wor) was originally done by /hintaro Nda, but published in Lapanese. The wor)
was presented for the first time in .nglish by Yagi #who was either Nda7s professor
or colleague, my sources are conflicting$, who went to America and gave the first
.nglish tal)s on the antenna, which led to its widespread use. !ence, even though
the antenna is often called a Yagi antenna, Nda probably invented it. A picture of
4rofessor Yagi with a Yagi-Nda antenna is shown below.
In the ne&t section, we7ll e&plain the principles of the Yagi-Nda antenna.
The basic geometry of a Yagi-Nda antenna is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. 6eometry of Yagi-Nda antenna.P=F-,TP S.,T.RX
The antenna consists of a single 7feed7 or 7driven7 element, typically a dipole or a
folded dipole antenna. This is the only member of the above structure that is
actually e&cited #a source voltage or current applied$. The rest of the elements
are parasitic - they reflect or help to transmit the energy in a particular
direction. The length of the feed element is given in Figure 1 as F. The feed
antenna is almost always the second from the end, as shown in Figure 1. This
feed antenna is often altered in si"e to ma)e it resonant in the presence of the
parasitic elements #typically, >.*<->.*C wavelengths long for a dipole antenna$.
The element to the left of the feed element in Figure 1 is the reflector. The
length of this element is given as R and the distance between the feed and the
reflector is SR. The reflector element is typically slightly longer than the feed
element. There is typically only one reflectorG adding more reflectors improves
performance very slightly. This element is important in determining the front-
to-bac) ratio of the antenna.
!aving the reflector slightly longer than resonant serves two purposes. The first
is that the larger the element is, the better of a physical reflector it becomes.
/econdly, if the reflector is longer than its resonant length, the impedance of
the reflector will be inductive. !ence, the current on the reflector lags the
voltage induced on the reflector. The director elements #those to the right of the
feed in Figure 1$ will be shorter than resonant, ma)ing them capacitive, so that
the current leads the voltage. This will cause a phase distribution to occur
across the elements, simulating the phase progression of a plane wave across
the array of elements. This leads to the array being designated as a travelling
wave antenna. 5y choosing the lengths in this manner, the Yagi-Nda antenna
becomes an end-fire array - the radiation is along the Uy-a&is as shown in
Figure 1.
The rest of the elements #those to the right of the feed antenna as shown in
Figure 1$ are )nown as director elements. There can be any number of directors
N, which is typically anywhere from N@1 to N@3> directors. .ach element is of
length $i, and separated from the ad8acent director by a length S$i. As alluded
to in the previous paragraph, the lengths of the directors are typically less than
the resonant length, which encourages wave propagation in the direction of the
directors.
The above description is the basic idea of what is going on. Yagi antenna design
is done most often via measurements, and sometimes computer simulations.
For instance, lets loo) at a two-element Yagi antenna #1 reflector, 1 feed
element, > directors$. The feed element is a half-wavelength dipole, shortened
to be resonant #gain @ 3.1< d5$. The gain as a function of the separation is
shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. 6ain versus separation for 3-element Yagi antenna.
The above graph shows that the gain is increases by about 3.< d5 if the
separation S$ is between >.1< and >.: wavelengths. /imilarly, the gain can be
plotted as a function of director spacings, or as a function of the number of
directors used. Typically, the first director will add appro&imately : d5 of
overall gain #if designed well$, the second will add about 3 d5, the third about
1.< d5. Adding an additional director always increases the gainG however, the
gain in directivity decreases as the number of elements gets larger. For instance,
if there are C directors, and another director is added, the increases in gain will
be less than >.< d5.
In the ne&t section, I7ll go further into the design of Yagi-Nda antennas.
The design of a Yagi-Nda antenna is actually (uite simple. 5ecause Yagi antennas have
been e&tensively analy"ed and e&perimentally tested, the process basically follows this
outline0
?oo) up a table of design parameters for Yagi antennas
5uild it #or model it numerically$, and twea) it till the performance is acceptable
As an e&ample, consider the table published in FYagi Antenna EesignF by 4 Wie"bic)e
from the ,ational 5ureau of /tandards, 1T;C, given in Table I. ,ote that the FboomF is the
long element that the directors, reflectors and feed elements are physically attached to, and
dictates the lenght of the antenna.
Ta5"e I' Opti*a" Lengt+% ,or -agi-2da E"e*ent%6 ,or #i%tinct )oo* Lengt+%
d@>.>>C<
SR@>.3
)oo* Lengt+ o, -agi-2da Arra& 7in 8
9': 9'; <'2 2'2 3'2 :'2
R >.*C3 >.*C3 >.*C3 >.*C3 >.*C3 >.*9<
E1 >.**3 >.*3C >.*3C >.*:3 >.*3C >.*3*
E3 >.*3* >.*3> >.*1< >.*3> >.*3*
E: >.*3C >.*3> >.*>9 >.*>9 >.*3>
E* >.*3C >.:TC >.:TC >.*>9
E< >.:T> >.:T* >.*>:
E; >.:T> >.:T> >.:TC
E9 >.:T> >.:C; >.:T*
EC >.:T> >.:C; >.:T>
ET >.:TC >.:C; >.:T>
E1> >.*>9 >.:C; >.:T>
E11 >.:C; >.:T>
E13 >.:C; >.:T>
E1: >.:C; >.:T>
E1* >.:C;
E1< >.:C;
/pacing
between
directors,
#/E= $
>.3> >.3> >.3< >.3> >.3> >.:>C
6ain #d5$ T.3< 11.:< 13.:< 1*.*> 1<.<< 1;.:<
There7s no real roc)et science going on in the above table. I believe the authors of
the above document did e&perimental measurements until they found an optimi"ed
set of spacings and published it. The spacing between the directors is uniform and
given in the second-to-last row of the table. The diameter of the elements is given
by d@>.>>C< . The above table gives a good starting point to estimate the
re(uired length of the antenna #the boom length$, and a set of lengths and spacings
that achieves the specified gain. In general, all the spacings, lengths, diamters
#including the boom diameter$ are design variables and can be continuously
optimi"ed to alter performance. There are thousands of tables that further give
results, such as how the diamter of the boom affects the results, and the optimal
diamters of the elements.
As an e&ample of Yagi-antenna radiation patterns, a ;-element Yagi antenna #with
a&is along the U&-a&is$ is simulated in F.H- #1 reflector, 1 driven half-
wavelength dipole, * directors$. The resulting antenna has a 13.1 d5i gain, and the
plots are given in Figures 1-:.
Figure 1. .-plane gain of Yagi antenna.
Figure 3. !-4lane gain of Yagi antenna.
Figure :. :-E Radiation 4attern of Yagi antenna.
The above plots are 8ust an e&ample to give an idea of what the radiation pattern of
the Yagi-Nda antenna resembles. The gain can be increased #and the pattern made
more directional$ by adding more directors or optimi"ing spacing #or rarely,
adding another refelctor$. The front-to-bac) ratio is appro&imately 1T d5 for this
antenna, and this can also be optimi"ed if desired.
A LON(-/IRE ANTENNA is an antenna that is a wavelength or more long at the operating fre(uency.
These antennas have directive patterns that are sharp in both the hori"ontal and vertical planes.
)EVERA(E ANTENNA$ consist of a single wire that is two or more wavelengths long.
A V ANTENNA is a bi-directional antenna consisting of two hori"ontal, long wires arranged to form a W.
The RO1)IC ANTENNA uses four conductors 8oined to form a rhombus shape. This antenna has a
wide fre(uency range, is easy to construct and maintain, and is noncritical as far as operation and
ad8ustment are concerned.
The T2RN$TILE ANTENNA consists of two hori"ontal, half-wire antennas mounted at right angles to
each other.
LO(-PERIO#IC ANTENNA
LO(-PERIO#IC ANTENNA

In telecommunication, a "og-periodic antenna #LP,
also )nown as a "og-periodic arra&$ is a broadband, multielement,
unidirectional, narrow-beam antenna that has impedance and
radiation characteristics that are regularly repetitive as a
logarithmic function of the e&citation fre(uency. The individual
components are often dipoles, as in a "og-periodic dipo"e arra&
#LP#A$.
?og periodic antennas are arrays that are designed to be
self-similar and thus are fractal antenna arrays. It is normal to
drive alternating elements with a ci)ca 1C>o #[ radian$ phase shift
from the last element. This is normally done by wiring the
elements alternatingly to the two wires in a balanced transmission
line.The length and spacing of the elements of a log- increase
logarithmically from one end to the other.The result of this
structural condition is that if a plot is made of the input impedance
as a function of log of fre(uency then the variation will be periodic
i.e. the impedance will go through the cycles of variation in such a
way that each cycle is e&actly li)e its preceding one and hence the
name.

?og.-4eriodic Antenna, 3<> \ 3*>> %!"
%utual impedance] self-impedance
The method helps us to compute voltages, currents and
impedances in antenna systems. The method understands the
voltage, which is observed at the input port of every single
antenna element, being induced by the radiation of all the
antenna elements #including the own element$. The voltage
can be composed from contributions of single elements. .ach
contribution is proportional to the current of the respective
element. ..g., voltage * 1 at the input of the first antenna
element e(uals to the summation
where I 1, I 3, I : are currents at the input ports of single
elements, + 11, + 13, + 1: are impedances. + 11 is self-
impedance, + 1n are mutual impedances between the first
element and the other elements in the antenna system. These
impedances depend on the mutual position and mutual
distance of antenna elements
Biconical antenna
A 5iconica" antenna consists of an arrangement of two conical conductors, which is
driven by potential, charge, or an alternating magnetic field #and the associated
alternating electric current$ at the verte&. The conductors have a common a&is and verte&.
The two cones face in opposite directions. 5iconical antennas are broadband dipole
antennas, typically e&hibiting a bandwidth of : octaves or more.
-mnidirectional 5iconical Antenna
%icrostrip or patch antennas are becoming increasingly useful because they can
be printed directly onto a circuit board. They are becoming very widespread
within the mobile phone mar)et. They are low cost, have a low profile and are
easily fabricated.
Sonsider the microstrip antenna shown in Figure 1, fed by a microstrip
transmission line. The patch, microstrip and ground plane are made of high
conductivity metal. The patch is of length , width ,, and sitting on top of a
substrate #some dielectric circuit board$ of thic)ness h with permittivity .
The thic)ness of the ground plane or of the microstrip is not critically
important. Typically the height h is much smaller than the wavelength of
operation.
#a$ Top Wiew
#b$ /ide Wiew
Figure 1. 6eometry of %icrostrip #4atch$ Antenna.
The fre(uency of operation of the patch antenna of Figure 1 is determined by
the length . The center fre(uency will be appro&imately given by0
The above e(uation says that the patch antenna should have a length e(ual to
one half of a wavelength within the dielectric #substrate$ medium.
The width , of the antenna controls the input impedance. For a s(uare patch
fed in the manner above, the input impedance will be on the order of :>>
-hms. 5y increasing the width, the impedance can be reduced. !owever, to
decrease the input impedance to <> -hms often re(uires a very wide patch. The
width further controls the radiation pattern. The normali"ed pattern is
appro&imately given by0
In the above, k is the free-space wavenumber, given by . The magnitude
of the fields, given by0
The fields are plotted in Figure 3 for ,@@>.< .
Figure 3. ,ormali"ed Radiation 4attern for %icrostrip #4atch$ Antenna.
The directivity of patch antennas is appro&imately <-9 d5. The fields are
linearly polari"ed. ,e&t we7ll consider more aspects involved in 4atch
#%icrostrip$ antennas.
Spiral antenna
In microwave systems, a %pira" antenna is a type of RF antenna. It is shaped as a two-
arm spiral, or more arms may be used.
K1M
/piral antennas operate over a wide fre(uency
range and have circular polari"ation. /piral antennas were first described in 1T<;.
App"ication%
A spiral antenna transmits .% waves having a circular polari"ation. It will receive
linearly polari"ed .% waves in any orientation, but will attenuate signals received with
the opposite circular polari"ation. A spiral antenna will re8ect circularly polari"ed waves
of one type, while receiving perfectly well waves having the other polari"ation.
-ne application of spiral antennas is wideband communications. Another application of
spiral antennas is monitoring of the fre(uency spectrum. -ne antenna can receive over a
wide bandwidth, for e&ample a ratio <01 between the ma&imum and minimum fre(uency.
Nsually a pair of spiral antennas are used in this application, having identical parameters
e&cept the polari"ation, which is opposite #one is right-hand, the other left-hand oriented$.
/piral antennas are useful for microwave direction-finding.
K3M
E"e*ent%
The antenna includes two conductive spirals or arms, e&tending from the center outwards.
The antenna may be a flat disc, with conductors resembling a pair of loosely-nested cloc)
springs, or the spirals may e&tend in a three-dimensional shape li)e a screw thread. The
direction of rotation of the spiral defines the direction of antenna polari"ation. Additional
spirals may be included as well, to form a multi-spiral structure. Nsually the spiral is
cavity-bac)ed, that is there is a cavity of air or non-conductive material or vacuum,
surrounded by conductive wallsG the cavity changes the antenna pattern to a
unidirectional shape. The output of the antenna
Measuring Radiation Pattern
and an Antenna's ain
Antennas #!ome$
Antenna %easurements
!ome
4revious0 %easurements
Ranges
,ow that we have our measurement e(uipment and an antenna range, we can
perform some measurements. 2e will use the source antenna to illuminate the
antenna under test with a plane wave from a specific direction. The polari"ation
and gain #for the fields radiated toward the test antenna$ of the source antenna
should be )nown.
Eue to reciprocity, the radiation pattern from the test antenna is the same for both
the receive and transmit modes. Sonse(uently, we can measure the radiation
pattern in the receive mode for the test antenna.
The test antenna is rotated using the test antenna7s positioning system. The
received power is recorded at each position. In this manner, the magnitude of the
radiation pattern of the test antenna can be determined. 2e will discuss phase
measurements and polari"ation measurements later.
The coordinate system of choice for the radiation pattern is spherical coordinates.
Measurement Example
An e&ample should ma)e the process reasonably clear. /uppose the radiation
pattern of a microstrip antenna is to be obtained. As is usual, lets let the direction
the patch faces #7normal7 to the surface of the patch$ be towards the "-a&is.
/uppose the source antenna illuminates the test antenna from Uy-direction, as
shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. A patch antenna oriented towards the "-a&is with a /ource illumination
from the Uy-direction.
In Figure 1, the received power for this case represents the power from the angle0
. 2e record this power, change the position and record again.
Recall that we only rotate the test antenna, hence it is at the same distance from
the source antenna. The source power again comes from the same direction.
/uppose we want to measure the radiation pattern normal to the patch7s surface
#straight above the patch$. Then the measurement would loo) as shown in Figure
3.
Figure 3. A patch antenna rotated to measure the radiation power at normal
incidence.
In Figure 3, the positioning system rotating the antenna such that it faces the
source of illumination. In this case, the received power comes from direction
. /o by rotating the antenna, we can obtain FcutsF of the radiation
pattern - for instance the .-plane cut or the !-plane cut. A Fgreat circleF cut is
when @> and is allowed to vary from > to :;> degrees. Another common
radiation pattern cut #a cut is a 3d 7slice7 of a :d radiation pattern$ is when is
fi&ed and varies from > to 1C> degrees. 5y measuring the radiation pattern along
certain slices or cuts, the :d radiation pattern can be determined.
It must be stressed that the resulting radiation pattern is correct for a given
polari"ation of the source antenna. For instance, if the source is hori"ontally
polari"ed #see polari"ation of plane waves$, and the test antenna is vertically
polari"ed, the resulting radiation pattern will be "ero everywhere. !ence, the
radiation patterns are sometimes classified as !-pol #hori"ontal polari"ation$ or W-
pol #vertical polari"ation$. /ee also cross-polari"ation.
In addition, the radiation pattern is a function of fre(uency. As a result, the
measured radiation pattern is only valid at the fre(uency the source antenna is
transmitting at. To obtain broadband measurements, the fre(uency transmitted
must be varied to obtain this information.
Measuring ain
Antennas #!ome$ Antenna %easurements
5ac)0 %easurement of
Antenna Radiation 4atterns
-n the previous page on measuring radiation patterns, we saw how the
radiation pattern of an antenna can be measured. This is actually the FrelativeF
radiation pattern, in that we don7t )now what the pea) value of the gain actually is
#we7re 8ust measuring the received power, so in a sense can figure out how
directive an antenna is and the shape of the radiation pattern$. In this page, we will
focus on measuring the pea) gain of an antenna - this information tells us how
much power we can hope to receive from a given plane wave.
2e can measure the pea) gain using the Friis Transmission .(uation and a Fgain
standardF antenna. A gain standard antenna is a test antenna with an accurately
)nown gain and polari"ation #typically linear$. The most popular types of gain
standard antennas are the thin half-wave dipole antenna #pea) gain of 3.1< d5$ and
the pyramidal horn antenna #where the pea) gain can be accurately calculated and
is typically in the range of 1<-3< d5$. Sonsider the test setup shown in Figure 1. In
this scenario, a gain standard antenna is used in the place of the test antenna, with
the source antenna transmitting a fi&ed amount of power #-.$. The gains of both
of these antennas are accurately )nown.
Figure 1. Record the received power from a gain standard antenna.
From the Friis transmission e(uation, we )now that the power received #-R$ is
given by0
If we replace the gain standard antenna with our test antenna #as shown in Figure
3$, then the only thing that changes in the above e(uation is GR - the gain of the
receive antenna. The separation between the source and test antennas is fi&ed, and
the fre(uency will be held constant as well.
Figure 3. Record the received power with the test antenna #same source antenna$.
?et the received power from the test antenna be -R/. If the gain of the test antenna
is higher than the gain of the Fgain standardF antenna, then the received power will
increase. Nsing our measurements, we can easily calculate the gain of the test
antenna. ?et G( be the gain of the Fgain standardF antenna, -R be the power
received with the gain antenna under test, and -R/ be the power received with the
test antenna. Then the gain of the test antenna #G.$ is #in linear units$0
The above e(uation uses linear units #non-d5$. If the gain is to be specified in
decibels, #power received still in 2atts$, then the e(uation becomes0
And that is all that needs done to determine the gain for an antenna in a particular
direction.
Efficiency and Directivity
Recall that the directivity can be calculated from the measured radiation pattern
without regard to what the gain is. Typically this can be performed by
appro&imated the integral as a finite sum, which is pretty simple.
Recall that the efficiency of an antenna is simply the ratio of the pea) gain to the
pea) directivity0
!ence, once we have measured the radiation pattern and the gain, the efficiency
follows directly from these.
In the ne&t section, we7ll loo) at measuring the phase of an antenna7s radiation
pattern.
Anechoic chamber
An anechoic chamber
An anec+oic c+a*5er is a room designed to stop reflections of either sound or
electromagnetic waves. They are also insulated from e&terior sources of noise. The
combination of both aspects means they simulate a (uiet open-space of infinite
dimension, which is useful when e&terior influences would otherwise give false results.
Anechoic chambers were originally used in the conte&t of acoustics #sound waves$ to
minimi"e the reflections of a room. Their radiofre(uency counterpart have also been in
use for a few decades, for e&ample to test antennas, radars, or electromagnetic
interference.
The wavelength of audible sound in air falls in the same range as that of commonly used
radio waves, and their propagation patterns bear many similarities. This is why both types
loo) similar.
Anechoic chambers range from small compartments to ones as large as aircraft hangars.
The si"e of the chamber depends on the si"e of the ob8ects to be tested and the fre(uency
range of the signals used, although scale models can sometimes be used by testing at
shorter wavelengths.
Acou%tic anec+oic c+a*5er%
Anechoic chambers are commonly used in acoustics to conduct e&periments in nominally
Ffree fieldF conditions. All sound energy will be traveling away from the source with
almost none reflected bac). Sommon anechoic chamber e&periments include measuring
the transfer function of a loudspea)er or the directivity of noise radiation from industrial
machinery. In general, the interior of an anechoic chamber is very (uiet, with typical
noise levels in the 1>\3> d5A range. According to 6uinness 2orld Records, 3>><,
-rfield ?aboratory7s ,I/T certified .c)el Industries-designed anechoic chamber is FThe
(uietest place on earthF measured at ^T.* d5A.
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The human ear can typically detect
sounds above > d5, so a human in such a chamber would perceive the surroundings as
devoid of sound.
The Nniversity of /alford has a number of Anechoic chambers, of which unofficially one
is the (uietest in the world with a measurement of ^13.* d5A.
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Semi-anechoic chambers
Full anechoic chambers aim to absorb energy in all directions. /emi-anechoic chambers
have a solid floor that acts as a wor) surface for supporting heavy items, such as cars,
washing machines, or industrial machinery, rather than the mesh floor grille over
absorbent tiles found in full anechoic chambers. This floor is damped and floating on
absorbent buffers to isolate it from outside vibration or electromagnetic signals. A
recording studio may utili"e a semi-anechoic chamber to produce high-(uality music free
of outside noise and unwanted echoes.
Radio-,re=uenc& anec+oic c+a*5er%
An RF anechoic chamber.
The internal appearance of the radio fre(uency #RF$ anechoic chamber is sometimes
similar to that of an acoustic anechoic chamber, however, the interior surfaces of the RF
anechoic chamber are covered with radiation absorbent material #RA%$ instead of
acoustically absorbent material K1M. The RF anechoic chamber is typically used to house
the e(uipment for performing measurements of antenna radiation patterns,
electromagnetic compatibility #.%S$ and radar cross section measurements. Testing can
be conducted on full-scale ob8ects, including aircraft, or on scale models where the
wavelength of the measuring radiation is scaled in direct proportion to the target si"e.
Soincidentally, many RF anechoic chambers which use pyramidal RA% also e&hibit
some of the properties of an acoustic anechoic chamber, such as attenuation of sound and
shielding from outside noise.
Radiation absorbent material
The RA% is designed and shaped to absorb incident RF radiation #also )nown as non-
ionising radiation$, as effectively as possible, from as many incident directions as
possible. The more effective the RA% is the less will be the level of reflected RF
radiation. %any measurements in electromagnetic compatibility #.%S$ and antenna
radiation patterns re(uire that spurious signals arising from the test setup, including
reflections, are negligible to avoid the ris) of causing measurement errors and
ambiguities.
-ne of the most effective types of RA% comprises arrays of pyramid shaped pieces, each
of which is constructed from a suitably lossy material. To wor) effectively, all internal
surfaces of the anechoic chamber must be entirely covered with RA%. /ections of RA%
may be temporarily removed to install e(uipment but they must be replaced before
performing any tests. To be sufficiently lossy, RA% can neither be a good electrical
conductor nor a good electrical insulator as neither type actually absorbs any power.
Typically pyramidal RA% will comprise a rubberi"ed foam material impregnated with
controlled mi&tures of carbon and iron. The length from base to tip of the pyramid
structure is chosen based on the lowest e&pected fre(uency and the amount of absorption
re(uired. For low fre(uency damping, this distance is often 3* inches, while high
fre(uency panels are as short as :\* inches. 4anels of RA% are installed with the tips
pointing inward to the chamber. 4yramidal RA% attenuates signal by two effects0
scattering and absorption. /cattering can occur both coherently, when reflected waves are
in-phase but directed away from the receiver, or incoherently where waves are pic)ed up
by the receiver but are out of phase and thus have lower signal strength. This incoherent
scattering also occurs within the foam structure, with the suspended carbon particles
promoting destructive interference. Internal scattering can result in as much as 1>d5 of
attenuation. %eanwhile, the pyramid shapes are cut at angles that ma&imi"e the number
of bounces a wave ma)es within the structure. 2ith each bounce, the wave loses energy
to the foam material and thus e&its with lower signal strength.
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An alternative type of RA% comprises flat plates of ferrite material, in the form of flat
tiles fi&ed to all interior surfaces of the chamber. This type has a smaller effective
fre(uency range than the pyramidal RA% and is designed to be fi&ed to good conductive
surfaces. It is generally easier to fit and more durable than the pyramidal type RA% but is
less effective at higher fre(uencies. Its performance might however be (uite ade(uate if
tests are limited to lower fre(uencies #ferrite plates have a damping curve that ma)es
them most effective between :>\1>>> %!"$K3M.
There is also a hybrid type, a ferrite in pyramidal shape. Sontaining the advantages of
both technologies the fre(uency range can be ma&imi"ed while the pyramid remains
small #1> cm$K:M.
Effectiveness over frequency
Slose-up of a pyramidal RA%
2aves of higher fre(uencies have shorter wavelengths and are higher in energy, while
waves of lower fre(uencies have longer wavelengths and are lower in energy, according
to the relationship _ @ 0 = f where lambda represents wavelength, v is phase velocity of
wave, and f is fre(uency. To shield for a specific wavelength, the cone must be of
appropriate si"e to absorb that wavelength. The performance (uality of an RF anechoic
chamber is determined by its lowest test fre(uency of operation, at which measured
reflections from the internal surfaces will be the most significant compared to higher
fre(uencies. 4yramidal RA% is at its most absorptive when the incident wave is at
normal incidence to the internal chamber surface when the pyramid height is
appro&imately e(ual to _ = *, where _ is the free space wavelength. Accordingly,
increasing the pyramid height of the RA% for the same #s(uare$ base si"e improves the
effectiveness of the chamber at low fre(uencies but results in increased cost and a
reduced unobstructed wor)ing volume that is available inside a chamber of defined si"e.
Installation into a screened room
An RF anechoic chamber is usually built into a screened room, designed using the
Faraday cage principle. This is because most of the RF tests that re(uire an anechoic
chamber to minimi"e reflections from the inner surfaces also re(uire the properties of a
screened room to attenuate unwanted signals penetrating inwards and causing
interference to the e(uipment under test and prevent lea)age from tests penetrating
outside.
hamber si!e and commissionin"
The actual test setups usually re(uire e&tra room than that re(uired to simply house the
test e(uipment, the hardware under test and associated cables. For e&ample, the far field
criteria sets a minimum distance between the transmitting antenna and the receiving
antenna to be observed when measuring antenna radiation patterns. Allowing for this and
the e&tra space that may be re(uired for the pyramidal RA% means that a substantial
capital investment is re(uired into even a modestly dimensioned chamber. For most
companies, such an investment in a large RF anechoic chamber is not 8ustifiable unless it
is li)ely to be used continuously or perhaps rented out. /ometimes for radar cross section
measurements it is possible to scale down the ob8ects under test and reduce the chamber
si"e provided that the wavelength of the test fre(uency is scaled down in direct
proportion.
RF anechoic chambers are normally designed to meet the electrical re(uirements of one
or more accredited standards. For e&ample, the aircraft industry may test e(uipment for
aircraft according to company specifications or military specifications such as %I?-/TE
*;1.. -nce built, acceptance tests are performed during commissioning to verify that the
standard#s$ are in fact met. 4rovided they are, a certificate will be issued to that effect,
valid for a limited period.
#perational use
Test and supporting e(uipment configurations to be used within anechoic chambers must
e&pose as few metallic #conductive$ surfaces as possible, as these ris) causing unwanted
reflections. -ften this is achieved by using non-conductive plastic or wooden structures
for supporting the e(uipment under test. 2here metallic surfaces are unavoidable, they
may be covered with pieces of RA% after setting up to minimi"e such reflection as far as
possible.
A careful assessment of whether to place the test e(uipment #as opposed to the e(uipment
under test$ on the interior or e&terior of the chamber is re(uired. ,ormally this may be
located outside of the chamber provided it is not susceptible to interference from e&terior
fields which, otherwise, would not be present inside the chamber. This has the advantage
of reducing reflection surfaces inside but it re(uires e&tra cables and particularly good
filtering. Nnnecessary cables and=or poor filtering can collect interference on the outside
and conduct them to the inside. A good compromise may be to install human interface
e(uipment #such as 4Ss$, electrically noisy and high power e(uipment on the outside and
sensitive e(uipment on the inside.
-ne useful application of fiber optic cables is to provide the communications lin)s to
carry signals within the chamber. Fiber optic cables are non-conductive and of small
cross-section and therefore cause negligible reflections in most applications.
It is normal to filter electrical power supplies for use within the anechoic chamber as
unfiltered supplies present a ris) of unwanted signals being conducted into and out of the
chamber along the power cables.
$ealth and safety ris%s associated &ith R' anechoic chamber
The following health and safety ris)s are associated with RF anechoic chambers0
RF radiation ha"ard
Fire ha"ard
Trapped personnel
4ersonnel are not normally permitted inside the chamber during a measurement as this
not only can cause unwanted reflections from the human body but may also be a radiation
ha"ard to the personnel concerned if tests are being performed at high RF powers. /uch
ris)s are from RF or non-ioni"ing radiation and not from the higher energy ioni"ing
radiation.
As RA% is highly absorptive of RF radiation, incident radiation will generate heat within
the RA%. If this cannot be dissipated ade(uately there is a ris) that hot spots may
develop and the RA% temperature may rise to the point of combustion. This can be a ris)
if a transmitting antenna inadvertently gets too close to the RA%. .ven for (uite modest
transmitting power levels, high gain antennas can concentrate the power sufficiently to
cause high power flu& near their apertures. Although recently manufactured RA% is
normally treated with a fire retardant to reduce such ris)s, they are difficult to completely
eliminate.
/afety regulations normally re(uire the installation of a gaseous fire suppression system
including smo)e detectors. 6aseous fire suppression avoids damage caused by the
e&tinguishing agent which would otherwise worsen damage caused by the fire itself. A
common gaseous fire suppression agent is carbon dio&ide. ,ormally the fire detection
system is lin)ed into the power supply to the chamber, so that the fire detection system
can disconnect the power supply if smo)e or a fire is detected.
2NIT-5 /AVE PROPA(ATION
4ropagation %odes
6round-wave propagation
/)y-wave propagation
?ine-of-sight propagation
6round-wave propagation
Follows contour of the earth
San 4ropagate considerable distances
Fre(uencies up to 3 %!"
.&ample
A% radio
/)y 2ave 4ropagation
/ignal reflected from ioni"ed layer of atmosphere bac) down
to earth
/ignal can travel a number of hops, bac) and forth between
ionosphere and earth's surface
Reflection effect caused by refraction
.&amples
Amateur radio
S5 radio
?ine-of-/ight 4ropagation
Transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of
sight
/atellite communication \ signal above :> %!" not
reflected by ionosphere
6round communication \ antennas within effecti0e line
of site due to refraction
Refraction \ bending of microwaves by the atmosphere
Welocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
2hen wave changes medium, speed changes
2ave bends at the boundary between mediums
-ptical line of sight
.ffective, or radio, line of sight
d @ distance between antenna and hori"on #)m$
h @ antenna height #m$
H @ ad8ustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb H @ *=:
%a&imum distance between two antennas for ?-/
propagation0
( )
3 1
<9 . : h h +
h1 @ height of antenna one
h3 @ height of antenna two
(reat-circle distance
The great-circ"e di%tance or ort+odro*ic di%tance is the shortest distance between any
two points on the surface of a sphere measured along a path on the surface of the sphere
#as opposed to going through the sphere7s interior$. 5ecause spherical geometry is rather
different from ordinary .uclidean geometry, the e(uations for distance ta)e on a different
form. The distance between two points in .uclidean space is the length of a straight line
from one point to the other. -n the sphere, however, there are no straight lines. In non-
.uclidean geometry, straight lines are replaced with geodesics. 6eodesics on the sphere
are the ()eat ci)cles #circles on the sphere whose centers are coincident with the center of
the sphere$.
5etween any two different points on a sphere which are not directly opposite each other,
there is a uni(ue great circle. The two points separate the great circle into two arcs. The
length of the shorter arc is the great-circle distance between the points. A great circle
endowed with such a distance is the Riemannian circle.
5etween two points which are directly opposite each other, called a'tipodal poi'ts, there
are infinitely many great circles, but all great circle arcs between antipodal points have
the same length, i.e. half the circumference of the circle, or [), where ) is the radius of
the sphere.
5ecause the .arth is appro&imately spherical #see .arth radius$, the e(uations for great-
circle distance are important for finding the shortest distance between points on the
surface of the .arth #as the c)o1 flies$, and so have important applications in navigation.
For*u"ae
?et be the geographical latitude and longitude of two points #a base FstandpointF and the
destination FforepointF$, respectively, and their differences and the #spherical$ angular
difference=distance, or central angle, which can be constituted from the spherical law of
cosines0
A useful way to remember this formula is cos#central angle$@ cos#longitude difference
ST% $ , where ST% could be ta)en to mean 7-nly the cos terms in longitude angle
difference cosine e&pansion to be multiplied with cos#latitude difference$7.
The central angle is alternately e&pressed in terms of latitude and longitude differences
dlat,dlong, using only cosines, as0 arcco%7 co%7d"at8 - co%7"at<8>co%7"at28>7< - co%7d"ong8
8 '
The distance d, i.e. the arc length, for a sphere of radius ) and given in radians, is then0
This arccosine formula above can have large rounding errors for the common case where
the distance is small, however, so it is not normally used for manual calculations. Instead,
an e(uation )nown historically as the haversine formula was preferred, which is much
more numerically stable for small distances0
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!istorically, the use of this formula was simplified by the availability of tables for the
haversine function0 hav#2$ @ sin
3
#2=3$.
Although this formula is accurate for most distances, it too suffers from rounding errors
for the special #and somewhat unusual$ case of antipodal points #on opposite ends of the
sphere$. A more complicated formula that is accurate for all distances is the following
special case #a sphere, which is an ellipsoid with e(ual ma8or and minor a&es$ of the
Wincenty formula #which more generally is a method to compute distances on ellipsoids$0
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2hen programming a computer, one should use the atan2() function rather than the
ordinary arctangent function #atan()$, in order to simplify handling of the case where the
denominator is "ero, and to compute unambiguously in all (uadrants.
2hen using a spreadsheet program such as .&cel the arccosine formula is suitable since
it is simpler and rounding errors disappears with high precision used.
If ) is the great-circle radius of the sphere, then the great-circle distance is .
)ector version
Another representation of similar formulas, but using using ' -vector instead of
latitude=longitude to describe the positions, is0
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where and are the '-vectors representing the two positions s and f. /imilarly to the
e(uations above based on latitude and longitude, the e&pression based on arctan is the
only one that is well-conditioned for all angles. If the two positions are originally given
as latitudes and longitudes, a conversion to '-vectors must first be performed.
'rom chord len"th
A line through three-dimensional space between points of interest on a spherical .arth is
the chord of the great circle between the points. The central angle between the two points
can be determined from the chord length. The great circle distance is proportional to the
central angle.
The great circle chord length may be calculated as follows for the corresponding unit
sphere, by means of Sartesian subtraction
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0
Spherical cosine for sides derivation
5y using Sartesian products rather than differences, the origin of the spherical cosine for
sides becomes apparent0
? Radiu% ,or %p+erica" Eart+
The shape of the .arth closely resembles a flattened sphere #a spheroid$ with e(uatorial
radius a of ;,:9C.1:9 )mG distance b from the center of the spheroid to each pole is
;:<;.9<3 )m. 2hen calculating the length of a short north-south line at the e(uator, the
sphere that best appro&imates that part of the spheroid has a radius of b
3
= a, or
;,::<.*:T )m, while the spheroid at the poles is best appro&imated by a sphere of radius
a
3
= b, or ;,:TT.<T* )m, a 1R difference. /o as long as we7re assuming a spherical .arth,
any single formula for distance on the .arth is only guaranteed correct within >.<R
#though we can do better if our formula is only intended to apply to a limited area$. The
average radius for a spherical appro&imation of the figure of the .arth is appro&imately
;:91.>1 )m #:T<C.9; statute miles, :**>.>9 nautical miles$.
?-/ 2ireless Transmission Impairments
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
,oise
Atmospheric absorption
%ultipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Atmospheric absorption \ water vapor and o&ygen contribute
to attenuation
%ultipath \ obstacles reflect signals so that multiple copies
with varying delays are received
Refraction \ bending of radio waves as they propagate
through the atmosphere
%ultipath 4ropagation
Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a surface that is
large relative to the wavelength of the signal
Eiffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that
is large compared to wavelength of radio wave
/cattering \ occurs when incoming signal hits an ob8ect
whose si"e in the order of the wavelength of the signal or less
The .ffects of %ultipath 4ropagation
%ultiple copies of a signal may arrive at different phases
If phases add destructively, the signal level relative to
noise declines, ma)ing detection more difficult
Intersymbol interference #I/I$
-ne or more delayed copies of a pulse may arrive at the
same time as the primary pulse for a subse(uent bit
Types of Fading
Fast fading
/low fading
Flat fading
/elective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
.rror Sompensation %echanisms
Forward error correction
Adaptive e(uali"ation
Eiversity techni(ues