Electrical Power Systems Quality

Electrical Power Systems Quality, Second Edition
CHAPTER 1: INTRO!CTION
"#at is Power Quality$
Power Quality %% &olta'e Quality
"#y Are "e Concerned A(out Power Quality$
T#e Power Quality E)aluation Procedure
"#o S#ould !se T#is *oo+
O)er)iew o, t#e Contents
CHAPTER -: TER.S AN E/INITIONS
Need ,or a Consistent &oca(ulary
0eneral Classes o, Power Quality Pro(lems
Transients
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations
S#ort%uration &olta'e &ariations
&olta'e Im(alance
"a)e,orm istortion
&olta'e /luctuation
Power /re2uency &ariations
Power Quality Terms
Am(i'uous Terms
C*E.A and ITI Cur)es
Re,erences
CHAPTER 3: &O1TA0E SA0S AN INTERR!PTIONS
Sources o, Sa's and Interru4tions
Estimatin' &olta'e Sa' Per,ormance
/undamental Princi4les o, Protection
Solutions at t#e End%!ser 1e)el
E)aluatin' t#e Economics o, i,,erent Ride%T#rou'# Alternati)es
.otor%Startin' Sa's
!tility System /ault%Clearin' Issues
Re,erences
CHAPTER 5: TRANSIENT O&ER&O1TA0ES
Sources o, Transient O)er)olta'es
Princi4les o, O)er)olta'e Protection
e)ices ,or O)er)olta'e Protection
!tility Ca4acitor%Switc#in' Transients
!tility System 1i'#tnin' Protection
.ana'in' /erroresonance
Switc#in' Transient Pro(lems wit# 1oads
Com4uter Tools ,or Transients Analysis
Re,erences
CHAPTER 6: /!NA.ENTA1S O/ HAR.ONICS
Harmonic istortion
&olta'e )ersus Current istortion
Harmonics )ersus Transients
Harmonic Inde7es
Harmonic Sources ,rom Commercial 1oads
Harmonic Sources ,rom Industrial 1oads
1ocatin' Harmonic Sources
System Res4onse C#aracteristics
E,,ects o, Harmonic istortion
Inter#armonics
Re,erences
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER 8: APP1IE HAR.ONICS
Harmonic istortion E)aluations
Princi4les ,or Controllin' Harmonics
"#ere to Control Harmonics
Harmonic Studies
e)ices ,or Controllin' Harmonic istortion
Harmonic /ilter esi'n: A Case Study
Case Studies
Standards o, Harmonics
Re,erences
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER 9: 1ON0%!RATION &O1TA0E &ARIATIONS
Princi4les o, Re'ulatin' t#e &olta'e
e)ices ,or &olta'e Re'ulation
!tility &olta'e Re'ulator A44lication
Ca4acitors ,or &olta'e Re'ulation
End%!ser Ca4acitor A44lication
Re'ulatin' !tility &olta'e wit# istri(uted Resources
/lic+er
Re,erences
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER :: PO"ER Q!A1IT; *ENCH.AR<IN0
Introduction
*enc#mar+in' Process
R.S &olta'e &ariation Indices
Harmonics Indices
Power Quality Contracts
Power Quality Insurance
Power Quality State Estimation
Includin' Power Quality in istri(ution Plannin'
Re,erences
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER =: ISTRI*!TE 0ENERATION AN PO"ER Q!A1IT;
Resur'ence o, 0
0 Tec#nolo'ies
Inter,ace to t#e !tility System
Power Quality Issues
O4eratin' Con,licts
0 on istri(ution Networ+s
Sitin' 0istri(uted 0eneration
Interconnection Standards
Summary
Re,erences
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER 1>: "IRIN0 AN 0RO!NIN0
Resources
e,initions
Reasons ,or 0roundin'
Ty4ical "irin' and 0roundin' Pro(lems
Solutions to "irin' and 0roundin' Pro(lems
*i(lio'ra4#y
CHAPTER 11: PO"ER Q!A1IT; .ONITORIN0
.onitorin' Considerations
Historical Pers4ecti)e o, Power Quality .easurin' Instruments
Power Quality .easurement E2ui4ment
Assessment o, Power Quality .easurement ata
A44lication o, Intelli'ent Systems
Power Quality .onitorin' Standards
Re,erences
Inde7
1
Introduction
*ot# electric utilities and end users o, electric 4ower are (ecomin'
increasin'ly concerned a(out t#e 2uality o, electric 4ower? T#e term
4ower 2uality#as (ecome one o, t#e most 4roli,ic (u@@words in t#e
4ower industry since t#e late 1=:>s? It is an um(rella conce4t ,or a multitude o,
indi)idual ty4es o, 4ower system distur(ances? T#e issues
t#at ,all under t#is um(rella are not necessarily new? "#at is new is
t#at en'ineers are now attem4tin' to deal wit# t#ese issues usin' a
system a44roac# rat#er t#an #andlin' t#em as indi)idual 4ro(lems?
T#ere are ,our maAor reasons ,or t#e increased concern:
1? Newer%'eneration load e2ui4ment, wit# micro4rocessor%(ased controls and 4ower
electronic de)ices, is more sensiti)e to 4ower 2uality )ariations t#an was e2ui4ment used
in t#e 4ast?
-? T#e increasin' em4#asis on o)erall 4ower system e,,iciency #as
resulted in continued 'rowt# in t#e a44lication o, de)ices suc# as
#i'#%e,,iciency, adAusta(le%s4eed motor dri)es and s#unt ca4acitors
,or 4ower ,actor correction to reduce losses? T#is is resultin' in
increasin' #armonic le)els on 4ower systems and #as many 4eo4le
concerned a(out t#e ,uture im4act on system ca4a(ilities?
3? End users #a)e an increased awareness o, 4ower 2uality issues?
!tility customers are (ecomin' (etter in,ormed a(out suc# issues as
interru4tions, sa's, and switc#in' transients and are c#allen'in'
t#e utilities to im4ro)e t#e 2uality o, 4ower deli)ered?
5? .any t#in's are now interconnected in a networ+? Inte'rated
4rocesses mean t#at t#e ,ailure o, any com4onent #as muc# more
im4ortant conse2uences?
C#a4ter
1
Source: Electrical Power Systems Quality
ownloaded ,rom i'ital En'ineerin' 1i(rary B .c0raw%Hill
Cwww?di'italen'ineerin'li(rary?comD
Co4yri'#t E ->>5 T#e .c0raw%Hill Com4anies? All ri'#ts reser)ed?
Any use is su(Aect to t#e Terms o, !se as 'i)en at t#e we(site?
T#e common t#read runnin' t#ou'# all t#ese reasons ,or increased
concern a(out t#e 2uality o, electric 4ower is t#e continued 4us# ,or
increasin' 4roducti)ity ,or all utility customers? .anu,acturers want
,aster, more 4roducti)e, more e,,icient mac#inery? !tilities encoura'e
t#is e,,ort (ecause it #el4s t#eir customers (ecome more 4ro,ita(le and
also #el4s de,er lar'e in)estments in su(stations and 'eneration (y
usin' more e,,icient load e2ui4ment? Interestin'ly, t#e e2ui4ment
installed to increase t#e 4roducti)ity is also o,ten t#e e2ui4ment t#at
su,,ers t#e most ,rom common 4ower disru4tions? And t#e e2ui4ment
is sometimes t#e source o, additional 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems? "#en
entire 4rocesses are automated, t#e e,,icient o4eration o, mac#ines and
t#eir controls (ecomes increasin'ly de4endent on 2uality 4ower?
Since t#e ,irst edition o, t#is (oo+ was 4u(lis#ed, t#ere #a)e (een
some de)elo4ments t#at #a)e #ad an im4act on 4ower 2uality:
1? T#rou'#out t#e world, many 'o)ernments #a)e re)ised t#eir laws
re'ulatin' electric utilities wit# t#e intent o, ac#ie)in' more cost%com4etiti)e sources o,
electric ener'y? ere'ulation o, utilities #as com4licated t#e 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem? In
many 'eo'ra4#ic areas t#ere is no
lon'er ti'#tly coordinated control o, t#e 4ower ,rom 'eneration
t#rou'# end%use load? "#ile re'ulatory a'encies can c#an'e t#e laws
re'ardin' t#e ,low o, money, t#e 4#ysical laws o, 4ower ,low cannot (e
altered? In order to a)oid deterioration o, t#e 2uality o, 4ower su44lied
to customers, re'ulators are 'oin' to #a)e to e74and t#eir t#in+in'
(eyond traditional relia(ility indices and address t#e need ,or 4ower
2uality re4ortin' and incenti)es ,or t#e transmission and distri(ution
com4anies?
-? T#ere #as (een a su(stantial increase o, interest in distri(uted
'eneration C0D, t#at is, 'eneration o, 4ower dis4ersed t#rou'#out t#e
4ower system? T#ere are a num(er o, im4ortant 4ower 2uality issues
t#at must (e addressed as 4art o, t#e o)erall interconnection e)aluation ,or 0?
T#ere,ore, we #a)e added a c#a4ter on 0?
3? T#e 'lo(ali@ation o, industry #as #ei'#tened awareness o, de,iciencies in 4ower
2uality around t#e world? Com4anies (uildin' ,actories in new areas are suddenly ,aced
wit# unantici4ated 4ro(lems wit#
t#e electricity su44ly due to wea+er systems or a di,,erent climate?
T#ere #a)e (een se)eral e,,orts to (enc#mar+ 4ower 2uality in one 4art
o, t#e world a'ainst ot#er areas?
5? Indices #a)e (een de)elo4ed to #el4 (enc#mar+ t#e )arious
as4ects o, 4ower 2uality? Re'ulatory a'encies #a)e (ecome in)ol)ed in
4er,ormance%(ased rate%ma+in' CP*RD, w#ic# addresses a 4articular
as4ect, relia(ility, w#ic# is associated wit# interru4tions? Some customers #a)e
esta(lis#ed contracts wit# utilities ,or meetin' a certain
2uality o, 4ower deli)ery? "e #a)e added a new c#a4ter on t#is su(Aect?
- C#a4ter One
Introduction
1?1 "#at Is Power Quality$
T#ere can (e com4letely di,,erent de,initions ,or 4ower 2uality, de4endin' on oneFs
,rame o, re,erence? /or e7am4le, a utility may de,ine 4ower
2uality as relia(ility and s#ow statistics demonstratin' t#at its system
is ==?=: 4ercent relia(le? Criteria esta(lis#ed (y re'ulatory a'encies
are usually in t#is )ein? A manu,acturer o, load e2ui4ment may de,ine
4ower 2uality as t#ose c#aracteristics o, t#e 4ower su44ly t#at ena(le
t#e e2ui4ment to wor+ 4ro4erly? T#ese c#aracteristics can (e )ery di,,erent ,or di,,erent
criteria?
Power 2uality is ultimately a consumer%dri)en issue, and t#e end
userFs 4oint o, re,erence ta+es 4recedence? T#ere,ore, t#e ,ollowin' de,inition o, a 4ower
2uality 4ro(lem is used in t#is (oo+:
Any 4ower 4ro(lem mani,ested in )olta'e, current, or ,re2uency de)iations t#at results in
,ailure or miso4eration o, customer e2ui4ment?
T#ere are many misunderstandin's re'ardin' t#e causes o, 4ower
2uality 4ro(lems? T#e c#arts in /i'? 1?1 s#ow t#e results o, one sur)ey
conducted (y t#e 0eor'ia Power Com4any in w#ic# (ot# utility 4ersonnel and customers
were 4olled a(out w#at causes 4ower 2uality
4ro(lems? "#ile sur)eys o, ot#er mar+et sectors mi'#t indicate di,,erent s4lits (etween
t#e cate'ories, t#ese c#arts clearly illustrate one
common t#eme t#at arises re4eatedly in suc# sur)eys: T#e utilityFs and
customerFs 4ers4ecti)es are o,ten muc# di,,erent? "#ile (ot# tend to
(lame a(out two%t#irds o, t#e e)ents on natural 4#enomena Ce?'?, li'#tnin'D, customers,
muc# more ,re2uently t#an utility 4ersonnel, t#in+
t#at t#e utility is at ,ault?
"#en t#ere is a 4ower 4ro(lem wit# a 4iece o, e2ui4ment, end users
may (e 2uic+ to com4lain to t#e utility o, an Gouta'eH or G'litc#H t#at #as
caused t#e 4ro(lem? Howe)er, t#e utility records may indicate no a(normal e)ents on t#e
,eed to t#e customer? "e recently in)esti'ated a case
w#ere t#e end%use e2ui4ment was +noc+ed o,, line 3> times in = mont#s,
(ut t#ere were only ,i)e o4erations on t#e utility su(station (rea+er? It
must (e reali@ed t#at t#ere are many e)ents resultin' in end%user 4ro(lems t#at ne)er
s#ow u4 in t#e utility statistics? One e7am4le is ca4acitor switc#in', w#ic# is 2uite
common and normal on t#e utility system,
(ut can cause transient o)er)olta'es t#at disru4t manu,acturin'
mac#inery? Anot#er e7am4le is a momentary ,ault elsew#ere in t#e system t#at causes t#e
)olta'e to sa' (rie,ly at t#e location o, t#e customer
in 2uestion? T#is mi'#t cause an adAusta(le%s4eed dri)e or a distri(uted
'enerator to tri4 o,,, (ut t#e utility will #a)e no indication t#at anyt#in'
was amiss on t#e ,eeder unless it #as a 4ower 2uality monitor installed?
In addition to real 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems, t#ere are also 4ercei)ed
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems t#at may actually (e related to #ardware, so,tIntroduction 3
Introduction
ware, or control system mal,unctions? Electronic com4onents can
de'rade o)er time due to re4eated transient )olta'es and e)entually
,ail due to a relati)ely low ma'nitude e)ent? T#us, it is sometimes di,,icult to associate a
,ailure wit# a s4eci,ic cause? It is (ecomin' more
common t#at desi'ners o, control so,tware ,or micro4rocessor%(ased
e2ui4ment #a)e an incom4lete +nowled'e o, #ow 4ower systems o4erate and do not
antici4ate all ty4es o, mal,unction e)ents? T#us, a de)ice
can mis(e#a)e (ecause o, a de,iciency in t#e em(edded so,tware? T#is
is 4articularly common wit# early )ersions o, new com4uter%controlled
5 C#a4ter One
Ot#er
3I
Ot#er
>I
!tility
19I
!tility Perce4tion
Customer Perce4tion
!tility
1I
Natural
8>I
Natural
88I
Nei'#(or
:I
Nei'#(or
:I
Customer
1-I
Customer
-6I
/i'ure 1?1 Results o, a sur)ey on t#e causes o, 4ower 2uality
4ro(lems? CCourtesy o, 0eor'ia Power Co?D
Introduction
load e2ui4ment? One o, t#e main o(Aecti)es o, t#is (oo+ is to educate
utilities, end users, and e2ui4ment su44liers ali+e to reduce t#e ,re2uency o, mal,unctions
caused (y so,tware de,iciencies?
In res4onse to t#is 'rowin' concern ,or 4ower 2uality, electric utilities
#a)e 4ro'rams t#at #el4 t#em res4ond to customer concerns? T#e 4#iloso4#y o, t#ese
4ro'rams ran'es ,rom reacti)e, w#ere t#e utility
res4onds to customer com4laints, to 4roacti)e, w#ere t#e utility is
in)ol)ed in educatin' t#e customer and 4romotin' ser)ices t#at can
#el4 de)elo4 solutions to 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems? T#e re'ulatory issues
,acin' utilities may 4lay an im4ortant role in #ow t#eir 4ro'rams are
structured? Since 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems o,ten in)ol)e interactions
(etween t#e su44ly system and t#e customer ,acility and e2ui4ment,
re'ulators s#ould ma+e sure t#at distri(ution com4anies #a)e incenti)es to wor+ wit#
customers and #el4 customers sol)e t#ese 4ro(lems?
T#e economics in)ol)ed in sol)in' a 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem must also
(e included in t#e analysis? It is not always economical to eliminate
4ower 2uality )ariations on t#e su44ly side? In many cases, t#e o4timal
solution to a 4ro(lem may in)ol)e ma+in' a 4articular 4iece o, sensiti)e e2ui4ment less
sensiti)e to 4ower 2uality )ariations? T#e le)el o,
4ower 2uality re2uired is t#at le)el w#ic# will result in 4ro4er o4eration o, t#e e2ui4ment
at a 4articular ,acility?
Power 2uality, li+e 2uality in ot#er 'oods and ser)ices, is di,,icult to
2uanti,y? T#ere is no sin'le acce4ted de,inition o, 2uality 4ower? T#ere
are standards ,or )olta'e and ot#er tec#nical criteria t#at may (e measured, (ut t#e
ultimate measure o, 4ower 2uality is determined (y t#e
4er,ormance and 4roducti)ity o, end%user e2ui4ment? I, t#e electric
4ower is inade2uate ,or t#ose needs, t#en t#e G2ualityH is lac+in'?
Per#a4s not#in' #as (een more sym(olic o, a mismatc# in t#e 4ower
deli)ery system and consumer tec#nolo'y t#an t#e G(lin+in' cloc+H
4#enomenon? Cloc+ desi'ners created t#e (lin+in' dis4lay o, a di'ital
cloc+ to warn o, 4ossi(le incorrect time a,ter loss o, 4ower and inad)ertently created one
o, t#e ,irst 4ower 2uality monitors? It #as made
t#e #omeowner aware t#at t#ere are numerous minor distur(ances
occurrin' t#rou'#out t#e 4ower deli)ery system t#at may #a)e no ill
e,,ects ot#er t#an to (e detected (y a cloc+? .any a44liances now #a)e
a (uilt%in cloc+, so t#e a)era'e #ouse#old may #a)e a(out a do@en
cloc+s t#at must (e reset w#en t#ere is a (rie, interru4tion? Older%tec#nolo'y motor%
dri)en cloc+s would sim4ly lose a ,ew seconds durin'
minor distur(ances and t#en 4rom4tly come (ac+ into sync#ronism?
1?- Power Quality &olta'e Quality
T#e common term ,or descri(in' t#e su(Aect o, t#is (oo+ is 4ower2ualityJ #owe)er, it is
actually t#e 2uality o, t#e )olta'e t#at is (ein'
Introduction 6
Introduction
addressed in most cases? Tec#nically, in en'ineerin' terms, 4ower is
t#e rate o, ener'y deli)ery and is 4ro4ortional to t#e 4roduct o, t#e )olta'e and current? It
would (e di,,icult to de,ine t#e 2uality o, t#is 2uantity in any meanin',ul manner? T#e
4ower su44ly system can only
control t#e 2uality o, t#e )olta'eJ it #as no control o)er t#e currents
t#at 4articular loads mi'#t draw? T#ere,ore, t#e standards in t#e
4ower 2uality area are de)oted to maintainin' t#e su44ly )olta'e
wit#in certain limits?
AC 4ower systems are desi'ned to o4erate at a sinusoidal )olta'e o,
a 'i)en ,re2uency Kty4ically 6> or 8> #ert@ CH@DL and ma'nitude? Any
si'ni,icant de)iation in t#e wa)e,orm ma'nitude, ,re2uency, or 4urity
is a 4otential 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem?
O, course, t#ere is always a close relations#i4 (etween )olta'e and
current in any 4ractical 4ower system? Alt#ou'# t#e 'enerators may
4ro)ide a near%4er,ect sine%wa)e )olta'e, t#e current 4assin' t#rou'#
t#e im4edance o, t#e system can cause a )ariety o, distur(ances to t#e
)olta'e? /or e7am4le,
1? T#e current resultin' ,rom a s#ort circuit causes t#e )olta'e to sa'
or disa44ear com4letely, as t#e case may (e?
-? Currents ,rom li'#tnin' stro+es 4assin' t#rou'# t#e 4ower system
cause #i'#%im4ulse )olta'es t#at ,re2uently ,las# o)er insulation
and lead to ot#er 4#enomena, suc# as s#ort circuits?
3? istorted currents ,rom #armonic%4roducin' loads also distort t#e
)olta'e as t#ey 4ass t#rou'# t#e system im4edance? T#us a distorted )olta'e is 4resented
to ot#er end users?
T#ere,ore, w#ile it is t#e )olta'e wit# w#ic# we are ultimately concerned, we must also
address 4#enomena in t#e current to understand
t#e (asis o, many 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
1?3 "#y Are "e Concerned a(out Power
Quality$
T#e ultimate reason t#at we are interested in 4ower 2uality is economic )alue? T#ere are
economic im4acts on utilities, t#eir customers,
and su44liers o, load e2ui4ment?
T#e 2uality o, 4ower can #a)e a direct economic im4act on many
industrial consumers? T#ere #as recently (een a 'reat em4#asis on
re)itali@in' industry wit# more automation and more modern e2ui4ment? T#is usually
means electronically controlled, ener'y%e,,icient
e2ui4ment t#at is o,ten muc# more sensiti)e to de)iations in t#e su44ly )olta'e t#an were
its electromec#anical 4redecessors? T#us, li+e
t#e (lin+in' cloc+ in residences, industrial customers are now more
8 C#a4ter One
Introduction
acutely aware o, minor distur(ances in t#e 4ower system? T#ere is (i'
money associated wit# t#ese distur(ances? It is not uncommon ,or a
sin'le, common4lace, momentary utility (rea+er o4eration to result in
a M1>,>>> loss to an a)era'e%si@ed industrial concern (y s#uttin' down
a 4roduction line t#at re2uires 5 #ours to restart? In t#e semiconductor
manu,acturin' industry, t#e economic im4acts associated wit# e2ui4ment sensiti)ity to
momentary )olta'e sa's resulted in t#e de)elo4ment o, a w#ole new standard ,or
e2ui4ment ride%t#rou'# CSE.I
Standard /%59, S4eci,ication ,or Semiconductor Process E2ui4ment
&olta'e Sa' ImmunityD?
T#e electric utility is concerned a(out 4ower 2uality issues as well?
.eetin' customer e74ectations and maintainin' customer con,idence
are stron' moti)ators? "it# todayFs mo)ement toward dere'ulation
and com4etition (etween utilities, t#ey are more im4ortant t#an e)er?
T#e loss o, a dis'runtled customer to a com4etin' 4ower su44lier can
#a)e a )ery si'ni,icant im4act ,inancially on a utility?
*esides t#e o()ious ,inancial im4acts on (ot# utilities and industrial
customers, t#ere are numerous indirect and intan'i(le costs associated
wit# 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems? Residential customers ty4ically do not
su,,er direct ,inancial loss or t#e ina(ility to earn income as a result o,
most 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems, (ut t#ey can (e a 4otent ,orce w#en t#ey
4ercei)e t#at t#e utility is 4ro)idin' 4oor ser)ice? Home com4uter
usa'e #as increased considera(ly in t#e last ,ew years and more transactions are (ein'
done o)er t#e Internet? !sers (ecome more sensiti)e
to interru4tions w#en t#ey are reliant on t#is tec#nolo'y? T#e s#eer
num(er o, com4laints re2uire utilities to 4ro)ide sta,,in' to #andle
t#em? Also, 4u(lic interest 'rou4s ,re2uently inter)ene wit# 4u(lic ser)ice commissions,
re2uirin' t#e utilities to e74end ,inancial resources
on lawyers, consultants, studies, and t#e li+e to counter t#e inter)ention? "#ile all t#is is
certainly not t#e result o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems,
a re4utation ,or 4ro)idin' 4oor 2uality ser)ice does not #el4 matters?
1oad e2ui4ment su44liers 'enerally ,ind t#emsel)es in a )ery com4etiti)e mar+et wit#
most customers (uyin' on lowest cost? T#us, t#ere
is a 'eneral disincenti)e to add ,eatures to t#e e2ui4ment to wit#stand
common distur(ances unless t#e customer s4eci,ies ot#erwise? .any
manu,acturers are also unaware o, t#e ty4es o, distur(ances t#at can
occur on 4ower systems? T#e 4rimary res4onsi(ility ,or correctin' inade2uacies in load
e2ui4ment ultimately lies wit# t#e end user w#o must
4urc#ase and o4erate it? S4eci,ications must include 4ower 4er,ormance criteria? Since
many end users are also unaware o, t#e 4it,alls,
one use,ul ser)ice t#at utilities can 4ro)ide is dissemination o, in,ormation on 4ower
2uality and t#e re2uirements o, load e2ui4ment to
4ro4erly o4erate in t#e real world? /or instance, t#e SE.I /%59 standard 4re)iously
re,erenced was de)elo4ed t#rou'# Aoint tas+ ,orces
Introduction 9
Introduction
consistin' o, semiconductor industry and utility en'ineers wor+in'
to'et#er?
1?5 T#e Power Quality E)aluation
Procedure
Power 2uality 4ro(lems encom4ass a wide ran'e o, di,,erent 4#enomena, as descri(ed in
C#a4? -? Eac# o, t#ese 4#enomena may #a)e a
)ariety o, di,,erent causes and di,,erent solutions t#at can (e used to
im4ro)e t#e 4ower 2uality and e2ui4ment 4er,ormance? Howe)er, it is
use,ul to loo+ at t#e 'eneral ste4s t#at are associated wit# in)esti'atin' many o, t#ese
4ro(lems, es4ecially i, t#e ste4s can in)ol)e interaction (etween t#e utility su44ly system
and t#e customer ,acility? /i'ure
1?- 'i)es some 'eneral ste4s t#at are o,ten re2uired in a 4ower 2uality
in)esti'ation, alon' wit# t#e maAor considerations t#at must (e
addressed at eac# ste4?
T#e 'eneral 4rocedure must also consider w#et#er t#e e)aluation
in)ol)es an e7istin' 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem or one t#at could result ,rom
a new desi'n or ,rom 4ro4osed c#an'es to t#e system? .easurements
: C#a4ter One
IENTI/; PRO*1E.
CATE0OR;
PRO*1E.
CHARACTERINATION
IENTI/; RAN0E
O/ SO1!TIONS
E&A1!ATE
SO1!TIONS
&olta'e
Re'ulationO
!n(alance
/lic+er Transients
&olta'e Sa'sO
Interru4tions
Harmonic
istortion
OPTI.!.
SO1!TION
.easurementsO
ata Collection
Causes
C#aracteristics
E2ui4ment Im4acts
!tility
Transmission
System
End%!se
Customer
Inter,ace
End%!se
Customer
System
!tility
istri(ution
System
E2ui4ment
esi'nO
S4eci,ications
.odelin'O
Analysis
Procedures
E)aluate Tec#nical
Alternati)es
E)aluate Economics o, Possi(le Solutions
PO"ER Q!A1IT; PRO*1E. E&A1!ATIONS
/i'ure 1?- *asic ste4s in)ol)ed in a 4ower 2uality e)aluation?
Introduction
will 4lay an im4ortant role ,or almost any 4ower 2uality concern? T#is
is t#e 4rimary met#od o, c#aracteri@in' t#e 4ro(lem or t#e e7istin' system t#at is (ein'
e)aluated? "#en 4er,ormin' t#e measurements, it is
im4ortant to record im4acts o, t#e 4ower 2uality )ariations at t#e same
time so t#at 4ro(lems can (e correlated wit# 4ossi(le causes?
Solutions need to (e e)aluated usin' a system 4ers4ecti)e, and (ot#
t#e economics and t#e tec#nical limitations must (e considered?
Possi(le solutions are identi,ied at all le)els o, t#e system ,rom utility
su44ly to t#e end%use e2ui4ment (ein' a,,ected? Solutions t#at are not
tec#nically )ia(le 'et t#rown out, and t#e rest o, t#e alternati)es are
com4ared on an economic (asis? T#e o4timum solution will de4end on
t#e ty4e o, 4ro(lem, t#e num(er o, end users (ein' im4acted, and t#e
4ossi(le solutions?
T#e o)erall 4rocedure is introduced #ere to 4ro)ide a ,ramewor+ ,or
t#e more detailed tec#nical in,ormation and 4rocedures t#at are
descri(ed in eac# c#a4ter o, t#is (oo+? T#e relati)e role o, simulations
and measurements ,or e)aluatin' 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems is descri(ed
se4arately ,or eac# ty4e o, 4ower 2uality 4#enomenon? T#e a)aila(le
solutions and t#e economics o, t#ese solutions are also addressed in t#e
indi)idual c#a4ters?
1?6 "#o S#ould !se T#is *oo+
Power 2uality issues ,re2uently cross t#e ener'y meter (oundary
(etween t#e utility and t#e end user? T#ere,ore, t#is (oo+ addresses
issues o, interest to (ot# utility en'ineers and industrial en'ineers and
tec#nicians? E)ery attem4t #as (een made to 4ro)ide a (alanced
a44roac# to t#e 4resentation o, t#e 4ro(lems and solutions?
T#e (oo+ s#ould also (e o, interest to desi'ners o, manu,acturin'
e2ui4ment, com4uters, a44liances, and ot#er load e2ui4ment? It will
#el4 desi'ners learn a(out t#e en)ironment in w#ic# t#eir e2ui4ment
must o4erate and t#e 4eculiar di,,iculties t#eir customers mi'#t #a)e
w#en tryin' to o4erate t#eir e2ui4ment? Ho4e,ully, t#is (oo+ will ser)e
as common 'round on w#ic# t#ese t#ree entitiesPutility, customer,
and e2ui4ment su44lierPcan meet to resol)e 4ro(lems?
T#is (oo+ is intended to ser)e (ot# as a re,erence (oo+ and a te7t(oo+
,or utility distri(ution en'ineers and +ey tec#nical 4ersonnel wit# industrial end users?
Parts o, t#e (oo+ are tutorial in nature ,or t#e newcomer
to 4ower 2uality and 4ower systems, w#ile ot#er 4arts are )ery tec#nical, intended strictly
as re,erence ,or t#e e74erienced 4ractitioner?
1?8 O)er)iew o, t#e Contents
T#e c#a4ters o, t#e (oo+ are or'ani@ed as ,ollows:
Introduction =
Introduction
C#a4ter - 4ro)ides (ac+'round material on t#e di,,erent ty4es o,
4ower 2uality 4#enomena and descri(es standard terms and de,initions ,or 4ower 2uality
4#enomena?
C#a4ters 3 t#rou'# 9 are t#e #eart o, t#e (oo+, descri(in' ,our maAor
classes o, 4ower 2uality )ariations in detail: sa's and interru4tions,
transients, #armonics, and lon'%duration )olta'e )ariations? T#e material on #armonics
#as (een e74anded ,rom t#e ,irst edition and s4lit
into two c#a4ters? C#a4ter 6 descri(es t#e (asic #armonic 4#enomena,
w#ile C#a4? 8 concentrates on met#ods ,or dealin' wit# #armonic distortion?
C#a4ters : and = are new wit# t#is edition? C#a4ter : descri(es tec#ni2ues ,or
(enc#mar+in' 4ower 2uality and #ow to a44ly 4ower 2uality
standards? Im4ortant standards dealin' wit# 4ower 2uality issues, 4rimarily de)elo4ed (y
t#e International Electrotec#nical Commission
CIECD and t#e Institute ,or Electrical and Electronics En'ineers CIEEED,
are descri(ed and re,erenced in t#e c#a4ters w#ere t#ey are a44lica(le?
C#a4ter : 4ro)ides an o)er)iew o, t#e o)erall 4ower 2uality standards
structure w#ere t#ese standards are #eaded? C#a4ter = addresses t#e
su(Aect o, distri(uted 'eneration C0D interconnected to t#e distri(ution
system? T#ere #as (een renewed interest in 0 since t#e ,irst edition
o, t#is (oo+ was 4u(lis#ed due to c#an'in' utility re'ulatory rules and
new tec#nolo'ies? T#is c#a4ter discusses t#e relations#i4 (etween 0
and 4ower 2uality?
C#a4ter 1> 4ro)ides a concise summary o, +ey wirin' and 'roundin'
4ro(lems and 'i)es some 'eneral 'uidance on identi,yin' and correctin' t#em? .any
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems e74erienced (y end users are
t#e result o, inade2uate wirin' or incorrect installations? Howe)er, t#e
em4#asis o, t#is (oo+ is on 4ower 2uality 4#enomena t#at can (e
addressed analytically and a,,ect (ot# sides o, t#e meter? T#is c#a4ter
is included to 'i)e 4ower 2uality en'ineers a (asic understandin' o, t#e
4rinci4les wit# res4ect to 4ower 2uality issues?
/inally, C#a4? 11 4ro)ides a 'uide ,or site sur)eys and 4ower 2uality
monitorin'? T#ere #a)e (een maAor ad)ances in 4ower 2uality monitorin' tec#nolo'y in
recent years? T#e trend now is toward 4ermanent
monitorin' o, 4ower 2uality wit# continuous "e(%(ased access to in,ormation? C#a4ter
11 #as (een com4letely u4dated to address t#e new
monitorin' tec#nolo'ies?
1> C#a4ter One
Introduction
11
Terms and e,initions
-?1 Need ,or a Consistent &oca(ulary
T#e term 4ower 2ualityis a44lied to a wide )ariety o, electroma'netic
4#enomena on t#e 4ower system? T#e increasin' a44lication o, electronic e2ui4ment and
distri(uted 'eneration #as #ei'#tened t#e interest in 4ower 2uality in recent years, and
t#is #as (een accom4anied (y
t#e de)elo4ment o, a s4ecial terminolo'y to descri(e t#e 4#enomena?
!n,ortunately, t#is terminolo'y #as not (een consistent across di,,erent se'ments o, t#e
industry? T#is #as caused a considera(le amount o,
con,usion as (ot# )endors and end users #a)e stru''led to understand
w#y electrical e2ui4ment is not wor+in' as e74ected? 1i+ewise, it is
con,usin' to wade t#rou'# t#e )endor Aar'on and di,,erentiate (etween
a myriad o, 4ro4osed solutions?
.any am(i'uous words #a)e (een used t#at #a)e multi4le or
unclear meanin's? /or e7am4le, sur'eis used to descri(e a wide )ariety o, distur(ances
t#at cause e2ui4ment ,ailures or miso4eration? A
sur'e su44ressorcan su44ress some o, t#ese (ut will #a)e a(solutely
no e,,ect on ot#ers? Terms li+e 'litc#and(lin+t#at #a)e no tec#nical
meanin' at all #a)e cre4t into t#e )oca(ulary? !nscru4ulous mar+eters
ta+e ad)anta'e o, t#e i'norance o, t#e 'eneral 4u(lic, sellin' o)er4riced 'ad'ets wit#
near%miraculous claims ,or im4ro)in' t#e 4ower
2uality? O, course, t#is all comes wit# a money%(ac+ 'uarantee?
Readers can 4rotect t#emsel)es (y o(tainin' a (etter understandin' o,
4ower 2uality )oca(ulary and insistin' on tec#nical e74lanations o,
#ow a 'ad'et wor+s? Our (asic rule: I, t#ey wonFt tell you w#at is in t#e
(o7 and #ow it wor+s, donFt (uy itQ
C#a4ter
-
T#is c#a4ter descri(es a consistent terminolo'y t#at can (e used to
descri(e 4ower 2uality )ariations? "e also e74lain w#y some commonly
used terminolo'y is ina44ro4riate in 4ower 2uality discussions?
-?- 0eneral Classes o, Power Quality
Pro(lems
T#e terminolo'y 4resented #ere re,lects recent !?S? and international
e,,orts to standardi@e de,initions o, 4ower 2uality terms? T#e IEEE
Standards Coordinatin' Committee -- CIEEE SCC--D #as led t#e main
e,,ort in t#e !nited States to coordinate 4ower 2uality standards? It
#as t#e res4onsi(ilities across se)eral societies o, t#e IEEE, 4rinci4ally
t#e Industry A44lications Society and t#e Power En'ineerin' Society?
It coordinates wit# international e,,orts t#rou'# liaisons wit# t#e IEC
and t#e Con'ress Internationale des 0rand RRseau7 Slectri2ues a
Haute Tension CCI0REJ in En'lis#, International Con,erence on 1ar'e
Hi'#%&olta'e Electric SystemsD?
T#e IEC classi,ies electroma'netic 4#enomena into t#e 'rou4s
s#own in Ta(le -?1?
1
"e will (e 4rimarily concerned wit# t#e ,irst ,our
classes in t#is (oo+?
1- C#a4ter Two
TA*1E-?1 Princi4al P#enomena Causin' Electroma'netic
istur(ances as Classi,ied (y t#e IEC
Conducted low%,re2uency 4#enomena
Harmonics, inter#armonics
Si'nal systems C4ower line carrierD
&olta'e ,luctuations C,lic+erD
&olta'e di4s and interru4tions
&olta'e im(alance Cun(alanceD
Power ,re2uency )ariations
Induced low%,re2uency )olta'es
C in ac networ+s
Radiated low%,re2uency 4#enomena
.a'netic ,ields
Electric ,ields
Conducted #i'#%,re2uency 4#enomena
Induced continuous%wa)e CC"D )olta'es or currents
!nidirectional transients
Oscillatory transients
Radiated #i'#%,re2uency 4#enomena
.a'netic ,ields
Electric ,ields
Electroma'netic ,ields
Continuous wa)es
Transients
Electrostatic disc#ar'e 4#enomena CESD
Nuclear electroma'netic 4ulse CNE.PD
!?S? 4ower industry e,,orts to de)elo4 recommended 4ractices ,or
monitorin' electric 4ower 2uality #a)e added a ,ew terms to t#e IEC
terminolo'y?
-
Sa'is used as a synonym to t#e IEC term di4?T#e cate'orys#ort%duration )ariationsis
used to re,er to )olta'e di4sands#ort
interru4tions?T#e term swellis introduced as an in)erse to sa' Cdi4D?
T#e cate'ory lon'%duration )ariation #as (een added to deal wit#
American National Standards Institute CANSID C:5?1 limits? T#e cate'orynoise#as (een
added to deal wit# (road(and conducted 4#enomena? T#e cate'ory wa)e,orm distortionis
used as a container cate'ory
,or t#e IEC #armonics, inter#armonics,anddc in ac networ+s4#enomena as well as an
additional 4#enomenon ,rom IEEE Standard
61=%1==-,Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems,callednotc#in'?
Ta(le -?- s#ows t#e cate'ori@ation o, electroma'netic 4#enomena
used ,or t#e 4ower 2uality community? T#e 4#enomena listed in t#e
ta(le can (e descri(ed ,urt#er (y listin' a44ro4riate attri(utes? /or
steady%state 4#enomena, t#e ,ollowin' attri(utes can (e used
1
:
T Am4litude
T /re2uency
T S4ectrum
T .odulation
T Source im4edance
T Notc# de4t#
T Notc# area
/or non%steady%state 4#enomena, ot#er attri(utes may (e re2uired1
:
T Rate o, rise
T Am4litude
T uration
T S4ectrum
T /re2uency
T Rate o, occurrence
T Ener'y 4otential
T Source im4edance
Ta(le -?- 4ro)ides in,ormation re'ardin' ty4ical s4ectral content,
duration, and ma'nitude w#ere a44ro4riate ,or eac# cate'ory o, electroma'netic
4#enomena?
1,5,6
T#e cate'ories o, t#e ta(le, w#en used
wit# t#e attri(utes 4re)iously mentioned, 4ro)ide a means to clearly
Terms and e,initions 13
descri(e an electroma'netic distur(ance? T#e cate'ories and t#eir
descri4tions are im4ortant in order to (e a(le to classi,y measurement
results and to descri(e electroma'netic 4#enomena w#ic# can cause
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
15 C#a4ter Two
TA*1E-?- Cate'ories and C#aracteristics o, Power System Electroma'netic
P#enomena
Ty4ical s4ectral Ty4ical Ty4ical )olta'e
Cate'ories content duration ma'nitude
1?> Transients
1?1 Im4ulsi)e
1?1?1 Nanosecond 6%ns rise U6> ns
1?1?- .icrosecond 1% s rise 6> nsV1 ms
1?1?3 .illisecond >?1%ms rise W1 ms
1?- Oscillatory
1?-?1 1ow ,re2uency U6 +H@ >?3V6> ms >V5 4u
1?-?- .edium ,re2uency 6V6>> +H@ -> s >V: 4u
1?-?3 Hi'# ,re2uency >?6V6 .H@ 6 s >V5 4u
-?> S#ort%duration )ariations
-?1 Instantaneous
-?1?1 Interru4tion >?6V3> cycles U>?1 4u
-?1?- Sa' Cdi4D >?6V3> cycles >?1V>?= 4u
-?1?3 Swell >?6V3> cycles 1?1V1?: 4u
-?- .omentary
-?-?1 Interru4tion 3> cyclesV3 s U>?1 4u
-?-?- Sa' Cdi4D 3> cyclesV3 s >?1V>?= 4u
-?-?3 Swell 3> cyclesV3 s 1?1V1?5 4u
-?3 Tem4orary
-?3?1 Interru4tion 3 sV1 min U>?1 4u
-?3?- Sa' Cdi4D 3 sV1 min >?1V>?= 4u
-?3?3 Swell 3 sV1 min 1?1V1?- 4u
3?> 1on'%duration )ariations
3?1 Interru4tion, sustained W1 min >?> 4u
3?- !nder)olta'es W1 min >?:V>?= 4u
3?3 O)er)olta'es W1 min 1?1V1?- 4u
5?> &olta'e un(alance Steady state >?6V-I
6?> "a)e,orm distortion
6?1 C o,,set Steady state >V>?1I
6?- Harmonics >V1>>t# #armonic Steady state >V->I
6?3 Inter#armonics >V8 +H@ Steady state >V-I
6?5 Notc#in' Steady state
6?6 Noise *road(and Steady state >V1I
8?> &olta'e ,luctuations U-6 H@ Intermittent >?1V9I
>?-V- Pst
9?> Power ,re2uency
)ariations U1> s
NOTE:s second, ns nanosecond, smicrosecond, ms millisecond, +H@ +ilo#ert@,
.H@me'a#ert@, min minute, 4u 4er unit?
-?3 Transients
T#e term transients#as lon' (een used in t#e analysis o, 4ower system
)ariations to denote an e)ent t#at is undesira(le and momentary in
nature? T#e notion o, a dam4ed oscillatory transient due to an R1C
networ+ is 4ro(a(ly w#at most 4ower en'ineers t#in+ o, w#en t#ey
#ear t#e word transient?
Ot#er de,initions in common use are (road in sco4e and sim4ly state
t#at a transient is Gt#at 4art o, t#e c#an'e in a )aria(le t#at disa44ears
durin' transition ,rom one steady state o4eratin' condition to
anot#er?H
:
!n,ortunately, t#is de,inition could (e used to descri(e Aust
a(out anyt#in' unusual t#at #a44ens on t#e 4ower system?
Anot#er word in common usa'e t#at is o,ten considered synonymous
wit# transient is sur'e?A utility en'ineer may t#in+ o, a sur'e as t#e
transient resultin' ,rom a li'#tnin' stro+e ,or w#ic# a sur'e arrester
is used ,or 4rotection? End users ,re2uently use t#e word indiscriminantly to descri(e
anyt#in' unusual t#at mi'#t (e o(ser)ed on t#e
4ower su44ly ran'in' ,rom sa's to swells to interru4tions? *ecause
t#ere are many 4otential am(i'uities wit# t#is word in t#e 4ower 2uality ,ield, we will
'enerally a)oid usin' it unless we #a)e s4eci,ically
de,ined w#at it re,ers to?
*roadly s4ea+in', transients can (e classi,ied into two cate'ories,
im4ulsi)eandoscillatory?T#ese terms re,lect t#e wa)es#a4e o, a current
or )olta'e transient? "e will descri(e t#ese two cate'ories in more detail?
-?3?1 Im4ulsi)e transient
Anim4ulsi)e transientis a sudden, nonV4ower ,re2uency c#an'e in t#e
steady%state condition o, )olta'e, current, or (ot# t#at is unidirectional
in 4olarity C4rimarily eit#er 4ositi)e or ne'ati)eD?
Im4ulsi)e transients are normally c#aracteri@ed (y t#eir rise and
decay times, w#ic# can also (e re)ealed (y t#eir s4ectral content? /or
e7am4le, a 1?-6>% s ->>>%)olt C&D im4ulsi)e transient nominally
rises ,rom @ero to its 4ea+ )alue o, ->>> & in 1?- s and t#en decays to
#al, its 4ea+ )alue in 6> s? T#e most common cause o, im4ulsi)e transients is li'#tnin'?
/i'ure -?1 illustrates a ty4ical current im4ulsi)e
transient caused (y li'#tnin'?
*ecause o, t#e #i'# ,re2uencies in)ol)ed, t#e s#a4e o, im4ulsi)e
transients can (e c#an'ed 2uic+ly (y circuit com4onents and may #a)e
si'ni,icantly di,,erent c#aracteristics w#en )iewed ,rom di,,erent 4arts
o, t#e 4ower system? T#ey are 'enerally not conducted ,ar ,rom t#e
source o, w#ere t#ey enter t#e 4ower system, alt#ou'# t#ey may, in
some cases, (e conducted ,or 2uite some distance alon' utility lines?
Im4ulsi)e transients can e7cite t#e natural ,re2uency o, 4ower system
circuits and 4roduce oscillatory transients?
-?3?- Oscillatory transient
An oscillatory transient is a sudden, nonV4ower ,re2uency c#an'e in
t#e steady%state condition o, )olta'e, current, or (ot#, t#at includes
(ot# 4ositi)e and ne'ati)e 4olarity )alues?
An oscillatory transient consists o, a )olta'e or current w#ose instantaneous )alue
c#an'es 4olarity ra4idly? It is descri(ed (y its s4ectral
content C4redominate ,re2uencyD, duration, and ma'nitude? T#e s4ectral content
su(classes de,ined in Ta(le -?- are #i'#, medium, and low
,re2uency? T#e ,re2uency ran'es ,or t#ese classi,ications are c#osen to
coincide wit# common ty4es o, 4ower system oscillatory transient 4#enomena?
Oscillatory transients wit# a 4rimary ,re2uency com4onent 'reater
t#an 6>> +H@ and a ty4ical duration measured in microseconds Cor se)eral cycles o, t#e
4rinci4al ,re2uencyD are considered #i'#%,re2uency
transients? T#ese transients are o,ten t#e result o, a local system
res4onse to an im4ulsi)e transient?
A transient wit# a 4rimary ,re2uency com4onent (etween 6 and 6>>
+H@ wit# duration measured in t#e tens o, microseconds Cor se)eral
cycles o, t#e 4rinci4al ,re2uencyD is termed a medium%,re2uency transient?
*ac+%to%(ac+ ca4acitor ener'i@ation results in oscillatory transient
currents in t#e tens o, +ilo#ert@ as illustrated in /i'? -?-? Ca(le switc#in' results in
oscillatory )olta'e transients in t#e same ,re2uency
ran'e? .edium%,re2uency transients can also (e t#e result o, a system
res4onse to an im4ulsi)e transient?
18 C#a4ter Two
V-6
V->
V16
V1>
V6
>
> -> 5> 8> :> 1>> 1-> 15>
Current C+AD
Time C sD
/i'ure -?1 1i'#tnin' stro+e current im4ulsi)e transient?
A transient wit# a 4rimary ,re2uency com4onent less t#an 6 +H@,
and a duration ,rom >?3 to 6> ms, is considered a low%,re2uency transient?T#is cate'ory
o, 4#enomena is ,re2uently encountered on utility
su(transmission and distri(ution systems and is caused (y many ty4es
o, e)ents? T#e most ,re2uent is ca4acitor (an+ ener'i@ation, w#ic# ty4ically results in an
oscillatory )olta'e transient wit# a 4rimary ,re2uency (etween 3>> and =>> H@? T#e 4ea+
ma'nitude can a44roac# -?>
4u, (ut is ty4ically 1?3 to 1?6 4u wit# a duration o, (etween >?6 and 3
cycles de4endin' on t#e system dam4in' C/i'? -?3D?
Oscillatory transients wit# 4rinci4al ,re2uencies less t#an 3>> H@
can also (e ,ound on t#e distri(ution system? T#ese are 'enerally associated wit#
,erroresonance and trans,ormer ener'i@ation C/i'? -?5D?
Transients in)ol)in' series ca4acitors could also ,all into t#is cate'ory?
T#ey occur w#en t#e system res4onds (y resonatin' wit# low%,re2uency com4onents in
t#e trans,ormer inrus# current Csecond and
t#ird #armonicD or w#en unusual conditions result in ,erroresonance?
It is also 4ossi(le to cate'ori@e transients Cand ot#er distur(ancesD
accordin' to t#eir mode?*asically, a transient in a t#ree%4#ase system
wit# a se4arate neutral conductor can (e eit#er common modeornormal mode,de4endin'
on w#et#er it a44ears (etween line or neutral
and 'round, or (etween line and neutral?
-?5 1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations
1on'%duration )ariations encom4ass root%mean%s2uare CrmsD de)iations at 4ower
,re2uencies ,or lon'er t#an 1 min? ANSI C:5?1 s4eci,ies
t#e steady%state )olta'e tolerances e74ected on a 4ower system? A )oltTerms and
e,initions 19
:1>1-5
V96>>
V6>>>
V-6>>
>
-6>>
6>>>
96>>
Time CmsD
Current CAD
/i'ure -?- Oscillatory transient current caused (y (ac+%to%(ac+ ca4acitor switc#in'?
a'e )ariation is considered to (e lon' duration w#en t#e ANSI limits
are e7ceeded ,or 'reater t#an 1 min?
1on'%duration )ariations can (e eit#er o)er)olta'esorunder)olta'es?O)er)olta'es and
under)olta'es 'enerally are not t#e result o,
system ,aults, (ut are caused (y load )ariations on t#e system and system switc#in'
o4erations? Suc# )ariations are ty4ically dis4layed as
4lots o, rms )olta'e )ersus time?
1: C#a4ter Two
> -> 5> 8> :> 1>>
V1?6
V1?>
V>?6
>?>
>?6
1?>
1?6
-?>
Time CmsD
&olta'e C& 4uD
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>> 1>>>
V8>>>>>
V5>>>>>
V->>>>>
>
->>>>>
5>>>>>
8>>>>>
Time CmsD
&olta'e C&D
/i'ure -?3 1ow%,re2uency oscillatory transient caused (y ca4acitor (an+ ener'i@ation?
35?6%+& (us )olta'e?
/i'ure -?5 1ow%,re2uency oscillatory transient caused (y ,erroresonance o, an unloaded
trans,ormer?
-?5?1 O)er)olta'e
Ano)er)olta'eis an increase in t#e rms ac )olta'e 'reater t#an 11>
4ercent at t#e 4ower ,re2uency ,or a duration lon'er t#an 1 min?
O)er)olta'es are usually t#e result o, load switc#in' Ce?'?, switc#in'
o,, a lar'e load or ener'i@in' a ca4acitor (an+D? T#e o)er)olta'es result
(ecause eit#er t#e system is too wea+ ,or t#e desired )olta'e re'ulation
or )olta'e controls are inade2uate? Incorrect ta4 settin's on trans,ormers can also result in
system o)er)olta'es?
-?5?- !nder)olta'e
Anunder)olta'eis a decrease in t#e rms ac )olta'e to less t#an => 4ercent at t#e 4ower
,re2uency ,or a duration lon'er t#an 1 min?
!nder)olta'es are t#e result o, switc#in' e)ents t#at are t#e
o44osite o, t#e e)ents t#at cause o)er)olta'es? A load switc#in' on
or a ca4acitor (an+ switc#in' o,, can cause an under)olta'e until
)olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment on t#e system can (rin' t#e )olta'e
(ac+ to wit#in tolerances? O)erloaded circuits can result in under)olta'es also?
T#e term (rownoutis o,ten used to descri(e sustained 4eriods o,
under)olta'e initiated as a s4eci,ic utility dis4atc# strate'y to reduce
4ower demand? *ecause t#ere is no ,ormal de,inition ,or (rownout and
it is not as clear as t#e term under)olta'e w#en tryin' to c#aracteri@e
a distur(ance, t#e term (rownout s#ould (e a)oided?
-?5?3 Sustained interru4tions
"#en t#e su44ly )olta'e #as (een @ero ,or a 4eriod o, time in e7cess o,
1 min, t#e lon'%duration )olta'e )ariation is considered a sustained
interru4tion? &olta'e interru4tions lon'er t#an 1 min are o,ten 4ermanent and re2uire
#uman inter)ention to re4air t#e system ,or
restoration? T#e term sustained interru4tion re,ers to s4eci,ic 4ower
system 4#enomena and, in 'eneral, #as no relation to t#e usa'e o, t#e
termouta'e?!tilities use outa'e or interru4tion to descri(e 4#enomena o, similar nature
,or relia(ility re4ortin' 4ur4oses? Howe)er, t#is
causes con,usion ,or end users w#o t#in+ o, an outa'e as any interru4tion o, 4ower t#at
s#uts down a 4rocess? T#is could (e as little as
one%#al, o, a cycle? Outa'e,as de,ined in IEEE Standard 1>>,
:
does not
re,er to a s4eci,ic 4#enomenon, (ut rat#er to t#e state o, a com4onent
in a system t#at #as ,ailed to ,unction as e74ected? Also, use o, t#e
terminterru4tion in t#e conte7t o, 4ower 2uality monitorin' #as no
relation to relia(ility or ot#er continuity o, ser)ice statistics? T#us,
t#is term #as (een de,ined to (e more s4eci,ic re'ardin' t#e a(sence
o, )olta'e ,or lon' 4eriods?
Terms and e,initions 1=
-?6 S#ort%uration &olta'e &ariations
T#is cate'ory encom4asses t#e IEC cate'ory o, )olta'e di4s and s#ort
interru4tions? Eac# ty4e o, )ariation can (e desi'nated as instantaneous,
momentary,ortem4orary,de4endin' on its duration as de,ined
in Ta(le -?-?
S#ort%duration )olta'e )ariations are caused (y ,ault conditions, t#e
ener'i@ation o, lar'e loads w#ic# re2uire #i'# startin' currents, or
intermittent loose connections in 4ower wirin'? e4endin' on t#e ,ault
location and t#e system conditions, t#e ,ault can cause eit#er tem4orary )olta'e dro4s
Csa'sD, )olta'e rises CswellsD, or a com4lete loss o,
)olta'e Cinterru4tionsD? T#e ,ault condition can (e close to or remote
,rom t#e 4oint o, interest? In eit#er case, t#e im4act on t#e )olta'e durin' t#e actual ,ault
condition is o, t#e s#ort%duration )ariation until
4rotecti)e de)ices o4erate to clear t#e ,ault?
-?6?1 Interru4tion
Aninterru4tion occurs w#en t#e su44ly )olta'e or load current
decreases to less t#an >?1 4u ,or a 4eriod o, time not e7ceedin' 1 min?
Interru4tions can (e t#e result o, 4ower system ,aults, e2ui4ment
,ailures, and control mal,unctions? T#e interru4tions are measured (y
t#eir duration since t#e )olta'e ma'nitude is always less t#an 1> 4ercent o, nominal? T#e
duration o, an interru4tion due to a ,ault on t#e
utility system is determined (y t#e o4eratin' time o, utility 4rotecti)e
de)ices? Instantaneous reclosin' 'enerally will limit t#e interru4tion
caused (y a non4ermanent ,ault to less t#an 3> cycles? elayed reclosin' o, t#e
4rotecti)e de)ice may cause a momentary or tem4orary interru4tion? T#e duration o, an
interru4tion due to e2ui4ment mal,unctions
or loose connections can (e irre'ular?
Some interru4tions may (e 4receded (y a )olta'e sa' w#en t#ese
interru4tions are due to ,aults on t#e source system? T#e )olta'e sa'
occurs (etween t#e time a ,ault initiates and t#e 4rotecti)e de)ice o4erates? /i'ure -?6
s#ows suc# a momentary interru4tion durin' w#ic#
)olta'e on one 4#ase sa's to a(out -> 4ercent ,or a(out 3 cycles and
t#en dro4s to @ero ,or a(out 1?: s until t#e recloser closes (ac+ in?
-?6?- Sa's Cdi4sD
Asa'is a decrease to (etween >?1 and >?= 4u in rms )olta'e or current
at t#e 4ower ,re2uency ,or durations ,rom >?6 cycle to 1 min?
T#e 4ower 2uality community #as used t#e term sa',or many years
to descri(e a s#ort%duration )olta'e decrease? Alt#ou'# t#e term #as not
(een ,ormally de,ined, it #as (een increasin'ly acce4ted and used (y
-> C#a4ter Two
utilities, manu,acturers, and end users? T#e IEC de,inition ,or t#is 4#enomenon is di4?T#e
two terms are considered interc#an'ea(le, wit#
sa'(ein' t#e 4re,erred synonym in t#e !?S? 4ower 2uality community?
Terminolo'y used to descri(e t#e ma'nitude o, a )olta'e sa' is o,ten
con,usin'? A G-> 4ercent sa'H can re,er to a sa' w#ic# results in a )olta'e o, >?: or >?-
4u? T#e 4re,erred terminolo'y would (e one t#at lea)es
no dou(t as to t#e resultin' )olta'e le)el: Ga sa' to >?: 4uH or Ga sa'
w#ose ma'nitude was -> 4ercent?H "#en not s4eci,ied ot#erwise, a ->
4ercent sa' will (e considered an e)ent durin' w#ic# t#e rms )olta'e
decreased (y -> 4ercent to >?: 4u? T#e nominal, or (ase, )olta'e le)el
s#ould also (e s4eci,ied?
&olta'e sa's are usually associated wit# system ,aults (ut can also
(e caused (y ener'i@ation o, #ea)y loads or startin' o, lar'e motors?
/i'ure -?8 s#ows a ty4ical )olta'e sa' t#at can (e associated wit# a sin'le%line%to%'round
CS10D ,ault on anot#er ,eeder ,rom t#e same su(station? An :> 4ercent sa' e7ists ,or
a(out 3 cycles until t#e su(station
(rea+er is a(le to interru4t t#e ,ault current? Ty4ical ,ault clearin'
times ran'e ,rom 3 to 3> cycles, de4endin' on t#e ,ault current ma'nitude and t#e ty4e o,
o)ercurrent 4rotection?
/i'ure -?9 illustrates t#e e,,ect o, a lar'e motor startin'? An induction motor will draw 8
to 1> times its ,ull load current durin' start%u4?
I, t#e current ma'nitude is lar'e relati)e to t#e a)aila(le ,ault current
in t#e system at t#at 4oint, t#e resultin' )olta'e sa' can (e si'ni,icant?
In t#is case, t#e )olta'e sa's immediately to :> 4ercent and t#en 'radTerms and
e,initions -1
>
->>>
5>>>
8>>>
:>>>
1>>>>
>?> >?6 1?> 1?6 -?>
Time CsD
&olta'e C&D
/i'ure -?6 T#ree%4#ase rms )olta'es ,or a momentary interru4tion due to a ,ault and
su(se2uent recloser o4eration?
-- C#a4ter Two
V1?6
V1?>
V>?6
>?>
>?6
1?>
1?6
>?>> >?>6 >?1> >?16
Time CsD
>?6
>?8
>?9
>?:
>?=
1?>
1?1
>?>> >?>6 >?1> >?16
Time CsD
&olta'e C& 4uD &olta'e C& 4uD
CaD
C(D
/i'ure -?8 &olta'e sa' caused (y an S10 ,ault? CaD R.S wa)e,orm ,or )olta'e
sa' e)ent? C(D &olta'e sa' wa)e,orm?
P#ase A%* &olta'e
R.S &ariation
> >?6 1 1?6 - -?6 3 3?6 5
96
:>
:6
=>
=6
1>>
1>6
11>
116
uration
3?->> s
.in 9=?3:
A)e :9?==
.a7 1>1?-
Time CsD
&olta'e CID
/i'ure -?9 Tem4orary )olta'e sa' caused (y motor startin'?
ually returns to normal in a(out 3 s? Note t#e di,,erence in time ,rame
(etween t#is and sa's due to utility system ,aults?
!ntil recent e,,orts, t#e duration o, sa' e)ents #as not (een clearly
de,ined? Ty4ical sa' duration is de,ined in some 4u(lications as ran'in' ,rom - ms Ca(out
one%tent# o, a cycleD to a cou4le o, minutes?
!nder)olta'es t#at last less t#an one%#al, cycle cannot (e c#aracteri@ed e,,ecti)ely (y a
c#an'e in t#e rms )alue o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency )alue? T#ere,ore, t#ese e)ents are
considered transients?
!nder)olta'es t#at last lon'er t#an 1 min can ty4ically (e controlled
(y )olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment and may (e associated wit# causes
ot#er t#an system ,aults? T#ere,ore, t#ese are classi,ied as lon'%duration )ariations?
Sa' durations are su(di)ided #ere into t#ree cate'oriesPinstantaneous, momentary, and
tem4oraryPw#ic# coincide wit# t#e t#ree
cate'ories o, interru4tions and swells? T#ese durations are intended
to corres4ond to ty4ical utility 4rotecti)e de)ice o4eration times as
well as duration di)isions recommended (y international tec#nical
or'ani@ations?
6
-?6?3 Swells
Aswellis de,ined as an increase to (etween 1?1 and 1?: 4u in rms )olta'e
or current at t#e 4ower ,re2uency ,or durations ,rom >?6 cycle to 1 min?
As wit# sa's, swells are usually associated wit# system ,ault conditions, (ut t#ey are not
as common as )olta'e sa's? One way t#at a swell
can occur is ,rom t#e tem4orary )olta'e rise on t#e un,aulted 4#ases
durin' an S10 ,ault? /i'ure -?: illustrates a )olta'e swell caused (y an
S10 ,ault? Swells can also (e caused (y switc#in' o,, a lar'e load or
ener'i@in' a lar'e ca4acitor (an+?
Swells are c#aracteri@ed (y t#eir ma'nitude Crms )alueD and duration? T#e se)erity o, a
)olta'e swell durin' a ,ault condition is a ,unction o, t#e ,ault location, system
im4edance, and 'roundin'? On an
un'rounded system, wit# an in,inite @ero%se2uence im4edance, t#e
line%to%'round )olta'es on t#e un'rounded 4#ases will (e 1?93 4u durin' an S10 ,ault
condition? Close to t#e su(station on a 'rounded system, t#ere will (e little or no )olta'e
rise on t#e un,aulted 4#ases
(ecause t#e su(station trans,ormer is usually connected delta%wye,
4ro)idin' a low%im4edance @ero%se2uence 4at# ,or t#e ,ault current?
/aults at di,,erent 4oints alon' ,our%wire, multi'rounded ,eeders will
#a)e )aryin' de'rees o, )olta'e swells on t#e un,aulted 4#ases? A 16
4ercent swell, li+e t#at s#own in /i'? -?:, is common on !?S? utility
,eeders?
T#e term momentary o)er)olta'eis used (y many writers as a synonym ,or t#e term
swell?
Terms and e,initions -3
-?8 &olta'e Im(alance
&olta'e im(alanceCalso called )olta'e un(alanceD is sometimes de,ined
as t#e ma7imum de)iation ,rom t#e a)era'e o, t#e t#ree%4#ase )olta'es or currents,
di)ided (y t#e a)era'e o, t#e t#ree%4#ase )olta'es or
currents, e74ressed in 4ercent?
Im(alance is more ri'orously de,ined in t#e standards
8,:,11,1-
usin'
symmetrical com4onents? T#e ratio o, eit#er t#e ne'ati)e% or @erose2uence com4onent to
t#e 4ositi)e%se2uence com4onent can (e used
to s4eci,y t#e 4ercent un(alance? T#e most recent standards
11
s4eci,y
t#at t#e ne'ati)e%se2uence met#od (e used? /i'ure -?= s#ows an
e7am4le o, t#ese two ratios ,or a 1%wee+ trend o, im(alance on a residential ,eeder?
T#e 4rimary source o, )olta'e un(alances o, less t#an - 4ercent is
sin'le%4#ase loads on a t#ree%4#ase circuit? &olta'e un(alance can also
(e t#e result o, (lown ,uses in one 4#ase o, a t#ree%4#ase ca4acitor
(an+? Se)ere )olta'e un(alance C'reater t#an 6 4ercentD can result
,rom sin'le%4#asin' conditions?
-?9 "a)e,orm istortion
"a)e,orm distortionis de,ined as a steady%state de)iation ,rom an
ideal sine wa)e o, 4ower ,re2uency 4rinci4ally c#aracteri@ed (y t#e
s4ectral content o, t#e de)iation?
-5 C#a4ter Two
V >?6
V 1?>
V 1?6
>?>
>?6
1?>
1?6
>?>> >?>6 >?1> >?16 >?->
&olta'e C4uD
Time CsD
/i'ure -?: Instantaneous )olta'e swell caused (y an S10 ,ault?
T#ere are ,i)e 4rimary ty4es o, wa)e,orm distortion:
T C o,,set
T Harmonics
T Inter#armonics
T Notc#in'
T Noise
C o,,set? T#e 4resence o, a dc )olta'e or current in an ac 4ower system
is termed dc o,,set?T#is can occur as t#e result o, a 'eoma'netic distur(ance or
asymmetry o, electronic 4ower con)erters? Incandescent li'#t
(ul( li,e e7tenders, ,or e7am4le, may consist o, diodes t#at reduce t#e
rms )olta'e su44lied to t#e li'#t (ul( (y #al,%wa)e recti,ication? irect
current in ac networ+s can #a)e a detrimental e,,ect (y (iasin' trans,ormer cores so t#ey
saturate in normal o4eration? T#is causes additional #eatin' and loss o, trans,ormer li,e?
irect current may also cause
t#e electrolytic erosion o, 'roundin' electrodes and ot#er connectors?
Harmonics? Harmonicsare sinusoidal )olta'es or currents #a)in' ,re2uencies t#at are
inte'er multi4les o, t#e ,re2uency at w#ic# t#e su4Terms and e,initions -6
>
>?6
1
1?6
-
-?6
3
.on Tue "ed T#u /ri Sat Sun .on
&>O&1
&-O&1
&olta'e !n(alance CID
&>O&1
&-O&1
/i'ure -?= &olta'e un(alance trend ,or a residential ,eeder?
4ly system is desi'ned to o4erate Ctermed t#e ,undamental,re2uencyJ
usually 6> or 8> H@D?8
Periodically distorted wa)e,orms can (e decom4osed into a sum o, t#e ,undamental
,re2uency and t#e #armonics?
Harmonic distortion ori'inates in t#e nonlinear c#aracteristics o,
de)ices and loads on t#e 4ower system?
Harmonic distortion le)els are descri(ed (y t#e com4lete #armonic
s4ectrum wit# ma'nitudes and 4#ase an'les o, eac# indi)idual #armonic com4onent? It is
also common to use a sin'le 2uantity, t#e total
#armonic distortion CTHD, as a measure o, t#e e,,ecti)e )alue o, #armonic distortion?
/i'ure -?1> illustrates t#e wa)e,orm and #armonic
s4ectrum ,or a ty4ical adAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e CASD in4ut current?
Current distortion le)els can (e c#aracteri@ed (y a TH )alue, as 4re)iously descri(ed,
(ut t#is can o,ten (e misleadin'? /or e7am4le, many
-8 C#a4ter Two
> 8>> 1->> 1:>>
ERI&EW&SRCA%*!SA CTy4e =DC-D
>
6
1>
16
->
/re2uency CH@D
/re2:
TH :
R.S#:
R.S :
AS!.:
TI/ :
IT :
8>
1=?5913 /und:
51?>>65
9?=:531
-1?>55:
39?38=:
5-9?-13
:==>?81
P".AS56W&SRCA%*!SA CTy4e =D
5> 6> 8> 9> :>
V6>
V3>
V1>
1>
3>
6>
9>
Time CmsD
Current CAD Current CAD
.a7:
.in:
A)':
A(s:
R.S:
C/ :
// :
313?=>9
V191?9>5
33?633-
313?=>9
85?3:8-
5?:9639
1?=->>9
AS In4ut Current S4ectrum
/i'ure -?1> Current wa)e,orm and #armonic s4ectrum ,or an AS in4ut current?
adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es will e7#i(it #i'# TH )alues ,or t#e in4ut current w#en t#ey are
o4eratin' at )ery li'#t loads? T#is is not necessarily a si'ni,icant concern (ecause t#e
ma'nitudeo, #armonic current is
low, e)en t#ou'# its relati)e distortion is #i'#?
To #andle t#is concern ,or c#aracteri@in' #armonic currents in a consistent ,as#ion, IEEE
Standard 61=%1==- de,ines anot#er term, t#e
total demand distortion CTD?T#is term is t#e same as t#e total #armonic distortion
e7ce4t t#at t#e distortion is e74ressed as a 4ercent o,
some rated load current rat#er t#an as a 4ercent o, t#e ,undamental
current ma'nitude at t#e instant o, measurement? IEEE Standard
61=%1==- 4ro)ides 'uidelines ,or #armonic current and )olta'e distortion le)els on
distri(ution and transmission circuits?
Inter#armonics? &olta'es or currents #a)in' ,re2uency com4onents
t#at are not inte'er multi4les o, t#e ,re2uency at w#ic# t#e su44ly system is desi'ned to
o4erate Ce?'?, 6> or 8> H@D are called inter#armonics?
T#ey can a44ear as discrete ,re2uencies or as a wide(and s4ectrum?
Inter#armonics can (e ,ound in networ+s o, all )olta'e classes? T#e
main sources o, inter#armonic wa)e,orm distortion are static ,re2uency
con)erters, cyclocon)erters, induction ,urnaces, and arcin' de)ices?
Power line carrier si'nals can also (e considered as inter#armonics?
Since t#e ,irst edition o, t#is (oo+, considera(le wor+ #as (een done
on t#is su(Aect? T#ere is now a (etter understandin' o, t#e ori'ins and
e,,ects o, inter#armonic distortion? It is 'enerally t#e result o, ,re2uency con)ersion and
is o,ten not constantJ it )aries wit# load? Suc#
inter#armonic currents can e7cite 2uite se)ere resonances on t#e
4ower system as t#e )aryin' inter#armonic ,re2uency (ecomes coincident wit# natural
,re2uencies o, t#e system? T#ey #a)e (een s#own to
a,,ect 4ower%line%carrier si'nalin' and induce )isual ,lic+er in ,luorescent and ot#er arc
li'#tin' as well as in com4uter dis4lay de)ices?
Notc#in'? Notc#in'is a 4eriodic )olta'e distur(ance caused (y t#e
normal o4eration o, 4ower electronic de)ices w#en current is commutated ,rom one
4#ase to anot#er?
Since notc#in' occurs continuously, it can (e c#aracteri@ed t#rou'#
t#e #armonic s4ectrum o, t#e a,,ected )olta'e? Howe)er, it is 'enerally
treated as a s4ecial case? T#e ,re2uency com4onents associated wit#
notc#in' can (e 2uite #i'# and may not (e readily c#aracteri@ed wit#
measurement e2ui4ment normally used ,or #armonic analysis?
/i'ure -?11 s#ows an e7am4le o, )olta'e notc#in' ,rom a t#ree%4#ase
con)erter t#at 4roduces continuous dc current? T#e notc#es occur w#en
t#e current commutates ,rom one 4#ase to anot#er? urin' t#is 4eriod,
t#ere is a momentary s#ort circuit (etween two 4#ases, 4ullin' t#e
)olta'e as close to @ero as 4ermitted (y system im4edances?
Terms and e,initions -9
Noise? Noiseis de,ined as unwanted electrical si'nals wit# (road(and
s4ectral content lower t#an ->> +H@ su4erim4osed u4on t#e 4ower system )olta'e or
current in 4#ase conductors, or ,ound on neutral conductors or si'nal lines?
Noise in 4ower systems can (e caused (y 4ower electronic de)ices,
control circuits, arcin' e2ui4ment, loads wit# solid%state recti,iers, and
switc#in' 4ower su44lies? Noise 4ro(lems are o,ten e7acer(ated (y
im4ro4er 'roundin' t#at ,ails to conduct noise away ,rom t#e 4ower
system? *asically, noise consists o, any unwanted distortion o, t#e
4ower si'nal t#at cannot (e classi,ied as #armonic distortion or transients? Noise distur(s
electronic de)ices suc# as microcom4uter and
4ro'ramma(le controllers? T#e 4ro(lem can (e miti'ated (y usin' ,ilters, isolation
trans,ormers, and line conditioners?
-?: &olta'e /luctuation
&olta'e ,luctuationsare systematic )ariations o, t#e )olta'e en)elo4e
or a series o, random )olta'e c#an'es, t#e ma'nitude o, w#ic# does not
normally e7ceed t#e )olta'e ran'es s4eci,ied (y ANSI C:5?1 o, >?= to
1?1 4u?
IEC 81>>>%-%1 de,ines )arious ty4es o, )olta'e ,luctuations? "e will
restrict our discussion #ere to IEC 81>>>%-%1 Ty4e CdD )olta'e ,luctuations, w#ic# are
c#aracteri@ed as a series o, random or continuous )olta'e ,luctuations?
1oads t#at can e7#i(it continuous, ra4id )ariations in t#e load current ma'nitude can
cause )olta'e )ariations t#at are o,ten re,erred to
as ,lic+er? T#e term ,lic+er is deri)ed ,rom t#e im4act o, t#e )olta'e
,luctuation on lam4s suc# t#at t#ey are 4ercei)ed (y t#e #uman eye to
,lic+er? To (e tec#nically correct, )olta'e ,luctuation is an electroma'netic 4#enomenon
w#ile ,lic+er is an undesira(le result o, t#e )olta'e
-: C#a4ter Two
/i'ure -?11 E7am4le o, )olta'e notc#in' caused (y a t#ree%4#ase con)erter?
,luctuation in some loads? Howe)er, t#e two terms are o,ten lin+ed
to'et#er in standards? T#ere,ore, we will also use t#e common term
)olta'e ,lic+erto descri(e suc# )olta'e ,luctuations?
An e7am4le o, a )olta'e wa)e,orm w#ic# 4roduces ,lic+er is s#own in
/i'? -?1-? T#is is caused (y an arc ,urnace, one o, t#e most common
causes o, )olta'e ,luctuations on utility transmission and distri(ution
systems? T#e ,lic+er si'nal is de,ined (y its rms ma'nitude e74ressed
as a 4ercent o, t#e ,undamental? &olta'e ,lic+er is measured wit#
res4ect to t#e sensiti)ity o, t#e #uman eye? Ty4ically, ma'nitudes as
low as >?6 4ercent can result in 4erce4ti(le lam4 ,lic+er i, t#e ,re2uencies are in t#e ran'e
o, 8 to : H@?
IEC 81>>>%5%16 de,ines t#e met#odolo'y and s4eci,ications o, instrumentation ,or
measurin' ,lic+er? T#e IEEE &olta'e /lic+er "or+in'
0rou4 #as recently a'reed to ado4t t#is standard as amended ,or 8>%H@ 4ower systems
,or use in Nort# America? T#is standard de)ises a
sim4le means o, descri(in' t#e 4otential ,or )isi(le li'#t ,lic+er
t#rou'# )olta'e measurements? T#e measurement met#od simulates
t#e lam4OeyeO(rain trans,er ,unction and 4roduces a ,undamental metric called s#ort%term
,lic+er sensation CPstD? T#is )alue is normali@ed to
1?> to re4resent t#e le)el o, )olta'e ,luctuations su,,icient to cause
noticea(le ,lic+er to 6> 4ercent o, a sam4le o(ser)in' 'rou4? Anot#er
measure called lon'%term ,lic+er sensation CPltD is o,ten used ,or t#e
Terms and e,initions -=
> - 5 8 : 1>
P#ase A &olta'e 1> 31 >> >8:68:6= am
Time CsD
&olta'e C&D
1-:8>>
1-::>>
1-=>>>
1-=->>
1-=5>>
1-=8>>
1-=:>>
/i'ure -?1- E7am4le o, )olta'e ,luctuations caused (y arc ,urnace o4eration?
4ur4ose o, )eri,yin' com4liance wit# com4ati(ility le)els esta(lis#ed
(y standards (odies and used in utility 4ower contracts? T#is )alue is
a lon'er%term a)era'e o, Pst sam4les?
/i'ure -?13 illustrates a trend o, Pst measurements ta+en at a 181%+& su(station (us
ser)in' an arc ,urnace load? Pst sam4les are normally re4orted at 1>%min inter)als? A
statistical e)aluation 4rocess
de,ined in t#e measurement standard 4rocesses instantaneous ,lic+er
measurements to 4roduce t#e Pst )alue? T#e Plt )alue is 4roduced
e)ery - # ,rom t#e Pst )alues?
-?= Power /re2uency &ariations
Power ,re2uency )ariationsare de,ined as t#e de)iation o, t#e 4ower
system ,undamental ,re2uency ,rom it s4eci,ied nominal )alue Ce?'?, 6>
or 8> H@D?
T#e 4ower system ,re2uency is directly related to t#e rotational
s4eed o, t#e 'enerators su44lyin' t#e system? T#ere are sli'#t )ariations in ,re2uency as
t#e dynamic (alance (etween load and 'eneration
c#an'es? T#e si@e o, t#e ,re2uency s#i,t and its duration de4end on t#e
load c#aracteristics and t#e res4onse o, t#e 'eneration control system
to load c#an'es? /i'ure -?15 illustrates ,re2uency )ariations ,or a -5%#
4eriod on a ty4ical 13%+& su(station (us?
/re2uency )ariations t#at 'o outside o, acce4ted limits ,or normal
steady%state o4eration o, t#e 4ower system can (e caused (y ,aults on
t#e (ul+ 4ower transmission system, a lar'e (loc+ o, load (ein' disconnected, or a lar'e
source o, 'eneration 'oin' o,,%line?
On modern interconnected 4ower systems, si'ni,icant ,re2uency
)ariations are rare? /re2uency )ariations o, conse2uence are muc#
more li+ely to occur ,or loads t#at are su44lied (y a 'enerator isolated
,rom t#e utility system? In suc# cases, 'o)ernor res4onse to a(ru4t load
c#an'es may not (e ade2uate to re'ulate wit#in t#e narrow (andwidt#
re2uired (y ,re2uency%sensiti)e e2ui4ment?
3> C#a4ter Two
>3O-1O->>-
>>:>>:>>?>>
5:>> ::>> 1-:>> 18:>> ->:>> >3O--O->>-
>>:>>:>>?>> Time
>
>?6
1
1?6
-
Pst
S#ort%Term /lic+er A
/i'ure -?13 /lic+er CPstD at 181%+& su(station (us measured accordin' to IEC Standard
81>>>%5%16? CCourtesy o, ranet@%*.IOElectrote+ Conce4ts?D
&olta'e notc#in' can sometimes (e mista+en ,or ,re2uency de)iation?
T#e notc#es may come su,,iciently close to @ero to cause errors in
instruments and control systems t#at rely on @ero crossin's to deri)e
,re2uency or time?
-?1> Power Quality Terms
So t#at you will (e (etter a(le to understand t#e material in t#is (oo+, we
#a)e included t#e de,initions o, many common 4ower 2uality terms t#at
are rele)ant to t#e material in t#is (oo+? /or t#e most 4art, t#ese de,initions coincide wit#
current industry e,,orts to de,ine 4ower 2uality terms?
-
"e #a)e also included ot#er terms rele)ant to t#e material in t#is (oo+?
acti)e ,ilter Any o, a num(er o, so4#isticated 4ower electronic de)ices ,or
eliminatin' #armonic distortion? See 4assi)e ,ilter?
C*E.A cur)e A set o, cur)es re4resentin' t#e wit#stand ca4a(ilities o, com4uters in
terms o, t#e ma'nitude and duration o, t#e )olta'e distur(ance?
e)elo4ed (y t#e Com4uter *usiness E2ui4ment .anu,acturers Association
CC*E.AD, it #ad (ecome t#e de ,acto standard ,or measurin' t#e 4er,ormance
o, all ty4es o, e2ui4ment and 4ower systems and is commonly re,erred to (y
t#is name?
=
C*E.A #as (een re4laced (y t#e In,ormation Tec#nolo'y Industry
>3%-1%->>-
>>:>>:>>?>>
5:>> ::>> 1-:>> 18:>> ->:>>
Time
>3%--%->>-
>>:>>:>>?>>
8>?>6
8>
6=?=6
6=?=
1C!*Su(
1C!*Su(
H@
/re2uency A .inimum
/re2uency A A)era'e /re2uency A A)era'e Cumulati)e Pro(a(ility
/re2uency A .a7imum /re2uency A A)era'e
6=?=61
6=?=63
6=?=66
6=?=69
6=?=6=
6=?=81
6=?=83
6=?=86
6=?=89
6=?=8=
6=?=91
6=?=93
6=?=96
6=?=99
6=?=9=
6=?=:1
6=?=:3
6=?=:6
6=?=:9
6=?=:=
6=?==1
6=?==3
6=?==6
6=?==9
6=?===
8>?>>1
8>?>>3
8>?>>6
8>?>>9
8>?>>=
8>?>11
8>?>13
8>?>16
8>?>19
8>?>1=
8>?>-1
8>?>-3
8>?>-6
8>?>-9
8>?>-=
>
6
1>
16
->
>I
->I
5>I
8>I
:>I
1>>I
Cumulati)e Pro(a(ility CID
H@
Sam4les: -:8
.inimum: 6=?=61 H@
A)era'e: 8>?> H@
.a7imum: 8>?>3 H@
>3%-1%->>- >>:>>:>>?>>
>3%--%->>- >>:>>:>>?>>
/re2uency &olta'e A
Count
/i'ure -?15 Power ,re2uency trend and statistical distri(ution at 13%+& su(station
(us? CCourtesy o, ranet@%*.IOElectrote+ Conce4ts?D
Council CITID, and a new cur)e #as (een de)elo4ed t#at is commonly re,erred
to as t#e ITI cur)e? See ITI cur)e?
common mode )olta'e T#e noise )olta'e t#at a44ears e2ually ,rom currentcarryin'
conductor to 'round?
-
cou4lin' A circuit element, or elements, or a networ+ t#at may (e considered
common to t#e in4ut mes# and t#e out4ut mes# and t#rou'# w#ic# ener'y may
(e trans,erred ,rom one to anot#er?
:
crest ,actor A )alue re4orted (y many 4ower 2uality monitorin' instruments
re4resentin' t#e ratio o, t#e crest )alue o, t#e measured wa)e,orm to t#e root
mean s2uare o, t#e ,undamental? /or e7am4le, t#e crest ,actor o, a sinusoidal
wa)e is 1?515?
critical load e)ices and e2ui4ment w#ose ,ailure to o4erate satis,actorily
Aeo4ardi@es t#e #ealt# or sa,ety o, 4ersonnel, andOor results in loss o, ,unction,
,inancial loss, or dama'e to 4ro4erty deemed critical (y t#e user?
current distortion istortion in t#e ac line current? See distortion?
di,,erential mode )olta'e T#e )olta'e (etween any two o, a s4eci,ied set o,
acti)e conductors?
di4 Seesa'?
distortion Any de)iation ,rom t#e normal sine wa)e ,or an ac 2uantity?
distri(uted 'eneration C0D 0eneration dis4ersed t#rou'#out t#e 4ower system as
o44osed to lar'e, central station 4ower 4lants? In t#e conte7t used in
t#is (oo+, 0 ty4ically re,ers to units less t#an 1> me'awatts C."D in si@e t#at
are interconnected wit# t#e distri(ution system rat#er t#an t#e transmission
system?
dro4out A loss o, e2ui4ment o4eration Cdiscrete data si'nalsD due to noise,
sa', or interru4tion?
dro4out )olta'e T#e )olta'e at w#ic# a de)ice will release to its deener'i@ed
4osition C,or t#is document, t#e )olta'e at w#ic# a de)ice ,ails to o4erateD?
electroma'netic com4ati(ility T#e a(ility o, a de)ice, e2ui4ment, or system to
,unction satis,actorily in its electroma'netic en)ironment wit#out introducin'
intolera(le electroma'netic distur(ances to anyt#in' in t#at en)ironment?
-,3
e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor T#e conductor used to connect t#e
nonVcurrent carryin' 4arts o, conduits, raceways, and e2ui4ment enclosures
to t#e 'rounded conductor CneutralD and t#e 'roundin' electrode at t#e ser)ice
e2ui4ment Cmain 4anelD or secondary o, a se4arately deri)ed system Ce?'?, isolation
trans,ormerD? See National /ire Protection Association CN/PAD 9>%1==3,
Section 1>>?
9
,ailure mode T#e e,,ect (y w#ic# ,ailure is o(ser)ed?:
3- C#a4ter Two
,ast tri44in' Re,ers to t#e common utility 4rotecti)e relayin' 4ractice in
w#ic# t#e circuit (rea+er or line recloser o4erates ,aster t#an a ,use can (low?
Also called ,use sa)in'? E,,ecti)e ,or clearin' transient ,aults wit#out a sustained
interru4tion, (ut is somew#at contro)ersial (ecause industrial loads are
su(Aected to a momentary or tem4orary interru4tion?
,ault 0enerally re,ers to a s#ort circuit on t#e 4ower system?
,ault, transient A s#ort circuit on t#e 4ower system usually induced (y li'#tnin', tree
(ranc#es, or animals, w#ic# can (e cleared (y momentarily interru4tin' t#e current?
,erroresonance An irre'ular, o,ten c#aotic ty4e o, resonance t#at in)ol)es t#e
nonlinear c#aracteristic o, iron%core C,errousD inductors? It is nearly always undesira(le
w#en it occurs in t#e 4ower deli)ery system, (ut it is e74loited in tec#nolo'ies suc# as
constant%)olta'e trans,ormers to im4ro)e t#e 4ower 2uality?
,lic+er An im4ression o, unsteadiness o, )isual sensation induced (y a li'#t
stimulus w#ose luminance or s4ectral distri(ution ,luctuates wit# time?
-
,re2uency de)iation An increase or decrease in t#e 4ower ,re2uency? T#e
duration o, a ,re2uency de)iation can (e ,rom se)eral cycles to se)eral #ours?
,re2uency res4onse In 4ower 2uality usa'e, 'enerally re,ers to t#e )ariation
o, im4edance o, t#e system, or a meterin' transducer, as a ,unction o, ,re2uency?
,undamental Ccom4onentD T#e com4onent o, order 1 C6> to 8> H@D o, t#e
/ourier series o, a 4eriodic 2uantity?-
'round A conductin' connection, w#et#er intentional or accidental, (y w#ic#
an electric circuit or electrical e2ui4ment is connected to t#e eart#, or to some
conductin' (ody o, relati)ely lar'e e7tent t#at ser)es in 4lace o, t#e eart#? Note:
It is used ,or esta(lis#in' and maintainin' t#e 4otential o, t#e eart# Cor o, t#e
conductin' (odyD or a44ro7imately t#at 4otential, on conductors connected to it,
and ,or conductin' 'round currents to and ,rom eart# Cor t#e conductin' (odyD?
:
'round electrode A conductor or 'rou4 o, conductors in intimate contact wit#
t#e eart# ,or t#e 4ur4ose o, 4ro)idin' a connection wit# t#e 'round?
9
'round 'rid A system o, interconnected (are conductors arran'ed in a 4attern
o)er a s4eci,ied area and on or (uried (elow t#e sur,ace o, t#e eart#? T#e 4rimary
4ur4ose o, t#e 'round 'rid is to 4ro)ide sa,ety ,or wor+ers (y limitin' 4otential
di,,erences wit#in its 4erimeter to sa,e le)els in case o, #i'# currents t#at could ,low
i, t#e circuit (ein' wor+ed (ecame ener'i@ed ,or any reason or i, an adAacent ener'i@ed
circuit ,aulted? .etallic sur,ace mats and 'ratin's are sometimes utili@ed ,or
t#e same 4ur4ose?
:
T#is is not necessarily t#e same as a si'nal re,erence 'rid?
'round loo4 A 4otentially detrimental loo4 ,ormed w#en two or more 4oints
in an electrical system t#at are nominally at 'round 4otential are connected (y
a conductin' 4at# suc# t#at eit#er or (ot# 4oints are not at t#e same 'round
4otential?
:
'round window T#e area t#rou'# w#ic# all 'roundin' conductors, includin'
metallic raceways, enter a s4eci,ic area? It is o,ten used in communications systems
t#rou'# w#ic# t#e (uildin' 'roundin' system is connected to an area t#at
would ot#erwise #a)e no 'roundin' connection?
#armonic Ccom4onentD A com4onent o, order 'reater t#an 1 o, t#e /ourier
series o, a 4eriodic 2uantity?
-
#armonic content T#e 2uantity o(tained (y su(tractin' t#e ,undamental
com4onent ,rom an alternatin' 2uantity?
#armonic distortion Periodic distortion o, t#e sine wa)e? See distortionand
total #armonic distortionCTHD?
#armonic ,ilter On 4ower systems, a de)ice ,or ,ilterin' one or more #armonics ,rom t#e
4ower system? .ost are 4assi)e com(inations o, inductance, ca4acitance, and resistance?
Newer tec#nolo'ies include acti)e ,ilters t#at can also
address reacti)e 4ower needs?
#armonic num(er T#e inte'ral num(er 'i)en (y t#e ratio o, t#e ,re2uency o,
a #armonic to t#e ,undamental ,re2uency?
-
#armonic resonance A condition in w#ic# t#e 4ower system is resonatin'
near one o, t#e maAor #armonics (ein' 4roduced (y nonlinear elements in t#e
system, t#us e7acer(atin' t#e #armonic distortion?
im4ulse A 4ulse t#at, ,or a 'i)en a44lication, a44ro7imates a unit 4ulse or a
irac ,unction?-
"#en used in relation to monitorin' 4ower 2uality, it is 4re,era(le to use t#e term
im4ulsi)e transient in 4lace o, im4ulse?
im4ulsi)e transient A sudden, non4ower ,re2uency c#an'e in t#e steadystate condition o,
)olta'e or current t#at is unidirectional in 4olarity C4rimarily eit#er 4ositi)e or ne'ati)eD?
instantaneous "#en used to 2uanti,y t#e duration o, a s#ort%duration )ariation as a
modi,ier, t#is term re,ers to a time ran'e ,rom one%#al, cycle to 3>
cycles o, t#e 4ower ,re2uency?
instantaneous reclosin' A term commonly a44lied to reclosin' o, a utility
(rea+er as 2uic+ly as 4ossi(le a,ter an interru4tin' ,ault current? Ty4ical times
are 1: to 3> cycles?
inter#armonic Ccom4onentD A ,re2uency com4onent o, a 4eriodic 2uantity
t#at is not an inte'er multi4le o, t#e ,re2uency at w#ic# t#e su44ly system is
desi'ned to o4erate Ce?'?, 6> or 8> H@D?
interru4tion, momentary Celectrical 4ower systemsD An interru4tion o, a
duration limited to t#e 4eriod re2uired to restore ser)ice (y automatic or su4er)isory%
controlled switc#in' o4erations or (y manual switc#in' at locations
w#ere an o4erator is immediately a)aila(le? Note: Suc# switc#in' o4erations
must (e com4leted in a s4eci,ied time not to e7ceed 6 min?
35 C#a4ter Two
interru4tion, momentary C4ower 2uality monitorin'D A ty4e o, s#ort%duration
)ariation? T#e com4lete loss o, )olta'e CU>?1 4uD on one or more 4#ase conductors ,or a
time 4eriod (etween 3> cycles and 3 s?
interru4tion, sustained Celectrical 4ower systemsD Any interru4tion not
classi,ied as a momentary interru4tion?
interru4tion, sustained C4ower 2ualityD A ty4e o, lon'%duration )ariation?
T#e com4lete loss o, )olta'e CU>?1 4uD on one or more 4#ase conductors ,or a
time 'reater t#an 1 min?
interru4tion, tem4orary A ty4e o, s#ort%duration )ariation? T#e com4lete loss
o, )olta'e CU>?1 4uD on one or more 4#ase conductors ,or a time 4eriod (etween
3 s and 1 min?
in)erter A 4ower electronic de)ice t#at con)erts direct current to alternatin'
current o, eit#er 4ower ,re2uency or a ,re2uency re2uired (y an industrial
4rocess? Common in)erters today em4loy 4ulse%widt# modulation to create t#e
desired ,re2uency wit# minimal #armonic distortion?
islandin' Re,ers to a condition in w#ic# distri(uted 'eneration is isolated on
a 4ortion o, t#e load ser)ed (y t#e utility 4ower system? It is usually an undesira(le
situation, alt#ou'# t#ere are situations w#ere controlled islands can
im4ro)e t#e system relia(ility?
isolated 'round An insulated e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor run in t#e
same conduit or raceway as t#e su44ly conductors? T#is conductor is insulated
,rom t#e metallic raceway and all 'round 4oints t#rou'#out its len't#? It ori'inates at an
isolated 'round%ty4e rece4tacle or e2ui4ment in4ut terminal (loc+
and terminates at t#e 4oint w#ere neutral and 'round are (onded at t#e 4ower
source? See N/PA 9>%1==3, Section -6>%95, E7ce4tion X5 and Section -6>%96,
E7ce4tion?9
isolation Se4aration o, one section o, a system ,rom undesired in,luences o,
ot#er sections?
ITI cur)e A set o, cur)es 4u(lis#ed (y t#e In,ormation Tec#nolo'y Industry
Council CITID re4resentin' t#e wit#stand ca4a(ilities o, com4uters connected to
1->%& 4ower systems in terms o, t#e ma'nitude and duration o, t#e )olta'e distur(ance?
1>
T#e ITI cur)e re4laces t#e cur)es ori'inally de)elo4ed (y t#e ITIFs
4redecessor or'ani@ation, t#e Com4uter *usiness E2ui4ment .anu,acturers
Association CC*E.AD?=
SeeC*E.A cur)e?
linear load An electrical load de)ice t#at, in steady%state o4eration, 4resents
an essentially constant load im4edance to t#e 4ower source t#rou'#out t#e
cycle o, a44lied )olta'e?
lon'%duration )ariation A )ariation o, t#e rms )alue o, t#e )olta'e ,rom nominal )olta'e
,or a time 'reater t#an 1 min? !sually ,urt#er descri(ed usin' a
modi,ier indicatin' t#e ma'nitude o, a )olta'e )ariation Ce?'?, under)olta'e,
o)er)olta'e, or )olta'e interru4tionD?
low%side sur'es A term coined (y distri(ution trans,ormer desi'ners to
descri(e t#e current sur'e t#at a44ears to (e inAected into t#e trans,ormer secondary
terminals durin' a li'#tnin' stri+e to 'rounded conductors in t#e )icinity?
momentary "#en used to 2uanti,y t#e duration o, a s#ort%duration )ariation
as a modi,ier, re,ers to a time ran'e at t#e 4ower ,re2uency ,rom 3> cycles to 3 s?
noise !nwanted electrical si'nals t#at 4roduce undesira(le e,,ects in t#e circuits o, t#e
control systems in w#ic# t#ey occur?
:
C/or t#is document, Gcontrol systemsH is intended to include sensiti)e electronic
e2ui4ment in total or in 4art?D
nominal )olta'e C&nD A nominal )alue assi'ned to a circuit or system ,or t#e
4ur4ose o, con)eniently desi'natin' its )olta'e class Cas ->:O1->, 5:>O-99,
8>>D?
8
nonlinear load Electrical load t#at draws current discontinuously or w#ose
im4edance )aries t#rou'#out t#e cycle o, t#e in4ut ac )olta'e wa)e,orm?
normal mode )olta'e A )olta'e t#at a44ears (etween or amon' acti)e circuit
conductors?
notc# A switc#in' Cor ot#erD distur(ance o, t#e normal 4ower )olta'e wa)e,orm, lastin'
less t#an a #al,%cycle, w#ic# is initially o, o44osite 4olarity t#an
t#e wa)e,orm and is t#us su(tracted ,rom t#e normal wa)e,orm in terms o, t#e
4ea+ )alue o, t#e distur(ance )olta'e? T#is includes com4lete loss o, )olta'e ,or
u4 to a #al,%cycle?
oscillatory transient A sudden, non4ower ,re2uency c#an'e in t#e steadystate condition o,
)olta'e or current t#at includes (ot# 4ositi)e% or ne'ati)e4olarity )alue?
o)er)olta'e "#en used to descri(e a s4eci,ic ty4e o, lon'%duration )ariation,
re,ers to a )olta'e #a)in' a )alue o, at least 1> 4ercent a(o)e t#e nominal )olta'e ,or a
4eriod o, time 'reater t#an 1 min?
4assi)e ,ilter A com(ination o, inductors, ca4acitors, and resistors desi'ned
to eliminate one or more #armonics? T#e most common )ariety is sim4ly an
inductor in series wit# a s#unt ca4acitor, w#ic# s#ort%circuits t#e maAor distortin'
#armonic com4onent ,rom t#e system?
4#ase s#i,t T#e dis4lacement in time o, one )olta'e wa)e,orm relati)e to
ot#er )olta'e wa)e,ormCsD?
4ower ,actor, dis4lacement T#e 4ower ,actor o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency
com4onents o, t#e )olta'e and current wa)e,orms?
4ower ,actor CtrueD T#e ratio o, acti)e 4ower CwattsD to a44arent 4ower
C)oltam4eresD?
Plt T#e lon'%term ,lic+er se)erity le)el as de,ined (y IEC 81>>>%5%16, (ased
on an o(ser)ation 4eriod o, - #?
38 C#a4ter Two
Pst T#e s#ort%term ,lic+er se)erity le)el as de,ined (y IEC 81>>>%5%16, (ased
on an o(ser)ation 4eriod o, 1> min? A Pst )alue 'reater t#an 1?> corres4onds to
t#e le)el o, irrita(ility ,or 6> 4ercent o, t#e 4ersons su(Aected to t#e measured
,lic+er?
4ulse An a(ru4t )ariation o, s#ort duration o, a 4#ysical 2uantity ,ollowed (y
a ra4id return to t#e initial )alue?
4ulse%widt# modulation CP".D A common tec#ni2ue used in in)erters to create an ac
wa)e,orm (y controllin' t#e electronic switc# to 4roduce )aryin'widt# 4ulses?
.inimi@es 4ower ,re2uency #armonic distortion in some
a44lications, (ut care must (e ta+en to 4ro4erly ,ilter out t#e switc#in' ,re2uencies,
w#ic# are commonly 3 to 8 +H@?
reclosin' T#e common utility 4ractice used on o)er#ead lines o, closin' t#e
(rea+er wit#in a s#ort time a,ter clearin' a ,ault, ta+in' ad)anta'e o, t#e ,act
t#at most ,aults are transient, or tem4orary?
reco)ery time T#e time inter)al needed ,or t#e out4ut )olta'e or current to
return to a )alue wit#in t#e re'ulation s4eci,ication a,ter a ste4 load or line
c#an'e?
:
Also may indicate t#e time inter)al re2uired to (rin' a system (ac+ to
its o4eratin' condition a,ter an interru4tion or dro4out?
reco)ery )olta'e T#e )olta'e t#at occurs across t#e terminals o, a 4ole o, a
circuit%interru4tin' de)ice u4on interru4tion o, t#e current?
:
recti,ier A 4ower electronic de)ice ,or con)ertin' alternatin' current to direct
current?
resonance A condition in w#ic# t#e natural ,re2uencies o, t#e inductances
and ca4acitances in t#e 4ower system are e7cited and sustained (y distur(in'
4#enomena? T#is can result in e7cessi)e )olta'es and currents? "a)e,orm distortion,
w#et#er #armonic or non#armonic, is 4ro(a(ly t#e most ,re2uent e7citation source? Also,
)arious s#ort%circuit and o4en%circuit ,aults can result in
resonant conditions?
sa,ety 'round Seee2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor?
sa' A decrease to (etween >?1 and >?= 4u in rms )olta'e or current at t#e
4ower ,re2uency ,or durations o, >?6 cycle to 1 min?
s#ield As normally a44lied to instrumentation ca(les, re,ers to a conducti)e
s#eat# Cusually metallicD a44lied, o)er t#e insulation o, a conductor or conductors, ,or t#e
4ur4ose o, 4ro)idin' means to reduce cou4lin' (etween t#e conductors so s#ielded and
ot#er conductors t#at may (e susce4ti(le to, or w#ic#
may (e 'eneratin', unwanted electrostatic or electroma'netic ,ields CnoiseD?
s#ieldin' S#ieldin' is t#e use o, a conductin' andOor ,erroma'netic (arrier
(etween a 4otentially distur(in' noise source and sensiti)e circuitry? S#ields
are used to 4rotect ca(les Cdata and 4owerD and electronic circuits? T#ey may
(e in t#e ,orm o, metal (arriers, enclosures, or wra44in's around source circuits and
recei)in' circuits?
s#ieldin' Co, utility linesD T#e construction o, a 'rounded conductor or tower
o)er t#e lines to interce4t li'#tnin' stro+es in an attem4t to +ee4 t#e li'#tnin'
currents out o, t#e 4ower system?
s#ort%duration )ariation A )ariation o, t#e rms )alue o, t#e )olta'e ,rom nominal )olta'e
,or a time 'reater t#an one%#al, cycle o, t#e 4ower ,re2uency (ut
less t#an or e2ual to 1 min? !sually ,urt#er descri(ed usin' a modi,ier indicatin' t#e
ma'nitude o, a )olta'e )ariation Ce?'?, sa', swell, or interru4tionD
and 4ossi(ly a modi,ier indicatin' t#e duration o, t#e )ariation Ce?'?, instantaneous,
momentary, or tem4oraryD?
si'nal re,erence 'rid Cor 4laneD A system o, conducti)e 4at#s amon' interconnected
e2ui4ment, w#ic# reduces noise%induced )olta'es to le)els t#at minimi@e im4ro4er
o4eration? Common con,i'urations include 'rids and 4lanes?
sustained "#en used to 2uanti,y t#e duration o, a )olta'e interru4tion,
re,ers to t#e time ,rame associated wit# a lon'%duration )ariation Ci?e?, 'reater
t#an 1 minD?
swell A tem4orary increase in t#e rms )alue o, t#e )olta'e o, more t#an 1>
4ercent o, t#e nominal )olta'e, at t#e 4ower ,re2uency, ,or durations ,rom >?6
cycle to 1 min?
sym4at#etic tri44in' "#en a circuit (rea+er on an un,aulted ,eeder section
tri4s unnecessarily due to (ac+,eed into a ,ault elsew#ere? .ost commonly
occurs w#en sensiti)e 'round ,ault relayin' is em4loyed?
sync#ronous closin' 0enerally used in re,erence to closin' all t#ree 4oles o,
a ca4acitor switc# in sync#ronism wit# t#e 4ower system to minimi@e transients?
tem4orary "#en used to 2uanti,y t#e duration o, a s#ort%duration )ariation
as a modi,ier, re,ers to a time ran'e ,rom 3 s to 1 min?
total demand distortion CTD T#e ratio o, t#e root mean s2uare o, t#e #armonic current
to t#e rms )alue o, t#e rated or ma7imum demand ,undamental
current, e74ressed as a 4ercent?
total distur(ance le)el T#e le)el o, a 'i)en electroma'netic distur(ance caused
(y t#e su4er4osition o, t#e emission o, all 4ieces o, e2ui4ment in a 'i)en system?
-
total #armonic distortion CTHD T#e ratio o, t#e root mean s2uare o, t#e #armonic
content to t#e rms )alue o, t#e ,undamental 2uantity, e74ressed as a 4ercent o, t#e
,undamental?
:
transient Pertainin' to or desi'natin' a 4#enomenon or a 2uantity t#at
)aries (etween two consecuti)e steady states durin' a time inter)al t#at is
s#ort com4ared to t#e time scale o, interest? A transient can (e a unidirectional
im4ulse o, eit#er 4olarity or a dam4ed oscillatory wa)e wit# t#e ,irst 4ea+
occurrin' in eit#er 4olarity?
-
3: C#a4ter Two
tri4len #armonics A term ,re2uently used to re,er to t#e odd multi4les o, t#e
t#ird #armonic, w#ic# deser)e s4ecial attention (ecause o, t#eir natural tendency to (e
@ero se2uence?
under)olta'e "#en used to descri(e a s4eci,ic ty4e o, lon'%duration )ariation, re,ers to a
measured )olta'e #a)in' a )alue at least 1> 4ercent (elow t#e
nominal )olta'e ,or a 4eriod o, time 'reater t#an 1 min? In ot#er conte7ts, suc#
as distri(uted 'eneration 4rotection, t#e time ,rame o, interest would (e measured in
cycles or seconds?
)olta'e c#an'e A )ariation o, t#e root mean s2uare or 4ea+ )alue o, a )olta'e
(etween two consecuti)e le)els sustained ,or de,inite (ut uns4eci,ied durations?
8
)olta'e di4 Seesa'?
)olta'e distortion istortion o, t#e ac line )olta'e? See distortion?
)olta'e ,luctuation A series o, )olta'e c#an'es or a cyclical )ariation o, t#e
)olta'e en)elo4e?
8
)olta'e im(alance Cun(alanceD A condition in w#ic# t#e t#ree%4#ase )olta'es di,,er in
am4litude or are dis4laced ,rom t#eir normal 1-> de'ree 4#ase
relations#i4 or (ot#? /re2uently e74ressed as t#e ratio o, t#e ne'ati)ese2uence or @ero%
se2uence )olta'e to t#e 4ositi)e%se2uence )olta'e, in 4ercent?
)olta'e interru4tion isa44earance o, t#e su44ly )olta'e on one or more
4#ases? !sually 2uali,ied (y an additional term indicatin' t#e duration o, t#e
interru4tion Ce?'?, momentary, tem4orary, or sustainedD?
)olta'e re'ulation T#e de'ree o, control or sta(ility o, t#e rms )olta'e at t#e
load? O,ten s4eci,ied in relation to ot#er 4arameters, suc# as in4ut%)olta'e
c#an'es, load c#an'es, or tem4erature c#an'es?
)olta'e ma'ni,ication T#e ma'ni,ication o, ca4acitor switc#in' oscillatory
transient )olta'e on t#e 4rimary side (y ca4acitors on t#e secondary side o, a
trans,ormer?
wa)e,orm distortion A steady%state de)iation ,rom an ideal sine wa)e o,
4ower ,re2uency 4rinci4ally c#aracteri@ed (y t#e s4ectral content o, t#e
de)iation?
-?11 Am(i'uous Terms
.uc# o, t#e #istory o, t#e 4ower 2uality mo)ement #as (een mar+ed (y
a ,air amount o, #y4e as a num(er o, e2ui4ment )endors #a)e Aoc+eyed
,or 4osition in t#e mar+et4lace? T#is (oo+ attem4ts to a44ly a stron'
en'ineerin' inter4retation o, all areas o, 4ower 2uality and remo)e t#e
#y4e and mystery? .ar+eters #a)e created many color,ul 4#rases to
entice 4otential customers to (uy? !n,ortunately, many o, t#ese terms
are am(i'uous and cannot (e used ,or tec#nical de,initions?
Terms and e,initions 3=
T#e ,ollowin' words are commonly used (ut #a)e a )ariety o, meanin's or no meanin'
at all? /or e7am4le, w#at is a G4ower sur'eH$ T#is
term #as 4ro(a(ly (een used at some time to descri(e eac# o, t#e distur(ance 4#enomena
descri(ed in t#is (oo+? Is t#ere really a sur'e in
t#e 4ower$ Or is it only t#e )olta'e$ Power is related to t#e 4roduct o,
)olta'e and current? Normally, )olta'e is t#e 2uantity causin' t#e
o(ser)ed distur(ance and t#e resultin' 4ower will not necessarily (e
directly 4ro4ortional to t#e )olta'e? T#e solution will 'enerally (e to
correct or limit t#e )olta'e as o44osed to doin' somet#in' to address
t#e 4ower? T#ere,ore, t#e ,ollowin' terms are meanin'less in terms o,
descri(in' an e)ent and determinin' a solution?
*lac+out 0litc#
*lin+ Outa'e
*rownout Interru4tion
*um4 Power sur'e
Clean 'round Raw 4ower
Clean 4ower S4i+e
irty 'round Sur'e
irty 4ower "in+
T#e un2uali,ied use o, t#ese words ,or descri(in' 4ower 2uality 4#enomena is
discoura'ed? Try to use t#e standard terms w#ere 4ossi(le,
or 2uali,y nonstandard terms wit# a44ro4riate e74lanation?
-?1- C*E.A and ITI Cur)es
One o, t#e most ,re2uently em4loyed dis4lays o, data to re4resent t#e
4ower 2uality is t#e so%called C*E.A cur)e? A 4ortion o, t#e cur)e
ada4ted ,rom IEEE Standard 558
=
t#at we ty4ically use in our analysis o, 4ower 2uality monitorin' results is s#own in /i'?
-?16? T#is cur)e
was ori'inally de)elo4ed (y C*E.A to descri(e t#e tolerance o, main,rame com4uter
e2ui4ment to t#e ma'nitude and duration o, )olta'e
)ariations on t#e 4ower system? "#ile many modern com4uters #a)e
'reater tolerance t#an t#is, t#e cur)e #as (ecome a standard desi'n
tar'et ,or sensiti)e e2ui4ment to (e a44lied on t#e 4ower system and a
common ,ormat ,or re4ortin' 4ower 2uality )ariation data?
T#e a7es re4resent ma'nitude and duration o, t#e e)ent? Points
(elow t#e en)elo4e are 4resumed to cause t#e load to dro4 out due to
lac+ o, ener'y? Points a(o)e t#e en)elo4e are 4resumed to cause ot#er
mal,unctions suc# as insulation ,ailure, o)er)olta'e tri4, and o)ere7citation? T#e u44er
cur)e is actually de,ined down to >?>>1 cycle w#ere
it #as a )alue o, a(out 396 4ercent )olta'e? "e ty4ically em4loy t#e
cur)e only ,rom >?1 cycle and #i'#er due to limitations in 4ower 2ual%5> C#a4ter Two
ity monitorin' instruments and di,,erences in o4inion o)er de,inin' t#e
ma'nitude )alues in t#e su(cycle time ,rame?
T#e C*E.A or'ani@ation #as (een re4laced (y ITI,1>
and a modi,ied
cur)e #as (een de)elo4ed t#at s4eci,ically a44lies to common 1->%& com4uter
e2ui4ment Csee /i'? -?18D? T#e conce4t is similar to t#e C*E.A
cur)e? Alt#ou'# de)elo4ed ,or 1->%& com4uter e2ui4ment, t#e cur)e #as
(een a44lied to 'eneral 4ower 2uality e)aluation li+e its 4redecessor cur)e?
*ot# cur)es are used as a re,erence in t#is (oo+ to de,ine t#e wit#stand ca4a(ility o,
)arious loads and de)ices ,or 4rotection ,rom 4ower
2uality )ariations? /or dis4lay o, lar'e 2uantities o, 4ower 2uality monitorin' data, we
,re2uently add a t#ird a7is to t#e 4lot to denote t#e
num(er o, e)ents wit#in a certain 4rede,ined cell o, ma'nitude and
duration? I, restricted to Aust t#e two%dimensional )iews s#own in /i'?
-?18, t#e 4lot tends to turn into a solid mass o, 4oints o)er time, w#ic#
is not use,ul?
-?13 Re,erences
1? TC99"08 CSecretaryD 11>%R6, ra,t Classi,ication o, Electroma'netic
En)ironments,Yanuary 1==1?
-? IEEE Standard 116=%1==6, Recommended Practice on .onitorin' Electric Power?
3? IEC 6> C181D, International Electrotec#nical &oca(ulary,c#a4? 181: GElectroma'netic
Com4ati(ility,H 1=:=?
5? !IE%"0%3%=-%0, 0uide to Quality o, Electrical Su44ly ,or Industrial
InstallationsPPart 1: 0eneral Introduction to Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD,
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
15>
18>
1:>
>?1 1 1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>> 1>>>>>
:9I
1>8I
Percent
Com4uter &olta'e
Tolerance En)elo4e
Time in Cycles C8> H@D
&olta'e
/i'ure -?16 A 4ortion o, t#e C*E.A cur)e commonly used as a desi'n tar'et ,or
e2ui4ment and a ,ormat ,or re4ortin' 4ower 2uality )ariation data?
Ty4es o, istur(ances and Rele)ant Standards?Ad)ance !IE Edition? Gistur(ancesH
"or+in' 0rou4 0T -?
6? !IE%"0%-%=-%, !IE 0uide to .easurements o, &olta'e i4s and S#ort
Interru4tions Occurrin' in Industrial Installations?
8? IEC 81>>>%-%1C1==>%>6D, Gescri4tion o, t#e En)ironmentPElectroma'netic
En)ironment ,or 1ow /re2uency Conducted istur(ances and Si'nalin' in Pu(lic
Power Su44ly Systems,H Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CDPPart -,
En)ironment, Section 1, 1==>?
9? ANSION/PA 9>%1==3, National Electrical Code?
:? IEEE Standard 1>>%1==-, IEEE Standard ictionary o, Electrical and Electronic
Terms?
=? IEEE Standard 558%1=:9, IEEE Recommended Practice ,or Emer'ency and Stand(y
Power Systems ,or Industrial and Commercial A44licationsCIEEE Oran'e *oo+D?
1>? In,ormation Tec#nolo'y Industry Council CITID, 1-6> Eye Street N", Suite ->>,
"as#in'ton, ?C? C#tt4:OOwww?itic?or'D?
11? IEC 81>>>%5%3> 99AO368OC&, Power Quality .easurement .et#ods,->>1?
1-? IEC 81>>>%5%16, /lic+er .eterP/unctional and esi'n S4eci,ications,1==9?
5- C#a4ter Two
/i'ure -?18 ITI cur)e ,or susce4ti(ility o, 1->%& com4uter e2ui4ment?
>?>>1c >?>1c >?1c >?6c 1c 1>c 1>>c 1>>>c
1 s 1ms 3ms ->ms >?6s 1>sSteady
State
uration o, istur(ance in Cycles CcD and Seconds CsD
A44lica(le to 1->, 1->O->:, and
1->O-5> Nominal &olta'es
&olta'e Tolerance
En)elo4e
>
5>
9>
:>
=>
1>>
11>
1->
15>
->>
3>>
5>>
6>>
53
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions
&olta'e sa's and interru4tions are related 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
*ot# are usually t#e result o, ,aults in t#e 4ower system and switc#in'
actions to isolate t#e ,aulted sections? T#ey are c#aracteri@ed (y rms
)olta'e )ariations outside t#e normal o4eratin' ran'e o, )olta'es?
A)olta'e sa'is a s#ort%duration Cty4ically >?6 to 3> cyclesD reduction
in rms )olta'e caused (y ,aults on t#e 4ower system and t#e startin'
o, lar'e loads, suc# as motors? .omentary interru4tions Cty4ically no
more t#an - to 6 sD cause a com4lete loss o, )olta'e and are a common
result o, t#e actions ta+en (y utilities to clear transient ,aults on t#eir
systems? Sustained interru4tions o, lon'er t#an 1 min are 'enerally
due to 4ermanent ,aults?
!tilities #a)e (een ,aced wit# risin' num(ers o, com4laints a(out
t#e 2uality o, 4ower due to sa's and interru4tions? T#ere are a num(er
o, reasons ,or t#is, wit# t#e most im4ortant (ein' t#at customers in all
sectors Cresidential, commercial, and industrialD #a)e more sensiti)e
loads? T#e in,lu7 o, di'ital com4uters and ot#er ty4es o, electronic controls is at t#e #eart
o, t#e 4ro(lem? Com4uter controls tend to lose t#eir
memory, and t#e 4rocesses t#at are (ein' controlled also tend to (e
more com4le7 and, t#ere,ore, ta+e muc# more time to restart?
Industries are relyin' more on automated e2ui4ment to ac#ie)e ma7imum 4roducti)ity to
remain com4etiti)e? T#us, an interru4tion #as
considera(le economic im4act?
1,3
3?1 Sources o, Sa's and Interru4tions
&olta'e sa's and interru4tions are 'enerally caused (y ,aults Cs#ort
circuitsD on t#e utility system?
5
Consider a customer t#at is su44lied
,rom t#e ,eeder su44lied (y circuit (rea+er 1 on t#e dia'ram s#own in
C#a4ter
3
/i'? 3?1? I, t#ere is a ,ault on t#e same ,eeder, t#e customer will e74erience a )olta'e sa'
durin' t#e ,ault ,ollowed (y an interru4tion w#en
t#e (rea+er o4ens to clear t#e ,ault? I, t#e ,ault is tem4orary in nature,
a reclosin' o4eration on t#e (rea+er s#ould (e success,ul and t#e interru4tion will only (e
tem4orary? It will usually re2uire a(out 6 or 8
cycles ,or t#e (rea+er to o4erate, durin' w#ic# time a )olta'e sa'
occurs? T#e (rea+er will remain o4en ,or ty4ically a minimum o, 1-
cycles u4 to 6 s de4endin' on utility reclosin' 4ractices? Sensiti)e
e2ui4ment will almost surely tri4 durin' t#is interru4tion?
A muc# more common e)ent would (e a ,ault on one o, t#e ot#er ,eeders ,rom t#e
su(station, i?e?, a ,ault on a 4arallel ,eeder, or a ,ault somew#ere on t#e transmission
system Csee t#e ,ault locations s#own in /i'?
3?1D? In eit#er o, t#ese cases, t#e customer will e74erience a )olta'e sa'
durin' t#e 4eriod t#at t#e ,ault is actually on t#e system? As soon as
(rea+ers o4en to clear t#e ,ault, normal )olta'e will (e restored at t#e
customer?
Note t#at to clear t#e ,ault s#own on t#e transmission system, (ot#
(rea+ers A and * must o4erate? Transmission (rea+ers will ty4ically
clear a ,ault in 6 or 8 cycles? In t#is case t#ere are two lines su44lyin'
t#e distri(ution su(station and only one #as a ,ault? T#ere,ore, customers su44lied ,rom
t#e su(station s#ould e74ect to see only a sa' and
not an interru4tion? T#e distri(ution ,ault on ,eeder 5 may (e cleared
eit#er (y t#e lateral ,use or t#e (rea+er, de4endin' on t#e utilityFs ,usesa)in' 4ractice?
Any o, t#ese ,ault locations can cause e2ui4ment to miso4erate in
customer ,acilities? T#e relati)e im4ortance o, ,aults on t#e transmis%55 C#a4ter T#ree
116 +&
13?: +&
S10 /ault
TRANS.ISSION ISTRI*!TION
1
-
3
5
A
* C
E/
S10 /ault
/i'ure 3?1 /ault locations on t#e utility 4ower system?
sion system and t#e distri(ution system will de4end on t#e s4eci,ic
c#aracteristics o, t#e systems Cunder'round )ersus o)er#ead distri(ution, li'#tnin' ,las#
densities, o)er#ead e74osure, etc?D and t#e sensiti)ity o, t#e e2ui4ment to )olta'e sa's?
/i'ure 3?- s#ows an e7am4le o,
t#e (rea+down o, t#e e)ents t#at caused e2ui4ment miso4eration ,or
one industrial customer? Note t#at ,aults on t#e customer ,eeder only
accounted ,or -3 4ercent o, t#e e)ents t#at resulted in e2ui4ment
miso4eration? T#is illustrates t#e im4ortance o, understandin' t#e
)olta'e sa' 4er,ormance o, t#e system and t#e e2ui4ment sensiti)ity to
t#ese e)ents?
/i'ures 3?3 and 3?5 s#ow an interestin' utility ,ault e)ent recorded
,or an Electric Power Researc# Institute researc# 4roAect
5,11
(y :>1>
PQNodeZ instruments at two locations in t#e 4ower system? T#e to4
c#art in eac# o, t#e ,i'ures is t#e rms )olta'e )ariation wit# time, and
t#e (ottom c#art is t#e ,irst 196 ms o, t#e actual wa)e,orm? /i'ure 3?3
s#ows t#e c#aracteristic measured at a customer location on an
un,aulted 4art o, t#e ,eeder? /i'ure 3?5 s#ows t#e momentary interru4tion Cactually two
se4arate interru4tionsD o(ser)ed downline ,rom
t#e ,ault? T#e interru4tin' de)ice in t#is case was a line recloser t#at
was a(le to interru4t t#e ,ault )ery 2uic+ly in a(out -?6 cycles? T#is
de)ice can #a)e a )ariety o, settin's? In t#is case, it was set ,or two ,ast
o4erations and two delayed o4erations? /i'ure 3?3 s#ows only t#e (rie,
sa' to 86 4ercent )olta'e ,or t#e ,irst ,ast o4eration? T#ere was an identical sa' ,or t#e
second o4eration? "#ile t#is is )ery (rie, sa' t#at is )irtually unnoticea(le (y o(ser)in'
li'#tin' (lin+s, many industrial
4rocesses would #a)e s#ut down?
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions 56
/aults on Own
Circuit
-3I
/aults on Parallel
Circuits
58I
/aults on
Transmission
System
31I
/i'ure 3?- E7am4le o, ,ault locations t#at caused miso4eration o, sensiti)e 4roduction
e2ui4ment at an industrial ,acility Ct#e e7am4le system
#ad multi4le o)er#ead distri(ution ,eeders and an e7tensi)e o)er#ead
transmission system su44lyin' t#e su(stationD?
ZPQNode is a re'istered trademar+ o, ranet@%*.I, Edison, N?Y?
/i'ure 3?5 clearly s#ows t#e )olta'e sa' 4rior to ,ault clearin' and
t#e su(se2uent two ,ast recloser o4erations? T#e reclose time Ct#e time
t#e recloser was o4enD was a little more t#an - s, a )ery common time
,or a utility line recloser? A44arently, t#e ,aultP4er#a4s, a tree
(ranc#Pwas not cleared com4letely (y t#e ,irst o4eration, ,orcin' a
second? T#e system was restored a,ter t#e second o4eration?
T#ere are a ,ew t#in's to note a(out t#is ty4ical e)ent t#at will tie in
wit# ot#er material in t#is (oo+:
1? T#e )olta'e did not 'o to @ero durin' t#e ,ault as is o,ten assumed in te7t(oo+
e7am4les? T#ere are ,ew e7am4les o, t#e te7t(oo+ case in real li,e?
-? T#e line recloser detected t#e ,ault and o4erated )ery 2uic+ly? T#ere
is a common misconce4tion t#at ,ault interru4tion is slower on t#e
distri(ution system t#an on t#e transmission system? "#ile it can
(e slower, it can also (e ,aster?
3? Since t#e )olta'e did not colla4se to @ero durin' t#e ,ault, induction
mac#ines will continue to #a)e e7citation and continue to ,eed t#e
58 C#a4ter T#ree
P#ase * &olta'e
R.S &ariation
PQNode 1ocal
Tri''er
8>
9>
:>
=>
1>>
11>
1->
&olta'e CID
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
&olta'e CID
Time CsD
> >?>6 >?1 >?16 >?- >?-6 >?3
Time CmsD
> -6 6> 96 1>> 1-6 16> 196 ->>
uration
>?>6> s
.in 86?:>
A)e =>?1>
.a7 1>>?6
/i'ure 3?3 &olta'e sa' due to a s#ort%circuit ,ault on a 4arallel utility ,eeder?
,ault? T#is can (e an es4ecially im4ortant consideration ,or distri(uted 'eneration CC#a4?
=D?
3?- Estimatin' &olta'e Sa' Per,ormance
It is im4ortant to understand t#e e74ected )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance o,
t#e su44ly system so t#at ,acilities can (e desi'ned and e2ui4ment
s4eci,ications de)elo4ed to assure t#e o4timum o4eration o, 4roduction
,acilities? T#e ,ollowin' is a 'eneral 4rocedure ,or wor+in' wit# industrial customers to
assure com4ati(ility (etween t#e su44ly system
c#aracteristics and t#e ,acility o4eration:
1? etermine t#e num(er and c#aracteristics o, )olta'e sa's t#at
result ,rom transmission system ,aults?
-? etermine t#e num(er and c#aracteristics o, )olta'e sa's t#at
result ,rom distri(ution system ,aults C,or ,acilities t#at are su44lied
,rom distri(ution systemsD?
P#ase * &olta'e
R.S &ariation
>
>1-3568
> -6 6> 96 1>> 1-6 16> 196 ->>
V1>>
V96
V6>
V-6
>
-6
6>
96
1>>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
&olta'e CID
&olta'e CID
Time CsD
Time CmsD
PQNode 1ocal
Tri''er
uration
5?=:3 s
.in -?-69
A)e :?91-
.a7 1>>?-
/i'ure 3?5 !tility s#ort%circuit ,ault e)ent wit# two ,ast tri4 o4erations o, utility
line recloser?
11
3? etermine t#e e2ui4ment sensiti)ity to )olta'e sa's? T#is will
determine t#e actual 4er,ormance o, t#e 4roduction 4rocess (ased
on )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance calculated in ste4s 1 and -?
5? E)aluate t#e economics o, di,,erent solutions t#at could im4ro)e t#e
4er,ormance, eit#er on t#e su44ly system C,ewer )olta'e sa'sD or
wit#in t#e customer ,acility C(etter immunityD?
T#e ste4s in t#is 4rocedure are discussed in more detail t#rou'#out
t#is c#a4ter?
3?-?1 Area o, )ulnera(ility
T#e conce4t o, an area o, )ulnera(ility#as (een de)elo4ed to #el4 e)aluate t#e li+eli#ood
o, sensiti)e e2ui4ment (ein' su(Aected to )olta'e
lower t#an its minimum )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility?6
T#e latter
term is de,ined as t#e minimum )olta'e ma'nitude a 4iece o, e2ui4ment
can wit#stand or tolerate wit#out miso4eration or ,ailure? T#is is also
+nown as t#e e2ui4ment )olta'e sa' immunity or susce4ti(ility limit?
An area o, )ulnera(ility is determined (y t#e total circuit miles o, e74osure to ,aults t#at
can cause )olta'e ma'nitudes at an end%user ,acility
to dro4 (elow t#e e2ui4ment minimum )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility? /i'ure 3?6
s#ows an e7am4le o, an area o, )ulnera(ility dia'ram
,or motor contactor and adAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e loads at an end%user
,acility ser)ed ,rom t#e distri(ution system? T#e loads will (e su(Aect to
,aults on (ot# t#e transmission system and t#e distri(ution system? T#e
actual num(er o, )olta'e sa's t#at a ,acility can e74ect is determined (y
5: C#a4ter T#ree
116 +&
13?: +&
1
-
3
5
A
* C
E/
AREA O/ &!1NERA*I1IT;
/OR .OTOR CONTACTORS
AREA O/ &!1NERA*I1IT;
/OR ASs
1OA
/i'ure 3?6 Illustration o, an area o, )ulnera(ility?
com(inin' t#e area o, )ulnera(ility wit# t#e e74ected ,ault 4er,ormance
,or t#is 4ortion o, t#e 4ower system? T#e e74ected ,ault 4er,ormance is
usually determined ,rom #istorical data?
3?-?- E2ui4ment sensiti)ity to )olta'e sa's
E2ui4ment wit#in an end%user ,acility may #a)e di,,erent sensiti)ity to
)olta'e sa's?
:
E2ui4ment sensiti)ity to )olta'e sa's is )ery de4endent
on t#e s4eci,ic load ty4e, control settin's, and a44lications?
Conse2uently, it is o,ten di,,icult to identi,y w#ic# c#aracteristics o, a
'i)en )olta'e sa' are most li+ely to cause e2ui4ment to miso4erate?
T#e most commonly used c#aracteristics are t#e duration and ma'nitude o, t#e sa'? Ot#er
less commonly used c#aracteristics include
4#ase s#i,t and un(alance, missin' )olta'e, t#ree%4#ase )olta'e un(alance durin' t#e sa'
e)ent, and t#e 4oint%in%t#e%wa)e at w#ic# t#e sa'
initiates and terminates? 0enerally, e2ui4ment sensiti)ity to )olta'e
sa's can (e di)ided into t#ree cate'ories:
T E2ui4ment sensiti)e to only t#e ma'nitude o, a )olta'e sa'? T#is
'rou4 includes de)ices suc# as under)olta'e relays, 4rocess controls,
motor dri)e controls,8
and many ty4es o, automated mac#ines Ce?'?,
semiconductor manu,acturin' e2ui4mentD? e)ices in t#is 'rou4 are
sensiti)e to t#e minimum Cor ma7imumD )olta'e ma'nitude e74erienced durin' a sa' Cor
swellD? T#e duration o, t#e distur(ance is usually o, secondary im4ortance ,or t#ese
de)ices?
T E2ui4ment sensiti)e to (ot# t#e ma'nitude and duration o, a )olta'e
sa'? T#is 'rou4 includes )irtually all e2ui4ment t#at uses electronic 4ower su44lies? Suc#
e2ui4ment miso4erates or ,ails w#en t#e
4ower su44ly out4ut )olta'e dro4s (elow s4eci,ied )alues? T#us, t#e
im4ortant c#aracteristic ,or t#is ty4e o, e2ui4ment is t#e duration
t#at t#e rms )olta'e is (elow a s4eci,ied t#res#old at w#ic# t#e
e2ui4ment tri4s?
T E2ui4ment sensiti)e to c#aracteristics ot#er t#an ma'nitude and
duration? Some de)ices are a,,ected (y ot#er sa' c#aracteristics
suc# as t#e 4#ase un(alance durin' t#e sa' e)ent, t#e 4oint%in%t#ewa)e at w#ic# t#e sa' is
initiated, or any transient oscillations occurrin' durin' t#e distur(ance? T#ese
c#aracteristics are more su(tle
t#an ma'nitude and duration, and t#eir im4acts are muc# more di,,icult to 'enerali@e? As
a result, t#e rms )ariation 4er,ormance
indices de,ined #ere are ,ocused on t#e more common ma'nitude and
duration c#aracteristics?
/or end users wit# sensiti)e 4rocesses, t#e )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'#
ca4a(ility is usually t#e most im4ortant c#aracteristic to consider?
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions 5=
T#ese loads can 'enerally (e im4acted (y )ery s#ort duration e)ents,
and )irtually all )olta'e sa' conditions last at least 5 or 6 cycles Cunless
t#e ,ault is cleared (y a current%limitin' ,useD? T#us, one o, t#e most
common met#ods to 2uanti,y e2ui4ment susce4ti(ility to )olta'e sa's
is usin' a ma'nitude%duration 4lot as s#own in /i'? 3?8? It s#ows t#e
)olta'e sa' ma'nitude t#at will cause e2ui4ment to miso4erate as a
,unction o, t#e sa' duration?
T#e cur)e la(eled C*E.A re4resents ty4ical e2ui4ment sensiti)ity c#aracteristics? T#e
cur)e was de)elo4ed (y t#e C*E.A and was ado4ted in
IEEE 558 COran'e *oo+D? Since t#e association reor'ani@ed in 1==5 and was
su(se2uently renamed t#e In,ormation Tec#nolo'y Industry Council CITID,
t#e C*E.A cur)e was also u4dated and renamed t#e ITI cur)e? Ty4ical
loads will li+ely tri4 o,, w#en t#e )olta'e is (elow t#e C*E.A, or ITI, cur)e?
T#e cur)e la(eled AS re4resents an e7am4le AS )olta'e sa' ridet#rou'# ca4a(ility ,or
a de)ice t#at is )ery sensiti)e to )olta'e sa's? It
tri4s ,or sa's (elow >?= 4u t#at last ,or only 5 cycles? T#e contactor
cur)e re4resents ty4ical contactor sa' ride%t#rou'# c#aracteristics? It
tri4s ,or )olta'e sa's (elow >?6 4u t#at last ,or more t#an 1 cycle?
T#e area o, )ulnera(ility ,or motor contactors s#own in /i'? 3?6 indicates t#at ,aults
wit#in t#is area will cause t#e end%user )olta'e to
dro4 (elow >?6 4u? .otor contactors #a)in' a minimum )olta'e sa'
ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility o, >?6 4u would #a)e tri44ed out w#en a ,ault
6> C#a4ter T#ree
1>V1 1>> 1>1 1>- 1>3
>
1>
->
3>
5>
6>
8>
9>
:>
=>
1>>
uration CcyclesD
ITIC
C*E.A
ASs
.otor
contactors
Runnin'
Sto44ed
Runnin'
Sto44ed
ITI
C*E.A
ASs
.otor
contactors
Runnin'
Sto44ed
Runnin'
Sto44ed
Percent o, nominal )olta'e Crms or 4ea+ e2ui)alentD
/i'ure 3?8 Ty4ical e2ui4ment )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility cur)es?
causin' a )olta'e sa' wit# duration o, more t#an 1 cycle occurs wit#in
t#e area o, )ulnera(ility? Howe)er, ,aults outside t#is area will not
cause t#e )olta'e to dro4 (elow >?6 4u? T#e same discussion a44lies to
t#e area o, )ulnera(ility ,or AS loads? T#e less sensiti)e t#e e2ui4ment, t#e smaller t#e
area o, )ulnera(ility will (e Cand t#e ,ewer times
sa's will cause t#e e2ui4ment to miso4erateD?
3?-?3 Transmission system sa'
4er,ormance e)aluation
T#e )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance ,or a 'i)en customer ,acility will de4end on
w#et#er t#e customer is su44lied ,rom t#e transmission system or ,rom
t#e distri(ution system? /or a customer su44lied ,rom t#e transmission
system, t#e )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance will de4end on only t#e transmission
system ,ault 4er,ormance? On t#e ot#er #and, ,or a customer su44lied
,rom t#e distri(ution system, t#e )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance will de4end on
t#e ,ault 4er,ormance on (ot# t#e transmission and distri(ution systems?
T#is section discusses 4rocedures to estimate t#e transmission system contri(ution to t#e
o)erall )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance at a ,acility?
Section 3?-?5 ,ocuses on t#e distri(ution system contri(ution to t#e
o)erall )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance?
Transmission line ,aults and t#e su(se2uent o4enin' o, t#e 4rotecti)e de)ices rarely
cause an interru4tion ,or any customer (ecause o,
t#e interconnected nature o, most modern%day transmission networ+s?
T#ese ,aults do, #owe)er, cause )olta'e sa's? e4endin' on t#e e2ui4ment sensiti)ity, t#e
unit may tri4 o,,, resultin' in su(stantial monetary losses? T#e a(ility to estimate t#e
e74ected )olta'e sa's at an
end%user location is t#ere,ore )ery im4ortant?
.ost utilities #a)e detailed s#ort%circuit models o, t#e interconnected transmission
system a)aila(le ,or 4ro'rams suc# as ASPENZ
One 1iner C/i'? 3?9D? T#ese 4ro'rams can calculate t#e )olta'e t#rou'#out t#e system
resultin' ,rom ,aults around t#e system? .any o, t#em
can also a44ly ,aults at locations alon' t#e transmission lines to #el4
calculate t#e area o, )ulnera(ility at a s4eci,ic location?
T#e area o, )ulnera(ility descri(es all t#e ,ault locations t#at can
cause e2ui4ment to miso4erate? T#e ty4e o, ,ault must also (e considered in t#is analysis?
Sin'le%line%to%'round ,aults will not result in t#e
same )olta'e sa' at t#e customer e2ui4ment as a t#ree%4#ase ,ault?
T#e c#aracteristics at t#e end%use e2ui4ment also de4end on #ow t#e
)olta'es are c#an'ed (y trans,ormer connections and #ow t#e e2ui4ment is connected,
i?e?, 4#ase%to%'round or 4#ase%to%4#ase? Ta(le 3?1
summari@es )olta'es at t#e customer trans,ormer secondary ,or a sin'le%line%to%'round
,ault at t#e 4rimary?
ZAd)anced Systems ,or Power En'ineerin', Inc?J www?as4eninc?com?
T#e relations#i4s in Ta(le 3?1 illustrate t#e ,act t#at a sin'le%lineto%'round ,ault on t#e
4rimary o, a delta%wye 'rounded trans,ormer
does not result in @ero )olta'e on any o, t#e 4#ase%to%'round or
4#ase%to%4#ase )olta'es on t#e secondary o, t#e trans,ormer? T#e
ma'nitude o, t#e lowest secondary )olta'e de4ends on #ow t#e
e2ui4ment is connected:
T E2ui4ment connected line%to%line would e74erience a minimum )olta'e o, 33 4ercent?
T E2ui4ment connected line%to%neutral would e74erience a minimum
)olta'e o, 6: 4ercent?
T#is illustrates t#e im4ortance o, (ot# trans,ormer connections and
t#e e2ui4ment connections in determinin' t#e actual )olta'e t#at
e2ui4ment will e74erience durin' a ,ault on t#e su44ly system?
.at# *ollen18
de)elo4ed t#e conce4t o, )olta'e sa' Gty4esH to descri(e
t#e di,,erent )olta'e sa' c#aracteristics t#at can (e e74erienced at t#e
end%user le)el ,or di,,erent ,ault conditions and system con,i'urations?
T#e ,i)e ty4es t#at can commonly (e e74erienced are illustrated in /i'?
3?:? T#ese ,ault ty4es can (e used to con)eniently summari@e t#e
6- C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?9 E7am4le o, modelin' t#e transmission system in a s#ort%circuit 4ro'ram ,or
calculation o, t#e area o, )ulnera(ility?
>?6: 1?>> >?6: >?>> 1?>> 1?>>
>?6: 1?>> >?6: >?33 >?:: >?::
>?33 >?:: >?:: P P P
>?:: >?:: >?33 >?6: 1?>> >?6:
TA*1E 3?1 Trans,ormer Secondary &olta'es wit# a Sin'le%1ine%to%0round
/ault on t#e Primary
Trans,ormer
connection P#ase%to%4#ase P#ase%to%neutral P#asor
C4rimaryOsecondaryD &a( &(c &ca &an &(n &cn dia'ram
Sa' Ty4e
One%4#ase
sa', 4#ase
s#i,t
Sa' Ty4e *
One%4#ase
sa', no 4#ase
s#i,t
P#ase
S#i,t
An'le
None
Sa' Ty4e C
Two%4#ase
sa', 4#ase
s#i,t
Sa' Ty4e E
Two%4#ase
sa', no 4#ase
s#i,t
Sa' Ty4e A
T#ree%4#ase
sa'
Note: T#ree%4#ase sa's
s#ould lead to relati)ely
(alanced conditionsJ
t#ere,ore, sa' ty4e A is a
su,,icient c#aracteri@ation
,or all t#ree%4#ase sa's?
Num(er o, P#ases
1- 3
/i'ure 3?: &olta'e sa' ty4es at end%use e2ui4ment t#at result ,rom di,,erent ty4es o,
,aults and trans,ormer connections?
e74ected 4er,ormance at a customer location ,or di,,erent ty4es o,
,aults on t#e su44ly system?
Ta(le 3?- is an e7am4le o, an area o, )ulnera(ility listin' 'i)in' all t#e
,ault locations t#at can result in )olta'e sa's (elow :> 4ercent at t#e customer e2ui4ment
Cin t#is case a customer wit# e2ui4ment connected
line%to%line and su44lied t#rou'# one delta%wye trans,ormer ,rom t#e
transmission system Tennessee 13-%+& (usD? T#e actual e74ected 4er,ormance is t#en
determined (y com(inin' t#e area o, )ulnera(ility wit#
t#e e74ected num(er o, ,aults wit#in t#is area o, )ulnera(ility?
T#e ,ault 4er,ormance is usually descri(ed in terms o, ,aults 4er 1>>
milesOyear CmiOyrD? .ost utilities maintain statistics o, ,ault 4er,ormance at all t#e
di,,erent transmission )olta'es? T#ese systemwide
statistics can (e used alon' wit# t#e area o, )ulnera(ility to estimate
t#e actual e74ected )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance? /i'ure 3?= 'i)es an e7am4le o, t#is ty4e o,
analysis? T#e ,i'ure s#ows t#e e74ected num(er o,
)olta'e sa's 4er year at t#e customer e2ui4ment due to transmission
system ,aults? T#e 4er,ormance is (ro+en down into t#e di,,erent sa'
ty4es (ecause t#e e2ui4ment sensiti)ity may (e di,,erent ,or sa's t#at
a,,ect all t#ree 4#ases )ersus sa's t#at only a,,ect one or two 4#ases?
3?-?5 !tility distri(ution system sa'
4er,ormance e)aluation
Customers t#at are su44lied at distri(ution )olta'e le)els are im4acted
(y ,aults on (ot# t#e transmission system and t#e distri(ution system?
T#e analysis at t#e distri(ution le)el must also include momentary
interru4tions caused (y t#e o4eration o, 4rotecti)e de)ices to clear t#e
,aults?
9
T#ese interru4tions will most li+ely tri4 out sensiti)e e2ui4ment? T#e e7am4le 4resented
in t#is section illustrates data re2uirements and com4utation 4rocedures ,or e)aluatin' t#e
e74ected )olta'e
sa' and momentary interru4tion 4er,ormance? T#e o)erall )olta'e sa'
4er,ormance at an end%user ,acility is t#e total o, t#e e74ected )olta'e
sa' 4er,ormance ,rom t#e transmission and distri(ution systems?
/i'ure 3?1> s#ows a ty4ical distri(ution system wit# multi4le ,eeders and ,used (ranc#es,
and 4rotecti)e de)ices? T#e utility 4rotection
sc#eme 4lays an im4ortant role in t#e )olta'e sa' and momentary
interru4tion 4er,ormance? T#e critical in,ormation needed to com4ute
)olta'e sa' 4er,ormance can (e summari@ed as ,ollows:
T Num(er o, ,eeders su44lied ,rom t#e su(station?
T A)era'e ,eeder len't#?
T A)era'e ,eeder reactance?
T S#ort%circuit e2ui)alent reactance at t#e su(station?
65 C#a4ter T#ree
TA*1E3?- Calculatin' E74ected Sa' Per,ormance at a S4eci,ic
Customer Site ,or a 0i)en &olta'e 1e)el
&olta'e at
*us monitored
/ault ty4e /aulted (us )olta'e (us C4uD Sa' ty4e
310 Tennessee 13- > A
310 Ne)ada 13- >?-3 A
310 Te7as 13- >?33 A
-10 Tennessee 13- >?3: C
-10 Ne)ada 13- >?51 C
310 Claytor 13- >?5- A
110 Tennessee 13- >?56
-10 Te7as 13- >?5: C
310 0len 1yn 13- >?5: A
310 Reusens 13- >?6 A
110 Ne)ada 13- >?6
1%1 Tennessee 13- >?6 C
-10 Claytor 13- >?6- C
1%1 Ne)ada 13- >?6- C
1%1 Te7as 13- >?66 C
-10 0len 1yn 13- >?69 C
1%1 Claytor 13- >?6= C
310 Ari@ona 13- >?6= A
-10 Reusens 13- >?6= C
110 Te7as 13- >?8
1%1 0len 1yn 13- >?83 C
110 Claytor 13- >?83
1%1 Reusens 13- >?86 C
310 O#io 13- >?86 A
110 0len 1yn 13- >?89
110 Reusens 13- >?89
-10 Ari@ona 13- >?89 C
-10 O#io 13- >?9 C
1%1 Ari@ona 13- >?9 C
310 /ieldale 13- >?9- A
1%1 O#io 13- >?93 C
-10 /ieldale 13- >?98 C
310 New Ham4s#ire 33 >?98 A
110 O#io 13- >?99
310 &ermont 33 >?99 A
1%1 /ieldale 13- >?9: C
110 Ari@ona 13- >?9:
-10 &ermont 33 >?9= C
1%1 &ermont 33 >?9= C
310 .innesota 33 >?: A
68 C#a4ter T#ree
/EEERS
1
-
3
5
S;STE.
SO!RCE
S!*STATION
/!SE
1ATERA1
*RANCH
1INE
REC1OSER REC1OSIN0
*REA<ERS
/i'ure 3?= Estimated )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance at customer e2ui4ment due to transmission
system ,aults?
/i'ure 3?1> Ty4ical distri(ution system illustratin' 4rotection de)ices?
T /eeder reactors, i, any?
T A)era'e ,eeder ,ault 4er,ormance w#ic# includes t#ree%4#ase%lineto%'round C310D
,aults and sin'le%line%to%'round CS10D ,aults in
,aults 4er mile 4er mont#? T#e ,eeder 4er,ormance data may (e a)aila(le ,rom 4rotection
lo's? Howe)er, data ,or ,aults t#at are cleared (y
downline ,uses or downline 4rotecti)e de)ices may (e di,,icult to
o(tain and t#is in,ormation may #a)e to (e estimated?
T#ere are two 4ossi(le locations ,or ,aults on t#e distri(ution systems,
i?e?, on t#e same ,eeder and on 4arallel ,eeders? An area o, )ulnera(ility de,inin' t#e total
circuit miles o, ,ault e74osures t#at can cause
)olta'e sa's (elow e2ui4ment sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility at a s4eci,ic
customer needs to (e de,ined? T#e com4utation o, t#e e74ected )olta'e
sa' 4er,ormance can (e 4er,ormed as ,ollows:
/aults on 4arallel ,eeders? &olta'e e74erienced at t#e end%user ,acility
,ollowin' a ,ault on 4arallel ,eeders can (e estimated (y calculatin' t#e
e74ected )olta'e ma'nitude at t#e su(station? T#e )olta'e ma'nitude
at t#e su(station is im4acted (y t#e ,ault im4edance and location, t#e
con,i'uration o, t#e 4ower system, and t#e system 4rotection sc#eme?
/i'ure 3?11 illustrates t#e e,,ect o, t#e distance (etween t#e su(station
and t#e ,ault locations ,or 310 and S10 ,aults on a radial distri(ution
system? T#e S10 ,ault cur)e s#ows t#e A%* 4#ase (us )olta'e on t#e
secondary o, a delta%wyeV'rounded ste4%down trans,ormer, wit# an A
4#ase%to%'round ,ault on t#e 4rimary? T#e actual )olta'e at t#e enduser location can (e
com4uted (y con)ertin' t#e su(station )olta'e
usin' Ta(le 3?1? T#e )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance ,or a s4eci,ic sensiti)e
e2ui4ment #a)in' t#e minimum ride%t#rou'# )olta'e o, )scan (e com4uted as ,ollows:
E4arallelC)sD N1E41N3E43
w#ereN1 andN3 are t#e ,ault 4er,ormance data ,or S10 and 310
,aults in ,aults 4er miles 4er mont#, and E41andE43 are t#e total circuit miles o, e74osure
to S10 and 310 ,aults on 4arallel ,eeders t#at
result in )olta'e sa's (elow t#e minimum ride%t#rou'# )olta'e )sat t#e
end%user location?
/aults on t#e same ,eeder? In t#is ste4 t#e e74ected )olta'e sa' ma'nitude at t#e end%user
location is com4uted as a ,unction o, ,ault location
on t#e same ,eeder? Note t#at, #owe)er, t#e com4utation is 4er,ormed
only ,or ,ault locations t#at will result in a sa' (ut will not result in a
momentary interru4tion, w#ic# will (e com4uted se4arately? E7am4les
o, suc# ,ault locations include ,aults (eyond a downline recloser or a
(ranc#ed ,use t#at is coordinated to clear (e,ore t#e su(station
recloser? T#e )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance ,or s4eci,ic sensiti)e e2ui4ment
wit# ride%t#rou'# )olta'e )s
is com4uted as ,ollows:
EsameC)sD N1Es1N3Es3
w#ereEs1andEs3are t#e total circuit miles o, e74osure to S10 and 310
on t#e same ,eeders t#at result in )olta'e sa's (elow )sat t#e end%user
location?
T#e total e74ected )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance ,or t#e minimum ridet#rou'# )olta'e )s
would (e t#e sum o, e74ected )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance on t#e 4arallel and t#e same
,eeders, i?e?, E4arallelC)sDEsameC)s
D?
T#e total e74ected sa' 4er,ormance can (e com4uted ,or ot#er )olta'e
t#res#olds, w#ic# t#en can (e 4lotted to 4roduce a 4lot similar to ones
in /i'? 3?=?
T#e e74ected interru4tion 4er,ormance at t#e s4eci,ied location can
(e determined (y t#e len't# o, e74osure t#at will cause a (rea+er or
ot#er 4rotecti)e de)ice in series wit# t#e customer ,acility to o4erate?
/or e7am4le, i, t#e 4rotection is desi'ned to o4erate t#e su(station
(rea+er ,or any ,ault on t#e ,eeder, t#en t#is len't# is t#e total e74osure len't#? T#e
e74ected num(er o, interru4tions can (e com4uted as
,ollows:
Eint 1int CN1N3D
w#ere1int is t#e total circuit miles o, e74osure to S10 and 310 t#at
results in interru4tions at an end%user ,acility?
6: C#a4ter T#ree
5>
3>
->
1>
>
6>
8>
9>
:>
=>
Sin'le%1ine%to%0round /ault
3%P#ase /ault
I *us &olta'e
P#ase A%*
istance ,rom Su(station to /ault C,tD
> -6>> 6>>> 96>> 1>>>> 1-6>> 16>>>
/i'ure 3?11 E7am4le o, )olta'e sa' ma'nitude at an end%user location as a ,unction o,
t#e ,ault location alon' a 4arallel ,eeder circuit?
3?3 /undamental Princi4les o, Protection
Se)eral t#in's can (e done (y t#e utility, end user, and e2ui4ment manu,acturer to reduce
t#e num(er and se)erity o, )olta'e sa's and to
reduce t#e sensiti)ity o, e2ui4ment to )olta'e sa's? /i'ure 3?1- illustrates )olta'e sa'
solution alternati)es and t#eir relati)e costs? As t#is
c#art indicates, it is 'enerally less costly to tac+le t#e 4ro(lem at its
lowest le)el, close to t#e load? T#e (est answer is to incor4orate ridet#rou'# ca4a(ility
into t#e e2ui4ment s4eci,ications t#emsel)es? T#is
essentially means +ee4in' 4ro(lem e2ui4ment out o, t#e 4lant, or at
least identi,yin' a#ead o, time 4ower conditionin' re2uirements?
Se)eral ideas, outlined #ere, could easily (e incor4orated into any com4anyFs e2ui4ment
4rocurement s4eci,ications to #el4 alle)iate 4ro(lems associated wit# )olta'e sa's:
1? E2ui4ment manu,acturers s#ould #a)e )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility cur)es
Csimilar to t#e ones s#own 4re)iouslyD a)aila(le to t#eir
customers so t#at an initial e)aluation o, t#e e2ui4ment can (e 4er,ormed? Customers
s#ould (e'in to demand t#at t#ese ty4es o, cur)es
(e made a)aila(le so t#at t#ey can 4ro4erly e)aluate e2ui4ment?
-? T#e com4any 4rocurin' new e2ui4ment s#ould esta(lis# a 4rocedure t#at rates t#e
im4ortance o, t#e e2ui4ment? I, t#e e2ui4ment
is critical in nature, t#e com4any must ma+e sure t#at ade2uate
3 % O)erall
Protection
Inside Plant
CONTRO1S
.OTORS
OTHER 1OAS
Sensiti)e Process .ac#ine
3
-
1
- % Controls
Protection
1 % E2ui4ment
S4eci,ications
!tility
Source
5
5 % !tility Solutions
/eeder or
0rou4 o,
.ac#ines
INCREASIN0 COST
Customer Solutions
/i'ure 3?1- A44roac#es ,or )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'#?
ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility is included w#en t#e e2ui4ment is 4urc#ased? I, t#e e2ui4ment is
not im4ortant or does not cause maAor
disru4tions in manu,acturin' or Aeo4ardi@e 4lant and 4ersonnel
sa,ety, )olta'e sa' 4rotection may not (e Austi,ied?
3? E2ui4ment s#ould at least (e a(le to ride t#rou'# )olta'e sa's wit#
a minimum )olta'e o, 9> 4ercent CITI cur)eD? T#e relati)e 4ro(a(ility o, e74eriencin' a
)olta'e sa' to 9> 4ercent or less o, nominal is
muc# less t#an e74eriencin' a sa' to => 4ercent or less o, nominal?
A more ideal ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility ,or s#ort%duration )olta'e sa's
would (e 6> 4ercent, as s4eci,ied (y t#e semiconductor industry in
Standard SE.I /%59?19
As we entertain solutions at #i'#er le)els o, a)aila(le 4ower, t#e
solutions 'enerally (ecome more costly? I, t#e re2uired ride%t#rou'#
cannot (e o(tained at t#e s4eci,ication sta'e, it may (e 4ossi(le to
a44ly an uninterru4ti(le 4ower su44ly C!PSD system or some ot#er
ty4e o, 4ower conditionin' to t#e mac#ine control? T#is is a44lica(le
w#en t#e mac#ines t#emsel)es can wit#stand t#e sa' or interru4tion,
(ut t#e controls would automatically s#ut t#em down?
At le)el 3 in /i'? 3?1-, some sort o, (ac+u4 4ower su44ly wit# t#e
ca4a(ility to su44ort t#e load ,or a (rie, 4eriod is re2uired? 1e)el 5 re4resents alterations
made to t#e utility 4ower system to si'ni,icantly
reduce t#e num(er o, sa's and interru4tions?
3?5 Solutions at t#e End%!ser 1e)el
Solutions to im4ro)e t#e relia(ility and 4er,ormance o, a 4rocess or
,acility can (e a44lied at many di,,erent le)els? T#e di,,erent tec#nolo'ies a)aila(le
s#ould (e e)aluated (ased on t#e s4eci,ic re2uirements
o, t#e 4rocess to determine t#e o4timum solution ,or im4ro)in' t#e
o)erall )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance? As illustrated in /i'? 3?1-, t#e solutions can (e
discussed at t#e ,ollowin' di,,erent le)els o, a44lication:
1?Protection ,or small loads Ke?'?, less t#an 6 +ilo)oltam4eres C+&ADL?
T#is usually in)ol)es 4rotection ,or e2ui4ment controls or small,
indi)idual mac#ines? .any times, t#ese are sin'le%4#ase loads t#at
need to (e 4rotected?
-?Protection ,or indi)idual e2ui4ment or 'rou4s o, e2ui4ment u4 to
a(out 3>> +&A? T#is usually re4resents a44lyin' 4ower conditionin' tec#nolo'ies wit#in
t#e ,acility ,or 4rotection o, critical e2ui4ment t#at can (e 'rou4ed to'et#er con)eniently?
Since usually not
all t#e loads in a ,acility need 4rotection, t#is can (e a )ery economical met#od o, dealin'
wit# t#e critical loads, es4ecially i, t#e need
,or 4rotection o, t#ese loads is addressed at t#e ,acility desi'n sta'e?
8> C#a4ter T#ree
3?Protection ,or lar'e 'rou4s o, loads or w#ole ,acilities at t#e low%)olta'e le)el?
Sometimes suc# a lar'e 4ortion o, t#e ,acility is critical
or needs 4rotection t#at it is reasona(le to consider 4rotectin' lar'e
'rou4s o, loads at a con)enient location Cusually t#e ser)ice
entranceD? New tec#nolo'ies are a)aila(le ,or consideration w#en
lar'e 'rou4s o, loads need 4rotection?
5?Protection at t#e medium%)olta'e le)el or on t#e su44ly system? I,
t#e w#ole ,acility needs 4rotection or im4ro)ed 4ower 2uality, solutions at t#e medium%
)olta'e le)el can (e considered?
T#e si@e ran'es in t#ese cate'ories are 2uite ar(itrary, and many o, t#e
tec#nolo'ies can (e a44lied o)er a wider ran'e o, si@es? T#e ,ollowin'
sections descri(e t#e maAor tec#nolo'ies a)aila(le and t#e le)els w#ere
t#ey can (e a44lied?
3?5?1 /erroresonant trans,ormers
/erroresonant trans,ormers, also called constant%)olta'e trans,ormers
CC&TsD, can #andle most )olta'e sa' conditions? CSee /i'? 3?13?D C&Ts
are es4ecially attracti)e ,or constant, low%4ower loads? &aria(le loads,
es4ecially wit# #i'# inrus# currents, 4resent more o, a 4ro(lem ,or
C&Ts (ecause o, t#e tuned circuit on t#e out4ut? /erroresonant trans,ormers are (asically
1:1 trans,ormers w#ic# are e7cited #i'# on t#eir
saturation cur)es, t#ere(y 4ro)idin' an out4ut )olta'e w#ic# is not si'ni,icantly a,,ected
(y in4ut )olta'e )ariations? A ty4ical ,erroresonant
trans,ormer sc#ematic circuit dia'ram is s#own in /i'? 3?15?
/i'ure 3?16 s#ows t#e )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# im4ro)ement o, a
4rocess controller ,ed ,rom a 1->%&A ,erroresonant trans,ormer? "it# t#e
C&T, t#e 4rocess controller can ride t#rou'# a )olta'e sa' down to 3>
4ercent o, nominal, as o44osed to :- 4ercent wit#out one? Notice #ow t#e
ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility is #eld constant at a certain le)el? T#e reason ,or
t#is is t#e small 4ower re2uirement o, t#e 4rocess controller, only 16 &A?
/erroresonant trans,ormers s#ould (e si@ed si'ni,icantly lar'er t#an
t#e load? /i'ure 3?18 s#ows t#e allowa(le )olta'e sa' as a 4ercenta'e
o, nominal )olta'e Ct#at will result in at least => 4ercent )olta'e on t#e
C&T out4utD )ersus ,erroresonant trans,ormer loadin', as s4eci,ied (y
one manu,acturer? At -6 4ercent o, loadin', t#e allowa(le )olta'e sa'
is 3> 4ercent o, nominal, w#ic# means t#at t#e C&T will out4ut o)er =>
4ercent normal )olta'e as lon' as t#e in4ut )olta'e is a(o)e 3> 4ercent?
T#is is im4ortant since t#e 4lant )olta'e rarely ,alls (elow 3> 4ercent
o, nominal durin' )olta'e sa' conditions? As t#e loadin' is increased,
t#e corres4ondin' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility is reduced, and w#en t#e ,erroresonant
trans,ormer is o)erloaded Ce?'?, 16> 4ercent loadin'D, t#e
)olta'e will colla4se to @ero?
8- C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?13 E7am4les o, commercially a)aila(le constant%)olta'e trans,ormers CC&TsD
Cwww?sola%#e)i%duty?comD?
1INE IN
PRI.AR;
"ININ0
NE!TRA1ININ0
"ININ0
CO.PENSATIN0
"ININ0
SECONAR;
"ININ0
CAPACITOR
1OA
/i'ure 3?15 Sc#ematic o, ,erroresonant constant%)olta'e trans,ormer?
3?5?- .a'netic synt#esi@ers
.a'netic synt#esi@ers use a similar o4eratin' 4rinci4le to C&Ts e7ce4t
t#ey are t#ree%4#ase de)ices and ta+e ad)anta'e o, t#e t#ree%4#ase
ma'netics to 4ro)ide im4ro)ed )olta'e sa' su44ort and re'ulation ,or
t#ree%4#ase loads? T#ey are a44lica(le o)er a si@e ran'e ,rom a(out 16
to ->> +&A and are ty4ically a44lied ,or 4rocess loads o, lar'er com4uter systems w#ere
)olta'e sa's or steady%state )olta'e )ariations are
im4ortant issues? A (loc+ dia'ram o, t#e 4rocess is s#own in /i'? 3?19?
Ener'y trans,er and line isolation are accom4lis#ed t#rou'# t#e use
o, nonlinear c#o+es? T#is eliminates 4ro(lems suc# as line noise? T#e
ac out4ut wa)e,orms are (uilt (y com(inin' distinct )olta'e 4ulses
Sin'le 1oo4 Process Controller
Time in Cycles
Percent
&olta'e
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
>?1 1 1> 1>> 1>>>
C*E.A
woutO/erro [,mr
wO/erro [,mr
/i'ure 3?16 &olta'e sa' im4ro)ement wit# ,erroresonant trans,ormer?
Percent 1oadin' o, /erroresonant Trans,ormer
In4ut &olta'e
.inimum I
>
1>
->
3>
5>
6>
8>
9>
:>
-6 6> 96 1>>
/i'ure 3?18 &olta'e sa' )ersus ,erroresonant trans,ormer loadin'?
,rom saturated trans,ormers? T#e wa)e,orm ener'y is stored in t#e saturated trans,ormers
and ca4acitors as current and )olta'e? T#is
ener'y stora'e ena(les t#e out4ut o, a clean wa)e,orm wit# little #armonic distortion?
/inally, t#ree%4#ase 4ower is su44lied t#rou'# a
@i'@a' trans,ormer? /i'ure 3?1: s#ows a ma'netic synt#esi@erFs )olta'e
sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility as com4ared to t#e C*E.A cur)e, as s4eci,ied (y one
manu,acturer?Z
3?5?3 Acti)e series com4ensators
Ad)ances in 4ower electronic tec#nolo'ies and new to4olo'ies ,or t#ese
de)ices #a)e resulted in new o4tions ,or 4ro)idin' )olta'e sa' ridet#rou'# su44ort to
critical loads? One o, t#e im4ortant new o4tions is
85 C#a4ter T#ree
"a)e,orm Synt#esis and
Inducti)e Ener'y Stora'e
Ca4aciti)e Ener'y
Stora'e
In4ut
Out4ut
Ener'y Trans,er and
1ine Isolation
/i'ure 3?19 *loc+ dia'ram o, ma'netic synt#esi@er?
Sa' uration in Cycles
Tri4 &olta'e
Percent
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
>?1 1 1> 1>> 1>>>
C*E.A
.a'? Syn?
/i'ure 3?1: .a'netic synt#esi@er )olta'e sa' ride%t#rou'# ca4a(ility?
Z1ie(ert Cor4oration?
a de)ice t#at can (oost t#e )olta'e (y inAectin' a )olta'e in series wit#
t#e remainin' )olta'e durin' a )olta'e sa' condition? T#ese are
re,erred to as acti)e series com4ensation de)ices?T#ey are a)aila(le in
si@e ran'es ,rom small sin'le%4#ase de)ices C1 to 6 +&AD to )ery lar'e
de)ices t#at can (e a44lied on t#e medium%)olta'e systems C- .&A and
lar'erD? /i'ure 3?1= is an e7am4le o, a small sin'le%4#ase com4ensator
t#at can (e used to 4ro)ide ride%t#rou'# su44ort ,or sin'le%4#ase loads?
A one%line dia'ram illustratin' t#e 4ower electronics t#at are used
to ac#ie)e t#e com4ensation is s#own in /i'? 3?->? "#en a distur(ance to t#e in4ut
)olta'e is detected, a ,ast switc# o4ens and t#e
4ower is su44lied t#rou'# t#e series%connected electronics? T#is circuit adds or su(tracts
a )olta'e si'nal to t#e in4ut )olta'e so t#at t#e
out4ut )olta'e remains wit#in a s4eci,ied tolerance durin' t#e distur(ance? T#e switc# is
)ery ,ast so t#at t#e distur(ance seen (y t#e
load is less t#an a 2uarter cycle in duration? T#is is ,ast enou'# to
a)oid 4ro(lems wit# almost all sensiti)e loads? T#e circuit can 4ro)ide )olta'e (oostin'
o, a(out 6> 4ercent, w#ic# is su,,icient ,or
almost all )olta'e sa' conditions?
/i'ure 3?1= E7am4le o, acti)e series com4ensator ,or sin'le%4#ase loads u4 to a(out
6 +&A Cwww?so,tswitc#?comD?
H
N
1OA
/i'ure 3?-> To4olo'y illustratin' t#e o4eration o, t#e acti)e series com4ensator?
3?5?5 On%line !PS
/i'ure 3?-1 s#ows a ty4ical con,i'uration o, an on%line !PS? In t#is
desi'n, t#e load is always ,ed t#rou'# t#e !PS? T#e incomin' ac 4ower
is recti,ied into dc 4ower, w#ic# c#ar'es a (an+ o, (atteries? T#is dc
4ower is t#en in)erted (ac+ into ac 4ower, to ,eed t#e load? I, t#e incomin' ac 4ower
,ails, t#e in)erter is ,ed ,rom t#e (atteries and continues to
su44ly t#e load? In addition to 4ro)idin' ride%t#rou'# ,or 4ower outa'es,
an on%line !PS 4ro)ides )ery #i'# isolation o, t#e critical load ,rom all
4ower line distur(ances? Howe)er, t#e on%line o4eration increases t#e
losses and may (e unnecessary ,or 4rotection o, many loads?
3?5?6 Stand(y !PS
A stand(y 4ower su44ly C/i'? 3?--D is sometimes termed o,,%line !PS
since t#e normal line 4ower is used to 4ower t#e e2ui4ment until a distur(ance is detected
and a switc# trans,ers t#e load to t#e (attery(ac+ed in)erter? T#e trans,er time ,rom t#e
normal source to t#e
(attery%(ac+ed in)erter is im4ortant? T#e C*E.A cur)e s#ows t#at :
ms is t#e lower limit on interru4tion t#rou'# ,or 4ower%conscious manu,acturers?
T#ere,ore a trans,er time o, 5 ms would ensure continuity o,
o4eration ,or t#e critical load? A stand(y 4ower su44ly does not ty4ically
4ro)ide any transient 4rotection or )olta'e re'ulation as does an on%line
!PS? T#is is t#e most common con,i'uration ,or commodity !PS units
a)aila(le at retail stores ,or 4rotection o, small com4uter loads?
!PS s4eci,ications include +ilo)oltam4ere ca4acity, dynamic and
static )olta'e re'ulation, #armonic distortion o, t#e in4ut current and
out4ut )olta'e, sur'e 4rotection, and noise attenuation? T#e s4eci,ications s#ould
indicate, or t#e su44lier s#ould ,urnis#, t#e test conditions
under w#ic# t#e s4eci,ications are )alid?
3?5?8 Hy(rid !PS
Similar in desi'n to t#e stand(y !PS, t#e #y(rid !PS C/i'? 3?-3D utili@es a )olta'e
re'ulator on t#e !PS out4ut to 4ro)ide re'ulation to t#e
88 C#a4ter T#ree
Recti,ierO
C#ar'er
In)erter
*attery
*an+
.anual
*y4ass
1ine
1oad
/i'ure 3?-1 On%line !PS?
load and momentary ride%t#rou'# w#en t#e trans,er ,rom normal to
!PS su44ly is made?
3?5?9 .otor%'enerator sets
.otor%'enerator C.%0D sets come in a wide )ariety o, si@es and con,i'urations? T#is is a
mature tec#nolo'y t#at is still use,ul ,or isolatin'
critical loads ,rom sa's and interru4tions on t#e 4ower system? T#e
conce4t is )ery sim4le, as illustrated in /i'? 3?-5? A motor 4owered (y
t#e line dri)es a 'enerator t#at 4owers t#e load? /lyw#eels on t#e same
s#a,t 4ro)ide 'reater inertia to increase ride%t#rou'# time? "#en t#e
line su,,ers a distur(ance, t#e inertia o, t#e mac#ines and t#e ,lyw#eels maintains t#e
4ower su44ly ,or se)eral seconds? T#is arran'ement may also (e used to se4arate
sensiti)e loads ,rom ot#er classes o,
distur(ances suc# as #armonic distortion and switc#in' transients?
"#ile sim4le in conce4t, .%0 sets #a)e disad)anta'es ,or some ty4es
o, loads:
1? T#ere are losses associated wit# t#e mac#ines, alt#ou'# t#ey are
not necessarily lar'er t#an t#ose in ot#er tec#nolo'ies descri(ed
#ere?
-? Noise and maintenance may (e issues wit# some installations?
Recti,ierO
C#ar'er
In)erter
*attery
*an+
Automatic
Trans,er
Switc#
1ine
1oad
Normal 1ine
/i'ure 3?-- Stand(y !PS?
Recti,ierO
C#ar'er
In)erter
*attery
*an+
/erroresonant
Trans,ormer
1ine
1oad
Normal 1ine
/i'ure 3?-3 Hy(rid !PS?
3? T#e ,re2uency and )olta'e dro4 durin' interru4tions as t#e mac#ine
slows? T#is may not wor+ well wit# some loads?
Anot#er ty4e o, .%0 set uses a s4ecial sync#ronous 'enerator called
a written%4ole motor t#at can 4roduce a constant 8>%H@ ,re2uency as
t#e mac#ine slows? It is a(le to su44ly a constant out4ut (y continually
c#an'in' t#e 4olarity o, t#e rotorFs ,ield 4oles? T#us, eac# re)olution
can #a)e a di,,erent num(er o, 4oles t#an t#e last one? Constant out4ut is maintained as
lon' as t#e rotor is s4innin' at s4eeds (etween
316> and 38>> re)olutions 4er minute Cr4mD? /lyw#eel inertia allows
t#e 'enerator rotor to +ee4 rotatin' at s4eeds a(o)e 316> r4m once
4ower s#uts o,,? T#e rotor wei'#t ty4ically 'enerates enou'# inertia to
+ee4 it s4innin' ,ast enou'# to 4roduce 8> H@ ,or 16 s under ,ull load?
Anot#er means o, com4ensatin' ,or t#e ,re2uency and )olta'e dro4
w#ile ener'y is (ein' e7tracted is to recti,y t#e out4ut o, t#e 'enerator
and ,eed it (ac+ into an in)erter? T#is allows more ener'y to (e
e7tracted, (ut also introduces losses and cost?
3?5?: /lyw#eel ener'y stora'e systems
.otor%'enerator sets are only one means to e74loit t#e ener'y stored in
,lyw#eels? A modern ,lyw#eel ener'y system uses #i'#%s4eed ,lyw#eels
and 4ower electronics to ac#ie)e sa' and interru4tion ride%t#rou'#
,rom 1> s to - min? /i'ure 3?-6 s#ows an e7am4le o, a ,lyw#eel used in
ener'y stora'e systems? "#ile .%0 sets ty4ically o4erate in t#e o4en
and are su(Aect to aerodynamic ,riction losses, t#ese ,lyw#eels o4erate
in a )acuum and em4loy ma'netic (earin's to su(stantially reduce
stand(y losses? esi'ns wit# steel rotors may s4in at a44ro7imately
1>,>>> r4m, w#ile t#ose wit# com4osite rotors may s4in at muc# #i'#er
s4eeds? Since t#e amount o, ener'y stored is 4ro4ortional to t#e s2uare
o, t#e s4eed, a 'reat amount o, ener'y can (e stored in a small s4ace?
8: C#a4ter T#ree
/1;"HEE1
.OTOR 0ENERATOR
1INE 1OA
/i'ure 3?-5 *loc+ dia'ram o, ty4ical .%0 set wit# ,lyw#eel?
T#e rotor ser)es as a one%4iece stora'e de)ice, motor, and 'enerator?
To store ener'y, t#e rotor is s4un u4 to s4eed as a motor? "#en ener'y
is needed, t#e rotor and armature act as a 'enerator? As t#e rotor slows
w#en ener'y is e7tracted, t#e control system automatically increases
t#e ,ield to com4ensate ,or t#e decreased )olta'e? T#e #i'#%s4eed ,lyw#eel ener'y
stora'e module would (e used in 4lace o, t#e (attery in
any o, t#e !PS conce4ts 4re)iously 4resented?
3?5?= Su4erconductin' ma'netic ener'y
stora'e CS.ESD de)ices
An S.ES de)ice can (e used to alle)iate )olta'e sa's and (rie, interru4tions?
-
T#e ener'y stora'e in an S.ES%(ased system is 4ro)ided (y
t#e electric ener'y stored in t#e current ,lowin' in a su4erconductin'
ma'net? Since t#e coil is lossless, t#e ener'y can (e released almost
instantaneously? T#rou'# )olta'e re'ulator and in)erter (an+s, t#is
ener'y can (e inAected into t#e 4rotected electrical system in less t#an 1
cycle to com4ensate ,or t#e missin' )olta'e durin' a )olta'e sa' e)ent?
/i'ure 3?-6 Cutaway )iew o, an inte'rated motor, 'enerator, and ,lyw#eel used ,or
ener'y stora'e systems?
CCourtesy o, Acti)e Power, Inc?D
T#e S.ES%(ased system #as se)eral ad)anta'es o)er (attery%(ased
!PS systems:
1? S.ES%(ased systems #a)e a muc# smaller ,oot4rint t#an (atteries
,or t#e same ener'y stora'e and 4ower deli)ery ca4a(ility?
13
-? T#e stored ener'y can (e deli)ered to t#e 4rotected system more
2uic+ly?
3? T#e S.ES system #as )irtually unlimited disc#ar'e and c#ar'e
duty cycles? T#e disc#ar'e and rec#ar'e cycles can (e 4er,ormed
t#ousands o, times wit#out any de'radation to t#e su4erconductin'
ma'net?
T#e rec#ar'e cycle is ty4ically less t#an => s ,rom ,ull disc#ar'e?
/i'ure 3?-8 s#ows t#e ,unctional (loc+ dia'ram o, a common system?
It consists o, a su4erconductin' ma'net, )olta'e re'ulators, ca4acitor
(an+s, a dc%to%dc con)erter, dc (rea+ers, in)erter modules, sensin' and
control e2ui4ment, and a series%inAection trans,ormer? T#e su4erconductin' ma'net is
constructed o, a nio(ium titanium CN(TiD conductor
and is cooled to a44ro7imately 5?- +el)in C<D (y li2uid #elium? T#e
cryo'enic re,ri'eration system is (ased on a two%sta'e recondenser?
T#e ma'net electrical leads use #i'#%tem4erature su4erconductor
CHTSD connections to t#e )olta'e re'ulator and controls? T#e ma'net
mi'#t ty4ically store a(out 3 me'aAoules C.YD?
9> C#a4ter T#ree
\
]
] ]
] \
&olta'e Re'ulator
and Controls
Ca4acitor
*an+
C%C
In)erter
C
*rea+er
In)erter
.odule
Sensin'
and Control
.a'net Power Su44ly
Su4erconductor .a'net
CO%Site ConnectionD
Series%InAection
Trans,ormer
!tility
0rid
Plant
1oad
Padmount
/i'ure 3?-8 Ty4ical 4ower 2ualityV)olta'e re'ulator CPQ%&RD ,unctional (loc+ dia'ram?
CCourtesy o, American Su4erconductor, Inc?D
In t#e e7am4le system s#own, ener'y released ,rom t#e S.ES
4asses t#rou'# a current%to%)olta'e con)erter to c#ar'e a 15%micro,arad Cm/D dc
ca4acitor (an+ to -6>> &dc? T#e )olta'e re'ulator +ee4s
t#e dc )olta'e at its nominal )alue and also 4ro)ides 4rotection control
to t#e S.ES? T#e dc%to%dc con)erter reduces t#e dc )olta'e down to 96>
&dc? T#e in)erter su(system module consists o, si7 sin'le%4#ase
in)erter (rid'es? Two I0*T in)erter (rid'es rated 56> am4eres CAD rms
are 4aralleled in eac# 4#ase to 4ro)ide a total ratin' o, =>> A 4er 4#ase?
T#e switc#in' sc#eme ,or t#e in)erter is (ased on t#e 4ulse%widt#
modulation CP".D a44roac# w#ere t#e carrier si'nal is a sine%trian'le
wit# a ,re2uency o, 5 +H@?16
A ty4ical S.ES system can 4rotect loads o, u4 to : .&A ,or )olta'e
sa's as low as >?-6 4u? It can 4ro)ide u4 to 1> s o, )olta'e sa' ridet#rou'# de4endin' on
load si@e? /i'ure 3?-9 s#ows an e7am4le w#ere
t#e 'rid )olta'e e74eriences a )olta'e sa' o, >?8 4u ,or a44ro7imately 9
cycles? T#e )olta'e at t#e 4rotected load remains )irtually unc#an'ed
at its 4re,ault )alue?
3?5?1> Static trans,er switc#es and ,ast
trans,er switc#es
T#ere are a num(er o, alternati)es ,or 4rotection o, an entire ,acility
t#at may (e sensiti)e to )olta'e sa's? T#ese include dynamic )olta'e
restorers C&RsD and !PS systems t#at use tec#nolo'y similar to t#e
systems descri(ed 4re)iously (ut a44lied at t#e medium%)olta'e le)el?
>?>8 >?>: >?1 >?1- >?15 >?18 >?1: >?- >?-- >?-5 >?-8
V1
V>?6
>
>?6
1
0rid )olta'e
1oad )olta'e
&olta'e C4er unitD
Time CmsD
/i'ure 3?-9 S.ES%(ased system 4ro)idin' ride%t#rou'# durin' )olta'e sa' e)ent?
9- C#a4ter T#ree
Anot#er alternati)e t#at can (e a44lied at eit#er t#e low%)olta'e le)el
or t#e medium%)olta'e le)el is t#e automatic trans,er switc#?
Automatic trans,er switc#es can (e o, )arious tec#nolo'ies, ran'in'
,rom con)entional (rea+ers to static switc#es? Con)entional trans,er
switc#es will switc# ,rom t#e 4rimary su44ly to a (ac+u4 su44ly in seconds? /ast trans,er
switc#es t#at use )acuum (rea+er tec#nolo'y are
a)aila(le t#at can trans,er in a(out - electrical cycles? T#is can (e ,ast
enou'# to 4rotect many sensiti)e loads? Static switc#es use 4ower electronic switc#es to
accom4lis# t#e trans,er wit#in a(out a 2uarter o, an
electrical cycle? T#e trans,er switc# con,i'uration is s#own in /i'? 3?-:?
An e7am4le medium%)olta'e installation is s#own in /i'? 3?-=?
T#e most im4ortant consideration in t#e e,,ecti)eness o, a trans,er
switc# ,or 4rotection o, sensiti)e loads is t#at it re2uires two inde4endent su44lies to t#e
,acility? /or instance, i, (ot# su44lies come ,rom t#e
same su(station (us, t#en t#ey will (ot# (e e74osed to t#e same )olta'e
sa's w#en t#ere is a ,ault condition somew#ere in t#e su44ly system? I,
a si'ni,icant 4ercenta'e o, t#e e)ents a,,ectin' t#e ,acility are caused (y
,aults on t#e transmission system, t#e ,ast trans,er switc# mi'#t #a)e
little (ene,it ,or 4rotection o, t#e e2ui4ment in t#e ,acility?
3?6 E)aluatin' t#e Economics o, i,,erent
Ride%T#rou'# Alternati)es
T#e economic e)aluation 4rocedure to ,ind t#e (est o4tion ,or im4ro)in' )olta'e sa'
4er,ormance consists o, t#e ,ollowin' ste4s:
Primary Source
1- +&
Alternate Source
1- +&
Static Trans,er Switc#
.ec#anical Automatic
Trans,er Switc#
/i'ure 3?-: Con,i'uration o, a static trans,er switc# used
to switc# (etween a 4rimary su44ly and a (ac+u4 su44ly
in t#e e)ent o, a distur(ance? T#e controls would switc#
(ac+ to t#e 4rimary su44ly a,ter normal 4ower is
restored?
1? C#aracteri@e t#e system 4ower 2uality 4er,ormance?
-? Estimate t#e costs associated wit# t#e 4ower 2uality )ariations?
3? C#aracteri@e t#e solution alternati)es in terms o, costs and e,,ecti)eness?
5? Per,orm t#e com4arati)e economic analysis?
"e #a)e already 4resented t#e met#odolo'y ,or c#aracteri@in' t#e
e74ected )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance, and we #a)e outlined t#e maAor
tec#nolo'ies t#at can (e used to im4ro)e t#e 4er,ormance o, t#e ,acility? Now, we will
,ocus on e)aluatin' t#e economics o, t#e di,,erent
o4tions?
3?6?1 Estimatin' t#e costs ,or t#e )olta'e
sa' e)ents
T#e costs associated wit# sa' e)ents can )ary si'ni,icantly ,rom
nearly @ero to se)eral million dollars 4er e)ent? T#e cost will )ary not
only amon' di,,erent industry ty4es and indi)idual ,acilities (ut also
wit# mar+et conditions? Hi'#er costs are ty4ically e74erienced i, t#e
end 4roduct is in s#ort su44ly and t#ere is limited a(ility to ma+e u4
,or t#e lost 4roduction? Not all costs are easily 2uanti,ied or truly
re,lect t#e ur'ency o, a)oidin' t#e conse2uences o, a )olta'e sa'
e)ent?
T#e cost o, a 4ower 2uality distur(ance can (e ca4tured 4rimarily
t#rou'# t#ree maAor cate'ories:
T Product%related losses, suc# as loss o, 4roduct and materials, lost
4roduction ca4acity, dis4osal c#ar'es, and increased in)entory
re2uirements?
/i'ure 3?-= E7am4le o, a static trans,er switc# a44lication
at medium )olta'e?
T 1a(or%related losses, suc# as idled em4loyees, o)ertime, cleanu4, and
re4air?
T Ancillary costs suc# as dama'ed e2ui4ment, lost o44ortunity cost,
and 4enalties due to s#i44in' delays?
/ocusin' on t#ese t#ree cate'ories will ,acilitate t#e de)elo4ment o, a
detailed list o, all costs and sa)in's associated wit# a 4ower 2uality distur(ance? One can
also re,er to a44endi7 A o, IEEE 1358%1==:
1:
,or a
more detailed e74lanation o, t#e ,actors to (e considered in determinin' t#e cost o, 4ower
2uality distur(ances?
Costs will ty4ically )ary wit# t#e se)erity C(ot# ma'nitude and durationD o, t#e 4ower
2uality distur(ance? T#is relations#i4 can o,ten (e
de,ined (y a matri7 o, wei'#tin' ,actors? T#e wei'#tin' ,actors are
de)elo4ed usin' t#e cost o, a momentary interru4tion as t#e (ase?
!sually, a momentary interru4tion will cause a disru4tion to any load
or 4rocess t#at is not s4eci,ically 4rotected wit# some ty4e o, ener'y
stora'e tec#nolo'y? &olta'e sa's and ot#er 4ower 2uality )ariations will
always #a)e an im4act t#at is some 4ortion o, t#is total s#utdown?
I, a )olta'e sa' to 5> 4ercent causes :> 4ercent o, t#e economic
im4act t#at a momentary interru4tion causes, t#en t#e wei'#tin' ,actor ,or a 5> 4ercent
sa' would (e >?:? Similarly, i, a sa' to 96 4ercent
only results in 1> 4ercent o, t#e costs t#at an interru4tion causes, t#en
t#e wei'#tin' ,actor is >?1?
A,ter t#e wei'#tin' ,actors are a44lied to an e)ent, t#e costs o, t#e
e)ent are e74ressed in 4er unit o, t#e cost o, a momentary interru4tion?
T#e wei'#ted e)ents can t#en (e summed and t#e total is t#e total cost
o, all t#e e)ents e74ressed in t#e num(er o, e2ui)alent momentary
interru4tions?
Ta(le 3?3 4ro)ides an e7am4le o, wei'#tin' ,actors t#at were used ,or
one in)esti'ation? T#e wei'#tin' ,actors can (e ,urt#er e74anded to di,,erentiate (etween
sa's t#at a,,ect all t#ree 4#ases and sa's t#at only
a,,ect one or two 4#ases? Ta(le 3?5 com(ines t#e wei'#tin' ,actors wit#
e74ected 4er,ormance to determine a total annual cost associated wit#
)olta'e sa's and interru4tions? T#e cost is 18?= times t#e cost o, an
interru4tion? I, an interru4tion costs M5>,>>>, t#e total costs associated
wit# )olta'e sa's and interru4tions would (e M898,>>> 4er year Csee
C#a4? : ,or alternati)e costin' met#odsD?
3?6?- C#aracteri@in' t#e cost and
e,,ecti)eness ,or solution alternati)es
Eac# solution tec#nolo'y needs to (e c#aracteri@ed in terms o, cost and
e,,ecti)eness? In (road terms t#e solution cost s#ould include initial
4rocurement and installation e74enses, o4eratin' and maintenance
e74enses, and any dis4osal andOor sal)a'e )alue considerations? A t#or%95 C#a4ter T#ree
ou'# e)aluation would include less o()ious costs suc# as real estate or
s4ace%related e74enses and ta7 considerations? T#e cost o, t#e e7tra
s4ace re2uirements can (e incor4orated as a s4ace rental c#ar'e and
included wit# ot#er annual o4eratin' e74enses? Ta7 considerations
may #a)e se)eral com4onents, and t#e net (ene,it or cost can also (e
included wit# ot#er annual o4eratin' e74enses? Ta(le 3?6 4ro)ides an
e7am4le o, initial costs and annual o4eratin' costs ,or some 'eneral
tec#nolo'ies used to im4ro)e 4er,ormance ,or )olta'e sa's and interru4tions? T#ese costs
are 4ro)ided ,or use in t#e e7am4le and s#ould
not (e considered indicati)e o, any 4articular 4roduct?
*esides t#e costs, t#e solution e,,ecti)eness o, eac# alternati)e needs
to (e 2uanti,ied in terms o, t#e 4er,ormance im4ro)ement t#at can (e
ac#ie)ed? Solution e,,ecti)eness, li+e 4ower 2uality costs, will ty4ically
)ary wit# t#e se)erity o, t#e 4ower 2uality distur(ance? T#is relations#i4 can (e de,ined
(y a matri7 o, GI sa's a)oidedH )alues? Ta(le 3?8
illustrates t#is conce4t ,or t#e e7am4le tec#nolo'ies ,rom Ta(le 3?6 as
t#ey mi'#t a44ly to a ty4ical industrial a44lication?
3?6?3 Per,ormin' com4arati)e economic
analysis
T#e 4rocess o, com4arin' t#e di,,erent alternati)es ,or im4ro)in' 4er,ormance in)ol)es
determinin' t#e total annual cost ,or eac# alterna&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions 96
TA*1E3?3 E7am4le o, "ei'#tin' /actors ,or i,,erent &olta'e Sa' .a'nitudes
Cate'ory o, e)ent "ei'#tin' ,or economic analysis
Interru4tion 1?>
Sa' wit# minimum )olta'e (elow 6>I >?:
Sa' wit# minimum )olta'e (etween 6>I and 9>I >?5
Sa' wit# minimum )olta'e (etween 9>I and =>I >?1
TA*1E3?5 E7am4le o, Com(inin' t#e "ei'#tin' /actors wit# E74ected &olta'e
Sa' Per,ormance to etermine t#e Total Costs o, Power Quality &ariations
"ei'#tin' ,or Num(er o, Total e2ui)alent
Cate'ory o, e)ent economic analysis e)ents 4er year interru4tions
Interru4tion 1 6 6
Sa' wit# minimum )olta'e
(elow 6>I >?: 3 -?5
(etween 6>I and 9>I >?5 16 8
(etween 9>I and =>I >?1 36 3?6
Total 18?=
ti)e, includin' (ot# t#e costs associated wit# t#e )olta'e sa's Cremem(er t#at t#e
solutions do not ty4ically eliminate t#ese costs com4letelyD
and t#e annuali@ed costs o, im4lementin' t#e solution? T#e o(Aecti)e is
to minimi@e t#ese annual costs C4ower 2uality costssolution costsD?
Com4arin' t#e di,,erent 4ower 2uality solution alternati)es in terms
o, t#eir total annual costs Cannual 4ower 2uality costsannual 4ower
2uality solution costsD identi,ies t#ose solutionCsD wit# lower costs t#at
warrant more detailed in)esti'ations? T#e do%not#in' solution is 'enerally included in t#e
com4arati)e analysis and is ty4ically identi,ied
as t#e (ase case? T#e do%not#in' solution #as a @ero annual 4ower 2uality solution cost
(ut #as t#e #i'#est annual 4ower 2uality costs?
.any o, t#e costs C4ower 2uality and o4eration and maintenanceD
are (y t#eir nature annual costs? T#e costs associated wit# 4urc#asin'
and installin' )arious solution tec#nolo'ies are one%time u4%,ront costs
t#at can (e annuali@ed usin' an a44ro4riate interest rate and assumed
li,etime or e)aluation 4eriod?
/i'ure 3?3> 'i)es an e7am4le o, t#is ty4e o, analysis ,or a ty4ical industrial ,acility? T#e
,acility #as a total load o, 6 .", (ut only a(out - ." o,
load needs to (e 4rotected to a)oid 4roduction disru4tions? T#e )olta'e
sa' 4er,ormance was 'i)en in Ta(le 3?5? T#e costs ,or an interru4tion are
M5>,>>> 4er e)ent, and t#e costs ,or )olta'e sa's are (ased on t#e wei'#tin' ,actors 'i)en
4re)iously? T#e si7 o4tions 'i)en in Ta(le 3?8 are analy@ed, and t#e annual costs are
4resented? T#e annuali@ed costs are
calculated (ased on a 16%year li,e and an interest rate o, 1> 4ercent?
98 C#a4ter T#ree
TA*1E3?6 E7am4le Costs ,or i,,erent Ty4es o, Power Quality
Im4ro)ement Tec#nolo'ies
O4eratin' and
maintenance costs
CI o, initial
Alternati)e cate'ory Ty4ical cost costs 4er yearD
Controls 4rotection CU6 +&AD
C&Ts M1>>>O+&A 1>
!PS M6>>O+&A -6
ynamic sa' corrector M-6>O+&A 6
.ac#ine 4rotection C1>V3>> +&AD
!PS M6>>O+&A 16
/lyw#eel M6>>O+&A 9
ynamic sa' corrector M->>O+&A 6
/acility 4rotection C-V1> .&AD
!PS M6>>O+&A 16
/lyw#eel M6>>O+&A 6
&R C6>I )olta'e (oostD M3>>O+&A 6
Static switc# C1> .&AD M8>>,>>> 6
/ast trans,er switc# C1> .&AD M16>,>>> 6
TA*1E3?8 E,,ecti)eness o, t#e Power Quality Im4ro)ement O4tions ,or a Particular
E7am4le CaseZ
Sa's, I
Interru4tion, .inimum .inimum )olta'e (etween .inimum )olta'e
I )olta'e (elow 6>I (etween 6>I and 9>I (etween 9>I and =>I
C&T CcontrolsD > -> 9> 1>>
ynamic sa' correctorO&R > -> => 1>>
/lyw#eel ride%t#rou'#
tec#nolo'ies 9> 1>> 1>> 1>>
!PS C(attery ride%t#rou'#
tec#nolo'iesD 1>> 1>> 1>> 1>>
Static switc# 1>> :> 9> 6>
/ast trans,er switc# :> 9> 8> 5>
99
ZT#e entries in t#is ta(le re4resent t#e 4ercenta'e o, )olta'e sa's or interru4tions in eac#
cate'ory t#at
are corrected to le)els t#at will no lon'er cause e2ui4ment im4acts in t#e ,acility?
It is interestin' to note t#at all t#e o4tions reduce t#e total annual
costs Cin ot#er words, any o, t#ese o4tions would #a)e a net (ene,it to
t#e ,acility wit# t#e assumed interest rate and li,etime w#en com4ared
to t#e e7istin' conditionsD? It is also interestin' t#at t#e (est solution
in t#is case in)ol)es a44lyin' e2ui4ment on t#e utility side C,ast trans,er switc#D?
Howe)er, t#is #as a maAor assum4tion t#at a (ac+u4 ,eeder
would (e a)aila(le and t#at t#ere would (e no c#ar'e ,rom t#e utility
,or 4ro)idin' a connection to t#is (ac+u4 ,eeder e7ce4t ,or t#e e2ui4ment and o4eratin'
costs?
.ore commonly, t#e solution would (e im4lemented in t#e ,acility and
eit#er a dynamic sa' corrector or ,lyw#eel%(ased stand(y 4ower su44ly
mi'#t ma+e sense ,or 4rotectin' t#e - ." o, sensiti)e loads? In t#is case,
4rotectin' Aust t#e controls wit# C&Ts does not 4ro)ide t#e (est solution
(ecause t#e mac#ines t#emsel)es are sensiti)e to )olta'e sa's?
3?8 .otor%Startin' Sa's
.otors #a)e t#e undesira(le e,,ect o, drawin' se)eral times t#eir ,ull
load current w#ile startin'? T#is lar'e current will, (y ,lowin' t#rou'#
system im4edances, cause a )olta'e sa' w#ic# may dim li'#ts, cause
9: C#a4ter T#ree
M>
M1>>,>>>
M->>,>>>
M3>>,>>>
M5>>,>>>
M6>>,>>>
M8>>,>>>
M9>>,>>>
*ase Case C&Ts ,or
Controls
Only
Series
Com4ensators
,or Indi)idual
.ac#ines
/lyw#eel
or S.ES
Protection o,
.ac#ines
!PS ,or
.ac#ines
Static
Trans,er
Switc#
/ast
Trans,er
Switc#
C&acuumD
Solution Cost
PQ Cost
/i'ure 3?3> E7am4le o, com4arin' solution alternati)es wit# t#e (ase case usin' total
annuali@ed costs?
contactors to dro4 out, and disru4t sensiti)e e2ui4ment? T#e situation
is made worse (y an e7tremely 4oor startin' dis4lacement ,actorPusually in t#e ran'e o,
16 to 3> 4ercent?
T#e time re2uired ,or t#e motor to accelerate to rated s4eed increases
wit# t#e ma'nitude o, t#e sa', and an e7cessi)e sa' may 4re)ent t#e
motor ,rom startin' success,ully? .otor startin' sa's can 4ersist ,or
many seconds, as illustrated in /i'? 3?31?
3?8?1 .otor%startin' met#ods
Ener'i@in' t#e motor in a sin'le ste4 C,ull%)olta'e startin'D 4ro)ides low
cost and allows t#e most ra4id acceleration? It is t#e 4re,erred met#od
unless t#e resultin' )olta'e sa' or mec#anical stress is e7cessi)e?
Autotrans,ormer starters#a)e two autotrans,ormers connected in
o4en delta? Ta4s 4ro)ide a motor )olta'e o, :>, 86, or 6> 4ercent o, system )olta'e
durin' start%u4? 1ine current and startin' tor2ue )ary
wit# t#e s2uare o, t#e )olta'e a44lied to t#e motor, so t#e 6> 4ercent
ta4 will deli)er only -6 4ercent o, t#e ,ull%)olta'e startin' current and
tor2ue? T#e lowest ta4 w#ic# will su44ly t#e re2uired startin' tor2ue
is selected?
PQNode 1ocal
Tri''er
QC^1-
P#ase A%* &olta'e
R.S &ariation
> >?6 1 1?6 - -?6 3 3?6
:>
:6
=>
=6
1>>
1>6
11>
116
Time CsD
uration
-?:>> s
.in
:>?66
A)e
::?13
.a7
1>-?6
*.IOElectrote+
&olta'e CID
/i'ure 3?31 Ty4ical motor%startin' )olta'e sa'?
Resistance and reactance startersinitially insert an im4edance in
series wit# t#e motor? A,ter a time delay, t#is im4edance is s#orted out?
Startin' resistors may (e s#orted out o)er se)eral ste4sJ startin' reactors are s#orted out
in a sin'le ste4? 1ine current and startin' tor2ue
)ary directly wit# t#e )olta'e a44lied to t#e motor, so ,or a 'i)en startin' )olta'e, t#ese
starters draw more current ,rom t#e line t#an wit#
autotrans,ormer starters, (ut 4ro)ide #i'#er startin' tor2ue? Reactors
are ty4ically 4ro)ided wit# 6>, 56, and 39?6 4ercent ta4s?
Part%windin' startersare attracti)e ,or use wit# dual%rated motors
C-->O55> & or -3>O58> &D? T#e stator o, a dual%rated motor consists o,
two windin's connected in 4arallel at t#e lower )olta'e ratin', or in
series at t#e #i'#er )olta'e ratin'? "#en o4erated wit# a 4art%windin'
starter at t#e lower )olta'e ratin', only one windin' is ener'i@ed initially, limitin' startin'
current and startin' tor2ue to 6> 4ercent o, t#e
)alues seen w#en (ot# windin's are ener'i@ed simultaneously?
elta%wyestarters connect t#e stator in wye ,or startin' and t#en,
a,ter a time delay, reconnect t#e windin's in delta? T#e wye connection
reduces t#e startin' )olta'e to 69 4ercent o, t#e system line%line )olta'eJ
startin' current and startin' tor2ue are reduced to 33 4ercent o, t#eir
)alues ,or ,ull%)olta'e start?
3?8?- Estimatin' t#e sa' se)erity durin'
,ull%)olta'e startin'
As s#own in /i'? 3?31, startin' an induction motor results in a stee4 di4
in )olta'e, ,ollowed (y a 'radual reco)ery? I, ,ull%)olta'e startin' is
used, t#e sa' )olta'e, in 4er unit o, nominal system )olta'e, is
&.inC4uD
w#ere&C4uD actual system )olta'e, in 4er unit o, nominal
+&A1R motor loc+ed rotor +&A
+&ASC system s#ort%circuit +&A at motor
/i'ure 3?3- illustrates t#e results o, t#is com4utation ,or sa' to => 4ercent o, nominal
)olta'e, usin' ty4ical system im4edances and motor
c#aracteristics?
I, t#e result is a(o)e t#e minimum allowa(le steady%state )olta'e ,or
t#e a,,ected e2ui4ment, t#en t#e ,ull%)olta'e startin' is acce4ta(le? I,
not, t#en t#e sa' ma'nitude )ersus duration c#aracteristic must (e
com4ared to t#e )olta'e tolerance en)elo4e o, t#e a,,ected e2ui4ment?
T#e re2uired calculations are ,airly com4licated and (est le,t to a
motor%startin' or 'eneral transient analysis com4uter 4ro'ram? T#e
,ollowin' data will (e re2uired ,or t#e simulation:
&C4uD+&ASC
+&A1R+&ASC
:> C#a4ter T#ree
T Parameter )alues ,or t#e standard induction motor e2ui)alent circuit:R1,[1,R-,[-, and
[.?
T Num(er o, motor 4oles and rated r4m Cor sli4D?
T "<-
Cinertia constantD )alues ,or t#e motor and t#e motor load?
T Tor2ue )ersus s4eed c#aracteristic ,or t#e motor load?
3?9 !tility System /ault%Clearin' Issues
!tility ,eeder desi'n and ,ault%clearin' 4ractices #a)e a 'reat in,luence
on t#e )olta'e sa' and interru4tion 4er,ormance at a distri(ution%connected load?1-
"ays to im4ro)e t#e 4er,ormance will now (e e74lored?
!tilities #a)e two (asic o4tions to continue to reduce t#e num(er and
se)erity o, ,aults on t#eir system:
1? Pre)ent ,aults?
-? .odi,y ,ault%clearin' 4ractices?
!tilities deri)e im4ortant (ene,its ,rom acti)ities t#at 4re)ent ,aults?
T#ese acti)ities not only result in im4ro)ed customer satis,action, (ut
4re)ent costly dama'e to 4ower system e2ui4ment? /ault 4re)ention
acti)ities include tree trimmin', addin' line arresters, insulator was#in', and addin'
animal 'uards? Insulation on utility lines cannot (e
e74ected to wit#stand all li'#tnin' stro+es? Howe)er, any line t#at
s#ows a #i'# susce4ti(ility to li'#tnin'%induced ,aults s#ould (e in)es&olta'e Sa's and
Interru4tions :1
-6I
3>I
36I
5>I
56I
6>I
66I
8>I
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>> 1>>>
.otor +&A CI o, Trans,ormerD
Trans,ormer +&A
/i'ure 3?3- Ty4ical motor )ersus trans,ormer si@e ,or ,ull%)olta'e startin' sa's o, =>
4ercent?
ti'ated? On transmission lines, s#ieldin' can (e analy@ed ,or its e,,ecti)eness in reducin'
direct li'#tnin' stro+es? Tower ,ootin' resistance
is an im4ortant ,actor in (ac+,las#o)ers ,rom static wire to a 4#ase
wire? I, t#e tower ,ootin' resistance is #i'#, t#e sur'e ener'y ,rom a
li'#tnin' stro+e will not (e a(sor(ed (y t#e 'round as 2uic+ly? On distri(ution ,eeders,
s#ieldin' may also (e an o4tion as is 4lacin'
arresters alon' t#e line ,re2uently? O, course, one o, t#e main 4ro(lems
wit# o)er#ead distri(ution ,eeders is t#at storms (low tree lim(s into
t#e lines? In areas w#ere t#e )e'etation 'rows 2uic+ly, it is a ,ormida(le tas+ to +ee4 trees
4ro4erly trimmed?
Im4ro)ed ,ault%clearin' 4ractices may include addin' line reclosers,
eliminatin' ,ast tri44in', addin' loo4 sc#emes, and modi,yin' ,eeder
desi'n? T#ese 4ractices may reduce t#e num(er andOor duration o,
momentary interru4tions and )olta'e sa's, (ut utility system ,aults
can ne)er (e eliminated com4letely?
3?9?1 O)ercurrent coordination 4rinci4les
It is im4ortant to understand t#e o4eration o, t#e utility system durin'
,ault conditions? T#ere are certain 4#ysical limitations to interru4tin'
t#e ,ault current and restorin' 4ower? T#is 4laces certain minimum
re2uirements on loads t#at are e74ected to sur)i)e suc# e)ents wit#out disru4tion? T#ere
are also some t#in's t#at can (e done (etter on
t#e utility system to im4ro)e t#e 4ower 2uality t#an on t#e load side?
T#ere,ore, we will address t#e issues rele)ant to utility ,ault clearin'
wit# (ot# t#e end user Cor load e2ui4ment desi'nerD and t#e utility
en'ineer in mind?
T#ere are two ,undamental ty4es o, ,aults on 4ower systems:
1?Transient Ctem4oraryD ,aults? T#ese are ,aults due to suc# t#in's
as o)er#ead line ,las#o)ers t#at result in no 4ermanent dama'e to
t#e system insulation? Power can (e restored as soon as t#e ,ault arc
is e7tin'uis#ed? Automatic switc#'ear can do t#is wit#in a ,ew seconds? Some transient
,aults are sel,%clearin'?
-?Permanent ,aults? T#ese are ,aults due to 4#ysical dama'e to some
element o, t#e insulation system t#at re2uires inter)ention (y a line
crew to re4air? T#e im4act on t#e end user is an outa'e t#at lasts
,rom se)eral minutes to a ,ew #ours?
T#e c#ie, o(Aecti)e o, t#e utility system ,ault%clearin' 4rocess,
(esides 4ersonnel sa,ety, is to limit t#e dama'e to t#e distri(ution system? T#ere,ore, t#e
detection o, ,aults and t#e clearin' o, t#e ,ault current must (e done wit# t#e ma7imum
4ossi(le s4eed wit#out resultin'
in ,alse o4erations ,or normal transient e)ents?
:- C#a4ter T#ree
T#e two 'reatest concerns ,or dama'e are ty4ically
1? Arcin' dama'e to conductors and (us#in's
-? T#rou'#%,ault dama'e to su(station trans,ormers, w#ere t#e
windin's (ecome dis4laced (y e7cessi)e ,orces, resultin' in a
maAor ,ailure
A radial distri(ution system is desi'ned so t#at only one ,ault interru4ter must o4erate to
clear a ,ault? /or 4ermanent ,aults, t#at same
de)ice, or anot#er, o4erates to sectionali@e t#e ,eeder? T#at is, t#e
,aulted section is isolated so t#at 4ower may (e restored to t#e rest o,
t#e loads ser)ed ,rom t#e sound sections? Orc#estratin' t#is 4rocess is
re,erred to as t#e coordinationo, t#e o)ercurrent 4rotection de)ices?
"#ile t#is is sim4le in conce4t, some o, t#e (e#a)iors o, t#e de)ices
in)ol)ed can (e 2uite com4le7? "#at is remar+a(le a(out t#is is t#at
nearly all o, t#e 4rocess is 4er,ormed automatically (y autonomous
de)ices em4loyin' only local intelli'ence?
O)ercurrent 4rotection de)ices a44ear in series alon' a ,eeder? /or
4ermanent ,ault coordination, t#e de)ices o4erate 4ro'ressi)ely slower
as one mo)es ,rom t#e ends o, t#e ,eeders toward t#e su(station? T#is
#el4s ensure t#e 4ro4er sectionali@in' o, t#e ,eeder so t#at only t#e
,aulted section is isolated? Howe)er, t#is 4rinci4le is o,ten )iolated ,or
tem4orary ,aults, 4articularly i, ,use sa)in' is em4loyed? T#e ty4ical
#ierarc#y o, o)ercurrent 4rotection de)ices on a ,eeder is
1?/eeder (rea+er in t#e su(station? T#is is a circuit (rea+er ca4a(le
o, interru4tin' ty4ically 5> +A o, current and controlled (y se4arate
relays? "#en t#e a)aila(le ,ault current is less t#an -> +A, it is common to ,ind reclosers
used in t#is a44lication?
-?1ine reclosers mounted on 4oles at mid,eeder? T#e sim4lest are sel,contained wit#
#ydraulically o4erated timin', interru4tin', and
reclosin' mec#anisms? Ot#ers #a)e se4arate electronic controls?
3?/uses on many lateral ta4s o,, t#e main ,eeder?
T#e 4ower 2uality issues relatin' to t#e 4lacement and o4eration o,
t#ese de)ices are now e74lored?
3?9?- /uses
T#e most (asic o)ercurrent 4rotecti)e element on t#e system is a ,use?
/uses are relati)ely ine74ensi)e and maintenance%,ree? /or t#ose reasons, t#ey are
'enerally used in lar'e num(ers on most utility distri(ution systems to 4rotect indi)idual
trans,ormers and ,eeder (ranc#es
Csometimes called laterals or lateral (ranc#esD? /i'ure 3?33 s#ows a
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions :3
ty4ical o)er#ead line ,used cutout? T#e ,undamental 4ur4ose o, ,uses is
to o4erate on 4ermanent ,aults and isolate Csectionali@eD t#e ,aulted
section ,rom t#e sound 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder? T#ey are 4ositioned so t#at
t#e smallest 4ractical section o, t#e ,eeder is distur(ed?
/uses detect o)ercurrent (y meltin' t#e ,use element, w#ic# 'enerally is made o, a metal
suc# as tin or sil)er? T#is initiates some sort o,
arcin' action t#at will lead to t#e interru4tion o, t#e current? T#ere are
two (asic +inds o, ,use tec#nolo'ies used in 4ower systems:
1? E74ulsion ,uses Cas in /i'? 3?33D
-? Current%limitin' ,uses Csee Sec? 3?9?11D
T#e essential di,,erence (etween t#e two is t#e way t#e arc is
2uenc#ed? T#is also 'i)es t#e ,uses di,,erent 4ower 2uality c#aracteristics? An e74lusion
,use creates an arc inside a tu(e wit# an a(lati)e
coatin'? T#is creates #i'#%4ressure 'ases t#at e74el t#e arc 4lasma and
,use remnants out t#e (ottom o, t#e cutout, o,ten wit# a loud re4ort
similar to a ,irearm? T#is cools t#e arc suc# t#at it will not rei'nite
a,ter t#e alternatin' current naturally 'oes t#rou'# @ero? T#is can (e
as s#ort as one%#al, cycle ,or #i'# currents to se)eral cycles ,or low ,ault
currents? T#is determines t#e duration o, t#e )olta'e sa' o(ser)ed at
loads? An e74ulsion ,use is considera(ly less e74ensi)e t#an a currentlimitin' ,use?
A current%limitin' ,use dissi4ates t#e ener'y in t#e arc in a closed
en)ironment, ty4ically (y meltin' a s4ecial sand wit#in an insulatin'
tu(e? T#is 4rocess actually 2uenc#es t#e arc )ery 2uic+ly, ,orcin' t#e
:5 C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?33 Ty4ical utility ,used cutout
wit# e74ulsion ,use? CCourtesy o, Coo4er
Power Systems?D
current to @ero (e,ore t#at would naturally occur? T#is can #a)e some
(ene,icial im4acts on t#e )olta'e sa' c#aracteristics Csee /i'? 3?56D?
*ecause it is (ased on a 4iece o, metal t#at must accumulate #eat
until it reac#es its meltin' tem4erature, it ta+es a ,use di,,erent
amounts o, time to o4erate at di,,erent le)els o, ,ault current? T#e time
decreases as t#e current le)el increases, 'i)in' a ,use its distincti)e
in)erse time%current c#aracteristic CTCCD, as s#own in /i'? 3?35? To
ac#ie)e ,ull%ran'e coordination wit# ,uses, all ot#er o)ercurrent 4rotecti)e de)ices in t#e
distri(ution system must ado4t t#is same (asic
s#a4e? T#e ,use TCC is ty4ically 'i)en as a (and (etween two cur)es as
s#own? T#e le,tmost ed'e re4resents t#e minimum meltin' time, w#ile
t#e ri'#tmost ed'e re4resents t#e ma7imum clearin' time ,or di,,erent
current le)els?
Some as4ects o, coordinatin' wit# t#e ,use c#aracteristic rele)ant to
4ower 2uality are as ,ollows:
1? I, t#e utility em4loys ,use sa)in' on tem4orary ,aults, t#e coordinatin' ,ault interru4ter
must #a)e a TCC to t#e le,t o, t#e minimum
meltin' cur)e?
-? /or a 4ermanent ,ault, t#e coordinatin' de)ice must #a)e a TCC to
t#e ri'#t o, t#e clearin' cur)e to allow t#e ,use to melt and clear
,irst? Ot#erwise, many ot#er customers will (e interru4ted?
Time
6 6> 6>> 6>>> 6>>>>
Current
>?>1>
>?1>
1
1>
1>>
1>>>
/i'ure 3?35 T#e in)erse time%current c#aracteristic o, a ,use t#at dictates t#e s#a4e o,
t#e c#aracteristic o, all ot#er de)ices ,or series o)ercurrent coordination?
3? Re4eated ,ault currents, inrus# currents ,rom reclosin', and li'#tnin' stro+e currents
can dama'e t#e ,use element, 'enerally s#i,tin' t#e TCC to t#e le,t? T#is will result in
inad)ertent interru4tions
o, customers downline ,rom t#e ,use?
5? /or #i'# current )alues wit# o4eratin' time less t#an >?1 s, it is di,,icult to 'uarantee
t#at an u4line mec#anical ,ault interru4ter will
(e a(le to sa)e t#e ,use?
3?9?3 Reclosin'
*ecause most ,aults on o)er#ead lines are transient, t#e 4ower can (e
success,ully restored wit#in se)eral cycles a,ter t#e current is interru4ted? T#us, most
automatic circuit (rea+ers are desi'ned to reclose -
or 3 times, i, needed, in ra4id succession? T#e multi4le o4erations are
desi'ned to 4ermit )arious sectionali@in' sc#emes to o4erate and to 'i)e
some more 4ersistent transient ,aults a second c#ance to clear? T#ere are
s4ecial circuit (rea+ers ,or utility distri(ution systems called, a44ro4riately, reclosers,t#at
were desi'ned to 4er,orm t#e ,ault interru4tion and
reclosin' ,unction 4articularly well? T#e maAority o, ,aults will (e cleared
on t#e ,irst o4eration? /i'ure 3?36 s#ows a ty4ical sin'le%4#ase recloser
and /i's? 3?38 and 3?39 s#ow two di,,erent t#ree%4#ase desi'ns in common usa'e? T#ese
de)ices are 'enerally 4ole%mounted on o)er#ead utility lines, alt#ou'# a 4ad%mounted
)ersion also e7ists? T#e oil%insulated
desi'ns are t#e most common, (ut sul,ur #e7a,luoride CS/8DVinsulated
and enca4sulated solid dielectric desi'ns are also 4o4ular?
T#ese de)ices can (e ,ound in numerous 4laces alon' distri(ution
,eeders and sometimes in su(stations? T#ey are ty4ically a44lied at t#e
#ead o, sections su(Aected to numerous tem4orary ,aults? Howe)er,
t#ey may (e a44lied nearly anyw#ere a con)enient, low%cost 4rimaryside circuit (rea+er
is needed?
*ecause t#ey are desi'ned ,or ,use%sa)in' C,ast tri44in'D a44lications, reclosers are some
o, t#e ,astest mec#anical ,ault interru4ters
em4loyed on t#e utility system? "#ile t#ey are ty4ically rated ,or no
,aster t#an 3 to 8 cycles, many e7am4les o, interru4tions as s#ort as 1?6
cycles #a)e (een o(ser)ed wit# 4ower 2uality monitors? T#is can (e
(ene,icial to limitin' sa' durations? "#ere ,ast tri44in' is not
em4loyed, t#e recloser control will commonly delay o4eration to more
t#an 8 cycles to allow time ,or downline ,uses to clear?
Reclosin' is 2uite 4re)alent in Nort# American utility systems?
!tilities in re'ions o, low li'#tnin' incidence may reclose only once
(ecause t#ey assume t#at t#e maAority o, t#eir ,aults will (e 4ermanent? In li'#tnin'%
4rone re'ions, it is common to attem4t to clear t#e
,ault as many as 5 times? /i'ure 3?3: illustrates t#e two most common
se2uences in use on ,our%s#ot reclosers:
:8 C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?36 Ty4ical 4ole%mounted, oil%insulated sin'le%4#ase line recloser? CCourtesy o,
Coo4er Power
Systems?D
/i'ure 3?38 Ty4ical standard
t#ree%4#ase oil%insulated line
recloser wit# )acuum interru4ters? CCourtesy o, Coo4er Power
Systems?D
1? One ,ast o4eration, t#ree delayed
-? Two ,ast, two delayed
See Sec? 3?9?5 ,or a more detailed e74lanation o, ,ast and delayed o4erations? Reclosers
tend to #a)e uni,orm reclose inter)als (etween o4erations? T#e ori'inal #ydraulic
reclosers were limited to a(out 1 to - s,
and t#is settin' #as (een retained (y many utilities alt#ou'# modern
electronically controlled reclosers can (e set ,or any )alue? It is common
,or t#e ,irst reclose inter)al on some ty4es o, reclosers to (e set ,or
instantaneous reclose,w#ic# will result in closure in 1- to 3> cycles C>?-
to >?6 sD? T#is is done to reduce t#e time o, t#e interru4tion and im4ro)e
t#e 4ower 2uality? Howe)er, t#ere are some con,licts created (y t#is,
suc# as wit# 0 disconnectin' times Csee Sec? =?6?-D?
Su(station circuit (rea+ers o,ten #a)e a di,,erent style o, reclosin'
se2uence as s#own in /i'? 3?3=? T#is stems ,rom a di,,erent e)olution
o, relayin' tec#nolo'y? Reclosin' times are counted ,rom t#e ,irst tri44in' si'nal o, t#e
,irst o4eration? T#us, t#e common G>%16%56H o4eratin' se2uence recloses essentially as
,ast as 4ossi(le on t#e ,irst
o4eration, wit# a44ro7imately 16% and 3>%s inter)als (etween t#e ne7t
two o4erations?
Alt#ou'# t#e terminolo'y may di,,er, modern (rea+ers and reclosers
can (ot# (e set to #a)e t#e same o4eratin' se2uences to meet load
:: C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?39 Newer t#ree%4#ase line recloser wit# )acuum interru4ters enca4sulated in
solid dielectric insulation? CCourtesy o,
Coo4er Power Systems?D
4ower 2uality re2uirements? !tilities 'enerally c#oose one tec#nolo'y
o)er t#e ot#er (ased on cost or construction standards?
It is 'enerally ,ruitless to #a)e automatic reclosers on distri(ution
circuits wit# under'round ca(le unless a si'ni,icant 4ortion o, t#e system is o)er#ead and
e74osed to trees or li'#tnin'?
3?9?5 /use sa)in'
Ideally, utility en'ineers would li+e to a)oid (lowin' ,uses needlessly on
transient ,aults (ecause a line crew must (e dis4atc#ed to c#an'e t#em?
1ine reclosers were desi'ned s4eci,ically to #el4 sa)e ,uses? Su(station
circuit (rea+ers can use instantaneous 'round relayin' to accom4lis#
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions :=
1 /AST, 3 E1A;E
- /AST, - E1A;E
REC1OSE INTER&A1
T;PICA11; 1 % - S Z
Z /IRST REC1OSE INTER&A1 .A; *E
GINSTANTANEO!SH OR 1-V3> C;C1ES
/i'ure 3?3: Common reclosin' se2uences ,or line reclosers in use in t#e !nited States?
G> % 16 % 56 SEQ!ENCEH
1-V3> C;C1ES
16 S
56 S
/i'ure 3?3= A common reclosin' se2uence ,or su(station (rea+ers in t#e !nited States?
t#e same t#in'? T#e (asic idea is to #a)e t#e mec#anical circuit%interru4tin' de)ice
o4erate )ery 2uic+ly on t#e ,irst o4eration so t#at it clears
(e,ore any ,uses downline ,rom it #a)e a c#ance to melt? "#en t#e de)ice
closes (ac+ in, 4ower is ,ully restored in t#e maAority o, t#e cases and no
#uman inter)ention is re2uired? T#e only incon)enience to t#e customer
is a sli'#t (lin+? T#is is called t#e ,ast o4eration o, t#e de)ice, or t#e
instantaneous tri4?
I, t#e ,ault is still t#ere u4on reclosin', t#ere are two o4tions in common usa'e:
1?Switc# to a slow, or delayed, tri44in' c#aracteristic? T#is is ,re2uently t#e only o4tion
,or su(station circuit (rea+ersJ t#ey will
o4erate only one time on t#e instantaneous tri4? T#is 4#iloso4#y
assumes t#at t#e ,ault is now 4ermanent and switc#in' to a delayed
o4eration will 'i)e a downline ,use time to o4erate and clear t#e
,ault (y isolatin' t#e ,aulted section?
-?Try a second ,ast o4eration? T#is 4#iloso4#y is used w#ere e74erience #as s#own a
si'ni,icant 4ercenta'e o, transient ,aults need two
c#ances to clear w#ile sa)in' t#e ,uses? Some line constructions and
)olta'e le)els #a)e a 'reater li+eli#ood t#at a li'#tnin'%induced arc
may rei'nite and need a second c#ance to clear? Also, a certain 4ercenta'e o, tree ,aults
will (urn ,ree i, 'i)en a second s#ot?
.any utilities #a)e a(andoned ,use sa)in' in selected areas due to
com4laints a(out 4ower 2uality? T#e ,ast, or instantaneous, tri4 is
eliminated so t#at (rea+ers and reclosers #a)e only time%delayed o4erations Csee Sec?
3?9?8D?
3?9?6 Relia(ility
T#e term relia(ilityin t#e utility conte7t usually re,ers to t#e amount
o, time end users are totally wit#out 4ower ,or an e7tended 4eriod o,
time Ci?e?, a sustained interru4tionD? e,initions o, w#at constitutes a
sustained interru4tion )ary amon' utilities ,rom 1 to 6 min? T#is is
w#at many utilities re,er to as an Gouta'e?H Current 4ower 2uality
standards e,,orts are leanin' toward callin' any interru4tion o, 4ower
,or lon'er t#an 1 min a sustained interru4tion Csee C#a4? -D? In any
case, relia(ility is a,,ected (y t#e 4ermanent ,aults on t#e system t#at
must (e re4aired (e,ore ser)ice can (e restored?
O, course, many industrial end users #a)e a di,,erent )iew o, w#at
constitutes relia(ility (ecause e)en momentary interru4tions ,or transient ,aults can
+noc+ t#eir 4rocesses o,,%line and re2uire se)eral #ours
to 'et (ac+ into 4roduction? T#ere is a mo)ement to e7tend t#e traditional relia(ility
indices to include momentary interru4tions as well?
=> C#a4ter T#ree
T#e traditional relia(ility indices ,or utility distri(ution systems are
de,ined as ,ollows
:
:
SAI/I: System a)era'e interru4tion ,re2uency inde7
SAI/I
SAII: System a)era'e interru4tion duration inde7
SAII
CAI/I: Customer a)era'e interru4tion ,re2uency inde7
CAI/I
CAII: Customer a)era'e interru4tion duration inde7
CAII
ASAI: A)era'e system a)aila(ility inde7
ASAI
w#ere customer #ours ser)ice demand :98> ,or an entire year?
Ty4ical tar'et )alues ,or t#ese indices are
Inde7 Tar'et
SAI/I 1?>
SAII 1?>V1?6 #
CAII 1?>V1?6 #
ASAI >?===:3
T#ese are sim4ly desi'n tar'ets, and actual )alues can, o, course, )ary
si'ni,icantly ,rom t#is? *ur+e
=re4orts t#e results o, a sur)ey in w#ic#
t#e a)era'e SAI/I was 1?1:, SAII was 98?=3 min, CAII was 98?=3
min, and ASAI was >?===396? "e #a)e e74erience wit# utilities w#ose
SAI/I is usually around >?6 and SAII is (etween -?> and 3?> #? T#is
means t#at t#e ,ault rate was lower t#an ty4ical, at least ,or t#e (ul+
o, t#e customers, (ut t#e time to re4air t#e ,aults was lon'er? T#is
could (e common ,or ,eeders wit# mi7ed ur(an and rural sections? T#e
customer #ours ser)ice a)aila(ility
customer #ours ser)ice demand
_ customer interru4tion durations
total no? customer interru4tions
total no? customer interru4tions
no? customers a,,ected
_ Cno? customers a,,ectedD Cduration o, outa'eD
total no? customers
Cno? customers interru4tedD Cno? o, interru4tionsD
total no? customers
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions =1
,aults are more common in t#e rural sections, (ut ,ewer customers are
a,,ected and it ta+es lon'er to ,ind and re4air ,aults?
3?9?8 Im4act o, eliminatin' ,use sa)in'
One o, t#e more common ways o, dealin' wit# com4laints a(out
momentary interru4tions is to disa(le t#e ,ast%tri44in', or ,use%sa)in',
,eature o, t#e su(station (rea+er or recloser? T#is a)oids interru4tin'
t#e entire ,eeder ,or a ,ault on a ta4? T#is #as (een a )ery e,,ecti)e way
many utilities #a)e ,ound to deal wit# com4laintsa(out t#e 2uality o,
t#e 4ower? It sim4ly minimi@es t#e num(er o, 4eo4le incon)enienced (y
any sin'le e)ent? T#e 4enalty is t#at customers on t#e a,,ected ,used
ta4 will su,,er a sustained interru4tion until t#e ,use can (e re4laced,
e)en ,or a transient ,ault? T#ere is also an additional cost to t#e utility
to ma+e t#e trou(le call, and it can #a)e an ad)erse im4act on t#e relia(ility indices (y
w#ic# some utilities are 'raded?
In a !tility Power Quality Practices sur)ey conducted in 1==1 (y
Coo4er Power Systems ,or EPRI ProAect RP3>=:%1,9
5> 4ercent o, 4artici4atin' utilities indicated t#at t#ey #a)e res4onded to customer
com4laints (y remo)in' ,ast tri44in'? Si7ty 4ercent o, 4artici4atin'
in)estor%owned utilities CIO!sD (ut only 3> 4ercent o, 4artici4atin'
4u(lic 4ower utilities Clar'ely rural electric coo4erati)esD indicated
t#at t#ey ,ollowed t#is 4ractice? T#is may )alidate a widely #eld (elie,
t#at customer sensiti)ity to momentary interru4tions is muc# 'reater
in ur(an areas t#an in rural areas? Since t#e time o, t#is sur)ey, our
e74erience would indicate t#is trend is continuin', i, not acceleratin'?
T#is solution to 4ower 2uality com4laints does not sit well wit# many
utility en'ineers? T#ey would 4re,er t#e o4timal tec#nical and economical solution, w#ic#
would ma+e use o, t#e ,ast%tri4 ca4a(ility o,
(rea+ers and reclosers? T#is not only sa)es o4eratin' costs, (ut it
im4ro)es t#e relia(ility indices (y w#ic# utility 4er,ormance is measured? .omentary
interru4tions #a)e traditionally not (een re4orted
in t#ese indices, (ut only t#e 4ermanent outa'es? Howe)er, w#en we
consider t#e economic im4act o, (ot# t#e end user and t#e utility Ci?e?,
a )alue%(ased analysisD, t#e utility costs can (e swam4ed (y t#e costs
to industrial end users?
11
I, t#e utility #as (een in t#e 4ractice o, ,use sa)in', t#ere will 'enerally (e some
additional costs to remo)e ,ast tri44in'? /or e7am4le,
t#e ,used cutouts alon' t#e main ,eed may #a)e to (e c#an'ed ,or (etter coordination? In
some cases, additional lateral ,uses will #a)e to (e
added so t#at t#e main ,eeder is (etter 4rotected ,rom ,aults on
(ranc#es? Considerin' en'ineerin' time, estimates ,or t#e cost o, institutin' t#is may (e
,rom M->,>>> to M5>,>>> 4er ,eeder? Additional o4eratin' costs to c#an'e ,uses t#at
would not #a)e (lown ot#erwise may
(e as #i'# as M->>> 4er year?
=- C#a4ter T#ree
"#ile t#ese costs may seem #i'#, t#ey can a44ear relati)ely small i,
we com4are t#em to t#e costs o, an end user suc# as a 4lastic (a' manu,acturer w#o can
sell all t#e out4ut o, t#e 4lant? A sin'le (rea+er o4eration can cost M3>>> to M1>,>>> in
lost 4roduction and e7tra la(or
c#ar'es? T#us, it is economical in t#e 'lo(al, or )alue%(ased, sense to
remo)e ,ast tri44in' i, at least t#ree to ,i)e interru4tions Cmomentary
and sustained com(inedD are eliminated eac# year?
T#e im4act on t#e relia(ility indices is #i'#ly de4endent on t#e
structure o, t#e ,eeder and w#at ot#er sectionali@in' is done? T#e
im4act can (e ne'li'i(le i, t#e critical industrial load is close to t#e su(station and t#e
rest o, t#e ,eeder can (e isolated wit# a line recloser
t#at does em4loy ,ast tri44in'? T#e ,art#er out t#e ,eeder one 'oes wit#
no ,use sa)in', t#e 'reater t#e im4act on t#e relia(ility indices?
T#ere,ore, it is ad)anta'eous to limit t#e area o, )ulnera(ility to as
small an area as 4ossi(le and to ,eed sensiti)e customers wit# a #i'#
economic )alue o, ser)ice as close to su(stations as 4ossi(le? See Sec?
3?9?9 ,or more details?
Remo)in' ,ast tri44in' will not eliminate all e)ents t#at cause 4ro(lems ,or industrial
users? It will only eliminate most o, t#e momentary
interru4tions? Howe)er, it will do not#in' ,or )olta'e sa's due to ,aults
on t#e transmission system, ot#er ,eeders, or e)en on ,used laterals?
T#ese e)ents can account ,or one%#al, to two%t#irds o, t#e e)ents t#at
disru4t industrial 4rocesses? As a rule o, t#um(, remo)in' ,ast tri44in'
will eliminate a(out one%t#ird o, t#e industrial 4rocess disru4tions in
areas w#ere li'#tnin'%induced ,aults are a 4ro(lem? O, course, t#is ,i'ure will de4end on
t#e ty4es o, 4rocesses (ein' ser)ed (y t#e ,eeder?
A 4articular 4ro(lem is w#en t#ere are ,aults close to t#e su(station
on ot#er ,eeders, or e)en t#e same ,eeder, (ut on ,used ta4s? T#is
causes a dee4 sa' on all ,eeders connected to t#e (us? Two a44roac#es
t#at #a)e (een 4ro4osed to deal wit# t#is are to C1D install reactors on
eac# line comin' ,rom t#e su(station (us to limit t#e ma7imum (us sa'
to a(out 8> 4ercent
1-and C-D install current%limitin' ,uses on all (ranc#
laterals near t#e su(station so t#at sa's are )ery (rie, Csee Sec? 3?9?11D?
Residential end users may (e 2uite )ocal a(out t#e num(er o, interru4tions t#ey
e74erience, (ut, in most cases, t#ere is little direct economic im4act ,or a momentary
interru4tion? Per#a4s, t#e (i''est
nuisance is resettin' t#e do@en or so di'ital cloc+s ,ound in #ouse#olds?
In ,act, t#ere may (e more cases o, ad)erse economic im4act i, ,ast tri44in' were
eliminated? /or e7am4le, #omes wit# sum4 4um4s may su,,er more cases o, ,looded
(asements i, t#ey su,,er sustained
interru4tions (ecause t#eir lateral ,use (lew ,or a tem4orary ,ault durin' a t#understorm?
Some utilities #a)e ta+en anot#er a44roac# wit#
t#e residential com4laint 4ro(lem (y em4loyin' instantaneous reclosin'on residential
,eeders w#ile retainin' t#e ,ast tri44in'? *y 'ettin'
t#e reclose inter)al down to 1- to -> cycles, t#e momentary interru4&olta'e Sa's and
Interru4tions =3
tion is so (rie, t#at t#e maAority o, di'ital cloc+s seem to (e a(le to ride
t#rou'# it? T#is would not (e ,ast enou'# to #el4 wit# lar'er industrial
loads? Howe)er, t#ere is mountin' anecdotal e)idence t#at many more
modern loads suc# as adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es are now a(le to ride
t#rou'# t#ese (rie, interru4tions? Instantaneous reclosin' is not
always 4ossi(le, 4articularly, i, distri(uted 'eneration is ser)ed ,rom
t#e ,eeder?
One unintended conse2uence o, eliminatin' ,ast tri44in' may (e
more su(station trans,ormer ,ailures? Reclosers o4erate 5 times (y
de,ault (e,ore loc+in' out? On some desi'ns, dialin' out t#e ,ast tri4s
will sim4ly result in ,our delayed o4erations ,or 4ermanent ,aults?
T#ere is almost ne)er a reason ,or ,our delayed o4erations? T#is su(Aects t#e su(station
trans,ormer to unnecessary t#rou'#%,ault current
e)ents, w#ic# will s#orten t#e li,e o, t#e trans,ormer? T#e num(er o,
delayed o4erations s#ould (e decreased to two i, t#ere are only ,uses
downline to coordinate wit#? I, t#ere are ot#er mec#anical interru4ters
or sectionali@ers, t#ree o4erations may (e needed?
3?9?9 Increased sectionali@in'
T#e ty4ical utility 4rimary distri(ution ,eeder in t#e !nited States is a
radial ,eed ,rom t#e su(station (rea+er? In its sim4lest ,orm, it consists
o, a main t#ree%4#ase ,eeder wit# ,used one%4#ase and t#ree%4#ase
ta4s as s#own in /i'? 3?5>?
T#e ,irst ste4 in sectionali@in' t#e ,eeder ,urt#er to im4ro)e o)erall
relia(ility is to add a line recloser as s#own in /i'? 3?51? I, only traditional relia(ility is o,
concern, one mi'#t 4lace t#e recloser #al,way
down t#e ,eeder or at t#e #al,%load 4oint? /or 4ower 2uality concerns,
it mi'#t (e (etter ,or t#e recloser to (e located closer to t#e su(station,
de4endin' on t#e location o, critical loads? One 4ossi(le criterion is to
4lace it at t#e ,irst 4oint w#ere t#e ,ault current #as dro44ed to w#ere
one can nearly always 'uarantee coordination wit# t#e ,uses on ,ast
tri44in'? Anot#er would (e to 4lace t#e recloser Aust downline ,rom t#e
(ul+ o, t#e critical loads t#at are li+ely to com4lain a(out momentary
interru4tions?
"it# t#is conce4t, t#e ,ast tri44in' can (e remo)ed ,rom t#e su(station (rea+er w#ile
only sacri,icin' ,use sa)in' on a small 4ortion o, t#e
,eeder? As 4ointed out 4re)iously, it is o,ten di,,icult to ac#ie)e ,use sa)in' near t#e
su(station anyway? A s4ecial e,,ort is made to +ee4 t#e
,irst section o, t#e main ,eeder ,ree o, transient ,aults? T#is would
include more ,re2uent maintenance suc# as tree trimmin' and insulator was#in'? Also,
e7traordinary measures can (e ta+en to 4re)ent
li'#tnin' ,las#o)er, ,or e7am4le, line s#ieldin' or t#e a44lication o, line
arresters at least e)ery two or t#ree s4ans?
=5 C#a4ter T#ree
T#e 2uestion a(out #ow muc# t#e relia(ility is com4romised (y eliminatin' t#e ,ast
tri44in' is o,ten raised? "e 4er,ormed a relia(ility
analysis on a num(er o, ,eeders to study t#is? One ,eeder used in t#e
study was a sin'le main ,eeder conce4t li+e t#at in /i'? 3?5>, e7ce4t
t#at t#e sin'le%4#ase laterals were uni,ormly s4aced down t#e ,eeder?
"e used t#e ur(an ,eeder descri(ed (y "arren1>
as t#e 4rototy4e? "eFll
re,er to t#is as ,eeder 1? It is a uni,orm, :%mi ,eeder wit# identical ,used
Su(station
*rea+er
.ain ,eeder
/use
1%4#ase and
3%4#ase (ranc#es
Su(station
*rea+er
1ine
recloser
added
T#ese ,uses
may (e di,,icult
to sa)e ,rom
#i'# ,ault current
Reduced num(er o,
momentary
interru4tions
/i'ure 3?5> Ty4ical main line ,eeder construction wit# ,used ta4s?
/i'ure 3?51 Addin' a line recloser to t#e main ,eeder as t#e ,irst ste4 in sectionali@in'?
ta4s e)ery >?-6 mi and a total load o, 85>> +&A? "#ile t#is may not (e
a realistic ,eeder, it is a 'ood ,eeder ,or study so t#at t#e 'eneral trends
o, certain actions can (e determined? "e assumed )alues o, >?1
,aultsOyrOmi on t#e main ,eeder and >?-6 ,aultsOyrOmi on t#e ,used ta4s,
wit# :> 4ercent o, t#e ,aults (ein' transient? A uni,orm re4air time o,
3 # was assumed ,or 4ermanent ,aults?
"e ,irst loo+ed at t#e (ase case Ccase 1 in Ta(le 3?9D assumin' t#at
t#e utility was em4loyin' ,use sa)in' and t#at 1>> 4ercent o, t#e ,uses
could (e sa)ed on transient ,aults? /or case -, t#e ,ast tri44in' o, t#e
su(station (rea+er was disa(led and it was assumed t#at none o, t#e
ta4 ,uses could (e sa)ed? /inally, ,or case 3, we 4laced a t#ree%4#ase
recloser 1 mi ,rom t#e su(station and assumed t#at all ,uses downline
were sa)ed? T#e resultin' SAI/I and SAII relia(ility indices are
s#own in Ta(le 3?9?
Ty4ical tar'et )alues ,or (ot# SAI/I and SAII Cin #oursD in an ur(an
en)ironment are 1?>? "#ile none o, t#ese cases are 4articularly (ad, it
is a44arent t#at remo)in' ,ast tri44in' #as a )ery si'ni,icant ne'ati)e
e,,ect on t#e relia(ility indices Ccom4are case - wit# case 1D? T#e SAI/I
increases (y a(out 8> 4ercent? T#is e7am4le in)ol)es a )ery re'ular,
well%sectionali@ed ,eeder wit# a ,use on e)ery ta4, w#ere a (lown ,use
ta+es out less t#an 3 4ercent o, t#e customers? /or ot#er ,eeder structures, t#e e,,ect can
(e more 4ronounced Csee t#e ,ollowin' discussion on
,eeder -D, (ut t#is ser)es to illustrate t#e 4oint t#at t#e relia(ility can
(e e74ected to deteriorate w#en ,ast tri44in' is eliminated?
T#e SAII increases only sli'#tly? T#e lar'est c#an'e is in t#e num(er o, ,use o4erations,
w#ic# increased (y a ,actor o, 6? T#us, t#e utility can e74ect considera(ly more trou(le
calls durin' stormy weat#er?
I, we would su(se2uently add a line recloser as descri(ed ,or case
3, t#e relia(ility indices and num(er o, ,use o4erations return to
almost t#e same )alues as t#e (ase case? In ,act, t#e relia(ility
indices are sli'#tly (etter (ecause o, t#e increased sectionali@in' in
t#e line, alt#ou'# t#ere are more nuisance ,use (lowin's in t#e ,irst
section t#an in case 1? T#us, i, we also 4lace a line recloser 4ast t#e
maAority o, t#e critical loads, eliminatin' ,ast tri44in' at t#e su(station will 4ro(a(ly not
#a)e a si'ni,icant ne'ati)e im4act on o)erall
relia(ility? O, course, t#is assumes t#at t#e more critical loads are
close to t#e su(station?
=8 C#a4ter T#ree
TA*1E3?9 Relia(ility Indices Com4uted ,or /eeder 1
Case SAI/I SAII C#D Annual ,use o4erations
1 >?1:5 >?661 1?-
- >?-== >?888 8?>
3 >?1:- >?618 1?::
"e studied t#e same t#ree cases ,or anot#er ,eeder, w#ic# we will
call ,eeder -? T#is ,eeder is, 4er#a4s, more ty4ical o, mi7ed ur(an and
rural ,eeders in muc# o, t#e !nited States? S4ace does not allow a com4lete descri4tion
o, t#e to4olo'y? T#e main di,,erence ,rom ,eeder 1 is
t#at t#e ,eeder structure is more random and t#e sectionali@in' is
muc# more coarse wit# ,ar ,ewer lateral ,uses? T#e ,ault rate was
assumed to (e t#e same as ,or ,eeder 1? T#e SAI/I and SAII ,or t#e
t#ree cases ,or ,eeder - are s#own in Ta(le 3?:? T#e num(er o, ,use
(lowin's #as not (een com4uted?
/or ,eeder -, many more customers are incon)enienced (y eac# ,use
(lowin'? T#us, t#e SAI/I Aum4s (y more t#an a ,actor o, 3 w#en ,ast
tri44in' is remo)ed? T#is em4#asi@es t#e need ,or 'ood sectionali@in'
o, t#e ,eeder to +ee4 t#e im4act on relia(ility at a minimum? As wit#
,eeder 1, t#e case 3 relia(ility indices return to nearly t#e same )alues
as case 1?
"#at a(out t#e 4ower 2uality$ T#ose customers in t#e ,irst section
o, line are 'oin' to see muc# im4ro)ed 4ower 2uality as well as
im4ro)ed relia(ility? In our study o, ,eeder 1, t#e a)era'e num(er o,
interru4tions, (ot# momentary and sustained, dro44ed ,rom 16 4er
year to a little more t#an 1 4er year? T#is is a dramatic im4ro)ementQ
!n,ortunately, t#e num(er o, interru4tions ,or t#e remainder o, t#e
customersPdownline ,rom t#e recloserPremain unc#an'ed? "#at can
(e done a(out t#is$
T#e ,irst tem4tation is to add anot#er line recloser ,art#er down on
t#e main ,eeder? T#e customers ser)ed ,rom t#e 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder
(etween t#e reclosers will see an im4ro)ement? I, we 4lace t#e second
recloser 5 mi downline on our uni,orm :%mi ,eeder e7am4le, t#e a)era'e annual
interru4tion rate dro4s to a(out :?3? Howe)er, a'ain, t#e
customers at t#e end will see less im4ro)ement on t#e num(er o, interru4tions?
One can continue 4lacin' additional line reclosers in series on t#e
main ,eeder and lar'er (ranc# ,eeders to ac#ie)e e)en 'reater sectionali@in' w#ile still
retainin' desira(le 4ractices li+e ,use sa)in'? In t#is
way, t#e 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder distur(ed (y a ,ault decreases? T#is will
'enerally im4ro)e t#e relia(ility Cwit# diminis#in' returnsD (ut may
not #a)e muc# e,,ect on t#e 4ercei)ed 4ower 2uality?
TA*1E3?: Relia(ility Indices ,or /eeder -
Case SAI/I SAII C#D
1 >?53 1?-:
- 1?61 -?39
3 >?59 1?-=
T#e actions t#at #a)e t#e most e,,ect on t#e num(er o, interru4tions
on t#e 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder t#at is downline ,rom t#e recloser are
1? Reduce t#e ,ault rate (y tree trimmin', line arresters, animal
'uards, or ot#er ,ault 4re)ention tec#ni2ues?
-? Pro)ide more 4arallel 4at#s into t#e ser)ice area?
3? o not tri4 4#ases t#at are not in)ol)ed in t#e ,ault Csee Sec? 3?9?1>D?
T#ere are at least two o4tions ,or 4ro)idin' additional 4arallel 4at#s:
1? *uild more con)entional ,eeders ,rom t#e su(station?
-? !se more t#ree%4#ase (ranc#es ,rom t#e main ,eeder to ser)e t#e
load?
T#e ,irst a44roac# is ,airly strai'#t,orward: Sim4ly (uild a new ,eeder
,rom t#e su(station out? T#is could certainly im4ro)e t#e relia(ility
and 4ower 2uality (y sim4ly reducin' t#e num(er o, customers incon)enienced (y eac#
interru4tion, (ut t#is may not (e an economical
alternati)e? It also may not ac#ie)e as 'reat o, an im4ro)ement in t#e
interru4tion rate as some o, t#e a44roac#es associated wit# t#e second
o4tion? 1etFs in)esti'ate ,urt#er t#e second idea: usin' more t#ree4#ase (ranc#es o,, t#e
main ,eeder, w#ic# #as t#e 4otential o, (ein'
less costly in most cases?
T#ere are two conce4ts (ein' 4ut ,orward? T#e ,irst in)ol)es comin'
out a s#ort distance ,rom t#e su(station and di)idin' t#e ,eeder into
two or t#ree su(,eeders? T#is could ty4ically cut t#e num(er o, interru4tions (y almost
one%#al, or two%t#irds, res4ecti)ely, w#en com4ared
to ser)in' t#e same customers wit# a sin'le, lon' main ,eeder? T#e
4oint at w#ic# t#is (ranc# occurs is a little (eyond t#e 4oint w#ere it
(ecomes 4ractical to sa)e lateral ,uses on tem4orary ,aults? A t#ree4#ase recloser is
4laced in eac# (ranc# near t#is 4oint? It would (e wise
to se4arate t#e reclosers (y some distance o, line to reduce t#e c#ances
o, sym4at#etic tri44in', w#ere a recloser on t#e un,aulted (ranc# tri4s
as a result o, t#e transient currents related to t#e ,ault? /i'ure 3?5-
de4icts #ow t#is 4rinci4le mi'#t (e 4ut into 4ractice on an e7istin'
,eeder wit# minimal re(uildin', assumin' t#e e7istence o, t#ree%4#ase
,eeders o, su,,icient conductor si@e in t#e locations indicated?
T#e second 4ro4osal, as de4icted in /i'? 3?53, is to ,irst (uild a #i'#ly
relia(le main ,eeder t#at e7tends a si'ni,icant distance into t#e ser)ice
area? &ery ,ew loads are actually ser)ed directly o,, t#is main ,eeder?
Instead, t#e loads are ser)ed o,, t#ree%4#ase (ranc# ,eeders t#at are
ta44ed o,, t#e main ,eeder 4eriodically? A t#ree%4#ase line recloser is
used at t#e #ead o, eac# (ranc# ,eeder? O, course, t#ere is no ,ast tri4%=: C#a4ter T#ree
4in' at t#e su(station to limit momentary interru4tions on t#e main
,eeder? S4ecial e,,orts will (e made to 4re)ent ,aults on t#is 4art o, t#e
,eeder? Essentially, t#e main ,eeder (ecomes an e7tension o, t#e su(station (us t#at is
4ermitted (y desi'n to #a)e a ,ew more ,aults o)er
its li,etime t#an t#e (us? And t#e (ranc# ,eeders are analo'ous to #a)in' se4arate ,eeds to
eac# 4art o, t#e ser)ice area directly ,rom t#e su(station, (ut, #o4e,ully, wit#
considera(ly less cost?
"#et#er eit#er o, t#ese ideas is suita(le ,or a 4articular utility is
de4endent on many ,actors includin' terrain, load density, load distri(ution, and 4ast
construction 4ractices? T#ese ideas are 4resented #ere
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions ==
Su(station
Recloser
New
Recloser
New
Recloser
Add Tie 1ine
Close Tie
CNo /ast Tri44in'D
Hi'#ly Relia(le
1ine Se'ment
/i'ure 3?5- Recon,i'urin' a ,eeder wit# 4arallel su(,eeders to reduce t#e a)era'e num(er
o, interru4tions to all customers?
Su(station
*rea+er
.ain /eeder
CHi'#ly Relia(leD
CNo irect 1oadsD
Reclosers
Cwit#
/ast Tri44in'D
Su(,eeders
CNo /ast Tri44in'D
/used Ta4s
/i'ure 3?53 esi'nin' a ,eeder wit# multi4le t#ree%4#ase su(,eeds o,, a #i'#ly relia(le
main ,eeder?
sim4ly as alternati)es to consider ,or ac#ie)in' o)erall lower a)era'e
interru4tion rates t#an is 4ossi(le (y stac+in' ,ault interru4ters in
series? Alt#ou'# t#ese 4ractices may not (ecome wides4read, t#ey may
(e )ery use,ul ,or dealin' wit# s4eci,ic di,,icult 4ower 2uality com4laint 4ro(lems
stemmin' ,rom e7cessi)e interru4tions?
3?9?: .idline or ta4 reclosers
es4ite res4ondin' to com4laints (y remo)in' ,ast tri44in', a(out 5>
4ercent o, t#e utilities sur)eyed indicated t#ey were interested in
addin'moreline reclosers to im4ro)e customersF 4erce4tions o, 4ower
2uality? T#is would accom4lis# 'reater sectionali@in' o, t#e ,eeder and,
4er#a4s, 4ermit t#e use o, ,use%sa)in' 4ractices on t#e (ul+ o, t#e
,eeder a'ain? T#is 4ractice is )ery e,,ecti)e i, t#e w#ole ,eeder is (ein'
interru4ted ,or ,aults t#at are lar'ely constrained to a 4articular
re'ion? *y 4uttin' t#e recloser ,art#er out on t#e ,eeder, it will attem4t
to clear t#e ,ault ,irst so t#at t#e num(er o, customers incon)enienced
(y a (lin+ is reduced? I, it is also necessary to eliminate ,ast tri44in' on
t#e su(station (rea+er, only a smaller 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder nearer t#e
su(station is t#reatened wit# t#e 4ossi(ility o, #a)in' a ,use (low on a
transient ,ault, as e74lained 4re)iously? T#is is not muc# di,,erent t#an
t#e normal case (ecause o, t#e di,,iculty in 4re)entin' ,use (lowin' in
t#e #i'# ,ault current re'ions near t#e su(station anyway?
A ,ew utilities #a)e actually done t#e o44osite to t#is and remo)ed
line reclosers in res4onse to com4laints a(out momentary interru4tions? Per#a4s, a
section o, t#e ,eeder ran t#rou'# #ea)ily wooded areas
causin' ,re2uent o4erations o, t#e recloser, or t#e de)ice was res4ondin' to #i'# 'round
currents due to #armonics or a load im(alance, causin' ,alse tri4s? "#ate)er t#e reason,
t#is is an unusual 4ractice and is
counter to t#e direction most utilities seem to (e ta+in'? T#e main 2uestion at t#is 4oint
does not seem to (e a(out w#et#er more line reclosers
are needed (ut a(out #ow to 'o a(out a44lyin' t#em to ac#ie)e t#e dual
'oal o, increased 4ower 2uality and relia(ility o, ser)ice?
3?9?= Instantaneous reclosin'
Instantaneous reclosin' is t#e 4ractice o, reclosin' wit#in 1- to 3>
cycles a,ter interru4tin' t#e ,ault, 'enerally only on t#e ,irst o4eration?
T#is #as (een a standard ,eature o, (rea+ers and reclosers ,or some
time, and some utilities use it as standard 4ractice, 4articularly on su(station (rea+ers?
Howe)er, t#e 4ractice #as ne)er (een uni)ersally
acce4ted? .any utilities reclose no ,aster t#an - s Ct#e standard reclosin' inter)al on a
#ydraulic recloserD and some wait e)en lon'er?
A,ter it was o(ser)ed t#at many di'ital cloc+s and e)en some motordri)en loads can
success,ully ride t#rou'# a 1-% to 3>%cycle interru4%1>> C#a4ter T#ree
tion, some utilities (e'an to e74eriment wit# usin' instantaneous
reclosin' w#ile retainin' t#e ,ast tri44in' to sa)e ,uses? One utility tryin' t#is on 1-%+&
,eeders re4orted t#at t#ere was no si'ni,icant
increase in t#e num(er o, (rea+er and recloser o4erations and t#at t#e
num(er o, com4laints #ad diminis#ed?11
T#ere,ore, it is somet#in' t#at
ot#er utilities mi'#t consider, wit# t#e caution t#at t#e same e74erience may not (e
ac#ie)ed at #i'#er )olta'e le)els and wit# certain line
desi'ns?
Instantaneous reclosin' #as #ad a (ad re4utation wit# some utility
en'ineers? One ris+ is t#at t#ere is insu,,icient time ,or t#e arc 4roducts to dis4erse and
t#e ,ault will not clear? Some utilities #a)e #ad t#is
e74erience wit# #i'#er distri(ution )olta'e le)els and 4articular line
constructions? "#en t#is #a44ens, su(station trans,ormers are su(Aected to re4eated
t#rou'#%,aults unnecessarily? T#is could result in
increased ,ailures o, t#e trans,ormers? Howe)er, i, t#ere is no indication t#at
instantaneous reclosin' is causin' increased (rea+er o4erations, it s#ould (e sa,e to use it?
Anot#er concern is t#at )ery #i'# tor2ues will (e 'enerated in rotatin' mac#ines u4on
reclosin'? T#is is a 4articular issue wit# distri(uted
'eneration (ecause 1- to 3> cycles may not (e su,,icient time to 'uarantee t#at t#e
'eneratorFs 4rotecti)e relayin' will detect a 4ro(lem on
t#e utility side and (e o,,%line Csee C#a4? =D? Reclosin' inter)als on ,eeders wit# 0
s#ould (e at least 1 to - s so t#at t#ere is less c#ance t#e
utility will reclose into t#e 0 out o, sync#ronism? Some utilities allow
6 s? One way t#e utility can #el4 4re)ent suc# an occurrence is to use a
common recloser accessory t#at (loc+s reclosin' w#en t#ere is )olta'e
4resent on t#e load side? T#is may add si'ni,icant cost i, suita(le 4otential trans,ormers
are not already installed?
3?9?1> Sin'le%4#ase tri44in'
.ost o, t#e t#ree%4#ase (rea+ers and reclosers on t#e utility distri(ution system o4erate
all t#ree 4#ases simultaneously? One a44roac#
t#at #as (een su''ested to minimi@e t#e e74osure o, customers to
momentary outa'es is to tri4 only t#e ,aulted 4#ase or 4#ases? *ecause
many o, t#e loads are sin'le 4#ase, t#is would automatically reduce t#e
e74osure (y two%t#irds ,or most ,aults? T#e main 4ro(lem wit# t#is is
t#at it is 4ossi(le to dama'e some t#ree%4#ase loads i, t#ey are sin'le4#ased ,or a
su(stantial len't# o, time? T#us, it is 'enerally considered
to (e undesira(le to use sin'le%4#ase reclosers on t#ree%4#ase (ranc#es
wit# si'ni,icant t#ree%4#ase loads? O, course, t#is is done 2uite commonly w#en only
one%4#ase loads are (ein' ser)ed?
T#is 4ro(lem is sol)ed (y a t#ree%4#ase (rea+er, or recloser, t#at is
ca4a(le o, o4eratin' eac# 4#ase inde4endently until it is determined
t#at t#e ,ault is 4ermanent? T#en, to 4re)ent sin'le%4#asin' o, t#ree&olta'e Sa's and
Interru4tions 1>1
4#ase loads, all t#ree 4#ases are o4ened i, t#e ,ault is 4ermanent and
t#e interru4ter loc+s out? Suc# de)ices are a)aila(le ,rom distri(ution
e2ui4ment su44liers Csee /i'? 3?39D?
3?9?11 Current%limitin' ,uses
Current%limitin' ,uses are o,ten used in electrical e2ui4ment w#ere t#e
,ault current is )ery #i'# and an internal ,ault could result in a catastro4#ic ,ailure? Since
t#ey are more e74ensi)e t#an con)entional
e74ulsion lin+s, t#eir a44lication is 'enerally limited to locations
w#ere t#e ,ault current is in e7cess o, ->>> to 3>>> A? /i'ure 3?55
s#ows e7am4les o, current%limitin' ,uses? T#ere are )arious desi'ns,
(ut t#e (asic con,i'uration is t#at o, a t#in ri((on element or wire
wound around a ,orm and encased in a sealed insulatin' tu(e ,illed
wit# a s4ecial sand? T#e tu(e is constructed o, stout material suc# as a
,i(er'lass%e4o7y resin com4osite to wit#stand t#e 4ressures durin' t#e
1>- C#a4ter T#ree
/i'ure 3?55 &arious ty4es o, current%limitin' ,uses used in
utility a44lications? CCourtesy o, Coo4er Power Systems?D
interru4tion 4rocess wit#out ru4turin'? T#e element melts in many
4laces simultaneously and, wit# t#e aid o, t#e meltin' sand, )ery
2uic+ly (uilds u4 a )olta'e dro4 t#at o44oses t#e ,low o, current? T#e
current is ,orced to @ero in a(out one%,ourt# o, a cycle?
T#e main 4ur4ose o, current%limitin' ,uses is to 4re)ent dama'e due
to e7cessi)e ,ault current? T#ey #a)e t#e (ene,icial side e,,ect wit#
res4ect to 4ower 2uality t#at t#e )olta'e sa' resultin' ,rom t#e ,ault is
)ery (rie,? /i'ure 3?56 s#ows ty4ical )olta'e and current wa)e,orms
,rom a current%limitin' ,use o4eration durin' a sin'le%line%to%'round
,ault? T#e )olta'e dro4s immediately to a(out 5> 4ercent (ecause o, t#e
,ault, (ut s#ortly reco)ers and o)ers#oots to a(out 15> 4ercent as t#e
4ea+ arc )olta'e de)elo4s in t#e ,use to cut o,, current ,low? Note t#at
t#e current wa)e,orm is cli44ed (y t#e instrumentation? T#e )olta'e
sa' is so s#ort t#at not many industrial 4rocesses will (e ad)ersely
a,,ected? T#ere,ore, one 4ro4osed 4ractice is to install current%limitin'
,uses on eac# lateral (ranc# in t#e #i'# ,ault current re'ion near t#e
su(station to reduce t#e num(er o, sa's t#at a,,ect industrial
4rocesses?
"#en current%limitin' ,uses were ,irst installed on utility systems in
'reat num(ers, t#ere was t#e ,ear t#at t#e 4ea+ arc )olta'e transient,
w#ic# e7ceeds system )olta'e, would cause dama'e to arresters and to
insulation in t#e system? T#is #as not 4ro)en to (e a si'ni,icant 4ro(lem? T#e o)er)olta'e
is on t#e same order as ca4acitor%switc#in' transient o)er)olta'es, w#ic# occur se)eral
times a day on most utility
systems wit#out serious conse2uences?
3?9?1- Ada4ti)e relayin'
Ada4ti)e relayin'is t#e 4ractice o, c#an'in' t#e relayin' c#aracteristics o, t#e
o)ercurrent 4rotecti)e de)ice to suit t#e 4resent system conditions?
One rele)ant t#in' t#at is currently (ein' done wit# ada4ti)e relayin' is t#e ena(lin' and
disa(lin' o, ,ast tri44in' o, (rea+ers in
res4onse to weat#er conditions? T#is is 'enerally done t#rou'# a radio
or telecommunications lin+ to t#e utility control center? It could also (e
done wit# local de)ices t#at #a)e t#e a(ility to detect t#e 4resence o,
near(y li'#tnin' or rain? I, a storm is a44roac#in', ,ast tri44in' is
ena(led to sa)e t#e ,uses ,rom t#e antici4ated #i'# incidence o, tem4orary ,aults? End
users are more understandin' and less li+ely to
com4lain a(out interru4tions durin' storms?
At ot#er times, ,ast tri44in' is disa(led and t#e ,uses are allowed to
(low? T#is does not mean t#ere will (e no tem4orary ,aults wit#out
storms? Animals can clim( electrical structures at any time and cause
a ,ault? &e'etation 'rowt# may (e su,,icient to cause ,aults? Howe)er,
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions 1>3
t#e 4u(lic is 'enerally muc# less understandin' a(out an interru4tion
on a clear day?
3?9?13 I'norin' t#ird%#armonic currents
T#e le)el o, t#ird%#armonic currents #as (een increasin' due to t#e
increase in t#e num(ers o, com4uters and ot#er ty4es o, electronic
loads on t#e system? T#e residual current Csum o, t#e t#ree%4#ase currentsD on many
,eeders contains as muc# t#ird #armonic as it does ,undamental ,re2uency? A common
case is to ,ind eac# o, t#e 4#ase
currents to (e moderately distorted wit# a TH o, 9 to : 4ercent, consistin' 4rimarily o,
t#e t#ird #armonic? T#e t#ird%#armonic currents
sum directly in t#e neutral so t#at t#e t#ird #armonic is -> to -6 4ercent o, t#e 4#ase
current, w#ic# is o,ten as lar'e, or lar'er, t#an t#e
,undamental ,re2uency current in t#e neutral Csee C#a4s? 6 and 8D?
1>5 C#a4ter T#ree
V3>
V->
V1>
P#ase A &olta'e
> -> 5> 8> :> 1>>
>
1>
->
3>
P#ase A Current
> -> 5> 8> :> 1>>
V8>
V5>
V->
>
->
5>
A
Time, ms
+&
Time, ms
/i'ure 3?56 Ty4ical current%limitin' ,use o4eration s#owin' (rie, sa' ,ollowed (y 4ea+
arc )olta'e w#en t#e ,use
clears?
*ecause t#e t#ird%#armonic current is 4redominantly @ero%se2uence, it
a,,ects t#e 'round%,ault relayin'? T#ere #a)e (een incidents w#ere t#ere
#a)e (een ,alse tri4s and loc+out due to e7cessi)e #armonic currents in
t#e 'round%relayin' circuit? At least one o, t#e e)ents we #a)e in)esti'ated #as (een
correlated wit# ca4acitor switc#in' w#ere it is sus4ected
t#at t#e t#ird%#armonic current was am4li,ied somew#at due to resonance? T#ere may (e
many more e)ents t#at we #a)e not #eard a(out,
and it is e74ected t#at t#e 4ro(lem will only 'et worse in t#e ,uture?
T#e sim4lest solution is to raise t#e 'round%,ault 4ic+u4 le)el w#en
o4eratin' 4rocedures will allow? !n,ortunately, t#is ma+es ,ault detection less sensiti)e,
w#ic# de,eats t#e 4ur4ose o, #a)in' 'round relayin', and some utilities are restrained (y
standards ,rom raisin' t#e
'round tri4 le)el? It #as (een o(ser)ed t#at i, t#e t#ird #armonic could
(e ,iltered out, it mi'#t (e 4ossi(le to set t#e 'round relayin' to (e more
sensiti)e? T#e t#ird%#armonic current is almost entirely a ,unction o,
load and is not a com4onent o, ,ault current? "#en a ,ault occurs, t#e
current seen (y t#e relayin' is 4redominantly sinusoidal? T#ere,ore, it
is not necessary ,or t#e relayin' to (e a(le to monitor t#e t#ird #armonic ,or ,ault
detection?
T#e ,irst relays were electroma'netic de)ices t#at (asically
res4onded to t#e e,,ecti)e CrmsD )alue o, t#e current? T#us, ,or years, it
#as (een common 4ractice to desi'n electronic relays to du4licate t#at
res4onse and di'ital relays #a)e also 'enerally included t#e si'ni,icant
lower #armonics? In retros4ect, it would #a)e (een (etter i, t#e t#ird
#armonic would #a)e (een i'nored ,or 'round%,ault relays?
T#ere is still a )alid reason ,or monitorin' t#e t#ird #armonic in
4#ase relayin' (ecause 4#ase relayin' is used to detect o)erload as
well as ,aults? O)erload e)aluation is 'enerally an rms ,unction?
3?9?15 !tility ,ault 4re)ention
One sure way to eliminate com4laints a(out utility ,ault%clearin' o4erations is to
eliminate ,aults alto'et#er? O, course, t#ere will always (e
some ,aults, (ut t#ere are many t#in's t#at can (e done to dramatically
reduce t#e incidence o, ,aults?
1:
O)er#ead line maintenance
Tree trimmin'? T#is is one o, t#e more e,,ecti)e met#ods o, reducin'
t#e num(er o, ,aults on o)er#ead lines? It is a necessity, alt#ou'# t#e
4u(lic may com4lain a(out t#e en)ironmental and aest#etic im4act?
Insulator was#in'? 1i+e tree trimmin' in wooded re'ions, insulator
was#in' is necessary in coastal and dusty re'ions? Ot#erwise, t#ere
will (e numerous insulator ,las#o)ers ,or e)en a mild rainstorm wit#out li'#tnin'?
S#ield wires? S#ield wires ,or li'#tnin' are common ,or utility transmission systems?
T#ey are 'enerally not a44lied on distri(ution ,eeders e7ce4t w#ere lines #a)e an
unusually #i'# incidence o, li'#tnin'
stri+es? Some utilities construct t#eir ,eeders wit# t#e neutral on to4,
4er#a4s e)en e7tendin' t#e 4ole, to 4ro)ide s#ieldin'? No s#ieldin' is
4er,ect?
Im4ro)in' 4ole 'rounds? Se)eral utilities #a)e re4orted doin' t#is to
im4ro)e t#e 4ower 2uality wit# res4ect to ,aults? Howe)er, we are not
certain o, all t#e reasons ,or doin' t#is? Per#a4s, it ma+es t#e ,aults
easier to detect? I, s#ieldin' is em4loyed, t#is will reduce t#e (ac+,las#o)er rate? I, not, it
would not seem t#at t#is would 4ro)ide any
(ene,it wit# res4ect to li'#tnin' unless com(ined wit# line arrester
a44lications Csee 1ine Arresters (elowD?
.odi,ied conductor s4acin'? Em4loyin' a di,,erent line s4acin' can
sometimes increase t#e wit#stand to ,las#o)er or t#e susce4ti(ility to
'ettin' trees in t#e line?
Tree wire CinsulatedOco)ered conductorD? In areas w#ere tree trimmin' is
not 4ractical, insulated or co)ered conductor can reduce t#e li+eli#ood
o, tree%induced ,aults?
! ca(les? /ault 4re)ention tec#ni2ues in under'round distri(ution
C!D ca(les are 'enerally related to 4reser)in' t#e insulation a'ainst
)olta'e sur'es? T#e insulation de'rades si'ni,icantly as it a'es, re2uirin' increasin'
e,,orts to +ee4 t#e ca(le sound? T#is 'enerally in)ol)es
arrester 4rotection sc#emes to di)ert li'#tnin' sur'es comin' ,rom t#e
o)er#ead system, alt#ou'# t#ere are some e,,orts to restore insulation
le)els t#rou'# inAectin' ,luids into t#e ca(le?
Since nearly all ca(le ,aults are 4ermanent, t#e 4ower 2uality issue
is more one o, ,indin' t#e ,ault location 2uic+ly so t#at t#e ca(le can (e
manually sectionali@ed and re4aired? /ault location de)ices a)aila(le
,or t#at 4ur4ose are addressed in Sec? 3?9?16?
1ine arresters? To 4re)ent o)er#ead line ,aults, one must eit#er raise
t#e insulation le)el o, t#e line, 4re)ent li'#tnin' ,rom stri+in' t#e line,
or 4re)ent t#e )olta'e ,rom e7ceedin' t#e insulation le)el? T#e t#ird
idea is (ecomin' more 4o4ular wit# im4ro)in' sur'e arrester desi'ns?
To accom4lis# t#is, sur'e arresters are 4laced e)ery two or t#ree 4oles
alon' t#e ,eeder as well as on distri(ution trans,ormers? Some utilities
4lace t#em on all t#ree 4#ases, w#ile ot#er utilities 4lace t#em only on
t#e 4#ase most li+ely to (e struc+ (y li'#tnin'? To su44ort some o, t#e
recent ideas a(out im4ro)in' 4ower 2uality, or 4ro)idin' custom 4ower
wit# su4errelia(le main ,eeders, it will (e necessary to 4ut arresters on
e)ery 4#ase o, e)ery 4ole?
1>8 C#a4ter T#ree
Presently, a44lyin' line arresters in addition to t#e normal arrester
at trans,ormer locations is done only on line sections wit# a #istory o,
numerous li'#tnin'%induced ,aults? *ut recently, some utilities #a)e
claimed t#at a44lyin' line arresters is not only more e,,ecti)e t#an
s#ieldin', (ut it is more economical?
15
Some sections o, ur(an and su(ur(an ,eeders will naturally
a44roac# t#e 'oal o, an arrester e)ery two or t#ree 4oles (ecause t#e
density o, load re2uires t#e installation o, a distri(ution trans,ormer at
least t#at ,re2uently? Eac# trans,ormer will normally #a)e a 4rimary
arrester in li'#tnin'%4rone re'ions?
3?9?16 /ault locatin'
/indin' ,aults 2uic+ly is an im4ortant as4ect o, relia(ility and t#e
2uality o, 4ower?
/aulted circuit indicators? /indin' ca(le ,aults is o,ten 2uite a c#allen'e? T#e ca(les are
under'round, and it is 'enerally im4ossi(le to see
t#e ,ault, alt#ou'# occasionally t#ere will (e a 4#ysical dis4lay? To
e74edite locatin' t#e ,ault, many utilities use G,aulted circuit indicators,H or sim4ly G,ault
indicators,H to locate t#e ,aulted section more
2uic+ly? T#ese are de)ices t#at ,li4 a tar'et indicator w#en t#e current
e7ceeds a 4articular le)el? T#e idea is to 4ut one at eac# 4ad%mount
trans,ormerJ t#e last one s#owin' a tar'et will (e located Aust (e,ore
t#e ,aulted section?
T#ere are two main sc#ools o, t#ou'#t on t#e selection o, ratin's o,
,aulted circuit indicators? T#e more traditional sc#ool says to c#oose a
ratin' t#at is - to 3 times t#e ma7imum e74ected load on t#e ca(le?
T#is results in a ,airly sensiti)e ,ault detection ca4a(ility?
T#e o44osin' sc#ool says t#at t#is is too sensiti)e and is t#e reason
t#at many ,ault indicators 'i)e a ,alse indication? A ,alse indication
delays t#e location o, t#e ,ault and contri(utes to de'raded relia(ility
and 4ower 2uality? T#e reason 'i)en ,or t#e ,alse indication is t#at t#e
ener'y stored in t#e ca(le 'enerates su,,icient current to tri4 t#e indicator w#en t#e ,ault
occurs? T#us, a ,ew indicators downline ,rom t#e
,ault may also s#ow t#e ,ault? T#e solution to t#is 4ro(lem is to a44ly
t#e indicator wit# a ratin' (ased on t#e ma7imum ,ault current a)aila(le rat#er t#an on
t#e ma7imum load current? T#is is (ased on t#e
assum4tion t#at most ca(le ,aults 2uic+ly de)elo4 into (olted ,aults?
T#ere,ore, t#e ratin' is selected allowin' ,or a mar'in o, 1> to -> 4ercent?
Anot#er issue im4actin' t#e use o, ,ault indicators is 0? "it# multi4le sources on t#e
,eeder ca4a(le o, su44lyin' ,ault current, t#ere will
(e an increase in ,alse indications? In some cases, it is li+ely t#at all t#e
,ault indicators (etween t#e 'enerator locations and t#e ,ault will (e
tri44ed? It will (e a c#allen'e to ,ind new tec#nolo'ies t#at wor+ ade2uately in t#is
en)ironment? T#is is Aust one e7am4le o, t#e su(tle
im4acts on utility 4ractice resultin' ,rom su,,icient 0 4enetration to
si'ni,icantly alter ,ault currents?
/ault indicators must (e reset (e,ore t#e ne7t ,ault e)ent? Some
must (e reset manually, w#ile ot#ers #a)e one o, a num(er o, tec#ni2ues ,or detectin', or
assumin', t#e restoration o, 4ower and resettin' automatically? Some o, t#e tec#ni2ues
include test 4oint reset,
low%)olta'e reset, current reset, electrostatic reset, and time reset?
1ocatin' ca(le ,aults wit#out ,ault indicators? "it#out ,ault indicators,
t#e utility must rely on more manual tec#ni2ues ,or ,indin' t#e location o, a ,ault? T#ere
are a lar'e num(er o, di,,erent ty4es o, ,ault%locatin' tec#ni2ues and a detailed
descri4tion o, eac# is (eyond t#e sco4e o,
t#is re4ort? Some o, t#e 'eneral classes o, met#ods ,ollow?
T#um4in'? T#is is a common 4ractice wit# numerous minor )ariations? T#e (asic
tec#ni2ue is to 4lace a dc )olta'e on t#e ca(le t#at is
su,,icient to cause t#e ,ault to (e reesta(lis#ed and t#en try to detect
(y si'#t, sound, or ,eel t#e 4#ysical dis4lay ,rom t#e ,ault? One common
way to do t#is is wit# a ca4acitor (an+ t#at can store enou'# ener'y to
'enerate a su,,iciently loud noise? T#ose standin' on t#e 'round on to4
o, t#e ,ault can ,eel and #ear t#e Gt#um4H ,rom t#e disc#ar'e? Some
com(ine t#is wit# ca(le radar tec#ni2ues to con,irm estimates o, distance? .any are
concerned wit# t#e 4otential dama'e to t#e sound 4ortion o, t#e ca(le due to t#um4in'
tec#ni2ues?
Ca(le radar and ot#er 4ulse met#ods? T#ese tec#ni2ues ma+e use o, tra)elin'%wa)e
t#eory to 4roduce estimates o, t#e distance to t#e ,ault? T#e
wa)e )elocity on t#e ca(le is +nown? T#ere,ore, i, an im4ulse is inAected
into t#e ca(le, t#e time ,or t#e re,lection to return will (e 4ro4ortional
to t#e len't# o, t#e ca(le to t#e ,ault? An o4en circuit will re,lect t#e
)olta'e wa)e (ac+ 4ositi)ely w#ile a s#ort circuit will re,lect it (ac+
ne'ati)ely? T#e im4ulse current will do t#e o44osite? I, t#e routin' o,
t#e ca(le is +nown, t#e ,ault location can (e ,ound sim4ly (y measurin' alon' t#e route?
It can (e con,irmed and ,ine%tuned (y t#um4in'
t#e ca(le? On some systems, t#ere are se)eral ta4s o,, t#e ca(le? T#e
distance to t#e ,ault is only 4art o, t#e storyJ one #as to determine
w#ic# (ranc# it is on? T#is can (e a )ery di,,icult 4ro(lem t#at is still a
maAor o(stacle to ra4idly locatin' a ca(le ,ault?
Tone? A tone system inAects a #i'#%,re2uency si'nal on t#e ca(le, and
t#e route o, t#e ca(le can (e ,ollowed (y a s4ecial recei)er? T#is tec#ni2ue is sometimes
used to trace t#e ca(le route w#ile it is ener'i@ed,
(ut is also use,ul ,or ,ault location (ecause t#e tone will disa44ear
(eyond t#e ,ault location?
1>: C#a4ter T#ree
/ault c#asin' wit# a ,use? T#e ca(le is manually sectionali@ed, and t#en
eac# section is reener'i@ed until a ,use (lows? T#e ,aulted section is
determined (y t#e 4rocess o, elimination or (y o(ser)in' t#e 4#ysical
dis4lay ,rom t#e ,ault? *ecause o, t#e element o, dan'er and t#e 4ossi(ility o, dama'in'
ca(le com4onents, some utilities stron'ly discoura'e
t#is 4ractice? Ot#ers re2uire t#e use o, small current%limitin' ,uses,
w#ic# minimi@e t#e amount o, ener'y 4ermitted into t#e ,ault? T#is
can (e an e74ensi)e and time%consumin' 4rocedure t#at some consider
to (e t#e least e,,ecti)e o, ,ault%locatin' met#ods and one t#at s#ould
(e used only as a last resort? T#is also su(Aects end users to nuisance
)olta'e sa's?
3?: Re,erences
1? Y? 1amoree, Y? C? Smit#, P? &inett, T? u,,y, .? <lein, GT#e Im4act o, &olta'e Sa's on
Industrial Plant 1oads,H /irst International Con,erence on Power Quality, PQA F=1,
Paris, /rance?
-? P? &inett, R? Tem4le, Y? 1amoree, C? e "in+el, E? <ostec+i, GA44lication o, a
Su4erconductin' .a'netic Ener'y Stora'e e)ice to Im4ro)e /acility Power
Quality,H Proceedin's o, t#e Second International Con,erence on Power Quality: Enduse
A44lications and Pers4ecti)es, PQA F=-,Atlanta, 0A, Se4tem(er 1==-?
3? 0? *eam, E? 0 olac+, C? Y? .el#orn, &? .isiewic@, .? SamotyA, GPower Quality Case
Studies, &olta'e Sa's: T#e Im4act on t#e !tility and Industrial Customers,H T#ird
International Con,erence on Power Quality, PQA F=3,San ie'o, CA, No)em(er 1==3?
5? Y? 1amoree, ? .ueller, P? &inett, "? Yones, G&olta'e Sa' Analysis Case Studies,H
1==3 IEEE I`CPS Con,erence,St? Peters(ur', /1?
6? .? /? .c0rana'#an, ? R? .ueller, .? Y? SamotyA, G&olta'e Sa's in Industrial
Systems,HIEEE Transactions on Industry A44lications, )ol? -=, no? -, .arc#OA4ril
1==3?
8? 1e Tan', Y? 1amoree, .? .c0rana'#an, H? .e#ta, Gistri(ution System &olta'e
Sa's: Interaction wit# .otor and ri)e 1oads,H IEEE Transmission and istri(ution
Con,erence,C#ica'o, I1, A4ril 1>V16, 1==5, 44? 1V8?
9? EPRI RP 3>=:%1, An Assessment o, istri(ution Power Quality,Electric Power
Researc# Institute, Palo Alto, CA?
:?IEEE Standard 0uide ,or Electric Power istri(ution Relia(ility Indices, IEEE
Standard 1388%->>1?
=? Yames Y? *ur+e, Power istri(ution En'ineerin': /undamentals and A44lications,
.arcel e++er, Inc?, 1==5?
1>? C? .? "arren, GT#e E,,ect o, Reducin' .omentary Outa'es on istri(ution
Relia(ility Indices,H IEEE Transactions on Power eli)ery,Yuly 1==3, 44? 181>V1819?
11? R? C? u'an, 1? A? Ray, ? ? Sa(in, et al?, GIm4act o, /ast Tri44in' o, !tility
*rea+ers on Industrial 1oad Interru4tions,H Con,erence Record o, t#e 1==5
IEEEOIAS Annual .eetin',&ol? III, en)er, Octo(er 1==5, 44? -3-8V-333?
1-? T? Rou'#an, P? /reeman, GPower Quality and t#e Electric !tility, Reducin' t#e
Im4act o, /eeder /aults on Customers,H Proceedin's o, t#e Second International
Con,erence on Power Quality: End%use A44lications and Pers4ecti)es CPQA F=-D,
EPRI, Atlanta, 0A, Se4tem(er -:V3>, 1==-?
13? Y? 1amoree, 1e Tan', C? e "in+el, P? &inett, Gescri4tion o, a .icro%S.ES System
,or Protection o, Critical Customer /acilities,H IEEE Transactions on Power eli)ery,
A4ril 1==5, 44? =:5V==1?
15? Randall A? Stans(erry, GProtectin' istri(ution Circuits: O)er#ead S#ield "ire
&ersus 1i'#tnin' Sur'e Arresters,H Transmission ` istri(ution,A4ril 1==1, 44?
68,,?
&olta'e Sa's and Interru4tions 1>=
16? S? Santoso, R? Na)adil, ? /olts, .?/ .c0rana'#an, T? E 0re(e, G.odelin' and
Analysis o, a 1?9 .&A S.ES%(ased Sa' Protector,H Proceedin's o, t#e 5t#
International Con,erence on Power System Transients Con,erence, Rio de Yaneiro,
*ra@il, Yune -5V-:, ->>1, 44? 116V11=?
18? .at# H? Y? *ollen, !nderstandin' Power Quality Pro(lems, &olta'e Sa's and
Interru4tions,IEEE Press Series on Power En'ineerin', T#e Institute o, Electrical
and Electronics En'ineers, Inc?, New ;or+, ->>>?
19? SE.I Standard /%59, Semiconductor E2ui4ment and .aterials International,1===?
1:? IEEE Standard 1358%1==:, Recommended Practice ,or E)aluatin' Electric Power
System Com4ati(ility wit# Electronic Process E2ui4ment?
11> C#a4ter T#ree
111
Transient O)er)olta'es
5?1 Sources o, Transient O)er)olta'es
T#ere are two main sources o, transient o)er)olta'es on utility systems: ca4acitor
switc#in' and li'#tnin'? T#ese are also sources o, transient o)er)olta'es as well as a
myriad o, ot#er switc#in' 4#enomena
wit#in end%user ,acilities? Some 4ower electronic de)ices 'enerate si'ni,icant transients
w#en t#ey switc#? As descri(ed in C#a4? -, transient o)er)olta'es can (e 'enerated at
#i'# ,re2uency Cload switc#in'
and li'#tnin'D, medium ,re2uency Cca4acitor ener'i@in'D, or low ,re2uency?
5?1?1 Ca4acitor switc#in'
Ca4acitor switc#in' is one o, t#e most common switc#in' e)ents on
utility systems? Ca4acitors are used to 4ro)ide reacti)e 4ower Cin units
o, )arsD to correct t#e 4ower ,actor, w#ic# reduces losses and su44orts
t#e )olta'e on t#e system? T#ey are a )ery economical and 'enerally
trou(le%,ree means o, accom4lis#in' t#ese 'oals? Alternati)e met#ods
suc# as t#e use o, rotatin' mac#ines and electronic )ar com4ensators
are muc# more costly or #a)e #i'# maintenance costs? T#us, t#e use o,
ca4acitors on 4ower systems is 2uite common and will continue to (e?
One draw(ac+ to t#e use o, ca4acitors is t#at t#ey yield oscillatory
transients w#en switc#ed? Some ca4acitors are ener'i@ed all t#e time
Ca ,i7ed (an+D, w#ile ot#ers are switc#ed accordin' to load le)els?
&arious control means, includin' time, tem4erature, )olta'e, current,
and reacti)e 4ower, are used to determine w#en t#e ca4acitors are
switc#ed? It is common ,or controls to com(ine two or more o, t#ese
,unctions, suc# as tem4erature wit# )olta'e o)erride?
C#a4ter
5
One o, t#e common sym4toms o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems related to
utility ca4acitor switc#in' o)er)olta'es is t#at t#e 4ro(lems a44ear at
nearly t#e same time eac# day? On distri(ution ,eeders wit# industrial
loads, ca4acitors are ,re2uently switc#ed (y time cloc+ in antici4ation
o, an increase in load wit# t#e (e'innin' o, t#e wor+in' day? Common
4ro(lems are adAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e tri4s and mal,unctions o, ot#er
electronically controlled load e2ui4ment t#at occur wit#out a noticea(le (lin+in' o, t#e
li'#ts or im4act on ot#er, more con)entional loads?
/i'ure 5?1 s#ows t#e one%line dia'ram o, a ty4ical utility ,eeder
ca4acitor%switc#in' situation? "#en t#e switc# is closed, a transient
similar to t#e one in /i'? 5?- may (e o(ser)ed u4line ,rom t#e ca4acitor at t#e monitor
location? In t#is 4articular case, t#e ca4acitor switc#
contacts close at a 4oint near t#e system )olta'e 4ea+? T#is is a common occurrence ,or
many ty4es o, switc#es (ecause t#e insulation
across t#e switc# contacts tends to (rea+ down w#en t#e )olta'e across
t#e switc# is at a ma7imum )alue? T#e )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor at
t#is instant is @ero? Since t#e ca4acitor )olta'e cannot c#an'e instantaneously, t#e system
)olta'e at t#e ca4acitor location is (rie,ly 4ulled
down to @ero and rises as t#e ca4acitor (e'ins to c#ar'e toward t#e system )olta'e?
*ecause t#e 4ower system source is inducti)e, t#e ca4acitor )olta'e o)ers#oots and rin's
at t#e natural ,re2uency o, t#e system?
At t#e monitorin' location s#own, t#e initial c#an'e in )olta'e will not
'o com4letely to @ero (ecause o, t#e im4edance (etween t#e o(ser)ation 4oint and t#e
switc#ed ca4acitor? Howe)er, t#e initial dro4 and
su(se2uent rin'in' transient t#at is indicati)e o, a ca4acitor%switc#in'
e)ent will (e o(ser)a(le to some de'ree?
T#e o)ers#oot will 'enerate a transient (etween 1?> and -?> 4u
de4endin' on system dam4in'? In t#is case t#e transient o(ser)ed at
t#e monitorin' location is a(out 1?35 4u? !tility ca4acitor%switc#in'
transients are commonly in t#e 1?3% to 1?5%4u ran'e (ut #a)e also (een
o(ser)ed near t#e t#eoretical ma7imum?
T#e transient s#own in t#e oscillo'ram 4ro4a'ates into t#e local
4ower system and will 'enerally 4ass t#rou'# distri(ution trans,ormers into customer
load ,acilities (y nearly t#e amount related to t#e
turns ratio o, t#e trans,ormer? I, t#ere are ca4acitors on t#e secondary
system, t#e )olta'e may actually (e ma'ni,ied on t#e load side o, t#e
trans,ormer i, t#e natural ,re2uencies o, t#e systems are 4ro4erly
ali'ned Csee Sec? 5?1?-D? "#ile suc# (rie, transients u4 to -?> 4u are not
'enerally dama'in' to t#e system insulation, t#ey can o,ten cause
miso4eration o, electronic 4ower con)ersion de)ices? Controllers may
inter4ret t#e #i'# )olta'e as a si'n t#at t#ere is an im4endin' dan'erous situation and
su(se2uently disconnect t#e load to (e sa,e? T#e transient may also inter,ere wit# t#e
'atin' o, t#yristors?
11- C#a4ter /our
Switc#in' o, 'rounded%wye trans,ormer (an+s may also result in
unusual transient )olta'es in t#e local 'roundin' system due to t#e
current sur'e t#at accom4anies t#e ener'i@ation? /i'ure 5?3 s#ows t#e
4#ase current o(ser)ed ,or t#e ca4acitor%switc#in' incident descri(ed
in t#e 4recedin' te7t? T#e transient current ,lowin' in t#e ,eeder 4ea+s
at nearly 5 times t#e load current?
Transient O)er)olta'es 113
y
/EEER I.PEANCE
.ONITOR
1OCATION
S!*STATION
S"ITCHE
CAPACITOR
/i'ure 5?1 One%line dia'ram o, a ca4acitor%switc#in' o4eration corres4ondin' to t#e
wa)e,orm in /i'? 5?-?
P#ase A &olta'e
"a)e /ault
> 1> ->3>5>6>8>9>
V16>
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
Time CmsD
I &olts
/i'ure 5?- Ty4ical utility ca4acitor%switc#in' transient reac#in'
135 4ercent )olta'e, o(ser)ed u4line ,rom t#e ca4acitor?
5?1?- .a'ni,ication o, ca4acitor%switc#in'
transients
A 4otential side e,,ect o, addin' 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors at
t#e customer location is t#at t#ey may increase t#e im4act o, utility
ca4acitor%switc#in' transients on end%use e2ui4ment? As s#own in Sec?
5?1?1, t#ere is always a (rie, )olta'e transient o, at least 1?3 to 1?5 4u
w#en ca4acitor (an+s are switc#ed? T#e transient is 'enerally no
#i'#er t#an -?> 4u on t#e 4rimary distri(ution system, alt#ou'#
un'rounded ca4acitor (an+s may yield somew#at #i'#er )alues? 1oadside ca4acitors can
ma'ni,y t#is transient o)er)olta'e at t#e end%user
(us ,or certain low%)olta'e ca4acitor and ste4%down trans,ormer si@es?
T#e circuit o, concern ,or t#is 4#enomenon is illustrated in /i'? 5?5?
Transient o)er)olta'es on t#e end%user side may reac# as #i'# as 3?>
to 5?> 4u on t#e low%)olta'e (us under t#ese conditions, wit# 4otentially dama'in'
conse2uences ,or all ty4es o, customer e2ui4ment?
.a'ni,ication o, utility ca4acitor%switc#in' transients at t#e enduser location occurs o)er
a wide ran'e o, trans,ormer and ca4acitor
si@es? Resi@in' t#e customerFs 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors or
ste4%down trans,ormer is t#ere,ore usually not a 4ractical solution?
One solution is to control t#e transient o)er)olta'e at t#e utility ca4ac%115 C#a4ter /our
P#ase A Current
"a)e /ault
>1>->3>5>6>8>9> V5>>
V3>>
V->>
V1>>
>
1>>
->>
3>>
5>>
Time CmsD
Am4s
/i'ure 5?3 /eeder current associated wit# ca4acitor%switc#in' e)ent?
itor? T#is is sometimes 4ossi(le usin' sync#ronous closin' (rea+ers or
switc#es wit# 4reinsertion resistors? T#ese solutions are discussed in
more detail in Sec? 5?5?-?
At t#e customer location, #i'#%ener'y sur'e arresters can (e a44lied
to limit t#e transient )olta'e ma'nitude at t#e customer (us? Ener'y
le)els associated wit# t#e ma'ni,ied transient will ty4ically (e a(out 1
+Y? /i'ure 5?6 s#ows t#e e74ected arrester ener'y ,or a ran'e o, low)olta'e ca4acitor
si@es? Newer #i'#%ener'y .O& arresters ,or low%)olta'e a44lications can wit#stand - to
5 +Y?
It is im4ortant to note t#at t#e arresters can only limit t#e transient
to t#e arrester 4rotecti)e le)el? T#is will ty4ically (e a44ro7imately
CaD &olta'e ma'ni,ication at customer ca4acitor due to
ener'i@in' ca4acitor on utility system
C(D E2ui)alent circuit
,
1
11C1
,
-
1-C-
1
-
1
-
]
]
a
a
Switc#in' ,re2uency
Natural ,re2uency o,
customer resonant circuit
&olta'e ma'ni,ication ,1
,
-
b
&
&
C-
11
1-
C-
C1
1oad
/eeder
Source
Su(station
Ser)ice
Trans,ormer
C1 C-
1-
11
C1
/i'ure 5?5 &olta'e ma'ni,ication o, ca4acitor (an+ switc#in'?
1?: times t#e normal 4ea+ )olta'e C1?: 4uD? T#is may not (e su,,icient
to 4rotect sensiti)e electronic e2ui4ment t#at mi'#t only #a)e a wit#stand ca4a(ility o,
1?96 4u K1->>%& 4ea+ in)erse )olta'e CPI&D ratin' o,
many silicon%controlled recti,iers CSCRsD used in t#e industrial en)ironmentL? It may not
(e 4ossi(le to im4ro)e t#e 4rotecti)e c#aracteristics o, t#e arresters su(stantially (ecause
t#ese c#aracteristics are
limited (y t#e 4#ysics o, t#e metal%o7ide materials? T#ere,ore, ,or
4ro4er coordination, it is im4ortant to care,ully e)aluate t#e wit#stand
ca4a(ilities o, sensiti)e e2ui4ment used in a44lications w#ere t#ese
transients can occur?
Anot#er means o, limitin' t#e )olta'e ma'ni,ication transient is to
con)ert t#e end%user 4ower ,actor correction (an+s to #armonic ,ilters?
An inductance in series wit# t#e 4ower ,actor correction (an+ will
decrease t#e transient )olta'e at t#e customer (us to acce4ta(le le)els?
T#is solution #as multi4le (ene,its includin' 4ro)idin' correction ,or
t#e dis4lacement 4ower ,actor, controllin' #armonic distortion le)els
wit#in t#e ,acility, and limitin' t#e concern ,or ma'ni,ied ca4acitorswitc#in' transients?
In many cases, t#ere are only a small num(er o, load de)ices, suc#
as adAusta(le%s4eed motor dri)es, t#at are ad)ersely a,,ected (y t#e
transient? It is ,re2uently more economical to 4lace line reactors in
series wit# t#e dri)es to (loc+ t#e #i'#%,re2uency ma'ni,ication transient? A 3 4ercent
reactor is 'enerally e,,ecti)e? "#ile o,,erin' only a
small im4edance to 4ower ,re2uency current, it o,,ers a considera(ly
lar'er im4edance to t#e transient? .any ty4es o, dri)es #a)e t#is 4rotection in#erently,
eit#er t#rou'# an isolation trans,ormer or a dc (us
reactance?
118 C#a4ter /our
>
6>>
1>>>
16>>
->>>
-6>>
> 1>> ->> 3>> 5>> 6>> 8>>
Ener'y CYD
1ow%&olta'e Ca4acitor Si@e C+&ARD
8?> .&AR
5?6 .&AR
3?> .&AR
-?5 .&AR
1?: .&AR
Switc#ed Ca4 Si@e
Ste4%own Trans,ormer ] 16>> +&A
1?- .&AR
/i'ure 5?6 Arrester ener'y duty caused (y ma'ni,ied transient?
5?1?3 1i'#tnin'
1i'#tnin' is a 4otent source o, im4ulsi)e transients? "e will not de)ote
s4ace to t#e 4#ysical 4#enomena #ere (ecause t#at to4ic is well documented in ot#er
re,erence (oo+s?1V3
"e will concentrate on #ow li'#tnin' causes transient o)er)olta'es to a44ear on 4ower
systems?
/i'ure 5?8 illustrates some o, t#e 4laces w#ere li'#tnin' can stri+e
t#at results in li'#tnin' currents (ein' conducted ,rom t#e 4ower system into loads?
T#e most o()ious conduction 4at# occurs durin' a direct stri+e to a
4#ase wire, eit#er on t#e 4rimary or t#e secondary side o, t#e trans,ormer? T#is can
'enerate )ery #i'# o)er)olta'es, (ut some analysts
2uestion w#et#er t#is is t#e most common way t#at li'#tnin' sur'es
enter load ,acilities and cause dama'e? &ery similar transient o)er)olta'es can (e
'enerated (y li'#tnin' currents ,lowin' alon' 'round
conductor 4at#s? Note t#at t#ere can (e numerous 4at#s ,or li'#tnin'
currents to enter t#e 'roundin' system? Common ones, indicated (y
t#e dotted lines in /i'? 5?8, include t#e 4rimary 'round, t#e secondary
'round, and t#e structure o, t#e load ,acilities? Note also t#at stri+es to
t#e 4rimary 4#ase are conducted to t#e 'round circuits t#rou'# t#e
arresters on t#e ser)ice trans,ormer? T#us, many more li'#tnin'
im4ulses may (e o(ser)ed at loads t#an one mi'#t t#in+?
<ee4 in mind t#at 'rounds are ne)er 4er,ect conductors, es4ecially
,or im4ulses? "#ile most o, t#e sur'e current may e)entually (e dissi4ated into t#e
'round connection closest to t#e stri+e, t#ere will (e su(stantial sur'e currents ,lowin' in
ot#er connected 'round conductors
in t#e ,irst ,ew microseconds o, t#e stri+e?
/i'ure 5?8 1i'#tnin' stri+e locations w#ere li'#tnin' im4ulses will (e conducted into
load ,acilities?
PRI.AR;
PHASE
SECONAR;
PHASE
PRI.AR;
0RO!N
0RO!NE
STR!CT!RE
SECONAR; 0RO!N
ARRESTER
A direct stri+e to a 4#ase conductor 'enerally causes line ,las#o)er
near t#e stri+e 4oint? Not only does t#is 'enerate an im4ulsi)e transient, (ut it causes a
,ault wit# t#e accom4anyin' )olta'e sa's and
interru4tions? T#e li'#tnin' sur'e can (e conducted a considera(le distance alon' utility
lines and cause multi4le ,las#o)ers at 4ole and
tower structures as it 4asses? T#e interce4tion o, t#e im4ulse ,rom t#e
4#ase wire is ,airly strai'#t,orward i, 4ro4erly installed sur'e
arresters are used? I, t#e line ,las#es o)er at t#e location o, t#e stri+e,
t#e tail o, t#e im4ulse is 'enerally truncated? e4endin' on t#e e,,ecti)eness o, t#e
'rounds alon' t#e sur'e current 4at#, some o, t#e current may ,ind its way into load
a44aratus? Arresters near t#e stri+e
may not sur)i)e (ecause o, t#e se)ere duty Cmost li'#tnin' stro+es are
actually many stro+es in ra4id%,ire se2uenceD?
1i'#tnin' does not #a)e to actually stri+e a conductor to inAect
im4ulses into t#e 4ower system? 1i'#tnin' may sim4ly stri+e near t#e
line and induce an im4ulse (y t#e colla4se o, t#e electric ,ield?
1i'#tnin' may also sim4ly stri+e t#e 'round near a ,acility causin' t#e
local 'round re,erence to rise considera(ly? T#is may ,orce currents
alon' 'rounded conductors into a remote 'round, 4ossi(ly 4assin' near
sensiti)e load a44aratus?
.any in)esti'ators in t#is ,ield 4ostulate t#at li'#tnin' sur'es enter
loads ,rom t#e utility system t#rou'# t#e interwindin' ca4acitance o,
t#e ser)ice trans,ormer as s#own in /i'? 5?9? T#e conce4t is t#at t#e
li'#tnin' im4ulse is so ,ast t#at t#e inductance o, t#e trans,ormer
windin's (loc+s t#e ,irst 4art o, t#e wa)e ,rom 4assin' t#rou'# (y t#e
turns ratio? Howe)er, t#e interwindin' ca4acitance may o,,er a ready
4at# ,or t#e #i'#%,re2uency sur'e? T#is can 4ermit t#e e7istence o, a
)olta'e on t#e secondary terminals t#at is muc# #i'#er t#an w#at t#e
turns ratio o, t#e windin's would su''est?
T#e de'ree to w#ic# ca4aciti)e cou4lin' occurs is 'reatly de4endent
on t#e desi'n o, t#e trans,ormer? Not all trans,ormers #a)e a strai'#t,orward #i'#%to%low
ca4acitance (ecause o, t#e way t#e windin's are
constructed? T#e windin'%to%'round ca4acitance may (e 'reater t#an
t#e windin'%to%windin' ca4acitance, and more o, t#e im4ulse may
actually (e cou4led to 'round t#an to t#e secondary windin'? In any
case, t#e resultin' transient is a )ery s#ort sin'le im4ulse, or train o,
im4ulses, (ecause t#e interwindin' ca4acitance c#ar'es 2uic+ly?
Arresters on t#e secondary windin' s#ould #a)e no di,,iculty dissi4atin' t#e ener'y in
suc# a sur'e, (ut t#e rates o, rise can (e #i'#? T#us,
lead len't# (ecomes )ery im4ortant to t#e success o, an arrester in
+ee4in' t#is im4ulse out o, load e2ui4ment?
.any times, a lon'er im4ulse, w#ic# is sometimes oscillatory, is
o(ser)ed on t#e secondary w#en t#ere is a stri+e to a utilityFs 4rimary
11: C#a4ter /our
distri(ution system? T#is is li+ely due not to ca4aciti)e cou4lin'
t#rou'# t#e ser)ice trans,ormer (ut to conduction around t#e trans,ormer t#rou'# t#e
'roundin' systems as s#own in /i'? 5?:? T#is is a
4articular 4ro(lem i, t#e load system o,,ers a (etter 'round and muc#
o, t#e sur'e current ,lows t#rou'# conductors in t#e load ,acility on its
way to 'round?
T#e c#ie, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems wit# li'#tnin' stro+e currents
enterin' t#e 'round system are
1? T#ey raise t#e 4otential o, t#e local 'round a(o)e ot#er 'rounds in
t#e )icinity (y se)eral +ilo)olts? Sensiti)e electronic e2ui4ment t#at
is connected (etween two 'round re,erences, suc# as a com4uter
connected to t#e tele4#one system t#rou'# a modem, can ,ail w#en
su(Aected to t#e li'#tnin' sur'e )olta'es?
-? T#ey induce #i'# )olta'es in 4#ase conductors as t#ey 4ass t#rou'#
ca(les on t#e way to a (etter 'round?
T#e 4ro(lems are related to t#e so%called low%side sur'e 4ro(lem t#at
is descri(ed in Sec? 5?6?3?
Ideas a(out li'#tnin' are c#an'in' wit# recent researc#?
1>
1i'#tnin'
causes more ,las#o)ers o, utility lines t#an 4re)iously t#ou'#t?
E)idence is also mountin' t#at li'#tnin' stro+e current wa)e,ronts are
,aster t#an 4re)iously t#ou'#t and t#at multi4le stri+es a44ear to (e
t#e norm rat#er t#an t#e e7ce4tion? urations o, some stro+es may
also (e lon'er t#an re4orted (y earlier researc#ers? T#ese ,indin's may
#el4 e74lain ,ailures o, li'#tnin' arresters t#at were t#ou'#t to #a)e
ade2uate ca4acity to #andle lar'e li'#tnin' stro+es?
Transient O)er)olta'es 11=
/i'ure 5?9 Cou4lin' o, im4ulses t#rou'# t#e interwindin'
ca4acitance o, trans,ormers?
5?1?5 /erroresonance
T#e term ,erroresonance re,ers to a s4ecial +ind o, resonance t#at
in)ol)es ca4acitance and iron%core inductance? T#e most common condition in w#ic# it
causes distur(ances is w#en t#e ma'neti@in' im4edance o, a trans,ormer is 4laced in
series wit# a system ca4acitor? T#is
#a44ens w#en t#ere is an o4en%4#ase conductor? !nder controlled conditions,
,erroresonance can (e e74loited ,or use,ul 4ur4ose suc# as in a
constant%)olta'e trans,ormer Csee C#a4? 3D?
/erroresonance is di,,erent t#an resonance in linear system elements? In linear systems,
resonance results in #i'# sinusoidal )olta'es
and currents o, t#e resonant ,re2uency? 1inear%system resonance is t#e
4#enomenon (e#ind t#e ma'ni,ication o, #armonics in 4ower systems
Csee C#a4s? 6 and 8D? /erroresonance can also result in #i'# )olta'es
and currents, (ut t#e resultin' wa)e,orms are usually irre'ular and
c#aotic in s#a4e? T#e conce4t o, ,erroresonance can (e e74lained in
terms o, linear%system resonance as ,ollows?
Consider a sim4le series R1Ccircuit as s#own in /i'? 5?=? Ne'lectin'
t#e resistance R,or t#e moment, t#e current ,lowin' in t#e circuit can
(e e74ressed as ,ollows:
I
w#ereE dri)in' )olta'e
[1 reactance o, 1
[C reactance o, C
"#en[1 c[Cc, a series%resonant circuit is ,ormed, and t#e e2uation
yields an in,initely lar'e current t#at in reality would (e limited (y R?
An alternate solution to t#e series R1Ccircuit can (e o(tained (y
writin' two e2uations de,inin' t#e )olta'e across t#e inductor, i?e?,
E
AC[1c[CcD
1-> C#a4ter /our
TRANS/OR.ER
0RO!N
OTHER 0RO!N
PRI.AR;
ARRESTER
/i'ure 5?: 1i'#tnin' im4ulse (y4assin' t#e ser)ice
trans,ormer t#rou'# 'round connections?
) A[1I
) EAc[CcI
w#ere)is a )olta'e )aria(le? /i'ure 5?1> s#ows t#e 'ra4#ical solution
o, t#ese two e2uations ,or two di,,erent reactances, [1and[1d?[1d re4resents t#e series%
resonant condition? T#e intersection 4oint (etween
t#e ca4aciti)e and inducti)e lines 'i)es t#e )olta'e across inductor E1?
T#e )olta'e across ca4acitor ECis determined as s#own in /i'? 5?1>? At
resonance, t#e two lines will intersect at in,initely lar'e )olta'e and
current since t#e c[Cc line is 4arallel to t#e [1d line?
Now, let us assume t#at t#e inducti)e element in t#e circuit #as a
nonlinear reactance c#aracteristic li+e t#at ,ound in trans,ormer ma'neti@in' reactance?
/i'ure 5?11 illustrates t#e 'ra4#ical solution o, t#e
e2uations ,ollowin' t#e met#odolo'y Aust 4resented ,or linear circuits?
"#ile t#e analo'y cannot (e made 4er,ectly, t#e dia'ram is use,ul to
#el4 understand ,erroresonance 4#enomena?
It is o()ious t#at t#ere may (e as many as t#ree intersections
(etween t#e ca4aciti)e reactance line and t#e inducti)e reactance
cur)e? Intersection - is an unsta(le solution, and t#is o4eratin' 4oint
'i)es rise to some o, t#e c#aotic (e#a)ior o, ,erroresonance?
Intersections 1 and 3 are sta(le and will e7ist in t#e steady state?
Intersection 3 results in #i'# )olta'es and #i'# currents?
/i'ures 5?1- and 5?13 s#ow e7am4les o, ,erroresonant )olta'es t#at
can result ,rom t#is sim4le series circuit? T#e same inducti)e c#aracteristic was assumed
,or eac# case? T#e ca4acitance was )aried to
ac#ie)e a di,,erent o4eratin' 4oint a,ter an initial transient t#at
4us#es t#e system into resonance? T#e unsta(le case yields )olta'es in
e7cess o, 5?> 4u, w#ile t#e sta(le case settles in at )olta'es sli'#tly o)er
-?> 4u? Eit#er condition can im4ose e7cessi)e duty on 4ower system elements and load
e2ui4ment?
/or a small ca4acitance, t#e c[Cc line is )ery stee4, resultin' in an
intersection 4oint on t#e t#ird 2uadrant only? T#is can yield a ran'e o,
)olta'es ,rom less t#an 1?> 4u to )olta'es li+e t#ose s#own in /i'? 5?13?
Transient O)er)olta'es 1-1
[1
[C
R
E
I
/i'ure 5?= Sim4le series R1Ccircuit?
1-- C#a4ter /our
[1
[e1
E1
E
[C
)
AI
E
EC E1
/i'ure 5?1> 0ra4#ical solution to t#e linear 1Ccircuit?
[C
[1
)
AI
increasin'
ca4acitance
E1
E
-
1
3
AI
E1
EC
E
/i'ure 5?11 0ra4#ical solution to t#e nonlinear 1Ccircuit?
"#enCis )ery lar'e, t#e ca4aciti)e reactance line will intersect only
at 4oints 1 and 3? One o4eratin' state is o, low )olta'e and la''in' current Cintersection
1D, and t#e ot#er is o, #i'# )olta'e and leadin' current Cintersection 3D? T#e o4eratin'
4oints durin' ,erroresonance can
oscillate (etween intersection 4oints 1 and 3 de4endin' on t#e a44lied
)olta'e? O,ten, t#e resistance in t#e circuit 4re)ents o4eration at 4oint
3 and no #i'# )olta'es will occur?
In 4ractice, ,erroresonance most commonly occurs w#en unloaded
trans,ormers (ecome isolated on under'round ca(les o, a certain ran'e
V6
V5
V3
V-
V1
>
1
-
3
5
6
&, 4er unit
/i'ure 5?1- E7am4le o, unsta(le, c#aotic ,erroresonance )olta'es?
V5
V3
V-
V1
>
1
-
3
5
6
&, 4er unit
/i'ure 5?13 E7am4le o, ,erroresonance )olta'es settlin' into a sta(le o4eratin' 4oint
Cintersection 3D a,ter an initial transient?
o, len't#s? T#e ca4acitance o, o)er#ead distri(ution lines is 'enerally
insu,,icient to yield t#e a44ro4riate conditions?
T#e minimum len't# o, ca(le re2uired to cause ,erroresonance
)aries wit# t#e system )olta'e le)el? T#e ca4acitance o, ca(les is
nearly t#e same ,or all distri(ution )olta'e le)els, )aryin' ,rom 5> to
1>> n/ 4er 1>>> ,eet C,tD, de4endin' on conductor si@e? Howe)er, t#e
ma'neti@in' reactance o, a 36%+&%class distri(ution trans,ormer is
se)eral times #i'#er Ct#e cur)e is stee4erD t#an a com4ara(ly si@ed
16%+&%class trans,ormer? T#ere,ore, dama'in' ,erroresonance #as
(een more common at t#e #i'#er )olta'es? /or delta%connected trans,ormers,
,erroresonance can occur ,or less t#an 1>> ,t o, ca(le? /or
t#is reason, many utilities a)oid t#is connection on ca(le%,ed trans,ormers? T#e 'rounded
wye%wye trans,ormer #as (ecome t#e most
commonly used connection in under'round systems in Nort#
American? It is more resistant, (ut not immune, to ,erroresonance
(ecause most units use a t#ree%le''ed or ,i)e%le''ed core desi'n t#at
cou4les t#e 4#ases ma'netically? It may re2uire a minimum o, se)eral
#undred ,eet o, ca(le to 4ro)ide enou'# ca4acitance to create a ,erroresonant condition
,or t#is connection?
T#e most common e)ents leadin' to ,erroresonance are
T .anual switc#in' o, an unloaded, ca(le%,ed, t#ree%4#ase trans,ormer w#ere only one
4#ase is closed C/i'? 5?15aD? /erroresonance
may (e noted w#en t#e ,irst 4#ase is closed u4on ener'i@ation or
(e,ore t#e last 4#ase is o4ened on deener'i@ation?
T .anual switc#in' o, an unloaded, ca(le%,ed, t#ree%4#ase trans,ormer w#ere one o, t#e
4#ases is o4en C/i'? 5?15(D? A'ain, t#is may
#a44en durin' ener'i@ation or deener'i@ation?
T One or two riser%4ole ,uses may (low lea)in' a trans,ormer wit# one
or two 4#ases o4en? Sin'le%4#ase reclosers may also cause t#is condition? Today, many
modern commercial loads #a)e controls t#at
trans,er t#e load to (ac+u4 systems w#en t#ey sense t#is condition?
!n,ortunately, t#is lea)es t#e trans,ormer wit#out any load to dam4
out t#e resonance?
It s#ould (e noted t#at t#ese e)ents do not always yield noticea(le ,erroresonance? Some
utility 4ersonnel claim to #a)e wor+ed wit# under'round ca(le systems ,or decades
wit#out seein' ,erroresonance? System
conditions t#at #el4 increase t#e li+eli#ood o, ,erroresonance include
T Hi'#er distri(ution )olta'e le)els, most nota(ly -6% and 36%+&%class
systems
T Switc#in' o, li'#tly loaded and unloaded trans,ormers
T !n'rounded trans,ormer 4rimary connections
1-5 C#a4ter /our
T &ery len't#y under'round ca(le circuits
T Ca(le dama'e and manual switc#in' durin' construction o, under'round ca(le systems
T "ea+ systems, i?e?, low s#ort%circuit currents
T 1ow%loss trans,ormers
T T#ree%4#ase systems wit# sin'le%4#ase switc#in' de)ices
A
*
C
CaD
A
*
C
C(D
/i'ure 5?15 Common system conditions w#ere ,erroresonance
may occur: CaD one 4#ase closed, C(D one 4#ase o4en?
"#ile it is easier to cause ,erroresonance at t#e #i'#er )olta'e le)els, its occurrence is
4ossi(le at all distri(ution )olta'e le)els? T#e 4ro4ortion o, losses, ma'neti@in'
reactance, and ca4acitance at lower
le)els may limit t#e e,,ects o, ,erroresonance, (ut it can still occur?
T#ere are se)eral modes o, ,erroresonance wit# )aryin' 4#ysical and
electrical mani,estations? Some #a)e )ery #i'# )olta'es and currents,
w#ile ot#ers #a)e )olta'es close to normal? T#ere may or may not (e
,ailures or ot#er e)idence o, ,erroresonance in t#e electrical com4onents? T#ere,ore, it
may (e di,,icult to tell i, ,erroresonance #as
occurred in many cases, unless t#ere are witnesses or 4ower 2uality
measurement instruments?
Common indicators o, ,erroresonance are as ,ollows?
Audi(le noise? urin' ,erroresonance, t#ere may (e an audi(le noise,
o,ten li+ened to t#at o, a lar'e (uc+et o, (olts (ein' s#oo+, w#inin', a
(u@@er, or an an)il c#orus 4oundin' on t#e trans,ormer enclosure ,rom
wit#in? T#e noise is caused (y t#e ma'netostriction o, t#e steel core
(ein' dri)en into saturation? "#ile di,,icult to descri(e in words, t#is
noise is distincti)ely di,,erent and louder t#an t#e normal #um o, a
trans,ormer? .ost electrical system o4eratin' 4ersonnel are a(le to reco'ni@e it
immediately u4on ,irst #earin' it?
O)er#eatin'? Trans,ormer o)er#eatin' o,ten, alt#ou'# not always,
accom4anies ,erroresonance? T#is is es4ecially true w#en t#e iron core
is dri)en dee4 into saturation? Since t#e core is saturated re4eatedly,
t#e ma'netic ,lu7 will ,ind its way into 4arts o, t#e trans,ormer w#ere
t#e ,lu7 is not e74ected suc# as t#e tan+ wall and ot#er metallic 4arts?
T#e stray ,lu7 #eatin' is o,ten e)idenced ,rom t#e c#arrin' or (u((lin'
o, t#e 4aint on t#e to4 o, t#e tan+? T#is is not necessarily an indication
t#at t#e unit is dama'ed, (ut dama'e can occur in t#is situation i, ,erroresonance #as
4ersisted su,,iciently lon' to cause o)er#eatin' o,
some o, t#e lar'er internal connections? T#is may in turn dama'e solid
insulation structures (eyond re4air? It s#ould (e noted t#at some
trans,ormers e7#i(itin' si'ns o, ,erroresonance suc# as loud, c#aotic
noises do not s#ow si'ns o, a44recia(le #eatin'? T#e desi'n o, t#e
trans,ormer and t#e ,erroresonance mode determine #ow t#e trans,ormer will res4ond?
Hi'# o)er)olta'es and sur'e arrester ,ailure? "#en o)er)olta'es accom4any
,erroresonance, t#ere could (e electrical dama'e to (ot# t#e 4rimary and secondary
circuits? Sur'e arresters are common casualties o,
t#e e)ent? T#ey are desi'ned to interce4t (rie, o)er)olta'es and clam4
t#em to an acce4ta(le le)el? "#ile t#ey may (e a(le to wit#stand
1-8 C#a4ter /our
se)eral o)er)olta'e e)ents, t#ere is a de,inite limit to t#eir ener'y
a(sor4tion ca4a(ilities? 1ow%)olta'e arresters in end%user ,acilities are
more susce4ti(le t#an utility arresters, and t#eir ,ailure is sometimes
t#e only indication t#at ,erroresonance #as occurred?
/lic+er? urin' ,erroresonance t#e )olta'e ma'nitude may ,luctuate
wildly? End users at t#e secondary circuit may actually see t#eir li'#t
(ul(s ,lic+er? Some electronic a44liances may (e )ery susce4ti(le to
suc# )olta'e e7cursions? Prolon'ed e74osure can s#orten t#e e74ected
li,e o, t#e e2ui4ment or may cause immediate ,ailure? In ,acilities t#at
trans,er o)er to t#e !PS system in t#e e)ent o, utility%side distur(ances, re4eated and
4ersistent soundin' o, t#e alarms on t#e !PS
may occur as t#e )olta'e ,luctuates?
5?1?6 Ot#er switc#in' transients
1ine ener'i@ation transients occur, as t#e term im4lies, w#en a switc#
is closed connectin' a line to t#e 4ower system? T#ey 'enerally in)ol)e
#i'#er%,re2uency content t#an ca4acitor ener'i@in' transients? T#e
transients are a result o, a com(ination o, tra)elin'%wa)e e,,ects and
t#e interaction o, t#e line ca4acitance and t#e system e2ui)alent
source inductance? Tra)elin' wa)es are caused (y t#e distri(uted
nature o, t#e ca4acitance and inductance o, t#e transmission or distri(ution line? 1ine
ener'i@in' transients ty4ically result in rat#er
(eni'n o)er)olta'es at distri(ution )olta'e le)els and 'enerally do not
cause any concern? It is )ery unusual to im4lement any +ind o, switc#in' control ,or line
ener'i@in' e7ce4t ,or transmission lines o4eratin'
at 356 +& and a(o)e? 1ine ener'i@in' transients usually die out in
a(out >?6 cycle?
T#e ener'i@ation transients on distri(ution ,eeder circuits consist o,
a com(ination o, line ener'i@in' transients, trans,ormer ener'i@in'
inrus# c#aracteristics, and load inrus# c#aracteristics? /i'ure 5?16
s#ows a ty4ical case in w#ic# t#e monitor was located on t#e line side
o, t#e switc#? T#e initial transient ,re2uency is a(o)e 1?> +H@ and
a44ears as a small amount o, G#as#H on t#e ,ront o, t#e wa)e,orm?
/ollowin' t#e ener'i@ation, t#e )olta'e dis4lays noticea(le distortion
caused (y t#e trans,ormer inrus# current t#at contains a num(er o,
low%order #armonic com4onents, includin' t#e second and ,ourt# #armonics? T#is is
e)idenced (y t#e lac+ o, symmetry in t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm in t#e ,ew cycles recorded?
T#is will e)entually die out in nearly
all cases? T#e ,irst 4ea+ o, t#e current wa)e,orm dis4lays t#e (asic
c#aracteristic o, ma'neti@in' inrus#, w#ic# is su(se2uently swam4ed
(y t#e load inrus# current?
1ine ener'i@in' transients do not usually 4ose a 4ro(lem ,or enduser e2ui4ment?
E2ui4ment can (e 4rotected ,rom t#e #i'#%,re2uency
com4onents wit# inducti)e c#o+es and sur'e 4rotecti)e de)ices i,
necessary? T#e e7am4le s#own in /i'? 5?16 is relati)ely (eni'n and
s#ould 4ose ,ew 4ro(lems? Cases wit# less load may e7#i(it muc# more
oscillatory (e#a)ior?
Anot#er source ,or o)er)olta'es t#at is somew#at related to switc#in' is t#e common
sin'le%line%to%'round ,ault? On a system wit# #i'#,
@ero%se2uence im4edance, t#e sound 4#ase will e74erience a )olta'e
rise durin' t#e ,ault? T#e ty4ical )olta'e rise on e,,ecti)ely 'rounded
,our%wire, multi'rounded neutral systems is 'enerally no more t#an 16
to -> 4ercent? On systems wit# neutral reactors t#at limit t#e ,ault current, ,or e7am4le,
t#e )olta'e rise may reac# 5> to 6> 4ercent? T#is
o)er)olta'e is tem4orary and will disa44ear a,ter t#e ,ault is cleared?
T#ese o)er)olta'es are not o,ten a 4ro(lem, (ut t#ere are 4otential
4ro(lems i, t#e ,ault clearin' is slow:
T Some secondary arresters installed (y end users attem4t to clam4
t#e )olta'e to as low as 11> 4ercent )olta'e in t#eP4er#a4s mista+enP(elie, t#at t#is
o,,ers (etter insulation 4rotection? Suc#
arresters are su(Aect to ,ailure w#en conductin' se)eral cycles o,
4ower ,re2uency current?
1-: C#a4ter /our
> 1>->3>5>6>8> 9>
V->
V1>
>
1>
->
&olta'e C+&D
Time CmsD
> 1>->3>5>6>8> 9>
V5>>
V->>
>
->>
5>>
Current CAD
Time CmsD
C(D
CaD
/i'ure 5?16 Ener'i@in' a distri(ution ,eeder: CaD )olta'e and C(D current
wa)e,orms?
T AdAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e controls may 4resume a ,ailure i, t#e dc (us
)olta'e 'oes too #i'# and tri4s t#e mac#ine?
T istri(uted 'eneration interconnected wit# t#e utility system will
o,ten inter4ret )olta'es in e7cess o, 1-> 4ercent as warrantin'
immediate disconnection Cless t#an 1> cyclesD? T#ere,ore, nuisance
tri44in' is a li+ely result?
O, course, t#e actual im4act o, t#is o)er)olta'e on t#e secondary side
o, t#e system de4ends #ea)ily on t#e ser)ice trans,ormer connection?
"#ile t#e common 'rounded wye%wye connection will trans,orm t#e
)olta'es directly, trans,ormers wit# a delta connection will #el4 4rotect
t#e load ,rom seein' o)er)olta'es due to t#ese ,aults?
5?- Princi4les o, O)er)olta'e Protection
T#e ,undamental 4rinci4les o, o)er)olta'e 4rotection o, load e2ui4ment are
1? 1imit t#e )olta'e across sensiti)e insulation?
-? i)ert t#e sur'e current away ,rom t#e load?
3? *loc+ t#e sur'e current ,rom enterin' t#e load?
5? *ond 'rounds to'et#er at t#e e2ui4ment?
6? Reduce, or 4re)ent, sur'e current ,rom ,lowin' (etween 'rounds?
8? Create a low%4ass ,ilter usin' limitin' and (loc+in' 4rinci4les?
/i'ure 5?18 illustrates t#ese 4rinci4les, w#ic# are a44lied to 4rotect
,rom a li'#tnin' stri+e?
T#e main ,unction o, sur'e arresters and transient )olta'e sur'e
su44ressors CT&SSsD is to limit t#e )olta'e t#at can a44ear (etween
two 4oints in t#e circuit? T#is is an im4ortant conce4t to understand?
One o, t#e common misconce4tions a(out )aristors, and similar
de)ices, is t#at t#ey some#ow are a(le to a(sor( t#e sur'e or di)ert it
to 'round inde4endently o, t#e rest o, t#e system? T#at may (e a (ene,icial side e,,ect o,
t#e arrester a44lication i, t#ere is a suita(le 4at#
,or t#e sur'e current to ,low into, (ut t#e ,oremost concern in arrester
a44lication is to 4lace t#e arresters directly across t#e sensiti)e insulation t#at is to (e
4rotected so t#at t#e )olta'e seen (y t#e insulation
is limited to a sa,e )alue? Sur'e currents, Aust li+e 4ower currents, must
o(ey <irc#o,, Fs laws? T#ey must ,low in a com4lete circuit, and t#ey
cause a )olta'e dro4 in e)ery conductor t#rou'# w#ic# t#ey ,low?
One o, t#e 4oints to w#ic# arresters, or sur'e su44ressors, are connected is ,re2uently t#e
local 'round, (ut t#is need not (e t#e case?
Transient O)er)olta'es 1-=
<ee4 in mind t#at t#e local 'round may not remain at @ero 4otential
durin' transient im4ulse e)ents?
Sur'e su44ression de)ices s#ould (e located as closely as 4ossi(le to
t#e critical insulation wit# a minimum o, lead len't# on all terminals?
"#ile it is common to ,ind arresters located at t#e main 4anels and
su(4anels, arresters a44lied at t#e 4oint w#ere t#e 4ower line enters
t#e load e2ui4ment are 'enerally t#e most e,,ecti)e in 4rotectin' t#at
4articular load? In some cases, t#e (est location is actually inside t#e
load de)ice? /or e7am4le, many electronic controls made ,or ser)ice in
t#e 4ower system en)ironment #a)e 4rotectors Kmetal%o7ide )aristor
C.O&D arresters, 'a4s, @ener diodes, or sur'e ca4acitorsL on e)ery line
t#at lea)es t#e ca(inet?
In /i'? 5?18 t#e ,irst arrester is connected ,rom t#e line to t#e neutral%'round (ond at t#e
ser)ice entrance? It limits t#e line )olta'e &1
,rom risin' too #i'# relati)e to t#e neutral and 'round )olta'e at t#e
4anel? "#en it 4er,orms its )olta'e%limitin' action, it 4ro)ides a lowim4edance 4at# ,or
t#e sur'e current to tra)el onto t#e 'round lead?
Note t#at t#e 'round lead and t#e 'round connection itsel, #a)e si'ni,icant im4edance?
T#ere,ore, t#e 4otential o, t#e w#ole 4ower system
is raised wit# res4ect to t#at o, t#e remote 'round (y t#e )olta'e dro4
across t#e 'round im4edance? /or common )alues o, sur'e currents
and 'round im4edances, t#is can (e se)eral +ilo)olts?
One #o4es, in t#is situation, t#at most o, t#e sur'e ener'y will (e disc#ar'ed t#rou'# t#e
,irst arrester directly into 'round? In t#at sense,
t#e arrester (ecomes a sur'e Gdi)erter?H T#is is anot#er im4ortant
13> C#a4ter /our
PO"ER SO!RCE
SENSITI&E
1OA
0RO!N
I.PEANCE
S!R0E
C!RRENT
I&ERTE TO
0RO!N
1INE
I.PEANCE
1I0HTNIN0
S!R0E
C!RRENT
] ARRESTER
*ONE AT
1OCA1 0RO!N
RE/ERENCE
E[TERNA1
SI0NA1
CA*1E
1O"%PASS /I1TER EQ!I&?
& &
1 -
/i'ure 5?18 emonstratin' t#e 4rinci4les o, o)er)olta'e 4rotection?
,unction related to sur'e arrester a44lication? In ,act, some 4re,er to
call a sur'e arrester a sur'e di)erter (ecause its )olta'e%limitin' action
o,,ers a low%im4edance 4at# around t#e load (ein' 4rotected? Howe)er,
it can only (e a di)erter i, t#ere is a suita(le 4at# into w#ic# t#e current can (e di)erted?
T#at is not always easy to ac#ie)e, and t#e sur'e
current is sometimes di)erted toward anot#er critical load w#ere it is
not wanted?
In t#is ,i'ure, t#ere is anot#er 4ossi(le 4at# ,or t#e sur'e currentP
t#e si'nal ca(le indicated (y t#e dotted line and (onded to t#e sa,ety
'round? I, t#is is connected to anot#er de)ice t#at is re,erenced to
'round elsew#ere, t#ere will (e some amount o, sur'e current ,lowin'
down t#e sa,ety 'round conductor? ama'in' )olta'es can (e
im4ressed across t#e load as a result? T#e ,irst arrester at t#e ser)ice
entrance is electrically too remote to 4ro)ide ade2uate load 4rotection?
T#ere,ore, a second arrester is a44lied at t#e loadPa'ain, directly
across t#e insulation to (e 4rotected? It is connected Gline to neutralH so
t#at it only 4rotects a'ainst normal mode transients? T#is illustrates
t#e 4rinci4les wit#out com4licatin' t#e dia'ram (ut s#ould (e considered as t#e
minimum4rotection one would a44ly to 4rotect t#e load?
/re2uently, sur'e su44ressors will #a)e su44ression on all lines to
'round, all lines to neutral, and neutral to 'round?
"#ile li'#tnin' sur'e currents are see+in' a remote 'round re,erence, many transient
o)er)olta'es 'enerated (y switc#in' will (e t#ose
o, a normal mode and will not see+ 'round? In cases w#ere sur'e currents are di)erted
into ot#er load circuits, arresters must (e a44lied at
eac# load alon' t#e 4at# to ensure 4rotection?
Note t#at t#e si'nal ca(le is (onded to t#e local 'round re,erence at
t#e load Aust (e,ore t#e ca(le enters t#e ca(inet? It mi'#t seem t#at t#is
creates an unwanted 'round loo4? Howe)er, it is essential to ac#ie)in'
4rotection o, t#e load and t#e low%)olta'e si'nal circuits? Ot#erwise,
t#e 4ower com4onents can rise in 4otential wit# res4ect to t#e si'nal
circuit re,erence (y se)eral +ilo)olts? .any loads #a)e multi4le 4ower
and si'nal ca(les connected to t#em? Also, a load may (e in an en)ironment w#ere it is
close to anot#er load and o4erators or sensiti)e
e2ui4ment are routinely in contact wit# (ot# loads? T#is raises t#e 4ossi(ility t#at a
li'#tnin' stri+e may raise t#e 4otential o, one 'round
muc# #i'#er t#an t#e ot#ers? T#is can cause a ,las#o)er across t#e
insulation t#at is (etween t#e two 'round re,erences or cause 4#ysical
#arm to o4erators? T#us, all 'round re,erence conductors Csa,ety
'rounds, ca(le s#ields, ca(inets, etc?D s#ould (e (onded to'et#er at t#e
load e2ui4ment? T#e 4rinci4le is not to 4re)ent t#e local 'round re,erence ,rom risin' in
4otential wit# t#e sur'eJ wit# li'#tnin', t#at is
im4ossi(le? Rat#er, t#e 4rinci4le is to tie t#e re,erences to'et#er so t#at
all 4ower and si'nal ca(le re,erences in t#e )icinity rise to'et#er?
T#is 4#enomenon is a common reason ,or ,ailure o, electronic
de)ices? T#e situation occurs in T& recei)ers connected to ca(les, com4uters connected
to modems, com4uters wit# wides4read 4eri4#erals
4owered ,rom )arious sources, and in manu,acturin' ,acilities wit#
networ+ed mac#ines?
Since a ,ew ,eet o, conductor ma+e a si'ni,icant di,,erence at li'#tnin' sur'e ,re2uencies,
it is sometimes necessary to create a s4ecial
low%inductance, 'round re,erence 4lane ,or sensiti)e electronic e2ui4ment suc# as
main,rame com4uters t#at occu4y lar'e s4aces?5
E,,orts to (loc+ t#e sur'e current are most e,,ecti)e ,or #i'#%,re2uency sur'e currents
suc# as t#ose ori'inatin' wit# li'#tnin' stro+es
and ca4acitor%switc#in' e)ents? Since 4ower ,re2uency currents must
4ass t#rou'# t#e sur'e su44ressor wit# minimal additional im4edance, it is di,,icult and
e74ensi)e to (uild ,ilters t#at are ca4a(le o,
discriminatin' (etween low%,re2uency sur'es and 4ower ,re2uency
currents?
*loc+in' can (e done relati)ely easily ,or #i'#%,re2uency transients
(y 4lacin' an inductor, or c#o+e, in series wit# t#e load? T#e #i'# sur'e
)olta'e will dro4 across t#e inductor? One must care,ully consider t#at
#i'# )olta'e could dama'e t#e insulation o, (ot# t#e inductor and t#e
loads? Howe)er, a line c#o+e alone is ,re2uently an e,,ecti)e means to
(loc+ suc# #i'#%,re2uency transients as line%notc#in' transients ,rom
adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es?
T#e (loc+in' ,unction is ,re2uently com(ined wit# t#e )olta'e%limitin' ,unction to ,orm
a low%4ass ,ilter in w#ic# t#ere is a s#unt%connected )olta'e%limitin' de)ice on eit#er
side o, t#e series c#o+e? /i'ure
5?18 illustrates #ow suc# a circuit naturally occurs w#en t#ere are
arresters on (ot# ends o, t#e line ,eedin' t#e load? T#e line 4ro)ides t#e
(loc+in' ,unction in 4ro4ortion to its len't#? Suc# a circuit #as )ery
(ene,icial o)er)olta'e 4rotection c#aracteristics? T#e inductance ,orces
t#e (ul+ o, ,ast%risin' sur'es into t#e ,irst arrester? T#e second arrester
t#en sim4ly #as to accommodate w#at little sur'e ener'y 'ets t#rou'#?
Suc# circuits are commonly (uilt into outlet stri4s ,or com4uter 4rotection?
.any sur'e%4rotection 4ro(lems occur (ecause t#e sur'e current
tra)els (etween two, or more, se4arate connections to 'round? T#is is a
4articular 4ro(lem wit# li'#tnin' 4rotection (ecause li'#tnin' currents are see+in'
'round and (asically di)ide accordin' to t#e ratios o,
t#e im4edances o, t#e 'round 4at#s? T#e sur'e current does not e)en
#a)e to enter t#e 4ower, or 4#ase, conductors to cause 4ro(lems? T#ere
will (e a si'ni,icant )olta'e dro4 alon' t#e 'round conductors t#at will
,re2uently a44ear across critical insulation? T#e 'rounds in)ol)ed may
(e entirely wit#in t#e load ,acility, or some o, t#e 'rounds may (e on
t#e utility system?
13- C#a4ter /our
Ideally, t#ere would (e only one 'round 4at# ,or li'#tnin' wit#in a
,acility, (ut many ,acilities #a)e multi4le 4at#s? /or e7am4le, t#ere
may (e a dri)en 'round at t#e ser)ice entrance or su(station trans,ormer and a second
'round at a water well t#at actually creates a (etter 'round? T#us, w#en li'#tnin' stri+es,
t#e (ul+ o, t#e sur'e current
will tend to ,low toward t#e well? T#is can im4ress an e7cessi)ely #i'#
)olta'e across t#e 4um4 insulation, e)en i, t#e electrical system is not
intentionally (onded to a second 'round? "#en li'#tnin' stri+es, t#e
4otentials can (ecome so 'reat t#at t#e 4ower system insulation will
,las# o)er somew#ere?
T#e amount o, current ,lowin' (etween t#e 'rounds may (e reduced
(y im4ro)in' all t#e intentional 'rounds at t#e ser)ice entrance and
near(y on t#e utility system? T#is will normally reduce, (ut not eliminate entirely, t#e
incidence o, e2ui4ment ,ailure wit#in t#e ,acility due
to li'#tnin'? Howe)er, some structures also #a)e si'ni,icant li'#tnin'
e74osure, and t#e dama'in' sur'e currents can ,low (ac+ into t#e utility 'rounds? It
doesnFt matter w#ic# direction t#e currents ,lowJ t#ey
cause t#e same 4ro(lems? A'ain, t#e same 4rinci4le a44lies, w#ic# is
to im4ro)e t#e 'rounds ,or t#e structure to minimi@e t#e amount o, current t#at mi'#t
see+ anot#er 4at# to 'round?
"#en it is im4ractical to +ee4 t#e currents ,rom ,lowin' (etween two
'rounds,(ot#ends o, any 4ower or si'nal ca(les runnin' (etween t#e
two 'rounds must (e 4rotected wit# )olta'e%limitin' de)ices to ensure
ade2uate 4rotection? T#is is common 4ractice ,or (ot# utility and enduser systems w#ere
a control ca(inet is located 2uite some distance
,rom t#e switc#, or ot#er de)ice, (ein' controlled?
5?3 e)ices ,or O)er)olta'e Protection
5?3?1 Sur'e arresters and transient )olta'e
sur'e su44ressors
Arresters and T&SS de)ices 4rotect e2ui4ment ,rom transient o)er)olta'es (y limitin'
t#e ma7imum )olta'e, and t#e terms are sometimes used interc#an'ea(ly? Howe)er,
T&SSs are 'enerally associated
wit# de)ices used at t#e load e2ui4ment? A T&SS will sometimes #a)e
more sur'e%limitin' elements t#an an arrester, w#ic# most commonly
consists solely o, .O& (loc+s? An arrester may #a)e more ener'y%#andlin' ca4a(ilityJ
#owe)er, t#e distinction (etween t#e two is (lurred (y
common lan'ua'e usa'e?
T#e elements t#at ma+e u4 t#ese de)ices can (e classi,ied (y two di,,erent modes o,
o4eration, crow(arandclam4in'?
Crow(ar de)icesare normally o4en de)ices t#at conduct current
durin' o)er)olta'e transients? Once t#e de)ice conducts, t#e line )olta'e will dro4 to
nearly @ero due to t#e s#ort circuit im4osed across t#e
line? T#ese de)ices are usually manu,actured wit# a 'a4 ,illed wit#
air or a s4ecial 'as? T#e 'a4 arcs o)er w#en a su,,iciently #i'# o)er)olta'e transient
a44ears? Once t#e 'a4 arcs o)er, usually 4ower ,re2uency current, or G,ollow current,H
will continue to ,low in t#e 'a4
until t#e ne7t current @ero? T#us, t#ese de)ices #a)e t#e disad)anta'e t#at t#e 4ower
,re2uency )olta'e dro4s to @ero or to a )ery low
)alue ,or at least one%#al, cycle? T#is will cause some loads to dro4 o,,line unnecessarily?
Clam4in' de)ices,or ac circuits are commonly nonlinear resistors
C)aristorsD t#at conduct )ery low amounts o, current until an o)er)olta'e occurs? T#en
t#ey start to conduct #ea)ily, and t#eir im4edance
dro4s ra4idly wit# increasin' )olta'e? T#ese de)ices e,,ecti)ely conduct
increasin' amounts o, current Cand ener'yD to limit t#e )olta'e rise o,
a sur'e? T#ey #a)e an ad)anta'e o)er 'a4%ty4e de)ices in t#at t#e )olta'e is not reduced
(elow t#e conduction le)el w#en t#ey (e'in to conduct t#e sur'e current? Nener diodes
are also used in t#is a44lication?
E7am4le c#aracteristics o, .O& arresters ,or load systems are s#own
in /i's? 5?19 and 5?1:?
.O& arresters #a)e two im4ortant ratin's? T#e ,irst is ma7imum continuous o4eratin'
)olta'e C.CO&D, w#ic# must (e #i'#er t#an t#e line
)olta'e and will o,ten (e at least 1-6 4ercent o, t#e system nominal )olta'e? T#e second
ratin' is t#e ener'y dissi4ation ratin' Cin AoulesD? .O&s
are a)aila(le in a wide ran'e o, ener'y ratin's? /i'ure 5?1: s#ows t#e
ty4ical ener'y%#andlin' ca4a(ility )ersus o4eratin' )olta'es?
5?3?- Isolation trans,ormers
/i'ure 5?1= s#ows a dia'ram o, an isolation trans,ormer used to attenuate #i'#%,re2uency
noise and transients as t#ey attem4t to 4ass ,rom
one side to t#e ot#er? Howe)er, some common%mode and normal%mode
noise can still reac# t#e load? An electrostatic s#ield, as s#own in
/i'ure 5?->, is e,,ecti)e in eliminatin' common%mode noise? Howe)er,
some normal%mode noise can still reac# t#e load due to ma'netic and
ca4aciti)e cou4lin'?
T#e c#ie, c#aracteristic o, isolation trans,ormers ,or electrically isolatin' t#e load ,rom
t#e system ,or transients is t#eir lea+a'e inductance? T#ere,ore, #i'#%,re2uency noise and
transients are +e4t ,rom
reac#in' t#e load, and any load%'enerated noise and transients are
+e4t ,rom reac#in' t#e rest o, t#e 4ower system? &olta'e notc#in' due
to 4ower electronic switc#in' is one e7am4le o, a 4ro(lem t#at can (e
limited to t#e load side (y an isolation trans,ormer? Ca4acitor%switc#in' and li'#tnin'
transients comin' ,rom t#e utility system can (e
attenuated, t#ere(y 4re)entin' nuisance tri44in' o, adAusta(le%s4eed
dri)es and ot#er e2ui4ment?
135 C#a4ter /our
An additional use o, isolation trans,ormers is t#at t#ey allow t#e
user to de,ine a new 'round re,erence, or se4arately deri)ed system?
T#is new neutral%to%'round (ond limits neutral%to%'round )olta'es at
sensiti)e e2ui4ment?
5?3?3 1ow%4ass ,ilters
1ow%4ass ,ilters use t#e 4i%circuit 4rinci4le illustrated in /i'? 5?18 to
ac#ie)e e)en (etter 4rotection ,or #i'#%,re2uency transients? /or 'eneral usa'e in electric
circuits, low%4ass ,ilters are com4osed o, series
-
1?:
1?8
1?5
1?-
1
Crest &olta'e C4er !nitD
?>1 ?1 1 1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>>
Crest Current CAD
/i'ure 5?19 Crest )olta'e )ersus crest am4s?
>
1
-
3
5
6
8
9
> 1>> ->> 3>> 5>> 6>> 8>> 9>> :>> =>> 1>>>
Nominal O4eratin' &olta'e C& rmsD
Ener'y Ca4a(ility C+YD
/i'ure 5?1: Ener'y ca4a(ility )ersus o4eratin' )olta'e?
inductors and 4arallel ca4acitors? T#is 1Ccom(ination 4ro)ides a lowim4edance 4at# to
'round ,or selected resonant ,re2uencies? In sur'e
4rotection usa'e, )olta'e clam4in' de)ices are added in 4arallel to t#e
ca4acitors? In some desi'ns, t#ere are no ca4acitors?
/i'ure 5?-1 s#ows a common #y(rid 4rotector t#at com(ines two
sur'e su44ressors and a low%4ass ,ilter to 4ro)ide ma7imum 4rotection? It uses a 'a4%ty4e
4rotector on t#e ,ront end to #andle #i'#%ener'y
transients? T#e low%4ass ,ilter limits trans,er o, #i'#%,re2uency transients? T#e inductor
#el4s (loc+ #i'#%,re2uency transients and ,orces
t#em into t#e ,irst su44ressor? T#e ca4acitor limits t#e rate o, rise,
w#ile t#e nonlinear resistor C.O&D clam4s t#e )olta'e ma'nitude at
t#e 4rotected e2ui4ment?
Ot#er )ariations on t#is desi'n will em4loy .O&s on (ot# sides o,
t#e ,ilters and may #a)e ca4acitors on t#e ,ront end as well?
5?3?5 1ow%im4edance 4ower conditioners
1ow%im4edance 4ower conditioners C1IPCsD are used 4rimarily to
inter,ace wit# t#e switc#%mode 4ower su44lies ,ound in electronic
138 C#a4ter /our
1INE
PRI.AR; SECONAR;
C
C
1OA
/i'ure 5?1= Isolation trans,ormer?
1INE
PRI.AR; SECONAR;
*O[
E1ECTROSTATIC
SHIE1
C
1OA
/i'ure 5?-> Isolation trans,ormer wit# electrostatic s#ield?
e2ui4ment? 1IPCs di,,er ,rom isolation trans,ormers in t#at t#ese conditioners #a)e a
muc# lower im4edance and #a)e a ,ilter as 4art o,
t#eir desi'n C/i'? 5?--D? T#e ,ilter is on t#e out4ut side and 4rotects
a'ainst #i'#%,re2uency, source%side, common%mode, and normal%mode
distur(ances Ci?e?, noise and im4ulsesD? Note t#e new neutral%to%'round
connection t#at can (e made on t#e load side (ecause o, t#e e7istence
o, an isolation trans,ormer? Howe)er, low% to medium%,re2uency transients Cca4acitor
switc#in'D can cause 4ro(lems ,or 1IPCs: T#e transient can (e ma'ni,ied (y t#e out4ut
,ilter ca4acitor?
5?3?6 !tility sur'e arresters
T#e t#ree most common sur'e arrester tec#nolo'ies em4loyed (y utilities are de4icted in
/i'? 5?-3? .ost arresters manu,actured today use a
.O& as t#e main )olta'e%limitin' element? T#e c#ie, in'redient o, a
.O& is @inc o7ide CNnOD, w#ic# is com(ined wit# se)eral 4ro4rietary
in'redients to ac#ie)e t#e necessary c#aracteristics and dura(ility?
Older%tec#nolo'y arresters, o, w#ic# t#ere are still many installed on
t#e 4ower system, used silicon car(ide CSiCD as t#e ener'y%dissi4atin'
nonlinear resisti)e element? T#e relati)e disc#ar'e )olta'es ,or eac# o,
t#ese t#ree tec#nolo'ies are s#own in /i'? 5?-5?
0a4%Ty4e
Protector
1ow%Pass /ilter .O&
In4ut
1ine
Protected
1ine
/i'ure 5?-1 Hy(rid transient 4rotector?
1O"%I.PEANCE
TRANS/OR.ER
1INE
NE!TRA1
0RO!N
1INE
NE!TRA1
0RO!N
/i'ure 5?-- 1ow%im4edance 4ower conditioner?
Ori'inally, arresters were little more t#an s4ar+ 'a4s, w#ic# would
result in a ,ault eac# time t#e 'a4 s4ar+ed o)er? Also, t#e s4ar+o)er
transient inAected a )ery stee4 ,ronted )olta'e wa)e into t#e a44aratus
(ein' 4rotected, w#ic# was (lamed ,or many insulation ,ailures? T#e
addition o, an SiC nonlinear resistance in series wit# a s4ar+ 'a4 corrected some o, t#ese
di,,iculties? It allowed t#e s4ar+ 'a4 to clear and
reseal wit#out causin' a ,ault and reduced t#e s4ar+o)er transient to
4er#a4s 6> 4ercent o, t#e total s4ar+o)er )olta'e C/i'? 5?-5aD? Howe)er,
13: C#a4ter /our
NnO
NnO
SiC
CaD
0a44ed
Silicon
Car(ide
C(D
0a4less
.O&
CcD
0a44ed
.O&
Resistance0raded
0a4
Structure
/i'ure 5?-3 T#ree common utility sur'e arrester tec#nolo'ies?
CaD
C(D
CcD
/i'ure 5?-5 Com4arati)e li'#tnin' wa)e disc#ar'e )olta'e c#aracteristics
,or an : ->s wa)e corres4ondin' to t#e utility sur'e arrester tec#nolo'ies in /i'? 5?-3?
insulation ,ailures were still (lamed on t#is ,ront%o,%wa)e transient?
Also, t#ere is su(stantial 4ower%,ollow current a,ter s4ar+o)er, w#ic#
#eats t#e SiC material and erodes t#e 'a4 structures, e)entually leadin' to arrester
,ailures or loss o, 4rotection?
0a4s are necessary wit# t#e SiC (ecause an economical SiC element
'i)in' t#e re2uired disc#ar'e )olta'e is una(le to wit#stand continuous system o4eratin'
)olta'e? T#e de)elo4ment o, .O& tec#nolo'y
ena(led t#e elimination o, t#e 'a4s? T#is tec#nolo'y could wit#stand
continuous system )olta'e wit#out 'a4s and still 4ro)ide a disc#ar'e
)olta'e com4ara(le to t#e SiC arresters Csee /i'? 5?-5(D? *y t#e late
1=:>s, SiC arrester tec#nolo'y was (ein' 4#ased out in ,a)or o, t#e
'a4less .O& tec#nolo'y? T#e 'a4less .O& 4ro)ided a somew#at (etter disc#ar'e
c#aracteristic wit#out t#e o(Aectiona(le s4ar+o)er transient? T#e maAority o, utility
distri(ution arresters manu,actured today
are o, t#is desi'n?
T#e 'a44ed .O& tec#nolo'y was introduced commercially a(out
1==> and #as 'ained acce4tance in some a44lications w#ere t#ere is
need ,or increased 4rotecti)e mar'ins? *y com(inin' resistance%'raded
'a4s Cwit# SiC 'radin' rin'sD and .O& (loc+s, t#is arrester tec#nolo'y #as some )ery
interestin', and counterintuiti)e, c#aracteristics? It
#as a lower li'#tnin'%disc#ar'e )olta'e C/i'? 5?-5cD, (ut #as a #i'#er
transient o)er)olta'e CTO&D wit#stand c#aracteristic t#an a 'a4less
.O& arrester? To ac#ie)e t#e re2uired 4rotecti)e le)el ,or li'#tnin',
'a4less .O& arresters ty4ically (e'in to conduct #ea)ily ,or low%,re2uency transients at
a(out 1?9 4u? T#ere are some system conditions
w#ere t#e switc#in' transients will e7ceed t#is )alue ,or se)eral cycles
and cause ,ailures? Also, a44lications suc# as a'in' under'round ca(le
systems demand lower li'#tnin'%disc#ar'e c#aracteristics?
T#e 'a44ed .O& tec#nolo'y remo)es a(out one%t#ird o, t#e .O&
(loc+s and re4laces t#em wit# a 'a4 structure #a)in' a li'#tnin'
s4ar+o)er a44ro7imately one%#al, o, t#e old SiC tec#nolo'y? T#e
smaller num(er o, .O& (loc+s yields a li'#tnin'%disc#ar'e )olta'e
ty4ically -> to 3> 4ercent less t#an a 'a4less .O& arrester? *ecause o,
t#e ca4aciti)e and resisti)e interaction o, t#e 'radin' rin's and .O&
(loc+s, most o, t#e ,ront%o,%wa)e im4ulse )olta'e o, li'#tnin' transients a44ears across
t#e 'a4s? T#ey s4ar+ o)er )ery early into t#e
.O& (loc+s, yieldin' a minor s4ar+o)er transient on t#e ,ront?6
/or
switc#in' transients, t#e )olta'e di)ides (y resistance ratios and most
o, it a44ears ,irst across t#e .O& (loc+s, w#ic# #old o,, conduction
until t#e 'a4s s4ar+ o)er? T#is ena(les t#is tec#nolo'y to ac#ie)e a
TO& wit#stand o, a44ro7imately -?> 4u in ty4ical desi'ns?
Additionally, t#e ener'y dissi4ated in t#e arrester is less t#an dissi4ated (y 'a4less
desi'ns ,or t#e same li'#tnin' current (ecause o, t#e
lower )olta'e disc#ar'e o, t#e .O& (loc+s? T#ere is no 4ower%,ollow
current (ecause t#ere is su,,icient .O& ca4a(ility to (loc+ t#e ,low?
T#is minimi@es t#e erosion o, t#e 'a4s? In se)eral ways, t#is tec#nolo'y #olds t#e
4romise o, yieldin' a more ca4a(le and dura(le utility
sur'e arrester?
!tility sur'e arresters are manu,actured in )arious si@es and ratin's? T#e t#ree (asic
ratin' classes are desi'nated distri(ution, intermediate, and station in increasin' order o,
t#eir ener'y%#andlin'
ca4a(ility? .ost o, t#e arresters a44lied on 4rimary distri(ution ,eeders are distri(ution
class? "it#in t#is class, t#ere are (ot# small%(loc+
and #ea)y%duty desi'ns? One common e7ce4tion to t#is is t#at sometimes intermediate%
or station%class arresters are a44lied at riser 4oles
to o(tain a (etter 4rotecti)e c#aracteristic Clower disc#ar'e )olta'eD ,or
t#e ca(le?
5?5 !tility Ca4acitor%Switc#in' Transients
T#is section descri(es #ow utilities can deal wit# 4ro(lems related to
ca4acitor%switc#in' transients?
5?5?1 Switc#in' times
Ca4acitor%switc#in' transients are )ery common and usually not dama'in'? Howe)er, t#e
timin' o, switc#in' may (e un,ortunate ,or some
sensiti)e industrial loads? /or e7am4le, i, t#e load 4ic+s u4 t#e same
time eac# day, t#e utility may decide to switc# t#e ca4acitors coincident
wit# t#at load increase? T#ere #a)e (een se)eral cases w#ere t#is coincides wit# t#e
(e'innin' o, a wor+ s#i,t and t#e resultin' transient
causes se)eral adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es to s#ut down s#ortly a,ter t#e
4rocess starts? One sim4le and ine74ensi)e solution is to determine i,
t#ere is a switc#in' time t#at mi'#t (e more acce4ta(le? /or e7am4le,
it may (e 4ossi(le to switc# on t#e ca4acitor a ,ew minutes (e,ore t#e
(e'innin' o, t#e s#i,t and (e,ore t#e load actually 4ic+s u4? It may not
(e needed t#en, (ut 4ro(a(ly wonFt #urt anyt#in'? I, t#is canFt (e
wor+ed out, ot#er, more e74ensi)e solutions will #a)e to (e ,ound?
5?5?- Preinsertion resistors
Preinsertion resistors can reduce t#e ca4acitor%switc#in' transient
considera(ly? T#e ,irst 4ea+ o, t#e transient is usually t#e most dama'in'? T#e idea is to
insert a resistor into t#e circuit (rie,ly so t#at t#e
,irst 4ea+ is dam4ed si'ni,icantly? T#is is old tec#nolo'y (ut is still
2uite e,,ecti)e?
/i'ure 5?-6 s#ows one e7am4le o, a ca4acitor switc# wit# 4reinsertion resistors to reduce
transients? T#e 4reinsertion is accom4lis#ed (y
t#e mo)a(le contacts slidin' 4ast t#e resistor contacts ,irst (e,ore mat%15> C#a4ter /our
in' wit# t#e main contacts? T#is results in a 4reinsertion time o,
a44ro7imately one%,ourt# o, a cycle at 8> #ert@ CH@D? T#e e,,ecti)eness
o, t#e resistors is de4endent on ca4acitor si@e and a)aila(le s#ort%circuit current at t#e
ca4acitor location? Ta(le 5?1 s#ows e74ected ma7imum transient o)er)olta'es u4on
ener'i@ation ,or )arious conditions,
(ot# wit# and wit#out t#e 4reinsertion resistors? T#ese are t#e ma7imum )alues e74ectedJ
a)era'e )alues are ty4ically 1?3 to 1?5 4u wit#out resistors and 1?1? to 1?- 4u wit#
resistors?
Switc#es wit# 4reinsertion reactors #a)e also (een de)elo4ed ,or t#is
4ur4ose? T#e inductor is #el4,ul in limitin' t#e #i'#er%,re2uency com4onents o, t#e
transient? In some desi'ns, t#e reactors are intentionally (uilt wit# #i'# resistance so t#at
t#ey a44ear lossy to t#e
ener'i@ation transient? T#is #el4s t#e transient dam4 out 2uic+ly?
5?5?3 Sync#ronous closin'
Anot#er 4o4ular strate'y ,or reducin' transients on ca4acitor switc#in' is to use a
sync#ronous closin' (rea+er? T#is is a relati)ely new
tec#nolo'y ,or controllin' ca4acitor%switc#in' transients? Sync#ronous
A.PIN0 RESISTOR 1OA%CARR;IN0
CONTACTS
ARCIN0 CONTACTS
/i'ure 5?-6 Ca4acitor switc# wit# 4reinsertion resistors? CCourtesy o, Coo4er
Power Systems?D
closin' 4re)ents transients (y timin' t#e contact closure suc# t#at t#e
system )olta'e closely matc#es t#e ca4acitor )olta'e at t#e instant t#e
contacts mate? T#is a)oids t#e ste4 c#an'e in )olta'e t#at normally
occurs w#en ca4acitors are switc#ed, causin' t#e circuit to oscillate?
/i'ure 5?-8 s#ows one e7am4le o, a circuit (rea+er desi'ned ,or t#is
4ur4ose? T#is (rea+er would normally (e a44lied on t#e utility su(transmission or
transmission system C9-% and 156%+& classesD? T#is is
a t#ree%4#ase S/8 (rea+er t#at uses a s4ecially desi'ned o4eratin'
mec#anism wit# t#ree inde4endently controlla(le dri)e rods? It is
ca4a(le o, closin' wit#in 1 ms o, )olta'e @ero? T#e electronic control
sam4les )aria(les suc# as am(ient tem4erature, control )olta'e, stored
ener'y, and t#e time since t#e last o4eration to com4ensate t#e al'orit#ms ,or t#e timin'
,orecast? T#e actual 4er,ormance o, t#e (rea+er
is sam4led to adAust t#e 4ole timin' ,or ,uture o4erations to com4ensate ,or wear and
c#an'es in mec#anical c#aracteristics?
/i'ure 5?-9 s#ows a )acuum switc# made ,or t#is 4ur4ose? It is
a44lied on 58%+&%class ca4acitor (an+s? It consists o, t#ree inde4endent
4oles wit# se4arate controls? T#e timin' ,or sync#ronous closin' is
determined (y antici4atin' an u4comin' )olta'e @ero? Its success is
de4endent on t#e consistent o4eration o, t#e )acuum switc#? T#e
switc# reduces ca4acitor inrus# currents (y an order o, ma'nitude and
)olta'e transients to a(out 1?1 4u? A similar switc# may also (e used at
distri(ution )olta'es?
/i'ure 5?-: s#ows one 4#ase o, a newer ty4e o, t#ree%4#ase sync#ronous switc# used ,or
distri(ution ca4acitor (an+s? T#is 4articular tec#nolo'y uses a )acuum switc#
enca4sulated in a solid dielectric?
Eac# o, t#e switc#es descri(ed #ere re2uires a so4#isticated micro4rocessor%(ased
control? !nderstanda(ly, a sync#ronous closin' sys%15- C#a4ter /our
TA*1E5?1 Pea+ Transient O)er)olta'es ue to Ca4acitor
Switc#in' wit# and wit#out Preinsertion Resistor
A)aila(le s#ort "it#out "it# 8?5%
Si@e C+)arD circuit C+AD resistor C4uD resistor C4uD
=>> 5 1?=6 1?66
=>> = 1?=9 1?56
=>> 15 1?=: 1?3=
1->> 5 1?=5 1?6>
1->> = 1?=9 1?5>
1->> 15 1?=: 1?35
1:>> 5 1?=- 1?5-
1:>> = 1?=8 1?33
1:>> 15 1?=9 1?-:
SO!RCE: Courtesy o, Coo4er Power Systems?
/i'ure 5?-8 Sync#ronous closin' (rea+er? CCourtesy
o, A**, Inc?D
/i'ure 5?-9 Sync#ronous closin'
ca4acitor switc#? CCourtesy o, Yoslyn
Hi%&olta'e Cor4oration?D
tem is more e74ensi)e t#an a strai'#t,orward ca4acitor switc#?
Howe)er, it is ,re2uently a cost%e,,ecti)e solution w#en ca4acitorswitc#in' transients are
disru4tin' end%user loads?
5?5?5 Ca4acitor location
/or distri(ution ,eeder (an+s, a switc#ed ca4acitor may (e too close to
a sensiti)e load or at a location w#ere t#e transient o)er)olta'es tend
to (e muc# #i'#er? O,ten, it may (e 4ossi(le to mo)e t#e ca4acitor
downline or to anot#er (ranc# o, t#e circuit and eliminate t#e 4ro(lem?
T#e strate'y is to eit#er create more dam4in' wit# more resistance in
t#e circuit or to 'et more im4edance (etween t#e ca4acitor and t#e sensiti)e load?
T#e success o, t#is strate'y will de4end on a num(er o, ,actors? O,
course, i, t#e ca4acitor is 4laced at a lar'e load to su44ly reacti)e 4ower
s4eci,ically ,or t#at load, mo)in' t#e (an+ may not (e an o4tion? T#en,
tec#ni2ues ,or so,t switc#in' or switc#in' at noncritical times must (e
e74lored? *esides utility%side solutions, one s#ould also e74lore loadside solutions? In
some cases, it will (e more cost%e,,ecti)e to #arden
load e2ui4ment a'ainst ca4acitor%switc#in' transients (y t#e a44lication o, line c#o+es,
T&SSs, etc?
155 C#a4ter /our
/i'ure 5?-: One 4ole o, a sync#ronous closin' switc# ,or distri(ution ca4acitor (an+s?
CCourtesy o, Coo4er Power
Systems?D
5?6 !tility System 1i'#tnin' Protection
.any 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems stem ,rom li'#tnin'? Not only can t#e
#i'#%)olta'e im4ulses dama'e load e2ui4ment, (ut t#e tem4orary
,ault t#at ,ollows a li'#tnin' stri+e to t#e line causes )olta'e sa's and
interru4tions? Here are some strate'ies ,or utilities to use to decrease
t#e im4act o, li'#tnin'?
5?6?1 S#ieldin'
One o, t#e strate'ies o4en to utilities ,or lines t#at are 4articularly susce4ti(le to li'#tnin'
stri+es is to s#ield t#e line (y installin' a
'rounded neutral wire o)er t#e 4#ase wires? T#is will interce4t most
li'#tnin' stro+es (e,ore t#ey stri+e t#e 4#ase wires? T#is can #el4, (ut
will not necessarily 4re)ent line ,las#o)ers (ecause o, t#e 4ossi(ility o,
(ac+,las#o)ers?
S#ieldin' o)er#ead utility lines is common at transmission )olta'e
le)els and in su(stations, (ut is not common on distri(ution lines
(ecause o, t#e added cost o, taller 4oles and t#e lower (ene,it due to
lower ,las#o)er le)els o, t#e lines? On distri(ution circuits, t#e
'rounded neutral wire is ty4ically installed underneat# t#e 4#ase conductors to ,acilitate
t#e connection o, line%to%neutral connected e2ui4ment suc# as trans,ormers and
ca4acitors?
S#ieldin' is not 2uite as sim4le as addin' a wire and 'roundin' it
e)ery ,ew 4oles? "#en li'#tnin' stri+es t#e s#ield wire, t#e )olta'es at
t#e to4 o, t#e 4ole will still (e e7tremely #i'# and could cause (ac+,las#o)ers to t#e line?
T#is will result in a tem4orary ,ault? To minimi@e
t#is 4ossi(ility, t#e 4at# o, t#e 'round lead down t#e 4ole must (e care,ully c#osen to
maintain ade2uate clearance wit# t#e 4#ase conductors? Also, t#e 'roundin' resistance
4lays an im4ortant role in t#e
ma'nitude o, t#e )olta'e and must (e maintained as low as 4ossi(le?
Howe)er, w#en it (ecomes o()ious t#at a 4articular section o, ,eeder
is (ein' struc+ ,re2uently, it may (e Austi,ia(le to retro,it t#at section
wit# a s#ield wire to reduce t#e num(er o, transient ,aults and to maintain a #i'#er le)el
o, 4ower 2uality? /i'ure 5?-= illustrates t#is conce4t?
It is not uncommon ,or a ,ew s4ans near t#e su(station to (e s#ielded?
T#e su(station is 'enerally s#ielded anyway, and t#is #el4s 4re)ent
#i'#%current ,aults close to t#e su(station t#at can dama'e t#e su(station trans,ormer and
(rea+ers? It is also common near su(stations
,or distri(ution lines to (e under(uilt on transmission or su(transmission structures? Since
t#e transmission is s#ielded, t#is 4ro)ides
s#ieldin' ,or t#e distri(ution as well, 4ro)ided ade2uate clearance can
(e maintained ,or t#e 'round lead? T#is is not always an easy tas+?
Anot#er section o, t#e ,eeder may crest a rid'e 'i)in' it unusual
e74osure to li'#tnin'? S#ieldin' in t#at area may (e an e,,ecti)e way o,
reducin' li'#tnin'%induced ,aults? Poles in t#e a,,ected section may
#a)e to (e e7tended to accommodate t#e s#ield wire and considera(le
e,,ort 4ut into im4ro)in' t#e 'rounds? T#is increases t#e cost o, t#is
solution? It is 4ossi(le t#at line arresters would (e a more economical
and e,,ecti)e o4tion ,or many a44lications?
5?6?- 1ine arresters
Anot#er strate'y ,or lines t#at are struc+ ,re2uently is to a44ly
arresters 4eriodically alon' t#e 4#ase wires? Normally, lines ,las# o)er
,irst at t#e 4ole insulators? T#ere,ore, 4re)entin' insulator ,las#o)er
will reduce t#e interru4tion and sa' rate si'ni,icantly? Stans(erry8
ar'ues t#at t#is is more economical t#an s#ieldin' and results in ,ewer
line ,las#o)ers? Neit#er s#ieldin' nor line arresters will 4re)ent all
,las#o)ers ,rom li'#tnin'? T#e aim is to si'ni,icantly reduce ,las#o)ers
in 4articular trou(le s4ots?
As s#own in /i'? 5?3>, t#e arresters (leed o,, some o, t#e stro+e current as it 4asses alon'
t#e line? T#e amount t#at an indi)idual arrester
(leeds o,, will de4end on t#e 'roundin' resistance? T#e idea is to s4ace
t#e arresters su,,iciently close to 4re)ent t#e )olta'e at un4rotected
4oles in t#e middle ,rom e7ceedin' t#e (asic im4ulse le)el C*I1D o, t#e
line insulators? T#is usually re2uires an arrester at e)ery second or
t#ird 4ole? In t#e case o, a ,eeder su44lyin' a #i'#ly critical load, or a
,eeder wit# #i'# 'round resistance, it may (e necessary to 4lace
arresters at e)ery 4ole? A transients study o, di,,erent con,i'urations
will s#ow w#at is re2uired?
Some utilities 4lace line arresters only on t#e to4 4#ase w#en one
4#ase is mounted #i'#er t#an t#e ot#ers? In ot#er 'eometries, it will (e
necessary to 4ut arresters on all t#ree 4#ases to ac#ie)e a consistent
reduction in ,las#o)ers?
158 C#a4ter /our
SHIE1IN0 AT
THE S!*STATION
SHIE1IN0
SPANS "ITH
HI0H E[POS!RE
/i'ure 5?-= S#ieldin' a 4ortion o, a distri(ution ,eeder to reduce t#e incidence o,
tem4orary li'#tnin'%induced ,aults?
/i'ure 5?31 s#ows a ty4ical utility arrester t#at is used ,or o)er#ead
line 4rotection a44lications? T#is model consists o, .O& (loc+s enca4sulated in a
4olymer #ousin' t#at is resistant to sunli'#t and ot#er
natural elements? Older%tec#nolo'y models used 4orcelain #ousin's
li+e t#at s#own on t#e 4rimary side o, t#e trans,ormer in /i'? 5?33?
T#ere are already su,,icient arresters on many lines in densely 4o4ulated areas in Nort#
America to ac#ie)e su,,icient line 4rotection?
T#ese arresters are on t#e distri(ution trans,ormers, w#ic# are
installed close to'et#er and in su,,icient num(ers in t#ese areas to #el4
4rotect t#e lines ,rom ,las#o)er?
5?6?3 1ow%side sur'es
Some utility and end%user 4ro(lems wit# li'#tnin' im4ulses are closely
related? One o, t#e most si'ni,icant ones is called t#e Glow%side sur'eH
4ro(lem (y many utility en'ineers?
9
T#e name was coined (y distri(ution trans,ormer desi'ners (ecause it a44ears ,rom t#e
trans,ormerFs
4ers4ecti)e t#at a current sur'e is suddenly inAected into t#e low%)olta'e side terminals?
!tilities #a)e not a44lied secondary arresters at
% % % % % %/i'ure 5?3> Periodically s4aced line arresters #el4 4re)ent ,las#o)ers?
/i'ure 5?31 Ty4ical 4olymer%#oused
utility distri(ution arrester ,or o)er#ead line a44lications? CCourtesy o,
Coo4er Power Systems?D
low%)olta'e le)els in 'reat num(ers? /rom t#e customerFs 4oint o, )iew
it a44ears to (e an im4ulse comin' ,rom t#e utility and is li+ely to (e
termed a secondary sur'e?
*ot# 4ro(lems are actually di,,erent side e,,ects o, t#e same sur'e
4#enomenonPli'#tnin' current ,lowin' ,rom eit#er t#e utility side or
t#e customer side alon' t#e ser)ice ca(le neutral? /i'ure 5?3- s#ows
one 4ossi(le scenario? 1i'#tnin' stri+es t#e 4rimary line, and t#e current is disc#ar'ed
t#rou'# t#e 4rimary arrester to t#e 4ole 'round
lead? T#is lead is also connected to t#e [- (us#in' o, t#e trans,ormer
at t#e to4 o, t#e 4ole? T#us, some o, t#e current will ,low toward t#e
load 'round? T#e amount o, current into t#e load 'round is 4rimarily
de4endent on t#e si@e o, t#e 4ole 'round resistance relati)e to t#e load
'round? Inducti)e elements may 4lay a si'ni,icant role in t#e current
di)ision ,or t#e ,ront o, t#e sur'e, (ut t#e 'round resistances (asically
dictate t#e di)ision o, t#e (ul+ o, t#e stro+e current?
T#e current t#at ,lows t#rou'# t#e secondary ca(les causes a )olta'e
dro4 in t#e neutral conductor t#at is only 4artially com4ensated (y
mutual inducti)e e,,ects wit# t#e 4#ase conductors? T#us, t#ere is a net
)olta'e across t#e ca(le, ,orcin' current t#rou'# t#e trans,ormer secondary windin's and
into t#e load as s#own (y t#e das#ed lines in /i'?
5?3-? I, t#ere is a com4lete 4at#, su(stantial sur'e current will ,low? As
it ,lows t#rou'# t#e trans,ormer secondary, a sur'e )olta'e is induced
in t#e 4rimary, sometimes causin' a layer%to%layer insulation ,ailure
15: C#a4ter /our
Tri4le7 Ser)ice
Ca(le
Ser)ice
Entrance
0round
Resistance
0round
1ead
Inductance
Pole 0round Resistance
[1
[-
[3
H1
H-
.eter 0a4s Ty4e N. wO 0rnd
*
"
0
0
*
"
1oad
1oad
Primary
Arrester
Primary P#ase
/i'ure 5?3- Primary arrester disc#ar'e current di)ides (etween 4ole and load 'round?
near t#e 'rounded end? I, t#ere is not a com4lete 4at#, t#e )olta'e will
(uild u4 across t#e load and may ,las# o)er somew#ere on t#e secondary? It is common
,or t#e meter 'a4s to ,las# o)er, (ut not always
(e,ore t#ere is dama'e on t#e secondary (ecause t#e meter 'a4s are
usually 8 to : +&, or #i'#er?
T#e amount o, )olta'e induced in t#e ca(le is de4endent on t#e rate
o, rise o, t#e current, w#ic# is de4endent on ot#er circuit 4arameters
as well as t#e li'#tnin' stro+e?
T#e c#ie, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems t#is causes are
1? T#e im4ulse enterin' t#e load can cause ,ailure or miso4eration o,
load e2ui4ment?
-? T#e utility trans,ormer will ,ail causin' an e7tended 4ower outa'e?
3? T#e ,ailin' trans,ormer may su(Aect t#e load to sustained steadystate o)er)olta'es
(ecause 4art o, t#e 4rimary windin' is s#orted,
decreasin' t#e trans,ormer turns ratio? /ailure usually occurs in
seconds (ut #as (een +nown to ta+e #ours?
T#e +ey to t#is 4ro(lem is t#e amount o, sur'e current tra)elin' t#rou'#
t#e secondary ser)ice ca(le? <ee4 in mind t#at t#e same e,,ect occurs
re'ardless o, t#e direction o, t#e current? All t#at is re2uired is ,or t#e current to 'et into
t#e 'round circuits and ,or a su(stantial 4ortion to ,low
t#rou'# t#e ca(le on its way to anot#er 'round? T#us, li'#tnin' stri+es to
eit#er t#e utility system or t#e end%user ,acilities #a)e t#e same e,,ects?
Trans,ormer 4rotection is more o, an issue in residential ser)ices, (ut t#e
secondary transients will a44ear in industrial systems as well?
Protectin' t#e trans,ormer? T#ere are two common ways ,or t#e utility
to 4rotect t#e trans,ormer:
1? !se trans,ormers wit# interlaced secondary windin's?
-? A44ly sur'e arresters at t#e [terminals?
O, course, t#e ,ormer is a desi'n c#aracteristic o, t#e trans,ormer and
cannot (e c#an'ed once t#e trans,ormer #as (een made? I, t#e trans,ormer is a
noninterlaced desi'n, t#e only o4tion is to a44ly arresters
to t#e low%)olta'e side?
Note t#at arresters at t#e load ser)ice entrance will not 4rotect t#e
trans,ormer? In ,act, t#ey will )irtually 'uarantee t#at t#ere will (e a
sur'e current 4at# and t#ere(y cause additional stress on t#e trans,ormer?
"#ile interlaced trans,ormers #a)e a lower ,ailure rate in li'#tnin'4rone areas t#an
noninterlaced trans,ormers, recent e)idence su''ests
t#at low%)olta'e arresters #a)e (etter success in 4re)entin' ,ailures?
:
/i'ure 5?33 s#ows an e7am4le o, a well%4rotected utility 4ole%to4 distri(ution
trans,ormer?
=
T#e 4rimary arrester is mounted directly on t#e
tan+ wit# )ery s#ort lead len't#s? "it# t#e e)idence mountin' t#at
li'#tnin' sur'es #a)e stee4er wa)e,ronts t#an 4re)iously (elie)ed,
t#is is an e)er increasin' re2uirement ,or 'ood 4rotection 4ractice?
1>
It
re2uires a s4ecial ,use in t#e cutout to 4re)ent ,use dama'e on li'#tnin' current
disc#ar'e? T#e trans,ormer 4rotection is com4leted (y
usin' a ro(ust secondary arrester? T#is s#ows a #ea)y%duty, secondary
arrester ada4ted ,or e7ternal mountin' on trans,ormers? Internally
mounted arresters are also a)aila(le? An arrester ratin' o, 5>%+A disc#ar'e current is
recommended? T#e )olta'e disc#ar'e is not e7tremely
critical in t#is a44lication (ut is ty4ically 3 to 6 +&? Trans,ormer secondaries are
'enerally assumed to #a)e a *I1 o, -> to 3> +&? 0a4%ty4e
arresters also wor+ in t#is a44lication (ut cause )olta'e sa's, w#ic#
t#e .O&%ty4e arresters a)oid?
Im4act on load circuits? /i'ure 5?35 s#ows a wa)e,orm o, t#e o4en%circuit )olta'e
measured at an electrical outlet location in a la(oratory
moc+%u4 o, a residential ser)ice?1-
/or a relati)ely small stro+e to t#e
16> C#a4ter /our
/i'ure 5?33 E7am4le o, a distri(ution trans,ormer 4rotected
a'ainst li'#tnin' wit# tan+%mounted 4rimary and secondary
arresters? CCourtesy o, Coo4er Power Systems?D
4rimary line C-?8 +AD, t#e )olta'es at t#e outlet reac#ed nearly 16 +&?
In ,act, #i'#er%current stro+es caused random ,las#o)ers o, t#e test circuit, w#ic# made
measurements di,,icult? T#is re4orted e74erience is
indicati)e o, t#e ca4acity o, t#ese sur'es to cause o)er)olta'e 4ro(lems?
T#e wa)e,orm is a )ery #i'# ,re2uency rin'in' wa)e ridin' on t#e
main 4art o, t#e low%side sur'e? T#e rin'in' is )ery sensiti)e to t#e
ca(le len't#s? A small amount o, resisti)e load suc# as a li'#t (ul(
would contri(ute 'reatly to t#e dam4in'? T#e rin'in' wa)e di,,ers
de4endin' on w#ere t#e sur'e was a44lied, w#ile t#e (ase low%side
sur'e wa)e remains a(out t#e sameJ it is more de4endent on t#e wa)e,orm o, t#e current
t#rou'# t#e ser)ice ca(le?
One interestin' as4ect o, t#is wa)e is t#at t#e rin'in' is so ,ast t#at it
'ets (y t#e s4ar+ 'a4s in t#e meter (ase e)en t#ou'# t#e )olta'e is -
times t#e nominal s4ar+o)er )alue? In t#e tests, t#e outlets and lam4
soc+ets could also wit#stand t#is +ind o, wa)e ,or a(out 1 s (e,ore t#ey
,las#ed o)er? T#us, it is 4ossi(le to #a)e some #i'# o)er)olta'es 4ro4a'atin' t#rou'#out
t#e system? T#e wa)e,orm in t#is ,i'ure re4resents
t#e a)aila(le o4en%circuit )olta'e? In actual 4ractice, a ,las#o)er would
#a)e occurred somew#ere in t#e circuit a,ter a (rie, time?
.O& arresters are not entirely e,,ecti)e a'ainst a rin'in' wa)e o,
t#is #i'# ,re2uency (ecause o, lead%len't# inductance? Howe)er, t#ey
[1 SIE
[1 SIE
[3 SIE
[3 SIE
-?8%+A
STRO<E TO
PRI.AR;
-?8%+A
STRO<E TO
SER&ICE ENTRANCE
&O1TA0E 6 +&Odi)
TI.E - sOdi)
/i'ure 5?35 &olta'e a44earin' at outlet due to low%side sur'e 4#enomena?
are )ery e,,ecti)e ,or t#e lower%,re2uency 4ortion o, t#is transient,
w#ic# contains t#e 'reater ener'y? Arresters s#ould (e a44lied (ot# in
t#e ser)ice entrance and at t#e outlets ser)in' sensiti)e loads? "it#out
t#e ser)ice entrance arresters to ta+e most o, t#e ener'y, arresters at
t#e outlets are su(Aect to ,ailure? T#is is 4articularly true o, sin'le
.O&s connected line to neutral? "it# t#e ser)ice entrance arresters,
,ailure o, outlet 4rotectors and indi)idual a44liance 4rotectors s#ould
(e )ery rare unless li'#tnin' stri+es t#e (uildin' structure closer to
t#at location t#an t#e ser)ice entrance?
Ser)ice entrance arresters cannot (e relied u4on to 4rotect t#e entire
,acility? T#ey ser)e a use,ul 4ur4ose in s#untin' t#e (ul+ o, t#e sur'e
ener'y (ut cannot su44ress t#e )olta'e su,,iciently ,or remote loads?
1i+ewise, t#e trans,ormer arrester cannot (e considered to ta+e t#e
4lace o, t#e ser)ice entrance arrester alt#ou'# it may (e only 6> ,t C16
metersD away? T#is arrester is actually in serieswit# t#e load ,or t#e
low%side current sur'e? T#e (asic 'uideline ,or arrester 4rotection
s#ould always (e ,ollowed: Place an arrester directly across t#e insulation structure t#at is
to (e 4rotected? T#is (ecomes crucial ,or di,,icultto%4rotect loads suc# as su(mersi(le
4um4s in dee4 water wells? T#e
(est 4rotection is a,,orded (y an arrester (uilt directly into t#e motor
rat#er t#an on t#e sur,ace in t#e controller?
Some cases may not #a)e as muc# to do wit# t#e sur'e )olta'e
a44earin' at t#e outlet as wit# t#e di,,erential )olta'e (etween two
'round re,erences? Suc# is t#e case ,or many T& recei)er ,ailures?
Correct(ondin'o, 4rotecti)e 'rounds is re2uired as well as arrester
4rotection?
T#e 4rotecti)e le)el o, ser)ice entrance arresters ,or li'#tnin'
im4ulses is ty4ically a(out - +&? T#e li'#tnin' im4ulse current%carryin' ca4a(ility s#ould
(e similar to t#e trans,ormer secondary arrester,
or a44ro7imately 5> +A? One must +ee4 in mind t#at ,or low%,re2uency
o)er)olta'es, t#e arrester wit# t#e lowest disc#ar'e )olta'e is a4t to
ta+e t#e (runt o, t#e duty? .O&%ty4e arresters will clam4 t#e o)er)olta'es wit#out
causin' additional 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems suc# as
interru4tions and sa's?
5?6?5 Ca(le 4rotection
One increasin'ly si'ni,icant source o, e7tended 4ower outa'es on
under'round distri(ution C!D systems is ca(le ,ailures? T#e earliest
utility distri(ution ca(les installed in t#e !nited States are now reac#in' t#e end o, t#eir
use,ul li,e? As a ca(le a'es, t#e insulation (ecomes
4ro'ressi)ely wea+er and a moderate transient o)er)olta'e causes
(rea+down and ,ailure?
16- C#a4ter /our
.any utilities are e74lorin' ways o, e7tendin' t#e ca(le li,e (y
arrester 4rotection? Ca(le re4lacement is so costly t#at it is o,ten
wort#w#ile to retro,it t#e system wit# arresters e)en i, t#e 'ain in li,e
is only a ,ew years? e4endin' on )olta'e class, t#e ca(le may #a)e
(een installed wit# only one arrester at t#e riser 4ole or (ot# a riser4ole arrester and an
o4en%4oint arrester Csee /i'? 5?36D?
To 4ro)ide additional 4rotection, utilities may c#oose ,rom a num(er
o, o4tions:
1? Add an o4en%4oint arrester, i, one does not e7ist?
-? Add a t#ird arrester on t#e ne7t%to%last trans,ormer?
3? Add arresters at e)ery trans,ormer?
5? Add s4ecial low%disc#ar'e )olta'e arresters?
6? InAect an insulation%restorin' ,luid into t#e ca(le?
8? Em4loy a scout arrester sc#eme on t#e 4rimary Csee Sec? 5?6?6D?
T#e ca(le li,e is an e74onential ,unction o, t#e num(er o, im4ulses o, a
certain ma'nitude t#at it recei)es, accordin' to Ho4+inson?
11
T#e dama'e to t#e ca(le is related (y
N&c
w#ere constant, re4resentin' dama'e to t#e ca(le
N num(er o, im4ulses
& ma'nitude o, im4ulses
c em4irical constant ran'in' ,rom 1> to 16
T#ere,ore, anyt#in' t#at will decrease t#e ma'nitude o, t#e im4ulses
only sli'#tly #as t#e 4otential to e7tend ca(le li,e a 'reat deal?
RISER%PO1E
ARRESTER OPEN%POINT
ARRESTER
PA%.O!NT
TRANS/OR.ER
/i'ure 5?36 Ty4ical ! ca(le arrester a44lication?
O4en%4oint arrester? &olta'e wa)es dou(le in ma'nitude w#en t#ey
stri+e an o4en 4oint? T#us, t#e 4ea+ )olta'e a44earin' on t#e ca(le
is a(out twice t#e disc#ar'e )olta'e o, t#e riser%4ole arrester? T#ere
is su,,icient mar'in wit# new ca(les to 'et (y wit#out o4en%4oint
arresters at some )olta'e classes? "#ile o4en%4oint arresters are
common at 36 +&, t#ey are not used uni)ersally at lower )olta'e
classes?
"#en t#e num(er o, ca(le ,ailures associated wit# storms (e'ins to
increase noticea(ly, t#e ,irst o4tion s#ould (e to add an arrester at t#e
o4en 4oint i, t#ere is not already one 4resent?
Ne7t%to%last trans,ormer? O4en%4oint arresters do not com4letely eliminate ca(le ,ailures
durin' li'#tnin' storms? "it# an o4en%4oint
arrester, t#e 'reatest o)er)olta'e stress is 'enerally ,ound at t#e ne7tto%last trans,ormer?
/i'ure 5?38 illustrates t#e 4#enomenon? *e,ore t#e
o4en%4oint arrester (e'ins to conduct, it re,lects t#e incomin' wa)e Aust
li+e an o4en circuit? T#ere,ore, t#ere is a wa)e o, a44ro7imately #al,
t#e disc#ar'e )olta'e re,lected (ac+ to t#e riser 4ole? T#is can (e e)en
#i'#er i, t#e wa)e,ront is )ery stee4 and t#e arrester lead inductance
aids t#e re,lection (rie,ly?
T#is results in a )ery s#ort 4ulse ridin' on to4 o, t#e )olta'e wa)e
t#at dissi4ates ,airly ra4idly as it ,lows toward t#e riser 4ole? Howe)er,
at trans,ormers wit#in a ,ew #undred ,eet o, t#e o4en 4oint t#ere will
(e noticea(le additional stress? T#us, we o,ten see ca(le and trans,ormer ,ailures at t#is
location?
165 C#a4ter /our
&O1TA0E 5>?>> +&Odi)
TI.E >?6>> sOdi)
OPEN POINT
NE[T%TO%1AST TRANS/OR.ER
RISER PO1E
/i'ure 5?38 Im4ulse )olta'es alon' a ca(le wit# an o4en%4oint arrester s#owin' t#at t#e
4ea+ can occur at t#e ne7t%to%last trans,ormer? Simulation wit# !Sur'e com4uter
4ro'ram? CCourtesy o, Coo4er Power Systems?D
T#e 4ro(lem is readily sol)ed (y an additional arrester at t#e ne7tto%last trans,ormer? In
,act, t#is second arrester 4ractically o(literates
t#e im4ulse, 4ro)idin' e,,ecti)e 4rotection ,or t#e rest o, t#e ca(le system as well? T#us,
some consider t#e most o4timal ! ca(le 4rotection
con,i'uration to (e t#ree arresters: a riser%4ole arrester, an o4en%4oint
arrester, and an arrester at t#e trans,ormer ne7t closest to t#e o4en
4oint? T#is c#oice 4rotects as well as #a)in' arresters at all trans,ormers and is less
costly, 4articularly in retro,ittin'?
!nder%oil arresters? Trans,ormer manu,acturers can su44ly 4admounted trans,ormers ,or
! ca(le systems wit# t#e 4rimary
arresters inside t#e trans,ormer com4artment, under oil? I, a44lied
consistently, t#is ac#ie)es )ery 'ood 4rotection o, t#e ! ca(le system
(y #a)in' arresters distri(uted alon' t#e ca(le? O, course, t#is 4rotection comes at an
incremental cost t#at must (e e)aluated to determine
i, it is economical ,or a utility to consider?
El(ow arresters? T#e introduction o, el(ow arresters ,or trans,ormer
connections in ! ca(le systems #as o4ened u4 4rotection o4tions not
4re)iously economical? Pre)iously, arrester installations on ! ca(le
systems were ada4tations o, o)er#ead arrester tec#nolo'y and were
costly to im4lement? T#at is one reason w#y o4en%4oint arresters #a)e
not (een used uni)ersally? T#e ot#er alternati)e was under%oil
arresters and it is also )ery costly to c#an'e out a 4ad%mount trans,ormer Aust to 'et an
o4en%4oint arrester? Now, t#e arrester is an inte'ral 4art o, t#e ! system #ardware and
installation at nearly any
4oint on t#e system is 4ractical? T#is is a 4articularly 'ood o4tion ,or
many retro,it 4ro'rams?
1ower%disc#ar'e arresters? T#e 'a44ed .O& arrester tec#nolo'y
descri(ed earlier in t#is c#a4ter was de)elo4ed s4eci,ically to im4ro)e
t#e sur'e 4rotection ,or ! ca(les and 4rolon' t#eir li,e? T#e arresters
are a(le to ac#ie)e a su(stantially lower disc#ar'e )olta'e under li'#tnin' sur'e
conditions w#ile still 4ro)idin' t#e ca4a(ility to wit#stand
normal system conditions? *y com(inin' t#e 'a4s ,rom t#e old SiC
tec#nolo'y wit# ,ewer .O& (loc+s, a -> to 3> 4ercent 'ain could (e
made in t#e li'#tnin' 4rotecti)e mar'in? T#e 'a4s s#are t#e )olta'e
wit# t#e .O& (loc+s durin' steady%state o4eration and 4re)ent t#ermal runaway?
/ollowin' t#e lo'ic o, t#e Ho4+inson ,ormula, 4resented
at t#e (e'innin' o, t#is section, con)ertin' to t#is +ind o, arrester in
t#e ! ca(le system can (e e74ected to yield a su(stantial increase in
ca(le li,e?
/luid inAection? T#is is a relati)ely new tec#nolo'y in w#ic# a restorati)e ,luid is inAected
into a run o, ca(le? T#e ,luid ,ills t#e )oids t#at
#a)e (een created in t#e insulation (y a'in' and 'i)es t#e ca(le many
more years o, li,e? A )acuum is 4ulled on t#e recei)in' end and 4ressure
is a44lied at t#e inAection end? I, t#ere are no s4lices to (loc+ t#e ,low,
t#e ,luid slowly 4enetrates t#e ca(le?
5?6?6 Scout arrester sc#eme
T#e idea o, usin' a scout arrester sc#eme to 4rotect utility ! ca(le runs
'oes (ac+ many years?
13
Howe)er, t#e idea #as only (een a44lied s4oradically (ecause o, t#e additional initial
e74ense? T#e conce4t is relati)ely
sim4le: Place arresters on eit#er side o, t#e riser%4ole arrester to reduce
t#e li'#tnin' ener'y t#at can enter t#e ca(le? /i'ure 5?39 illustrates t#e
(asic sc#eme? T#e incomin' li'#tnin' sur'e current ,rom a stri+e downline ,irst
encounters a scout arrester? A lar'e 4ortion o, t#e current is disc#ar'ed into t#e 'round at
t#at location? A smaller 4ortion 4roceeds on to
t#e riser%4ole arrester, w#ic# now 4roduces a smaller disc#ar'e )olta'e?
It is t#is )olta'e t#at is im4ressed u4on t#e ca(le?
To ,urt#er en#ance t#e 4rotection, t#e ,irst s4an on eit#er side o, t#e
riser 4ole can (e s#ielded to 4re)ent direct stro+es to t#e line?
.ore recently, t#ere #as (een a re)i)al o, interest in t#e sc#eme?15
T#ere is em4irical e)idence t#at t#e scout sc#eme #el4s 4re)ent o4en4oint ,ailures o,
(ot# ca(les and trans,ormers, and t#e e74ense o,
c#an'in' out a trans,ormer ,ar e7ceeds t#e additional cost o, t#e scout
arresters? Simulations su''est t#at w#ile t#e nominal arrester dis%168 C#a4ter /our
RISER%PO1E
ARRESTER
SCO!T ARRESTERS
! CA*1E
INCO.IN0
S!R0E
/i'ure 5?39 Scout arrester sc#eme?
c#ar'e )olta'e may (e reduced only a ,ew 4ercent, t#e 'reatest (ene,it
o, t#e scout sc#eme may (e t#at it 'reatly reduces t#e rate o, rise o,
sur'e )olta'es enterin' t#e ca(le? T#ese stee4%,ronted sur'es re,lect o,,
t#e o4en 4oint and ,re2uently cause ,ailures at t#e ,irst or second 4admount trans,ormer
,rom t#e end? *ecause o, lead len't#s, arresters are
not always e,,ecti)e a'ainst suc# stee4 im4ulses? T#e scout sc#eme
4ractically eliminates t#ese ,rom t#e ca(le?
.any distri(ution ,eeders in densely 4o4ulated areas will #a)e scout
sc#emes (y de,ault? T#ere are su,,icient num(ers o, trans,ormers t#at
t#ere are already arresters on eit#er side o, t#e riser 4ole?
5?8 .ana'in' /erroresonance
/erroresonance in a distri(ution system occurs mainly w#en a li'#tly
loaded, t#ree%4#ase trans,ormer (ecomes isolated on a ca(le wit# one
or two o4en 4#ases? T#is can #a44en (ot# accidentally and intentionally? Strate'ies ,or
dealin' wit# ,erroresonance include
T Pre)entin' t#e o4en%4#ase condition
T am4in' t#e resonance wit# load
T 1imitin' t#e o)er)olta'es
T 1imitin' ca(le len't#s
T Alternati)e ca(le%switc#in' 4rocedures
.ost ,erroresonance is a result o, (lown ,uses in one or two o, t#e
4#ases in res4onse to ,aults, or some ty4e o, sin'le%4ole switc#in' in
t#e 4rimary circuit? A lo'ical e,,ecti)e measure to 'uard a'ainst ,erroresonance would (e
to use t#ree%4#ase switc#in' de)ices? /or e7am4le, a t#ree%4#ase recloser or sectionali@er
could (e used at t#e riser
4ole instead o, ,used cutouts? T#e main draw(ac+ is cost? !tilities could
not a,,ord to do t#is at e)ery riser 4ole, (ut t#is could (e done in s4ecial cases w#ere
t#ere are 4articularly sensiti)e end users and ,re2uent
,use (lowin's?
Anot#er strate'y on trou(lesome ca(le dro4s is to sim4ly re4lace t#e
,used cutouts wit# solid (lades? T#is ,orces t#e u4line recloser or
(rea+er to o4erate to clear ,aults on t#e ca(le? O, course, t#is su(Aects
many ot#er utility customers to sustained interru4tions w#en t#ey
would #a)e normally seen only a (rie, )olta'e sa'? Howe)er, it is an
ine74ensi)e way to #andle t#e 4ro(lem until a more 4ermanent solution is im4lemented?
.anual, sin'le%4#ase ca(le switc#in' (y 4ullin' cutouts or ca(le
el(ows is also a maAor source o, ,erroresonance? T#is is a 4articular
4ro(lem durin' new construction w#en t#ere is a lot o, acti)ity and t#e
trans,ormers are not yet loaded? Some utilities #a)e re4orted t#at line
crews carry a Gli'#t (oardH or some ot#er ty4e o, resisti)e load (an+ in
t#eir truc+s ,or use in ca(le%switc#in' acti)ity w#en t#e trans,ormers
#a)e no ot#er load attac#ed? One must (e 4articularly care,ul w#en
switc#in' delta%connected trans,ormersJ suc# trans,ormers s#ould (e
4rotected (ecause )olta'es may 'et e7tremely #i'#? T#e common
'rounded wye%wye 4ad%mounted trans,ormer may not (e dama'ed
internally i, t#e e74osure time is (rie,, alt#ou'# it may ma+e considera(le noise? "#en
switc#in' manually, t#e 'oal s#ould (e to o4en or
close all t#ree 4#ases as 4rom4tly as 4ossi(le?
/erroresonance can 'enerally (e dam4ed out (y a relati)ely small
amount o, resisti)e load, alt#ou'# t#ere are e7ce4tions? /or t#e ty4ical case wit# one
4#ase o4en, a resisti)e load o, 1 to 5 4ercent o, t#e
trans,ormer ca4acity can 'reatly reduce t#e e,,ects o, ,erroresonance? T#e amount o, load
re2uired is de4endent on t#e len't# o,
ca(le and t#e desi'n o, t#e trans,ormers? Also, t#e two%4#ase o4en
case is sometimes more di,,icult to dam4en wit# load? /i'ure 5?3:
s#ows t#e e,,ect o, loadin' on ,erroresonance o)er)olta'es ,or a
trans,ormer connected to a44ro7imately 1?> mi C1?81 +mD o, ca(le
wit# one 4#ase o4en? T#is was a 4articularly di,,icult case t#at dama'ed end%user
e2ui4ment? Note t#e di,,erent c#aracteristics o, t#e
4#ases? T#e trans,ormer was o, a ,i)e%le''ed core desi'n, and t#e
middle 4#ase 4resents a condition t#at is more di,,icult to control
16: C#a4ter /our
> 6 1> 16 -> -6 3>
1
1?-
1?5
1?8
1?:
-
-?-
-?5
-?8
-?:
3
A
*
C
/erroresonant &olta'e C4er !nitD
Resisti)e 1oad B 5:> & *!S CI Trans,ormer Ca4acityD
/i'ure 5?3: E7am4le illustratin' t#e im4act o, loadin' on ,erroresonance?
wit# loadin'? /i)e 4ercent resisti)e load reduces t#e o)er)olta'e
,rom a44ro7imately -?: to - 4u? T#e trans,ormer would #a)e to (e
loaded a44ro7imately -> to -6 4ercent o, resisti)e e2ui)alent load to
limit ,erroresonance o)er)olta'es to 1-6 4ercent, t#e commonly
acce4ted t#res#old? Since suc# a lar'e load is re2uired, a t#ree%4#ase
recloser was used to switc# t#e ca(le?
On many utility systems, arresters are not a44lied on e)ery 4admounted distri(ution
trans,ormer due to costs? Howe)er, sur'e
arresters can (e an e,,ecti)e tool ,or su44ressin' t#e e,,ects o, ,erroresonance? T#is is
4articularly true ,or trans,ormers wit# un'rounded 4rimary connections w#ere t#e
)olta'es can easily reac# 3 to 5 4u i,
unc#ec+ed? Primary arresters will 'enerally limit t#e )olta'es to 1?9 to
-?> 4u? T#ere is some ris+ t#at arresters will ,ail i, su(Aected to ,erroresonance )olta'es
,or a lon' time? In ,act, secondary arresters wit#
4rotecti)e le)els lower t#an t#e 4rimary%side arresters are ,re2uent
casualties o, ,erroresonance? !tility arresters are more ro(ust, and
t#ere o,ten is relati)ely little ener'y in)ol)ed? Howe)er, i, line crews
encounter a trans,ormer wit# arresters in ,erroresonance, t#ey s#ould
always deener'i@e t#e unit and allow t#e arresters to cool? An o)er#eated arrester could
,ail )iolently i, suddenly reconnected to a source
wit# si'ni,icant s#ort%circuit ca4acity?
/erroresonance occurs w#en t#e ca(le ca4acitance reac#es a critical
)alue su,,icient to resonate wit# t#e trans,ormer inductance Csee /i'?
5?11D? T#ere,ore, one strate'y to minimi@e t#e ris+ o, ,re2uent ,erroresonance 4ro(lems is
to limit t#e len't# o, ca(le runs? T#is is di,,icult to do
,or trans,ormers wit# delta 4rimary connections (ecause wit# t#e #i'#
ma'neti@in' reactance o, modern trans,ormers, ,erroresonance can
occur ,or ca(le runs o, less t#an 1>> ,t? T#e 'rounded wye%wye connection will 'enerally
tolerate a ,ew #undred ,eet o, ca(le wit#out e7ceedin'
1-6 4ercent )olta'e durin' sin'le%4#asin' situations? T#e allowa(le
len't# o, ca(le is also de4endent on t#e )olta'e le)el wit# t#e 'eneral
trend (ein' t#at t#e #i'#er t#e system )olta'e, t#e s#orter t#e ca(le?
Howe)er, modern trends in trans,ormer desi'ns wit# lower losses and
e7citin' currents are ma+in' it more di,,icult to com4letely a)oid ,erroresonance at all
4rimary distri(ution )olta'e le)els?
T#e location o, switc#in' w#en ener'i@in' or deener'i@in' a trans,ormer can 4lay a
critical role in reducin' t#e li+eli#ood o, ,erroresonance? Consider t#e two ca(le%
trans,ormer switc#in' se2uences in /i'?
5?3=? /i'ure 5?3=ade4icts switc#in' at t#e trans,ormer terminals a,ter
t#e under'round ca(le is ener'i@ed, i?e?, switc# 1 is closed ,irst, ,ollowed (y switc# R?
/erroresonance is less li+ely to occur since t#e
e2ui)alent ca4acitance seen ,rom an o4en 4#ase a,ter eac# 4#ase o,
switc# R closes is t#e trans,ormerFs internal ca4acitance and does not
in)ol)e t#e ca(le ca4acitance? /i'ure 5?3=(de4icts ener'i@ation o, t#e
trans,ormer remotely ,rom anot#er 4oint in t#e ca(le system? T#e
e2ui)alent ca4acitance seen ,rom switc# 1 is t#e ca(le ca4acitance, and
t#e li+eli#ood o, ,erroresonance is muc# 'reater? T#us, one o, t#e common rules to
4re)ent ,erroresonance durin' ca(le switc#in' is to switc#
t#e trans,ormer (y 4ullin' t#e el(ows at t#e 4rimary terminals? T#ere
is little internal ca4acitance, and t#e losses o, t#e trans,ormers are
usually su,,icient to 4re)ent resonance wit# t#is small ca4acitance?
T#is is still a 'ood 'eneral rule, alt#ou'# t#e reader s#ould (e aware
t#at some modern trans,ormers )iolate t#is rule? 1ow%loss trans,ormers, 4articularly t#ose
(uilt wit# an amor4#ous metal core, are 4rone
to ,erroresonance wit# t#eir internal ca4acitances?
5?9 Switc#in' Transient Pro(lems
wit# 1oads
T#is section descri(es some transient 4ro(lems related to loads and
load switc#in'?
18> C#a4ter /our
CaD
under'round ca(le
Switc# 1 Switc# R
C(D
under'round ca(le
Switc# 1 Switc# R
/i'ure 5?3= Switc#in' at t#e trans,ormer terminals CaD reduces t#e ris+ o, isolatin' t#e
trans,ormer on su,,icient ca4acitance to cause ,erroresonance as
o44osed to C(D switc#in' at some ot#er location u4line?
5?9?1 Nuisance tri44in' o, ASs
.ost adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es ty4ically use a )olta'e source in)erter
C&SID desi'n wit# a ca4acitor in t#e dc lin+? T#e controls are sensiti)e
to dc o)er)olta'es and may tri4 t#e dri)e at a le)el as low as 119 4ercent? Since transient
)olta'es due to utility ca4acitor switc#in' ty4ically e7ceed 13> 4ercent, t#e 4ro(a(ility o,
nuisance tri44in' o, t#e
dri)e is #i'#? One set o, ty4ical wa)e,orms ,or t#is 4#enomenon is
s#own in /i'? 5?5>?
T#e most e,,ecti)e way to eliminate nuisance tri44in' o, small dri)es
is to isolate t#em ,rom t#e 4ower system wit# ac line c#o+es? T#e additional series
inductance o, t#e c#o+e will reduce t#e transient )olta'e
ma'nitude t#at a44ears at t#e in4ut to t#e adAusta(le%s4eed dri)e?
eterminin' t#e 4recise inductor si@e re2uired ,or a 4articular a44lication C(ased on
utility ca4acitor si@e, trans,ormer si@e, etc?D re2uires a
,airly detailed transient simulation? A series c#o+e si@e o, 3 4ercent
(ased on t#e dri)e +&A ratin' is usually su,,icient?
5?9?- Transients ,rom load switc#in'
eener'i@in' inducti)e circuits wit# air%'a4 switc#es, suc# as relays
and contactors, can 'enerate (ursts o, #i'#%,re2uency im4ulses? /i'ure
5?51 s#ows an e7am4le? ANSIOIEEE C8-?51%1==1, Recommended
Practice ,or Sur'e &olta'es in 1ow%&olta'e AC Power Circuits,cites a
re4resentati)e 16%ms (urst com4osed o, im4ulses #a)in' 6%ns rise
5:>%& *us &olta'e C4#ase%to%4#aseD
33?3 6>?> 88?9 :3?3 1>>?> 118?9
V16>>
V1>>>
V6>>
>
6>>
1>>>
16>>
&olta'e C&D
Time CmsD
/i'ure 5?5> E,,ect o, ca4acitor switc#in' on adAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e ac current and dc
)olta'e?
times and 6>%ns durations? T#ere is )ery little ener'y in t#ese ty4es o,
transient due to t#e s#ort duration, (ut t#ey can inter,ere wit# t#e
o4eration o, electronic loads?
Suc# electrical ,ast transient CE/TD acti)ity, 4roducin' s4i+es u4 to 1
+&, is ,re2uently due to cyclin' motors, suc# as air conditioners and ele)ators? Transients
as #i'# as 3 +& can (e caused (y o4eration o, arc
welders and motor starters?
T#e duration o, eac# im4ulse is s#ort com4ared to t#e tra)el time o,
(uildin' wirin', t#us t#e 4ro4a'ation o, t#ese im4ulses t#rou'# t#e
18- C#a4ter /our
ac ri)e Current durin' Ca4acitor Switc#in'
33?3 6>?> 88?9 :3?3 1>>?> 118?9
V3>>
V->>
V1>>
>
1>>
->>
3>>
Time CmsD
Current CAD
dc 1in+ &olta'e durin' Ca4acitor Switc#in'
33?3 6>?> 88?9 :3?3 1>>?> 118?9
6>>
66>
8>>
86>
9>>
96>
Time CmsD
Current CAD
/i'ure 5?5> CContinuedD
wirin' can (e analy@ed wit# tra)elin' wa)e t#eory? T#e im4ulses attenuate )ery 2uic+ly
as t#ey 4ro4a'ate t#rou'# a (uildin'? T#ere,ore, in
most cases, t#e only 4rotection needed is electrical se4aration? P#ysical
se4aration is also re2uired (ecause t#e #i'# rate o, rise allows t#ese
transients to cou4le into near(y sensiti)e e2ui4ment?
E/T su44ression may (e re2uired wit# e7tremely sensiti)e e2ui4ment in close 4ro7imity
to a distur(in' load, suc# as a com4uter room?
Hi'#%,re2uency ,ilters and isolation trans,ormers can (e used to 4rotect a'ainst
conduction o, E/Ts on 4ower ca(les? S#ieldin' is re2uired
to 4re)ent cou4lin' into e2ui4ment and data lines?
5?9?3 Trans,ormer ener'i@in'
Ener'i@in' a trans,ormer 4roduces inrus# currents t#at are ric# in
#armonic com4onents ,or a 4eriod lastin' u4 to 1 s? I, t#e system #as a
4arallel resonance near one o, t#e #armonic ,re2uencies, a dynamic
o)er)olta'e condition results t#at can cause ,ailure o, arresters and
4ro(lems wit# sensiti)e e2ui4ment? T#is 4ro(lem can occur w#en lar'e
trans,ormers are ener'i@ed simultaneously wit# lar'e 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitor
(an+s in industrial ,acilities? T#e e2ui)alent circuit is
s#own in /i'? 5?5-? A dynamic o)er)olta'e wa)e,orm caused (y a t#ird#armonic
resonance in t#e circuit is s#own in /i'? 5?53? A,ter t#e
e74ected initial transient, t#e )olta'e a'ain swells to nearly 16> 4ercent ,or many cycles
until t#e losses and load dam4 out t#e oscillations?
T#is can 4lace se)ere stress on some arresters and #as (een +nown to
si'ni,icantly s#orten t#e li,e o, ca4acitors?
5>>&
>&
V5>>&
->> &Odi) &ERTICA1 1>-?5 sOdi) HORIN
1>>>&
>&
V1>>>&
6>>?> &Odi) &ERTICA1 6?> msOdi) HORIN
/i'ure 5?51 /ast transients caused (y deener'i@in' an inducti)e load?
T#is ,orm o, dynamic o)er)olta'e 4ro(lem can o,ten (e eliminated
sim4ly (y not ener'i@in' t#e ca4acitor and trans,ormer to'et#er? One
4lant sol)ed t#e 4ro(lem (y ener'i@in' t#e trans,ormer ,irst and not
ener'i@in' t#e ca4acitor until load was a(out to (e connected to t#e
trans,ormer?
5?: Com4uter Tools ,or Transients Analysis
T#e most widely used com4uter 4ro'rams ,or transients analysis o,
4ower systems are t#e Electroma'netic Transients Pro'ram, commonly +nown as E.TP,
and its deri)ati)es suc# as t#e Alternate
Transients Pro'ram CATPD? E.TP was ori'inally de)elo4ed (y
Hermann "? ommel at t#e *onne)ille Power Administration C*PAD in
t#e late 1=8>s
16
and #as (een continuously u4'raded since? One o, t#e
reasons t#is 4ro'ram is 4o4ular is its low cost due to some )ersions
(ein' in t#e 4u(lic domain? Some o, t#e simulations 4resented in t#is
185 C#a4ter /our
/i'ure 5?5- Ener'i@in' a ca4acitor and trans,ormer
simultaneously can lead to dynamic o)er)olta'es?
V-
V1
>
1
-
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>>
P#ase A
Time CmsD
&olta'e C& 4uD
/i'ure 5?53 ynamic o)er)olta'es durin' trans,ormer ener'i@in'?
(oo+ #a)e (een 4er,ormed wit# a commercial analysis tool +nown as
PSCAOE.TC, a 4ro'ram de)elo4ed (y t#e .anito(a H&C
Researc# Center? T#is 4ro'ram ,eatures a )ery so4#isticated 'ra4#ical
user inter,ace t#at ena(les t#e user to (e )ery 4roducti)e in t#is di,,icult analysis? Some
4ower system analysts use com4uter 4ro'rams
de)elo4ed more ,or t#e analysis o, electronic circuits, suc# as t#e well+nown SPICE
4ro'ram
18
and its deri)ati)es?
Alt#ou'# t#e 4ro'rams Aust discussed continue to (e used e7tensi)ely, t#ere are now
many ot#er ca4a(le 4ro'rams a)aila(le? "e will
not attem4t to list eac# one (ecause t#ere are so many and, also, at t#e
4resent rate o, so,tware de)elo4ment, any suc# list would soon (e outdated? T#e reader is
re,erred to t#e Internet since all )endors o, t#is
ty4e o, so,tware maintain we(sites?
Nearly all t#e tools ,or 4ower systems sol)e t#e 4ro(lem in t#e time
domain, re%creatin' t#e wa)e,orm 4oint (y 4oint? A ,ew 4ro'rams sol)e
in t#e ,re2uency domain and use t#e /ourier trans,orm to con)ert to
t#e time domain? !n,ortunately, t#is essentially restricts t#e addressa(le 4ro(lems to
linear circuits? Time%domain solution is re2uired to
model nonlinear elements suc# as sur'e arresters and trans,ormer
ma'neti@in' c#aracteristics? T#e 4enalty ,or t#is e7tra ca4a(ility is
lon'er solution times, w#ic# wit# modern com4uters (ecomes less o, a
4ro(lem eac# day?
It ta+es considera(ly more modelin' e74ertise to 4er,orm electroma'netic transients
studies t#an to 4er,orm more common 4ower system analyses suc# as o, t#e 4ower ,low
or o, a s#ort circuit? T#ere,ore,
t#is tas+ is usually rele'ated to a ,ew s4ecialists wit#in t#e utility or'ani@ation or to
consultants?
"#ile transients 4ro'rams ,or electronic circuit analysis may ,ormulate t#e 4ro(lem in
any num(er o, ways, 4ower systems analysts
almost uni,ormly ,a)or some ty4e o, nodal admittance ,ormulation? /or
one t#in', t#e system admittance matri7 is s4arse allowin' t#e use o,
)ery ,ast and e,,icient s4arsity tec#ni2ues ,or sol)in' lar'e 4ro(lems?
Also, t#e nodal admittance ,ormulation re,lects #ow most 4ower en'ineers )iew t#e
4ower system, wit# series and s#unt elements connected to (uses w#ere t#e )olta'e is
measured wit# res4ect to a sin'le
re,erence?
To o(tain conductances ,or elements descri(ed (y di,,erential e2uations, transients
4ro'rams discreti@e t#e e2uations wit# an a44ro4riate numerical inte'ration ,ormula? T#e
sim4le tra4e@oidal rule met#od
a44ears to (e t#e most commonly used, (ut t#ere are also a )ariety o,
Run'e%<utta and ot#er ,ormulations used? Nonlinearities are #andled
(y iterati)e solution met#ods? Some 4ro'rams include t#e nonlinearities in t#e 'eneral
,ormulation, w#ile ot#ers, suc# as t#ose t#at ,ollow
t#e E.TP met#odolo'y, se4arate t#e linear and nonlinear 4ortions o,
t#e circuit to ac#ie)e ,aster solutions? T#is im4airs t#e a(ility o, t#e
4ro'ram to sol)e some classes o, nonlinear 4ro(lems (ut is not usually
a si'ni,icant constraint ,or most 4ower system 4ro(lems?
5?= Re,erences
1?Electrical Transmission and istri(ution Re,erence *oo+,5t# ed?, "estin'#ouse
Electric Cor4oration, East Pitts(ur'#, Pa?, 1=85?
-?Electrical istri(ution%System Protection, 3d ed?, Coo4er Power Systems,
/ran+s)ille, "is?, 1==>?
3? <? *er'er, R? *? Anderson, H? <ronin'er, GParameters o, 1i'#tnin' /las#es, G
Electra,No? 51, Yuly 1=96, 44? -3V-9?
5? R? .orrison, "? H? 1ewis, 0roundin' and S#ieldin' in /acilities,Yo#n "iley ` Sons,
New ;or+, 1==>?
6? 0? 1? 0oedde, 1? Y? <oAo)ic, .? *? .ar@, Y? Y? "oodwort#, GSeries%0raded 0a44ed
Arrester Pro)ides Relia(le O)er)olta'e Protection in istri(ution Systems,H
Con,erence Record,->>1 IEEE Power En'ineerin' Society "inter .eetin', &ol? 3,
->>1, 44? 11--V11-9?
8? Randall A? Stans(erry, GProtectin' istri(ution Circuits: O)er#ead S#ield "ire )ersus
1i'#tnin' Sur'e Arresters,H Transmission ` istri(ution,A4ril 1==1, 44? 68,,?
9? IEEE Trans,ormers Committee, GSecondary C1ow%SideD Sur'es in istri(ution
Trans,ormers,H Proceedin's o, t#e 1==1 IEEE PES Transmission and istri(ution
Con,erence,allas, Se4tem(er 1==1, 44? ==:V1>>:?
:? C? "? Plummer, et al?, GReduction in istri(ution Trans,ormer /ailure Rates and
Nuisance Outa'es !sin' Im4ro)ed 1i'#tnin' Protection Conce4ts,H Proceedin's o,
t#e 1==5 IEEE PES Transmission and istri(ution Con,erence,C#ica'o, A4ril 1==5,
44? 511V518?
=? 0? 1? 0oedde, 1? A? <oAo)ic, Y? Y? "oodwort#, GSur'e Arrester C#aracteristics T#at
Pro)ide Relia(le O)er)olta'e Protection in istri(ution and 1ow%&olta'e Systems,H
Con,erence Record,->>> IEEE Power En'ineerin' Society Summer .eetin', &ol? 5,
->>>, 44? -396V-3:>?
1>? P? *ar+er, R? .ancao, ? <)altine, ? Parris#, GC#aracteristics o, 1i'#tnin' Sur'es
.easured at .etal O7ide istri(ution Arresters,H IEEE Transactions on Power
eli)ery,Octo(er 1==3, 44? 3>1V31>?
11? R? H? Ho4+inson, G*etter Sur'e Protection E7tends !R Ca(le 1i,e,H IEEE
Transactions on Power A44aratus and Systems,&ol? PAS%1>3, 1=:5, 44? -:-9V-:35?
1-? 0? 1? 0oedde, R? C u'an, 1? ? Rowe, G/ull Scale 1i'#tnin' Sur'e Tests o,
istri(ution Trans,ormers and Secondary Systems,H Proceedin's o, t#e 1==1 IEEE
PES Transmission and istri(ution Con,erence, allas, Se4tem(er 1==1, 44?
8=1V8=9?
13? S? S? <ers#aw, Yr?, GSur'e Protection ,or Hi'# &olta'e !nder'round istri(ution
Circuits,HCon,erence Record, IEEE Con,erence on !nder'round istri(ution,
etroit, Se4tem(er 1=91, 44? 39>V3:5?
15? .? *? .ar@, T? E? Royster, C? .? "a#l'ren, GA !tilityFs A44roac# to t#e A44lication
o, Scout Arresters ,or O)er)olta'e Protection o, !nder'round istri(ution Circuits,H
1==5 IEEE Transmission and istri(ution Con,erence Record,C#ica'o, A4ril 1==5,
44? 519V5-6?
16? H? "? ommel, Gi'ital Com4uter Solution o, Electroma'netic Transients in Sin'le
and .ulti4#ase Networ+s,H IEEE Transactions on Power A44aratus and Systems,
&ol? PAS%::, A4ril 1=8=, 44? 3::V3==?
18? 1? "? Na'el, GSPICE-: A Com4uter Pro'ram to Simulate Semiconductor Circuits,H
P#? ? t#esis, !ni)ersity o, Cali,ornia, *er+eley, Electronics Researc# 1a(oratory,
No? ER1%.6->, .ay 1=96?
188 C#a4ter /our
189
/undamentals o, Harmonics
A 'ood assum4tion ,or most utilities in t#e !nited States is t#at t#e
sine%wa)e )olta'e 'enerated in central 4ower stations is )ery 'ood? In
most areas, t#e )olta'e ,ound on transmission systems ty4ically #as
muc# less t#an 1?> 4ercent distortion? Howe)er, t#e distortion
increases closer to t#e load? At some loads, t#e current wa)e,orm
(arely resem(les a sine wa)e? Electronic 4ower con)erters can c#o4
t#e current into seemin'ly ar(itrary wa)e,orms?
"#ile t#ere are a ,ew cases w#ere t#e distortion is random, most distortion is 4eriodic, or
an inte'er multi4le o, t#e 4ower system ,undamental ,re2uency? T#at is, t#e current
wa)e,orm is nearly t#e same
cycle a,ter cycle, c#an'in' )ery slowly, i, at all? T#is #as 'i)en rise to
t#e wides4read use o, t#e term #armonicsto descri(e distortion o, t#e
wa)e,orm? T#is term must (e care,ully 2uali,ied to ma+e sense? T#is
c#a4ter and C#a4? 8 remo)e some o, t#e mystery o, #armonics in 4ower
systems?
"#en electronic 4ower con)erters ,irst (ecame common4lace in t#e
late 1=9>s, many utility en'ineers (ecame 2uite concerned a(out t#e
a(ility o, t#e 4ower system to accommodate t#e #armonic distortion?
.any dire 4redictions were made a(out t#e ,ate o, 4ower systems i,
t#ese de)ices were 4ermitted to e7ist? "#ile some o, t#ese concerns
were 4ro(a(ly o)erstated, t#e ,ield o, 4ower 2uality analysis owes a
'reat de(t o, 'ratitude to t#ese 4eo4le (ecause t#eir concern o)er t#is
GnewH 4ro(lem o, #armonics s4ar+ed t#e researc# t#at #as e)entually
led to muc# o, t#e +nowled'e a(out all as4ects o, 4ower 2uality?
To some, #armonic distortion is still t#e most si'ni,icant 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem? It is not
#ard to understand #ow an en'ineer ,aced wit# a
di,,icult #armonics 4ro(lem can come to #old t#at o4inion? Harmonics
4ro(lems counter many o, t#e con)entional rules o, 4ower system
C#a4ter
6
desi'n and o4eration t#at consider only t#e ,undamental ,re2uency?
T#ere,ore, t#e en'ineer is ,aced wit# un,amiliar 4#enomena t#at
re2uire un,amiliar tools to analy@e and un,amiliar e2ui4ment to sol)e?
Alt#ou'# #armonic 4ro(lems can (e di,,icult, t#ey are not actually )ery
numerous on utility systems? Only a ,ew 4ercent o, utility distri(ution
,eeders in t#e !nited States #a)e a su,,iciently se)ere #armonics 4ro(lem to re2uire
attention?
In contrast, )olta'e sa's and interru4tions are nearly uni)ersal to
e)ery ,eeder and re4resent t#e most numerous and si'ni,icant 4ower
2uality de)iations? T#e end%user sector su,,ers more ,rom #armonic
4ro(lems t#an does t#e utility sector? Industrial users wit# adAusta(les4eed dri)es, arc
,urnaces, induction ,urnaces, and t#e li+e are muc#
more susce4ti(le to 4ro(lems stemmin' ,rom #armonic distortion?
Harmonic distortion is not a new 4#enomenon on 4ower systems?
Concern o)er distortion #as e((ed and ,lowed a num(er o, times durin' t#e #istory o, ac
electric 4ower systems? Scannin' t#e tec#nical literature o, t#e 1=3>s and 1=5>s, one will
notice many articles on t#e
su(Aect? At t#at time t#e 4rimary sources were t#e trans,ormers and
t#e 4rimary 4ro(lem was inducti)e inter,erence wit# o4en%wire tele4#one systems? T#e
,orerunners o, modern arc li'#tin' were (ein'
introduced and were causin' 2uite a stir (ecause o, t#eir #armonic contentPnot unli+e
t#e stir caused (y electronic 4ower con)erters in more
recent times?
/ortunately, i, t#e system is 4ro4erly si@ed to #andle t#e 4ower
demands o, t#e load, t#ere is a low 4ro(a(ility t#at #armonics will
cause a 4ro(lem wit# t#e 4ower system, alt#ou'# t#ey may cause 4ro(lems wit#
telecommunications? T#e 4ower system 4ro(lems arise most
,re2uently w#en t#e ca4acitance in t#e system results in resonance at
a critical #armonic ,re2uency t#at dramatically increases t#e distortion a(o)e normal
amounts? "#ile t#ese 4ro(lems occur on utility systems, t#e most se)ere cases are
usually ,ound in industrial 4ower
systems (ecause o, t#e #i'#er de'ree o, resonance ac#ie)ed?
6?1 Harmonic istortion
Harmonic distortion is caused (y nonlinear de)ices in t#e 4ower system? A nonlinear
de)ice is one in w#ic# t#e current is not 4ro4ortional
to t#e a44lied )olta'e? /i'ure 6?1 illustrates t#is conce4t (y t#e case o,
a sinusoidal )olta'e a44lied to a sim4le nonlinear resistor in w#ic# t#e
)olta'e and current )ary accordin' to t#e cur)e s#own? "#ile t#e
a44lied )olta'e is 4er,ectly sinusoidal, t#e resultin' current is distorted? Increasin' t#e
)olta'e (y a ,ew 4ercent may cause t#e current
to dou(le and ta+e on a di,,erent wa)es#a4e? T#is is t#e source o, most
#armonic distortion in a 4ower system?
18: C#a4ter /i)e
/i'ure 6?- illustrates t#at any 4eriodic, distorted wa)e,orm can (e
e74ressed as a sum o, sinusoids? "#en a wa)e,orm is identical ,rom one
cycle to t#e ne7t, it can (e re4resented as a sum o, 4ure sine wa)es in
w#ic# t#e ,re2uency o, eac# sinusoid is an inte'er multi4le o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency
o, t#e distorted wa)e? T#is multi4le is called a #armonico, t#e ,undamental, #ence t#e
name o, t#is su(Aect matter? T#e
sum o, sinusoids is re,erred to as a /ourier series,named a,ter t#e 'reat
mat#ematician w#o disco)ered t#e conce4t?
*ecause o, t#e a(o)e 4ro4erty, t#e /ourier series conce4t is uni)ersally a44lied in
analy@in' #armonic 4ro(lems? T#e system can now (e
analy@ed se4arately at eac# #armonic? In addition, ,indin' t#e system
res4onse o, a sinusoid o, eac# #armonic indi)idually is muc# more
strai'#t,orward com4ared to t#at wit# t#e entire distorted wa)e,orms?
T#e out4uts at eac# ,re2uency are t#en com(ined to ,orm a new /ourier
series, ,rom w#ic# t#e out4ut wa)e,orm may (e com4uted, i, desired?
O,ten, only t#e ma'nitudes o, t#e #armonics are o, interest?
"#en (ot# t#e 4ositi)e and ne'ati)e #al, cycles o, a wa)e,orm #a)e
identical s#a4es, t#e /ourier series contains only odd#armonics? T#is
o,,ers a ,urt#er sim4li,ication ,or most 4ower system studies (ecause
most common #armonic%4roducin' de)ices loo+ t#e same to (ot# 4olarities? In ,act, t#e
4resence o, e)en #armonics is o,ten a clue t#at t#ere is
somet#in' wron'Peit#er wit# t#e load e2ui4ment or wit# t#e transducer
used to ma+e t#e measurement? T#ere are nota(le e7ce4tions to t#is suc#
as #al,%wa)e recti,iers and arc ,urnaces w#en t#e arc is random?
/undamentals o, Harmonics 18=
&CtD
ICtD
&
I
Nonlinear Resistor
/i'ure 6?1 Current distortion caused (y nonlinear resistance?
f
g
g
g
g
g
g
f
g
8> H@
C# ] 1D
3>> H@
C# ] 6D
5-> H@
C# ] 9D
65> H@
C# ] =D
88> H@
C# ] 11D
9:> H@
C# ] 13D
1:> H@
C# ] 3D
/i'ure 6?- /ourier series re4resentation o, a distorted wa)e,orm?
19> C#a4ter /i)e
!sually, t#e #i'#er%order #armonics Ca(o)e t#e ran'e o, t#e -6t# to
6>t#, de4endin' on t#e systemD are ne'li'i(le ,or 4ower system
analysis? "#ile t#ey may cause inter,erence wit# low%4ower electronic de)ices, t#ey are
usually not dama'in' to t#e 4ower system? It
is also di,,icult to collect su,,iciently accurate data to model 4ower
systems at t#ese ,re2uencies? A common e7ce4tion to t#is occurs w#en
t#ere are system resonances in t#e ran'e o, ,re2uencies? T#ese resonances can (e e7cited
(y notc#in' or switc#in' transients in electronic 4ower con)erters? T#is causes )olta'e
wa)e,orms wit# multi4le
@ero crossin's w#ic# disru4t timin' circuits? T#ese resonances 'enerally occur on
systems wit# under'round ca(le (ut no 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors?
I, t#e 4ower system is de4icted as series and s#unt elements, as is
t#e con)entional 4ractice, t#e )ast maAority o, t#e nonlinearities in t#e
system are ,ound in s#untelements Ci?e?, loadsD? T#e series im4edance
o, t#e 4ower deli)ery system Ci?e?, t#e s#ort%circuit im4edance (etween
t#e source and t#e loadD is remar+a(ly linear? In trans,ormers, also, t#e
source o, #armonics is t#e s#unt (ranc# Cma'neti@in' im4edanceD o,
t#e common GTH modelJ t#e lea+a'e im4edance is linear? T#us, t#e main
sources o, #armonic distortion will ultimately (e end%user loads? T#is
is not to say t#at all end users w#o e74erience #armonic distortion will
t#emsel)es #a)e si'ni,icant sources o, #armonics, (ut t#at t#e #ar/undamentals o,
Harmonics
/undamentals o, Harmonics 191
monic distortion 'enerally ori'inates wit# some end%userFs load or com(ination o, loads?
6?- &olta'e )ersus Current istortion
T#e word #armonicsis o,ten used (y itsel, wit#out ,urt#er 2uali,ication? /or e7am4le, it is
common to #ear t#at an adAusta(le%s4eed dri)e
or an induction ,urnace canFt o4erate 4ro4erly (ecause o, #armonics?
"#at does t#at mean$ 0enerally, it could mean one o, t#e ,ollowin'
t#ree t#in's:
1? T#e #armonic )olta'es are too 'reat Ct#e )olta'e too distortedD ,or
t#e control to 4ro4erly determine ,irin' an'les?
-? T#e #armonic currents are too 'reat ,or t#e ca4acity o, some de)ice
in t#e 4ower su44ly system suc# as a trans,ormer, and t#e mac#ine
must (e o4erated at a lower t#an rated 4ower?
3? T#e #armonic )olta'es are too 'reat (ecause t#e #armonic currents
4roduced (y t#e de)ice are too 'reat ,or t#e 'i)en system condition?
As su''ested (y t#is list, t#ere are se4arate causes and e,,ects ,or )olta'es and currents as
well as some relations#i4 (etween t#em? T#us,
t#e term #armonics (y itsel, is inade2uate to de,initi)ely descri(e a
4ro(lem?
Nonlinear loads a44ear to (e sources o, #armonic current in s#unt
wit# and inAectin' #armonic currents intot#e 4ower system? /or nearly
all analyses, it is su,,icient to treat t#ese #armonic%4roducin' loads
sim4ly as current sources? T#ere are e7ce4tions to t#is as will (e
descri(ed later?
As /i'? 6?3 s#ows, )olta'e distortion is t#e result o, distorted currents 4assin' t#rou'# t#e
linear, series im4edance o, t#e 4ower deli)ery system, alt#ou'#, assumin' t#at t#e source
(us is ultimately a
4ure sinusoid, t#ere is a nonlinear load t#at draws a distorted current?
T#e #armonic currents 4assin' t#rou'# t#e im4edance o, t#e system
Pure
Sinusoid istorted 1oad
Current
istorted &olta'e
g V
C&olta'e ro4D
/i'ure 6?3 Harmonic currents ,lowin' t#rou'# t#e system im4edance result in
#armonic )olta'es at t#e load?
cause a )olta'e dro4 ,or eac# #armonic? T#is results in )olta'e #armonics a44earin' at
t#e load (us? T#e amount o, )olta'e distortion
de4ends on t#e im4edance and t#e current? Assumin' t#e load (us distortion stays wit#in
reasona(le limits Ce?'?, less t#an 6 4ercentD, t#e
amount o, #armonic current 4roduced (y t#e load is 'enerally constant?
"#ile t#e load current #armonics ultimately cause t#e )olta'e distortion, it s#ould (e
noted t#at load #as no control o)er t#e )olta'e distortion? T#e same load 4ut in two
di,,erent locations on t#e 4ower
system will result in two di,,erent )olta'e distortion )alues?
Reco'nition o, t#is ,act is t#e (asis ,or t#e di)ision o, res4onsi(ilities
,or #armonic control t#at are ,ound in standards suc# as IEEE
Standard 61=%1==-, Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems:
1? T#e control o)er t#e amount o, #armonic current inAected into t#e
system ta+es 4lace at t#e end%use a44lication?
-? Assumin' t#e #armonic current inAection is wit#in reasona(le limits, t#e control o)er
t#e )olta'e distortion is e7ercised (y t#e entity
#a)in' control o)er t#e system im4edance, w#ic# is o,ten t#e utility?
One must (e care,ul w#en descri(in' #armonic 4#enomena to understand t#at t#ere are
distinct di,,erences (etween t#e causes and e,,ects
o, #armonic )olta'es and currents? T#e use o, t#e term #armonics
s#ould (e 2uali,ied accordin'ly? *y 4o4ular con)ention in t#e 4ower
industry, t#e maAority o, times w#en t#e term is used (y itsel, to re,er
to t#e load a44aratus, t#e s4ea+er is re,errin' to t#e #armonic currents? "#en re,errin' to
t#e utility system, t#e )olta'es are 'enerally
t#e su(Aect? To (e sa,e, ma+e a #a(it o, as+in' ,or clari,ication?
6?3 Harmonics )ersus Transients
Harmonic distortion is (lamed ,or many 4ower 2uality distur(ances
t#at are actually transients? A measurement o, t#e e)ent may s#ow a
distorted wa)e,orm wit# o()ious #i'#%,re2uency com4onents?
Alt#ou'# transient distur(ances contain #i'#%,re2uency com4onents,
transients and #armonics are distinctly di,,erent 4#enomena and are
analy@ed di,,erently? Transient wa)e,orms e7#i(it t#e #i'# ,re2uencies
only (rie,ly a,ter t#ere #as (een an a(ru4t c#an'e in t#e 4ower system?
T#e ,re2uencies are not necessarily #armonicsJ t#ey are t#e natural
,re2uencies o, t#e system at t#e time o, t#e switc#in' o4eration? T#ese
,re2uencies #a)e no relation to t#e system ,undamental ,re2uency?
Harmonics, (y de,inition, occur in t#e steady state and are inte'er
multi4les o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency? T#e wa)e,orm distortion t#at
4roduces t#e #armonics is 4resent continually, or at least ,or se)eral
19- C#a4ter /i)e
seconds? Transients are usually dissi4ated wit#in a ,ew cycles? Transients are associated
wit# c#an'es in t#e system suc# as switc#in' o, a
ca4acitor (an+? Harmonics are associated wit# t#e continuin' o4eration o, a load?
One case in w#ic# t#e distinction is (lurred is trans,ormer ener'i@ation? T#is is a transient
e)ent (ut can 4roduce considera(le wa)e,orm
distortion ,or many seconds and #as (een +nown to e7cite system resonances?
6?5 Power System Quantities under
Nonsinusoidal Conditions
Traditional 4ower system 2uantities suc# as rms, 4ower Creacti)e,
acti)e, a44arentD, 4ower ,actor, and 4#ase se2uences are de,ined ,or t#e
,undamental ,re2uency conte7t in a 4ure sinusoidal condition? In t#e
4resence o, #armonic distortion t#e 4ower system no lon'er o4erates in
a sinusoidal condition, and un,ortunately many o, t#e sim4li,ications
4ower en'ineers use ,or t#e ,undamental ,re2uency analysis do not
a44ly?
6?5?1 Acti)e, reacti)e, and a44arent 4ower
T#ere are t#ree standard 2uantities associated wit# 4ower:
T A44arent 4ower SK)oltam4ereC&ADL? T#e 4roduct o, t#e rms )olta'e
and current?
T Acti)e 4ower PKwattC"DL? T#e a)era'e rate o, deli)ery o, ener'y?
T Reacti)e 4ower QK)oltam4ere%reacti)eL C)arDL? T#e 4ortion o, t#e
a44arent 4ower t#at is out o, 4#ase, or in 2uadrature, wit# t#e acti)e
4ower?
T#e a44arent 4ower Sa44lies to (ot# sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal
conditions? T#e a44arent 4ower can (e written as ,ollows:
S &rms Irms C6?1D
w#ere&rms andIrms are t#e rms )alues o, t#e )olta'e and current? In a
sinusoidal condition (ot# t#e )olta'e and current wa)e,orms contain
only t#e ,undamental ,re2uency com4onentJ t#us t#e rms )alues can (e
e74ressed sim4ly as
&rms &1 and Irms I1 C6?-D
1
-
1
-
w#ere&1 andI1 are t#e am4litude o, )olta'e and current wa)e,orms,
res4ecti)ely? T#e su(scri4t G1H denotes 2uantities in t#e ,undamental
,re2uency? In a nonsinusoidal condition a #armonically distorted wa)e,orm is made u4 o,
sinusoids o, #armonic ,re2uencies wit# di,,erent
am4litudes as s#own in /i'? 6?-? T#e rms )alues o, t#e wa)e,orms are
com4uted as t#e s2uare root o, t#e sum o, rms s2uares o, all indi)idual
com4onents, i?e?,
&rms
#ma7
# 1
&#
-
&1
- &-
- &3
- h& -
#ma7 C6?3D
Irms
#ma7
# 1
I#
-
I1
-I -
-I3 -h I
-
#m a7 C6?5D
w#ere&#andI#are t#e am4litude o, a wa)e,orm at t#e #armonic com4onent#?In t#e
sinusoidal condition, #armonic com4onents o, &#and
I#are all @ero, and only &1andI1remain? E2uations C6?3D and C6?5D sim4li,y to E2? C6?-D?
T#e acti)e 4ower Pis also commonly re,erred to as t#e a)era'e
4ower, real 4ower, or true 4ower? It re4resents use,ul 4ower e74ended
(y loads to 4er,orm real wor+, i?e?, to con)ert electric ener'y to ot#er
,orms o, ener'y? Real wor+ 4er,ormed (y an incandescent li'#t (ul( is
to con)ert electric ener'y into li'#t and #eat? In electric 4ower, real
wor+ is 4er,ormed ,or t#e 4ortion o, t#e current t#at is in 4#ase wit#
t#e )olta'e? No real wor+ will result ,rom t#e 4ortion w#ere t#e current
is not in 4#ase wit# t#e )olta'e? T#e acti)e 4ower is t#e rate at w#ic#
ener'y is e74ended, dissi4ated, or consumed (y t#e load and is measured in units o,
watts? Pcan (e com4uted (y a)era'in' t#e 4roduct o,
t#e instantaneous )olta'e and current, i?e?,
P
T
>
)CtDiCtDdt C6?6D
E2uation C6?6D is )alid ,or (ot# sinusoidal and nonsinusoidal conditions? /or t#e
sinusoidal condition, Presol)es to t#e ,amiliar ,orm,
P cos1 &1rmsI1rmscos1 Scos1 C6?8D
w#ere1is t#e 4#ase an'le (etween )olta'e and current at t#e ,undamental ,re2uency?
E2uation C6?8D indicates t#at t#e a)era'e acti)e
&1I1
-
1
T
1
-
1
-
1
-
1
-
195 C#a4ter /i)e
#
#
4ower is a ,unction only o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency 2uantities? In
t#e nonsinusoidal case, t#e com4utation o, t#e acti)e 4ower must
include contri(utions ,rom all #armonic com4onentsJ t#us it is t#e sum
o, acti)e 4ower at eac# #armonic? /urt#ermore, (ecause t#e )olta'e
distortion is 'enerally )ery low on 4ower systems Cless t#an 6 4ercentD,
E2? C6?8D is a 'ood a44ro7imation re'ardless o, #ow distorted t#e current is? T#is
a44ro7imation cannot (e a44lied w#en com4utin' t#e
a44arent and reacti)e 4ower? T#ese two 2uantities are 'reatly in,luenced (y t#e
distortion? T#e a44arent 4ower Sis a measure o, t#e
4otential im4act o, t#e load on t#e t#ermal ca4a(ility o, t#e system? It
is 4ro4ortional to t#e rms o, t#e distorted current, and its com4utation
is strai'#t,orward, alt#ou'# sli'#tly more com4licated t#an t#e sinusoidal case? Also,
many current 4ro(es can now directly re4ort t#e true
rms )alue o, a distorted wa)e,orm?
T#e reacti)e 4ower is a ty4e o, 4ower t#at does no real wor+ and is
'enerally associated wit# reacti)e elements Cinductors and ca4acitorsD?
/or e7am4le, t#e inductance o, a load suc# as a motor causes t#e load
current to la' (e#ind t#e )olta'e? Power a44earin' across t#e inductance slos#es (ac+ and
,ort# (etween t#e inductance itsel, and t#e
4ower system source, 4roducin' no net wor+? /or t#is reason it is called
ima'inary or reacti)e 4ower since no 4ower is dissi4ated or e74ended?
It is e74ressed in units o, )ars? In t#e sinusoidal case, t#e reacti)e
4ower is sim4ly de,ined as
Q Ssin1 sin1 &1rmsI1rmssin1 C6?9D
w#ic# is t#e 4ortion o, 4ower in 2uadrature wit# t#e acti)e 4ower
s#own in E2? C6?8D? /i'ure 6?5 summari@es t#e relations#i4 (etween P,
Q,andSin sinusoidal condition?
T#ere is some disa'reement amon' #armonics analysts on #ow to
de,ineQin t#e 4resence o, #armonic distortion? I, it were not ,or t#e
,act t#at many utilities measure Qand com4ute demand (illin' ,rom
t#e 4ower ,actor com4uted (y Q,it mi'#t (e a moot 4oint? It is more
im4ortant to determine PandSJ Pde,ines #ow muc# acti)e 4ower is
(ein' consumed, w#ile Sde,ines t#e ca4acity o, t#e 4ower system
re2uired to deli)er P? Qis not actually )ery use,ul (y itsel,? Howe)er,
Q1, t#e traditional reacti)e 4ower com4onent at ,undamental ,re2uency, may (e used to
si@e s#unt ca4acitors?
T#e reacti)e 4ower w#en distortion is 4resent #as anot#er interestin' 4eculiarity? In ,act,
it may not (e a44ro4riate to call it reacti)e
4ower?T#e conce4t o, )ar ,low in t#e 4ower system is dee4ly in'rained
in t#e minds o, most 4ower en'ineers? "#at many do not reali@e is
t#at t#is conce4t is )alid only in t#e sinusoidal steady state? "#en dis&1I1
-
tortion is 4resent, t#e com4onent o, St#at remains a,ter Pis ta+en out
is not conser)edPt#at is, it does not sum to @ero at a node? Power
2uantities are 4resumed to ,low around t#e system in a conser)ati)e
manner?
T#is does not im4ly t#at Pis not conser)ed or t#at current is not
conser)ed (ecause t#e conser)ation o, ener'y and <irc#o,, Fs current
laws are still a44lica(le ,or any wa)e,orm? T#e reacti)e com4onents
actually sum in 2uadrature Cs2uare root o, t#e sum o, t#e s2uaresD?
T#is #as 4rom4ted some analysts to 4ro4ose t#at Q(e used to denote
t#e reacti)e com4onents t#at are conser)ed and introduce a new 2uantity ,or t#e
com4onents t#at are not? .any call t#is 2uantity ,,ordistortion 4ower or, sim4ly,
distortion )oltam4eres? It #as units o,
)oltam4eres, (ut it may not (e strictly a44ro4riate to re,er to t#is
2uantity as 4ower,(ecause it does not ,low t#rou'# t#e system as
4ower is assumed to do? In t#is conce4t, Qconsists o, t#e sum o, t#e
traditional reacti)e 4ower )alues at eac# ,re2uency? re4resents all
cross 4roducts o, )olta'e and current at di,,erent ,re2uencies, w#ic#
yield no a)era'e 4ower? P, Q, ,andSare related as ,ollows, usin' t#e
de,initions ,or SandP4re)iously 'i)en in E2s? C6?1D and C6?6D as a
startin' 4oint:
S P
-
Q -
-
Q
+
&+I+sin+
C6?:D
T#ere,ore,can (e determined a,ter S, P,andQ(y
S
-P -Q
- C6?=D
Some 4re,er to use a t#ree%dimensional )ector c#art to demonstrate t#e
relations#i4s o, t#e com4onents as s#own in /i'? 6?6? PandQcon%198 C#a4ter /i)e
S
P
Q
/i'ure 6?5 Relations#i4 (etween
P, Q,andSin sinusoidal condition?
tri(ute t#e traditional sinusoidal com4onents to S,w#ilere4resents
t#e additional contri(ution to t#e a44arent 4ower (y t#e #armonics?
6?5?- Power ,actor: dis4lacement and true
Power ,actor CP/D is a ratio o, use,ul 4ower to 4er,orm real wor+ Cacti)e
4owerD to t#e 4ower su44lied (y a utility Ca44arent 4owerD, i?e?,
P/ C6?1>D
In ot#er words, t#e 4ower ,actor ratio measures t#e 4ercenta'e o, 4ower
e74ended ,or its intended use? Power ,actor ran'es ,rom @ero to unity? A
load wit# a 4ower ,actor o, >?= la''in' denotes t#at t#e load can e,,ecti)ely
e74end => 4ercent o, t#e a44arent 4ower su44lied C)oltam4eresD and con)ert it to
4er,orm use,ul wor+ CwattsD? T#e term la''in'denotes t#at t#e
,undamental current la's (e#ind t#e ,undamental )olta'e (y -6?:5i?
In t#e sinusoidal case t#ere is only one 4#ase an'le (etween t#e )olta'e and t#e current
Csince only t#e ,undamental ,re2uency is 4resentJ
t#e 4ower ,actor can (e com4uted as t#e cosine o, t#e 4#ase an'le and
is commonly re,erred as t#e dis4lacement 4ower ,actor:
P/ cos C6?11D
In t#e nonsinusoidal case t#e 4ower ,actor cannot (e de,ined as t#e
cosine o, t#e 4#ase an'le as in E2? C6?11D? T#e 4ower ,actor t#at ta+es into
account t#e contri(ution ,rom all acti)e 4ower, includin' (ot# ,undamental and #armonic
,re2uencies, is +nown as t#e true 4ower ,actor?T#e
true 4ower ,actor is sim4ly t#e ratio o, total acti)e 4ower ,or all ,re2uencies to t#e
a44arent 4ower deli)ered (y t#e utility as s#own in E2? C6?1>D?
Power 2uality monitorin' instruments now commonly re4ort (ot#
dis4lacement and true 4ower ,actors? .any de)ices suc# as switc#P
S
P
S
Q
P
S
/i'ure 6?6 Relations#i4 o, com4onents o, t#e a44arent 4ower?
mode 4ower su44lies and P". adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es #a)e a nearunity dis4lacement
4ower ,actor, (ut t#e true 4ower ,actor may (e >?6
to >?8? An ac%side ca4acitor will do little to im4ro)e t#e true 4ower ,actor in t#is case
(ecause Q1is @ero? In ,act, i, it results in resonance, t#e
distortion may increase, causin' t#e 4ower ,actor to de'rade? T#e true
4ower ,actor indicates #ow lar'e t#e 4ower deli)ery system must (e
(uilt to su44ly a 'i)en load? In t#is e7am4le, usin' only t#e dis4lacement 4ower ,actor
would 'i)e a ,alse sense o, security t#at all is well?
T#e (ottom line is t#at distortion results in additional current com4onents ,lowin' in t#e
system t#at do not yield any net ener'y e7ce4t
t#at t#ey cause losses in t#e 4ower system elements t#ey 4ass t#rou'#?
T#is re2uires t#e system to (e (uilt to a sli'#tly lar'er ca4acity to
deli)er t#e 4ower to t#e load t#an i, no distortion were 4resent?
6?5?3 Harmonic 4#ase se2uences
Power en'ineers #a)e traditionally used symmetrical com4onents to
#el4 descri(e t#ree%4#ase system (e#a)ior? T#e t#ree%4#ase system is
trans,ormed into t#ree sin'le%4#ase systems t#at are muc# sim4ler to
analy@e? T#e met#od o, symmetrical com4onents can (e em4loyed ,or
analysis o, t#e systemFs res4onse to #armonic currents 4ro)ided care is
ta+en not to )iolate t#e ,undamental assum4tions o, t#e met#od?
T#e met#od allows any un(alanced set o, 4#ase currents Cor )olta'esD to (e trans,ormed
into t#ree (alanced sets? T#e 4ositi)e%se2uence
set contains t#ree sinusoids dis4laced 1->i ,rom eac# ot#er, wit# t#e
normal A%*%C 4#ase rotation Ce?'?, >i, 1->i, 1->iD? T#e sinusoids o,
t#e ne'ati)e%se2uenceset are also dis4laced 1->i, (ut #a)e o44osite
4#ase rotation CA%C%*, e?'?, >i, 1->i, 1->iD? T#e sinusoids o, t#e @ero
se2uenceare in 4#ase wit# eac# ot#er Ce?'?, >i, >i, >iD?
In a 4er,ect (alanced t#ree%4#ase system, t#e #armonic 4#ase
se2uence can (e determined (y multi4lyin' t#e #armonic num(er #wit#
t#e normal 4ositi)e%se2uence 4#ase rotation? /or e7am4le, ,or t#e second
#armonic,# -, we 'et - C>,1->i, 1->iD or C>i, 1->i, 1->iD, w#ic#
is t#e ne'ati)e se2uence? /or t#e t#ird #armonic, # 3, we 'et 3 C>i,
1->i, 1->iD or C>i, >i, >iD, w#ic# is t#e @ero se2uence? P#ase se2uences
,or all ot#er #armonic orders can (e determined in t#e same ,as#ion?
Since a distorted wa)e,orm in 4ower systems contains only odd%#armonic
com4onents Csee Sec? 6?1D, only odd%#armonic 4#ase se2uence rotations
are summari@ed #ere:
T Harmonics o, order # 1, 9, 13,h are 'enerally 4ositi)e se2uence?
T Harmonics o, order # 6, 11, 19,h are 'enerally ne'ati)e se2uence?
T Tri4lens C# 3, =, 16,hD are 'enerally @ero se2uence?
19: C#a4ter /i)e
Im4acts o, se2uence #armonics on )arious 4ower system com4onents
are detailed in Sec? 6?1>?
6?5?5 Tri4len #armonics
As 4re)iously mentioned, tri4len #armonics are t#e odd multi4les o,
t#e t#ird #armonic C# 3, =, 16, -1,hD? T#ey deser)e s4ecial consideration (ecause t#e
system res4onse is o,ten considera(ly di,,erent ,or
tri4lens t#an ,or t#e rest o, t#e #armonics? Tri4lens (ecome an im4ortant issue ,or
'rounded%wye systems wit# current ,lowin' on t#e neutral? Two ty4ical 4ro(lems are
o)erloadin' t#e neutral and tele4#one
inter,erence? One also #ears occasionally o, de)ices t#at miso4erate
(ecause t#e line%to%neutral )olta'e is (adly distorted (y t#e tri4len
#armonic )olta'e dro4 in t#e neutral conductor?
/or t#e system wit# 4er,ectly (alanced sin'le%4#ase loads illustrated
in /i'? 6?8, an assum4tion is made t#at ,undamental and t#ird%#armonic com4onents are
4resent? Summin' t#e currents at node N,t#e
,undamental current com4onents in t#e neutral are ,ound to (e @ero,
(ut t#e t#ird%#armonic com4onents are 3 times t#ose o, t#e 4#ase currents (ecause t#ey
naturally coincide in 4#ase and time?
Trans,ormer windin' connections #a)e a si'ni,icant im4act on t#e
,low o, tri4len #armonic currents ,rom sin'le%4#ase nonlinear loads?
Two cases are s#own in /i'? 6?9? In t#e wye%delta trans,ormer Cto4D, t#e
tri4len #armonic currents are s#own enterin' t#e wye side? Since t#ey
are in 4#ase, t#ey add in t#e neutral? T#e delta windin' 4ro)ides
am4ere%turn (alance so t#at t#ey can ,low, (ut t#ey remain tra44ed in
t#e delta and do not s#ow u4 in t#e line currents on t#e delta side?
"#en t#e currents are (alanced, t#e tri4len #armonic currents (e#a)e
e7actly as @ero%se2uence currents, w#ic# is 4recisely w#at t#ey are?
T#is ty4e o, trans,ormer connection is t#e most common em4loyed in
utility distri(ution su(stations wit# t#e delta windin' connected to t#e
transmission ,eed?
!sin' 'rounded%wye windin's on (ot# sides o, t#e trans,ormer C(ottomD allows (alanced
tri4lens to ,low ,rom t#e low%)olta'e system to
t#e #i'#%)olta'e system unim4eded? T#ey will (e 4resent in e2ual 4ro4ortion on (ot#
sides? .any loads in t#e !nited States are ser)ed in
t#is ,as#ion?
Some im4ortant im4lications o, t#is related to 4ower 2uality analysis are
1? Trans,ormers, 4articularly t#e neutral connections, are susce4ti(le
to o)er#eatin' w#en ser)in' sin'le%4#ase loads on t#e wye side t#at
#a)e #i'# t#ird%#armonic content?
/undamentals o, Harmonics 19=
-? .easurin' t#e current on t#e delta side o, a trans,ormer will not
s#ow t#e tri4lens and, t#ere,ore, not 'i)e a true idea o, t#e #eatin'
t#e trans,ormer is (ein' su(Aected to?
3? T#e ,low o, tri4len #armonic currents can (e interru4ted (y t#e
a44ro4riate isolation trans,ormer connection?
Remo)in' t#e neutral connection in one or (ot# wye windin's (loc+s
t#e ,low o, tri4len #armonic current? T#ere is no 4lace ,or am4ere%turn
(alance? 1i+ewise, a delta windin' (loc+s t#e ,low ,rom t#e line? One
s#ould note t#at t#ree%le''ed core trans,ormers (e#a)e as i, t#ey #a)e
a G4#antomH delta tertiary windin'? T#ere,ore, a wye%wye connection
wit# only one neutral 4oint 'rounded will still (e a(le to conduct t#e
tri4len #armonics ,rom t#at side?
T#ese rules a(out tri4len #armonic current ,low in trans,ormers
a44ly only to (alancedloadin' conditions? "#en t#e 4#ases are not (alanced, currents o,
normal tri4len #armonic ,re2uencies may )ery well
s#ow u4 w#ere t#ey are not e74ected? T#e normal mode ,or tri4len #armonics is to (e
@ero se2uence? urin' im(alances, tri4len #armonics
may #a)e 4ositi)e or ne'ati)e se2uence com4onents, too?
One nota(le case o, t#is is a t#ree%4#ase arc ,urnace? T#e ,urnace is
nearly always ,ed (y a delta%delta connected trans,ormer to (loc+ t#e
,low o, t#e @ero se2uence currents as s#own in /i'? 6?:? T#in+in' t#at
t#ird #armonics are synonymous wit# @ero se2uence, many en'ineers
are sur4rised to ,ind su(stantial t#ird%#armonic current 4resent in
1:> C#a4ter /i)e
(alanced ,undamental currents sum to >,
(ut (alanced t#ird%#armonic currents coincide
neutral current contains no
,undamental, (ut is 3>>I o,
t#ird%#armonic 4#ase current
A
*
C
N
/i'ure 6?8 Hi'# neutral currents in circuits ser)in' sin'le%4#ase nonlinear loads?
lar'e ma'nitudes in t#e line current? Howe)er, durin' scra4 meltdown,
t#e ,urnace will ,re2uently o4erate in an un(alanced mode wit# only
two electrodes carryin' current? 1ar'e t#ird%#armonic currents can
t#en ,reely circulate in t#ese two 4#ases Aust as in a sin'le%4#ase circuit? Howe)er, t#ey
are not @ero%se2uence currents? T#e t#ird%#armonic currents #a)e e2ual amounts o,
4ositi)e% and ne'ati)e%se2uence
currents?
*ut to t#e e7tent t#at t#e system is mostly(alanced, tri4lens mostly
(e#a)e in t#e manner descri(ed?
6?6 Harmonic Indices
T#e two most commonly used indices ,or measurin' t#e #armonic content o, a wa)e,orm
are t#e total #armonic distortion and t#e total
demand distortion? *ot# are measures o, t#e e,,ecti)e )alue o, a wa)e,orm and may (e
a44lied to eit#er )olta'e or current?
6?6?1 Total #armonic distortion
T#e TH is a measure o, t#e e,,ecti)e )alueo, t#e #armonic com4onents o, a distorted
wa)e,orm? T#at is, it is t#e 4otential #eatin' )alue
o, t#e #armonics relati)e to t#e ,undamental? T#is inde7 can (e calculated ,or eit#er
)olta'e or current:
/undamentals o, Harmonics 1:1
/i'ure 6?9 /low o, t#ird%#armonic current in t#ree%4#ase
trans,ormers?
TH ] C6?1-D
w#ere.#is t#e rms )alue o, #armonic com4onent #o, t#e 2uantity .?
T#e rms )alue o, a distorted wa)e,orm is t#e s2uare root o, t#e sum
o, t#e s2uares as s#own in E2s? C6?3D and C6?5D? T#e TH is related to
t#e rms )alue o, t#e wa)e,orm as ,ollows:
R.S
i
#ma7
# 1
. #
-
.1 1T H- C6?13D
T#e TH is a )ery use,ul 2uantity ,or many a44lications, (ut its limitations must (e
reali@ed? It can 4ro)ide a 'ood idea o, #ow muc# e7tra
#eat will (e reali@ed w#en a distorted )olta'e is a44lied across a resisti)e load? 1i+ewise,
it can 'i)e an indication o, t#e additional losses
caused (y t#e current ,lowin' t#rou'# a conductor? Howe)er, it is not
a 'ood indicator o, t#e )olta'e stress wit#in a ca4acitor (ecause t#at
is related to t#e 4ea+ )alue o, t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm, not its #eatin'
)alue?
1
#ma7
#1
. #
-

.1
1:- C#a4ter /i)e
Arc
/i'ure 6?: Arc ,urnace o4eration in an un(alanced mode allows
tri4len #armonics to reac# t#e 4ower system des4ite a delta%
connected trans,ormer?
T#e TH inde7 is most o,ten used to descri(e )olta'e #armonic distortion? Harmonic
)olta'es are almost always re,erenced to t#e ,undamental )alue o, t#e wa)e,orm at t#e
time o, t#e sam4le? *ecause
,undamental )olta'e )aries (y only a ,ew 4ercent, t#e )olta'e TH is
nearly always a meanin',ul num(er?
&ariations in t#e TH o)er a 4eriod o, time o,ten ,ollow a distinct
4attern re4resentin' nonlinear load acti)ities in t#e system? /i'ure
6?= s#ows t#e )olta'e TH )ariation o)er a 1%wee+ 4eriod w#ere a
daily cyclical 4attern is o()ious? T#e )olta'e TH s#own in /i'? 6?=
was ta+en at a 13?-%+& distri(ution su(station su44lyin' a residential
load? Hi'#%)olta'e TH occurs at ni'#t and durin' t#e early mornin'
#ours since t#e nonlinear loads are relati)ely #i'# com4ared to t#e
amount o, linear load durin' t#ese #ours? A 1%wee+ o(ser)ation 4eriod
is o,ten re2uired to come u4 wit# a meanin',ul TH 4attern since it is
usually t#e s#ortest 4eriod to o(tain re4resentati)e and re4roduci(le
measurement results?
6?6?- Total demand distortion
Current distortion le)els can (e c#aracteri@ed (y a TH )alue, as #as
(een descri(ed, (ut t#is can o,ten (e misleadin'? A small current may
>I
-I
3I
5I
>I
-I
3I
5I
&TH
.on
1I
Tue "ed T#urs /ri Sat Sun
/i'ure 6?= &ariation o, t#e )olta'e TH o)er a 1%wee+ 4eriod?
#a)e a #i'# TH (ut not (e a si'ni,icant t#reat to t#e system? /or
e7am4le, many adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es will e7#i(it #i'# TH )alues
,or t#e in4ut current w#en t#ey are o4eratin' at )ery li'#t loads? T#is
is not necessarily a si'ni,icant concern (ecause t#e ma'nitude o, #armonic current is low,
e)en t#ou'# its relati)e current distortion is #i'#?
Some analysts #a)e attem4ted to a)oid t#is di,,iculty (y re,errin'
TH to t#e ,undamental o, t#e 4ea+ demand load current rat#er t#an
t#e ,undamental o, t#e 4resent sam4le? T#is is called total demand distortion and ser)es
as t#e (asis ,or t#e 'uidelines in IEEE Standard
61=%1==-,Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems?It is de,ined as ,ollows:
T C6?15D
I1is t#e 4ea+, or ma7imum, demand load current at t#e ,undamental
,re2uency com4onent measured at t#e 4oint o, common cou4lin'
CPCCD? T#ere are two ways to measure I1? "it# a load already in t#e
system, it can (e calculated as t#e a)era'e o, t#e ma7imum demand
current ,or t#e 4recedin' 1- mont#s? T#e calculation can sim4ly (e
done (y a)era'in' t#e 1-%mont# 4ea+ demand readin's? /or a new
,acility, I1#as to (e estimated (ased on t#e 4redicted load 4ro,iles?
6?8 Harmonic Sources ,rom
Commercial 1oads
Commercial ,acilities suc# as o,,ice com4le7es, de4artment stores, #os4itals, and Internet
data centers are dominated wit# #i'#%e,,iciency ,luorescent li'#tin' wit# electronic
(allasts, adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es ,or
t#e #eatin', )entilation, and air conditionin' CH&ACD loads, ele)ator
dri)es, and sensiti)e electronic e2ui4ment su44lied (y sin'le%4#ase
switc#%mode 4ower su44lies? Commercial loads are c#aracteri@ed (y a
lar'e num(er o, small #armonic%4roducin' loads? e4endin' on t#e
di)ersity o, t#e di,,erent load ty4es, t#ese small #armonic currents may
add in 4#ase or cancel eac# ot#er? T#e )olta'e distortion le)els de4end
on (ot# t#e circuit im4edances and t#e o)erall #armonic current distortion? Since 4ower
,actor correction ca4acitors are not ty4ically used in
commercial ,acilities, t#e circuit im4edance is dominated (y t#e ser)ice
entrance trans,ormers and conductor im4edances? T#ere,ore, t#e )olta'e distortion can (e
estimated sim4ly (y multi4lyin' t#e current (y t#e
i
#ma7
# -
I #
-

I1
1:5 C#a4ter /i)e
im4edance adAusted ,or ,re2uency? C#aracteristics o, ty4ical nonlinear
commercial loads are detailed in t#e ,ollowin' sections?
6?8?1 Sin'le%4#ase 4ower su44lies
Electronic 4ower con)erter loads wit# t#eir ca4acity ,or 4roducin' #armonic currents
now constitute t#e most im4ortant class o, nonlinear
loads in t#e 4ower system? Ad)ances in semiconductor de)ice tec#nolo'y #a)e ,ueled a
re)olution in 4ower electronics o)er t#e 4ast decade,
and t#ere is e)ery indication t#at t#is trend will continue? E2ui4ment
includes adAusta(le%s4eed motor dri)es, electronic 4ower su44lies, dc
motor dri)es, (attery c#ar'ers, electronic (allasts, and many ot#er recti,ier and in)erter
a44lications?
A maAor concern in commercial (uildin's is t#at 4ower su44lies ,or
sin'le%4#ase electronic e2ui4ment will 4roduce too muc# #armonic current ,or t#e
wirin'? C 4ower ,or modern electronic and micro4rocessor%(ased o,,ice e2ui4ment is
commonly deri)ed ,rom sin'le%4#ase
,ull%wa)e diode (rid'e recti,iers? T#e 4ercenta'e o, load t#at contains
electronic 4ower su44lies is increasin' at a dramatic 4ace, wit# t#e
increased utili@ation o, 4ersonal com4uters in e)ery commercial sector?
T#ere are two common ty4es o, sin'le%4#ase 4ower su44lies? Older
tec#nolo'ies use ac%side )olta'e control met#ods, suc# as trans,ormers,
to reduce )olta'es to t#e le)el re2uired ,or t#e dc (us? T#e inductance
o, t#e trans,ormer 4ro)ides a (ene,icial side e,,ect (y smoot#in' t#e
in4ut current wa)e,orm, reducin' #armonic content? Newer%tec#nolo'y switc#%mode
4ower su44lies Csee /i'? 6?1>D use dc%to%dc con)ersion
tec#ni2ues to ac#ie)e a smoot# dc out4ut wit# small, li'#twei'#t com4onents? T#e in4ut
diode (rid'e is directly connected to t#e ac line,
eliminatin' t#e trans,ormer? T#is results in a coarsely re'ulated dc
)olta'e on t#e ca4acitor? T#is direct current is t#en con)erted (ac+ to
alternatin' current at a )ery #i'# ,re2uency (y t#e switc#er and su(se2uently recti,ied
a'ain? Personal com4uters, 4rinters, co4iers, and
most ot#er sin'le%4#ase electronic e2ui4ment now almost uni)ersally
em4loy switc#%mode 4ower su44lies? T#e +ey ad)anta'es are t#e li'#t
wei'#t, com4act si@e, e,,icient o4eration, and lac+ o, need ,or a trans,ormer? Switc#%
mode 4ower su44lies can usually tolerate lar'e )ariations in in4ut )olta'e?
*ecause t#ere is no lar'e ac%side inductance, t#e in4ut current to t#e
4ower su44ly comes in )ery s#ort 4ulses as t#e ca4acitor C1re'ains its
c#ar'e on eac# #al, cycle? /i'ure 6?11 illustrates t#e current wa)e,orm
and s4ectrum ,or an entire circuit su44lyin' a )ariety o, electronic
e2ui4ment wit# switc#%mode 4ower su44lies?
A distincti)e c#aracteristic o, switc#%mode 4ower su44lies is a )ery
#i'# t#ird%#armonic content in t#e current? Since t#ird%#armonic current
com4onents are additi)e in t#e neutral o, a t#ree%4#ase system, t#e
increasin' a44lication o, switc#%mode 4ower su44lies causes concern ,or
o)erloadin' o, neutral conductors, es4ecially in older (uildin's w#ere an
undersi@ed neutral may #a)e (een installed? T#ere is also a concern ,or
trans,ormer o)er#eatin' due to a com(ination o, #armonic content o, t#e
current, stray ,lu7, and #i'# neutral currents?
6?8?- /luorescent li'#tin'
1i'#tin' ty4ically accounts ,or 5> to 8> 4ercent o, a commercial (uildin' load?
Accordin' to t#e 1==6 Commercial *uildin's Ener'y
Consum4tion study conducted (y t#e !?S? Ener'y In,ormation
Administration, ,luorescent li'#tin' was used on 99 4ercent o, commercial ,loor s4aces,
w#ile only 15 4ercent o, t#e s4aces used incandescent li'#tin'?
1
/luorescent li'#ts are a 4o4ular c#oice ,or ener'y
sa)in's?
/luorescent li'#ts are disc#ar'e lam4sJ t#us t#ey re2uire a (allast to
4ro)ide a #i'# initial )olta'e to initiate t#e disc#ar'e ,or t#e electric
current to ,low (etween two electrodes in t#e ,luorescent tu(e? Once t#e
disc#ar'e is esta(lis#ed, t#e )olta'e decreases as t#e arc current
increases? It is essentially a s#ort circuit (etween t#e two electrodes,
and t#e (allast #as to 2uic+ly reduce t#e current to a le)el to maintain
t#e s4eci,ied lumen out4ut? T#us, a (allast is also a current%limitin'
de)ice in li'#tin' a44lications?
T#ere are two ty4es o, (allasts, ma'netic and electronic? A standard
ma'netic (allast is sim4ly made u4 o, an iron%core trans,ormer wit# a
ca4acitor encased in an insulatin' material? A sin'le ma'netic (allast
can dri)e one or two ,luorescent lam4s, and it o4erates at t#e line ,undamental ,re2uency,
i?e?, 6> or 8> H@? T#e iron%core ma'netic (allast
contri(utes additional #eat losses, w#ic# ma+es it ine,,icient com4ared
to an electronic (allast?
An electronic (allast em4loys a switc#%modeVty4e 4ower su44ly to
con)ert t#e incomin' ,undamental ,re2uency )olta'e to a muc# #i'#er
,re2uency )olta'e ty4ically in t#e ran'e o, -6 to 5> +H@? T#is #i'# ,re2uency #as two
ad)anta'es? /irst, a small inductor is su,,icient to limit
1:8 C#a4ter /i)e
C
Switc#er
and
Controls
C1
11
1-> &AC
/i'ure 6?1> Switc#%mode 4ower su44ly?
t#e arc current? Second, t#e #i'# ,re2uency eliminates or 'reatly
reduces t#e 1>>% or 1->%H@ ,lic+er associated wit# an iron%core ma'netic (allast? A sin'le
electronic (allast ty4ically can dri)e u4 to ,our
,luorescent lam4s?
Standard ma'netic (allasts are usually rat#er (eni'n sources o,
additional #armonics t#emsel)es since t#e main #armonic distortion
comes ,rom t#e (e#a)ior o, t#e arc? /i'ure 6?1- s#ows a measured ,luorescent lam4
current and #armonic s4ectrum? T#e current TH is a
moderate 16 4ercent? As a com4arison, electronic (allasts, w#ic#
em4loy switc#%mode 4ower su44lies, can 4roduce dou(le or tri4le t#e
standard ma'netic (allast #armonic out4ut? /i'ure 6?13 s#ows a ,luorescent lam4 wit# an
electronic (allast t#at #as a current TH o, 155?
Ot#er electronic (allasts #a)e (een s4eci,ically desi'ned to minimi@e
#armonics and may actually 4roduce less #armonic distortion t#an t#e
normal ma'netic (allast%lam4 com(ination? Electronic (allasts ty4ically 4roduce current
THs in t#e ran'e o, (etween 1> and 3- 4ercent?
A current TH 'reater t#an 3- 4ercent is considered e7cessi)e accordin' to ANSI
C:-?11%1==3, Hi'#%/re2uency /luorescent 1am4 *allasts?
.ost electronic (allasts are e2ui44ed wit# 4assi)e ,ilterin' to reduce
t#e in4ut current #armonic distortion to less t#an -> 4ercent?
> 6 1> 16 -> -6 3> 36
V->>
V1>>
>
1>>
->>
Time CmsD
CaD
Current CAD
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>> 1>>> 1->> 15>> 18>> 1:>> ->>>
>
->
5>
8>
/re2uency CH@D
C(D
Current CAD
/i'ure 6?11 S.PS current and #armonic s4ectrum?
Since ,luorescent lam4s are a si'ni,icant source o, #armonics in commercial (uildin's,
t#ey are usually distri(uted amon' t#e 4#ases in a
nearly (alanced manner? "it# a delta%connected su44ly trans,ormer,
t#is reduces t#e amount o, tri4len #armonic currents ,lowin' onto t#e
4ower su44ly system? Howe)er, it s#ould (e noted t#at t#e common
wye%wye su44ly trans,ormers will not im4ede t#e ,low o, tri4len #armonics re'ardless o,
#ow well (alanced t#e 4#ases are?
6?8?3 AdAusta(le%s4eed dri)es ,or H&AC
and ele)ators
Common a44lications o, adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es CASsD in commercial
loads can (e ,ound in ele)ator motors and in 4um4s and ,ans in H&AC
systems? An AS consists o, an electronic 4ower con)erter t#at con)erts ac )olta'e and
,re2uency into )aria(le )olta'e and ,re2uency? T#e
)aria(le )olta'e and ,re2uency allows t#e AS to control motor s4eed
1:: C#a4ter /i)e
>1>->3>5> V>?3
V>?-
V>?1
>?>
>?1
>?-
>?3
Time CmsD
CaD
> -5> 5:> 9-> =8> 1->>
>?>>
>?>-
>?>5
>?>8
>?>:
>?1>
>?1-
>?15
/re2uency CH@D
C(D
/i'ure 6?1- /luorescent lam4 wit# CaD ma'netic (allast current wa)e,orm and C(D its
#armonic s4ectrum?
to matc# t#e a44lication re2uirement suc# as slowin' a 4um4 or ,an?
ASs also ,ind many a44lications in industrial loads?
6?9 Harmonic Sources ,rom
Industrial 1oads
.odern industrial ,acilities are c#aracteri@ed (y t#e wides4read a44lication o, nonlinear
loads? T#ese loads can ma+e u4 a si'ni,icant 4ortion
o, t#e total ,acility loads and inAect #armonic currents into t#e 4ower
system, causin' #armonic distortion in t#e )olta'e? T#is #armonic
4ro(lem is com4ounded (y t#e ,act t#at t#ese nonlinear loads #a)e a
relati)ely low 4ower ,actor? Industrial ,acilities o,ten utili@e ca4acitor
(an+s to im4ro)e t#e 4ower ,actor to a)oid 4enalty c#ar'es? T#e a44lication o, 4ower
,actor correction ca4acitors can 4otentially ma'ni,y
#armonic currents ,rom t#e nonlinear loads, 'i)in' rise to resonance
conditions wit#in t#e ,acility? T#e #i'#est )olta'e distortion le)el usually occurs at t#e
,acilityFs low%)olta'e (us w#ere t#e ca4acitors are
/undamentals o, Harmonics 1:=
V>?5
V>?-
>?>
>?-
>?5
1> -> 3> 5> >
Time CmsD
CaD
> 8>> 1->> 1:>> -5>> 3>>>
>?>>
>?>1
>?>-
>?>3
>?>5
>?>6
>?>8
>?>9
/re2uency CH@D
C(D
/i'ure 6?13 /luorescent lam4 wit# CaD electronic (allast current wa)e,orm and C(D its
#armonic s4ectrum?
a44lied? Resonance conditions cause motor and trans,ormer o)er#eatin', and
miso4eration o, sensiti)e electronic e2ui4ment?
Nonlinear industrial loads can 'enerally (e 'rou4ed into t#ree cate'ories: t#ree%4#ase
4ower con)erters, arcin' de)ices, and satura(le
de)ices? Sections 6?9?1 to 6?9?3 detail t#e industrial load c#aracteristics?
6?9?1 T#ree%4#ase 4ower con)erters
T#ree%4#ase electronic 4ower con)erters di,,er ,rom sin'le%4#ase con)erters mainly
(ecause t#ey do not 'enerate t#ird%#armonic currents?
T#is is a 'reat ad)anta'e (ecause t#e t#ird%#armonic current is t#e
lar'est com4onent o, #armonics? Howe)er, t#ey can still (e si'ni,icant
sources o, #armonics at t#eir c#aracteristic ,re2uencies, as s#own in
/i'? 6?15? T#is is a ty4ical current source ty4e o, adAusta(le%s4eed
dri)e? T#e #armonic s4ectrum 'i)en in /i'? 6?15 would also (e ty4ical
o, a dc motor dri)e in4ut current? &olta'e source in)erter dri)es Csuc#
as P".%ty4e dri)esD can #a)e muc# #i'#er distortion le)els as s#own
in /i'? 6?16?
1=> C#a4ter /i)e
> 6 1> 16 -> -6 3> 36
V->>
V1>>
>
1>>
->>
Time CmsD
CaD
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>> 1>>> 1->> 15>> 18>> 1:>> ->>>
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
/re2uency CH@D
C(D
/i'ure 6?15 Current and #armonic s4ectrum ,or CSI%ty4e AS?
T#e in4ut to t#e P". dri)e is 'enerally desi'ned li+e a t#ree%4#ase
)ersion o, t#e switc#%mode 4ower su44ly in com4uters? T#e recti,ier
,eeds directly ,rom t#e ac (us to a lar'e ca4acitor on t#e dc (us? "it#
little intentional inductance, t#e ca4acitor is c#ar'ed in )ery s#ort
4ulses, creatin' t#e distincti)e Gra((it earH ac%side current wa)e,orm
wit# )ery #i'# distortion? "#ereas t#e switc#%mode 4ower su44lies are
'enerally ,or )ery small loads, P". dri)es are now (ein' a44lied ,or
loads u4 to 6>> #orse4ower C#4D? T#is is a Austi,ia(le cause ,or concern
,rom 4ower en'ineers?
C dri)es? Recti,ication is t#e only ste4 re2uired ,or dc dri)es?
T#ere,ore, t#ey #a)e t#e ad)anta'e o, relati)ely sim4le control systems? Com4ared wit#
ac dri)e systems, t#e dc dri)e o,,ers a wider
s4eed ran'e and #i'#er startin' tor2ue? Howe)er, 4urc#ase and maintenance costs ,or dc
motors are #i'#, w#ile t#e cost o, 4ower electronic
de)ices #as (een dro44in' year a,ter year? T#us, economic considerations limit use o, t#e
dc dri)e to a44lications t#at re2uire t#e s4eed and
tor2ue c#aracteristics o, t#e dc motor?
.ost dc dri)es use t#e si7%4ulse recti,ier s#own in /i'? 6?18? 1ar'e
dri)es may em4loy a 1-%4ulse recti,ier? T#is reduces t#yristor current
/undamentals o, Harmonics 1=1
> 6 1> 16 -> -6 3> 36
V5>>
V->>
>
->>
5>>
Time CmsD
CaD
> ->> 5>> 8>> :>> 1>>> 1->> 15>> 18>> 1:>> ->>>
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
/re2uency CH@D
C(D
/i'ure 6?16 Current and #armonic s4ectrum ,or P".%ty4e AS?
duties and reduces some o, t#e lar'er ac current #armonics? T#e two
lar'est #armonic currents ,or t#e si7%4ulse dri)e are t#e ,i,t# and se)ent#? T#ey are also
t#e most trou(lesome in terms o, system res4onse?
A 1-%4ulse recti,ier in t#is a44lication can (e e74ected to eliminate
a(out => 4ercent o, t#e ,i,t# and se)ent# #armonics, de4endin' on system im(alances?
T#e disad)anta'es o, t#e 1-%4ulse dri)e are t#at t#ere
is more cost in electronics and anot#er trans,ormer is 'enerally
re2uired?
AC dri)es? In ac dri)es, t#e recti,ier out4ut is in)erted to 4roduce a
)aria(le%,re2uency ac )olta'e ,or t#e motor? In)erters are classi,ied as
)olta'e source in)erters C&SIsD or current source in)erters CCSIsD? A
&SI re2uires a constant dc Ci?e?, low%ri44leD )olta'e in4ut to t#e in)erter
sta'e? T#is is ac#ie)ed wit# a ca4acitor or 1C,ilter in t#e dc lin+? T#e
CSI re2uires a constant current in4utJ #ence, a series inductor is
4laced in t#e dc lin+?
AC dri)es 'enerally use standard s2uirrel ca'e induction motors?
T#ese motors are ru''ed, relati)ely low in cost, and re2uire little
maintenance? Sync#ronous motors are used w#ere 4recise s4eed control is critical?
A 4o4ular ac dri)e con,i'uration uses a &SI em4loyin' P". tec#ni2ues to synt#esi@e an
ac wa)e,orm as a train o, )aria(le%widt# dc
4ulses Csee /i'? 6?19D? T#e in)erter uses eit#er SCRs, 'ate turno,,
C0TOD t#yristors, or 4ower transistors ,or t#is 4ur4ose? Currently, t#e
&SI P". dri)e o,,ers t#e (est ener'y e,,iciency ,or a44lications o)er a
wide s4eed ran'e ,or dri)es u4 t#rou'# at least 6>> #4? Anot#er ad)anta'e o, P".
dri)es is t#at, unli+e ot#er ty4es o, dri)es, it is not necessary to )ary recti,ier out4ut
)olta'e to control motor s4eed? T#is
allows t#e recti,ier t#yristors to (e re4laced wit# diodes, and t#e
t#yristor control circuitry to (e eliminated?
1=- C#a4ter /i)e
armature
,ield
may (e su44lied ,rom same or
se4arate 4ower su44ly
8%4ulse
t#yristor recti,ier
)CtD
&A
&*
&C
/i'ure 6?18 Si7%4ulse dc AS?
&ery #i'# 4ower dri)es em4loy SCRs and in)erters? T#ese may (e 8%4ulse, as s#own in
/i'? 6?1:, or li+e lar'e dc dri)es, 1-%4ulse? &SI dri)es C/i'? 6?1:aD are limited to
a44lications t#at do not re2uire ra4id
c#an'es in s4eed? CSI dri)es C/i'? 6?1:(D #a)e 'ood accelerationOdeceleration
c#aracteristics (ut re2uire a motor wit# a leadin' 4ower ,actor
Csync#ronous or induction wit# ca4acitorsD or added control circuitry to
commutate t#e in)erter t#yristors? In eit#er case, t#e CSI dri)e must
(e desi'ned ,or use wit# a s4eci,ic motor? T#yristors in current source
)CtD
diode
recti,ier
transistor
in)erter
&a
&(
&c
AC
.OTOR
/i'ure 6?19 P". AS?
CaD &SI
C(D CSI
)CtD
)CtD
t#yristor
in)erter
t#yristor
recti,ier
&a
&(
&c
&a
&(
&c
AC
.OTOR
AC
.OTOR
/i'ure 6?1: 1ar'e ac ASs?
in)erters must (e 4rotected a'ainst inducti)e )olta'e s4i+es, w#ic#
increases t#e cost o, t#is ty4e o, dri)e?
Im4act o, o4eratin' condition? T#e #armonic current distortion in
adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es is not constant? T#e wa)e,orm c#an'es si'ni,icantly ,or di,,erent
s4eed and tor2ue )alues?
/i'ure 6?1= s#ows two o4eratin' conditions ,or a P". adAusta(les4eed dri)e? "#ile t#e
wa)e,orm at 5- 4ercent s4eed is muc# more distorted 4ro4ortionately, t#e dri)e inAects
considera(ly #i'#er ma'nitude
#armonic currents at rated s4eed? T#e (ar c#art s#ows t#e amount o,
current inAected? T#is will (e t#e limitin' desi'n ,actor, not t#e #i'#est
TH? En'ineers s#ould (e care,ul to understand t#e (asis o, data and
measurements concernin' t#ese dri)es (e,ore ma+in' desi'n decisions?
6?9?- Arcin' de)ices
T#is cate'ory includes arc ,urnaces, arc welders, and disc#ar'e%ty4e
li'#tin' C,luorescent, sodium )a4or, mercury )a4orD wit# ma'netic
1=5 C#a4ter /i)e
3 6 9 = 11 13
ICtD
Am4eres
I
#
Harmonic Num(er, #
Rated S4eed 5-I S4eed
/i'ure 6?1= E,,ect o, P". AS s4eed on ac current #armonics?
&CtD
/i'ure 6?-> E2ui)alent circuit
,or an arcin' de)ice?
Crat#er t#an electronicD (allasts? As s#own in /i'? 6?->, t#e arc is (asically a )olta'e
clam4 in series wit# a reactance t#at limits current to a
reasona(le )alue?
T#e )olta'e%current c#aracteristics o, electric arcs are nonlinear?
/ollowin' arc i'nition, t#e )olta'e decreases as t#e arc current
increases, limited only (y t#e im4edance o, t#e 4ower system? T#is
'i)es t#e arc t#e a44earance o, #a)in' a ne'ati)e resistance ,or a 4ortion o, its o4eratin'
cycle suc# as in ,luorescent li'#tin' a44lications?
In electric arc ,urnace a44lications, t#e limitin' im4edance is 4rimarily t#e ,urnace ca(le
and leads wit# some contri(ution ,rom t#e
4ower system and ,urnace trans,ormer? Currents in e7cess o, 8>,>>> A
are common?
T#e electric arc itsel, is actually (est re4resented as a source o, )olta'e
#armonics? I, a 4ro(e were to (e 4laced directly across t#e arc, one would
o(ser)e a somew#at tra4e@oidal wa)e,orm? Its ma'nitude is lar'ely a
,unction o, t#e len't# o, t#e arc? Howe)er, t#e im4edance o, (allasts or
,urnace leads acts as a (u,,er so t#at t#e su44ly )olta'e is only moderately distorted? T#e
arcin' load t#us a44ears to (e a relati)ely sta(le #armonic current source, w#ic# is
ade2uate ,or most analyses? T#e e7ce4tion
occurs w#en t#e system is near resonance and a T#e)enin e2ui)alent
model usin' t#e arc )olta'e wa)e,orm 'i)es more realistic answers?
T#e #armonic content o, an arc ,urnace load and ot#er arcin' de)ices
is similar to t#at o, t#e ma'netic (allast s#own in /i'? 6?1-? T#ree4#ase arcin' de)ices
can (e arran'ed to cancel t#e tri4len #armonics
t#rou'# t#e trans,ormer connection? Howe)er, t#is cancellation may
not wor+ in t#ree%4#ase arc ,urnaces (ecause o, t#e ,re2uent un(alanced o4eration durin'
t#e meltin' 4#ase? urin' t#e re,inin' sta'e
w#en t#e arc is more constant, t#e cancellation is (etter?
6?9?3 Satura(le de)ices
E2ui4ment in t#is cate'ory includes trans,ormers and ot#er electroma'netic de)ices wit#
a steel core, includin' motors? Harmonics are
'enerated due to t#e nonlinear ma'neti@in' c#aracteristics o, t#e steel
Csee /i'? 6?-1D?
Power trans,ormers are desi'ned to normally o4erate Aust (elow t#e
G+neeH 4oint o, t#e ma'neti@in' saturation c#aracteristic? T#e o4eratin' ,lu7 density o, a
trans,ormer is selected (ased on a com4licated
o4timi@ation o, steel cost, no%load losses, noise, and numerous ot#er
,actors? .any electric utilities will 4enali@e trans,ormer )endors (y
)arious amounts ,or no%load and load losses, and t#e )endor will try to
meet t#e s4eci,ication wit# a trans,ormer t#at #as t#e lowest e)aluated
cost? A #i'#%cost 4enalty on t#e no%load losses or noise will 'enerally
result in more steel in t#e core and a #i'#er saturation cur)e t#at
yields lower #armonic currents?
Alt#ou'# trans,ormer e7citin' current is ric# in #armonics at normal o4eratin' )olta'e
Csee /i'? 6?--D, it is ty4ically less t#an 1 4ercent
o, rated ,ull load current? Trans,ormers are not as muc# o, a concern as
electronic 4ower con)erters and arcin' de)ices w#ic# can 4roduce #armonic currents o,
-> 4ercent o, t#eir ratin', or #i'#er? Howe)er, t#eir
e,,ect will (e noticea(le, 4articularly on utility distri(ution systems,
w#ic# #a)e #undreds o, trans,ormers? It is common to notice a si'ni,icant increase in
tri4len #armonic currents durin' t#e early mornin'
#ours w#en t#e load is low and t#e )olta'e rises? Trans,ormer e7citin'
current is more )isi(le t#en (ecause t#ere is insu,,icient load to o(scure
it and t#e increased )olta'e causes more current to (e 4roduced?
Harmonic )olta'e distortion ,rom trans,ormer o)ere7citation is 'enerally only a44arent
under t#ese li'#t load conditions?
Some trans,ormers are 4ur4ose,ully o4erated in t#e saturated
re'ion? One e7am4le is a tri4len trans,ormer used to 'enerate 1:> H@
,or induction ,urnaces?
.otors also e7#i(it some distortion in t#e current w#en o)ere7cited,
alt#ou'# it is 'enerally o, little conse2uence? T#ere are, #owe)er, some
,ractional #orse4ower, sin'le%4#ase motors t#at #a)e a nearly trian'ular wa)e,orm wit#
si'ni,icant t#ird%#armonic currents?
T#e wa)e,orm s#own in /i'? 6?-- is ,or sin'le%4#ase or wye%'rounded
t#ree%4#ase trans,ormers? T#e current o()iously contains a lar'e
amount o, t#ird #armonic? elta connections and un'rounded%wye connections 4re)ent
t#e ,low o, @ero%se2uence #armonic, w#ic# tri4lens
tend to (e? T#us, t#e line current will (e )oid o, t#ese #armonics unless
t#ere is an im(alance in t#e system?
1=8 C#a4ter /i)e
&olta'e
Current
1>>I
G<neeH
/i'ure 6?-1 Trans,ormer ma'neti@in' c#aracteristic?
6?: 1ocatin' Harmonic Sources
On radial utility distri(ution ,eeders and industrial 4lant 4ower systems, t#e main
tendency is ,or t#e #armonic currents to ,low ,rom t#e
#armonic%4roducin' load to t#e 4ower system source? T#is is illustrated in /i'? 6?-3? T#e
im4edance o, t#e 4ower system is normally t#e
lowest im4edance seen (y t#e #armonic currents? T#us, t#e (ul+ o, t#e
current ,lows into t#e source?
T#is 'eneral tendency o, #armonic current ,lows can (e used to
locate sources o, #armonics? !sin' a 4ower 2uality monitor ca4a(le o,
re4ortin' t#e #armonic content o, t#e current, sim4ly measure t#e #ar/undamentals o,
Harmonics 1=9
V1?6>
V1?>>
V>?6>
>?>>
>?6>
1?>>
1?6>
>?>- >?>3 >?>6 >?>9 >?>:
Am4
Time CsD
>I
1>I
->I
3>I
5>I
6>I
8>I
9>I
:>I
=>I
1>>I
8> 1:> 3>> 5-> 65>
.a'nitude
/re2uency CH@D
/i'ure 6?-- Trans,ormer ma'neti@in' current and #armonic s4ectrum?
monic currents in eac# (ranc# startin' at t#e (e'innin' o, t#e circuit
and trace t#e #armonics to t#e source?
Power ,actor correction ca4acitors can alter t#is ,low 4attern ,or at
least one o, t#e #armonics? /or e7am4le, addin' a ca4acitor to t#e 4re)ious circuit as
s#own in /i'? 6?-5 may draw a lar'e amount o, #armonic current into t#at 4ortion o, t#e
circuit? In suc# a situation,
,ollowin' t#e 4at# o, t#e #armonic current will lead to a ca4acitor (an+
instead o, t#e actual #armonic source? T#us, it is 'enerally necessary
to tem4orarily disconnect all ca4acitors to relia(ly locate t#e sources o,
#armonics?
It is usually strai'#t,orward to di,,erentiate #armonic currents due
to actual sources ,rom #armonic currents t#at are strictly due to resonance in)ol)in' a
ca4acitor (an+? A resonance current ty4ically #as
only one dominant #armonic ridin' on to4 o, t#e ,undamental sine
wa)e? Note t#at none o, t#e #armonic sources 4resented earlier in t#is
c#a4ter 4roduce a sin'le #armonic ,re2uency in addition to t#e ,undamental? T#ey all
4roduce more t#an one sin'le #armonic ,re2uency?
"a)e,orms o, t#ese #armonic sources #a)e somew#at ar(itrary wa)es#a4es de4endin'
on t#e distortin' 4#enomena, (ut t#ey contain se)eral #armonics in si'ni,icant 2uantities?
A sin'le, lar'e, si'ni,icant
#armonic nearly always si'ni,ies resonance?
T#is ,act can (e e74loited to determine i, #armonic resonance 4ro(lems are li+ely to e7ist
in a system wit# ca4acitors? Sim4ly measure t#e
current in t#e ca4acitors? I, it contains a )ery lar'e amount o, one #armonic ot#er t#an t#e
,undamental, it is li+ely t#at t#e ca4acitor is 4artici4atin' in a resonant circuit wit#in t#e
4ower system? Always c#ec+
t#e ca4acitor currents ,irst in any installations w#ere #armonic 4ro(lems are sus4ected?
Anot#er met#od to locate #armonic sources is (y correlatin' t#e time
)ariations o, t#e )olta'e distortion wit# s4eci,ic customer and load
1=: C#a4ter /i)e
/i'ure 6?-3 0eneral ,low o, #armonic currents in a radial 4ower system?
c#aracteristics? Patterns ,rom t#e #armonic distortion measurements
can (e com4ared to 4articular ty4es o, loads, suc# as arc ,urnaces, mill
dri)es, and mass transits w#ic# a44ear intermittently? Correlatin' t#e
time ,rom t#e measurements and t#e actual o4eration time can identi,y t#e #armonic
source?
6?= System Res4onse C#aracteristics
In 4ower systems, t#e res4onse o, t#e system is e2ually as im4ortant
as t#e sources o, #armonics? In ,act, 4ower systems are 2uite tolerant
o, t#e currents inAected (y #armonic%4roducin' loads unless t#ere is
some ad)erse interaction wit# t#e im4edance o, t#e system?
Identi,yin' t#e sources is only #al, t#e Ao( o, #armonic analysis? T#e
res4onse o, t#e 4ower system at eac# #armonic ,re2uency determines
t#e true im4act o, t#e nonlinear load on #armonic )olta'e distortion?
T#ere are t#ree 4rimary )aria(les a,,ectin' t#e system res4onse
c#aracteristics, i?e?, t#e system im4edance, t#e 4resence o, a ca4acitor
(an+, and t#e amount o, resisti)e loads in t#e system? Sections 6?=?1
t#rou'# 6?=?5 detail t#ese )aria(les?
6?=?1 System im4edance
At t#e ,undamental ,re2uency, 4ower systems are 4rimarily inducti)e,
and t#e e2ui)alent im4edance is sometimes called sim4ly t#e s#ort%circuit reactance?
Ca4aciti)e e,,ects are ,re2uently ne'lected on utility
distri(ution systems and industrial 4ower systems? One o, t#e most
,re2uently used 2uantities in t#e analysis o, #armonics on 4ower systems is t#e s#ort%
circuit im4edance to t#e 4oint on a networ+ at w#ic#
a ca4acitor is located? I, not directly a)aila(le, it can (e com4uted ,rom
/undamentals o, Harmonics 1==
NOR.A1 PATH
A1TERE PATH
/i'ure 6?-5 Power ,actor ca4acitors can alter t#e direction o, ,low o, one o, t#e #armonic
com4onents o, t#e current?
s#ort%circuit study results t#at 'i)e eit#er t#e s#ort%circuit me'a)oltam4ere C.&AD or t#e
s#ort%circuit current as ,ollows:
NSC RSCA[SC C6?16D
w#ereNSC s#ort%circuit im4edance
RSC s#ort%circuit resistance
[SC s#ort%circuit reactance
+& 4#ase%to%4#ase )olta'e, +&
.&ASC t#ree%4#ase s#ort%circuit .&A
ISC s#ort%circuit current, A
NSCis a 4#asor 2uantity, consistin' o, (ot# resistance and reactance?
Howe)er, i, t#e s#ort%circuit data contain no 4#ase in,ormation, one is
usually constrained to assumin' t#at t#e im4edance is 4urely reacti)e? T#is is a
reasona(ly 'ood assum4tion ,or industrial 4ower systems ,or (uses close to t#e mains
and ,or most utility systems? "#en
t#is is not t#e case, an e,,ort s#ould (e made to determine a more realistic resistance
)alue (ecause t#at will a,,ect t#e results once ca4acitors are considered?
T#e inducti)e reactance 4ortion o, t#e im4edance c#an'es linearly
wit# ,re2uency? One common error made (y no)ices in #armonic analysis is to ,or'et to
adAust t#e reactance ,or ,re2uency? T#e reactance at
t#e#t# #armonic is determined ,rom t#e ,undamental im4edance reactance[1(y:
[# #[1 C6?18D
In most 4ower systems, one can 'enerally assume t#at t#e resistance
does not c#an'e si'ni,icantly w#en studyin' t#e e,,ects o, #armonics less
t#an t#e nint#? /or lines and ca(les, t#e resistance )aries a44ro7imately
(y t#e s2uare root o, t#e ,re2uency once s+in e,,ect (ecomes si'ni,icant
in t#e conductor at a #i'#er ,re2uency? T#e e7ce4tion to t#is rule is wit#
some trans,ormers? *ecause o, stray eddy current losses, t#e a44arent
resistance o, lar'er trans,ormers may )ary almost 4ro4ortionately wit#
t#e ,re2uency? T#is can #a)e a )ery (ene,icial e,,ect on dam4in' o, resonance as will (e
s#own later? In smaller trans,ormers, less t#an 1>> +&A,
t#e resistance o, t#e windin' is o,ten so lar'e relati)e to t#e ot#er im4edances t#at it
swam4s out t#e stray eddy current e,,ects and t#ere is little c#an'e in t#e total a44arent
resistance until t#e ,re2uency reac#es
a(out 6>> H@? O, course, t#ese smaller trans,ormers may #a)e an [OR
+&1>>>
3ISC
+&
-
.&ASC
->> C#a4ter /i)e
ratio o, 1?> to -?> at ,undamental ,re2uency, w#ile lar'e su(station trans,ormers mi'#t
ty4ically #a)e a ratio o, -> to 3>? T#ere,ore, i, t#e (us t#at
is (ein' studied is dominated (y trans,ormer im4edance rat#er t#an line
im4edance, t#e system im4edance model s#ould (e considered more
care,ully? Ne'lectin' t#e resistance will 'enerally 'i)e a conser)ati)ely
#i'# 4rediction o, t#e #armonic distortion?
At utili@ation )olta'es, suc# as industrial 4ower systems, t#e e2ui)alent system reactance
is o,ten dominated (y t#e ser)ice trans,ormer
im4edance? A 'ood a44ro7imation ,or [SCmay (e (ased on t#e im4edance o, t#e ser)ice
entrance trans,ormer only:
[SCb[t7 C6?19D
"#ile not 4recise, t#is is 'enerally at least => 4ercent o, t#e total
im4edance and is commonly more? T#is is usually su,,icient to e)aluate w#et#er or not
t#ere will (e a si'ni,icant #armonic resonance 4ro(lem? Trans,ormer im4edance in o#ms
can (e determined ,rom t#e
4ercent im4edance Nt7 ,ound on t#e name4late (y
[t7
Nt7 CID C6?1:D
w#ere .&A3is t#e +&A ratin' o, t#e trans,ormer? T#is assumes t#at
t#e im4edance is 4redominantly reacti)e? /or e7am4le ,or a 16>>%+&A,
8 4ercent trans,ormer, t#e e2ui)alent im4edance on t#e 5:>%& side is
[t7
Nt7 CID
>?>8 >?>>=-j
A 4lot o, im4edance )ersus ,re2uency ,or an inducti)e system Cno
ca4acitors installedD would loo+ li+e /i'? 6?-6? Real 4ower systems are
not 2uite as well (e#a)ed? T#is sim4le model ne'lects ca4acitance,
w#ic# cannot (e done ,or #armonic analysis?
6?=?- Ca4acitor im4edance
S#unt ca4acitors, eit#er at t#e customer location ,or 4ower ,actor correction or on t#e
distri(ution system ,or )olta'e control, dramatically
alter t#e system im4edance )ariation wit# ,re2uency? Ca4acitors do not
create #armonics, (ut se)ere #armonic distortion can sometimes (e
attri(uted to t#eir 4resence? "#ile t#e reactance o, inducti)e com4o%>?5:>
-
1?6
+&
-
.&A3
+&
-
.&A3
/undamentals o, Harmonics ->1
nents increases 4ro4ortionately to ,re2uency, ca4aciti)e reactance [C
decreases 4ro4ortionately:
[C C6?1=D
Cis t#e ca4acitance in ,arads? T#is 2uantity is seldom readily a)aila(le
,or 4ower ca4acitors, w#ic# are rated in terms o, +)ar or .)ar at a
'i)en )olta'e? T#e e2ui)alent line%to%neutral ca4aciti)e reactance at
,undamental ,re2uency ,or a ca4acitor (an+ can (e determined (y
[C C6?->D
/or t#ree%4#ase (an+s, use 4#ase%to%4#ase )olta'e and t#e t#ree4#ase reacti)e 4ower
ratin'? /or sin'le%4#ase units, use t#e ca4acitor
)olta'e ratin' and t#e reacti)e 4ower ratin'? /or e7am4le, ,or a t#ree4#ase, 1->>%+)ar,
13?:%+& ca4acitor (an+, t#e 4ositi)e%se2uence reactance in o#ms would (e
[C 16:?9j
13?:
-
1?-
+&
-
.)ar
+&
-
.)ar
1
- ,C
->- C#a4ter /i)e
>
>?>-
>?>5
>?>8
>?>:
>?1
> 3>> 8>> =>> 1->> 16>>
Im4edance Co#msD
/re2uency CH@D
/i'ure 6?-6 Im4edance )ersus ,re2uency ,or inducti)e system?
6?=?3 Parallel resonance
All circuits containin' (ot# ca4acitances and inductances #a)e one or
more natural ,re2uencies? "#en one o, t#ose ,re2uencies lines u4 wit#
a ,re2uency t#at is (ein' 4roduced on t#e 4ower system, a resonance
may de)elo4 in w#ic# t#e )olta'e and current at t#at ,re2uency continue to 4ersist at )ery
#i'# )alues? T#is is t#e root o, most 4ro(lems
wit# #armonic distortion on 4ower systems?
/i'ure 6?-8 s#ows a distri(ution system wit# 4otential 4arallel resonance 4ro(lems? /rom
t#e 4ers4ecti)e o, #armonic sources t#e s#unt
ca4acitor a44ears in 4arallel wit# t#e e2ui)alent system inductance
Csource and trans,ormer inductancesD at #armonic ,re2uencies as
de4icted in /i'? 6?-9(? /urt#ermore, since t#e 4ower system is
assumed to #a)e an e2ui)alent )olta'e source o, ,undamental ,re2uency only, t#e 4ower
system )olta'e source a44ears s#ort circuited in
t#e ,i'ure?
Parallel resonance occurs w#en t#e reactance o, [Cand t#e distri(ution system cancel
eac# ot#er out? T#e ,re2uency at w#ic# t#is 4#enomenon occurs is called t#e 4arallel
resonant ,re2uency? It can (e
e74ressed as ,ollows:
,4
b
C6?-1D
w#ereR resistance o, com(ined e2ui)alent source and trans,ormer
Cnot s#own in /i'? 6?-9D
1e2 inductance o, com(ined e2ui)alent source and trans,ormer
C ca4acitance o, ca4acitor (an+
At t#e resonant ,re2uency, t#e a44arent im4edance o, t#e 4arallel
com(ination o, t#e e2ui)alent inductance and ca4acitance as seen ,rom
t#e #armonic current source (ecomes )ery lar'e, i?e?,
N4
b Q[1e2 Q[C C6?--D
[C
-
R
[
-
1e2
R
[CC[1e2RD
R
[CC[1e2RD
[C[1e2R
1
1e2C
1
-
R
-
51
-
e2
1
1e2C
1
-
w#ereQ [1OR [CORandR
[1e2
? <ee4 in mind t#at t#e reactances in t#is e2uation are com4uted at t#e resonant
,re2uency?
Qo,ten is +nown as t#e 2uality ,actor o, a resonant circuit t#at determines t#e s#ar4ness
o, t#e ,re2uency res4onse? Q)aries considera(ly
(y location on t#e 4ower system? It mi'#t (e less t#an 6 on a distri(ution ,eeder and more
t#an 3> on t#e secondary (us o, a lar'e ste4%down
trans,ormer? /rom E2? C6?--D, it is clear t#at durin' 4arallel resonance,
a small #armonic current can cause a lar'e )olta'e dro4 across t#e
a44arent im4edance, i?e?, &4 Q[1e2
I#? T#e )olta'e near t#e ca4acitor
(an+ will (e ma'ni,ied and #ea)ily distorted?
1et us now e7amine current (e#a)ior durin' t#e 4arallel resonance?
1et t#e current ,lowin' in t#e ca4acitor (an+ or into t#e 4ower system
(eIresonance
J t#us,
Iresonance QI#
or
Iresonance QI#
C6?-3D
/rom E2? C6?-3D, it is clear t#at currents ,lowin' in t#e ca4acitor (an+
and in t#e 4ower system Ci?e?, t#rou'# t#e trans,ormerD will also (e
ma'ni,iedQtimes? T#is 4#enomenon will li+ely cause ca4acitor ,ailure, ,use (lowin', or
trans,ormer o)er#eatin'?
Q[1e2I#
[1e2
&4
[1e2
Q[CI#
[C
&4
[C
->5 C#a4ter /i)e
/i'ure 6?-8 System wit# 4otential 4arallel resonance 4ro(lems?
T#e e7tent o, )olta'e and current ma'ni,ication is determined (y t#e
si@e o, t#e s#unt ca4acitor (an+? /i'ure 6?-: s#ows t#e e,,ect o, )aryin' ca4acitor si@e in
relation to t#e trans,ormer on t#e im4edance seen
,rom t#e #armonic source and com4ared wit# t#e case in w#ic# t#ere
is no ca4acitor? T#e ,ollowin' illustrates #ow t#e 4arallel resonant ,re2uency is
com4uted?
Power systems analysts ty4ically do not #a)e 1andCreadily a)aila(le and 4re,er to use
ot#er ,orms o, t#is relations#i4? T#ey commonly
com4ute t#e resonant #armonic #r (ased on ,undamental ,re2uency
im4edances and ratin's usin' one o, t#e ,ollowin':
#r

C6?-5D
w#ere #r resonant #armonic
[C ca4acitor reactance
+&At7 1>>
+)arca4 Nt7 CID
.&ASC
.)arca4
[C
[SC
.a'ni,ied
#armonic
current
.a'ni,ied
)olta'e at
su(station (us
Harmonic
source
CaD
C(D
[1e2
[source
[T
[C
QI# [C
[source
[T
I
#
N4
I
#
/i'ure 6?-9 At #armonic ,re2uencies, t#e s#unt ca4acitor (an+ a44ears in 4arallel wit#
t#e system inductance? CaD Sim4li,ied distri(ution circuitJ C(D 4arallel resonant circuit as
seen ,rom t#e #armonic source?
[SC system s#ort%circuit reactance
.&ASC system s#ort%circuit .&A
.&Aca4 .)ar ratin' o, ca4acitor (an+
+&At7 +&A ratin' o, ste4%down trans,ormer
Nt7 ste4%down trans,ormer im4edance
+)arca4 +)ar ratin' o, ca4acitor (an+
/or e7am4le, ,or an industrial load (us w#ere t#e trans,ormer im4edance is dominant, t#e
resonant #armonic ,or a 16>>%+&A, 8 4ercent
trans,ormer and a 6>>%+)ar ca4acitor (an+ is a44ro7imately
#r b

9?>9
6?=?5 Series resonance
T#ere are certain instances w#en a s#unt ca4acitor and t#e inductance
o, a trans,ormer or distri(ution line may a44ear as a series 1Ccircuit
to a source o, #armonic currents? I, t#e resonant ,re2uency corres4onds
to a c#aracteristic #armonic ,re2uency o, t#e nonlinear load, t#e 1Ccircuit will attract a
lar'e 4ortion o, t#e #armonic current t#at is 'enerated in t#e distri(ution system? A
customer #a)in' no nonlinear load,
(ut utili@in' 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors, may in t#is way e74erience #i'#
#armonic )olta'e distortion due to nei'#(orin' #armonic
sources? T#is situation is de4icted in /i'? 6?-=?
16>>1>>
6>>8
+&At7 1>>
+)arca4 Nt7 CID
->8 C#a4ter /i)e
>
1>
->
3>
5>
6>
6>I
3>I
N#
] 1>I
No Ca4acitor
Harmon
+)arca4
+&At7
Harmonic Num(er #
16 =1319-1
/i'ure 6?-: System ,re2uency res4onse as ca4acitor si@e is )aried in relation to
trans,ormer?
urin' resonance, t#e 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitor ,orms a
series circuit wit# t#e trans,ormer and #armonic sources? T#e sim4li,ied circuit is s#own
in /i'? 6?3>? T#e #armonic source s#own in t#is ,i'ure re4resents t#e total #armonics
4roduced (y ot#er loads? T#e
inductance in series wit# t#e ca4acitor is t#at o, t#e ser)ice entrance
trans,ormer? T#e series com(ination o, t#e trans,ormer inductance and
t#e ca4acitor (an+ is )ery small Ct#eoretically @eroD and only limited (y
its resistance? T#us t#e #armonic current corres4ondin' to t#e resonant ,re2uency will
,low ,reely in t#is circuit? T#e )olta'e at t#e 4ower
,actor correction ca4acitor is ma'ni,ied and #i'#ly distorted? T#is is
a44arent ,rom t#e ,ollowin' e2uation:
&s
Cat 4ower ,actor ca4acitor (an+D &#b &#
C6?-6D
w#ere&# and&s are t#e #armonic )olta'e corres4ondin' to t#e #armonic current I# and
t#e )olta'e at t#e 4ower ,actor ca4acitor (an+,
res4ecti)ely? T#e resistance Ro, t#e series resonant circuit is not
s#own in /i'? 6?3>, and it is small com4ared to t#e reactance?
T#e ne'li'i(le im4edance o, t#e series resonant circuit can (e
e74loited to a(sor( desired #armonic currents? T#is is indeed t#e 4rinci4le in desi'nin' a
notc# ,ilter?
In many systems wit# 4otential series resonance 4ro(lems, 4arallel
resonance also arises due to t#e circuit to4olo'y? One o, t#ese is s#own
in /i'? 6?3> w#ere t#e 4arallel resonance is ,ormed (y t#e 4arallel com(ination (etween
[source
and a series (etween [Tand[C? T#e resultin'
4arallel resonant ,re2uency is always smaller t#an its series resonant
[C
R
[c
[T[CR
istri(ution
Su(station *us
Customer
Power /actor
Correction
Hi'#&olta'e
istortion Hi'#
Harmonic
Currents
/i'ure 6?-= System wit# 4otential series resonance 4ro(lems?
,re2uency due to t#e source inductance contri(ution? T#e 4arallel resonant ,re2uency can
(e re4resented (y t#e ,ollowin' e2uation:
#r
C6?-8D
6?=?6 E,,ects o, resistance and resisti)e load
eterminin' t#at t#e resonant #armonic ali'ns wit# a common #armonic source is not
always cause ,or alarm? T#e dam4in' 4ro)ided (y
resistance in t#e system is o,ten su,,icient to 4re)ent catastro4#ic )olta'es and currents?
/i'ure 6?31 s#ows t#e 4arallel resonant circuit
im4edance c#aracteristic ,or )arious amounts o, resisti)e load in 4arallel wit# t#e
ca4acitance? As little as 1> 4ercent resisti)e loadin' can
#a)e a si'ni,icant (ene,icial im4act on 4ea+ im4edance? 1i+ewise, i,
t#ere is a si'ni,icant len't# o, lines or ca(les (etween t#e ca4acitor (us
and t#e nearest u4line trans,ormer, t#e resonance will (e su44ressed?
1ines and ca(les can add a si'ni,icant amount o, t#e resistance to t#e
e2ui)alent circuit?
1oads and line resistances are t#e reasons w#y catastro4#ic #armonic 4ro(lems ,rom
ca4acitors on utility distri(ution ,eeders are seldom seen? T#at is not to say t#at t#ere will
not (e any #armonic
4ro(lems due to resonance, (ut t#e 4ro(lems will 'enerally not cause
4#ysical dama'e to t#e electrical system com4onents? T#e most trou[C
[T[source
->: C#a4ter /i)e
Harmonic num(er #
N
Series resonance:
Parallel
resonance:
[T
[C
#s ]
[source [T
[C
#r
g
]
[source [T
[C
I
#
/i'ure 6?3> /re2uency res4onse o, a circuit wit# series resonance?
/undamentals o, Harmonics ->=
(lesome resonant conditions occur w#en ca4acitors are installed on su(station (uses,
eit#er utility su(stations or in industrial ,acilities? In
t#ese cases, w#ere t#e trans,ormer dominates t#e system im4edance
and #as a #i'# [ORratio, t#e relati)e resistance is low and t#e corres4ondin' 4arallel
resonant im4edance 4ea+ is )ery s#ar4 and #i'#? T#is
is a common cause o, ca4acitor, trans,ormer, or load e2ui4ment ,ailure?
"#ile utility distri(ution en'ineers may (e a(le to 4lace ,eeder
(an+s wit# little concern a(out resonance, studies s#ould always (e
4er,ormed ,or industrial ca4acitor a44lications and ,or utility su(station a44lications?
!tility en'ineers ,amiliar wit# t#e 4ro(lems indicate
t#at a(out -> 4ercent o, industrial installations ,or w#ic# no studies
are 4er,ormed #a)e maAor o4eratin' disru4tions or e2ui4ment ,ailure
due to resonance? In ,act, selectin' ca4acitor si@es ,rom manu,acturersF
ta(les to correct t#e 4ower ,actor (ased on a)era'e mont#ly (illin' data
tends to result in a com(ination t#at tunes t#e system near t#e ,i,t#
#armonic? T#is is one o, t#e worst #armonics to w#ic# to (e tuned
(ecause it is ,re2uently t#e lar'est com4onent in t#e system?
It is a misconce4tion t#at resisti)e loads dam4 #armonics (ecause in
t#e a(sence o, resonance, loads o, any +ind will #a)e little im4act on
t#e #armonic currents and resultin' )olta'e distortion? .ost o, t#e current will ,low (ac+
into t#e 4ower source? Howe)er, it is )ery a44ro4riate to say t#at resisti)e loads will
dam4 resonance,w#ic# will lead to a
si'ni,icant reduction in t#e #armonic distortion?
.otor loads are 4rimarily inducti)e and 4ro)ide little dam4in'? In
,act, t#ey may increase distortion (y s#i,tin' t#e system resonant ,re2uency closer to a
si'ni,icant #armonic? Small, ,ractional%#orse4ower
motors may contri(ute si'ni,icantly to dam4in' (ecause t#eir a44arent
[ORratio is lower t#an t#at o, lar'e t#ree%4#ase motors?
6?1> E,,ects o, Harmonic istortion
Harmonic currents 4roduced (y nonlinear loads are inAected (ac+ into
t#e su44ly systems? T#ese currents can interact ad)ersely wit# a wide
#
N
>I Resisti)e 1oad
1>I
->I
/i'ure 6?31 E,,ect o, resisti)e loads on 4arallel resonance?
ran'e o, 4ower system e2ui4ment, most nota(ly ca4acitors, trans,ormers, and motors,
causin' additional losses, o)er#eatin', and o)erloadin'? T#ese #armonic currents can also
cause inter,erence wit#
telecommunication lines and errors in 4ower meterin'? Sections 6?1>?1
t#rou'# 6?1>?6 discuss im4acts o, #armonic distortion on )arious 4ower
system com4onents?
6?1>?1 Im4act on ca4acitors
Pro(lems in)ol)in' #armonics o,ten s#ow u4 at ca4acitor (an+s ,irst?
As discussed in Secs? 6?=?3 and 6?=?5, a ca4acitor (an+ e74eriences #i'#
)olta'e distortion durin' resonance? T#e current ,lowin' in t#e ca4acitor (an+ is also
si'ni,icantly lar'e and ric# in a monotonic #armonic?
/i'ure 6?3- s#ows a current wa)e,orm o, a ca4acitor (an+ in resonance
wit# t#e system at t#e 11t# #armonic? T#e #armonic current s#ows u4
distinctly, resultin' in a wa)e,orm t#at is essentially t#e 11t# #armonic ridin' on to4 o,
t#e ,undamental ,re2uency? T#is current wa)e,orm ty4ically indicates t#at t#e system is
in resonance and a ca4acitor
(an+ is in)ol)ed? In suc# a resonance condition, t#e rms current is ty4ically #i'#er t#an
t#e ca4acitor rms current ratin'?
IEEE Standard ,or S#unt Power Ca4acitors CIEEE Standard 1:%1==-D s4eci,ies t#e
,ollowin' continuous ca4acitor ratin's:
T 136 4ercent o, name4late +)ar
T 11> 4ercent o, rated rms )olta'e Cincludin' #armonics (ut e7cludin'
transientsD
T 1:> 4ercent o, rated rms current Cincludin' ,undamental and #armonic currentD
T 1-> 4ercent o, 4ea+ )olta'e Cincludin' #armonicsD
Ta(le 6?1 summari@es an e7am4le ca4acitor e)aluation usin' a com4uter s4reads#eet t#at
is desi'ned to #el4 e)aluate t#e )arious ca4acitor duties a'ainst t#e standards?
T#e ,undamental ,ull%load current ,or t#e 1->>%+)ar ca4acitor (an+
is determined ,rom
IC 6>?- A
T#e ca4acitor is su(Aected 4rinci4ally to two #armonics: t#e ,i,t# and
t#e se)ent#? T#e )olta'e distortion consists o, 5 4ercent ,i,t# and 3 4ercent se)ent#? T#is
results in -> 4ercent ,i,t# #armonic current and -1
4ercent se)ent# #armonic current? T#e resultant )alues all come out
1->>
313?:
+)ar3
3+&11
-1> C#a4ter /i)e
well (elow standard limits in t#is case, as s#own in t#e (o7 at t#e (ottom o, Ta(le 6?1?
6?1>?- Im4act on trans,ormers
Trans,ormers are desi'ned to deli)er t#e re2uired 4ower to t#e connected loads wit#
minimum losses at ,undamental ,re2uency?
Harmonic distortion o, t#e current, in 4articular, as well as o, t#e )olta'e will contri(ute
si'ni,icantly to additional #eatin'? To desi'n a
trans,ormer to accommodate #i'#er ,re2uencies, desi'ners ma+e di,,erent desi'n c#oices
suc# as usin' continuously trans4osed ca(le
instead o, solid conductor and 4uttin' in more coolin' ducts? As a 'eneral rule, a
trans,ormer in w#ic# t#e current distortion e7ceeds 6 4ercent is a candidate ,or deratin'
,or #armonics?
T#ere are t#ree e,,ects t#at result in increased trans,ormer #eatin'
w#en t#e load current includes #armonic com4onents:
1?R.S current? I, t#e trans,ormer is si@ed only ,or t#e +&A re2uirements o, t#e load,
#armonic currents may result in t#e trans,ormer
rms current (ein' #i'#er t#an its ca4acity? T#e increased total rms
current results in increased conductor losses?
-?Eddy current losses? T#ese are induced currents in a trans,ormer
caused (y t#e ma'netic ,lu7es? T#ese induced currents ,low in t#e
windin's, in t#e core, and in ot#er conductin' (odies su(Aected to
t#e ma'netic ,ield o, t#e trans,ormer and cause additional #eatin'?
T#is com4onent o, t#e trans,ormer losses increases wit# t#e s2uare
o, t#e ,re2uency o, t#e current causin' t#e eddy currents? T#ere,ore,
/undamentals o, Harmonics -11
>1>->3> V->>
V16>
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
->>
Time CmsD
Current CAD
/i'ure 6?3- Ty4ical ca4acitor current ,rom a system in 11t#%#armonic resonance?
t#is (ecomes a )ery im4ortant com4onent o, trans,ormer losses ,or
#armonic #eatin'?
3?Core losses? T#e increase in core losses in t#e 4resence o, #armonics will (e de4endent
on t#e e,,ect o, t#e #armonics on t#e a44lied
)olta'e and t#e desi'n o, t#e trans,ormer core? Increasin' t#e )olta'e distortion may
increase t#e eddy currents in t#e core laminations? T#e net im4act t#at t#is will #a)e
de4ends on t#e t#ic+ness o,
-1- C#a4ter /i)e
Recommended Practice ,or Esta(lis#in' Ca4acitor Ca4a(ilities
"#en Su44lied (y Nonsinusoidal &olta'es IEEE Std 1:%1=:>
Ca4acitor *an+ ata:
*an+ Ratin': 1->> +&Ar
&olta'e Ratin': 13:>> & C1%1D
O4eratin' &olta'e: 13:>> & C1%1D
Su44lied Com4ensation: 1->> +&Ar
/undamental Current Ratin': 6>?- Am4s
/undamental /re2uency: 8> H@
Ca4aciti)e Reactance: 16:?9>> j
Harmonic istri(ution o, *us &olta'e:
Harmonic
Num(er
/re2uency
CHert@D
&olt .a' &#
CI o, /und?D
&olt .a' &#
C&oltsD
1ine Current I#
CI o, /und?D
18>1>>?>> 9=89?5 1>>?>>
3 1:> >?>> >?> >?>>
6 3>> 5?>> 31:?9 ->?>>
9 5-> 3?>> -3=?> -1?>>
11 88> >?>> >?> >?>>
13 9:> >?>> >?> >?>>
19 1>-> >?>> >?> >?>>
1= 115> >?>> >?> >?>>
-1 1-8> >?>> >?> >?>>
-3 13:> >?>> >?> >?>>
-6 16>> >?>> >?> >?>>
&olta'e istortion CTHD: 6?>> I
R.S Ca4acitor &olta'e: 9=99?3= &olts
Ca4acitor Current istortion: -=?>> I
R.S Ca4acitor Current: 6-?-9 Am4s
Ca4acitor *an+ 1imits:
Calculated 1imit E7ceeds 1imit
Pea+ &olta'e: 1>9?>I 1->I No
R.S &olta'e: 1>>?1I 11>I No
R.S Current: 1>5?1I 1:>I No
+&Ar: 1>5?3I 136I No
TA*1E6?1 E7am4le Ca4acitor E)aluation
t#e core laminations and t#e 2uality o, t#e core steel? T#e increase
in t#ese losses due to #armonics is 'enerally not as critical as t#e
4re)ious two?
0uidelines ,or trans,ormer deratin' are detailed in ANSIOIEEE
Standard C69?11>%1==:, Recommended Practice ,or Esta(lis#in'
Trans,ormer Ca4a(ility "#en Su44lyin' Nonsinusoidal 1oad
Currents?T#e common <,actor used in t#e 4ower 2uality ,ield ,or
trans,ormer deratin' is also included in Ta(le 6?-?
-
T#e analysis re4resented in Ta(le 6?- can (e summari@ed as ,ollows?
T#e load loss P11can (e considered to #a)e two com4onents: I
-Rloss
and eddy current loss PEC:
P11 I
-
RPEC" C6?-9D
T#eI
-Rloss is directly 4ro4ortional to t#e rms )alue o, t#e current?
Howe)er, t#e eddy current is 4ro4ortional to t#e s2uare o, t#e current
and ,re2uency, w#ic# is de,ined (y
PEC <ECI
-#
-
C6?-:D
w#ere<ECis t#e 4ro4ortionality constant?
T#e 4er%unit ,ull%load loss under #armonic current conditions is
'i)en (y
P11 kI#
-CkI#
-#
-
DPECR C6?-=D
w#erePECRis t#e eddy current loss ,actor under rated conditions?
T#e<,actor
3
commonly ,ound in 4ower 2uality literature concernin'
trans,ormer deratin' can (e de,ined solely in terms o, t#e #armonic
currents as ,ollows:
TA*1E6?- Ty4ical &alues o, PECR
Ty4e .&A &olta'e PECR, I
ry
1 P 3V:
1?6 6 +& H& 1-V->
1?6 16 +& H& =V16
Oil%,illed
-?6 5:> & 1& 1
-?6V6 5:> & 1& 1V6
6 5:> & 1& =V16
< C6?3>D
T#en, in terms o, t#e <,actor, t#e rms o, t#e distorted current is
deri)ed to (e
kI#
-
C4uD C6?31D
w#erePECR eddy current loss ,actor
# #armonic num(er
I# #armonic current
T#us, t#e trans,ormer deratin' can (e estimated (y +nowin' t#e 4erunit eddy current loss
,actor? T#is ,actor can (e determined (y
1? O(tainin' t#e ,actor ,rom t#e trans,ormer desi'ner
-? !sin' trans,ormer test data and t#e 4rocedure in ANSIOIEEE
Standard C69?11>
3? Ty4ical )alues (ased on trans,ormer ty4e and si@e Csee Ta(le 6?-D
E7ce4tions? T#ere are o,ten cases wit# trans,ormers t#at do not a44ear
to #a)e a #armonics 4ro(lem ,rom t#e criteria 'i)en in Ta(le 6?-, yet are
runnin' #ot or ,ailin' due to w#at a44ears to (e o)erload? One common
case ,ound wit# 'rounded%wye trans,ormers is t#at t#e line currents
contain a(out : 4ercent t#ird #armonic, w#ic# is relati)ely low, and t#e
trans,ormer is o)er#eatin' at less t#an rated load? "#y would t#is
trans,ormer 4ass t#e #eat run test in t#e ,actory, and, 4er#a4s, an o)erload test also, and
,ail to 4er,orm as e74ected in 4ractice$ iscountin'
mec#anical coolin' 4ro(lems, c#ances are 'ood t#at t#ere is some conductin' element in
t#e ma'netic ,ield t#at is (ein' a,,ected (y t#e #armonic ,lu7es? T#ree o, se)eral
4ossi(ilities are as ,ollows:
T Nero%se2uence ,lu7es will Gesca4eH t#e core on t#ree%le''ed core
desi'ns Ct#e most 4o4ular desi'n ,or utility distri(ution su(station
trans,ormersD? T#is is illustrated in /i'? 6?33? T#e 3d, =t#, 16t#, etc?,
#armonics are 4redominantly @ero%se2uence? T#ere,ore, i, t#e windin'
connections are 4ro4er to allow @ero%se2uence current ,low, t#ese #armonic ,lu7es can
cause additional #eatin' in t#e tan+s, core clam4s,
etc?, t#at would not necessarily (e ,ound under (alanced t#ree%4#ase
or sin'le%4#ase tests? T#e : 4ercent line current 4re)iously mentioned
1PECR
1<PECR
kCI#
-#
-
D
kI#
-
-15 C#a4ter /i)e
translates to a neutral t#ird%#armonic current o, -5 4ercent o, t#e
4#ase current? T#is could add considera(ly to t#e lea+a'e ,lu7 in t#e
tan+ and in t#e oil and air s4ace? Two indicators are c#arred or (u((led 4aint on t#e tan+
and e)idence o, #eatin' on t#e end o, a (ayonet
,use tu(e Cwit#out (lowin' t#e ,useD or (us#in' end?
TC o,,sets in t#e current can also cause ,lu7 to Gesca4eH t#e con,ines o,
t#e core? T#e core will (ecome sli'#tly saturated on, ,or e7am4le, t#e
4ositi)e #al, cycle w#ile remainin' normal ,or t#e ne'ati)e #al, cycle?
T#ere are a num(er o, electronic 4ower con)erters t#at 4roduce current
wa)e,orms t#at are nonsymmetrical eit#er (y accident or (y desi'n?
T#is can result in a small dc o,,set on t#e load side o, t#e trans,ormer
Cit canFt (e measured ,rom t#e source sideD? Only a small amount o, dc
o,,set is re2uired to cause 4ro(lems wit# most 4ower trans,ormers?
T T#ere may (e a clam4in' structure, (us#in' end, or some ot#er conductin' element too
close to t#e ma'netic ,ield? It may (e su,,iciently
small in si@e t#at t#ere is no nota(le e,,ect in stray losses at ,undamental ,re2uency (ut
may 4roduce a #ot s4ot w#en su(Aected to #armonic ,lu7es?
6?1>?3 Im4act on motors
.otors can (e si'ni,icantly im4acted (y t#e #armonic )olta'e distortion? Harmonic
)olta'e distortion at t#e motor terminals is translated
TAN<
/1![ 1IN<S /!SE HO1ER OR
*!SHIN0 EN
HOT SPOTS ON TAN<
.A; CA!SE PAINT TO
*1ISTER OR CHAR
NERO%SEQ!ENCE /1![ IS IENTICA1
IN A11 THREE 1E0S
/i'ure 6?33 Nero%se2uence ,lu7 in t#ree%le''ed core trans,ormers enters t#e tan+ and t#e
air and oil s4ace?
into #armonic ,lu7es wit#in t#e motor? Harmonic ,lu7es do not contri(ute si'ni,icantly to
motor tor2ue, (ut rotate at a ,re2uency di,,erent
t#an t#e rotor sync#ronous ,re2uency, (asically inducin' #i'#%,re2uency currents in t#e
rotor? T#e e,,ect on motors is similar to t#at o,
ne'ati)e%se2uence currents at ,undamental ,re2uency: T#e additional
,lu7es do little more t#an induce additional losses? ecreased e,,iciency
alon' wit# #eatin', )i(ration, and #i'#%4itc#ed noises are indicators o,
#armonic )olta'e distortion?
At #armonic ,re2uencies, motors can usually (e re4resented (y t#e
(loc+ed rotor reactance connected across t#e line? T#e lower%order #armonic )olta'e
com4onents, ,or w#ic# t#e ma'nitudes are lar'er and
t#e a44arent motor im4edance lower, are usually t#e most im4ortant
,or motors?
T#ere is usually no need to derate motors i, t#e )olta'e distortion
remains wit#in IEEE Standard 61=%1==- limits o, 6 4ercent TH and
3 4ercent ,or any indi)idual #armonic? E7cessi)e #eatin' 4ro(lems
(e'in w#en t#e )olta'e distortion reac#es : to 1> 4ercent and #i'#er?
Suc# distortion s#ould (e corrected ,or lon' motor li,e?
.otors a44ear to (e in 4arallel wit# t#e 4ower system im4edance
wit# res4ect to t#e #armonic current ,low and 'enerally s#i,t t#e system resonance #i'#er
(y causin' t#e net inductance to decrease?
"#et#er t#is is detrimental to t#e system de4ends on t#e location o,
t#e system resonance 4rior to ener'i@in' t#e motor? .otors also may
contri(ute to t#e dam4in' o, some o, t#e #armonic com4onents de4endin' on t#e
[ORratio o, t#e (loc+ed rotor circuit? In systems wit# many
smaller%si@ed motors, w#ic# #a)e a low [ORratio, t#is could #el4 attenuate #armonic
resonance? Howe)er, one cannot de4end on t#is ,or lar'e
motors?
6?1>?5 Im4act on telecommunications
Harmonic currents ,lowin' on t#e utility distri(ution system or wit#in
an end%user ,acility can create inter,erence in communication circuits
s#arin' a common 4at#? &olta'es induced in 4arallel conductors (y t#e
common #armonic currents o,ten ,all wit#in t#e (andwidt# o, normal
)oice communications? Harmonics (etween 65> Cnint# #armonicD and
1->> H@ are 4articularly disru4ti)e? T#e induced )olta'e 4er am4ere o,
current increases wit# ,re2uency? Tri4len #armonics C3d, =t#, 16t#D are
es4ecially trou(lesome in ,our%wire systems (ecause t#ey are in 4#ase
in all conductors o, a t#ree%4#ase circuit and, t#ere,ore, add directly in
t#e neutral circuit, w#ic# #as t#e 'reatest e74osure wit# t#e communications circuit?
Harmonic currents on t#e 4ower system are cou4led into communication circuits (y
eit#er induction or direct conduction? /i'ure 6?35
illustrates cou4lin' ,rom t#e neutral o, an o)er#ead distri(ution line (y
-18 C#a4ter /i)e
induction? T#is was a se)ere 4ro(lem in t#e days o, o4en wire tele4#one
circuits? Now, wit# t#e 4re)alent use o, s#ielded, twisted%4air conductors ,or tele4#one
circuits, t#is mode o, cou4lin' is less si'ni,icant? T#e
direct inducti)e cou4lin' is e2ual in (ot# conductors, resultin' in @ero
net )olta'e in t#e loo4 ,ormed (y t#e conductors?
Inducti)e cou4lin' can still (e a 4ro(lem i, #i'# currents are induced
in t#e s#ield surroundin' t#e tele4#one conductors? Current ,lowin' in
t#e s#ield causes an IRdro4 C/i'? 6?36D, w#ic# results in a 4otential di,,erence in t#e
'round re,erences at t#e ends o, t#e tele4#one ca(le?
S#ield currents can also (e caused (y direct conduction? As illustrated
in /i'? 6?38, t#e s#ield is in 4arallel wit# t#e 4ower system 'round 4at#?
I, local 'round conditions are suc# t#at a relati)ely lar'e amount o, current ,lows in t#e
s#ield, #i'# s#ield IRdro4 will a'ain cause a 4otential
di,,erence in t#e 'round re,erences at t#e ends o, t#e tele4#one ca(le?
6?1>?6 Im4act on ener'y and demand
meterin'
Electric utility com4anies usually measure ener'y consum4tion in two
2uantities: t#e total cumulati)e ener'y consumed and t#e ma7imum
4ower used ,or a 'i)en 4eriod? T#us, t#ere are two c#ar'es in any 'i)en
(illin' 4eriod es4ecially ,or lar'er industrial customers: ener'y c#ar'es
and demand c#ar'es? Residential customers are ty4ically c#ar'ed ,or
t#e ener'y consum4tion only? T#e ener'y c#ar'e re4resents t#e costs o,
4roducin' and su44lyin' t#e total ener'y consumed o)er a (illin'
4eriod and is measured in +ilowatt%#ours? T#e second 4art o, t#e (ill,
t#e demand c#ar'e, re4resents utility costs to maintain ade2uate elec/undamentals o,
Harmonics -19
NE!TRA1
/1![
1IN<A0ES
CO..!NICATIONS
CA*1E
C!RRENT
/i'ure 6?35 Inducti)e cou4lin' o, 4ower system residual current to tele4#one circuit?
trical ca4acity at all times to meet eac# customerFs 4ea+ demand ,or
ener'y use? T#e demand c#ar'e re,lects t#e utilityFs ,i7ed cost in 4ro)idin' 4ea+ 4ower
re2uirements? T#e demand c#ar'e is usually determined (y t#e #i'#est 16% or 3>%min
4ea+ demand o, use in a (illin'
4eriod and is measured in +ilowatts?
*ot# ener'y and demand c#ar'es are measured usin' t#e so%called
watt#our and demand meters? A demand meter is usually inte'rated to
a watt#our meter wit# a timin' de)ice to re'ister t#e 4ea+ 4ower use
and returns t#e demand 4ointer to @ero at t#e end o, eac# timin' inter)al Cty4ically 16 or
3> minD?
Harmonic currents ,rom nonlinear loads can im4act t#e accuracy o,
watt#our and demand meters ad)ersely? Traditional watt#our meters
are (ased on t#e induction motor 4rinci4le? T#e rotor element or t#e
rotatin' dis+ inside t#e meter re)ol)es at a s4eed 4ro4ortional to t#e
4ower ,low? T#is dis+ in turn dri)es a series o, 'ears t#at mo)e dials on
a re'ister?
Con)entional ma'netic dis+ watt#our meters tend to #a)e a ne'ati)e
error at #armonic ,re2uencies? T#at is, t#ey re'ister low ,or 4ower at
#armonic ,re2uencies i, t#ey are 4ro4erly cali(rated ,or ,undamental
,re2uency? T#is error increases wit# increasin' ,re2uency? In 'eneral,
nonlinear loads tend to inAect #armonic 4ower (ac+ onto t#e su44ly system and linear
loads a(sor( #armonic 4ower due to t#e distortion in
t#e )olta'e? T#is is de4icted in /i'? 6?39 (y s#owin' t#e directions on
t#e currents?
-1: C#a4ter /i)e
T"ISTE
PAIR
SHIE1 ISHIE1
&1OOP
&C] CO..!NICATION
SI0NA1
d
/i'ure 6?36 IR dro4 in ca(le s#ield resultin' in 4otential di,,erences in 'round re,erences
at ends o, ca(le?
PO"ER S;STE. NE!TRA1
CO..!NICATIONS CA*1E
RESI!A1
C!RRENT
/i'ure 6?38 Conducti)e cou4lin' t#rou'# a common 'round 4at#?
T#us ,or t#e nonlinear load in /i'? 6?39, t#e meter would read
Pmeasured P1a3P3a6P6a9P9? ? ?
C6?3-D
w#erea3, a6, and a9are multi4lyin' ,actors C
1?>D t#at re4resent t#e
inaccuracy o, t#e meter at #armonic ,re2uency? T#e measured 4ower is
a little 'reater t#an t#at actually used in t#e load (ecause t#e meter
does not su(tract o,, 2uite all t#e #armonic 4owers? Howe)er, t#ese
4owers sim4ly 'o to ,eed t#e line and trans,ormer losses, and some
would ar'ue t#at t#ey s#ould not (e su(tracted at all? T#at is, t#e
customer inAectin' t#e #armonic currents s#ould 4ay somet#in' additional ,or t#e
increased losses in t#e 4ower deli)ery system?
In t#e case o, t#e linear load, t#e measured 4ower is
Pmeasured P1a3P3a6P6a9P9? ? ?
C6?33D
T#e linear load a(sor(s t#e additional ener'y, (ut t#e meter does not
re'ister as muc# ener'y as is actually consumed? T#e 2uestion is, oes
t#e customer really want t#e e7tra ener'y$ I, t#e load consists o,
motors, t#e answer is no, (ecause t#e e7tra ener'y results in losses
induced in t#e motors ,rom #armonic distortion? I, t#e load is resisti)e,
t#e ener'y is li+ely to (e e,,iciently consumed?
/ortunately, in most 4ractical cases w#ere t#e )olta'e distortion is
wit#in electricity su44ly recommended limits, t#e error is )ery small
Cmuc# less t#an 1 4ercentD? T#e latest electronic meters in use today
are (ased on time%di)ision and di'ital sam4lin'? T#ese electronic
meters are muc# more accurate t#an t#e con)entional watt#our meter
(ased on induction motor 4rinci4le? Alt#ou'# t#ese electronic watt#our
meters are a(le to measure #armonic com4onents, t#ey could (e set to
measure only t#e ,undamental 4ower? T#e user s#ould (e care,ul to
ascertain t#at t#e meters are measurin' t#e desired 2uantity?
T#e 'reatest 4otential errors occur w#en meterin' demand? T#e
meterin' error is t#e result o, i'norin' t#e 4ortion o, t#e a44arent
4ower t#at is due solely to t#e #armonic distortion? Some meterin'
sc#emes accurately measure t#e acti)e CPD and reacti)e 4ower CQD, (ut
/undamentals o, Harmonics -1=
etc?
I
1
I
6
I
3
I
9
I
1
I
6
I
3
I
9 etc?
CaD C(D
/i'ure 6?39 Nominal direction o, #armonic currents in CaD nonlinear load and C(D linear
load C)olta'e is distortedD?
(asically i'nore ?I,Qis determined (y a second watt#our meter ,ed
(y a )olta'e t#at is 4#ase%s#i,ted ,rom t#e ener'y meter, t#e term is
'enerally not accounted ,orPonlyQat t#e ,undamental is measured?
E)en some electronic meters do not account ,or t#e total a44arent
4ower 4ro4erly, alt#ou'# many newer meters are certi,ied to 4ro4erly
account ,or #armonics? T#us, t#e errors ,or t#is meterin' sc#eme are
suc# t#at t#e measured +&A demand is less t#an actual? T#e error
would (e in ,a)or o, t#e customer?
T#e worst errors occur w#en t#e total current at t#e meterin' site is
'reatly distorted? T#e total +&A demand can (e o,, (y 1> to 16 4ercent?
/ortunately, at t#e meterin' 4oint ,or total 4lant load, t#e current distortion is not as
'reatly distorted as indi)idual load currents?
T#ere,ore, t#e meterin' error is ,re2uently ,airly small? T#ere are,
#owe)er, some e7ce4tions to t#is suc# as 4um4in' stations w#ere a
P". dri)e is t#e only load on t#e meter? "#ile t#e ener'y meter
s#ould (e su,,iciently accurate 'i)en t#at t#e )olta'e #as low distortion, t#e demand
meterin' could #a)e su(stantial error?
6?11 Inter#armonics
Accordin' to t#e /ourier t#eory, a 4eriodic wa)e,orm can (e e74ressed
as a sum o, 4ure sine wa)es o, di,,erent am4litudes w#ere t#e ,re2uency o, eac# sinusoid
is an inte'er multi4le o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency o, t#e 4eriodic wa)e,orm? A
,re2uency t#at is an inte'er
multi4le o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency is called a #armonic ,re2uency,
i?e?,,# #,>w#ere,>and#are t#e ,undamental ,re2uency and an inte'er num(er, res4ecti)ely?
On t#e ot#er #and, t#e sum o, two or more 4ure sine wa)es wit# di,,erent am4litudes
w#ere t#e ,re2uency o, eac# sinusoid is not an inte'er multi4le o, t#e ,undamental
,re2uency does not necessarily result
in a 4eriodic wa)e,orm? T#is noninte'er multi4le o, t#e ,undamental
,re2uency is commonly +nown as an inter#armonic ,re2uency,i?e?,,i#
#i,>w#ere#i is a noninte'er num(er lar'er t#an unity? T#us in 4ractical terms,
inter#armonic ,re2uencies are ,re2uencies (etween two
adAacent #armonic ,re2uencies?
One 4rimary source o, inter#armonics is t#e wides4read use o, electronic 4ower
con)erter loads ca4a(le o, 4roducin' current distortion
o)er a w#ole ran'e o, ,re2uencies, i?e?, c#aracteristic and nonc#aracteristic ,re2uencies?
5
E7am4les o, t#ese loads are adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es
in industrial a44lications and P". in)erters in !PS a44lications,
acti)e ,ilters, and custom 4ower conditionin' e2ui4ment? As illustrated
in /i'? 6?1:, t#e ,ront end o, an adAusta(le%s4eed dri)e is ty4ically a
diode recti,ier t#at con)erts an incomin' ac )olta'e to a dc )olta'e? An
in)erter t#en con)erts t#e dc )olta'e to )aria(le ac )olta'e wit# )aria(le
--> C#a4ter /i)e
,re2uency? T#e in)erter can 4roduce inter#armonics in t#e current es4ecially w#en t#e
in)erter em4loys an async#ronous switc#in' sc#eme?
An async#ronous switc#in' sc#eme is w#en t#e ratio o, t#e switc#in'
,re2uency o, t#e 4ower electronic switc#es is an inte'er multi4le o, t#e
,undamental ,re2uency o, t#e in)erter )olta'e out4ut?
6
I, t#e #armonic
current 4asses t#rou'# t#e dc lin+ and 4ro4a'ates into t#e su44ly system, inter#armonic%
related 4ro(lems may arise?
Anot#er si'ni,icant source o, inter#armonic distortion commonly
comes ,rom ra4idly c#an'in' load current suc# as in induction ,urnaces
and cyclocon)erters? T#e ra4id ,luctuation o, load current causes side(and ,re2uencies to
a44ear around t#e ,undamental or #armonic ,re2uencies? T#e 'eneration o,
inter#armonics is (est illustrated usin' an
induction ,urnace e7am4le?
8
Induction ,urnaces #a)e (een widely used to #eat ,errous and non,errous stoc+s in t#e
,or'in' and e7trudin' industry? .odern induction
,urnaces use electronic 4ower con)erters to su44ly a )aria(le ,re2uency
to t#e ,urnace induction coil as s#own in /i'? 6?3:? T#e ,re2uency at t#e
meltin' coil )aries to matc# t#e ty4e o, material (ein' melted and t#e
amount o, t#e material in t#e ,urnace? T#e ,urnace coil and ca4acitor
,orm a resonant circuit, and t#e dc%to%ac in)erter dri)es t#e circuit to
+ee4 it in resonance? T#e inductance o, t#e coil )aries de4endin' on t#e
ty4e, tem4erature, and amount o, material as t#e ,urnace com4letes
one cycle to anot#er suc# as ,rom a melt to 4our cycle? T#is situation
results in a )aryin' o4eratin' ,re2uency ,or t#e ,urnace? T#e ty4ical
ran'e o, ,re2uencies ,or induction ,urnaces is 16> to 1->> H@?
"e now 4resent an e7am4le? An induction ,urnace #as a 1-%4ulse
current source desi'n wit# reactors on t#e dc lin+ to smoot# t#e current into t#e in)erter
as s#own in /i'? 6?3:? Ty4ical c#aracteristic #armonics in t#e ac%side line currents are
11t#, 13t#, -3rd, -6t#,h, wit#
some nonc#aracteristic #armonics suc# as t#e 6t# and 9t# also 4ossi(ly 4resent? Howe)er,
t#ere are also currents at noninte'er ,re2uencies
due to t#e interaction wit# t#e in)erter out4ut ,re2uency as t#e ,urnace
'oes ,rom one cycle to anot#er? T#e switc#in' o, t#e in)erter re,lects
t#e ,re2uency o, t#e ,urnace circuit to t#e ac%side 4ower t#rou'# small
4ertur(ations o, t#e dc lin+ current? T#is interaction results in inter#armonic ,re2uencies
at t#e ac side and (ears no relation to t#e 4ower
su44ly ,re2uency? T#e inter#armonics a44ear in 4airs at t#e ,ollowin'
,re2uencies:
-,ol,s, 5,ol,s, ? ? ? C6?35D
w#ere,oand,sare t#e ,urnace o4eratin' ,re2uency and t#e ,undamental o, t#e ac main
,re2uency, res4ecti)ely? T#us, i, t#e ,urnace o4erates
/undamentals o, Harmonics --1
at 18> H@, t#e ,irst inter#armonic currents will a44ear at -8> and 3:>
H@? T#e second 4air o, lesser ma'nitude will a44ear at 6:> and 9>> H@?
A ty4ical s4ectrum o, induction ,urnace current is s#own in /i'? 6?3=?
In t#is 4articular e7am4le, t#e ,i,t# #armonic was nonc#aracteristic
(ut was ,ound in si'ni,icant amounts in nearly all 4ractical 4ower systems? T#e
inter#armonic ,re2uencies mo)e slowly, ,rom se)eral seconds to se)eral minutes, t#rou'#
a wide ,re2uency ran'e as t#e ,urnace
com4letes its melt and 4our cycle? T#e wide ran'e o, t#e resultin'
inter#armonics can 4otentially e7cite resonances in t#e 4ower su44ly
system?
Our e7am4le illustrates #ow inter#armonics are 4roduced in modern
induction ,urnaces? Cyclocon)erters, adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es, induction motors wit#
wound rotor usin' su(sync#ronous con)erter cascades, and arcin' de)ices also 4roduce
inter#armonics in a similar
,as#ion?
Since inter#armonics can assume any )alues (etween #armonic ,re2uencies, t#e
inter#armonic s4ectrum must #a)e su,,icient ,re2uency
resolution? T#us, a sin'le%cycle wa)e,orm sam4le is no lon'er ade2uate
to com4ute t#e inter#armonic s4ectrum since it only 4ro)ides a ,re2uency resolution o,
6> or 8> H@? Any ,re2uency in (etween #armonic
,re2uencies is lost? T#e one%cycle wa)e,orm t#ou'# is commonly used
to com4ute t#e #armonic s4ectrum since t#ere is no ,re2uency (etween
#armonic ,re2uencies?
A 1-% or 1>%cycle wa)e,orm is t#en recommended ,or a 8>% or 6>%H@
4ower system to ac#ie)e #i'#er ,re2uency resolution? T#e resultin' ,re2uency resolution
is 6 H@?
9
Im4acts o, inter#armonics are similar to t#ose o, #armonics suc# as
,ilter o)erloadin', o)er#eatin', 4ower line carrier inter,erence, ri44le,
)olta'e ,luctuation, and ,lic+er?
9,:
Howe)er, sol)in' inter#armonic
4ro(lems can (e more c#allen'in', es4ecially w#en inter#armonic ,re%--- C#a4ter /i)e
CONTRO11E
RECTI/IER
dc%to%ac
IN&ERTER
dc 1IN<
/!RNACE
COI1
3%PHASE ac
8> H@
1%PHASE ac
16>%3>> H@
/i'ure 6?3: *loc+ dia'ram o, a modern induction ,urnace wit# a current source in)erter?
2uencies )ary ,rom time to time as do t#ose in induction ,urnaces?
*road(and ,ilters are usually used to miti'ate inter#armonic 4ro(lems? In t#e ne7t
c#a4ter CSec? 8?9D, a case study o, inter#armonics
causin' an electric cloc+ to 'o ,aster is 4resented?
6?1- Re,erences
1? Ener'y In,ormation A'ency, A 1oo+ at Commercial *uildin's in 1==6: C#aracteristics,
Ener'y Consum4tion and Ener'y E74enditures,OEOEIA%>8-6C=6D, Octo(er 1==:?
-? ? E? Rice, GAdAusta(le%S4eed ri)e and Power Recti,ier Harmonics? T#eir E,,ects on
Power System Com4onents,HIEEE Trans? on Industrial A44lications, IA%--C1D,
YanuaryO/e(ruary 1=:8, 44? 181V199?
3? Y? .? /ran+, GOri'in, e)elo4ment and esi'n o, <%/actor Trans,ormers,H in
Con,erence Record,1==5 IEEE Industry A44lications Society Annual .eetin',
en)er, Octo(er 1==5, 44? --93V--95?
5? IEC 81>>>%5%9, Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CDPPart 5%9, GTestin' and
.easurement Tec#ni2uesP0eneral 0uide on Harmonics and Inter#armonics
.easurements and Instrumentation, ,or Power Su44ly Systems and E2ui4ment
Connected T#ereto,H SC99A, ->>>, ra,t?
6? N? .o#an, T? .? !ndeland, "? P? Ro((ins, Power Electronics: Con)erters,
A44lications, and esi'n,-d ed?, Yo#n "iley ` Sons, New ;or+, 1==6?
8? R? C? u'an, 1? E Conrad, GIm4act o, Induction /urnace Inter#armonics on
istri(ution Systems,HProceedin's o, t#e 1=== IEEE Transmission and istri(ution
Con,erence,A4ril 1===, 44? 9=1V9=8?
9? "01 T/3 C ,or IEC 81>>>%1%5, Electroma'netic Com4ati(ilityCE.CD: GRationale
,or
1imitin' Power%/re2uency Conducted Harmonic and Inter#armonic Current
Emissions ,rom E2ui4ment in t#e /re2uency Ran'e !4 to = +H@,H SC99A, ->>1, ra,t?
:? IEEE Inter#armonic Tas+ /orce, GInter#armonics in Power Systems,H Ci're
38?>6OCIRE - CC>- &olta'e Quality "or+in' 0rou4, 1==9?
/undamentals o, Harmonics --3
> 1-> -5> 38> 5:> 8>> 9-> :5> =8> 1>:> 1->>
>?>
1>?>
->?>
3>?>
5>?>
/re2uencyCH@D
Current CAD
11t#
13t#
6t#
- ,>l8>
5 ,>l8>
/i'ure 6?3= Ty4ical s4ectrum o, induction ,urnace current?
6?13 *i(lio'ra4#y
Ac#a, Enri2ue, .adri'al, .anuel, Power Systems Harmonics: Com4uter .odellin' and
Analysis,Yo#n "iley ` Sons, New ;or+, ->>1?
Arrilla'a, Y?, "atson, Ne)ille R?, "ood, Alan R?, Smit#, *?C?, Power System Harmonic
Analysis,Yo#n "iley ` Sons, New ;or+, 1==9?
u'an, R? C?, .c0rana'#an, .? R?, Ri@y, ? T?, Sto)all, Y? P?, Electric Power System
Harmonics esi'n 0uide,ORN1OSu(O:1%=6>11O3, Oa+ Rid'e National 1a(oratory,
!?S? OE, Se4tem(er 1=:8?
--5 C#a4ter /i)e
--6
A44lied Harmonics
C#a4ter 6 s#owed #ow #armonics are 4roduced and #ow t#ey im4act
)arious 4ower system com4onents? T#is c#a4ter s#ows ways to deal
wit# t#em, i?e?, #ow to
T E)aluate #armonic distortion
T Pro4erly control #armonics
T Per,orm a #armonic study
T esi'n a ,ilter (an+
T#is c#a4ter will also 4resent re4resentati)e case studies?
8?1 Harmonic istortion E)aluations
As discussed in C#a4? 6, #armonic currents 4roduced (y nonlinear
loads can interact ad)ersely wit# t#e utility su44ly system? T#e interaction o,ten 'i)es
rise to )olta'e and current #armonic distortion
o(ser)ed in many 4laces in t#e system? T#ere,ore, to limit (ot# )olta'e
and current #armonic distortion, IEEE Standard 61=%1==-
-
4ro4oses to
limit #armonic current inAection ,rom end users so t#at #armonic )olta'e le)els on t#e
o)erall 4ower system will (e acce4ta(le i, t#e 4ower
system does not inordinately accentuate t#e #armonic currents? T#is
a44roac# re2uires 4artici4ation ,rom (ot# end users and utilities?
1V3
1?End users? /or indi)idual end users, IEEE Standard 61=%1==-
limits t#e le)el o, #armonic current inAection at t#e 4oint o, common
cou4lin' CPCCD? T#is is t#e 2uantity end users #a)e control o)er?
Recommended limits are 4ro)ided ,or (ot# indi)idual #armonic com4onents and t#e total
demand distortion? T#e conce4t o, PCC is illusC#a4ter
8
trated in /i'? 8?1? T#ese limits are e74ressed in terms o, a 4ercenta'e
o, t#e end userFs ma7imum demand current le)el, rat#er t#an as a 4ercenta'e o, t#e
,undamental? T#is is intended to 4ro)ide a common (asis
,or e)aluation o)er time?
-?T#e utility? Since t#e #armonic )olta'e distortion on t#e utility
system arises ,rom t#e interaction (etween distorted load currents and
t#e utility system im4edance, t#e utility is mainly res4onsi(le ,or limitin' t#e )olta'e
distortion at t#e PCC? T#e limits are 'i)en ,or t#e
ma7imum indi)idual #armonic com4onents and ,or t#e total #armonic
distortion CTHD? T#ese )alues are e74ressed as t#e 4ercenta'e o, t#e
,undamental )olta'e? /or systems (elow 8= +&, t#e TH s#ould (e less
t#an 6 4ercent? Sometimes t#e utility system im4edance at #armonic
,re2uencies is determined (y t#e resonance o, 4ower ,actor correction
ca4acitor (an+s? T#is results in a )ery #i'# im4edance and #i'# #armonic )olta'es?
T#ere,ore, com4liance wit# IEEE Standard 61=%1==-
o,ten means t#at t#e utility must ensure t#at system resonances do not
coincide wit# #armonic ,re2uencies 4resent in t#e load currents?
T#us, in 4rinci4le, end users and utilities s#are res4onsi(ility ,or limitin' #armonic
current inAections and )olta'e distortion at t#e PCC?
Since t#ere are two 4arties in)ol)ed in limitin' #armonic distortions,
t#e e)aluation o, #armonic distortion is di)ided into two 4arts: measurements o, t#e
currents (ein' inAected (y t#e load and calculations o,
t#e ,re2uency res4onse o, t#e system im4edance? .easurements
s#ould (e ta+en continuously o)er a su,,icient 4eriod o, time so t#at
time )ariations and statistical c#aracteristics o, t#e #armonic distortion can (e accurately
re4resented? S4oradic measurements s#ould (e
a)oided since t#ey do not re4resent #armonic c#aracteristics accurately 'i)en t#at
#armonics are a continuous 4#enomenon? T#e minimum measurement 4eriod is usually 1
wee+ since t#is 4ro)ides a
re4resentati)e loadin' cycle ,or most industrial and commercial loads?
8?1?1 Conce4t o, 4oint o, common cou4lin'
E)aluations o, #armonic distortion are usually 4er,ormed at a 4oint
(etween t#e end user or customer and t#e utility system w#ere anot#er
customer can (e ser)ed? T#is 4oint is +nown as t#e 4oint o, common
cou4lin'?
1
T#e PCC can (e located at eit#er t#e 4rimary side or t#e secondary
side o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer de4endin' on w#et#er or not multi4le
customers are su44lied ,rom t#e trans,ormer? In ot#er words, i, multi4le customers are
ser)ed ,rom t#e 4rimary o, t#e trans,ormer, t#e PCC
is t#en located at t#e 4rimary? On t#e ot#er #and, i, multi4le customers
are ser)ed ,rom t#e secondary o, t#e trans,ormer, t#e PCC is located at
t#e secondary? /i'ure 8?1 illustrates t#ese two 4ossi(ilities?
--8 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
Note t#at w#en t#e 4rimary o, t#e trans,ormer is t#e PCC, current
measurements ,or )eri,ication can still (e 4er,ormed at t#e trans,ormer secondary? T#e
measurement results s#ould (e re,erred to t#e
trans,ormer #i'# side (y t#e turns ratio o, t#e trans,ormer, and t#e
e,,ect o, trans,ormer connection on t#e @ero%se2uence com4onents must
(e ta+en into account? /or instance, a delta%wye connected trans,ormer
will not allow @ero%se2uence current com4onents to ,low ,rom t#e secondary to t#e
4rimary system? T#ese secondary com4onents will (e
tra44ed in t#e 4rimary delta windin'? T#ere,ore, @ero%se2uence comA44lied Harmonics
--9
Customer under Study
Ot#er !tility
Customers
!tility System
PCC
I
1
Customer under Study
Ot#er !tility
Customers
!tility System
PCC
I
1
CaD
C(D
/i'ure 8?1 PCC selection de4ends on w#ere multi4le customers are ser)ed? CaD PCC at
t#e trans,ormer 4rimary w#ere multi4le customers are ser)ed? C(D PCC at t#e trans,ormer
secondary w#ere multi4le customers are ser)ed?
A44lied Harmonics
4onents Cw#ic# are (alanced tri4len #armonic com4onentsD measured
on t#e secondary side would not (e included in t#e e)aluation ,or a PCC
on t#e 4rimary side?
8?1?- Harmonic e)aluations on t#e
utility system
Harmonic e)aluations on t#e utility system in)ol)e 4rocedures to
determine t#e acce4ta(ility o, t#e )olta'e distortion ,or all customers?
S#ould t#e )olta'e distortion e7ceed t#e recommended limits, correcti)e actions will (e
ta+en to reduce t#e distortion to a le)el wit#in limits? IEEE Standard 61=%1==- 4ro)ides
'uidelines ,or acce4ta(le le)els
o, )olta'e distortion on t#e utility system? T#ese are summari@ed in
Ta(le 8?1? Note t#at t#e recommended limits are s4eci,ied ,or t#e ma7imum indi)idual
#armonic com4onent and ,or t#e TH?
Note t#at t#e de,inition o, t#e total #armonic distortion in Ta(le 8?1
is sli'#tly di,,erent t#an t#e con)entional de,inition? T#e TH )alue in
t#is ta(le is e74ressed as a ,unction o, t#e nominalsystem rms )olta'e
rat#er t#an o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency )olta'e ma'nitude at t#e
time o, t#e measurement? T#e de,inition used #ere allows t#e e)aluation o, t#e )olta'e
distortion wit# res4ect to ,i7ed limits rat#er t#an
limits t#at ,luctuate wit# t#e system )olta'e? A similar conce4t is
a44lied ,or t#e current limits?
T#ere are two im4ortant com4onents ,or limitin' )olta'e distortion
le)els on t#e o)erall utility system:
1? Harmonic currents inAected ,rom indi)idual end users on t#e system must (e limited?
T#ese currents 4ro4a'ate toward t#e su44ly
source t#rou'# t#e system im4edance, creatin' )olta'e distortion?
T#us (y limitin' t#e amount o, inAected #armonic currents, t#e )olta'e
distortion can (e limited as well? T#is is indeed t#e (asic met#od o, controllin' t#e
o)erall distortion le)els 4ro4osed (y IEEE Standard 61=%1==-?
-? T#e o)erall )olta'e distortion le)els can (e e7cessi)ely #i'# e)en
i, t#e #armonic current inAections are wit#in limits? T#is condition
--: C#a4ter Si7
TA*1E8?1 Harmonic &olta'e istortion 1imits in Percent o,
Nominal /undamental /re2uency &olta'e
*us )olta'e at Indi)idual #armonic Total )olta'e
PCC,&nC+&D )olta'e distortion CID distortion, TH&n
CID
&n 8= 3?> 6?>
8=&n 181 1?6 -?6
&n181 1?> 1?6
SO!RCE: IEEE Standard 61=%1==-, ta(le 11?1?
A44lied Harmonics
occurs 4rimarily w#en one o, t#e #armonic current ,re2uencies is close
to a system resonance ,re2uency? T#is can result in unacce4ta(le )olta'e distortion le)els
at some system locations? T#e #i'#est )olta'e distortion will 'enerally occur at a
ca4acitor (an+ t#at 4artici4ates in t#e
resonance? T#is location can (e remote ,rom t#e 4oint o, inAection?
&olta'e limit e)aluation 4rocedure? T#e o)erall 4rocedure ,or utility system #armonic
e)aluation is descri(ed #ere? T#is 4rocedure is a44lica(le to (ot# e7istin' and 4lanned
installations? /i'ure 8?- s#ows a
,lowc#art o, t#e e)aluation 4rocedure?
1?C#aracteri@ation o, #armonic sources? C#aracteristics o, #armonic sources on t#e
system are (est determined wit# measurements
,or e7istin' installations? T#ese measurements s#ould (e 4er,ormed at
,acilities sus4ected o, #a)in' o,,endin' nonlinear loads? T#e duration
o, measurements is usually at least 1 wee+ so t#at all t#e cyclical load
A44lied Harmonics --=
C
Start
E7istin'
or
4lanned ,acility
C#aracteri@e
#armonic sources
usin'
manu,acturerFs data Harmonic
measurements
.odel t#e system,
and
determine system
resonance condition
E)aluate distortion
le)els
C
&olta'e
limits
e7ceeded$
E)aluate
#armonic
control sc#eme
ONE
At t#e
utility side
At t#e
customer side
E7istin'
Planned or new ;es
No
/i'ure 8?- &olta'e limit e)aluation 4rocedure?
A44lied Harmonics
)ariations can (e ca4tured? /or new or 4lanned installations, #armonic
c#aracteristics 4ro)ided (y manu,acturers may su,,ice?
-?System modelin'? T#e system res4onse to t#e #armonic currents
inAected at end%user locations or (y nonlinear de)ices on t#e 4ower system is determined
(y de)elo4in' a com4uter model o, t#e system?
istri(ution and transmission system models are de)elo4ed as
descri(ed in Sec? 8?5?
3?System ,re2uency res4onse? Possi(le system resonances s#ould
(e determined (y a ,re2uency scan o, t#e entire 4ower deli)ery system?
/re2uency scans are 4er,ormed ,or all ca4acitor (an+ con,i'urations o,
interest since ca4acitor con,i'uration is t#e main )aria(le t#at will
a,,ect t#e resonant ,re2uencies?
5?E)aluate e74ected distortion le)els? E)en wit# system resonance
close to c#aracteristic #armonics, t#e )olta'e distortion le)els around
t#e system may (e acce4ta(le? On distri(ution systems, most resonances are si'ni,icantly
dam4ed (y t#e resistances on t#e system,
w#ic# reduces ma'ni,ication o, t#e #armonic currents? T#e estimated
#armonic sources are used wit# t#e system con,i'uration yieldin' t#e
worst%case ,re2uency%res4onse c#aracteristics to com4ute t#e #i'#est
e74ected #armonic distortion? T#is will indicate w#et#er or not #armonic miti'ation
measures are necessary?
6?E)aluate #armonic control sc#eme? Harmonic control o4tions
consist o, controllin' t#e #armonic inAection ,rom nonlinear loads,
c#an'in' t#e system ,re2uency%res4onse c#aracteristics, or (loc+in'
t#e ,low o, #armonic currents (y a44lyin' #armonic ,ilters? esi'n o,
4assi)e ,ilters ,or some systems can (e di,,icult (ecause t#e system
c#aracteristics are constantly c#an'in' as loads )ary and ca4acitor
(an+s are switc#ed? Section 8?- discusses #armonic controls in detail?
8?1?3 Harmonic e)aluation ,or end%user
,acilities
Harmonic 4ro(lems are more common at end%user ,acilities t#an on t#e
utility su44ly system? .ost nonlinear loads are located wit#in end%user
,acilities, and t#e #i'#est )olta'e distortion le)els occur close to #armonic sources? T#e
most si'ni,icant 4ro(lems occur w#en t#ere are
nonlinear loads and 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors t#at result in
resonant conditions?
IEEE Standard 61=%1==- esta(lis#es #armonic current distortion
limits at t#e PCC? T#e limits, summari@ed in Ta(le 8?-, are de4endent
on t#e customer load in relation to t#e system s#ort%circuit ca4acity at
t#e PCC?
T#e )aria(les and additional restrictions to t#e limits 'i)en in Ta(le
8?- are:
-3> C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
T I#is t#e ma'nitude o, indi)idual #armonic com4onents Crms am4sD?
T ISCis t#e s#ort%circuit current at t#e PCC?
T I1is t#e ,undamental com4onent o, t#e ma7imum demand load current at t#e PCC? It
can (e calculated as t#e a)era'e o, t#e ma7imum
mont#ly demand currents ,or t#e 4re)ious 1- mont#s or it may #a)e
to (e estimated?
T T#e indi)idual #armonic com4onent limits a44ly to t#e odd%#armonic com4onents?
E)en%#armonic com4onents are limited to -6 4ercent o, t#e limits?
T Current distortion w#ic# results in a dc o,,set at t#e PCC is not
allowed?
T T#e total demand distortion CTD is e74ressed in terms o, t#e ma7imum demand load
current, i?e?,
T1>>I C8?1D
T I, t#e #armonic%4roducin' loads consist o, 4ower con)erters wit#
4ulse num(er 2#i'#er t#an 8, t#e limits indicated in Ta(le 8?- are
increased (y a ,actor e2ual to 2O8 ?
-
I
-
#
I1
A44lied Harmonics -31
TA*1E8?- Harmonic Current istortion 1imits CI
#
D in Percent o, I
1
&n 8= +&
ISCOI1 #11 11 #19 19 #-3 -3 #36 36 # T
-> 5?> -?> 1?6 >?8 >?3 6?>
->V6> 9?> 3?6 -?6 1?> >?6 :?>
6>V1>> 1>?> 5?6 5?> 1?6 >?9 1-?>
1>>V1>>> 1-?> 6?6 6?> -?> 1?> 16?>
1>>> 16?> 9?> 8?> -?6 1?5 ->?>
8= +& &n 181 +&
->Z -?> 1?> >?96 >?3 >?16 -?6
->V6> 3?6 1?96 1?-6 >?6 >?-6 5?>
6>V1>> 6?> -?-6 -?> >?96 >?36 8?>
1>>V1>>> 8?> -?96 -?6 1?> >?6 9?6
1>>> 9?6 3?6 3?> 1?-6 >?9 1>?>
&n181 +&
6> -?> 1?> >?96 >?3 >?16 -?6
6> 3?> 1?6> 1?16 >?56 >?-- 3?96
ZAll 4ower 'eneration e2ui4ment a44lications are limited to t#ese )alues o, current
distortion re'ard less o, t#e actual s#ort%circuit current ratio ISCOI1?
SO!RCE: IEEE Standard 61=%1==-, ta(les 1>?3, 1>?5, 1>?6?
A44lied Harmonics
In com4utin' t#e s#ort%circuit current at t#e PCC, t#e normal system
conditions t#at result in minimum s#ort%circuit ca4acity at t#e PCC
s#ould (e used since t#is condition results in t#e most se)ere system
im4acts?
A 4rocedure to determine t#e s#ort%circuit ratio is as ,ollows:
1? etermine t#e t#ree%4#ase s#ort%circuit duty ISCat t#e PCC? T#is
)alue may (e o(tained directly ,rom t#e utility and e74ressed in
am4eres? I, t#e s#ort%circuit duty is 'i)en in me'a)oltam4eres, con)ert it to an am4era'e
)alue usin' t#e ,ollowin' e74ression:
ISC A C8?-D
w#ere .&A and +& re4resent t#e t#ree%4#ase s#ort%circuit ca4acity
in me'a)oltam4eres and t#e line%to%line )olta'e at t#e PCC in +&,
res4ecti)ely?
-? /ind t#e load a)era'e +ilowatt demand Po)er t#e most recent 1-
mont#s? T#is can (e ,ound ,rom (illin' in,ormation?
3? Con)ert t#e a)era'e +ilowatt demand to t#e a)era'e demand current in am4eres usin'
t#e ,ollowin' e74ression:
I1 A C8?3D
w#ereP/is t#e a)era'e (illed 4ower ,actor?
5? T#e s#ort%circuit ratio is now determined (y:
S#ort%circuit ratio C8?5D
T#is is t#e s#ort%circuit ratio used to determine t#e limits on #armonic currents in IEEE
Standard 61=%1==-?
In some instances, t#e a)era'e o, t#e ma7imum demand load current
at t#e PCC ,or t#e 4re)ious 1- mont#s is not a)aila(le? In suc# circumstances, t#is )alue
must (e estimated (ased on t#e 4redicted load
4ro,iles? /or seasonal loads, t#e a)era'e s#ould (e o)er t#e ma7imum
loads only?
Current limit e)aluation 4rocedure? T#is 4rocedure in)ol)es e)aluation
o, t#e #armonic 'eneration c#aracteristics ,rom indi)idual end%user
loads wit# res4ect to IEEE Standard 61=%1==- limits? Howe)er, s4ecial
consideration is re2uired w#en considerin' 4ower ,actor correction
e2ui4ment?
ISC
I1
+"
P/ 3 +&
1>>>.&A
3+&
-3- C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
1? e,ine t#e PCC? /or industrial and commercial end users, t#e PCC is
usually at t#e 4rimary side o, a ser)ice trans,ormer su44lyin' t#e ,acility?
-? Calculate t#e s#ort%circuit ratio at t#e PCC and ,ind t#e corres4ondin' limits on
indi)idual #armonics and on t#e T?
3? C#aracteri@e t#e #armonic sources? Indi)idual nonlinear loads in t#e
,acility com(ine to ,orm t#e o)erall le)el o, #armonic current 'eneration?
T#e (est way to c#aracteri@e #armonic current in an e7istin' ,acility is to
4er,orm measurements at t#e PCC o)er a 4eriod o, time Cat least 1 wee+D?
/or 4lannin' studies, t#e #armonic current can (e estimated +nowin' t#e
c#aracteristics o, indi)idual nonlinear loads and t#e 4ercenta'e o, t#e
total load made u4 (y t#ese nonlinear loads? Ty4ical c#aracteristics o, indi)idual
#armonic sources were 4resented in Secs? 6?8 and 6?9?
5? E)aluate #armonic current le)els wit# res4ect to current limits
usin' Ta(le 8?-? I, t#ese )alues e7ceed limits, t#e ,acility does not meet
t#e limit recommended (y IEEE Standard 61=%1==- and miti'ation
may (e re2uired?
8?- Princi4les ,or Controllin' Harmonics
Harmonic distortion is 4resent to some de'ree on all 4ower systems?
/undamentally, one needs to control #armonics only w#en t#ey (ecome
a 4ro(lem? T#ere are t#ree common causes o, #armonic 4ro(lems:
1? T#e source o, #armonic currents is too 'reat?
-? T#e 4at# in w#ic# t#e currents ,low is too lon' CelectricallyD, resultin' in eit#er #i'#
)olta'e distortion or tele4#one inter,erence?
3? T#e res4onse o, t#e system ma'ni,ies one or more #armonics to a
'reater de'ree t#an can (e tolerated?
"#en a 4ro(lem occurs, t#e (asic o4tions ,or controllin' #armonics are:
1? Reduce t#e #armonic currents 4roduced (y t#e load?
-? Add ,ilters to eit#er si4#on t#e #armonic currents o,, t#e system,
(loc+ t#e currents ,rom enterin' t#e system, or su44ly t#e #armonic
currents locally?
3? .odi,y t#e ,re2uency res4onse o, t#e system (y ,ilters, inductors, or
ca4acitors?
T#ese o4tions are descri(ed in Secs? 8?-?1 t#rou'# 8?-?3?
8?-?1 Reducin' #armonic currents in loads
T#ere is o,ten little t#at can (e done wit# e7istin' load e2ui4ment to
si'ni,icantly reduce t#e amount o, #armonic current it is 4roducin'
unless it is (ein' miso4erated? "#ile an o)ere7cited trans,ormer can (e
(rou'#t (ac+ into normal o4eration (y lowerin' t#e a44lied )olta'e to
A44lied Harmonics
t#e correct ran'e, arcin' de)ices and most electronic 4ower con)erters
are loc+ed into t#eir desi'ned c#aracteristics?
P". dri)es t#at c#ar'e t#e dc (us ca4acitor directly ,rom t#e line
wit#out any intentional im4edance are one e7ce4tion to t#is? Addin' a
line reactor or trans,ormer in series Cas s#own in Sec? 6?9?1D will si'ni,icantly reduce
#armonics, as well as 4ro)ide transient 4rotection (ene,its?
Trans,ormer connections can (e em4loyed to reduce #armonic currents in t#ree%4#ase
systems? P#ase%s#i,tin' #al, o, t#e 8%4ulse 4ower
con)erters in a 4lant load (y 3>i can a44ro7imate t#e (ene,its o, 1-%4ulse loads (y
dramatically reducin' t#e ,i,t# and se)ent# #armonics?
elta%connected trans,ormers can (loc+ t#e ,low o, @ero%se2uence #armonics Cty4ically
tri4lensD ,rom t#e line? Ni'@a' and 'roundin' trans,ormers can s#unt t#e tri4lens o,, t#e
line?
Purc#asin' s4eci,ications can 'o a lon' way toward 4re)entin' #armonic 4ro(lems (y
4enali@in' (ids ,rom )endors wit# #i'# #armonic
content? T#is is 4articularly im4ortant ,or suc# loads as #i'#%e,,iciency
li'#tin'?
8?-?- /ilterin'
T#e s#unt ,ilter wor+s (y s#ort%circuitin' #armonic currents as close to
t#e source o, distortion as 4ractical? T#is +ee4s t#e currents out o, t#e
su44ly system? T#is is t#e most common ty4e o, ,ilterin' a44lied
(ecause o, economics and (ecause it also tends to correct t#e load 4ower
,actor as well as remo)e t#e #armonic current?
Anot#er a44roac# is to a44ly a series ,ilter t#at (loc+s t#e #armonic
currents? T#is is a 4arallel%tuned circuit t#at o,,ers a #i'# im4edance
to t#e #armonic current? It is not o,ten used (ecause it is di,,icult to
insulate and t#e load )olta'e is )ery distorted? One common a44lication is in t#e neutral
o, a 'rounded%wye ca4acitor to (loc+ t#e ,low o,
tri4len #armonics w#ile still retainin' a 'ood 'round at ,undamental
,re2uency?
Acti)e ,ilters wor+ (y electronically su44lyin' t#e #armonic com4onent o, t#e current
into a nonlinear load? .ore in,ormation on ,ilterin'
is 'i)en in Sec? 8?6?
8?-?3 .odi,yin' t#e system ,re2uency
res4onse
T#ere are a num(er o, met#ods to modi,y ad)erse system res4onses to
#armonics:
1? Add a s#unt ,ilter? Not only does t#is s#unt a trou(lesome #armonic
current o,, t#e system, (ut it com4letely c#an'es t#e system
res4onse, most o,ten, (ut not always, ,or t#e (etter?
-35 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
-? Add a reactor to detune t#e system? Harm,ul resonances 'enerally
occur (etween t#e system inductance and s#unt 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors? T#e
reactor must (e added (etween t#e ca4acitor
and t#e su44ly system source? One met#od is to sim4ly 4ut a reactor in series wit# t#e
ca4acitor to mo)e t#e system resonance wit#out actually tunin' t#e ca4acitor to create a
,ilter? Anot#er is to add
reactance in t#e line?
3? C#an'e t#e ca4acitor si@e? T#is is o,ten one o, t#e least e74ensi)e
o4tions ,or (ot# utilities and industrial customers?
5? .o)e a ca4acitor to a 4oint on t#e system wit# a di,,erent s#ort%circuit im4edance or
#i'#er losses? T#is is also an o4tion ,or utilities
w#en a new (an+ causes tele4#one inter,erencePmo)in' t#e (an+
to anot#er (ranc# o, t#e ,eeder may )ery well resol)e t#e 4ro(lem?
T#is is ,re2uently not an o4tion ,or industrial users (ecause t#e
ca4acitor cannot (e mo)ed ,ar enou'# to ma+e a di,,erence?
6? Remo)e t#e ca4acitor and sim4ly acce4t t#e #i'#er losses, lower
)olta'e, and 4ower ,actor 4enalty? I, tec#nically ,easi(le, t#is is occasionally t#e (est
economic c#oice?
8?3 "#ere to Control Harmonics
T#e strate'ies ,or miti'atin' #armonic distortion 4ro(lems di,,er
somew#at (y location? T#e ,ollowin' tec#ni2ues are ways ,or controllin' #armonic
distortion on (ot# t#e utility distri(ution ,eeder and enduser 4ower system?
8?3?1 On utility distri(ution ,eeders
T#e[ORratio o, a utility distri(ution ,eeder is 'enerally low? T#ere,ore,
t#e ma'ni,ication o, #armonics (y resonance wit# ,eeder (an+s is usually minor in
com4arison to w#at mi'#t (e ,ound inside an industrial
,acility? !tility distri(ution en'ineers are accustomed to 4lacin' ,eeder
(an+s w#ere t#ey are needed wit#out concern a(out #armonics?
Howe)er, )olta'e distortion ,rom t#e resonance o, ,eeder (an+s may
e7ceed limits in a ,ew cases and re2uire miti'ation? "#en 4ro(lems do
occur, t#e usual strate'y is to ,irst attem4t a solution (y mo)in' t#e
o,,endin' (an+ or c#an'in' t#e ca4acitor si@e or neutral connection?
Some #armonic 4ro(lems associated wit# ,eeder ca4acitor (an+s are
due to increasin' t#e tri4len #armonics in t#e neutral circuit o, t#e
,eeder? To c#an'e t#e ,low o, @ero%se2uence #armonic currents, c#an'es
are made to t#e neutral connection o, wye%connected (an+s? To (loc+
t#e ,low, t#e neutral is allowed to ,loat? In ot#er cases, it is more ad)anA44lied
Harmonics -36
A44lied Harmonics
ta'eous to aid t#e ,low (y 4uttin' a reactor in t#e neutral to con)ert t#e
(an+ into a tuned resonant s#unt ,or a @ero%se2uence #armonic?
Harmonic 4ro(lems on distri(ution ,eeders o,ten e7ist only at li'#t
load? T#e )olta'e rises, causin' t#e distri(ution trans,ormers to 4roduce more #armonic
currents and t#ere is less load to dam4 out resonance? Switc#in' t#e ca4acitors o,, at t#is
time ,re2uently sol)es t#e
4ro(lem?
S#ould #armonic currents ,rom widely dis4ersed sources re2uire
,ilterin' on distri(ution ,eeders, t#e 'eneral idea is to distri(ute a
,ew ,ilters toward t#e ends o, t#e ,eeder? "#ile t#is is not done ,re2uently, t#e num(er o,
,eeder ,ilter installations is 'rowin'? /i'ure
8?3 s#ows one e7am4le o, a ,ilter installed on an o)er#ead distri(ution ,eeder? T#is
s#ortens t#e a)era'e 4at# ,or t#e #armonic currents, reducin' t#e o44ortunity ,or
tele4#one inter,erence and
reducin' t#e #armonic )olta'e dro4 in t#e lines? T#e ,ilters a44ear as
nearly a s#ort circuit to at least one #armonic com4onent? T#is +ee4s
t#e )olta'e distortion on t#e ,eeder to a minimum? "it# t#e ends o,
t#e ,eeder Gnailed downH (y ,ilters wit# res4ect to t#e )olta'e distortion, it is more
di,,icult ,or t#e )olta'e distortion to rise a(o)e limits
elsew#ere?
Harmonic ,low studies s#ould always (e 4er,ormed w#en lar'e
ca4acitor (an+s are installed in distri(ution su(stations? One cannot
count on system losses to dam4 out resonance at t#is 4oint on t#e system, and
ma'ni,ication (y resonance can (e se)ere?
-38 C#a4ter Si7
/i'ure 8?3 /ilter installation on an o)er#ead distri(ution ,eeder? Oil%insulated,
iron%core reactors are mounted on a se4arate 4ole ,rom t#e ca4acitor (an+ and
switc#es? CCourtesy o, 0il(ert Electrical Systems?D
A44lied Harmonics
8?3?- In end%user ,acilities
"#en #armonic 4ro(lems arise in an end%user ,acility, t#e ,irst ste4 is
to determine i, t#e main cause is resonance wit# 4ower ,actor ca4acitors in t#e ,acility?
"#en it is, ,irst attem4t a sim4le solution (y usin'
a di,,erent ca4acitor si@e? "it# automatic 4ower ,actor controllers, it
may (e 4ossi(le to select a control sc#eme t#at a)oids t#e con,i'uration
t#at causes 4ro(lems? In ot#er cases, t#ere will (e so many ca4acitors
switc#ed at random wit# loads t#at it will (e im4ossi(le to a)oid resonant conditions?
/ilterin' will (e necessary?
Installation o, ,ilters on end%user low%)olta'e systems is 'enerally
more 4ractical and economical t#an on utility distri(ution systems?
T#e criteria ,or ,ilter installation are more easily met, and ,ilterin'
e2ui4ment is more readily a)aila(le on t#e mar+et?
"#en t#e ma'nitude o, #armonic currents inAected (y loads is e7cessi)e, industrial users
s#ould also in)esti'ate means o, reducin' #armonics (y usin' di,,erent trans,ormer
connections and line c#o+es? In
o,,ice (uildin's, @i'@a' trans,ormers and tri4len #armonic ,ilters can
reduce t#e im4act o, tri4len #armonic currents on neutral circuits?
Studies s#ould (e 4er,ormed on all ca4acitors installed on t#e main
(us in industrial systems? At t#is location, t#ere are insu,,icient line
losses to dam4en resonance? T#us, w#en resonance coincides wit# a
#armonic ,re2uency t#at is a stron' com4onent in t#e load current, t#e
resultin' )olta'e distortion is o,ten se)ere?
Resonance 4ro(lems are o,ten less se)ere w#en ca4acitors are
located out on t#e 4lant ,loor on motors and in motor control centers?
T#is also #as t#e (ene,it o, reducin' t#e losses in t#e system com4ared
to sim4ly 4lacin' t#e ca4acitor on t#e main (us? O, course, t#is solution
can (e more costly t#an use o, a sin'le ca4acitor on t#e main (us due
to t#e numerous installations re2uired? T#is assumes t#at t#e ca(les
are su,,iciently lon' to introduce enou'# resistance into t#e circuit to
dam4en t#e resonance? In 4lants wit# s#ort ca(les, it may not (e 4ossi(le to ac#ie)e
si'ni,icant #armonic reduction (ene,it?
8?5 Harmonic Studies
Harmonic studies 4lay an im4ortant role in c#aracteri@in' and understandin' t#e e7tent o,
#armonic 4ro(lems? Harmonic studies are o,ten
4er,ormed w#en
1? /indin' a solution to an e7istin' #armonic 4ro(lem
-? Installin' lar'e ca4acitor (an+s on utility distri(ution systems or
industrial 4ower systems
3? Installin' lar'e nonlinear de)ices or loads
A44lied Harmonics
5? esi'nin' a #armonic ,ilter
6? Con)ertin' a 4ower ,actor ca4acitor (an+ to a #armonic ,ilter
Harmonic studies 4ro)ide a means to e)aluate )arious 4ossi(le solutions and t#eir
e,,ecti)eness under a wide ran'e o, conditions (e,ore
im4lementin' a ,inal solution? In t#is section, met#ods ,or carryin' out
#armonic studies are 4resented?
8?5?1 Harmonic study 4rocedure
T#e ideal 4rocedure ,or 4er,ormin' a 4ower systems #armonics study
can (e summari@ed as ,ollows:
1? etermine t#e o(Aecti)es o, t#e study? T#is is im4ortant to +ee4 t#e
in)esti'ation on trac+? /or e7am4le, t#e o(Aecti)e mi'#t (e to identi,y w#at is causin' an
e7istin' 4ro(lem and sol)e it? Anot#er mi'#t
(e to determine i, a new 4lant e74ansion containin' e2ui4ment suc#
as adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es and ca4acitors is li+ely to #a)e 4ro(lems?
-? I, t#e system is com4le7, ma+e a 4remeasurement com4uter simulation (ased on t#e
(est in,ormation a)aila(le? .easurements are
e74ensi)e in terms o, la(or, e2ui4ment, and 4ossi(le disru4tion to
4lant o4erations? It will 'enerally (e economical to #a)e a 'ood idea
w#at to loo+ ,or and w#ere to loo+ (e,ore (e'innin' t#e measurements?
3? .a+e measurements o, t#e e7istin' #armonic conditions, c#aracteri@in' sources o,
#armonic currents and system (us )olta'e distortion?
5? Cali(rate t#e com4uter model usin' t#e measurements?
6? Study t#e new circuit condition or e7istin' 4ro(lem?
8? e)elo4 solutions C,ilter, etc?D and in)esti'ate 4ossi(le ad)erse system interactions?
Also, c#ec+ t#e sensiti)ity o, t#e results to im4ortant )aria(les?
9? A,ter t#e installation o, 4ro4osed solutions, 4er,orm monitorin' to
)eri,y t#e correct o4eration o, t#e system?
Admittedly, it is not always 4ossi(le to 4er,orm eac# o, t#ese ste4s ideally? T#e most
o,ten omitted ste4s are one, or (ot#, measurement ste4s
due to t#e cost o, en'ineerin' time, tra)el, and e2ui4ment c#ar'es? An
e74erienced analyst may (e a(le to sol)e a 4ro(lem wit#out measurements, (ut it is
stron'ly recommended t#at t#e initial measurements
(e made i, at all 4ossi(le (ecause t#ere are many un4leasant sur4rises
lur+in' in t#e s#adows o, #armonics analysis?
-3: C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
8?5?- e)elo4in' a system model
T#ere are two ,undamental issues t#at need to (e considered in de)elo4in' a system
model ,or #armonic simulation studies? T#e ,irst issue
is t#e e7tent o, t#e system model to (e included in t#e simulation?
Secondly, one must decide w#et#er t#e model s#ould (e re4resented as
a sin'le%4#ase e2ui)alent or a ,ull t#ree%4#ase model?
As an e7am4le o, model e7tent, su44ose a utility 4lans to install a lar'e
ca4acitor (an+ on a distri(ution ,eeder and would li+e to e)aluate t#e ,re2uency res4onse
associated wit# t#e (an+? Re4resentin' t#e entire distri(ution system is usually not
4ractical (ecause it would (e
time%consumin' to de)elo4 t#e model and it would strain com4utational
resources to run simulations? One a44roac# would (e to start de)elo4in'
a model one or two (uses (ac+ ,rom t#e (us o, interest and include e)eryt#in' in
(etween? Anot#er a44roac# would (e to start wit# a small sim4le circuit t#at accurately
re4resents t#e 4#enomena and add more o, t#e
system details to determine t#e im4act on t#e solution result? At t#e 4oint
w#en addin' more system details does not c#an'e t#e analysis results,
t#e 4#ysical system is su,,iciently re4resented (y t#e simulation model?
In modelin' distri(ution systems ,or #armonic studies, it is usually
su,,icient to re4resent t#e u4stream transmission system wit# a s#ortcircuit e2ui)alent at
t#e #i'#%)olta'e side o, t#e su(station trans,ormer? T#e lea+a'e im4edance o, t#e
trans,ormer dominates t#e
s#ort%circuit e2ui)alent and e,,ecti)ely isolates t#e transmission and
distri(ution ,or many studies? Howe)er, i, t#ere is a ca4acitor (an+
near t#e #i'#%)olta'e side o, t#e trans,ormer, 4art o, t#e transmission
system must (e modeled to include t#e ca4acitor (an+? T#e com(ination o, t#e
trans,ormer and t#e ca4acitor (an+ may (e#a)e as a ,ilter
,or some ,re2uency as seen ,rom t#e low%)olta'e side o, t#e trans,ormer?
istri(ution system com4onents downstream ,rom t#e su(station
trans,ormer Cor at t#e low%)olta'e sideD suc# as ,eeder lines, ca4acitor
(an+s, +ey ser)ice trans,ormers, and end%user ca4acitor (an+s must (e
re4resented? Since t#e ,eeder ca4acitor (an+s dominate t#e system
ca4acitance, it is usually acce4ta(le to ne'lect ca4acitance ,rom o)er#ead ,eeder lines?
Howe)er, i, t#ere is a si'ni,icant amount o, ! ca(le,
ca(le ca4acitance s#ould (e re4resented, es4ecially i, t#e study is concerned wit# #i'#er%
order #armonics?
T#e analyst must t#en decide i, t#e model s#ould (e re4resented as
a com4lete t#ree%4#ase model or a sin'le%4#ase e2ui)alent? A sin'le4#ase e2ui)alent
model is 'enerally sim4ler and less com4licated to
de)elo4 com4ared to a t#ree%4#ase model? Howe)er, it is o,ten inade2uate to analy@e
un(alanced 4#enomena or systems wit# numerous
sin'le%4#ase loads?
A44lied Harmonics -3=
A44lied Harmonics
/ortunately, t#ere is a rule t#at 4ermits t#e sim4li,ied 4ositi)ese2uence modelin' ,or
many t#ree%4#ase industrial loads? eterminin'
t#e res4onse o, t#e system to 4ositi)e%se2uence #armonics is strai'#t,orward since (ot#
utility and industrial 4ower en'ineers are accustomed to doin' suc# modelin' in t#eir
load ,low and )olta'e dro4
analyses? T#e rule may (e sim4ly stated:
"#en t#ere is a delta windin' in a trans,ormer anyw#ere in series wit#
t#e #armonic source and t#e 4ower system, only t#e 4ositi)e%se2uence circuit need (e
re4resented to determine t#e system res4onse? It is im4ossi(le ,or @ero%se2uence
#armonics to (e 4resentJ t#ey are (loc+ed?
/i'ure 8?5 illustrates t#is 4rinci4le, s#owin' w#at models a44ly to di,,erent 4arts o, t#e
system?
*ot# t#e 4ositi)e% and ne'ati)e%se2uence networ+s are 'enerally
assumed to #a)e t#e same res4onse to #armonics? Sometimes measurements will s#ow
tri4len #armonics in t#e u4stream ,rom a delta
windin'? One normally assumes t#ese #armonics are @ero se2uence?
T#ey may (e, de4endin' on w#at ot#er sources are in system? Howe)er,
t#ey can also (e due to un(alanced #armonic sources, one e7am4le o,
w#ic# would (e an arc ,urnace? Only t#e tri4lens t#at are in 4#ase are
@ero se2uence and are (loc+ed (y t#e delta windin'? T#ere,ore, it is
common to include tri4len #armonics w#en 4er,ormin' analysis usin'
a 4ositi)e%se2uence model?
T#e symmetrical com4onent tec#ni2ue ,ails to yield an ad)anta'e
w#en analy@in' ,our%wire utility distri(ution ,eeders wit# numerous sin'le%4#ase loads?
*ot# t#e 4ositi)e% and @ero%se2uence networ+s come
into 4lay? It is 'enerally im4ractical to consider analy@in' t#e system
-5> C#a4ter Si7
POSITI&E AN NE0ATI&E
SEQ!ENCE ON1; 3%PHASE
.OE1
REQ!IRE
1%PHASE 1OAS
A11 SEQ!ENCES
POSITI&E%SEQ!ENCE .OE1
S!//ICIENT
/i'ure 8?5 E,,ects o, trans,ormer connection on t#e modelin' re2uirements ,or
analy@in' #armonic ,lows in networ+s?
A44lied Harmonics
manually, and most com4uter 4ro'rams ca4a(le o, accurately modelin'
t#ese systems sim4ly set u4 t#e cou4led t#ree%4#ase e2uations and sol)e
t#em directly? /ortunately, some com4uter tools now ma+e it almost as
easy to de)elo4 a t#ree%4#ase model as to ma+e a sin'le%4#ase e2ui)alent? It ta+es no
more time to sol)e t#e com4lete t#ree%4#ase model t#an
to sol)e t#e se2uence networ+s (ecause t#ey would #a)e to (e cou4led
also? Not only does t#e symmetrical com4onent tec#ni2ue ,ail to yield an
ad)anta'e in t#is case, (ut analysts o,ten ma+e errors and inad)ertently
)iolate t#e assum4tions o, t#e met#od? It is not 'enerally recommended
t#at #armonic analysis o, un(alanced circuits (e done usin' symmetrical com4onents? It
s#ould (e attem4ted only (y t#ose w#o are a(solutely
certain o, t#eir understandin' o, t#e met#od and its assum4tions?
8?5?3 .odelin' #armonic sources
.ost #armonic ,low analysis on 4ower systems is 4er,ormed usin'
steady%state, linear circuit solution tec#ni2ues? Harmonic sources,
w#ic# are nonlinear elements, are 'enerally considered to (e inAection
sources into t#e linear networ+ models? T#ey can (e re4resented as
current inAection sources or )olta'e sources?
/or most #armonic ,low studies, it is suita(le to treat #armonic
sources as sim4le sources o, #armonic currents? T#is is illustrated in
/i'? 8?6 w#ere an electronic 4ower con)erter is re4laced wit# a current
source in t#e e2ui)alent circuit? T#e )olta'e distortion at t#e ser)ice
(us is 'enerally relati)ely low, less t#an 6 4ercent? T#ere,ore, t#e current distortion ,or
many nonlinear de)ices is relati)ely constant and
inde4endent o, distortion in t#e su44ly system?
Nonlinear 1oad
Current
Source
E2ui)alent Circuit
One%1ine ia'ram
/i'ure 8?6 Re4resentin' a nonlinear load wit# a #armonic current
source ,or analysis?
A44lied Harmonics
&alues o, inAected current s#ould (e determined (y measurement? In
t#e a(sence o, measurements and 4u(lis#ed data, it is common to
assume t#at t#e #armonic content is in)ersely 4ro4ortional to t#e #armonic num(er? T#at
is, t#e ,i,t#%#armonic current is one%,i,t#, or ->
4ercent, o, t#e ,undamental, etc? T#is is deri)ed ,rom t#e /ourier series
,or a s2uare wa)e, w#ic# is at t#e ,oundation o, many nonlinear
de)ices? Howe)er, it does not a44ly )ery well to t#e newer tec#nolo'y
P". dri)es and switc#%mode 4ower su44lies, w#ic# #a)e a muc#
#i'#er #armonic content? Ta(le 8?3 s#ows ty4ical )alues to assume ,or
analysis o, se)eral ty4es o, de)ices?
"#en t#e system is near resonance, a sim4le current source model
will 'i)e an e7cessi)ely #i'# 4rediction o, )olta'e distortion? T#e model
tries to inAect a constant current into a #i'# im4edance, w#ic# is not a
)alid re4resentation o, reality? T#e #armonic current will not remain
constant at a #i'# )olta'e distortion? O,ten, t#is is inconse2uential
(ecause t#e most im4ortant t#in' is to +now t#at t#e system cannot (e
success,ully o4erated in resonance, w#ic# is readily o(ser)a(le ,rom
t#e sim4le model? Once t#e resonance is eliminated (y, ,or e7am4le,
addin' a ,ilter, t#e model will 'i)e a realistic answer?
/or t#e cases w#ere a more accurate answer is re2uired durin' resonant conditions, a
more so4#isticated model must (e used? /or many
4ower system de)ices, a T#e)enin or Norton e2ui)alent is ade2uate
Csee /i'? 8?8D? T#e additional im4edance moderates t#e res4onse o, t#e
4arallel resonant circuit?
A T#e)enin e2ui)alent is o(tained in a strai'#t,orward manner ,or
many nonlinear loads? /or e7am4le, an arc ,urnace is well re4resented
(y a s2uare%wa)e )olta'e o, 4ea+ ma'nitude a44ro7imately 6> 4ercent
o, t#e nominal ac system )olta'e? T#e series im4edance is sim4ly t#e
s#ort%circuit im4edance o, t#e ,urnace trans,ormer and leads Ct#e lead
-5- C#a4ter Si7
TA*1E8?3 Ty4ical Percent Harmonic istortion o, Common
Harmonic Sources: Odd Harmonics, 1 t#rou'# 13
Harmonic Si7%4ulse AS P". dri)e Arc li'#tin' S.PS
1 1>> 1>> 1>> 1>>
3 ->Z 9>
61:=>95> 91-:>316 =-?5Z9 11 8 96 1?: 6
13 5 9> >?: 3
Z/or sin'le%4#ase or un(alanced t#ree%4#ase modelin'J ot#erwise assume
tri4len is @ero?
ASadAusta(le%s4eed dri)e, P". 4ulse%widt# modulated,
S.PSswitc#%mode 4ower su44ly?
A44lied Harmonics
im4edance is t#e lar'er o, t#e twoD? !n,ortunately, it is di,,icult to determine clear%cut
e2ui)alent im4edances ,or many nonlinear de)ices? In
t#ese cases, a detailed simulation o, t#e internals o, t#e #armonic%4roducin' load is
necessary? T#is can (e done wit# com4uter 4ro'rams t#at
iterate on t#e solution or t#rou'# detailed time%domain analysis?
/ortunately, it is seldom essential to o(tain suc# 'reat accuracy durin' resonant
conditions and analysts do not o,ten #a)e to ta+e t#ese
measures? Howe)er, modelin' arcin' de)ices wit# a T#e)enin model is
recommended re'ardless o, need?
8?5?5 Com4uter tools ,or #armonics
analysis
T#e 4recedin' discussion #as 'i)en t#e reader an idea o, t#e ty4es o,
,unctions t#at must (e 4er,ormed ,or #armonics analysis o, 4ower systems? It s#ould (e
rat#er o()ious t#at ,or anyt#in' (ut t#e sim4lest o,
circuits, a so4#isticated com4uter 4ro'ram is re2uired? T#e c#aracteristics o, suc#
4ro'rams and t#e #erita'e o, some 4o4ular analysis tools
are descri(ed #ere?
/irst, it s#ould (e noted t#at one circuit a44ears ,re2uently in sim4le industrial systems
t#at does lend itsel, to manual calculations C/i'?
8?9D? It is (asically a one%(us circuit wit# one ca4acitor? Two t#in's may
(e done relati)ely easily:
1?etermine t#e resonant ,re2uency? I, t#e resonant ,re2uency is
near a 4otentially dama'in' #armonic, eit#er t#e ca4acitor must (e
c#an'ed or a ,ilter desi'ned?
1
R
C
I
#
I
#
OR
&#
EQ!I&A1ENT CIRC!IT
/i'ure 8?8 Re4lacin' t#e sim4le current source model wit# a
T#e)enin or Norton e2ui)alent ,or (etter source models o, resonant
conditions?
A44lied Harmonics
-?etermine an estimate o, t#e )olta'e distortion due to t#e current I#?
T#e )olta'es &#are 'i)en (y
&#
I# C8?6D
w#ere-C#,1D
#-, 3, 5, h
,1,undamental ,re2uency o, 4ower system
0i)en t#at t#e resonant ,re2uency is not near a si'ni,icant #armonic
and t#at 4roAected )olta'e distortion is low, t#e a44lication will 4ro(a(ly o4erate
success,ully?
!n,ortunately, not all 4ractical cases can (e re4resented wit# suc# a
sim4le circuit? In ,act, addin' Aust one more (us wit# a ca4acitor to t#e
sim4le circuit in /i'? 8?9 ma+es t#e 4ro(lem a real c#allen'e to e)en
t#e most s+illed analysts? Howe)er, a com4uter can 4er,orm t#e c#ore
in milliseconds?
To use t#e com4uter tools commonly a)aila(le, t#e analyst must
descri(e t#e circuit con,i'uration, loads, and t#e sources to t#e 4ro'ram? ata t#at must
(e collected include
T 1ine and trans,ormer im4edances
T Trans,ormer connections
T Ca4acitor )alues and locations CcriticalD
T Harmonic s4ectra ,or nonlinear loads
T Power source )olta'es
T#ese )alues are entered into t#e 4ro'ram, w#ic# automatically
adAusts im4edances ,or ,re2uency and com4utes t#e #armonic ,low
t#rou'#out t#e system?
R
A1
1
-
1C
ARC
-55 C#a4ter Si7
1
R
HAR.ONIC
SO!RCE
C I
# # ] -, 3, 5, ???
EQ!I&A1ENT CIRC!IT
/i'ure 8?9 A sim4le circuit t#at
may (e analy@ed manually?
A44lied Harmonics
Ca4a(ilities ,or #armonics analysis 4ro'rams? Acce4ta(le com4uter so,tware ,or
#armonics analysis o, 4ower systems s#ould #a)e t#e ,ollowin' c#aracteristics:
1? It s#ould (e ca4a(le o, #andlin' lar'e networ+s o, at least se)eral
#undred nodes?
-? It s#ould (e ca4a(le o, #andlin' multi4#ase models o, ar(itrary
structure? Not all circuits, 4articularly t#ose on utility distri(ution
,eeders, are amena(le to accurate solution (y (alanced, 4ositi)ese2uence models?
3? It s#ould also (e ca4a(le o, modelin' systems wit# 4ositi)ese2uence models? "#en
t#ere can (e no @ero%se2uence #armonics,
t#ereFs no need to (uild a ,ull t#ree%4#ase model?
5? It s#ould (e a(le to 4er,orm a ,re2uency scan at small inter)als o,
,re2uency Ce?'?, 1> H@D to de)elo4 t#e system ,re2uency%res4onse
c#aracteristics necessary to identi,y resonances?
6? It s#ould (e a(le to 4er,orm simultaneous solution o, numerous
#armonic sources to estimate t#e actual current and )olta'e distortion?
8? It s#ould #a)e (uilt%in models o, common #armonic sources?
9? It s#ould allow (ot# current source and )olta'e source models o,
#armonic sources?
:? It s#ould (e a(le to automatically adAust 4#ase an'les o, t#e
sources (ased on t#e ,undamental ,re2uency 4#ase an'les?
=? It s#ould (e a(le to model any trans,ormer connection?
1>? It s#ould (e a(le to dis4lay t#e results in a meanin',ul and
user%,riendly manner?
8?5?6 Harmonic analysis (y com4uterP
#istorical 4ers4ecti)e
T#e most common ty4e o, com4uter analysis o, 4ower systems 4er,ormed today is some
,orm o, 4ower ,low calculation? .ost 4ower en'ineers #a)e some e74erience wit# t#is
class o, tool? Ot#er common
com4uter tools include s#ort%circuit 4ro'rams and, at least ,or transmission systems,
dynamics Ctransient sta(ilityD 4ro'rams? Harmonics
and electroma'netic transients tools #a)e traditionally (een in t#e
domain o, s4ecialists due to t#e modelin' com4le7ities?
"#ile 4ower ,low tools are ,amiliar, t#eir ,ormulation is 'enerally
unsuita(le ,or #armonics analysis? O, t#e tools in common usa'e, t#e
A44lied Harmonics
circuit model in s#ort%circuit 4ro'rams is closer to w#at is needed ,or
#armonic ,low analysis in networ+s? In ,act, 4rior to t#e ad)ent o, s4ecial 4ower systems
#armonic analysis tools, many analysts would use
s#ort%circuit 4ro'rams to com4ute #armonic distortion, manually
adAustin' t#e im4edances ,or ,re2uency? T#is is an interestin' learnin'
e74erience ,or t#e student, (ut not one t#at t#e 4ractitioner will want
to re4eat o,ten? O, course, one could also 4er,orm t#e analysis in t#e
time domain usin' electroma'netic transients 4ro'rams, (ut t#is 'enerally is more time%
consumin' and is e7cessi)e ,or most 4ro(lems?
Today, most 4ower system #armonics analysis is 4er,ormed in t#e sinusoidal steady state
usin' com4uter 4ro'rams s4ecially de)elo4ed ,or t#e
4ur4ose? It is encoura'in' to see many )endors o, 4ower system analysis
so,tware 4ro)idin' some #armonics analysis ca4a(ilities in t#eir 4ac+a'es, alt#ou'# t#e
main a44lication in t#e 4ac+a'e may (e a 4ower ,low
4ro'ram? It is use,ul to see #ow t#is #as e)ol)ed? !nli+e 4ower ,low al'orit#ms, ,ew o,
t#e de)elo4ers #a)e written tec#nical 4a4ers documentin'
t#eir e,,orts? T#ere,ore, it is di,,icult to trace t#e #istory o, #armonics
analysis in 4ower systems t#rou'# t#e literature? T#is (oo+ 'i)es us t#e
o44ortunity to ac+nowled'e t#e contri(utions o, se)eral o, t#e 4ioneers in
t#is ,ield, and t#is will #el4 t#e reader understand t#e #istory (e#ind
some o, t#e maAor com4uter tools a)aila(le today?
Prior to t#e wides4read use o, com4uters ,or #armonics analysis,
4ower systems #armonic studies were ,re2uently 4er,ormed on analo'
simulators suc# as a transient networ+ analy@er CTNAD? T#e ,ew TNAs
in t#e !nited States in t#e mid%1=9>s were located at lar'e e2ui4ment
manu,acturers, 4rimarily at 0eneral Electric Co?, "estin'#ouse
Electric, and .c0raw%Edison Power Systems? *ecause o, t#e incon)enience and #i'#
cost, #armonic studies were 'enerally 4er,ormed only
on )ery s4ecial cases suc# as lar'e arc ,urnace installations t#at mi'#t
im4act utility transmission systems? TNAs usually #ad at least two
)aria(le%,re2uency sources? T#ere,ore, t#e 'eneral 4rocedure was to
use one source ,or t#e 4ower ,re2uency and t#e second source to re4resent t#e nonlinear
load, one ,re2uency at a time? One tric+y 4art o, t#is
4rocedure was to swee4 t#e ,re2uency t#rou'# system resonances ,ast
enou'# to a)oid (urnin' u4 t#e 4ower su44ly or dama'in' inductors
and ca4acitors?
Our in)ol)ement in #armonics analysis (e'an in 1=96, w#en aut#or
u'an, t#en wit# .c0raw%Edison, constructed t#e ,irst electronic arc
model ,or a TNA to eliminate t#e need to use t#e second source?5
In t#at
same year, to o)ercome t#e limitations o, #armonic analysis (y analo'
simulator, u'an teamed u4 wit# r? Saros# N? Talu+dar and "illiam
1? S4onsler at .c0raw%Edison to de)elo4 one o, t#e ,irst commercial
com4uter 4ro'rams s4eci,ically desi'ned to automate analysis o, #armonic ,lows on
lar'e%scale 4ower systems? u((ed t#e Networ+
-58 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
/re2uency Res4onse Analysis Pro'ram CN/RAPD, it was de)elo4ed ,or
t#e &ir'inia Electric Power Com4any to study t#e im4acts o, addin'
-->%+& ca4acitor (an+s on t#e transmission system? T#ese were some
o, t#e ,irst ca4acitors a44lied at t#is )olta'e le)el?
T#e N/RAP 4ro'ram tec#ni2ues, w#ic# are direct nodal admittance
matri7 solution tec#ni2ues t#at treat nonlinearities as sources,
e)ol)ed into w#at is 4ro(a(ly t#e most 4roli,ic ,amily o, #armonic
analysis 4ro'rams? /rom 1=99 to 1=9=, EPRI s4onsored an in)esti'ation o, #armonics on
utility distri(ution ,eeders?
6,8
One o, t#e 4roducts
o, t#is researc# was t#e istri(ution /eeder Harmonics Analysis 4ro'ram? It was t#e ,irst
4ro'ram desi'ned s4eci,ically ,or analy@in' #armonics on un(alanced distri(ution
systems and #ad s4eci,ic models o,
4ower systems elements to #el4 t#e user de)elo4 models? It (ecame
t#e 4rototy4e ,or t#e modern #armonic analysis 4ro'ram? <ey in)esti'ators on t#is
4roAect, RP 1>-5%1, were Ro(ert E? Owen and aut#or
.c0rana'#an, and t#e +ey so,tware desi'ners were a'ain u'an and
S4onsler?
T#e ne7t 'eneration o, so,tware tool (ased on t#e N/RAP 4ro'ram
met#odolo'y was t#e .c0raw%Edison Harmonic Analysis Pro'ram
C.EHAPD, under de)elo4ment ,rom 1=:> to 1=:5? It was written in
/ortran ,or minicom4uters and #ad t#e distinction o, (ein' interacti)e
wit# 'ra4#ical out4ut? All 4re)ious e,,orts #ad (een (atc#%mode 4ro'rams wit# ta(ular
out4ut? /or its time, it ,it t#e de,inition o, (ein'
user%,riendly? T#e de)elo4ers included u'an, .c0rana'#an, and Yac+
A? <in'?
At a(out t#is same time, #owe)er, t#e 4ersonal com4uter CPCD re)olution too+ 4lace?
Eric# "? 0unt#er recoded t#e al'orit#ms in t#e
Pascal lan'ua'e and created t#e &%HAR. 4ro'ram?9
To our +nowled'e,
t#is was t#e ,irst commercial #armonic analysis 4ro'ram written
e74ressly ,or t#e PC en)ironment? It #as 4ro)en to (e a )ery relia(le
and dura(le 4ro'ram and can (e licensed today ,rom Coo4er Power
Systems? 0unt#er su(se2uently #as written t#e latest 'eneration in
t#is #erita'e o, #armonic analysis tools in t#e C
lan'ua'e ,or t#e
.icroso,t "indows en)ironment? It is called t#e Su4erHarm 4ro'ram
and can (e licensed ,rom Electrote+ Conce4ts, Inc?
T#e C;.HAR.O 4ro'ram was de)elo4ed ,irst at Hydro Que(ecFs
Researc# Institute CIREQD in .ontreal in 1=:3 and now can (e licensed
t#rou'# C;.E International Inc? T#e 4ro'ram was ori'inally written
in /ortran ,or t#e main,rame and was 4orted to t#e PC s#ortly a,terward in 1=:5? It is
now written in a mi7ture o, /ortran and C lan'ua'es? T#e 4rinci4al aut#ors o, t#e
so,tware are r? C#in# N'uyen
and r? Ali .os#re,? T#e Canadian Electric Association CCEAD #as su44orted t#e
de)elo4ment o, t#is 4ro'ram, w#ic# uses analysis tec#ni2ues similar to t#e 4re)iously
mentioned 4ro'rams?
A44lied Harmonics
*e'innin' in 1=:1, EPRI also s4onsored t#e de)elo4ment o, t#e
HAR./1O 4ro'ram, w#ic# ta+es a di,,erent a44roac# to t#e networ+
solution? rs? 0? 1? Hedyt, ? [ia, and "? .ac+ 0rady
:,=
de)elo4ed t#e
4ro'ram at Purdue !ni)ersity and (ased it on t#e Newton%Ra4#son
4ower ,low tec#ni2ues? T#e 4ro'ram was t#e ,irst to adAust t#e #armonic current out4ut
o, t#e load ,or t#e #armonic )olta'e distortion?
T#e /ortran 4ro'ram was ori'inally de)elo4ed ,or main,rame (atc#
com4uters and is now also a)aila(le ,or t#e PC?
O, course, #armonics 4ro(lems can (e sol)ed on electroma'netic transients analysis
4ro'rams suc# as t#e E.TP, ori'inally de)elo4ed (y t#e
*onne)ille Power Administration? Anot#er one is t#e PSCAOE.TC
4ro'ram ,rom t#e .anito(a H&C Researc# Centre? T#e s4ecial%4ur4ose steady%state
4ro'rams are 'enerally more e,,icient ,or t#e usual
4ower system #armonics 4ro(lems, (ut occasionally, a )ery di,,icult
4ro(lem will arise t#at re2uires simulation in t#e time domain?
T#e contri(utions o, t#ese 4ioneers #a)e made it muc# easier ,or
su(se2uent 'enerations o, 4ower en'ineers to 4er,orm #armonics
analysis on 4ower systems, and #armonics analysis is now (ecomin'
common4lace?
8?6 e)ices ,or Controllin' Harmonic
istortion
T#ere are a num(er o, de)ices a)aila(le to control #armonic distortion?
T#ey can (e as sim4le as a ca4acitor (an+ or a line reactor, or as com4le7 as an acti)e
,ilter?
As descri(ed in Sec? 8?-, a sim4le miti'ation action suc# as addin',
resi@in', or relocatin' a s#unt ca4acitor (an+ can e,,ecti)ely modi,y an
un,a)ora(le system ,re2uency res4onse, and t#us (rin' t#e #armonic
distortion to an acce4ta(le le)el? Similarly, a reactor can 4er,orm t#e
same ,unction (y detunin' t#e system o,, #arm,ul resonances? T#e
e,,ecti)eness o, suc# sim4le solutions in controllin' #armonic distortion s#ould (e
e74lored 4rior to considerin' a more com4le7 de)ice?
T#e ,ollowin' material ,irst discusses t#e e,,ecti)eness o, a sim4le inline reactor, or
c#o+e, in miti'atin' #armonic distortion? T#en, two
'eneral classes o, #armonic ,ilters, i?e?, 4assi)e and acti)e ,ilters, are
discussed? T#e ,ormer are (ased on 4assi)e elements, w#ile t#e latter
are (ased on 4ower electronic de)ices?
8?6?1 In%line reactors or c#o+es
A sim4le, (ut o,ten success,ul, met#od to control #armonic distortion
'enerated (y adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es in)ol)es a relati)ely small reactor, or c#o+e,
inserted at t#e line in4ut side o, t#e dri)e? T#is is 4articularly e,,ecti)e ,or P".%ty4e
dri)es?
-5: C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
T#e inductance slows t#e rate at w#ic# t#e ca4acitor on t#e dc (us
can (e c#ar'ed and ,orces t#e dri)e to draw current o)er a lon'er time
4eriod? T#e net e,,ect is a lower%ma'nitude current wit# muc# less #armonic content
w#ile still deli)erin' t#e same ener'y?
A ty4ical 3 4ercent in4ut c#o+e can reduce t#e #armonic current distortion ,or a P".%
ty4e dri)e ,rom a44ro7imately :> to 5> 4ercent? T#is
im4ressi)e #armonic reduction is illustrated in /i'? 8?:? Additional
#armonic reduction is rat#er limited w#en t#e c#o+e si@e is increased
(eyond 3 4ercent? T#e c#o+e si@e is com4uted on t#e dri)e +&A (ase?
/i'ure 8?= s#ows ty4ical line c#o+es used in 5:>%& AS a44lications?
C#o+e
C> to 6DI N
Con AS +&AD
>1-356
1ine In4ut C#o+e CI on ri)e *aseD
>?>
1>?>
->?>
3>?>
5>?>
6>?>
8>?>
9>?>
:>?>
In4ut Current istortion CID
/i'ure 8?: Harmonic reduction ,or a P".%ty4e AS as a ,unction o, in4ut c#o+e
si@e?
/i'ure 8?= T#ree%4#ase line c#o+es ,or AS a44lications? CCourtesy o, .TE Cor4?D
A44lied Harmonics
/i'ure 8?1> com4ares t#e e,,ecti)eness o, a 3 4ercent c#o+e in reducin' #armonic current
distortion to t#e condition wit#out a c#o+e ,or
)arious AS si@es CAS si@es are normali@ed to t#e ser)ice trans,ormer
+&AD? Re4resentati)e wa)e,orms ,or eac# end o, t#e ran'e are s#own?
T#e lar'er wa)e,orm is wit#out t#e c#o+e? As is clear ,rom /i'? 8?1>, a
su(stantial im4ro)ement is ac#ie)ed (y insertin' a c#o+e in t#e AS
line? T#e current TH dro4s ,rom t#e :> to 1-> 4ercent ran'e down to
a44ro7imately 5> 4ercent? *etter reduction is o(tained w#en t#e si@e
o, t#e AS is si'ni,icantly smaller t#an t#e ser)ice trans,ormer? "#en
t#e si@e o, t#e AS is 6 4ercent o, t#e trans,ormer, t#e current TH
dro4s ,rom 1-6 to 5> 4ercent?
It is also im4ortant to note t#at t#ere are ot#er ad)anta'es o, t#e
c#o+e in AS a44lications? T#e e,,ect o, slowin' t#e dc ca4acitor c#ar'in' rate also
ma+es t#e c#o+e )ery e,,ecti)e in (loc+in' some #i'#%,re2uency transients? T#is #el4s
a)oid nuisance dri)e tri44in' durin'
ca4acitor ener'i@ation o4erations on t#e utility system?
Isolation trans,ormers can 4ro)ide t#e same (ene,it as a c#o+e (ut
may (e more costly? Howe)er, isolation trans,ormers wit# multi4le
dri)es o,,er t#e ad)anta'e o, creatin' e,,ecti)e 1-%4ulse o4eration?
/i'ure 8?11 illustrates t#is conce4t?
A 1-%4ulse con,i'uration can (e ac#ie)ed (y su44lyin' one dri)e
t#rou'# a delta%wye connected trans,ormer, and anot#er dri)e t#rou'#
a delta%delta connected trans,ormer? /i'ure 8?11 s#ows t#e current
wa)e,orms ,or two se4arate si7%4ulse ASs? "#en t#e two wa)e,orms
-6> C#a4ter Si7
No C#o+e
Trans,ormer
6I N
Con 7,mr +&AD
C#o+e
3I N
Con AS
+&AD
C#o+e
AS
13>I
11>I
=>I
9>I
6>I
3>I
>I 6I 1>I 16I ->I -6I 3>I
AS +&A
Trans,ormer +&A
ITH
ICtD at 6I +&A ratio
ICtD at 33I +&A ratio
/i'ure 8?1> E,,ect o, ac line c#o+es on AS current #armonics?
A44lied Harmonics
are added to'et#er on t#e 4rimary, t#e resultin' wa)e,orm inAected
onto t#e utility system #as muc# lower distortion, 4rimarily (ecause
t#e ,i,t# and se)ent# #armonics are cancelled out? T#ese two #armonics are res4onsi(le
,or most o, t#e distortion ,or si7%4ulse dri)es?
8?6?- Ni'@a' trans,ormers
Ni'@a' trans,ormers are o,ten a44lied in commercial ,acilities to control @ero%se2uence
#armonic com4onents? A @i'@a' trans,ormer acts
li+e a ,ilter to t#e @ero%se2uence current (y o,,erin' a low%im4edance
4at# to neutral? T#is reduces t#e amount o, current t#at ,lows in t#e
neutral (ac+ toward t#e su44ly (y 4ro)idin' a s#orter 4at# ,or t#e current? To (e
e,,ecti)e, t#e trans,ormer must (e located near t#e load on
t#e circuit t#at is (ein' 4rotected?
T#e two most im4ortant 4ro(lems in commercial ,acilities are o)erloaded neutral
conductors and trans,ormer #eatin'? *ot# o, t#ese 4ro(lems can (e sol)ed wit# 4ro4er
@i'@a' trans,ormer 4lacement? Some
new commercial (uildin's include @i'@a' trans,ormers on t#e 5:>O->:%& su44ly
trans,ormer secondaries to 4re)ent trans,ormer o)er#eatin'?
A @i'@a' trans,ormer located at t#e su44ly trans,ormer secondary does
not 4ro)ide any (ene,it ,or neutral conductors su44lyin' t#e loads?
Ty4ical results wit# a @i'@a' trans,ormer s#ow t#at it can s#unt
a(out 6> 4ercent o, t#e t#ird%#armonic current away ,rom t#e main circuit neutral
conductors? T#us, t#e @i'@a' trans,ormer can almost
AS AS
5:>%&olt *us
/i'ure 8?11 A 1-%4ulse con,i'uration as a met#od to control #armonics ,rom two ASs?
A44lied Harmonics
always reduce neutral currents due to @ero%se2uence #armonics to
acce4ta(le le)els? T#e lar'est @ero%se2uence #armonic will nearly
always (e t#e t#ird #armonic in o,,ice (uildin's wit# many com4uters
and related e2ui4ment?
Ni'@a' trans,ormers are an e7cellent c#oice ,or e7istin' ,acilities
w#ere neutral conductor 4ro(lems and 4ossi(le trans,ormer #eatin'
are concerns, assumin' t#at t#ere is a con)enient 4lace to install t#e
trans,ormer (etween t#e neutral circuit o, concern and t#e actual
loads? In new ,acilities, it may (e (etter to sim4ly desi'n t#e circuits
wit# su,,icient current%carryin' ca4acity in t#e neutrals and wit#
#i'#er%ca4acity trans,ormers?
8?6?3 Passi)e ,ilters
Passi)e ,ilters are inductance, ca4acitance, and resistance elements
con,i'ured and tuned to control #armonics? T#ey are commonly used
and are relati)ely ine74ensi)e com4ared wit# ot#er means ,or eliminatin' #armonic
distortion? Howe)er, t#ey #a)e t#e disad)anta'e o,
4otentially interactin' ad)ersely wit# t#e 4ower system, and it is
im4ortant to c#ec+ all 4ossi(le system interactions w#en t#ey are
desi'ned? T#ey are em4loyed eit#er to s#unt t#e #armonic currents o,,
t#e line or to (loc+ t#eir ,low (etween 4arts o, t#e system (y tunin' t#e
elements to create a resonance at a selected ,re2uency? /i'ure 8?1-
s#ows se)eral ty4es o, common ,ilter arran'ements?
S#unt 4assi)e ,ilters? T#e most common ty4e o, 4assi)e ,ilter is t#e sin'le%tuned Gnotc#H
,ilter? T#is is t#e most economical ty4e and is ,re2uently su,,icient ,or t#e a44lication?
T#e notc# ,ilter is series%tuned to
4resent a low im4edance to a 4articular #armonic current and is connected in s#unt wit#
t#e 4ower system? T#us, #armonic currents are
di)erted ,rom t#eir normal ,low 4at# on t#e line t#rou'# t#e ,ilter?
-6- C#a4ter Si7
SIN01E%T!NE 1ST%ORER
HI0H%PASS
-N%ORER
HI0H%PASS
3R%ORER
HI0H%PASS
/i'ure 8?1- Common 4assi)e ,ilter con,i'urations?
A44lied Harmonics
Notc# ,ilters can 4ro)ide 4ower ,actor correction in addition to #armonic su44ression? In
,act, 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors may (e
used to ma+e notc# ,ilters?
/i'ure 8?13 s#ows one e7am4le o, suc# a ,ilter desi'ned ,or medium)olta'e a44lications?
T#e dry%ty4e iron%core reactor is 4ositioned ato4
t#e ca4acitors, w#ic# are connected in a wye, or star, con,i'uration
wit# t#e ot#er 4#ases Cnot s#ownD? Eac# ca4acitor can is ,used wit# a
current%limitin' ,use to minimi@e dama'e in case o, a can ,ailure? In
outdoor installations it is o,ten more economical to use air%core reactors? Iron%core
reactors may also (e oil%insulated?
/i'ure 8?13 One 4#ase o, a t#ree%4#ase metal%enclosed ,ilter? CCourtesy
o, Nort#east Power Systems, Inc?D
A44lied Harmonics
/i'ure 8?15 s#ows anot#er desi'n ,or industrial site a44lications?
Here t#e reactors are 4laced on to4 o, t#e ca(inet #ousin' t#e ca4acitors and switc#'ear?
An e7am4le o, a common 5:>%& ,ilter arran'ement is illustrated in
/i'? 8?16? T#e ,i'ure s#ows a delta%connected low%)olta'e ca4acitor
(an+ con)erted into a ,ilter (y addin' an inductance in series wit# t#e
4#ases? In t#is case, t#e notc# #armonic #notc#is related to t#e ,undamental ,re2uency
reactances (y
#notc#
C8?8D
Note t#at [Cin t#is case is t#e reactance o, one le' o, t#e delta rat#er
t#an t#e e2ui)alent line%to%neutral ca4aciti)e reactance? I, 4#ase%to4#ase )olta'e and
t#ree%4#ase +)ar are used to com4ute [C, as 4re)iously descri(ed, t#e ,actor 3 would (e
omitted?
One im4ortant side e,,ect o, t#is ty4e o, ,ilter is t#at it creates a
s#ar4 4arallel resonance 4oint at a ,re2uency (elow t#e notc# ,re[C
3[/
-65 C#a4ter Si7
/i'ure 8?15 /ilter ,or industrial 4ower system a44lications?
CCourtesy o, 0il(ert Electrical Systems?D
A44lied Harmonics
2uency C/i'? 8?16cD? T#is resonant ,re2uency must (e sa,ely away ,rom
any si'ni,icant #armonic or ot#er ,re2uency com4onent t#at may (e
4roduced (y t#e load? /ilters are commonly tuned sli'#tly lower t#an
t#e #armonic to (e ,iltered to 4ro)ide a mar'in o, sa,ety in case t#ere
is some c#an'e in system 4arameters t#at would raise t#e notc# ,re2uency? I, t#ey were
tuned e7actly to t#e #armonic, c#an'es in eit#er
ca4acitance or inductance wit# tem4erature or ,ailure mi'#t s#i,t t#e
4arallel resonance #i'#er into t#e #armonic (ein' ,iltered? T#is could
4resent a situation worse t#an one wit#out a ,ilter (ecause t#e resonance is 'enerally )ery
s#ar4?
To a)oid 4ro(lems wit# t#is resonance, ,ilters are added to t#e system startin' wit# t#e
lowest si'ni,icant #armonic ,ound in t#e system?
/or e7am4le, installin' a se)ent#%#armonic ,ilter usually re2uires t#at
a ,i,t#%#armonic ,ilter also (e installed? T#e new 4arallel resonance
wit# a se)ent#%#armonic ,ilter alone is o,ten )ery near t#e ,i,t#, w#ic#
is 'enerally disastrous?
T#e ,ilter con,i'uration o, /i'? 8?16adoes not admit @ero%se2uence
currents (ecause t#e ca4acitor is delta%connected, w#ic# ma+es it ine,,ecti)e ,or ,ilterin'
@ero%se2uence tri4len #armonics? *ecause 5:>%&
CaD Ty4ical low%)olta'e
,ilter con,i'uration
CcD System
,re2uency
res4onse
CN
1
] 1?>D
C(D E2ui)alent circuit o,
system wit# ,ilter
A
*
C
[C
[,
[SC
[,
[C
3
Harmonic
source
Ca4acitor
only
Ca4acitor
con)erted
to
,ilter
1369=11131619 #notc# Harmonic num(er #
N#
>
1>
->
3>
5>
6>
/i'ure 8?16 Creatin' a ,i,t#%#armonic notc# ,ilter and its e,,ect on system res4onse?
A44lied Harmonics
ca4acitors are usually delta%con,i'ured, ot#er solutions must (e
em4loyed w#en it (ecomes necessary to control @ero%se2uence t#ird#armonic currents in
many industrial and commercial (uildin' ,acilities? In contrast, ca4acitors on utility
distri(ution systems are more
commonly wye%connected? T#is 'i)es t#e o4tion o, controllin' t#e @erose2uence tri4len
#armonics sim4ly (y c#an'in' t#e neutral connection?
Placin' a reactor in t#e neutral o, a ca4acitor is a common way to
,orce t#e (an+ to ,ilter only @ero%se2uence #armonics? T#is tec#ni2ue is
o,ten em4loyed to eliminate tele4#one inter,erence? A ta44ed reactor is
installed in t#e neutral and t#e ta4 adAusted to minimi@e t#e tele4#one?
Passi)e ,ilters s#ould always (e 4laced on a (us w#ere t#e s#ort%circuit reactance
[SCcan (e e74ected to remain constant? "#ile t#e notc#
,re2uency will remain ,i7ed, t#e 4arallel resonance will mo)e wit# system im4edance?
/or e7am4le, t#e 4arallel resonant ,re2uency ,or runnin' wit# stand(y 'eneration (y
itsel, is li+ely to (e muc# lower t#an
w#en interconnected wit# t#e utility (ecause t#e 'enerator im4edance
is muc# #i'#er t#an t#e utility im4edance? T#is could ma'ni,y a #armonic t#at is
normally insi'ni,icant? T#us, ,ilters are o,ten remo)ed ,or
o4eration wit# stand(y 'eneration?
Also, ,ilters must (e desi'ned wit# t#e ca4acity o, t#e (us in mind?
T#e tem4tation is to si@e t#e current%carryin' ca4a(ility (ased solely
on t#e load t#at is 4roducin' t#e #armonic? Howe)er, a small amount
o, (ac+'round )olta'e distortion on a )ery stron' (us may im4ose
e7cessi)e duty on t#e ,ilter?
Series 4assi)e ,ilters? !nli+e a notc# ,ilter w#ic# is connected in s#unt
wit# t#e 4ower system, a series 4assi)e ,ilter is connected in series
wit# t#e load? T#e inductance and ca4acitance are connected in 4arallel and are tuned to
4ro)ide a #i'# im4edance at a selected #armonic
,re2uency? T#e #i'# im4edance t#en (loc+s t#e ,low o, #armonic currents at t#e tuned
,re2uency only? At ,undamental ,re2uency, t#e ,ilter
would (e desi'ned to yield a low im4edance, t#ere(y allowin' t#e ,undamental current to
,ollow wit# only minor additional im4edance and
losses? /i'ure 8?18 s#ows a ty4ical series ,ilter arran'ement?
Series ,ilters are used to (loc+ a sin'le #armonic current Csuc# as t#e
t#ird #armonicD and are es4ecially use,ul in a sin'le%4#ase circuit
w#ere it is not 4ossi(le to ta+e ad)anta'e o, @ero%se2uence c#aracteristics? T#e use o, t#e
series ,ilters is limited in (loc+in' multi4le #armonic currents? Eac# #armonic current
re2uires a series ,ilter tuned to
t#at #armonic? T#is arran'ement can create si'ni,icant losses at t#e
,undamental ,re2uency?
/urt#ermore, li+e ot#er series com4onents in 4ower systems, a
series ,ilter must (e desi'ned to carry a ,ull rated load current and
must #a)e an o)ercurrent 4rotection sc#eme? T#us, series ,ilters are
muc# less commonly a44lied t#an s#unt ,ilters?
-68 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
1ow%4ass (road(and ,ilters? .ulti4le sta'es o, (ot# series and s#unt ,ilters are o,ten
re2uired in 4ractical a44lications? /or e7am4le, in s#unt
,ilter a44lications, a ,ilter ,or (loc+in' a se)ent#%#armonic ,re2uency
would ty4ically re2uire two sta'es o, s#unt ,ilters, t#e se)ent#%#armonic
,ilter itsel, and t#e lower ,i,t#%#armonic ,ilter? Similarly, in series ,ilter
a44lications, eac# ,re2uency re2uires a series ,ilter o, its ownJ t#us, multi4le sta'es o,
,ilters are needed to (loc+ multi4le ,re2uencies?
In numerous 4ower system conditions, #armonics can a44ear not
only in a sin'le ,re2uency (ut can s4read o)er a wide ran'e o, ,re2uencies? A si7%4ulse
con)erter 'enerates c#aracteristic #armonics o, 6t#,
9t#, 11t#, 13t#, etc? Electronic 4ower con)erters can essentially 'enerate time%)aryin'
inter#armonics co)erin' a wide ran'e o, ,re2uencies?
esi'nin' a s#unt or series ,ilter to eliminate or reduce t#ese wides4read and time%
)aryin' #armonics would (e )ery di,,icult usin' s#unt
,ilters? T#ere,ore, an alternati)e #armonic ,ilter must (e de)ised?
A low%4ass (road(and ,ilter is an ideal a44lication to (loc+ multi4le
or wides4read #armonic ,re2uencies? Current wit# ,re2uency com4onents (elow t#e ,ilter
cuto,, ,re2uency can 4assJ #owe)er, current wit#
,re2uency com4onents a(o)e t#e cuto,, ,re2uency is ,iltered out? Since
t#is ty4e o, low%4ass ,ilter is ty4ically desi'ned to ac#ie)e a low cuto,,
,re2uency, it is t#en called a low%4ass (road(and ,ilter? A ty4ical con,i'uration o, a low%
4ass (road(and ,ilter is s#own in /i'? 8?19?
In distri(ution system a44lications, t#e e,,ect o, low%4ass (road(and
,ilters can (e o(tained (y installin' a ca4acitor (an+ on t#e low%)olta'e
side o, a trans,ormer as s#own in /i'? 8?1:a?T#e si@e o, t#e ca4acitor
(an+ would #a)e to (e so selected to 4ro)ide t#e desired cuto,, ,re2uency w#en
com(ined wit# t#e trans,ormer lea+a'e inductance and
t#e system im4edance? It is t#en ca4a(le o, 4re)entin' #armonics
a(o)e t#e cuto,, ,re2uency ,rom 4enetratin' t#e #i'#%)olta'e side o, t#e
trans,ormer? Since t#e cuto,, ,re2uency can (e sometimes 2uite low, t#e
si@e o, t#e ca4acitor (an+ may (e ,airly lar'e? T#is will result in a si'ni,icant )olta'e rise?
S#ould t#e )olta'e remain #i'#, a )olta'e re'ulator or trans,ormer load ta4 c#an'er
C1TCD must (e used to lower t#e
)olta'e to an acce4ta(le le)el?
In a su(station ser)in' multi4le ,eeders, a line reactor and )olta'e
re'ulator can (e installed at t#e (e'innin' o, t#e ,eeder to isolate t#e
4ortion o, t#e system su(Aect to #i'# )olta'e? T#is arran'ement will
/i'ure 8?18 A series 4assi)e ,ilter?
A44lied Harmonics
allow )olta'e le)els at ot#er ,eeders to (e maintained at normal )alues?
T#e com(ination o, t#e trans,ormer lea+a'e inductance, t#e line reactor, t#e )olta'e
re'ulator, and t#e ca4acitor (an+ yields t#e desired cuto,, ,re2uency? /i'ure 8?1:(de4icts
t#is arran'ement?
In industrial system a44lications, commercial low%4ass (road(and ,ilters #a)e (een used
to 4re)ent #armonics 4roduced (y nonlinear loads
,rom enterin' t#e ac system? T#e ty4ical desi'n is illustrated in /i'?
8?1=?
1>
/i'ure 8?-> s#ows a ty4ical system intended ,or t#is a44lication?
A line reactor installed in series wit# t#e main ac line is used to 4ro)ide
an electrical se4aration (etween t#e ac system and t#e nonlinear load? A
ca4acitor (an+ is installed in s#unt to ,orm a low%4ass (road(and ,ilter
-6: C#a4ter Si7
/i'ure 8?19 A low%4ass (road(and ,ilter con,i'uration?
/i'ure 8?1: A low%4ass (road(and ,ilter a44lication in 4ower ser)ice ,or industrial
systems? /ilter arran'ement in a su(station wit# CaD dedicated and C(D multi4le
,eeders?
A44lied Harmonics
con,i'uration? Since t#e 4resence o, t#e ca4acitor (an+ increases t#e
)olta'e at t#e in4ut o, t#e AS, a (uc+ trans,ormer is needed to (rin'
t#e )olta'e at t#e line reactor out4ut down to a le)el w#ere t#e )olta'e
at t#e ca4acitor is acce4ta(le? T#e o4timum 4er,ormance o, a low%4ass
(road(and ,ilter in AS a44lications is o(tained w#en t#ere is no series
inductor (etween t#e ,ilter ca4acitor (an+s and t#e AS dc (us ca4acitor? Any im4edance
in (etween reduces t#e c#ar'in' ca4a(ility o, t#e dc
(us ca4acitor since it is c#ar'ed ,rom t#e ,ilter ca4acitor?
T#e cuto,, ,re2uency ,or a low%4ass (road(and ,ilter ,or AS a44lications is ty4ically
desi'ned at a low #armonic ,re2uency, suc# as at
/i'ure 8?1= A low%4ass (road(and ,ilter a44lication in an industrial system?
/i'ure 8?-> A commercial 8>>%&, t#ree%4#ase (road(and ,ilter? CCourtesy o,
.TE Cor4?D
A44lied Harmonics
1>> to ->> H@ on a 8>%H@ system? "it# t#is low tunin' ,re2uency, t#e
,ilter is unli+ely to e7cite any undesired resonance wit# t#e rest o, t#e
system and can ,ilter out muc# o, t#e #armonic currents? In AS
a44lications t#e ,ilter can 'enerally reduce t#e o)erall current #armonic distortion ,rom
t#e => to 1>> 4ercent ran'e down to t#e = to 1-
4ercent ran'e under rated load conditions? T#is 4er,ormance is certainly muc# (etter t#an
a sim4le ac line c#o+e, w#ic# only reduces
t#e o)erall current distortion down to t#e 3> to 5> 4ercent ran'e?
Howe)er, t#e cost o, an ac line c#o+e is less t#an a low%4ass (road(and ,ilter?
C ,ilters? C ,ilters are an alternati)e to low%4ass (road(and ,ilters
in reducin' multi4le #armonic ,re2uencies simultaneously in industrial and utility
systems? T#ey can attenuate a wide ran'e o, steadystate and time%)aryin' #armonic and
inter#armonic ,re2uencies
'enerated (y electronic con)erters, induction ,urnaces, cyclocon)erters, and t#e li+e?
T#e con,i'uration o, a C ,ilter is nearly identical to t#at o, t#e second%order #i'#%4ass
,ilter s#own earlier in /i'? 8?1-? T#e main distinction (etween t#e two con,i'urations is
t#at t#e C ,ilter 4ossesses an
au7iliary ca4acitor Cain series wit# t#e inductor 1m?A ty4ical con,i'uration o, a C ,ilter
is s#own in /i'? 8?-1? T#e au7iliary ca4acitor Cais
si@ed in suc# a way t#at its ca4aciti)e reactance cancels out 1mat t#e
,undamental ,re2uency, (y4assin' t#e dam4in' resistance R?/or t#is
reason, t#e losses associated wit# Rare 4ractically eliminated, allowin' a C ,ilter to (e
tuned to a low ,re2uency?
T#e im4edance ,re2uency res4onse o, a C ,ilter is also essentially
identical to t#at o, a second%order #i'#%4ass ,ilter? At #i'#%order #armonic ,re2uencies,
t#e reactance o, Cais small, w#ile t#at o, 1mis lar'e?
T#ere,ore, t#e im4edance o, t#e series 1mandCa(ranc# is dominated
(y t#e reactance o, 1m?T#e #i'#%,re2uency res4onses o, t#e C ,ilter and
second%order #i'#%4ass ,ilters are similar Csee /i'? 8?-1D?
In desi'nin' a C ,ilter,
11
it is necessary to s4eci,y IS/C#TD, t#e ma7imum #armonic current allowed to ,low into
t#e system at #T,t#e tuned
#armonic ,re2uency? It is also assumed t#at t#e re2uirement ,or t#e
reacti)e 4ower com4ensation is +nown, t#us esta(lis#in' t#e nominal
si@e o, ca4acitor Cm? /i'ure 8?-- s#ows an e2ui)alent circuit ,or deri)in' ,ilter
com4onents R, Ca, and1m? T#e s#ort%circuit reactance is
denoted as [S?/ilter com4onents can (e com4uted as ,ollows:
R
R/C#TD
-
[
#
C
T
m
-
R/C#TD
-8> C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
[1m[Ca
w#ereR/
[Ss#ort%circuit reactance at ,undamental ,re2uency
[1mreactance o, 1mat ,undamental ,re2uency
[Careactance o, Caat ,undamental ,re2uency
E7am4le? 1et us consider a C ,ilter a44lied at a 13?:%+& (us? T#e ,ilter is desi'ned to
deli)er 6 .)ar at t#e ,undamental ,re2uency C[Cm
13?:
-
O6 3:?1
D and to attenuate 9> 4ercent o, inAected #armonics at
t#e tuned #armonic #To, 6?6?
#T[S
IS/
C
1
# TD
-
1
R/C#TD
-
[
#
C
T
m
-
[
#
C
T
m
#
T
#T
1
C ,ilter
-nd%order #i'#%4ass ,ilter
1m
Ca
Cm
R
>
-
5
8
:
1>
1-
15
18
1:
->
>-5 8:1> Harmonic num(er #
1- 15 18 1: ->
&olta'e &# or im4edance N#
/i'ure 8?-1 A ty4ical C%,ilter con,i'uration and its im4edance ,re2uency res4onse
Csolid lineD?
A44lied Harmonics
T#us, t#e ma7imum current allowed to ,low in t#e system at t#e
tuned ,re2uency would (e IS/C#T 6?6D>?3 4u C3> 4ercentD? T#e
s#ort%circuit reactance o, t#e system is assumed to (e 1?>
? /rom t#e
'i)en e2uations, it can (e com4uted t#at R-=?6
and[Ca[1a
1?3:3
? /i'ure 8?-3 s#ows t#e #armonic current allowed to ,low in t#e
system, i?e?, IS/as a ,unction o, ,re2uency ,or C ,ilters wit# IS/C#T6?6D
o, 1>, 3>, and 6> 4ercent?
/rom /i'? 8?-3, it is o(ser)ed t#at at lower #armonic ,re2uencies t#e
IS/ C#TD is smaller, and t#e dam4in' o, t#e ,ilter would (e less? /or
e7am4le, a C ,ilter wit# IS/C#T6?6D>?1 #as less dam4in' com4ared
to one wit# IS/C#T6?6D>?3 or >?6 (ecause t#e resisti)e com4onent
R#as a lar'er )alue?
At #i'#er #armonic ,re2uencies, t#e amount o, current ,lowin' in t#e
system is a44ro7imately identical in all cases s#own in /i'? 8?-3 since
t#eCmreactance dominates t#e o)erall ,ilter im4edance? /or t#is reason, #i'#er
attenuation at #i'# #armonic ,re2uencies cannot (e
ac#ie)ed (y #a)in' a C ,ilter wit# lower IS/C#TD? Instead, an additional
,ilter would (e re2uired?
/i'ure 8?-5 s#ows t#e con,i'uration o, a C ,ilter cou4led wit# a notc#
,ilter to ac#ie)e more attenuation at #i'#er ,re2uencies? T#e draw(ac+
wit# t#is arran'ement is t#at t#ere is a new 4arallel resonance associated wit# t#e notc#
,ilter? T#is 4arallel resonance must (e so selected
t#at it is not e7cited (y any #armonic currents 4resent in t#e system?
T#e notc# ,ilter is ty4ically tuned #i'#er t#an a C ,ilter? I, t#e notc#
,ilter is tuned (elow t#e C ,ilter, t#e si@e o, t#e au7iliary ca4acitor Ca
would (e si'ni,icantly lar'er, ma+in' t#e C ,ilter im4ractical?
8?6?5 Acti)e ,ilters
Acti)e ,ilters are relati)ely new ty4es o, de)ices ,or eliminatin' #armonics? T#ey are
(ased on so4#isticated 4ower electronics and are
muc# more e74ensi)e t#an 4assi)e ,ilters? Howe)er, t#ey #a)e t#e distinct ad)anta'e t#at
t#ey do not resonate wit# t#e system? Acti)e ,il%-8- C#a4ter Si7
1m
[s
Ca
Cm
R
I
S/ I
#armonics
/i'ure 8?-- E2ui)alent circuit ,or deri)in' C%,ilter
s4eci,ications?
A44lied Harmonics
Is4 C6?6D ] >?1
>
>?1
>?-
>?3
>?5
>?6
>?8
>?9
5?6 6 6?6 8 8?6
>
-
5
8
:
1>
1-
15
>-58:1> Harmonic num(er #
1- 15 18 1: ->
Harmonic current allowed to ,low in [s
Is4 C6?6D ] >?1
Is4 C6?6D ] >?3
Is4 C6?6D ] >?6
Is4 C6?6D ] >?6
Is4 C6?6D ] >?3
/i'ure 8?-3 An e7am4le o, a C ,ilter w#ere t#e ma7imum #armonic current allowed
to ,low in t#e system is 1>, 3>, and 6> 4ercent at t#e tuned #armonic order o, 6?6?
1m
Ca
Cm
R
C ,ilter wit# a 3?>%.)ar notc# ,ilter
1notc#
Cnotc#
C ,ilter
> - 5 8 : 1> 1- 15 18 1: ->
Harmonic num(er #
>
1
-
3
5
6
8
9
:
=
Harmonic current allowed to ,low in [s
/i'ure 8?-5 A C ,ilter wit# and wit#out a notc# ,ilter?
A44lied Harmonics
ters can wor+ inde4endently o, t#e system im4edance c#aracteristics?
T#us, t#ey can (e used in )ery di,,icult circumstances w#ere 4assi)e
,ilters cannot o4erate success,ully (ecause o, 4arallel resonance 4ro(lems? T#ey can also
address more t#an one #armonic at a time and
com(at ot#er 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems suc# as ,lic+er? T#ey are 4articularly use,ul ,or
lar'e, distortin' loads ,ed ,rom relati)ely wea+ 4oints
on t#e 4ower system?
T#e (asic idea is to re4lace t#e 4ortion o, t#e sine wa)e t#at is missin' in t#e current in a
nonlinear load? /i'ure 8?-6 illustrates t#e conce4t? An electronic control monitors t#e line
)olta'e andOor current,
switc#in' t#e 4ower electronics )ery 4recisely to trac+ t#e load current
or )olta'e and ,orce it to (e sinusoidal? As s#own, t#ere are two ,undamental a44roac#es:
one t#at uses an inductor to store current to (e
inAected into t#e system at t#e a44ro4riate instant and one t#at uses a
ca4acitor? T#ere,ore, w#ile t#e load current is distorted to t#e e7tent
demanded (y t#e nonlinear load, t#e current seen (y t#e system is
muc# more sinusoidal?
Acti)e ,ilters can ty4ically (e 4ro'rammed to correct ,or t#e 4ower
,actor as well as #armonics?
8?8 Harmonic /ilter esi'n: A Case Study
T#is section illustrates a 4rocedure ,or desi'nin' #armonic ,ilters ,or
industrial a44lications? T#is 4rocedure can also (e used to con)ert an
e7istin' 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitor into a #armonic ,ilter? As
descri(ed in Sec? 5?1?-, 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors are used
widely in industrial ,acilities to lower losses and utility (ills (y im4ro)in' 4ower ,actor?
On t#e ot#er #and, 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors
may 4roduce #armonic resonance and ma'ni,y utility ca4acitor%switc#in' transients?
T#ere,ore, it is o,ten desira(le to im4lement one or more
ca4acitor (an+s in a ,acility as a #armonic ,ilter?
-85 C#a4ter Si7
OR NON1INEAR
1OA
/i'ure 8?-6 A44lication o, an acti)e ,ilter at a load?
A44lied Harmonics
/ilter desi'n 4rocedures are detailed in t#e ste4s s#own (elow? T#e
(est way to illustrate t#e desi'n 4rocedures is t#rou'# an e7am4le?
A sin'le%tuned notc# ,ilter will (e desi'ned ,or an industrial ,acility
and a44lied at a 5:>%& (us? T#e load w#ere t#e ,ilter will (e installed
is a44ro7imately 1->> +&A wit# a relati)ely 4oor dis4lacement 4ower
,actor o, >?96 la''in'? T#e total #armonic current 4roduced (y t#is load
is a44ro7imately 3> 4ercent o, t#e ,undamental current, wit# a ma7imum o, -6 4ercent
,i,t# #armonic? T#e ,acility is su44lied (y a 16>>%+&A trans,ormer wit# 8?> 4ercent o,
im4edance? T#e ,i,t#%#armonic
(ac+'round )olta'e distortion on t#e utility side o, t#e trans,ormer is
1?> 4ercent o, t#e ,undamental w#en t#ere is no load? /i'ure 8?9 s#own
earlier de4icts t#e industrial ,acility w#ere t#e ,ilter will (e a44lied?
T#e #armonic desi'n 4rocedures are 4ro)ided in t#e ,ollowin' ste4s?
1? Select a tuned ,re2uency ,or t#e ,ilter? T#e tuned ,re2uency is selected
(ased on t#e #armonic c#aracteristics o, t#e loads in)ol)ed? *ecause o,
t#e nature o, a sin'le%tuned ,ilter, t#e ,ilterin' s#ould start at t#e lowest #armonic
,re2uency 'enerated (y t#e load? In t#is case, t#at will (e
t#e ,i,t# #armonic? T#e ,ilter will (e tuned sli'#tly (elow t#e #armonic
,re2uency o, concern to allow ,or tolerances in t#e ,ilter com4onents
and )ariations in system im4edance? T#is 4re)ents t#e ,ilter ,rom actin' as a direct s#ort
circuit ,or t#e o,,endin' #armonic current, reducin' duty on t#e ,ilter com4onents? It also
minimi@es t#e 4ossi(ility o,
dan'erous #armonic resonance s#ould t#e system 4arameters c#an'e
and cause t#e tunin' ,re2uency to s#i,t?
In t#is e7am4le, t#e ,ilter is desi'ned to (e tuned to t#e 5?9t#? T#is
is a common c#oice o, notc# ,re2uency since t#e resultin' 4arallel resonant ,re2uency
will (e located around t#e ,ourt# #armonic, a #armonic ,re2uency t#at is not 4roduced (y
most nonlinear loads? T#e
notc# ,ilter is illustrated in /i'? 8?-8?
-? Com4ute ca4acitor (an+ si@e and t#e resonant ,re2uency? As a 'eneral
rule, t#e ,ilter si@e is (ased on t#e load reacti)e 4ower re2uirement ,or
4ower ,actor correction? "#en an e7istin' 4ower ,actor correction
ca4acitor is con)erted to a #armonic ,ilter, t#e ca4acitor si@e is 'i)en?
T#e reactor si@e is t#en selected to tune t#e ca4acitor to t#e desired ,re2uency? Howe)er,
de4endin' on t#e tuned ,re2uency, t#e )olta'e ratin'
o, t#e ca4acitor (an+ may #a)e to (e #i'#er t#an t#e system )olta'e to
allow ,or t#e )olta'e rise across t#e reactor? T#ere,ore, one may #a)e
to c#an'e out t#e ca4acitor anyway?
T#is e7am4le assumes t#at no ca4acitor is installed and t#at t#e
desired 4ower ,actor is =8 4ercent? T#us, t#e net reacti)e 4ower ,rom
t#e ,ilter re2uired to correct ,rom 96 to =8 4ercent 4ower ,actor can (e
com4uted as ,ollows:
A44lied Harmonics
TReacti)e 4ower demand ,or a 96 4ercent 4ower ,actor would (e
1->>sin Karccos C>?96D L 9=5?93 +)ar
TReacti)e 4ower demand ,or a =8 4ercent 4ower ,actor would (e
1->>sin Karccos C>?=8D L 338?> +)ar
TRe2uired com4ensation ,rom t#e ,ilter:
9=5?93
338?>569?93 +)ar
/or a nominal 5:>%& system, t#e net wye%e2ui)alent ,ilter reactance
Cca4aciti)eD[/iltis determined (y
[/ilt >?6>35
[/iltis t#e di,,erence (etween t#e ca4aciti)e reactance and t#e inducti)e reactance at
,undamental ,re2uency:
[/ilt[Ca4
[1
/or tunin' at t#e 5?9t# #armonic,
[Ca4#
-
[15?9
-
[1
>?5:
-
C1>>>D
569?93
+&
-
C1>>>D
+)ar
-88 C#a4ter Si7
/ilter
Reactor
Power /actor
Correction Ca4acitor
5:>%&olt *us
/i'ure 8?-8 E7am4le low%)olta'e ,ilter con,i'uration?
A44lied Harmonics
T#us, t#e desired ca4aciti)e reactance can (e determined (y
[Ca4 >?6-9-
At t#is 4oint, it is not +nown w#et#er t#e ,ilter ca4acitor can (e rated
at 5:> &, t#e same as t#e system, or will #a)e to (e rated one ste4
#i'#er at 8>> &? To ac#ie)e t#is reactance at a 5:>%& ratin', t#e ca4acitor would #a)e to
(e rated
+)ar 539 +)ar
Similarly, at 8>> &, t#e ca4acitor would #a)e to (e rated 8:- +)ar? /or
now, t#e ,ilter will (e desi'ned usin' a 5:>%& ca4acitor rated 56> +)ar,
w#ic# is a commonly a)aila(le si@e near t#e desired )alue? /or t#is
ca4acitor ratin',
[Ca4>?61->
3? Com4ute ,ilter reactor si@e? T#e ,ilter reactor si@e can now (e selected
to tune t#e ca4acitor to t#e desired ,re2uency? /rom ste4 1, t#e desired
,re2uency is at t#e 5?9t# #armonic or -:- H@? T#e ,ilter reactor si@e is
com4uted ,rom t#e wye%e2ui)alent ca4aciti)e reactance, determined in
ste4 -, as ,ollows:
[1C,undD >?>-31:
or
1>?>815: mH
Alternati)ely, t#e reactor si@e can (e com4uted (y sol)in' ,or 1in t#e
,ollowin' e2uation:
,#
w#ere,#5?98>-:- H@?
T#e ne7t ste4 is to e)aluate t#e duty re2uirements ,or t#e ca4acitor
and reactor?
1
- 1CCwy eD
[1C,undD
- 8>
>?61->
5?9
-
[Ca4 CwyeD
#
-
>?5:
-
C1>>>D
>?6-9-
+&
-
C1>>>D
[Ca4
>?6>35 C5?9
-
D
5?9
-
1
[/ilt#
-
#
-
1
A44lied Harmonics
5? E)aluate ,ilter duty re2uirements? E)aluation o, ,ilter duty re2uirements ty4ically
in)ol)es ca4acitor (an+ duties? T#ese duties include
4ea+ )olta'e, current, +)ar 4roduced, and rms )olta'e? IEEE Standard
1:%1==-,IEEE Standard ,or S#unt Power Ca4acitors,is used as t#e
limitin' standard to e)aluate t#ese duties? Com4utations o, t#e duties
are ,airly len't#yJ t#ere,ore, t#ey are di)ided into t#ree ste4s, i?e?, com4utation ,or
,undamental duties, #armonic duties, and rms current and
4ea+ )olta'e duties?
6? Com4utation o, ,undamental duty re2uirements? In t#is ste4, a ,undamental ,re2uency
o4eratin' )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor (an+ is determined? T#e com4utation is as ,ollows:
a? T#e a44arent reactance o, t#e com(ined ca4acitor and reactor at
t#e ,undamental ,re2uency is
[,und c[1
[Ca4 CwyeDcc>?>-31:
>?61->c>?5:=
(? T#e ,undamental ,re2uency ,ilter current is
I,und 689 A
c? T#e ,undamental ,re2uency o4eratin' )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor
(an+ is
&1
1,Ca4 C,undD 3I,und [Ca4 CwyeD6>-?: &
T#is is t#e nominal ,undamental )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor? It s#ould
(e adAusted ,or any contin'ency conditions Cma7imum system )olta'eD,
and it s#ould (e less t#an 11> 4ercent o, t#e ca4acitor rated )olta'e?
d? *ecause o, t#e ,act t#at t#e ,ilter draws more ,undamental current t#an t#e ca4acitor
alone, t#e actual reacti)e 4ower 4roduced is
lar'er t#an t#e ca4acitor ratin':
+)ar,und 3 I,und +&actual591 +)ar
8? Com4utation o, #armonic duty re2uirements? In t#is ste4, t#e ma7imum #armonic
current e74ected in t#e ,ilter is com4uted? T#is current
#as two com4onents: t#e #armonic current 4roduced (y t#e nonlinear
load Ccom4uted in ste4 aD and t#e #armonic current ,rom t#e utility
side Ccom4uted in ste4 (D?
5:>O 3
>?5:=
+&actualO 3
[,und
-8: C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
a? Since t#e nonlinear load 4roduces -6 4ercent ,i,t# #armonic o, t#e
,undamental current, t#e #armonic current in am4eres 4roduced (y
t#e load would (e
I#Cam4sD I#C4uD >?-6 38>?: A
(? Harmonic current contri(uted to t#e ,ilter ,rom t#e source side is
estimated as ,ollows? It will (e assumed t#at t#e 1 4ercent ,i,t#%#armonic )olta'e
distortion 4resent on t#e utility system will (e limited
only (y t#e im4edances o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer and t#e ,ilterJ t#e
utility im4edance will (e ne'lected?
T/undamental ,re2uency im4edance o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer:
[TC,undD NTCID >?>8 >?>>=-
TT#e ,i,t#%#armonic im4edance o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer Ct#e trans,ormer is inducti)eD:
[TC#armD #[TC,undD 6>?>>=->?>581
TT#e #armonic im4edance o, t#e ca4acitor (an+ is
[Ca4 CwyeD, #arm>?1>-5
TT#e #armonic im4edance o, t#e reactor is
[1C#armD #[1C,undD 6>?>-31:>?116=
T 0i)en t#at t#e )olta'e distortion on t#e utility system is >?>1 4u, t#e
estimated amount o, ,i,t#%#armonic current contri(uted to t#e ,ilter
,rom t#e source side would (e
I#CutilityD
58?6 A
>?>15:>
3
>?>581
>?1>-5
>?116=
&#CutilityD C4uD+&actual
3
[TC#armD
[Ca4 CwyeD,#arm
[1C#armD
>?61-
6
[Ca4 CwyeD
#
>?5:
-
1?6
+&
-
actual
.&A[,mr
1->>
3>?5:
+&A
3+&actual
A44lied Harmonics
c? T#e ma7imum #armonic current is t#e sum o, t#e #armonic current 4roduced (y t#e
load and t#at contri(uted ,rom t#e utility side:
I#CtotalD 38>?:
58?65>9 A
d? T#e #armonic )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor can (e com4uted as ,ollows:
&Ca4 C1%1,rms%#armD 3I#CtotalD
35>99-?- &
9? E)aluate total rms current and 4ea+ )olta'e re2uirements? T#ese two
2uantities are com4uted as ,ollows:
a? Total rms current 4assin' t#rou'# t#e ,ilter:
Irms,total I
-
,und
I#
-
Cutili tyD 689
-
5>9
- 8=: A
T#is is t#e total rms current ratin' re2uired ,or t#e ,ilter reactor?
(? Assumin' t#e #armonic and ,undamental com4onents add
to'et#er, t#e ma7imum 4ea+ )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor is
&1%1,Ca4 Cma7,Pea+D&1%1,Ca4 C,undD
&Ca4 C1%1,rms%#armD
6>-?:
9-?-696 &
c? T#e rms )olta'e across t#e ca4acitor is
&1%1,Ca4 Crms,totalD &-
1%1,C a4 C,undD
&- Ca4 C1%1, rms%#arm D
6>-?: -
9- ?-
- 6>: &
d? T#e total +)ar seen (y t#e ca4acitor is
+)arCa4 CwyeD,total 3Irms,total +&1%1,Ca4 Crms,totalD
38=:>?6>:815 +)ar
:? E)aluate ca4acitor ratin' limits? T#e duties C4ea+ )olta'e, rms )olta'e and current, and
+)ar 4roducedD ,or t#e 4ro4osed ,ilter ca4acitor
are com4ared to t#e )arious IEEE standard limits in Ta(le 8?5? T#is
would (e a )ery mar'inal a44lication (ecause t#e ca4acitor duties are
>?61-
6
[Ca4 CwyeD
#
-9> C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
essentially at t#e ma7imum limits? T#ere is no tolerance ,or any de)iation in assum4tions
or increases in ser)ice )olta'e? A 5:>%& ca4acitor
will li+ely #a)e a s#ort li,e in t#is a44lication?
"#en t#is #a44ens, a ca4acitor rated ,or #i'#er )olta'e must (e
used? At 8>> &, t#e e2ui)alent ca4acitor ratin' would (e
56>9>3 +)ar
A nominal ratin' o, 9>> +)ar wit# t#e reactor )alues com4uted in ste4
3 would 4ro)ide essentially t#e same ,ilter wit#in normal manu,acturin' tolerances? T#e
8>>%& ca4acitor would (e well wit#in its ratin' in
t#is a44lication?
=? E)aluate ,ilter ,re2uency res4onse? T#e ,ilter ,re2uency res4onse is
now e)aluated to ma+e sure t#at t#e ,ilter does not create a new resonance at a ,re2uency
t#at could cause additional 4ro(lems? T#e #armonic at w#ic# t#e 4arallel resonance
(elow t#e notc# ,re2uency will
occur is com4uted as ,ollows:
#>
3?=9
T#is assumes t#e ser)ice trans,ormer reactance dominates t#e source
im4edance? Includin' t#e utility system im4edance will lower t#e ,re2uency?
T#is ,ilter results in a resonance )ery near t#e ,ourt# #armonic,
w#ic# is an interestin' case? Normally, t#ere are )ery ,ew si'ni,icant
sources o, an e)en #armonic durin' steady%state o4eration and t#is ,ilter would wor+
acce4ta(ly? Howe)er, t#ere are si'ni,icant ,ourt#%#ar%>?61-
>?>>=-
>?>-31:
[Ca4 CwyeD
[TC,undD
[1C,undD
8>>
-
5:>
-
TA*1E8?5 Com4arison Ta(le ,or E)aluatin' /ilter uty 1imit
uty e,inition 1imit, I Actual )alues Actual )alues, I
Pea+ )olta'e 1-> 11=
R.S )olta'e 11> 1>8
R.S current 1:> 1-=
+)ar 136 138
815 +)ar
56> +)ar
+)arCa4CwyeD,total
+)arrated
8=: A
651 A
Irms,total
ICa4CratedD
6>: &
5:> &
&1%1,Ca4Crms,totalD
+&rated
696 &
5:> &
&1%1,Ca4Cma7,Pea+D
+&rated
A44lied Harmonics
monic currents durin' e)ents suc# as trans,ormer ener'i@ation? I, t#e
,ilter is in ser)ice w#en a lar'e trans,ormer is ener'i@ed and t#ere is
)ery little load to dam4en t#e resonance, t#ere can (e o)er)olta'es t#at
4ersist well 4ast t#e usual inrus# transient 4eriod? In t#is case, t#e
desi'ner s#ould ,irst include t#e utility system im4edance in t#e calculation? To 'ain
additional mar'in ,rom t#e ,ourt#, t#e (asic ,ilter si@e
would #a)e to (e increased?
1>? E)aluate t#e e,,ect o, ,ilter 4arameter )ariations wit#in s4eci,ied tolerance? /ilter
desi'ners 'enerally assume ca4acitors are desi'ned wit# a
tolerance o,
16 4ercent o, t#e nominal ca4acitance )alue? Reactors are
assumed to #a)e a tolerance o, l6 4ercent o, t#e nominal inductance?
T#ese tolerances can si'ni,icantly a,,ect t#e ,ilter 4er,ormance s#ould
t#e ,re2uency res4onse o)er t#is ran'e create a #arm,ul resonance?
T#ere,ore, t#e ,inal ste4 is to c#ec+ t#e ,ilter desi'n ,or t#e )arious
e7tremes? T#is is automatically done in some ,ilter desi'n so,tware?
Ste4s 1 t#rou'# 1> illustrate a ty4ical sin'le%tuned ,ilter desi'n?
.ulti4le sin'le%tuned ,ilters mi'#t (e necessary w#en a sin'le%tuned
,ilter does not control #armonics to acce4ta(le le)els? /or e7am4le, 6t#,
9t#%, and 11t#%#armonic ,ilters may (e needed ,or some lar'e si7%4ulse
loads? T#e 'eneral 4rocedure is t#e same e7ce4t t#at t#e reacti)e 4ower
re2uirement is ,irst di)ided (etween t#e ,ilter sta'es? E)aluatin' t#e
e,,ect o, com4onent tolerance is 4articularly im4ortant since t#ere are
multi4le ,ilters in)ol)ed?
T#e tunin' c#aracteristic o, t#e ,ilter is descri(ed (y its 2uality ,actorQ? Qis a measure o,
t#e s#ar4ness o, tunin' and, ,or series ,ilter
resistance, is de,ined as
Q
w#ereRseries resistance o, ,ilter elements
ntunin' #armonic
[1reactance o, ,ilter reactor at ,undamental ,re2uency
Ty4ically, t#e )alue o, Rconsists o, only t#e resistance o, t#e inductor?
T#is usually results in a )ery lar'e )alue o, Qand a )ery s#ar4 ,ilterin' action? T#is is
normally satis,actory ,or t#e ty4ical sin'le%,ilter
a44lication and results in a ,ilter t#at is )ery economical to o4erate
Csmall ener'y consum4tionD? Howe)er, sometimes it is desira(le to
introduce some intentional losses to #el4 dam4en t#e res4onse o, t#e
system? A resistor is commonly added in 4arallelwit# t#e reactor to create a #i'#%4ass
,ilter? In t#is case, Qis de,ined as t#e in)erse o, t#e
a(o)e series case so t#at lar'e num(ers re,lect s#ar4 tunin'? Hi'#%4ass
n[1
R
-9- C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
,ilters are 'enerally used only at t#e 11t# and 13t# #armonics, and
#i'#er? It is usually not economical to o4erate suc# a ,ilter at t#e 6t#
and 9t# #armonics (ecause o, t#e amount o, losses and t#e si@e o, t#e
resistor Ca C ,ilter mi'#t (e a44lica(leD?
T#e reactors used ,or lar'er ,ilter a44lications are 'enerally (uilt
wit# an air core, w#ic# 4ro)ides linear c#aracteristics wit# res4ect to
,re2uency and current? Reactors ,or smaller ,ilters and ,ilters t#at
must ,it into a con,ined s4ace or near steel structures are (uilt wit# a
steel core? As stated in ste4 1>, 6 4ercent tolerance in t#e reactance is
usually acce4ta(le ,or industrial a44lications? T#e 8>%H@ [ORratio is
usually (etween 6> and 16>? A series resistor may (e used to lower t#is
ratio, i, desired, to 4roduce a ,ilter wit# more dam4in'? T#e reactor
s#ould (e rated to wit#stand a s#ort circuit at t#e Aunction o, t#e reactor and ca4acitor? A
desi'n Q,or t#e #i'#%4ass con,i'uration mi'#t ty4ically (e 1 or - to ac#ie)e a ,lat
res4onse a(o)e t#e tuned ,re2uency?
/ilters ,or many #i'#%4ower, t#ree%4#ase a44lications suc# as static
)ar systems o,ten include ,i,t# and se)ent# #armonics (ecause t#ose
are t#e lar'est #armonics 4roduced (y t#e si7%4ulse (rid'e?
Occasionally t#is will cause a system resonance near t#e t#ird t#at
may re2uire a t#ird%#armonic ,ilter? Normally, one wouldnFt t#in+ t#at
t#e t#ird #armonic would (e a 4ro(lem in a t#ree%4#ase (rid'e, (ut
im(alances in t#e o4eration o, t#e (rid'e and in system 4arameters
will create small amounts o, unc#aracteristic #armonics? Analysts
commonly assume t#e unc#aracteristic #armonics are attenuated => to
=6 4ercent o, t#e t#eoretical ma7imum? I, t#e system res4onds to t#ose
#armonics, ,ilters may #a)e to (e a44lied des4ite t#e assum4tion t#at
t#ese #armonics would (e cancelled? In t#ree%4#ase loads t#at can
o4erate w#ile sin'le%4#ased Ce?'?, arc ,urnacesD, no attenuation o, t#e
unc#aracteristic #armonics can (e assumed?
8?9 Case Studies
Two additional case studies are 4resented w#ic# descri(e C1D t#e e)aluation o, neutral
conductor loadin' and trans,ormer deratin' and C-D
inter#armonics caused (y induction ,urnaces?
8?9?1 E)aluation o, neutral loadin' and
trans,ormer deratin'
1oads in a data center ,acility are dominated (y #undreds o, sin'le4#ase com4uter
ser)ers and networ+in' e2ui4ment? T#e 4#ase currents in t#e low%)olta'e circuits #a)e
t#e #armonic c#aracteristics
s#own in /i'? 8?-9? Since t#ese loads are ric# in t#e t#ird #armonic,
t#ere is a 'ood li+eli#ood t#e neutral conductor may (e o)erloaded?
A44lied Harmonics
T#e 4ro(lem is to estimate t#e neutral conductor loadin' in am4eres
and in 4ercent o, t#e rms 4#ase current? In addition, t#e amount t#at
t#e trans,ormer su44lyin' t#is load must (e derated is to (e determined assumin' t#e
eddy%current loss ,actor under rated load PEC%Ris
: 4ercent?
T#e system is assumed to (e (alanced? T#ere,ore, t#e sum o, all
4#ase currents results in mostly t#ird%#armonic current in t#e neutral
conductor? T#e rms 4#ase current is
Irms

N
31
#1,3,6,N
I #
-
1?-8I136=?1 A
T#e t#ird%#armonic current is 86?9 4ercent, 'i)in' a neutral ccurrent o,
Ineutral3I3rd3>?869I168-?9- A
1?68Irms
*ased on t#is estimate, t#e neutral conductor will (e loaded to a44ro7imately 168 4ercent
o, t#e 4#ase conductor? T#is 4#enomenon #as (een
res4onsi(le ,or neutral o)erloadin'? Common solutions are to use a
-95 C#a4ter Si7
>1>->3>5>Time CmsD
6> 8> 9> :>
V1>>>
V6>>
>
6>>
1>>>
Current CAD
Harm
/und
3rd
6t#
9t#
=t#
11t#
13t#
16t#
I
1>>?>
86?9
39?9
1-?9
5?5
6?3
-?6
1?=
P#ase
V39
V=9
V188
113
V58
V16:
=-
V61
Harm
19t#
1=t#
-1st
-3rd
-6t#
-9t#
-=t#
31st
I
1?:
1?1
>?8
>?:
>?5
>?-
>?-
>?-
P#ase
V161
:5
V51
V15:
85
V-6
V1--
1>-
/i'ure 8?-9 P#ase current and its #armonic c#aracteristics? /undamental am4s:
-:6?6 A? P#ase an'les are in de'rees?
A44lied Harmonics
T Se4arate neutral conductor ,or eac# 4#ase
T ou(le neutral conductor si@e
T Ni'@a' trans,ormer close to t#e loads to s#orten t#e return 4at# ,or
t#e t#ird%#armonic currents and relie)e t#e o)erloaded neutral
T Series ,ilter tuned to t#e t#ird #armonic in t#e neutral circuit at t#e
trans,ormer
T#e trans,ormer deratin' can (e estimated (y ,irst com4utin' t#e <
,actor
1-
(y usin' E2? C6?3>D 4resented in Sec? 6?1>?-? Ta(le 8?6 s#ows
t#is com4utation and yields <8?35? /rom IEEE Standard 69?11>%1==:,Recommended
Practice ,or Esta(lis#in' Trans,ormer Ca4a(ility
"#en Su44lyin' Nonsinusoidal 1oad Currents,t#e standard deratin'
,or t#is wa)e,orm is >?:6 4u ,or PEC%R: 4ercent?
8?9?- Inter#armonics caused (y induction
,urnaces
T#e +ey sym4tom o, t#is 4ro(lem was t#at residential customers in a
wides4read area com4lained a(out t#eir cloc+s runnin' ,aster at a(out
t#e same time eac# wee+day? Ot#er time+ee4in' instruments also
(e#a)ed erratically?
TA*1E8?6 Com4utation ,or Trans,ormer eratin'
Harmonic Current, I /re2uency, H@ Current, 4u I
-
I
-
#
-
1 1>>?>> 8> 1?>>> 1?>>> 1?>>>
3 86?9> 1:> >?869 >?53- 3?::6
6 39?9> 3>> >?399 >?15- 3?663
9 1-?9> 5-> >?1-9 >?>18 >?9=>
= 5?5> 65> >?>55 >?>>- >?169
11 6?3> 88> >?>63 >?>>3 >?35>
13 -?6> 9:> >?>-6 >?>>1 >?1>8
16 1?=> =>> >?>1= >?>>> >?>:1
19 1?:> 1>-> >?>1: >?>>> >?>=5
1= 1?1> 115> >?>11 >?>>> >?>55
-1 >?8> 1-8> >?>>8 >?>>> >?>18
-3 >?:> 13:> >?>>: >?>>> >?>35
-6 >?5> 16>> >?>>5 >?>>> >?>1>
-9 >?-> 18-> >?>>- >?>>> >?>>3
-= >?-> 195> >?>>- >?>>> >?>>3
31 >?-> 1:8> >?>>- >?>>> >?>>5
Total 1?6=8 1>?11=
<,actor 8?35
Standard deratin' CANSIOIEEE C69?11>%1=:8D >?:6 4u
Assumed eddy current loss ,actor PEC%R :I
A44lied Harmonics
T#e cloc+s t#at e74erienced t#e 4ro(lem count time (y detectin' @ero
crossin's in t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm? T#e time (etween two adAacent @ero
crossin's is a #al, cycle o, t#e 4ower system ,undamental ,re2uency?
Since t#e ,re2uency error o, t#e 4ower system is ne'li'i(le o)er lon'
time 4eriods, t#ese cloc+s are )ery accurate?
/ast%cloc+ 4#enomena occur w#en t#ere are more @ero crossin's
t#an e74ected wit#in a #al, cycle due to #i'#%,re2uency distortion in
t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm? T#e #i'#%,re2uency si'nal a44ears as a sawtoot# or sinusoid
su4erim4osed on t#e ,undamental ,re2uency si'nal?
/i'ure 8?-: s#ows a ty4ical )olta'e wa)e,orm measured on customer
4remises? It is clear t#at t#ere will (e instances w#ere t#ere are multi4le @ero crossin's
wit#in a #al, cycle?
/i'ure 8?-:(s#ows t#at t#e #i'#%,re2uency distortion occurs at t#e
-=t# C195> H@D and t#e 36t# C-1>> H@D #armonics? /urt#er in)esti'ation re)ealed t#at
t#ese ,re2uencies were 4roduced (y induction ,urnaces located at a steel%'rindin' ,acility?
T#e distortion a,,ected
residential customers se)eral miles away? *ot# t#e 'rindin' ,acility
and residential customers were su44lied ,rom t#e same 58%+& distri(ution system, s#own
in t#e one%line dia'ram o, t#e ,acility in /i'? 8?-=?
-98 C#a4ter Si7
/i'ure 8?-: &olta'e wa)e,orm causin' ,ast%cloc+ 4ro(lems due to #i'#%,re2uency
distortion and its #armonic s4ectrum?
A44lied Harmonics
T#e o4eratin' ,re2uency o, t#e two induction ,urnaces )aries
(etween :>> to 1>>> H@ de4endin' on t#e amount and ty4e o, material
(ein' melted? T#e #armonic c#aracteristics o, t#ese ,urnaces were
descri(ed in Sec? 6?11? Assumin' t#e o4eratin' ,re2uency at a 4articular o4eration sta'e
is =6> H@, t#e resultin' line current com4uted usin'
E2? C6?35D would contain t#e ,ollowin' 4airs o, currents: C1:5> H@, 1=8>
H@D, C395> H@, 3:8> H@D, etc? T#ese currents are inter#armonic currents since t#ey are
not inte'er multi4les o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency? T#e ,irst 4air are t#e stron'est
inter#armonic com4onents and
are more 4rominent in t#e )olta'e? Since t#e ,urnace o4eratin' ,re2uency )aries (etween
:>> and 1>>> H@, t#e ,irst 4air o, t#e resultin'
inter#armonic current )aries (etween 165> C-6?89t# #armonicD and
->8> H@ Cor 35?33t# #armonicD? T#is )aryin' #armonic distortion
ma+es t#e a44lication o, 4assi)e s#unt ,ilters im4ossi(le?
T#e PCC ,or t#is ,acility was at t#e #i'#%)olta'e side o, t#e 58O1-?59%+& trans,ormer?
/i'ure 8?3> s#ows t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm at t#e PCC
w#ere t#e #i'#%,re2uency distortion is clearly )isi(le on to4 o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency
wa)e,orm?
To understand w#y t#e distortion a44eared t#rou'#out t#e 58%+&
system, a ,re2uency scan o, t#e system loo+in' ,rom t#e PCC was 4erA44lied Harmonics
-99
->>> A 3>>> A
1-?59 +&O9-> &
58 +&O1-?59 +&
1-?59 +&O9-> &
Ot#er loads
Ot#er loads
58 +&
PCC !tility meterin'
/i'ure 8?-= Steel%'rindin' ,acility one%line dia'ram s#owin'
source, meterin', and loads?
A44lied Harmonics
,ormed? T#e resultin' im4edance c#aracteristic is s#own in /i'? 8?31?
T#e scan indicated t#at t#e dominant resonance ,re2uency was a44ro7imately at t#e 35t#
#armonic? "#en t#e ,re2uency com4onents 4roduced (y a nonlinear load line u4 wit# t#e
system natural ,re2uency,
t#e distortion will (e ma'ni,ied? T#is is e7actly w#at #a44ened in t#is
4ro(lem? T#e inter#armonic ,re2uencies 4roduced (y t#e induction ,urnaces )aried
(etween -6t# and 35t# #armonics, t#e u44er end o, t#is
ran'e coincidin' wit# t#e system natural ,re2uency? T#us, it was not
sur4risin' to ,ind )olta'e distortion o)er a wide area?
Since t#e #i'#%,re2uency distortion )aried wit# time and t#e system
,re2uency res4onse accentuated t#e distortion, solutions em4loyin'
sin'le%tuned s#unt ,ilters Ce)en wit# multi4le sta'esD would not wor+?
T#ere were two 4ossi(le ,ilter solutions:
1? .odi,yin' t#e ,re2uency res4onse at t#e 58%+& (us so t#at its natural ,re2uency did
not ali'n wit# t#e induction ,urnace inter#armonic ,re2uencies
-? Placin' a (road(and ,ilter at t#e ,acility main (us to 4re)ent t#e distorted currents ,rom
enterin' t#e 58%+& system
T#e ,irst a44roac# re2uires a care,ul selection o, a 58%+& ca4acitor
(an+? T#e new ,re2uency res4onse s#ould not contain any resonance
-9: C#a4ter Si7
>1>->Time CmsD
&olta'e C&D
3> 5>
V5>>>>
5>>>>
V->>>>
>
->>>>
/i'ure 8?3> &olta'e wa)e,orm at t#e PCC ,or steel%'rindin' ,acility C58 +&D?
A44lied Harmonics
t#at ali'ns wit# a #armonic 4roduced (y t#e nonlinear loads? "it# simulations, it was
estimated t#at a ca4acitor (an+ o, a44ro7imately 3
.)ar would (e re2uired to mo)e t#e e7istin' system natural ,re2uency
,rom t#e 36t# #armonic down to t#e :t# #armonic? T#e ei'#t# #armonic was selected
since t#ere were no +nown nonlinear loads 4roducin' #armonic currents o, t#is order?
T#is solution was ,easi(leJ
#owe)er, installin' a 3%.)ar ca4acitor (an+ would (e o)ercom4ensatin' muc# o, t#e
time? In addition, i, t#e tar'et tunin' dro4s (elow t#e
ei'#t# #armonic due to line outa'es t#at would wea+en t#e system,
t#ere is increased ris+ o, causin' 4ro(lems wit# t#e ,i,t# and se)ent#
#armonics?
T#e second a44roac# re2uires a mec#anism to 4re)ent #i'#%,re2uency inter#armonics
,rom enterin' t#e 58%+& system? As descri(ed
in t#e ,irst a44roac#, multi4le sta'es o, sin'le%tuned s#unt ,ilter (an+s
would not wor+ well since t#e inter#armonics are )aryin'? Acti)e ,ilters would sol)e t#e
4ro(lemJ #owe)er, t#ey are e74ensi)e? A more economical solution would (e a low%4ass
(road(and ,ilter li+e t#at
descri(ed in Sec? 8?6? Also, t#ere is more control o)er t#e s#ort%circuit
im4edance at t#e ,ilter location? T#e solution is illustrated in /i'? 8?3-?
It is easy to accom4lis# t#e attenuation o, ,re2uencies a(o)e t#e 3>t#
#armonic wit# t#is a44roac#? T#e 4ro(lem is to ,ind a ca4acitor si@e
t#at will not result in a resonance t#at ali'ns wit# ot#er #armonic ,reA44lied Harmonics
-9=
>1>->3>5>6> >
1>>>
->>>
3>>>
5>>>
6>>>
Im4edance
/re2uency
/i'ure 8?31 Im4edance scan at t#e PCC C58 +&D?
A44lied Harmonics
2uencies 4roduced (y t#e ,urnaces, 4articularly, t#e 6t#, 9t#, 11t#, and
13t#? T#e ei'#t# #armonic was a'ain c#osen as a tar'et tunin' ,re2uency? T#e ne7t (est
,re2uency mi'#t (e t#e ,ourt# #armonicJ #owe)er, t#e resultin' )olta'e rise due to a
lar'er ca4acitor (an+ si@e
would re2uire addin' a )olta'e re'ulator to (uc+ t#e )olta'e down?
T#is would ma+e t#e solution muc# more costly?
It was determined (y simulation t#at a common 1->>%+)ar (an+
rated at 13?- +& 4ro)ides a 'ood solution? !sin' a ca4acitor rated #i'#er
t#an nominal s#i,ts t#e tunin' sli'#tly #i'#er, 'i)in' less ma'ni,ication
o, t#e se)ent# #armonic? /i'ure 8?33 s#ows t#e current ,lowin' toward
t#e PCC ,or 1 A o, current? T#e #i'#%,re2uency inter#armonic currents
a(o)e t#e 3>t# #armonic are 'reatly attenuated and are 4re)ented ,rom
,lowin' t#rou'# t#e trans,ormer into t#e 58%+& system?
/i'ure 8?35 s#ows t#e resultin' )olta'e wa)e,orm at t#e PCC? "#ile
some minor distortion remains Cmostly ,i,t# and se)ent# #armonicsD,
t#is is acce4ta(le? T#us, t#is 4ro(lem can (e sol)ed sim4ly (y a44lyin'
a relati)ely ine74ensi)e, commonly a)aila(le ca4acitor (an+?
-:> C#a4ter Si7
PCC
58 +&O1-?59 +&
CaD
C(D
3>>> A
->>> A
E2ui)alent inAected
current source
PCC
/i'ure 8?3- Solution at t#e 1-?59%+& side CaD and its e2ui)alent low%4ass
(road(and ,ilter e,,ect C(D?
A44lied Harmonics
A44lied Harmonics -:1
> 6 1> 16 -> -6 3> 36 5> 56
Harmonic num(er
*aseline o, 1%A current
Current ,lowin' toward t#e PCC
>
6
1>
16
->
-6
3>
/i'ure 8?33 Current ,lowin' toward t#e PCC w#en 1 A o, current at
)arious ,re2uencies was inAected ,rom t#e 1-?59%+& (us?
>1>->Time CmsD
3> 5>
&olta'e C&D
V5>>>>
V->>>>
>
->>>>
5>>>>
/i'ure 8?35 &olta'e wa)e,orm at t#e PCC a,ter installin' a 1->>%+)ar (an+ rated at
13?- +& at t#e 1-?59%+& (us?
A44lied Harmonics
8?: Standards on Harmonics
T#ere are )arious or'ani@ations on t#e national and international le)els wor+in' in
concert wit# en'ineers, e2ui4ment manu,acturers, and
researc# or'ani@ations to come u4 wit# standards 'o)ernin' 'uidelines, recommended
4ractices, and #armonic limits? T#e 4rimary
o(Aecti)e o, t#e standards is to 4ro)ide a common 'round ,or all
in)ol)ed 4arties to wor+ to'et#er to ensure com4ati(ility (etween
end%use e2ui4ment and t#e system e2ui4ment is a44lied? An e7am4le
o, com4ati(ility Cor lac+ o, com4ati(ilityD (etween end%use e2ui4ment
and t#e system e2ui4ment is t#e ,ast%cloc+ 4ro(lem in t#e case study
'i)en in Sec? 8?9?-? T#e end%use e2ui4ment is t#e cloc+ wit# )olta'e
@ero%crossin' detection tec#nolo'y, w#ile t#e system yields a )olta'e
distorted wit# #armonics (etween 3>t# and 36t#? T#is illustrates a
mismatc# o, com4ati(ility t#at causes miso4eration o, t#e end%use
e2ui4ment?
T#is section ,ocuses on standards 'o)ernin' #armonic limits, includin' IEEE 61=%1==-,
IEC 81>>>%-%-, IEC 81>>>%3%-, IEC 81>>>%3%5, IEC
81>>>%3%8, NRS >5:%-,
13
and EN6>18>?
15
8?:?1 IEEE Standard 61=%1==-
T#e limits on #armonic )olta'e and current (ased on IEEE Standard
61=%1==- are descri(ed in Sec? 8?1? It s#ould (e em4#asi@ed t#at t#e
4#iloso4#y (e#ind t#is standard see+s to limit t#e #armonic inAection
,rom indi)idual customers so t#at t#ey do not create unacce4ta(le )olta'e distortion
under normal system c#aracteristics and to limit t#e
o)erall #armonic distortion in t#e )olta'e su44lied (y t#e utility? T#e
)olta'e and current distortion limits s#ould (e used as system desi'n
)alues ,or t#e worst case o, normal o4eratin' conditions lastin' more
t#an 1 #? /or s#orter 4eriods, suc# as durin' start%u4s, t#e limits may
(e e7ceeded (y 6> 4ercent?
T#is standard di)ides t#e res4onsi(ility ,or limitin' #armonics
(etween (ot# end users and t#e utility? End users will (e res4onsi(le ,or
limitin' t#e #armonic current inAections, w#ile t#e utility will (e 4rimarily res4onsi(le ,or
limitin' )olta'e distortion in t#e su44ly system?
T#e #armonic current and )olta'e limits are a44lied at t#e PCC?
T#is is t#e 4oint w#ere ot#er customers s#are t#e same (us or w#ere
new customers may (e connected in t#e ,uture? T#e standard see+s a
,air a44roac# to allocatin' a #armonic limit 2uota ,or eac# customer?
T#e standard allocates current inAection limits (ased on t#e si@e o,
t#e load wit# res4ect to t#e si@e o, t#e 4ower system, w#ic# is de,ined
(y its s#ort%circuit ca4acity? T#e s#ort%circuit ratio is de,ined as t#e
ratio o, t#e ma7imum s#ort%circuit current at t#e PCC to t#e ma7i%-:- C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
mum demand load current C,undamental ,re2uency com4onentD at t#e
PCC as well?
T#e (asis ,or limitin' #armonic inAections ,rom indi)idual customers
is to a)oid unacce4ta(le le)els o, )olta'e distortions? T#us t#e current
limits are de)elo4ed so t#at t#e total #armonic inAections ,rom an indi)idual customer do
not e7ceed t#e ma7imum )olta'e distortion s#own
in Ta(le 8?8?
Ta(le 8?8 s#ows #armonic current limits ,or )arious system )olta'es?
Smaller loads Cty4ically lar'er s#ort%circuit ratio )aluesD are allowed a
#i'#er 4ercenta'e o, #armonic currents t#an lar'er loads wit# smaller
s#ort%circuit ratio )alues? 1ar'er loads #a)e to meet more strin'ent
limits since t#ey occu4y a lar'er 4ortion o, system load ca4acity? T#e
current limits ta+e into account t#e di)ersity o, #armonic currents in
w#ic# some #armonics tend to cancel out w#ile ot#ers are additi)e?
T#e #armonic current limits at t#e PCC are de)elo4ed to limit indi)idual )olta'e
distortion and )olta'e TH to t#e )alues s#own in Ta(le
8?1? Since )olta'e distortion is de4endent on t#e system im4edance, t#e
+ey to controllin' )olta'e distortion is to control t#e im4edance? T#e
two main conditions t#at result in #i'# im4edance are w#en t#e system is too wea+ to
su44ly t#e load ade2uately or t#e system is in resonance? T#e latter is more common?
T#ere,ore, +ee4in' t#e )olta'e
distortion low usually means +ee4in' t#e system out o, resonance?
Occasionally, new trans,ormers and lines will #a)e to (e added to
increase t#e system stren't#?
IEEE Standard 61=%1==- re4resents a consensus o, 'uidelines and
recommended 4ractices (y t#e utilities and t#eir customers in minimi@in' and controllin'
t#e im4act o, #armonics 'enerated (y nonlinear
loads?
TA*1E8?8 *asis ,or Harmonic Current 1imits
.a7imum indi)idual
S#ort%circuit ,re2uency )olta'e
ratio at PCC #armonic CID Related assum4tion
1> -?6V3?> edicated system
-> -?>V-?6 1V- lar'e customers
6> 1?>V1?6 A ,ew relati)ely lar'e customers
1>> >?6V1?> 6V-> medium%si@e customers
1>>> >?>6V>?1> .any small customers
SO!RCE: /rom IEEE Standard 61=%1==-, ta(le 1>?1?
A44lied Harmonics
8?:?- O)er)iew o, IEC standards on
#armonics
T#e International Electrotec#nical Commission CIECD, currently wit#
#ead2uarters in 0ene)a, Swit@erland, #as de,ined a cate'ory o, electroma'netic
com4ati(ility CE.CD standards t#at deal wit# 4ower 2uality issues? T#e term
electroma'netic com4ati(ilityincludes concerns ,or
(ot# radiated and conducted inter,erence wit# end%use e2ui4ment? T#e
IEC standards are (ro+en down into si7 4arts:
T Part 1: 0eneral? T#ese standards deal wit# 'eneral considerations
suc# as introduction, ,undamental 4rinci4les, rationale, de,initions,
and terminolo'ies? T#ey can also descri(e t#e a44lication and inter4retation o,
,undamental de,initions and terms? T#eir desi'nation
num(er is IEC 81>>>%1%7?
T Part -: En)ironment? T#ese standards de,ine c#aracteristics o, t#e
en)ironment w#ere e2ui4ment will (e a44lied, t#e classi,ication o,
suc# en)ironment, and its com4ati(ility le)els? T#eir desi'nation
num(er is IEC 81>>>%-%7?
T Part 3: 1imits? T#ese standards de,ine t#e 4ermissi(le le)els o,
emissions t#at can (e 'enerated (y e2ui4ment connected to t#e en)ironment? T#ey set
numerical emission limits and also immunity limits? T#eir desi'nation num(er is IEC
81>>>%3%7?
T Part 5: Testin' and measurement tec#ni2ues? T#ese standards 4ro)ide detailed
'uidelines ,or measurement e2ui4ment and test 4rocedures to ensure com4liance wit# t#e
ot#er 4arts o, t#e standards?
T#eir desi'nation num(er is IEC 81>>>%5%7?
T Part 6: Installation and miti'ation 'uidelines? T#ese standards
4ro)ide 'uidelines in a44lication o, e2ui4ment suc# as eart#in' and
ca(lin' o, electrical and electronic systems ,or ensurin' electroma'netic com4ati(ility
amon' electrical and electronic a44aratus or systems? T#ey also descri(e 4rotection
conce4ts ,or ci)il ,acilities
a'ainst t#e #i'#%altitude electroma'netic 4ulse CHE.PD due to #i'#altitude nuclear
e74losions? T#ey are desi'nated wit# IEC 81>>>%6%7?
T Part 8: .iscellaneous? T#ese standards are 'eneric standards
de,inin' immunity and emission le)els re2uired ,or e2ui4ment in
'eneral cate'ories or ,or s4eci,ic ty4es o, e2ui4ment? T#eir desi'nation num(er is IEC
81>>>%8%7?
IEC standards relatin' to #armonics 'enerally ,all in 4arts - and 3?
!nli+e t#e IEEE standards on #armonics w#ere t#ere is only a sin'le
4u(lication co)erin' all issues related to #armonics, IEC standards on
#armonics are se4arated into se)eral 4u(lications? T#ere are stan%-:5 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
dards dealin' wit# en)ironments and limits w#ic# are ,urt#er (ro+en
down (ased on t#e )olta'e and current le)els? T#ese +ey standards are
as ,ollows:
T IEC 81>>>%-%- C1==3D: Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD?Part -:
En)ironment? Section -: Com4ati(ility 1e)els ,or 1ow%/re2uency
Conducted istur(ances and Si'nalin' in Pu(lic 1ow%&olta'e Power
Su44ly Systems?
T IEC 81>>>%3%- C->>>D: Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD?Part 3:
1imits? Section -: 1imits ,or Harmonic Current Emissions
CE2ui4ment In4ut Current !4 to and Includin' 18 A 4er P#aseD?
T IEC 81>>>%3%5 C1==:D: Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD?Part 3:
1imits? Section 5: 1imitation o, Emission o, Harmonic Currents in
1ow%&olta'e Power Su44ly Systems ,or E2ui4ment wit# Rated
Current 0reater T#an 18 A?
T IEC 81>>>%3%8 C1==8D: Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD?Part 3:
1imits? Section 8: Assessment o, Emission 1imits ,or istortin'
1oads in .& and H& Power Systems? *asic E.C 4u(lication?
Prior to 1==9, t#ese standards were desi'nated (y a 1>>> series num(erin' sc#eme? /or
e7am4le, IEC 81>>>%-%- was +nown as IEC 1>>>%-%-? T#ese standards on #armonics are
'enerally ado4ted (y t#e
Euro4ean Community CCENE1ECDJ t#us, t#ey are also desi'nated
wit# t#e EN 81>>> series? /or e7am4le, IEC 81>>>%3%- is also +nown
as EN 81>>>%3%-?
8?:?3 IEC 81>>>%-%-
IEC 81>>>%-%- de,ines com4ati(ility le)els ,or low%,re2uency conducted distur(ances
and si'nalin' in 4u(lic low%)olta'e 4ower su44ly
systems suc# as 6>% or 8>%H@ sin'le% and t#ree%4#ase systems wit#
nominal )olta'e u4 -5> and 516 &, res4ecti)ely? Com4ati(ility le)els
are de,ined em4irically suc# t#at t#ey reduce t#e num(er o, com4laints o, miso4eration
to an acce4ta(le le)el?
16
T#ese le)els are not
ri'id and can (e e7ceeded in a ,ew e7ce4tional conditions?
Com4ati(ility le)els ,or indi)idual #armonic )olta'es in t#e low%)olta'e networ+ are
s#own in Ta(le 8?9? T#ey are 'i)en in 4ercenta'e o,
t#e ,undamental )olta'e?
8?:?5 IEC 81>>>%3%- and IEC 81>>>%3%5
*ot# IEC 81>>>%3%- and 81>>>%3%5 de,ine limits ,or #armonic current
emission ,rom e2ui4ment drawin' in4ut current o, u4 to and includin'
18 A 4er 4#ase and lar'er t#an 18 A 4er 4#ase, res4ecti)ely? T#ese standards are aimed at
limitin' #armonic emissions ,rom e2ui4ment conA44lied Harmonics -:6
A44lied Harmonics
nected to t#e low%)olta'e 4u(lic networ+ so t#at com4liance wit# t#e
limits ensures t#at t#e )olta'e in t#e 4u(lic networ+ satis,ies t#e com4ati(ility limits
de,ined in IEC 81>>>%-%-?
T#e IEC 81>>>%3%- is an out'rowt# ,rom IEC 666%- CEN 8>666%-D?
T#e standard classi,ies e2ui4ment into ,our cate'ories:
T Class A: *alanced t#ree%4#ase e2ui4ment and all ot#er e2ui4ment
not (elon'in' to classes *, C, and
T Class *: Porta(le tools
T Class C: 1i'#tin' e2ui4ment includin' dimmin' de)ices
T Class : E2ui4ment #a)in' an in4ut current wit# a Gs4ecial wa)es#a4eH and an acti)e
in4ut 4ower o, less t#an 8>> "
/i'ure 8?36 can (e used ,or classi,yin' e2ui4ment in IEC 81>>>%3%-?
It s#ould (e noted t#at e2ui4ment in classes * and C and 4ro)isionally motor%dri)en
e2ui4ment are not considered class e2ui4ment
re'ardless o, t#eir in4ut current wa)es#a4es? T#e #al,%cycle wa)es#a4e o, class
e2ui4ment in4ut current s#ould (e wit#in t#e en)elo4e o, t#e in)erted T%s#a4e s#own in
/i'? 8?38 ,or at least =6 4ercent
o, t#e time? T#e center line at O- lines u4 wit# t#e 4ea+ )alue o, t#e
in4ut current I4+?
.a7imum 4ermissi(le #armonic currents ,or classes A, *, C, and
are 'i)en in actual am4era'e measured at t#e in4ut current o, t#e
e2ui4ment? Note t#at #armonic current limits ,or class * e2ui4ment
are 16> 4ercent o, t#ose in class A? Harmonic current limits accordin'
-:8 C#a4ter Si7
TA*1E8?9 Com4ati(ility 1e)els ,or Indi)idual Harmonic &olta'es
in t#e 1ow%&olta'e Pu(lic Networ+ Accordin' to IEC 81>>>%-%-Z
Not multi4le o, 3 .ulti4le o, 3
Odd Harmonic Odd Harmonic E)en Harmonic
order )olta'e order )olta'e order )olta'e
# CID # CID # CID
68 36 -- 96 =1?651 11 3?6 16 >?3 8 >?6
13 3 -1 >?- : >?6
19 - -1 >?- 1> >?-
1= 1?6 1- >?-
-3 1?6 1- >?-
-6 1?6
-6 >?-
1?3-6O#
ZT#e TH o, t#e su44ly )olta'e includin' all #armonics u4 to t#e 5>t#
order s#all (e less t#an : 4ercent?
A44lied Harmonics
to IEC 81>>>%3%- are s#own in Ta(les 8?: t#rou'# 8?1>? Note t#at #armonic current limits
,or class e2ui4ment are s4eci,ied in a(solute
num(ers and in )alues relati)e to acti)e 4ower? T#e limits only a44ly
to e2ui4ment o4eratin' at in4ut 4ower u4 to 8>> "?
IEC 81>>>%3%5 limits emissions ,rom e2ui4ment drawin' in4ut current lar'er t#an 18 A
and u4 to 96 A? Connections o, t#is ty4e o, e2ui4ment do not re2uire consent ,rom t#e
utility? Harmonic current limits
(ased on t#is standard are s#own in Ta(le 8?11?
E2ui4ment
#a)in' t#e s4ecial
wa)es#a4e and
P U 8>> "
*alanced
t#ree%4#ase
e2ui4ment$
Por ta(le
tool$
Por ta(le
tool$
1i'#tin'
e2ui4ment$
Class
*
Class
C
Class
Class
;e s
;e s
;e s
;e s
;e s
No
No
No
No
No
/i'ure 8?36 /lowc#art ,or classi,yin' e2ui4ment accordin' to IEC 81>>>%3%-?
A44lied Harmonics
8?:?6 IEC 81>>>%3%8
IEC 81>>>%3%8 s4eci,ies limits o, #armonic current emission ,or e2ui4ment connected to
medium%)olta'e C.&D and #i'#%)olta'e CH&D su44ly
systems? In t#e conte7t o, t#e standard, .& and H& re,er to )olta'es
(etween 1 and 36 +&, and (etween 36 and -3> +&, res4ecti)ely? A )olt%-:: C#a4ter Si7
1
i
OI
4+
>?36
>
>
O3 O3
O-
O3
.
t
/i'ure 8?38 En)elo4e o, t#e in4ut current to de,ine t#e s4ecial wa)es#a4e ,or class
e2ui4ment?
TA*1E8?: Harmonic Current 1imits ,or Class A E2ui4ment
.a7? 4ermissi(le
#armonic .a7? 4ermissi(le
Odd order # current order CAD E)en order # #armonic order CAD
3 -?3 - 1?>:
6 1?15 5 >?53
9 >?99 8 >?3
= >?5 :V5> >?-3 :O#
11 >?33
13 >?-1
16V3= >?16 16O#
TA*1E 8?= Harmonic Current 1imits ,or
Class C E2ui4ment
.a7? 4ermissi(le #armonic
Harmonic order # currentZ CID
-- 3 3> circuit 4ower ,actor
61> 99 =6 11V3= 3
ZPercent o, t#e ,undamental in4ut current?
A44lied Harmonics
a'e #i'#er t#an -3> +& is considered e7tra #i'# )olta'e CEH&D, w#ile
a )olta'e less t#an 1 +& is considered low )olta'e C1&D?
T#e standard ar'ues t#at emission limits ,or indi)idual e2ui4ment
connected to t#e .& and H& systems s#ould (e e)aluated on t#e )olta'e distortion (asis?
T#is is to ensure t#at #armonic current inAections
,rom #armonic%4roducin' e2ui4ment do not result in e7cess )olta'e
distortion le)els? T#e standard 4ro)ides com4ati(ility le)els and 4lannin' le)els ,or
#armonic )olta'es in t#e 1& and .& systems? T#e com4ati(ility le)el re,ers to a le)el
w#ere t#e com4ati(ility (etween t#e
e2ui4ment and its en)ironment is ac#ie)ed? T#e com4ati(ility le)el is
usually esta(lis#ed em4irically so t#at a 4iece o, e2ui4ment is com4ati(le wit# its
en)ironment most o, t#e time?Com4ati(ility le)els are 'enerally (ased on t#e =6 4ercent
4ro(a(ility le)el, i?e?, =6 4ercent o, t#e
time, t#e com4ati(ility can (e ac#ie)ed? Ta(le 8?1- s#ows com4ati(ility
le)els ,or #armonic )olta'es as a 4ercenta'e o, t#e ,undamental )olta'e in (ot# 1& and
.& system?
A44lied Harmonics -:=
TA*1E8?1> Harmonic Current 1imits ,or
Class E2ui4ment
.a7? 4ermissi(le
#armonic current
Harmonic order # Per watt CmAO"D CAD
- 3?5 -?3
6 1?= 1?15
9 1?> >?99
= >?6> >?5>
13 >?36 >?33
11V3= 3?:8O# See Ta(le 8?:
TA*1E8?11 Harmonic Current 1imits Accordin' to IEC 81>>>%3%5
Harmonic .a7? 4ermissi(le Harmonic .a7? 4ermissi(le
order# #armonic currentZ CID order # #armonic currentZ CID
3 -1?8 1= 1?1
6 1>?9 -1 >?8
9 9?- -3 >?=
= 3?: -6 >?:
11 3?1 -9 >?8
13 - -= >?9
16 >?9 31 >?9
19 1?- 33 >?8
ZPercent o, t#e ,undamental in4ut current?
A44lied Harmonics
Plannin' le)els are desi'n criteria or le)els s4eci,ied (y t#e utility
com4any? Plannin' le)els are more strin'ent t#an com4ati(ility le)els?
T#us, t#eir le)els are lower t#an t#e com4ati(ility le)els? Plannin' le)els ,or #armonic
)olta'e e74ressed in t#e 4ercenta'e o, t#e ,undamental
)olta'e ,or .&, H&, and EH& systems are 'i)en in Ta(les 8?13 and 8?15?
-=> C#a4ter Si7
TA*1E8?1- Com4ati(ility 1e)els ,or Harmonic &olta'es Cin Percent o,
/undamentalD ,or 1& and .& Systems
Odd #armonics
Not multi4le o, 3 .ulti4le o, 3 E)en #armonics
Harmonic Harmonic Harmonic
Order# )olta'e CID Order # )olta'e CID Order # )olta'e CID
68 3 6 - - 96 = 1?65 1 11 3?6 16 >?3 8 >?6
13 3 -1 >?- : >?6
19 - -1 >?- 1> >?6
1= 1?6 1- >?-
-3 1?6 1- >?-
-6 1?6
-6 >?-
1?3-6O#
Z1imit ,or total #armonic distortion CTHD is : 4ercent?
TA*1E8?13 Plannin' 1e)els ,or Harmonic &olta'es Cin Percent o,
/undamentalD ,or .& Systems
Odd #armonics
66 3 5 - 1?8
95 = 1?- 5 1
11 3 16 >?3 8 >?6
13 -?6 -1 >?- : >?5
19 1?8 -1 >?- 1> >?5
1= 1?- 1- >?-
-3 1?- 1- >?-
-6 1?-
-6 >?-
>?6-6O#
Z1imit ,or total #armonic distortion is 8?6 4ercent?
A44lied Harmonics
T#e IEC 81>>>%3%8 4ro)ides e)aluation 'uidelines to determine
admissi(ility o, e2ui4ment connected to .& and H& systems? T#ere
are t#ree sta'es ,or e)aluatin' e2ui4ment admissi(ility:
T Sta'e 1? Sim4li,ied e)aluation o, distur(ance emission
T Sta'e -? Emission limits relati)e to actual networ+ c#aracteristics
T Sta'e 3? Acce4tance o, #i'#er emission le)els on an e7ce4tional and
4recarious (asis
In sta'e 1, e2ui4ment can (e connected to .& or H& systems wit#out conductin'
#armonic studies as lon' as its si@e is considered small
in relation to t#e system s#ort%circuit ca4acity? /or small a44liances,
manu,acturers are res4onsi(le ,or limitin' t#eir #armonic emissions?
I, t#e e2ui4ment does meet sta'e 1 criteria, t#e #armonic c#aracteristics o, t#e e2ui4ment
s#ould (e e)aluated in detail alon' wit# t#e
a)aila(le system a(sor4tion ca4acity? !4on e)aluation, indi)idual
e2ui4ment will (e allocated wit# a44ro4riate system a(sor4tion ca4acity accordin' to its
si@e? T#us, i, t#e system a(sor4tion ca4acity #as
(een ,ully allocated to all e2ui4ment, and t#is e2ui4ment inAects its
#armonic currents u4 to its limits, t#e system )olta'e distortion s#ould
(e wit#in its 4lannin' le)els?
I, e2ui4ment does not meet sta'e - criteria, it may (e allowed to (e
connected to t#e system i, t#e end user and utility a'ree to ma+e s4ecial arran'ement to
,acilitate suc# a connection?
A44lied Harmonics -=1
TA*1E8?15 Plannin' 1e)els ,or Harmonic &olta'es Cin Percent o,
/undamentalD ,or H& and EH& Systems
Odd #armonics
6- 3 - - 1?8
9- = 1 5 1
11 1?6 16 >?3 8 >?6
13 1?6 -1 >?- : >?5
19 1 -1 >?- 1> >?5
1= 1 1- >?-
-3 >?9 1- >?-
-6 >?9
-6 >?-
>?6-6O#
Z1imit ,or total #armonic distortion is 8?6 4ercent?
A44lied Harmonics
8?:?8 NRS >5:%>-
T#eQuality o, Su44ly Standard, NRS >5:, is t#e Sout# A,rican standard ,or dealin' wit#
t#e 2uality o, electricity su44ly and #as (een
im4lemented since Yuly 1, 1==9? T#is standard re2uires electricity su44liers to measure
and re4ort t#eir 2uality o, su44ly to t#e National
Electricity Re'ulator?
T#e NRS >5: is di)ided into ,i)e 4arts? It is, 4er#a4s, t#e most t#orou'# standard dealin'
wit# all as4ects o, 2uality o, su44ly? It co)ers t#e
minimum standards o, 2uality o, su44ly CQOSD, measurement and
re4ortin' o, QOS, a44lication and im4lementation 'uidelines ,or QOS,
and instrumentation ,or )olta'e 2uality monitorin' and recordin'?
Part - o, NRS >5: sets minimum standards ,or t#e 2uality o, t#e
electrical 4roduct su44lied (y Sout# A,rican utilities to end users? T#e
minimum standards include limits ,or )olta'e #armonics and inter#armonics, )olta'e
,lic+er, )olta'e un(alance, )olta'e di4s, )olta'e re'ulation, and ,re2uency?
NRS >5:%>- ado4ts IEC 81>>>%-%- #armonic )olta'e limits s#own in
Ta(le 8?9 as its com4ati(ility standards ,or 1& and .& systems? /or Sout#
A,rican systems, t#e nominal )olta'e ,or 1& systems is less t#an 1 +&,
w#ile t#e nominal )olta'e ,or .& systems ran'es (etween 1 and 55 +&?
NRS >5: #as not esta(lis#ed limits ,or #armonic )olta'es ,or H& systems yet? Howe)er,
it ado4ts IEC 81>>>%3%8 4lannin' le)els ,or #armonic )olta'es ,or H& and EH& systems
Cs#own in Ta(le 8?15D as its
recommended 4lannin' limits ,or H& systems Ct#e nominal )olta'e is
(etween ->> and 5>> +&D?
8?:?9 EN 6>18>
EN 6>18> is a Euro4ean standard ,or dealin' wit# su44ly 2uality
re2uirements ,or Euro4ean utilities? T#e standard de,ines s4eci,ic le)els o, )olta'e
c#aracteristics t#at must (e met (y utilities and met#ods
,or e)aluatin' com4liance? EN 6>18> was a44ro)ed (y t#e Euro4ean
Committee ,or Electrotec#nical Standardi@ation CCENE1ECD in 1==5?
EN 6>18> s4eci,ies )olta'e c#aracteristics at t#e customerFs su44ly
terminals or in 4u(lic 1& and .& electricity distri(ution systems under
normal o4eratin' conditions? In ot#er words, EN 6>18> con,ines itsel, to
)olta'e c#aracteristics at t#e PCC and does not s4eci,y re2uirements ,or
4ower 2uality wit#in t#e su44ly system or wit#in customer ,acilities?
Harmonic )olta'e limits ,or EN 6>18> are 'i)en in 4ercenta'e o, t#e
,undamental )olta'e? T#e limits a44ly to systems su44lied at (ot# 1&
and .& le)els, i?e?, ,rom a nominal -3> & u4 to 36 +&? .edium )olta'e
is (etween 1 and 36 +&? T#e #armonic )olta'e limits are s#own in Ta(le
8?16? T#e total #armonic distortion o, t#e su44ly )olta'e includin' all
#armonics u4 to order 5> s#ould not e7ceed : 4ercent? &alues ,or
-=- C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
#i'#er%order #armonics are not s4eci,ied since t#ey are too small to use
as a 4ractical measure to esta(lis# a meanin',ul re,erence )alue?
Note t#at limits in EN 6>18> are nearly identical to t#e IEC 81>>>%3%8 com4ati(ility
le)els ,or #armonic )olta'es ,or its corres4ondin' 1&
and .& systems, e7ce4t ,or t#e a(sence o, #i'#er%order #armonic limits in EN 6>18>?
8?= Re,erences
1? .? /? .c0rana'#an, GO)er)iew o, t#e 0uide ,or A44lyin' Harmonic 1imits on Power
SystemsPIEEE P61=A,H Ei'#t# International Con,erence on Harmonics and Quality
o, Power,ICHQP 1==:, At#ens, 0reece, 44? 58-V58=?
-? IEEE 61=%1==-, Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or Harmonic Control in
Electric Power Systems?
3? IEEE P61=A%->>>, 0uide ,or A44lyin' Harmonic 1imits on Power Systems?
5? R? C? u'an, GSimulation o, Arc /urnace Power Systems,H IEEE Transactions on
Industry A44lications,No)em(erOecem(er 1=:>, 44? :13V:1:?
6? .? /? .c0rana'#an, Y? H? S#aw, R? E? Owen, G.easurin' &olta'e and Current
Harmonics on istri(ution Systems,H IEEE Transactions on Power A44aratus and
Systems,&ol? 1>1, No? 9, Yuly 1=:1?
8? .? /? .c0rana'#an, R? C? u'an, and "? 1? S4onsler, Gi'ital Simulation o,
istri(ution System /re2uency Res4onse C#aracteristics,H IEEE Transactions on
Power A44aratus and Systems,&ol? 1>1, No? 3, .arc# 1=:1?
9? .? /? .c0rana'#an, E? "? 0unt#er, Gesi'n o, a PC%*ased Harmonic Simulation
Pro'ram,H Second International Con,erence on Harmonics in Power Systems,
"inni4e', .anito(a, Octo(er 1=:8?
:? ? [ia, 0? T? Heydt, GHarmonic Power /low Studies Part IP/ormulation and
Solution,HIEEE Transactions on Power A44aratus and Systems, Yune 1=:-, 44?
1-69V1-86?
=? "? .? 0rady, GHarmonic Power /low Studies,H P#?? t#esis, Purdue !ni)ersity, .ay
1=:3?
1>? .? .? Swamy, GHarmonic Reduction !sin' *road *and Harmonic /ilters,H .TE
Cor4oration Tec#nical Articles, .enomonee /alls, "isconsin?
11? R? wyer, H? &? N'uyen, S? 0? As#more, GC /ilters ,or "ide%(andwidt# Harmonic
Attenuation wit# 1ow 1osses,H Con,erence Record,IEEE Power En'ineerin' Society
.eetin', "inter ->>>, Sin'a4ore?
A44lied Harmonics -=3
TA*1E8?16 Harmonic &olta'e 1imits at t#e Su44ly Terminals
Odd #armonics
68 3 6 - -
96 = 1?6 5 1
11 3?6 16 >?3 8V-5 >?6
13 3 -1 >?-
19 -
1= 1?6
-3 1?6
-6 1?6
A44lied Harmonics
1-? Y? .? /ran+, GOri'in, e)elo4ment and esi'n o, <%/actor Trans,ormers,H
Con,erence Record,1==5 IEEE Industry A44lications Society Annual .eetin',
en)er, Octo(er 1==5, 44? --93V--95?
13? NRS >5:, Electricity Su44lyPT#e Quality o, Su44ly Standard?
15? EN 6>18>, &olta'e C#aracteristics o, Electricity Su44lied (y Pu(lic istri(ution
Systems?
16? IEC 81>>>%1%5, Electroma'netic Com4ati(ilityCE.CD: GRationale ,or 1imitin'
Power%/re2uency Conducted Harmonic and Inter#armonic Current Emissions ,rom
E2ui4ment, in t#e /re2uency Ran'e u4 to = +H@?H
8?1> *i(lio'ra4#y
wyer, R? &?, 0unt#er, E? "?, Ada4a, R? GA Com4arison o, Solution Tec#ni2ues ,or t#e
Calculation o, Harmonic istortion ue to AdAusta(le S4eed C ri)es,H /ourt#
International Con,erence on Harmonic Systems,*uda4est, Hun'ary, Octo(er 1==>?
0re(e, T? E?, .c0rana'#an, .? /?, SamotyA, .? GSol)in' Harmonic Pro(lems in
Industrial Plants and Harmonic .iti'ation Tec#ni2ues ,or AdAusta(le%S4eed ri)es,H
Electrotec# =-,.ontreal, Canada, 1==-?
.c0rana'#an, .? /?, 0re(e, T? E?, SamotyA, .? GSol)in' Harmonic Pro(lems in
Industrial PlantsPCase Studies,H /irst International Con,erence on Power Quality,
PQA F=1, Paris, /rance, 1==1?
.c0rana'#an, .? /?, .ueller, ? R? Gesi'nin' Harmonic /ilters ,or AdAusta(le%S4eed
ri)es to Com4ly wit# New IEEE%61= Harmonic 1imits,H IEEEOIAS Annual
Con,erence, Petroleum and C#emical Industry Tec#nical Con,erence,1==3?
Sc#wa(e, R? Y?, .el#orn, C? Y?, SamotyA, .? GE,,ect o, Hi'# E,,iciency 1i'#tin' on
Power
Quality in Pu(lic *uildin's,H T#ird International Con,erence on Power Quality,PQA
F=3, San ie'o, Cali,?
Na)adil, R?, .c0rana'#an, .? /?, Hensley, 0?, Yo#nson, <? GAnalysis o, Harmonic
istortion 1e)els in Commercial *uildin's,H /irst International Con,erence on Power
Quality,PQA F=1, Paris, /rance, 1==1?
-=5 C#a4ter Si7
A44lied Harmonics
-=6
!tilities 'enerally try to maintain t#e ser)ice )olta'e su44lied to an
end user wit#in l6 4ercent o, nominal? !nder emer'ency conditions,
,or s#ort 4eriods, ANSI Standard C:5?1 4ermits t#e utili@ation )olta'e
to (e in t#e ran'e o, 8 to 13 4ercent o, t#e nominal )olta'e? Some
sensiti)e loads #a)e more strin'ent )olta'e limits ,or 4ro4er o4eration
and, o, course, e2ui4ment 'enerally o4erates more e,,iciently at near
nominal )olta'e? T#is c#a4ter addresses t#e ,undamental 4ro(lems
(e#ind )olta'e re'ulation and t#e 'eneral ty4es o, de)ices a)aila(le to
correct t#e 4ro(lem?
9?1 Princi4les o, Re'ulatin' t#e &olta'e
T#e root cause o, most )olta'e re'ulation 4ro(lems is t#at t#ere is too
muc# im4edance in t#e 4ower system to 4ro4erly su44ly t#e load C/i'?
9?1D? Anot#er way o, descri(in' t#is is to say t#at t#e 4ower system is
too wea+ ,or t#e load? T#ere,ore, t#e )olta'e dro4s too low under #ea)y
load? Con)ersely, w#en t#e source )olta'e is (oosted to o)ercome t#e
im4edance, t#ere can (e an o)er)olta'e condition w#en t#e load dro4s
too low? T#e correcti)e measures usually in)ol)e eit#er com4ensatin'
,or t#e im4edance Nor com4ensatin' ,or t#e )olta'e dro4 IR AI[
caused (y t#e im4edance?
Some common o4tions ,or im4ro)in' 4ower system )olta'e re'ulation, in t#e
a44ro7imate order o, 4riority t#at a utility mi'#t a44ly, are
1? Add s#unt ca4acitors to reduce t#e current Iand s#i,t it to (e more
in 4#ase wit# t#e )olta'e?
-? Add )olta'e re'ulators, w#ic# (oost t#e a44arent &1?
3? Reconductor lines to a lar'er si@e to reduce t#e im4edance N?
C#a4ter
9
5? C#an'e su(station or ser)ice trans,ormers to lar'er si@es to reduce
im4edanceN?
6? Add some +ind o, dynamic reacti)e 4ower C)arD com4ensation, w#ic#
ser)es t#e same 4ur4ose as ca4acitors ,or ra4idly c#an'in' loads?
8? Add series ca4acitors to cancel t#e inducti)e im4edance dro4 I[?
9?- e)ices ,or &olta'e Re'ulation
T#ere are a )ariety o, )olta'e re'ulation de)ices in use on utility and
industrial 4ower systems? "e #a)e di)ided t#ese into t#ree maAor
classes:
1? Ta4%c#an'in' trans,ormers
-? Isolation de)ices wit# se4arate )olta'e re'ulators
3? Im4edance com4ensation de)ices, suc# as ca4acitors
T#ere are (ot# mec#anical and electronic ta4%c#an'in' trans,ormers? Ta4%c#an'in'
trans,ormers are o,ten autotrans,ormer desi'ns,
alt#ou'# two% and t#ree%windin' trans,ormers may also (e e2ui44ed
wit# ta4 c#an'ers? T#e mec#anical de)ices are ,or t#e slower%c#an'in'
loads, w#ile t#e electronic ones can res4ond )ery 2uic+ly to )olta'e
c#an'es?
Isolation de)ices include !PS systems, ,erroresonant Cconstant%)olta'eD trans,ormers,
and motor%'enerator sets? T#ese are de)ices t#at
essentially isolate t#e load ,rom t#e 4ower source (y 4er,ormin' some
sort o, ener'y con)ersion? T#ere,ore, t#e load side o, t#e de)ice can (e
-=8 C#a4ter Se)en
N ] R g A[
I
&1
&-
&1 IR
I[
&- I
1OA
/i'ure 9?1 &olta'e dro4 across t#e system
im4edance is t#e root cause o, )olta'e re'ulation 4ro(lems?
se4arately re'ulated and can maintain constant )olta'e re'ardless o,
w#at is occurrin' at t#e 4ower su44ly? T#e downside o, usin' suc#
de)ices is t#at t#ey are costly, introduce more losses, and can cause
#armonic distortion 4ro(lems on t#e 4ower su44ly system?
S#unt ca4acitors #el4 maintain t#e )olta'e (y reducin' t#e current
in t#e lines? Also, (y o)ercom4ensatin' inducti)e circuits, a )olta'e rise
can (e ac#ie)ed? To maintain a more constant )olta'e, t#e ca4acitors
can (e switc#ed in conAunction wit# t#e load, sometimes in small incremental ste4s to
,ollow t#e load more closely? I, t#e o(Aecti)e is sim4ly to
maintain t#e )olta'e at a #i'#er )alue to a)oid an under)olta'e condition, t#e ca4acitors
are o,ten ,i7ed Cnot switc#edD?
Series ca4acitors are relati)ely rare in utility distri(ution systems,
(ut are use,ul ,or some im4ulse loads li+e roc+ crus#ers and tire
testers?
1
.any 4otential users will s#y away ,rom t#em (ecause o, t#e
e7tra care in en'ineerin' re2uired ,or t#e series ca4acitor installation
to ,unction 4ro4erly? Howe)er, t#ey are )ery e,,ecti)e in certain system
conditions, 4rimarily wit# ra4idly c#an'in' lar'e loads t#at are causin' e7cessi)e ,lic+er
C)olta'e ,luctuationsD?
T#e series ca4acitors com4ensate ,or most o, t#e inductance in t#e
system leadin' u4 to t#e load? I, t#e system is #i'#ly inducti)e, t#is
will re4resent a si'ni,icant reduction in t#e im4edance? I, t#e system
is not #i'#ly inducti)e, (ut #as a #i'# 4ro4ortion o, resistance, series
ca4acitors will not (e )ery e,,ecti)e? T#is is ty4ically t#e case in many
industrial 4lant 4ower systems t#at #a)e lon' len't#s o, ca(le
(etween t#e trans,ormer and t#e load? To ac#ie)e a si'ni,icant reduction in t#e
im4edance, t#e si@e o, t#e ca(les and trans,ormers must (e
increased?
Anot#er a44roac# to ,lic+er%causin' loads is to a44ly de)ices t#at are
commonly called static )ar com4ensators?T#ese can react wit#in a ,ew
cycles to maintain a nearly constant )olta'e (y ra4idly controllin' t#e
reacti)e 4ower 4roduction? Suc# de)ices are commonly used on arc ,urnaces, stone
crus#ers, and ot#er randomly )aryin' loads w#ere t#e system is wea+ and t#e resultin'
)olta'e ,luctuations are a,,ectin' near(y
customers?
9?-?1 !tility ste4%)olta'e re'ulators
T#e ty4ical utility ta4%c#an'in' re'ulator can re'ulate ,rom 1> to
1> 4ercent o, t#e incomin' line )olta'e in 3- ste4s o, 6O: 4ercent?
T#ere are some )ariations, (ut t#e maAority are o, t#is ty4e?
istri(ution su(station trans,ormers commonly #a)e t#ree%4#ase
load ta4 c#an'ers C1TCsD w#ile line re'ulators installed out on t#e
,eeders are ty4ically sin'le%4#ase in Nort# America? "#en installed
on a t#ree%4#ase ,eeder, line re'ulators are 'enerally installed in
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations -=9
(an+s o, t#ree? Howe)er, t#ere are also many installations o, o4endelta re'ulator (an+s
on li'#tly loaded t#ree%4#ase ,eeders (ranc#es?
T#is re2uires only two re'ulators and is less costly t#an a ,ull t#ree4#ase (an+?
/i'ure 9?- s#ows a sc#ematic o, a utility ste4%)olta'e re'ulator?
Alt#ou'# t#e conce4t o, a ta4%c#an'in' autotrans,ormer is sim4le, a
utility )olta'e re'ulator is a ,airly com4licated a44aratus in order to
ac#ie)e a dura(le and #i'#ly relia(le ta4%c#an'in' mec#anism?
!tility line )olta'e re'ulators and su(station 1TCs are relati)ely
slow? T#e time delay w#en t#e )olta'e 'oes out o, (and is at least 16 s
and is commonly 3> or 56 s? T#us, it is o, little (ene,it w#ere )olta'es
may )ary in matters o, cycles or seconds? T#eir main a44lication is
(oostin' )olta'e on lon' ,eeders w#ere t#e load is c#an'in' slowly o)er
se)eral minutes or #ours? T#e )olta'e (and ty4ically ran'es ,rom 1?6 to
3?> & on a 1->%& (ase? T#e control can (e set to maintain )olta'e at
some 4oint downline ,rom t#e ,eeder (y usin' t#e line dro4 com4ensator?T#is results in a
more le)el a)era'e )olta'e res4onse and #el4s
4re)ent o)er)olta'es on customers near t#e re'ulator?
9?-?- /erroresonant trans,ormers
On t#e end%user side, ,erroresonant trans,ormers are not only use,ul
in 4rotectin' e2ui4ment ,rom )olta'e sa's Csee C#a4? 3D, (ut t#ey can
-=: C#a4ter Se)en
1O"ER
SERIES
"ININ0
*RI0IN0
REACTOR
RAISE
SO!RCE
SIE
1OA
SIE
.AIN
SH!NT
"ININ0
/i'ure 9?- Sc#ematic dia'ram o, one ty4e o, utility )olta'e re'ulator commonly a44lied
on distri(ution lines?
also (e used to attain )ery 'ood )olta'e re'ulation Cl1 4ercent out4utD? /i'ure 9?3 s#ows
t#e steady%state in4utOout4ut c#aracteristics
o, a 1->%&A ,erroresonant trans,ormer wit# a 16%&A load? As t#e in4ut
)olta'e is reduced down to 3> &, t#e out4ut )olta'e stays constant? I,
t#e in4ut )olta'e is reduced ,urt#er, t#e out4ut )olta'e (e'ins to colla4se? In addition, as
t#e in4ut )olta'e is reduced, t#e current drawn
(y t#e ,erroresonant trans,ormer increases su(stantially ,rom >?5
to - A? T#us, ,erroresonant trans,ormers tend to (e lossy and
ine,,icient?
9?-?3 Electronic ta4%switc#in' re'ulators
Electronic ta4%switc#in' re'ulators C/i'? 9?5D can also (e used to re'ulate )olta'e? T#ey
are more e,,icient t#an ,erroresonant trans,ormers
and use SCRs or triacs to 2uic+ly c#an'e ta4s, and #ence )olta'e? Ta4switc#in'
re'ulators #a)e a )ery ,ast res4onse time o, a #al, cycle and
are 4o4ular ,or medium%4ower a44lications?
9?-?5 .a'netic synt#esi@ers
.a'netic synt#esi@ers, alt#ou'# intended ,or s#ort%duration )olta'e
sa's Csee C#a4? 3D, can also (e used ,or steady%state )olta'e re'ulation? One
manu,acturer, ,or e7am4le, states t#at ,or in4ut )olta'es
o, l5> 4ercent, t#e out4ut )olta'e will remain wit#in l6 4ercent at
,ull load?
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations -==
>
>?5
>?:
1?-
1?8
-
CAm4sD
Current
Out4ut &olta'e
In4ut Current
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
15>
C&oltsD &olta'e
> 1> -> 3> 5> 6> 8> 9> :> => 1>> 11> 1-> 13>
In4ut &olta'e C&oltsD
1->%&A /erroresonant Trans,ormer wit#
16%&A Process Controller 1oad
/i'ure 9?3 /erroresonant trans,ormer steady%state c#aracteristics?
9?-?6 On%line !PS systems
On%line !PS systems intended ,or 4rotection a'ainst sa's and (rie,
interru4tions can also (e used ,or )olta'e re'ulation 4ro)ided t#e
source )olta'e stays su,,iciently #i'# to +ee4 t#e (atteries c#ar'ed?
T#is is a common solution ,or small, critical com4uter or electronic control loads in an
industrial en)ironment t#at #as lar'e, ,luctuatin'
loads causin' t#e )olta'e to )ary?
9?-?8 .otor%'enerator sets
.otor%'enerator sets C/i'? 9?6D are also used ,or )olta'e re'ulation?
T#ey com4letely decou4le t#e load ,rom t#e electric 4ower system,
s#ieldin' t#e load ,rom electrical transients? &olta'e re'ulation is 4ro)ided (y t#e
'enerator control? T#e maAor draw(ac+ o, motor%'enerator
sets is t#eir res4onse time to lar'e load c#an'es? .otor%'enerator sets
can ta+e se)eral seconds to (rin' t#e )olta'e (ac+ u4 to t#e re2uired
le)el, ma+in' t#is de)ice too slow ,or )olta'e re'ulation o, certain
loads, es4ecially ra4idly )aryin' loads? .otor%'enerator sets can also
(e used to 4ro)ide Gride t#rou'#H ,rom in4ut )olta'e )ariations, es4ecially )olta'e sa's,
(y storin' ener'y in a ,lyw#eel?
9?-?9 Static )ar com4ensators
Static )ar com4ensators can (e a44lied to eit#er utility systems or
industrial systems? T#ey #el4 re'ulate t#e )olta'e (y res4ondin' )ery
2uic+ly to su44ly or consume reacti)e 4ower? T#is acts wit# t#e system
im4edance to eit#er raise or lower t#e )olta'e on a cycle%(y%cycle (asis?
3>> C#a4ter Se)en
1INE IN
TRIACS
A!TOTRANS/OR.ER
SENSIN0
AN
CONTRO1
1OA
/i'ure 9?5 Electronic ta4%switc#in' re'ulator?
T#ere are two main ty4es o, static )ar com4ensators in common
usa'e, as s#own in /i'? 9?8? T#e t#yristor%controlled reactor CTCRD
sc#eme is 4ro(a(ly t#e most common? It em4loys a ,i7ed ca4acitor (an+
to 4ro)ide leadin' reacti)e 4ower and a t#yristor%controlled inductance
t#at is 'ated on in )arious amounts to cancel all or 4art o, t#e ca4acitance? T#e ca4acitors
are ,re2uently con,i'ured as ,ilters to clean u4
t#e #armonic distortion caused (y t#e t#yristors?
T#e t#yristor%switc#ed ca4acitor o4erates (y switc#in' multi4le
ste4s o, ca4acitors 2uic+ly to matc# t#e load re2uirements as closely as
4ossi(le? T#is is a more coarse re'ulation t#an a TCR (ut is o,ten ade2uate? T#e
ca4acitors are 'enerally 'ated ,ully on so t#ere are no #armonics in t#e currents? T#e
switc#in' 4oint is controlled so t#at t#ere
are no switc#in' transients?
9?3 !tility &olta'e Re'ulator A44lication
/i'ure 9?9 s#ows a 4#oto'ra4# o, a ty4ical t#ree%4#ase 3-%ste4 )olta'e
re'ulator (an+ used (y !?S? utilities? "#ile t#is 4#oto s#ows a su(station installation,
sin'le%4#ase re'ulators are ,re2uently 4ole%mounted,
eit#er one to a sin'le 4ole or t#ree on a 4lat,orm (etween two 4oles?
T#ey may (e connected in wye%'rounded, leadin' delta, la''in' delta,
or o4en delta? T#e controls are inte'ral to t#e de)ice and eac# 4#ase is
'enerally controlled se4arately? /eatures on some re'ulator controls
allow ,or 'an'ed o4eration o, all t#ree 4#ases suc# t#at all re'ulators
are on t#e same ta4?
It s#ould (e noted t#at 'an'ed o4eration does not necessarily mean
t#e )olta'e 4#ase (alance will (e (etter? !tility distri(ution lines are
commonly un(alanced in t#eir construction and no attem4t is made to
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations 3>1
/1;"HEE1 /OR
.ECHANICA1
ENER0; STORA0E
0ENERATOR IN!CTION OR
S;NCHRONO!S .OTOR
/i'ure 9?6 .otor%'enerator set?
3>- C#a4ter Se)en
3R 6TH 9TH
1OA
1OA
TH;RISTOR%CONTRO11E REACTOR
TH;RISTOR%S"ITCHE CAPACITOR
/i'ure 9?8 Common static )ar com4ensator
con,i'urations?
/i'ure 9?9 Ty4ical utility t#ree%4#ase 3-%ste4 )olta'e re'ulator (an+? CCourtesy o, Coo4er
Power Systems?D
trans4ose t#em? Also, numerous sin'le%4#ase loads create si'ni,icant
im(alance in t#e 4#ase currents? T#ere,ore, t#ree inde4endently controlled re'ulators may
)ery well yield (etter (alance (etween t#e 4#ase
)olta'es t#an 'an'ed o4eration?
&olumes could (e written on t#e a44lication o, re'ulators, (ut we will
restrict our discussion #ere to a ,ew to4ics 4articularly rele)ant to 4ower
2uality: use o, t#e line dro4 com4ensator ,or le)elin' )olta'e 4ro,iles and
load reAection wit# res4ect to t#e a44lication o, re'ulators in series?
9?3?1 1ine dro4 com4ensator
Re'ulators are )ery e,,ecti)e in alle)iatin' low%)olta'e conditions on
distri(ution ,eeders w#en t#e load #as out'rown t#e ca4a(ility o, t#e
,eeder at 4ea+ load conditions? *ecause it is time%consumin' to determine t#e correct
settin's ,or line dro4 com4ensation, t#e Rand[settin's are o,ten set to @ero and t#e
)olta'e re'ulation set 4oint is set
near t#e ma7imum allowa(le C1-6 or 1-8 & on a 1->%& (aseD? T#is
results in t#e ,eeder )olta'e (ein' near t#e ma7imum most o, t#e time
(ecause t#e load is at 4ea+ ,or only a small 4ercenta'e o, t#e #ours eac#
year? T#is is ade2uate in most res4ects e7ce4t t#at
1? Trans,ormers o4erate #i'#er on t#eir saturation cur)e, 4roducin'
more #armonic currents Cand lossesD, contri(utin' more to t#e #armonic distortion on t#e
,eeder, w#ic# can (e 4articularly trou(lesome at low loads?
-? Customers may e74erience more ,re2uent re4lacement o, incandescent lam4s?
3? T#e #i'#er )olta'e creates increased 4ower demand, w#ic# may (e
undesira(le at times and may translate into reduced ener'y e,,iciency Ce7cessi)ely low
)olta'es will also yield ine,,icienciesD?
T#e 4ur4ose o, t#e line dro4 com4ensator is to le)el out t#e )olta'e
4ro,ile so t#at it 4ro)ides t#e necessary )olta'e (oost at 4ea+ load yet
+ee4s t#e )olta'e closer to nominal at lower loads? T#is is illustrated
in /i'? 9?:? To sim4li,y t#e discussion, weF)e assumed t#ere is no 1TC
in t#e su(station and t#e only re'ulator o, concern is a ,eeder re'ulator at t#e su(station?
In /i'? 9?:a,no com4ensation is used and t#e
)olta'e settin' is 6 4ercent #i'#, or 1-8 & on 1->%& systems? Since
t#ere is some (andwidt# on t#e control, t#e )olta'e may actually 'o
#i'#er t#an t#is? In /i'? 9?:(,t#e )olta'e settin' is 1-> & C1>> 4ercentD wit# t#e line dro4
com4ensator set some distance out on t#e
,eeder as s#own? At 4ea+ load t#e )olta'e at t#e re'ulator rises to 1>6
4ercent, w#ic# is necessary to +ee4 t#e end o, t#e ,eeder at t#e 4ro4er
)olta'e? Howe)er, at low load, t#e ,eeder )olta'e 4ro,ile is closer to
1>> 4ercent )olta'e?
T#ere are numerous 4ractices ,or determinin' line dro4 com4ensator
settin's? .anu,acturers 4ro)ide com4uter 4ro'rams ,or com4utin' t#e
settin's 'i)en t#e current trans,ormer CCTD ratin's and 4otential
trans,ormer CPTD ratios? T#ese )ary wit# re'ulator si@es and must (e
s4eci,ically +nown (e,ore t#e 4ro4er settin' can (e com4uted? O,
course, t#is also re2uires t#e user to model t#e ,eeders on a com4uter
4ro'ram, ,or w#ic# t#e data may not (e readily a)aila(le?
.anu,acturersF 'uide (oo+s also #a)e sim4le ,ormulas and rule%o,t#um( 4rocedures ,or
determinin' settin's?
T#e line dro4 com4ensator settin's are called Rand[,or t#e resisti)e and reacti)e
com4onents o, t#e com4ensator? Howe)er, t#e units
3>5 C#a4ter Se)en
CaD No 1ine ro4 Com4ensation
C(D "it# 1ine ro4 Com4ensation Set to Here
=6I
1>>I
1>6I
=6I
1>>I
1>6I
&olta'e Pro,ile
at Pea+ 1oad
&olta'e Pro,ile
at 1ow 1oad
&olta'e Pro,ile
at Pea+ 1oad
&olta'e Pro,ile
at 1ow 1oad
/i'ure 9?: T#e e,,ect o, line dro4 com4ensation on t#e )olta'e 4ro,ile?
are )olts on a 1->%& (ase instead o, o#ms? To con)ert ,rom actual line
im4edance in o#ms to t#e Rand[settin's, t#e (asic ,ormula is
CR A[Dsettin'CR A[Do#ms
w#ere t#e CT is s4eci,ied (y t#e line current ratin'and t#e PT ratiois
t#e nominal line%to%neutral )olta'e di)ided (y 1-> &?
T#eseRand[)alues are used directly ,or wye%connected re'ulators?
/or delta%connected re'ulators, t#ese )alues must (e modi,ied to
account ,or t#e 3>i 4#ase s#i,t in t#e )olta'e wit# res4ect to t#e line
current? /or a leadin' delta connection, multi4ly (y 1 3>iJ ,or a la''in' delta, multi4ly
(y 1 3>i?
Some utilities #a)e de)elo4ed a)era'e standard settin's t#at t#ey
#a)e ,ound to (e e,,ecti)e? .any determine t#e Rand[settin's e74erimentally (y sendin'
a line tec#nician to t#e low%)olta'e 4oint on t#e
,eeder w#ile anot#er adAusts t#e Rand[settin's? Ideally, t#is s#ould
(e done at t#e 4ea+ load so t#at a )olta'e settin' and line dro4 settin'
may (e ,ound t#at are success,ul in meetin' t#is condition? It will, in
all li+eli#ood, meet t#e lower load conditions satis,actorily, alt#ou'#
switc#ed ca4acitor (an+s downline ,rom t#e re'ulator may ,ool t#e control w#en t#ey
switc# to a di,,erent state? T#ere,ore, t#e )olta'e 4ro,ile
s#ould (e monitored at one or two +ey locations ,or a ,ew days to ma+e
certain t#e settin' is ade2uate?
O()iously, t#is 4rocess ta+es time, and it is o,ten not con)enient to
send a crew to c#ec+ a re'ulator settin' w#en t#e 4ea+ load occurs?
O,ten, at t#is time, t#e crews will (e (usy wit# more ur'ent matters suc#
as c#an'in' out o)erloaded trans,ormers to 'et customers (ac+ in ser)ice? T#ere is a
de,inite (ene,it to t#e 4ower 2uality i, t#e re'ulator is set
4ro4erly, so some e,,ort s#ould (e made? /ortunately, manu,acturers are
now su44lyin' controls wit# telecommunications ca4a(ility so t#at t#e
settin's can (e adAusted more con)eniently ,rom a control center?
.any manu,acturers also o,,er so4#isticated controls wit# a c#oice
o, load%,ollowin' al'orit#ms? In t#e case o, 4ower 2uality com4laints
wit# t#e )olta'e 'oin' out o, (and or too many ta4 c#an'es, consult t#e
userFs manual and e74eriment wit# ot#er al'orit#ms to ac#ie)e a
smoot#er re'ulation?
9?3?- Re'ulators in series
In s4arsely 4o4ulated areas it is not uncommon to ,ind two or more
re'ulator (an+s in series on e7tremely lon' lines ,eedin' remote loads?
Two nota(le a44lications are ser)ice to irri'ation and minin' loads
CT ratin'
PT ratio
w#ere lines e7tend ,or miles wit# only an occasional load? T#ese a44lications re2uire
s4ecial considerations to a)oid 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
One im4ortant consideration ,or coordinatin' t#e re'ulators in series
is 4ro4erly settin' t#e initial time delay? T#e re'ulator nearest t#e su(station is set wit#
t#e s#ortest time delay, ty4ically 16 or 3> s?
Re'ulators ,urt#er downline are set wit# a time delay o, 16 s lon'er?
T#is minimi@es ta4 c#an'in' on t#e downline re'ulators, +ee4in' t#e
)olta'e )ariations to a minimum and e7tendin' contact li,e?
Per#a4s, t#e 'reatest 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem in t#is situation is load
reAection? T#e sudden loss o, load, w#ic# can #a44en a,ter a ,ault, will
result in 'reatly e7cessi)e )olta'es (ecause t#e re'ulator (oostin' will (e
cumulati)e Csee /i'? 9?=D? O)er)olta'es o, -> 4ercent or more can occur?
Trans,ormer saturation and t#e remainin' load will #el4 #old t#e )olta'e
down, (ut it will still e7ceed normal limits (y a considera(le mar'in?
To minimi@e dama'e to loads, re'ulators em4loy a Gra4id run(ac+H control sc#eme t#at
(y4asses t#e normal time delay and runs t#e re'ulators
(ac+ down as 2uic+ly as 4ossi(le? T#is is ty4ically - to 5 s 4er ta4 c#an'e?
9?5 Ca4acitors ,or &olta'e Re'ulation
Ca4acitors may (e used ,or )olta'e re'ulation on t#e 4ower system in
eit#er t#e s#unt or series con,i'uration C/i'? 9?1>D? "e will discuss eac#
class o, a44lication se4arately?
3>8 C#a4ter Se)en
=6I
1>>I
1>6I
&olta'e Pro,ile
Prior to 1oad ReAection
&olta'e Pro,ile
A,ter 1oad ReAection
/i'ure 9?= Illustration o, o)er)olta'e resultin' ,rom load reAection on re'ulators in
series?
9?5?1 S#unt ca4acitors
As s#own in /i'? 9?1>a,t#e 4resence o, a s#unt ca4acitor at t#e end o,
a ,eeder results in a 'radual c#an'e in )olta'e alon' t#e ,eeder? Ideally,
t#e 4ercent )olta'e rise at t#e ca4acitor
I&
would (e @ero at no load and rise to ma7imum at ,ull load? Howe)er,
wit# s#unt ca4acitors, 4ercent )olta'e rise is essentially inde4endent
o, load? T#ere,ore, automatic switc#in' is o,ten em4loyed in order to
deli)er t#e desired re'ulation at #i'# loads, (ut 4re)ent e7cessi)e )olta'e at low loads?
Switc#in' may result in transient o)er)olta'es inside
customer ,acilities, as descri(ed in C#a4? 5?
A44lication o, s#unt ca4acitors may also result in a )ariety o, #armonic 4ro(lems Csee
C#a4s? 6 and 8D?
9?5?- Series ca4acitors
!nli+e t#e s#unt ca4acitor, a ca4acitor connected in series wit# t#e
,eeder results in a )olta'e rise at t#e end o, t#e ,eeder t#at )aries
directly wit# load current? &olta'e rise is @ero at no load and ma7imum
at ,ull load? T#us, series ca4acitors do not need to (e switc#ed in
res4onse to c#an'es in load? .oreo)er, a series ca4acitor will re2uire
,ar smaller +& and +)ar ratin's t#an a s#unt ca4acitor deli)erin'
e2ui)alent re'ulation?
*ut series ca4acitors #a)e se)eral disad)anta'es? /irstly, t#ey cannot 4ro)ide reacti)e
com4ensation ,or ,eeder loads and do not si'ni,i%1>> C&wit# ca4&no ca4D
&wit# ca4
1oad 1oad
Rise due to ca4acitor
Rise due to ca4acitor
Resultant
ro4 due to load
ro4 due to load
Resultant
CaD C(D
/i'ure 9?1> /eeder )olta'e rise due to s#unt CaD and series C(D ca4acitors?
cantly reduce system losses? Series ca4acitors can only release additional system ca4acity
i, it is limited (y e7cessi)e ,eeder )olta'e dro4?
S#unt ca4acitors, on t#e ot#er #and, are e,,ecti)e w#en system ca4acity is limited (y #i'#
,eeder current as well?
Secondly, series ca4acitors cannot tolerate ,ault current? T#is would
result in a catastro4#ic o)er)olta'e and must (e 4re)ented (y (y4assin' t#e ca4acitor
t#rou'# an automatic switc#? An arrester must also
(e connected across t#e ca4acitor to di)ert current until t#e switc#
closes?
T#ere are se)eral ot#er concerns t#at must (e e)aluated in a series
ca4acitor a44lication? T#ese include resonance andOor #untin' wit#
sync#ronous and induction motors, and ,erroresonance wit# trans,ormers? *ecause o,
t#ese concerns, t#e a44lication o, series ca4acitors
on distri(ution systems is )ery limited? One area w#ere t#ey #a)e
4ro)ed to (e ad)anta'eous is w#ere ,eeder reactance must (e minimi@ed, e?'?, to reduce
,lic+er?
9?6 End%!ser Ca4acitor A44lication
T#e reasons t#at an end user mi'#t decide to a44ly 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors are
to
T Reduce electric utility (ill
T ReduceI
-Rlosses and, t#ere,ore, #eatin' in lines and trans,ormers
T Increase t#e )olta'e at t#e load, increasin' 4roduction andOor t#e
e,,iciency o, t#e o4eration
T Reduce current in t#e lines and trans,ormers, allowin' additional
load to (e ser)ed wit#out (uildin' new circuits
T#e 4rimary moti)ation is 'enerally economics to eliminate utility
4ower ,actor 4enalties, (ut t#ere are tec#nical (ene,its related to 4ower
2uality as well?
T#ere can (e 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems as a result o, addin' ca4acitors?
T#e most common are #armonics 4ro(lems? "#ile 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors are
not #armonic sources, t#ey can interact wit# t#e
system to accentuate t#e #armonics t#at are already t#ere Csee C#a4s?
6 and 8D? T#ere are also switc#in' transient side e,,ects suc# as ma'ni,ication o, utility
ca4acitor%switc#in' transients Csee C#a4? 5D?
9?6?1 1ocation ,or 4ower ,actor correction
ca4acitors
T#e (ene,its reali@ed (y installin' 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors
include t#e reduction o, reacti)e 4ower ,low on t#e system? T#ere,ore,
3>: C#a4ter Se)en
,or (est results, 4ower ,actor correction s#ould (e located as close to t#e
load as 4ossi(le? Howe)er, t#is may not (e t#e most economical solution
or e)en t#e (est en'ineerin' solution, due to t#e interaction o, #armonics and ca4acitors?
O,ten, ca4acitors will (e installed wit# lar'e induction motors CC3 in
/i'? 9?11D? T#is allows t#e ca4acitor and motor to (e switc#ed as a unit?
1ar'e 4lants wit# e7tensi)e distri(ution systems o,ten install ca4acitors at t#e 4rimary
)olta'e (us CC1D w#en utility (illin' encoura'es
4ower ,actor correction? .any times, #owe)er, 4ower ,actor correction
and #armonic distortion reduction must (e accom4lis#ed wit# t#e
same ca4acitors? 1ocation o, lar'er #armonic ,ilters on t#e main distri(ution (us CC-D
4ro)ides t#e re2uired com4ensation and a low%im4edance 4at# ,or #armonic currents to
,low, +ee4in' t#e #armonic currents
o,, t#e utility system?
One disad)anta'e o, 4lacin' ca4acitors only at t#e utili@ation or
main distri(ution (us is t#at t#ere is no reduction o, current and line
losses wit#in t#e 4lant? 1oss and current reduction are ac#ie)ed w#en
t#e ca4acitors CC5D are distri(uted t#rou'#out t#e system? Some industrial end users
install ca4acitors at t#e motor control centers, w#ic# is
o,ten more economical t#an 4uttin' t#e ca4acitors on eac# motor? T#e
ca4acitorsF controls can (e tied in wit# t#e motor controls so t#at t#e
ca4acitors are switc#ed w#en needed?
Anot#er disad)anta'e is related to #armonic 4er,ormance? T#e main
distri(ution (us o,ten #as a #i'# [ORratio, and i, t#e ca4acitor installation results in
#armonic resonance, )ery #i'# #armonic )olta'es and
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations 3>=
INCO.IN0 S!PP1;
C1
!TI1INATION OR ISTRI*!TION *!S
ISTRI*!TE *!S
C3
C5
.
C-
/i'ure 9?11 1ocation o, 4ower ,actor correction?
currents can result? T#is is t#e most common cause o, dama'e ,rom
#armonics in industrial 4lants? I, t#ere is su,,icient resistance in t#e
ca(les to t#e loads, a distri(uted ca4acitor a44lication may #a)e some
natural su44ression o, #armonic resonance? On t#e ot#er #and, t#e resonance may (e
more con)enient to alle)iate w#en t#e o,,endin' ca4acitors are in one location? T#us, t#e
o4timal desi'n ,or ca4acitor
com4ensation is o,ten a com4romise (etween con,lictin' o(Aecti)es?
9?6?- &olta'e rise
T#e )olta'e rise ,rom 4lacin' ca4acitors on an inducti)e circuit is a
two%ed'ed sword ,rom t#e 4ower 2uality stand4oint? I, t#e )olta'e is
low, t#en t#e ca4acitors 4ro)ide an increase to (rin' t#e )olta'e (ac+
into tolera(le limits? Howe)er, i, t#e ca4acitors are le,t ener'i@ed w#en
t#e load is turned o,,, t#e )olta'e can rise too #i'#, resultin' in a sustained o)er)olta'e?
T#e )olta'e rise (y t#e end user ,rom t#e installation o, ca4acitors is
a44ro7imated ,rom
I&
w#ere I&4ercent )olta'e rise
+)arca4 ca4acitor (an+ ratin'
+&At7 ste4%down trans,ormer ratin'
Nt7 ste4%down trans,ormer im4edance, I
T#is ,ormula assumes t#at t#e trans,ormer is t#e (ul+ o, t#e total
im4edance o, t#e 4ower system u4 to t#e 4oint at w#ic# t#e ca4acitor
is a44lied?
As mentioned, one 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem t#at arises is t#at t#e )olta'e rises too #i'#
w#en t#e ca4acitors remain ener'i@ed at low load le)els? One common sym4tom o, t#is is
loud #ummin' in t#e su44ly
trans,ormer and, in some cases, o)er#eatin' due to o)ere7citation o,
t#e core? Anot#er sym4tom is t#e loss o, e7cessi)e num(ers o, incandescant li'#t (ul(s
coincident wit# t#e installation o, a ca4acitor (an+?
T#us, t#is ,ormula s#ould (e a44lied to in)esti'ate w#et#er it is ,easi(le to lea)e t#e
ca4acitors ener'i@ed? I, not, some control strate'y must
(e de)ised to switc# t#e ca4acitors o,, at li'#t loads?
9?6?3 Reduction in 4ower system losses
T#e reduction in 4ower system losses is estimated ,rom
I lossreduction 1>>
1
-
4,ori'inal
4,corrected
+)arca4 Nt7 CID
+&At7
31> C#a4ter Se)en
I 4ower loss 1>>
-
w#ere I lossreduction 4ercent reduction in losses
4,ori'inalori'inal 4ower ,actor C4uD
4,corrected corrected 4ower ,actor C4uD
T#is ,ormula (asically a44lies to a sin'le ca4acitor on a radial ,eed?
Howe)er, it is also a44ro7imately correct i, t#e ca4acitors are well distri(uted t#rou'#out
t#e 4lant so t#at eac# maAor (ranc# circuit sees
a44ro7imately t#e same 4ercenta'e loss im4ro)ement?
<ee4 in mind t#at t#is ,ormula 'i)es t#e 4ercent reduction 4ossi(le
o)er t#e 4resent losses u4line,rom t#e ca4acitors? T#ere is no reduction in losses in t#e
lines and trans,ormers (etween t#e ca4acitor and
t#e load?
9?6?5 Reduction in line current
T#e 4ercent line current reduction can (e a44ro7imated ,rom
II1>>
1
w#ere II4ercent current reduction
cos(e,ore4ower ,actor an'le (e,ore correction
cosa,ter4ower ,actor an'le a,ter correction
A'ain, t#is a44lies only to currents u4line ,rom t#e ca4acitor?
9?6?6 is4lacement 4ower ,actor )ersus
true 4ower ,actor
T#e traditional conce4ts o, selectin' 4ower ,actor correction are (ased
on t#e assum4tion t#at loads on t#e system #a)e linear )olta'e%current
c#aracteristics and t#at #armonic distortion can (e i'nored? "it# t#ese
assum4tions, t#e 4ower ,actor is e2ual to t#e dis4lacement 4ower ,actorCP/D? T#e P/
is calculated usin' t#e traditional 4ower ,actor trian'le met#od C/i'? 9?1-D and is o,ten
written as
cos(e,ore
cosa,ter
4,ori'inal
4,corrected
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations 311
Ca44arent 4owerD
+&A
+" Cacti)e 4owerD
+)ar
Creacti)e
4owerD
/i'ure 9?1- is4lacement 4ower
,actor trian'le?
P/cos
w#ere +" and +&A are t#e ,undamental ,re2uency 2uantities only?
Harmonic distortion in t#e )olta'e and current caused (y nonlinear
loads on t#e system c#an'es t#e way t#e 4ower ,actor must (e calculated? T#e true 4ower
,actorCTP/D is de,ined as t#e ratio o, real 4ower
to t#e total )oltam4eres in t#e circuit:
TP/
As (e,ore, t#e 4ower ,actor is de,ined as t#e ratio o, +" to +&A, (ut in
t#is case, t#e +&A includes #armonic distortion )oltam4eres? T#e total
+&A Ca44arent 4owerD is determined (y multi4lyin' t#e true rms )olta'e (y t#e true rms
current? It can (e si'ni,icantly #i'#er t#an t#e ,undamental ,re2uency +&A? T#e acti)e
4ower Pis 'enerally increased
only mar'inally (y t#e distortion?
T#e TP/ is t#e true measure o, t#e e,,iciency wit# w#ic# t#e real
4ower is (ein' used? In t#e tri)ial case o, no distortion, it de,aults to t#e
P/? Ca4acitors (asically com4ensate only ,or t#e ,undamental ,re2uency reacti)e 4ower
C)arsD and cannot com4letely correct t#e true
4ower ,actor to unity w#en t#ere are #armonics 4resent? In ,act, ca4acitors can ma+e t#e
TP/ worse (y creatin' resonance conditions w#ic#
ma'ni,y t#e #armonic distortion? On ty4ical 4ower systems, t#e Irms
term in t#e 'i)en TP/ e2uation is 'enerally t#e one most a,,ected (y
#armonic distortion, alt#ou'# t#e &rms
term may also (e increased?
Assumin' t#e )olta'e TH is @ero, t#e ma7imum to w#ic# you can correct t#e TP/ can
(e a44ro7imated (y
TP/b
w#ere TH is in 4u?
T#e P/ is still )ery im4ortant to most industrial customers (ecause
utility (illin' ,or 4ower ,actor 4enalties is 'enerally (ased on it? .ost
re)enue meterin' sc#emes currently account only ,or t#e P/?
Howe)er, t#is could c#an'e (ecause modern electronic meters certainly
#a)e t#e ca4a(ility to com4ute t#e TP/, w#ic# will (e considera(ly
lower ,or some ty4es o, industrial loads?
9?6?8 Selectin' t#e amount o, ca4acitance
As re,erence ,or t#ose wis#in' to a44ly ca4acitors to correct t#e 4ower
,actor, t#e +)ar o, ca4acitance re2uired to correct a load to a desired
4ower ,actor is 'i)en (y
1
1 TH
-
current
P
&rms Irms
+"
+&A
+"
+&A
31- C#a4ter Se)en
+)ar+" Ctan ori'tannewD
+"
1
1
w#ere +)ar re2uired com4ensation in +)ar
+"real 4ower in +"
ori'ori'inal 4ower ,actor 4#ase an'le
newdesired 4ower ,actor 4#ase an'le
P/ori'ori'inal 4ower ,actor
P/newdesired 4ower ,actor
Ta(le 9?1 summari@es t#e e2uation in ta(ular ,orm?
A,ter selectin' estimated ca4acitor si@es, two 4ower 2uality c#ec+s
s#ould (e done:
1? etermine t#e no%load )olta'e rise to ma+e sure t#at t#e )olta'e
will not rise a(o)e 11> 4ercent w#en t#e load is minimum? I, it does,
you will #a)e to switc# some o, t#e ca4acitors o,, or a44ly ,ewer
ca4acitors?
-? etermine t#e im4act o, t#e ca4acitors on #armonics Csee C#a4? 6D?
I, #armonics 4ro)e to (e a 4ro(lem, ty4ical o4tions are
1? C#an'e t#e amount o, ca4acitors, i, 4ossi(le? A)oid certain switc#in' com(inations?
T#is is 'enerally t#e least%cost solution?
-? Con)ert some o, t#e ca4acitors to one or more ,ilters, usually 4laced
at t#e main (us?
3? Em4loy an ada4ti)e control to monitor t#e #armonic distortion and
switc# t#e ca4acitors to a)oid resonance? T#is mi'#t (e a44ro4riate
,or lar'e industrial loads w#ere t#ere are numerous switc#ed ca4acitors comin' on and
o,, line randomly?
9?8 Re'ulatin' !tility &olta'e wit#
istri(uted Resources
It is (ecomin' more 4o4ular ,or utility distri(ution 4lanners to consider
distri(uted 'eneration C0D and stora'e de)ices to de,er in)estments
in su(stations and transmission lines until t#e load #as 'rown to a su,,icient si@e to
warrant t#e lar'er in)estment? T#is conce4t is 4articularly use,ul w#en t#ere are a
relati)ely ,ew num(er o, #ours eac# year
w#en t#e load a44roac#es t#e system ca4acity limits? T#e mo)ement
toward utility dere'ulation in recent years #as created renewed interest in distri(uted
resources, and many o, t#e issues related to 4ower
2uality are addressed in C#a4? =? Here, we will restrict our discussion
1
P/
-
new
1
P/
-
ori'
TA*1E9?1 +" .ulti4lier to etermine +)ar Re2uirement
Corrected 4ower ,actor
Ori'inal P/ >?:> >?:- >?:5 >?:8 >?:: >?=> >?=- >?=5 >?=8 >?=: 1?>>
>?6> >?=:- 1?>35 1?>:8 1?13= 1?1=- 1?-5: 1?3>8 1?38= 1?55> 1?6-= 1?93-
>?6- >?:=3 >?=56 >?==9 1?>5= 1?1>3 1?16: 1?-19 1?-:> 1?361 1?55> 1?853
>?65 >?:>= >?:81 >?=13 >?=86 1?>1= 1?>95 1?133 1?1=8 1?-89 1?368 1?66=
>?68 >?9-= >?9:1 >?:35 >?::8 >?=5> >?==6 1?>63 1?118 1?1:: 1?-98 1?59=
>?6: >?866 >?9>9 >?96= >?:11 >?:86 >?=-> >?=9= 1?>5- 1?113 1?->1 1?5>6
>?8> >?6:3 >?836 >?8:9 >?95> >?9=5 >?:5= >?=>9 >?=9> 1?>5- 1?13> 1?333
>?8- >?616 >?689 >?8-> >?89- >?9-8 >?9:1 >?:3= >?=>3 >?=95 1?>8- 1?-86
>?85 >?561 >?6>3 >?666 >?8>9 >?881 >?918 >?996 >?:3: >?=>= >?==: 1?->1
>?88 >?3:: >?55> >?5=- >?656 >?6== >?865 >?91- >?996 >?:59 >?=36 1?13:
>?8: >?3-: >?3:> >?53- >?5:6 >?63= >?6=5 >?86- >?916 >?9:9 >?:96 1?>9:
>?9> >?-9> >?3-- >?395 >?5-9 >?5:> >?638 >?6=5 >?869 >?9-= >?:19 1?>->
>?9- >?-15 >?-88 >?31: >?39> >?5-5 >?5:> >?63: >?8>1 >?89- >?981 >?=85
>?95 >?16= >?-11 >?-83 >?318 >?38= >?5-6 >?5:3 >?658 >?819 >?9>8 >?=>=
>?98 >?1>6 >?169 >?->= >?-8- >?316 >?391 >?5-= >?5=- >?683 >?86- >?:66
>?9: >?>6- >?1>5 >?168 >?->= >?-83 >?31: >?398 >?53= >?611 >?6== >?:>-
>?:> >?>>> >?>6- >?1>5 >?169 >?-1> >?-88 >?3-5 >?3:9 >?56: >?659 >?96>
>?:- >?>>> >?>6- >?1>6 >?16: >?-15 >?-9- >?336 >?5>8 >?5=6 >?8=:
>?:5 >?>>> >?>63 >?1>8 >?18- >?--> >?-:3 >?365 >?553 >?858
>?:8 >?>>> >?>65 >?1>= >?189 >?-3> >?3>- >?3=> >?6=3
>?:: >?>>> >?>66 >?115 >?199 >?-5: >?339 >?65>
>?=> >?>>> >?>6: >?1-1 >?1=3 >?-:1 >?5:5
>?=- >?>>> >?>83 >?135 >?--3 >?5-8
>?=5 >?>>> >?>91 >?18> >?383
>?=8 >?>>> >?>:= >?-=-
>?=: >?>>> >?->3
1?>> >?>>>
315
to t#e 4otential o, usin' distri(uted 'enerators ,or distri(ution ,eeder
)olta'e re'ulation?
.ost o, t#e utility%owned installations #a)e (een located in utility
distri(ution su(stations? T#is o,,ers load relie, ,or t#e su(station and
transmission ,acilities, (ut contri(utes little else to t#e 2uality o, 4ower
,or t#e distri(ution ,eeder? Now, many distri(ution en'ineers are considerin' t#e (ene,its
o, mo)in' t#e de)ices out onto t#e ,eeder to 'ain
additional system ca4acity, loss reduction, im4ro)ed relia(ility, and
)olta'e re'ulation? T#ese 'enerators will o,ten (e owned (y end users,
(ut could (e contracted to o4erate ,or utility system (ene,its as well?
"#ile t#is o4tion may (e too e74ensi)e to consider ,or )olta'e re'ulation alone, it is a
use,ul side e,,ect o, dis4ersed sources Austi,ied on t#e
(asis o, de,erment o, ca4ital e74ansion?
"#ile ,ew utility distri(ution 4lanners will rely on customer%owned
'eneration ,or (ase ca4acity, it is more 4alata(le to em4loy t#em to
#el4 co)er contin'encies? One e7am4le is illustrated in /i'? 9?13?
!tilities usually #a)e sectionali@in' switc#es installed so t#at 4ortions
o, a distri(ution ,eeder can (e ser)ed ,rom di,,erent ,eeders or su(stations durin'
emer'encies? I, t#e ,ault occurs at t#e time o, 4ea+ load, it
may (e im4ossi(le to 4ic+ u4 any more load ,rom ot#er ,eeders in t#e
normal manner sim4ly (y closin' a switc#? Howe)er, a 'enerator
located near t#e switc# tie 4oint can 4otentially 4ro)ide enou'# 4ower
to su44ort t#e additional load at a satis,actory )olta'e? I, t#e 'enerator
is o, su,,icient si@e, it could (e em4loyed to #el4 re'ulate t#e )olta'e?
One ad)anta'e o, usin' a 'enerator to re'ulate t#e )olta'e is t#at its
controls res4ond muc# ,aster and more smoot#ly t#an discrete ta4c#an'in' de)ices li+e
re'ulators and 1TCs? "#ile t#is 4otential e7ists,
most utility distri(ution 4rotection en'ineers are reluctant to allow
t#is ty4e o, o4eration wit#out care,ul study and costly control e2ui4ment? T#e issue is
t#at o4eratin' wit# automati)e )olta'e re'ulation
ma+es t#e system more susce4ti(le to sustainin' an inad)ertent
Tie Switc#
0enerator
/A!1T
/i'ure 9?13 !sin' a 'enerator to su44ort restoration o, ser)ice to
t#e un,aulted 4ortion o, a ,eeder?
island? T#ere,ore, some means o, direct trans,er tri4 is 'enerally
re2uired to ensure t#at t#e 'enerator disconnects ,rom t#e system
w#en certain utility (rea+ers o4erate?
A more normal connection o, 0 is to use 4ower and 4ower ,actor
control? T#is minimi@es t#e ris+ o, islandin'? Alt#ou'# t#e 0 no
lon'er attem4ts to re'ulate t#e )olta'e, it is still use,ul ,or )olta'e re'ulation 4ur4oses
durin' constrained loadin' conditions (y dis4lacin'
some acti)e and reacti)e 4ower? Alternati)ely, customer%owned 0
may (e e74loited sim4ly (y o4eratin' o,,%'rid and su44ortin' 4art or all
o, t#e customerFs load o,,%line? T#is a)oids interconnection issues and
4ro)ides some assistance to )olta'e re'ulation (y reducin' t#e load?
T#e controls o, distri(uted sources must (e care,ully coordinated
wit# e7istin' line re'ulators and su(station 1TCs? Re)erse 4ower ,low
can sometimes ,ool )olta'e re'ulators into mo)in' t#e ta4 c#an'er in
t#e wron' direction? Also, it is 4ossi(le ,or t#e 'enerator to cause re'ulators to c#an'e
ta4s constantly, causin' early ,ailure o, t#e ta4%c#an'in' mec#anism? /ortunately, some
re'ulator manu,acturers #a)e
antici4ated t#ese 4ro(lems and now 4ro)ide so4#isticated microcom4uter%(ased re'ulator
controls t#at are a(le to com4ensate?
To e74loit dis4ersed sources ,or )olta'e re'ulation, one is limited in
o4tions to t#e ty4es o, de)ices wit# steady, controlla(le out4uts suc# as
reci4rocatin' en'ines, com(ustion tur(ines, ,uel cells, and (attery stora'e? Randomly
)aryin' sources suc# as wind tur(ines and 4#oto)oltaics are unsatis,actory ,or t#is role
and o,ten must (e 4laced on a
relati)ely sti,, 4art o, t#e system or #a)e s4ecial re'ulation to a)oid
)olta'e re'ulation di,,iculties? 0 used ,or )olta'e re'ulation must
also (e lar'e enou'# to accom4lis# t#e tas+?
Not all tec#nolo'ies are suita(le ,or re'ulatin' )olta'e? T#ey must (e
ca4a(le o, 4roducin' a controlled amount o, reacti)e 4ower?
.anu,acturers o, de)ices re2uirin' in)erters ,or interconnection sometimes 4ro'ram t#e
in)erter controls to o4erate only at unity 4ower ,actor
w#ile 'rid%connected? Sim4le induction 'enerators consume reacti)e
4ower li+e an induction motor, w#ic# can cause low )olta'e?
9?9 /lic+erZ
Alt#ou'# )olta'e ,lic+er is not tec#nically a lon'%term )olta'e )ariation, it is included in
t#is c#a4ter (ecause t#e root cause o, 4ro(lems is
t#e same: T#e system is too wea+ to su44ort t#e load? Also, some o, t#e
solutions are t#e same as ,or t#e slow%c#an'in' )olta'e re'ulation
4ro(lems? T#e )olta'e )ariations resultin' ,rom ,lic+er are o,ten wit#in
t#e normal ser)ice )olta'e ran'e, (ut t#e c#an'es are su,,iciently ra4id
to (e irritatin' to certain end users?
318 C#a4ter Se)en
ZT#is section was contri(uted (y Ye,, "? Smit#?
/lic+er is a relati)ely old su(Aect t#at #as 'ained considera(le
attention recently due to t#e increased awareness o, issues concernin' 4ower 2uality?
Power en'ineers ,irst dealt wit# ,lic+er in t#e
1::>s w#en t#e decision o, usin' ac o)er dc was o, concern?
-
1ow%,re2uency ac )olta'e resulted in a G,lic+erin'H o, t#e li'#ts? To a)oid t#is
4ro(lem, a #i'#er 8>%H@ ,re2uency was c#osen as t#e standard in
Nort# America?
T#e term ,lic+er is sometimes considered synonymous wit# )olta'e
,luctuations, )olta'e ,lic+er, li'#t ,lic+er, or lam4 ,lic+er? T#e 4#enomenon (ein' re,erred
to can (e de,ined as a ,luctuation in system )olta'e
t#at can result in o(ser)a(le c#an'es C,lic+erin'D in li'#t out4ut?
*ecause ,lic+er is mostly a 4ro(lem w#en t#e #uman eye o(ser)es it, it
is considered to (e a 4ro(lem o, 4erce4tion?
In t#e early 1=>>s, many studies were done on #umans to determine o(ser)a(le and
o(Aectiona(le le)els o, ,lic+er? .any cur)es, suc#
as t#e one s#own in /i'? 9?15, were de)elo4ed (y )arious com4anies
to determine t#e se)erity o, ,lic+er? T#e ,lic+er cur)e s#own in /i'?
9?15 was de)elo4ed (y C? P? [enis and "? Perine in 1=39 and was
(ased u4on data o(tained ,rom -1 'rou4s o, o(ser)ers? In order to
account ,or t#e nature o, ,lic+er, t#e o(ser)ers were e74osed to )arious wa)es#a4e
)olta'e )ariations, le)els o, illumination, and ty4es o,
li'#tin'?
3
1?>
-?>
3?>
5?>
6?>
8?>
9?>
>?1 1?> 1>?> 1>>?>
/re2uency o, /lic+er in Seconds
&olta'e C#an'e Cin &oltsD on 1->%& System
T#res#oldo,Perce4tion
T#res#oldo,O(Aection
/i'ure 9?15 0eneral ,lic+er cur)e?
/lic+er can (e se4arated into two ty4es: cyclic and noncyclic? Cyclic
,lic+er is a result o, 4eriodic )olta'e ,luctuations on t#e system, w#ile
noncyclic is a result o, occasional )olta'e ,luctuations?
An e7am4le o, sinusoidal%cyclic ,lic+er is s#own in /i'? 9?16? T#is
ty4e o, ,lic+er is sim4ly am4litude modulation w#ere t#e main si'nal
C8> H@ ,or Nort# AmericaD is t#e carrier si'nal and ,lic+er is t#e modulatin' si'nal?
/lic+er si'nals are usually s4eci,ied as a 4ercenta'e o,
t#e normal o4eratin' )olta'e? *y usin' a 4ercenta'e, t#e ,lic+er si'nal
is inde4endent o, 4ea+, 4ea+%to%4ea+, rms, line%to%neutral, etc?
Ty4ically, 4ercent )olta'e modulation is e74ressed (y
Percent )olta'e modulation 1>>I
w#ere&ma7ma7imum )alue o, modulated si'nal
&minminimum )alue o, modulated si'nal
&>a)era'e )alue o, normal o4eratin' )olta'e
T#e usual met#od ,or e74ressin' ,lic+er is similar to t#at o, 4ercent
)olta'e modulation? It is usually e74ressed as a 4ercent o, t#e total
c#an'e in )olta'e wit# res4ect to t#e a)era'e )olta'e C&O&D o)er a certain 4eriod o, time?
&ma7&min
&>
31: C#a4ter Se)en
V->>
V16>
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
->>
>?>>>
>?>6:
>?119
>?196
>?-33
>?-=-
>?36>
>?5>:
>?589
>?6-6
>?6:3
>?85-
>?9>>
>?96:
>?:19
>?:96
>?=33
Time CsD
&olta'e C&D
/i'ure 9?16 E7am4le ,lic+er wa)e,orm?
T#e ,re2uency content o, ,lic+er is e7tremely im4ortant in determinin' w#et#er or not
,lic+er le)els are o(ser)a(le Cor o(Aectiona(leD?
escri(in' t#e ,re2uency content o, t#e ,lic+er si'nal in terms o, modulation would mean
t#at t#e ,lic+er ,re2uency is essentially t#e ,re2uency o, t#e modulatin' si'nal? T#e
ty4ical ,re2uency ran'e o,
o(ser)a(le ,lic+er is ,rom >?6 to 3>?> H@, wit# o(ser)a(le ma'nitudes
startin' at less t#an 1?> 4ercent?
As s#own in /i'? 9?15, t#e #uman eye is more sensiti)e to luminance
,luctuations in t#e 6% to 1>%H@ ran'e? As t#e ,re2uency o, ,lic+er
increases or decreases away ,rom t#is ran'e, t#e #uman eye 'enerally
(ecomes more tolera(le o, ,luctuations?
One issue t#at was not considered in t#e de)elo4ment o, t#e traditional ,lic+er cur)e is
t#at o, multi4le ,lic+er si'nals? 0enerally, most
,lic+er%4roducin' loads contain multi4le ,lic+er si'nals Co, )aryin'
ma'nitudes and ,re2uenciesD, t#us ma+in' it )ery di,,icult to accurately 2uanti,y ,lic+er
usin' ,lic+er cur)es?
9?9?1 Sources o, ,lic+er
Ty4ically, ,lic+er occurs on systems t#at are wea+ relati)e to t#e
amount o, 4ower re2uired (y t#e load, resultin' in a low s#ort%circuit
ratio? T#is, in com(ination wit# considera(le )ariations in current o)er
a s#ort 4eriod o, time, results in ,lic+er? As t#e load increases, t#e current in t#e line
increases, t#us increasin' t#e )olta'e dro4 across t#e
line? T#is 4#enomenon results in a sudden reduction in (us )olta'e?
e4endin' u4on t#e c#an'e in ma'nitude o, )olta'e and ,re2uency o,
occurrence, t#is could result in o(ser)a(le amounts o, ,lic+er? I, a li'#tin' load were
connected to t#e system in relati)ely close 4ro7imity to
t#e ,luctuatin' load, o(ser)ers could see t#is as a dimmin' o, t#e li'#ts?
A common situation, w#ic# could result in ,lic+er, would (e a lar'e
industrial 4lant located at t#e end o, a wea+ distri(ution ,eeder?
"#et#er t#e resultin' )olta'e ,luctuations cause o(ser)a(le or o(Aectiona(le ,lic+er is
de4endent u4on t#e ,ollowin' 4arameters:
T Si@e C&AD o, 4otential ,lic+er%4roducin' source
T System im4edance Csti,,ness o, utilityD
T /re2uency o, resultin' )olta'e ,luctuations
A common load t#at can o,ten cause ,lic+er is an electric arc ,urnace
CEA/D? EA/s are nonlinear, time%)aryin' loads t#at o,ten cause lar'e
)olta'e ,luctuations and #armonic distortion? .ost o, t#e lar'e current
,luctuations occur at t#e (e'innin' o, t#e meltin' cycle? urin' t#is
4eriod, 4ieces o, scra4 steel can actually (rid'e t#e 'a4 (etween t#e electrodes, resultin'
in a #i'#ly reacti)e s#ort circuit on t#e secondary side
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations 31=
o, t#e ,urnace trans,ormer? T#is meltdown 4eriod can 'enerally result in
,lic+er in t#e 1?>% to 1>?>%H@ ran'e? Once t#e meltin' cycle is o)er and t#e
re,inin' 4eriod is reac#ed, sta(le arcs can usually (e #eld on t#e electrodes resultin' in a
steady, t#ree%4#ase load wit# #i'# 4ower ,actor?
5
1ar'e induction mac#ines under'oin' start%u4 or widely )aryin'
load tor2ue c#an'es are also +nown to 4roduce )olta'e ,luctuations on
systems? As a motor is started u4, most o, t#e 4ower drawn (y t#e
motor is reacti)e Csee /i'? 9?18D? T#is results in a lar'e )olta'e dro4
across distri(ution lines? T#e most se)ere case would (e w#en a motor
is started across t#e line? T#is ty4e o, start%u4 can result in current
drawn (y t#e motor u4 to multi4les o, t#e ,ull load current?
An e7am4le illustratin' t#e im4act motor startin' and tor2ue c#an'es
can #a)e on system )olta'e is s#own in /i'? 9?19? In t#is case, a lar'e
industrial 4lant is located at t#e end o, a wea+ distri(ution ,eeder? "it#in
t#e 4lant are ,our relati)ely lar'e induction mac#ines t#at are ,re2uently
restarted and under'o relati)ely lar'e load tor2ue )ariations?
6
Alt#ou'# startin' lar'e induction mac#ines across t#e line is 'enerally not a
recommended 4ractice, it does occur? To reduce ,lic+er, lar'e
motors are (rou'#t u4 to s4eed usin' )arious so,t%start tec#ni2ues
suc# as reduced%)olta'e starters or )aria(le%s4eed dri)es?
In certain circumstances, su4erim4osed inter#armonics in t#e su44ly )olta'e can lead to
oscillatin' luminous ,lu7 and cause ,lic+er?
&olta'e inter#armonics are com4onents in t#e #armonic s4ectrum t#at
are noninte'er multi4les o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency? T#is 4#enomenon can (e
o(ser)ed wit# incandescent lam4s as well as wit# ,luorescent lam4s? Sources o,
inter#armonics include static ,re2uency
con)erters, cyclocon)erters, su(sync#ronous con)erter cascades,
induction ,urnaces, and arc ,urnaces?
8
3-> C#a4ter Se)en
1?> >?= >?: >?9 >?8 >?6
Sli4
>?5 >?3 >?- >?1 >?>
Acti)e Power
Reacti)e Power
Q
P
/i'ure 9?18 Acti)e and reacti)e 4ower durin' induction mac#ine
start%u4?
9?9?- .iti'ation tec#ni2ues
.any o4tions are a)aila(le to alle)iate ,lic+er 4ro(lems? .iti'ation
alternati)es include static ca4acitors, 4ower electronic%(ased switc#in' de)ices, and
increasin' system ca4acity? T#e 4articular met#od
c#osen is (ased u4on many ,actors suc# as t#e ty4e o, load causin' t#e
,lic+er, t#e ca4acity o, t#e system su44lyin' t#e load, and cost o, miti'ation tec#ni2ue?
/lic+er is usually t#e result o, a )aryin' load t#at is lar'e relati)e to
t#e system s#ort%circuit ca4acity? One o()ious way to remo)e ,lic+er
,rom t#e system would (e to increase t#e system ca4acity su,,iciently
to decrease t#e relati)e im4act o, t#e ,lic+er%4roducin' load? !4'radin'
t#e system could include any o, t#e ,ollowin': reconductorin', re4lacin' e7istin'
trans,ormers wit# #i'#er +&A ratin's, or increasin' t#e
o4eratin' )olta'e?
.otor modi,ications are also an a)aila(le o4tion to reduce t#e
amount o, ,lic+er 4roduced durin' motor startin' and load )ariations? T#e motor can (e
rewound Cc#an'in' t#e motor classD suc#
t#at t#e s4eed%tor2ue cur)es are modi,ied? !n,ortunately, in some
cases t#is could result in a lower runnin' e,,iciency? /lyw#eel ener'y
systems can also reduce t#e amount o, current drawn (y motors (y
deli)erin' t#e mec#anical ener'y re2uired to com4ensate ,or load
tor2ue )ariations?
Recently, series reactors #a)e (een ,ound to reduce t#e amount o,
,lic+er e74erienced on a system caused (y EA/s? Series reactors #el4 sta(ili@e t#e arc,
t#us reducin' t#e current )ariations durin' t#e (e'innin'
o, meltin' 4eriods? *y addin' t#e series reactor, t#e sudden increase in
current is reduced due t#e increase in circuit reactance? Series reactors
1on'%uration &olta'e &ariations 3-1
.otor Startin' and 1oad Tor2ue &ariations
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
15>
-==>>> 3>->>> 3>6>>> 3>:>>> 311>>> 315>>>
Time CmsD
/i'ure 9?19 &olta'e ,luctuations caused (y induction mac#ine o4eration?
also #a)e t#e (ene,it o, reducin' t#e su44ly%side #armonic le)els?
9
T#e
desi'n o, t#e reactor must (e coordinated wit# 4ower re2uirements?
Series ca4acitors can also (e used to reduce t#e e,,ect o, ,lic+er on an
e7istin' system? In 'eneral, series ca4acitors are 4laced in series wit#
t#e transmission line su44lyin' t#e load? T#e (ene,it o, series ca4acitors
is t#at t#e reaction time ,or t#e correction to load ,luctuations is instantaneous in nature?
T#e downside to series ca4acitors is t#at com4ensation is only a)aila(le (eyond t#e
ca4acitor? *us )olta'es (etween t#e
su44ly and t#e ca4acitor are uncom4ensated? Also, series ca4acitors
#a)e o4erational di,,iculties t#at re2uire care,ul en'ineerin'?
/i7ed s#unt%connected ca4acitor (an+s are used ,or lon'%term )olta'e su44ort or 4ower
,actor correction? A misconce4tion is t#at s#unt
ca4acitors can (e used to reduce ,lic+er? T#e startin' )olta'e sa' is
reduced, (ut t#e 4ercent c#an'e in )olta'e C&O&D is not reduced, and
in some cases can actually (e increased?
A rat#er ine74ensi)e met#od ,or reducin' t#e ,lic+er e,,ects o, motor
startin' would (e to sim4ly install a ste4%starter ,or t#e motor, w#ic#
would reduce t#e amount o, startin' current durin' motor start%u4?
"it# t#e ad)ances in solid%state tec#nolo'y, t#e si@e, wei'#t, and cost
o, adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es #a)e decreased, t#us allowin' t#e use o,
suc# de)ices to (e more ,easi(le in reducin' t#e ,lic+er e,,ects caused
(y ,lic+er%4roducin' loads?
Static )ar com4ensators CS&CsD are )ery ,le7i(le and #a)e many
roles in 4ower systems? S&Cs can (e used ,or 4ower ,actor correction,
,lic+er reduction, and steady%state )olta'e control, and also #a)e t#e
(ene,it o, (ein' a(le to ,ilter out undesira(le ,re2uencies ,rom t#e system? S&Cs ty4ically
consist o, a TCR in 4arallel wit# ,i7ed ca4acitors
C/i'? 9?1:D? T#e ,i7ed ca4acitors are usually connected in un'rounded
wye wit# a series inductor to im4lement a ,ilter? T#e reacti)e 4ower
t#at t#e inductor deli)ers in t#e ,ilter is small relati)e to t#e ratin' o,
t#e ,ilter Ca44ro7imately 1 to - 4ercentD? T#ere are o,ten multi4le ,ilter
sta'es tuned to di,,erent #armonics? T#e controls in t#e TCR allow continuous )ariations
in t#e amount o, reacti)e 4ower deli)ered to t#e system, t#us increasin' t#e reacti)e
4ower durin' #ea)y loadin' 4eriods
and reducin' t#e reacti)e 4ower durin' li'#t loadin'?
S&Cs can (e )ery e,,ecti)e in controllin' )olta'e ,luctuations at
ra4idly )aryin' loads? !n,ortunately, t#e 4rice ,or suc# ,le7i(ility is
#i'#? Ne)ert#eless, t#ey are o,ten t#e only cost%e,,ecti)e solution ,or
many loads located in remote areas w#ere t#e 4ower system is wea+?
.uc# o, t#e cost is in t#e 4ower electronics on t#e TCR? Sometimes t#is
can (e reduced (y usin' a num(er o, ca4acitor ste4s? T#e TCR t#en
need only (e lar'e enou'# to co)er t#e reacti)e 4ower 'a4 (etween t#e
ca4acitor sta'es?
3-- C#a4ter Se)en
T#yristor%switc#ed ca4acitors CTSCsD can also (e used to su44ly reacti)e 4ower to t#e
4ower system in a )ery s#ort amount o, time, t#us
(ein' #el4,ul in reducin' t#e e,,ects o, 2uic+ load ,luctuations? TSCs
usually consist o, two to ,i)e s#unt ca4acitor (an+s connected in series
wit# diodes and t#yristors connected (ac+ to (ac+? T#e ca4acitor si@es
are usually e2ual to eac# ot#er or are set at multi4les o, eac# ot#er,
allowin' ,or smoot#er transitions and increased ,le7i(ility in reacti)e
4ower control? Switc#in' t#e ca4acitors in or out o, t#e system in discrete ste4s controls
t#e amount o, reacti)e 4ower deli)ered to t#e system (y t#e TSC? T#is action is unli+e
t#at o, t#e S&C, w#ere t#e
/i7ed Ca4acitors and Tunin' Reactors TCR
/i7ed Ca4acitors CSin'le%P#aseD
Tunin'
Reactors
6t#
Harmonic
9t#
Harmonic
11t#
Harmonic
13t#
Harmonic
Hi'#%Pass
/ilter
/i'ure 9?1: Ty4ical S&C con,i'uration?
ca4acitors are static and t#e reactors are used to control t#e reacti)e
4ower? An e7am4le dia'ram o, a TSC is s#own in /i'? 9?1=?
T#e control o, t#e TSC is usually (ased on line )olta'e ma'nitude,
line current ma'nitude, or reacti)e 4ower ,low in t#e line? T#e control
circuits can (e used ,or all t#ree 4#ases or eac# 4#ase se4arately? T#e
indi)idual 4#ase control o,,ers im4ro)ed com4ensation w#en un(alanced loads are
4roducin' ,lic+er?
9?9?3 Quanti,yin' ,lic+er
/lic+er #as (een a 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem e)en (e,ore t#e term 4ower
2ualitywas esta(lis#ed? Howe)er, it #as ta+en many years to de)elo4
an ade2uate means o, 2uanti,yin' ,lic+er le)els? C#a4ter 11 4ro)ides
an in%de4t# loo+ at 4ower 2uality monitorin', wit# a section t#at
descri(es modern tec#ni2ues ,or measurin' and 2uanti,yin' ,lic+er?
9?: Re,erences
1? 1? .or'an, S? I#ara, Gistri(ution /eeder .odi,ication to Ser)ice *ot# Sensiti)e
1oads and 1ar'e ri)es,H 1==1 IEEE PES Transmission and istri(ution Con,erence
Record,allas, Se4tem(er 1==1, 44? 8:8V8=>?
-? E? 1? Owen, GPower istur(ance and Power QualityP1i'#t /lic+er &olta'e
Re2uirements,HCon,erence Record, IEEE IAS Annual .eetin', en)er, Octo(er
1==5, 44? -3>3V-3>=?
3? C? P? [enis, "? Perine, GSlide Rule ;ields 1am4 /lic+er ata?H Electrical "orld,Oct?
-3, 1=39, 4? 63?
5? S? *? 0riscom, G1am4 /lic+er on Power Systems,H C#a4? --, Electrical Transmission
and istri(ution Re,erence *oo+,5t# ed?, "estin'#ouse Elec? Cor4?, East Pitts(ur'#,
Pa?, 1=6>?
6? S? .? Hal4in, Y? "? Smit#, C? A? 1itton, Gesi'nin' Industrial Systems wit# a "ea+
!tility Su44ly,H IEEE Industry A44lications .a'a@ine,.arc#OA4ril ->>1, 44? 83V9>?
8?Inter#armonics in Power Systems, IEEE Inter#armonic Tas+ /orce, Ci're
38?>6OCIRE - CC>-, &olta'e Quality "or+in' 0rou4?
9? S? R? .endis, .? T? *is#o4, T? R? ay, ? .? *oyd, GE)aluation o, Su44lementary
Series Reactors to O4timi@e Electric Arc /urnace O4erations,H Con,erence Record,
IEEE IAS Annual .eetin', Orlando, /la?, Octo(er 1==6, 44? -165V-181?
3-5 C#a4ter Se)en
/i'ure 9?1= Ty4ical TSC con,i'uration?
9?= *i(lio'ra4#y
IEEE Standard 151%1==3: Recommended Practice ,or Power istri(ution in Industrial
Plants,IEEE, 1==3?
IEEE Standard 61=%1==-: Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems,IEEE, 1==3?
IEC 81>>>%5%16, Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD?Part 5: Testin' and .easurin'
Tec#ni2ues? Section 16: /lic+ermeterP/unctional and esi'n S4eci,ications?
3-9
Power Quality *enc#mar+in'
/oreword EPRI #as (een studyin' 4ower 2uality CPQD 4ro(lems and
solutions ,or o)er 16 years? T#is c#a4ter 4resents many new and
inno)ati)e a44roac#es to PQ monitorin', analysis, and 4lannin' t#at
#a)e (een de)elo4ed since t#e /irst Edition o, t#is (oo+? T#e aut#ors
#a)e (een intimately in)ol)ed in t#is researc#? Tremendous 4ro'ress
#as (een made and readers can 'ain a (etter understandin' o, t#e
state%o,%t#e%art o, t#is researc#, w#ic# continues?
Power 2uality (enc#mar+in' is an im4ortant as4ect in t#e o)erall
structure o, a 4ower 2uality 4ro'ram? T#e (enc#mar+in' 4rocess (e'ins
wit# de,inin' t#e metrics to (e used ,or (enc#mar+in' and e)aluatin'
ser)ice 2uality? T#e EPRI Relia(ility *enc#mar+in' .et#odolo'y
4roAect CEPRI Relia(ility *enc#mar+in' .et#odolo'y, EPRI TR%1>9=3:, EPRI, Palo
Alto, Cali,orniaD de,ined a set o, PQ indices t#at
ser)e as metrics ,or 2uanti,yin' 2uality o, ser)ice? T#ese indices are
calculated ,rom data measured on t#e system (y s4eciali@ed
instrumentation? .any utilities around t#e world #a)e im4lemented
4ermanent PQ monitorin' systems ,or (enc#mar+in' 4ower 2uality?
Howe)er, t#ere are still considera(ly lar'e 'a4s in co)era'e o, t#e 4ower
system wit# PQ monitors? As 4art o, t#e EPRI Relia(ility
*enc#mar+in' .et#odolo'y 4roAect, in)esti'ators e74lored t#e idea o,
estimatin' t#e )olta'es at locations wit#out monitors 'i)en t#e data at
only one monitor or a ,ew monitors? T#is resulted in t#e de)elo4ment o,
t#e conce4t o, t#e EPRI Power Quality State Estimator CPQSED, w#ic#
uses ,eeder models and recorded data to estimate w#at would #a)e (een
recorded on t#e customer side o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer?
T#is c#a4ter will ser)e as a use,ul re,erence ,or identi,yin' suita(le
indices ,or (enc#mar+in' t#e 2uality o, ser)ice and analytical met#ods
,or e7tendin' t#e ca4a(ilities o, PQ monitorin' instrumentation? "e
C#a4ter
:
a44laud t#e aut#ors ,or 4resentin' t#is in,ormation in an easily
understanda(le manner? In t#e o)erall conte7t o, a PQ 4ro'ram,
(enc#mar+in' is an essential in'redient?
As#o+ Sundaram, EPRI
Ars#ad .ansoor, EPRI%PEAC Cor4oration
:?1 Introduction
*ecause o, sensiti)e customer loads, t#ere is a need to de,ine t#e 2uality o, electricity
4ro)ided in a common and succinct manner t#at can (e
e)aluated (y t#e electricity su44lier as well as (y consumers or e2ui4ment su44liers? T#is
c#a4ter descri(es recent de)elo4ments in met#ods ,or (enc#mar+in' t#e 4er,ormance o,
electricity su44ly?
One o, t#e (asic tenets o, sol)in' 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems is t#at distur(ances in t#e
electric 4ower system are not restricted (y le'al
(oundaries? Power su44liers, 4ower consumers, and e2ui4ment su44liers must wor+
to'et#er to sol)e many 4ro(lems? *e,ore t#ey can do
t#at, t#ey must understand t#e electrical en)ironment in w#ic# enduse e2ui4ment
o4erates? T#is is necessary to reduce t#e lon'%term economic im4act o, ine)ita(le 4ower
2uality )ariations and to identi,y
system im4ro)ements t#at can miti'ate 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
1V3
A com4re#ensi)e set o, 4ower 2uality indices was de,ined ,or t#e
Electric Power Researc# Institute CEPRID Relia(ility *enc#mar+in'
.et#odolo'y CR*.D 4roAect1
to ser)e as metrics ,or 2uanti,yin' 2uality
o, ser)ice? T#e 4ower 2uality indices are used to e)aluate com4ati(ility
(etween t#e )olta'e as deli)ered (y t#e electric utility and t#e sensiti)ity o, t#e end userFs
e2ui4ment? T#e indices were 4atterned a,ter t#e
indices commonly used (y utilities to descri(e relia(ility to reduce t#e
learnin' cur)e? A ,ew o, t#e indices #a)e (ecome 4o4ular, and so,tware
#as (een de)elo4ed to com4ute t#em ,rom measured data and estimate
t#em ,rom simulations? "e will e7amine t#e de,initions o, some o, t#e
indices and t#en loo+ at #ow t#ey mi'#t (e included in contracts and
4lannin'?
:?- *enc#mar+in' Process
Electric utilities t#rou'#out t#e world are em(racin' t#e conce4t o,
(enc#mar+in' ser)ice 2uality? !tilities reali@e t#at t#ey must understand t#e le)els o,
ser)ice 2uality 4ro)ided t#rou'#out t#eir distri(ution systems and determine i, t#e le)els
4ro)ided are a44ro4riate? T#is
is certainly (ecomin' more 4re)alent as more utilities contract wit#
s4eci,ic customers to 4ro)ide a s4eci,ied 2uality o, ser)ice o)er some
4eriod o, time? T#e ty4ical ste4s in t#e 4ower 2uality (enc#mar+in'
4rocess are
3-: C#a4ter Ei'#t
1?Select (enc#mar+in' metrics? T#e EPRI R*. 4roAect de,ined se)eral 4er,ormance
indices ,or e)aluatin' t#e electric ser)ice 2uality?
5
A select 'rou4 are descri(ed #ere in more detail?
-?Collect 4ower 2uality data? T#is in)ol)es t#e 4lacement o, 4ower
2uality monitors on t#e system and c#aracteri@ation o, t#e 4er,ormance o, t#e system? A
)ariety o, instruments and monitorin' systems #a)e (een recently de)elo4ed to assist
wit# t#is
la(or%intensi)e 4rocess Csee C#a4? 11D?
3?Select t#e (enc#mar+? T#is could (e (ased on 4ast 4er,ormance, a
standard ado4ted (y similar utilities, or a standard esta(lis#ed (y a
4ro,essional or standards or'ani@ation suc# as t#e IEEE, IEC,
ANSI, or NE.A?
5?etermine tar'et 4er,ormance le)els? T#ese are tar'ets t#at are
a44ro4riate and economically ,easi(le? Tar'et le)els may (e limited
to s4eci,ic customers or customer 'rou4s and may e7ceed t#e (enc#mar+ )alues?
T#e (enc#mar+in' 4rocess (e'ins wit# selection o, t#e metrics to (e
used ,or (enc#mar+in' and e)aluatin' ser)ice 2uality? T#e metrics
could sim4ly (e estimated ,rom #istorical data suc# as a)era'e num(er
o, ,aults 4er mile o, line and assumin' t#e ,ault resulted in a certain
num(er o, sa's and interru4tions? Howe)er, electricity 4ro)iders and
consumers are increasin'ly interested in metrics t#at descri(e t#e
actual 4er,ormance ,or a 'i)en time 4eriod? T#e indices de)elo4ed as
4art o, t#e EPRI R*. 4roAect are calculated ,rom data measured on
t#e system (y s4eciali@ed instrumentation?
Electric utilities t#rou'#out t#e world are de4loyin' 4ower 2uality
monitorin' in,rastructures t#at 4ro)ide t#e data re2uired ,or accurate
(enc#mar+in' o, t#e ser)ice 2uality 4ro)ided to consumers? T#ese are
4ermanent monitorin' systems due to t#e time needed to o(tain accurate data and t#e
im4ortance o, 4ower 2uality to t#e end users w#ere
t#ese systems are (ein' installed? /or most utilities and consumers,
t#e most im4ortant 4ower 2uality )ariation is t#e )olta'e sa' due to
s#ort%circuit ,aults? Alt#ou'# t#ese e)ents are not necessarily t#e most
,re2uent, t#ey #a)e a tremendous economic im4act on end users? T#e
4rocess o, (enc#mar+in' )olta'e sa' le)els 'enerally re2uires - to 3
years o, sam4lin'? T#ese data can t#en (e 2uanti,ied to relate )olta'e
sa' 4er,ormance wit# standardi@ed indices t#at are understanda(le (y
(ot# utilities and customers?
/inally, a,ter t#e a44ro4riate data #a)e (een ac2uired, t#e ser)ice
4ro)ider must determine w#at le)els o, 2uality are a44ro4riate and
economically ,easi(le? Increasin'ly, utilities are ma+in' t#ese decisions
in conAunction wit# indi)idual customers or re'ulatory a'encies? T#e
Power Quality *enc#mar+in' 3-=
economic law o, diminis#in' returns a44lies to increasin' t#e 2uality
o, electricity as it a44lies to most 2uality assurance 4ro'rams? Electric
utilities note t#at nearly any le)el o, ser)ice 2uality can (e ac#ie)ed
t#rou'# alternate ,eeders, stand(y 'enerators, !PS systems, ener'y
stora'e, etc? Howe)er, at some 4oint t#e costs cannot (e economically
Austi,ied and must (e (alanced wit# t#e needs o, end users and t#e
)alue o, ser)ice to t#em?
.ost utilities #a)e (een (enc#mar+in' relia(ility ,or se)eral
decades? In t#e conte7t o, t#is (oo+, relia(ility deals wit# sustained
interru4tions? IEEE Standard 1388%1==: was esta(lis#ed to de,ine t#e
(enc#mar+in' metrics ,or t#is area o, 4ower 2uality?
6
T#e metrics are
de,ined in terms o, system a)era'e or customer a)era'e indices re'ardin' suc# t#in's as
t#e num(er o, interru4tions and t#e duration o,
interru4tion CSAII, SAI/I, etc?D? Howe)er, t#e relia(ility indices do
not ca4ture t#e im4act o, loads tri44in' o,,%line ,or 9> 4ercent )olta'e
sa's nor t#e loss o, e,,iciency and 4remature e2ui4ment ,ailure due to
e7cessi)e #armonic distortion?
Interest in e74andin' t#e ser)ice 2uality (enc#mar+in' into areas
ot#er t#an traditional relia(ility increased mar+edly in t#e late 1=:>s?
T#is was lar'ely 4rom4ted (y e74eriences wit# 4ower electronic loads
t#at 4roduced si'ni,icant #armonic currents and were muc# more sensiti)e to )olta'e
sa's t#an 4re)ious 'enerations o, electromec#anical
loads? In 1=:=, t#e EPRI initiated t#e EPRI istri(ution Power Quality
CPQD ProAect, RP 3>=:%1, to collect 4ower 2uality data ,or distri(ution
systems across t#e !nited States? .onitors were 4laced at nearly 3>>
locations on 1>> distri(ution ,eeders, and data were collected ,or -9
mont#s? T#e PQ data(ase contains o)er 3> 'i'a(ytes o, 4ower 2uality
data and #as ser)ed as t#e (asis ,or standards e,,orts and many studies?
1,8
T#e results were made a)aila(le to EPRI mem(er utilities in 1==8?
!4on com4letion o, t#e PQ 4roAect in 1==6, it (ecame a44arent t#at
t#ere was no uni,orm way o, (enc#mar+in' t#e 4er,ormance o, s4eci,ic
ser)ice 2uality measurements a'ainst t#ese data? In 1==8, t#e EPRI
com4leted t#e R*. 4roAect, w#ic# 4ro)ided t#e 4ower 2uality indices
to allow ser)ice 2uality to (e de,ined in a consistent manner ,rom one
utility to anot#er?5
T#e indices were 4atterned a,ter t#e traditional relia(ility indices wit# w#ic# utility
en'ineers #ad already (ecome com,orta(le? Indices were de,ined ,or
1? S#ort%duration rms )olta'e )ariations? T#ese are )olta'e sa's,
swells, and interru4tions o, less t#an 1 min?
-? Harmonic distortion?
3? Transient o)er)olta'es? T#is cate'ory is lar'ely ca4acitor%switc#in'
transients, (ut could also include li'#tnin'%induced transients?
33> C#a4ter Ei'#t
5? Steady%state )olta'e )ariations suc# as )olta'e re'ulation and
4#ase (alance?
T#is c#a4ter descri(es met#odolo'ies ,or determinin' tar'et le)els o,
2uality ,or )arious a44lications (ased on t#e statistical distri(ution o,
2uality indices )alues calculated ,rom actual measurement data? "e
will concentrate on t#e more 4o4ular indices ,or rms )olta'e )ariations
and #armonics? Readers are re,erred to t#e documents cited in t#e re,erences to t#is
c#a4ter ,or more details?
:?3 R.S &olta'e &ariation Indices
/or many years, t#e only indices de,ined to 2uanti,y rms )ariation ser)ice 2uality were
t#e sustained interru4tion indices CSAI/I, CAII,
etc?D? Sustained interru4tions are in ,act only one ty4e o, rms )ariation?
IEEE Standard 116=%1==6
9
de,ines a sustained interru4tion as a reduction in t#e rms )olta'e to less t#an 1> 4ercent
o, nominal )olta'e ,or
lon'er t#an 1 min Csee C#a4? -D?
Sustained interru4tions are o, 'reat im4ortance (ecause all customers on t#e ,aulted
section are a,,ected (y suc# distur(ances?
Indices ,or e)aluatin' t#em #a)e (een in use in,ormally (y utilities ,or
many years and were recently standardi@ed (y t#e IEEE in IEEE
Standard 1388%1==:?6
1on' (e,ore, some utilities #ad (een re2uired to
re4ort certain indices to re'ulatory a'encies? T#e standard also
de,ines indices 2uanti,yin' momentary interru4tion 4er,ormance,
w#ic# 2uanti,ies anot#er )ery im4ortant ty4e o, rms )olta'e )ariation?
.omentary interru4tions are due to clearin' o, tem4orary ,aults and
t#e su(se2uent reclose o4eration Csee C#a4? 3D? "#ile t#ey are not ca4tured in t#e
traditional relia(ility indices, t#ey a,,ect many end%user
classes? T#e rms )olta'e )ariation indices ta+e t#is one ste4 ,art#er
and de,ine metrics ,or )olta'e sa's, w#ic# can also a,,ect many end
users ad)ersely?
:?3?1 C#aracteri@in' rms )ariation e)ents
IEEE Standard 116=%1==6
9
4ro)ides a common terminolo'y t#at can (e
used to discuss and assess rms )olta'e )ariations, de,inin' ma'nitude
ran'es ,or sa's, swells, and interru4tions? T#e standard su''ests t#at
t#e terms sa', swell, and interru4tion (e 4receded (y a modi,ier
descri(in' t#e duration o, t#e e)ent Cinstantaneous, momentary, tem4orary, or sustainedD?
T#ese de,initions are summari@ed in C#a4? -?
R.S )ariations are classi,ied (y t#e ma'nitudeanddurationo, t#e
distur(ances? T#ere,ore, (e,ore rms )ariation indices can (e calculated,
ma'nitude and duration c#aracteristics must (e e7tracted ,rom t#e
Power Quality *enc#mar+in' 331
33- C#a4ter Ei'#t
raw wa)e,orm data recorded ,or eac# e)ent? C#aracteri@ationis a term
used to descri(e t#e 4rocess o, e7tractin' ,rom a measurement use,ul
4ieces o, in,ormation w#ic# descri(e t#e e)ent so t#at not e)ery detail
o, t#e e)ent #as to (e retained?
C#aracteri@ation o, rms )ariations can (e )ery com4licated? It is
structured into t#ree le)els, eac# o, w#ic# is identi,ied as a ty4e o,
e)ent as ,ollows:
1? P#ase or com4onent e)ent
-? .easurement e)ent
3? A''re'ate e)ent
Com4onent e)ent le)el? Eac# 4#ase o, eac# rms )ariation measurement may contain
multi4le com4onents? .ost rms )ariations #a)e a
sim4le rectan'ular s#a4e and are accurately c#aracteri@ed (y a sin'le
ma'nitude and duration? A44ro7imately 1> 4ercent o, rms )ariations
are nonrectan'ular
1
and #a)e multi4le com4onents? Consider t#e rms
)ariation s#own in /i'? :?1? It e7#i(its a )olta'e swell ,ollowed (y two
le)els o, )olta'e sa'? T#is e)ent was t#e result o, clearin' a tem4orary
sin'le%line%to%'round ,ault t#at e)ol)ed into a dou(le%line%to%'round
P#ase A &olta'e
R.S &ariation
/e(ruary ->, 1==5 at 1-:6-:6- 1ocal
Tri''er
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
15>
I &olts
I &olts
V16>
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
>
> -6 6> 96 1>> 1-6 16> 196 ->>
>?-6 >?6 >?96 1 1?-6 1?6 1?96 -
Time CsD
Time CmsD
uration
>?833 s
.in >?188
A)e 96?6>
.a7 13:?:
Re, Cycle
5398>
/i'ure :?1 .ulticom4onent, nonrectan'ular rms )ariation?
,ault (e,ore t#e (rea+er tri44ed? T#e (rea+er t#en reclosed success,ully
in a(out >?- s? Note t#at only a(out 1> cycles o, t#e initial )olta'e swell
are s#own in t#e wa)e,orm 4lot on t#e (ottom? T#e entire e)ent lasted
nearly 1?6 s, alt#ou'# t#e instrument re4orts only t#e duration o, t#e
)olta'e swell? Ot#er so,tware is re2uired to 4ost4rocess t#e wa)e,orm
o,,%line to determine t#e ot#er c#aracteristics o, t#is e)ent? &ariations
li+e t#is are muc# more di,,icult to c#aracteri@e (ecause no sin'le ma'nitude%duration
4air com4letely re4resents t#e 4#ase measurement?
.ost o, t#e met#ods ,or c#aracteri@ation a'ree t#at t#e ma'nitude
re4orted must (e t#e ma7imum de)iation ,rom nominal )olta'e? T#e di,,iculty lies in
assi'nin' a duration associated wit# t#e ma'nitude? T#e
met#od de,ined #ere is called t#e s4eci,ied )olta'e met#od?T#is met#od
desi'nates t#e duration as t#e 4eriod o, time t#at t#e rms )olta'e e7ceeds
as4eci,ied t#res#old )olta'e le)elused to c#aracteri@e t#e distur(ance?
T#us, e)ents li+e t#e one in /i'? :?1 would (e assi'ned di,,erent duration )alues
de4endin' on t#e s4eci,ied )olta'e t#res#old o, interest?
/i'ure :?- illustrates t#is conce4t ,or t#ree )olta'e le)els: :>, 6>, and 1>
4ercent?T:>Iis t#e duration o, t#e e)ent ,or an assessment o, sa's #a)in' ma'nitudes
:> 4ercent? 1i+ewise, T6>IandT1>Iare t#e durations
associated wit# sa's o, t#e corres4ondin' )olta'e le)els? Notice t#at
T:>IandT6>Iare (ot# :>> ms (ecause (ot# o, t#e sa' com4onents o, t#is
nonrectan'ular e)ent #a)e ma'nitudes well (elow 6> 4ercent? T1>I,
#owe)er, com4rises only t#e duration o, t#e second com4onent, ->> ms?
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
15>
>?>>> >?189 >?333 >?6>> >?889 >?:33 1?>>> 1?189 1?333 1?6>> 1?889
Time CsD
I &olts
.easurement
E)ent X1
T1>I
T6>I
T:>I
/i'ure :?- Illustration o, s4eci,ied )olta'e c#aracteri@ation o, rms )ariation 4#ase
measurements?
.easurement e)ent le)el? A 4ower system occurrence suc# as a ,ault
can a,,ect one, two, or all t#ree 4#ases o, t#e distri(ution system? T#e
ma'nitude and duration o, t#e resultin' rms )ariation may di,,er su(stantially ,or
di,,erent 4#ases? A determination must (e made concernin' #ow to re4ort t#ree%4#ase
measurement e)ents? /or an assessment
o, sin'le%4#ase 4er,ormance, eac# o, t#e t#ree 4#ases are re4orted se4arately? T#us, ,or
some ,aults, t#ree di,,erent rms )ariations are
included in t#e indices? T#is will (e ina44ro4riate ,or loads t#at see
t#is as a sin'le e)ent?
T#e met#od de,ined #ere ,or c#aracteri@in' measurement e)ents is a
t#ree%4#ase met#od? A sin'le set o, c#aracteristics are determined ,or
all a,,ected 4#ases? /or eac# rms )ariation e)ent, t#e ma'nitude and
duration are desi'nated as t#e ma'nitude and duration o, t#e 4#ase
wit# t#e 'reatest )olta'e de)iation ,rom nominal )olta'e?
A''re'ate e)ent le)el? An a''re'ate e)ent is t#e collection o, all measurements
associated wit# a sin'le 4ower system occurrence into a sin'le set o, e)ent
c#aracteristics? /or e7am4le, a sin'le distri(ution system
,ault mi'#t result in se)eral measurements as t#e o)ercurrent 4rotection system o4erates
to clear t#e ,aults and restore ser)ice? An a''re'ate
e)ent associated wit# t#is ,ault would summari@e all t#e associated measurements into a
sin'le set o, c#aracteristics Cma'nitude, duration, etc?D?
"#ile t#ere may (e many indi)idual e)ents, many end%user de)ices will
tri4 or miso4erate on t#e initial e)ent? T#e succeedin' rms )ariations
#a)e no ,urt#er ad)erse e,,ect on t#e end%user 4rocess? T#us, a''re'ation 4ro)ides a truer
assessment o, ser)ice 2uality? R.S )ariation 4er,ormance indices are usually (ased on
a''re'ate e)ents?
A 'ood met#od o, a''re'atin' measurements is to consider all e)ents
t#at occur wit#in a de,ined inter)al o, t#e ,irst e)ent to (e 4art o, t#e
same a''re'ate e)ent? One minute is a ty4ical time inter)al, w#ic# corres4onds to t#e
minimum len't# o, a sustained interru4tion? T#e ma'nitude and duration o, t#e a''re'ate
e)ent are determined ,rom t#e
measurement e)ent most li+ely to result in customer e2ui4ment ,ailure?
T#is will 'enerally (e t#e e)ent e7#i(itin' t#e 'reatest )olta'e de)iation?
:?3?- R.S )ariation 4er,ormance indices
T#e rms )ariation indices are desi'ned to assess t#e ser)ice 2uality ,or a
s4eci,ied circuit area? T#e indices may (e scaled to systems o, di,,erent
si@es? T#ey may (e a44lied to measurements recorded across a utilityFs
entire distri(ution system resultin' in SAI/I%li+e system a)era'es, or t#e
indices may (e a44lied to a sin'le ,eeder or a sin'le customer PCC?
T#ere are many 4ro4erties o, rms )ariations t#at could (e use,ul to
2uanti,yP4ro4erties suc# as t#e ,re2uency o, occurrence, t#e duration o,
335 C#a4ter Ei'#t
distur(ances, and t#e num(er o, 4#ases in)ol)ed? .any rms )ariation
indices were de,ined in t#e EPRI R*. 4roAect to address t#ese )arious
issues? S4ace does not 4ermit a descri4tion o, all o, t#ese, so we will concentrate on one
inde7 t#at #as, 4er#a4s, (ecome t#e most 4o4ular? T#e
4a4ers and re4orts included in t#e re,erences contain details on ot#ers?
System a)era'e rms C)ariationD ,re2uency inde7&olta'e
CSAR/I7D? SAR/I7
re4resents t#e a)era'e num(er o, s4eci,ied rms )ariation measurement e)ents t#at
occurred o)er t#e assessment 4eriod 4er customer
ser)ed, w#ere t#e s4eci,ied distur(ances are t#ose wit# a ma'nitude
less t#an 7,or sa's or a ma'nitude 'reater t#an 7,or swells:
SAR/I7
w#ere7rms )olta'e t#res#oldJ 4ossi(le )alues are 15>, 1->, 11>, =>,
:>, 9>, 6>, and 1>
Ni num(er o, customers e74eriencin' s#ort%duration )olta'e de)iations wit# ma'nitudes
a(o)e [4ercent ,or [
1>> or (elow [4ercent ,or [1>> due to measurement
e)enti
NTtotal num(er o, customers ser)ed ,rom section o, system to
(e assessed
Notice t#at SAR/I is de,ined wit# res4ect to t#e )olta'e t#res#old 7?
/or e7am4le, i, a utility #as customers t#at are only susce4ti(le to sa's
(elow 9> 4ercent o, nominal )olta'e, t#is distur(ance 'rou4 can (e
assessed usin' SAR/I9>? T#e ei'#t de,ined t#res#old )alues ,or t#e
inde7 are not ar(itrary? T#ey are c#osen to coincide wit# t#e ,ollowin':
15>, 1->, and 11>? O)er)olta'e se'ments o, t#e ITI cur)e?
=>, :>, and 9>? !nder)olta'e se'ments o, ITI cur)e?
6>? Ty4ical (rea+ 4oint ,or assessin' motor contactors?
1>? IEEE Standard 116= de,inition o, an interru4tion?
An increasin' 4o4ular use o, SAR/I is to de,ine t#e t#res#old as a
cur)e? /or e7am4le, SAR/IITIC would re4resent t#e ,re2uency o, rms
)ariation e)ents outside t#e ITI cur)e )olta'e tolerance en)elo4e?
T#ree suc# cur)e indices are commonly com4uted:
SAR/IC*E.A
SAR/IITIC
SAR/ISE.I
kNi
NT
T#is 'rou4 o, indices is similar to t#e System A)era'e Interru4tion
/re2uency Inde7 CSAI/ID )alue t#at many utilities #a)e calculated ,or
years? SAR/I7
, #owe)er, assesses more t#an Aust interru4tions? T#e
,re2uency o, occurrence o, rms )ariations o, )aryin' ma'nitudes can (e
assessed usin' SAR/I7?Note t#at SAR/I7is de,ined ,or s#ort%duration
)ariations as de,ined (y IEEE Standard 116=?
T#ere are t#ree additional indices t#at are su(sets o, SAR/I7?T#ese
indices assess )ariations o, a s4eci,ic IEEE Standard 116= duration
cate'ory:
1? System Instantaneous A)era'e R.S C&ariationD /re2uency Inde7
CSIAR/I7
D?
-? System .omentary A)era'e R.S C&ariationD /re2uency Inde7
CS.AR/I7
D?
3? System Tem4orary A)era'e R.S C&ariationD /re2uency Inde7
CSTAR/I7D?
:?3?3 SAR/I ,or t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect
Ta(le :?1 s#ows t#e statistics ,or )arious ,orms o, SAR/I com4uted
,or t#e measurements ta+en (y t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect? T#ese 4articular )alues are rms
)ariation ,re2uencies ,or su(station sites in num(er o, e)ents 4er 386 days? One%minute
tem4oral a''re'ation was
used, and t#e data were treated usin' sam4lin' wei'#ts? T#is can
ser)e as a re,erence (enc#mar+ ,or distri(ution systems in t#e !nited
States?
:?3?5 E7am4le inde7 com4utation
4rocedure
T#is e7am4le is (ased on actual data recorded on one o, t#e ,eeders
monitored durin' t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect?1
T#is illustrates some o, t#e
4ractical issues in)ol)ed in com4utin' t#e indices?
338 C#a4ter Ei'#t
SAR/I=> SAR/I:> SAR/I9> SAR/I6> SAR/I1> SAR/IC*E.A SAR/IITIC
SAR/ISE.I
.inimum >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> >?>>>
CP>6m 11?::9 6?6=5 >?>>> >?>>> >?>>> 6?318 -?9=1 -?38-
CP6>m 53?=:9 --?:13 1-?1-8 6?186 1?6-6 -6?586 1:?986 13?81=
.ean 68?3>: -:?9-= 1:?5-- :?=-8 3?8=5 33?-=3 -6?3=> 1:?636
CP=6m 136?1:6 88?-8> 61?>>> -9?>39 13?61= 91?513 61?6>> 3:?-3:
.a7imum ->9?855 1>3?5>6 9>?636 68?311 36?8:= 15=?5:: 15>?98: 15>?98:
ZSu(mitted ,or IEEE Standard P1685?
:
mCP>6, CP6>, and CP=6 are a((re)iations t#at indicate t#at t#e )alue e7ceeds 6, 6>, and
=6 4ercent o, t#e sam4les in t#e data(ase? /or e7am4le, 6> 4ercent o, t#e sites in t#e
4roAect #ad more t#an 1:?986 e)ents 4er year t#at
were outside t#e ITI cur)e )olta'e tolerance en)elo4e CSAR/IITIC
D?
TA*1E :?1 SAR/I Statistics ,rom t#e EPRI PQ ProAectZ
/irst, one must +now #ow many customers e74erience a )olta'e
e7ceedin' t#e inde7 t#res#old ,or eac# rms )ariation t#at occurs?
O()iously, e)ery customer will not (e indi)idually monitored?
Conse2uently, one must a44ro7imate t#e )olta'e e74erienced (y eac#
customer durin' a distur(ance? T#is is accom4lis#ed (y se'mentin'
t#e circuit into small areas across w#ic# all customers are assumed to
e74erience t#e same )olta'e? O()iously, t#e smaller t#e se'ments, t#e
(etter t#e a44ro7imation?
One met#od o, determinin' )olta'es ,or many circuit se'ments (ased
on a limited num(er o, monitorin' 4oints is 4ower 2uality state estimation? A s4ecial
section C:?9D is included on t#is to4ic later? State estimation 4ro)ides
4seudomeasurements ,or t#ose se'ments not
containin' a measurin' instrument? Suc# state estimation re2uires a
moderately detailed circuit model and +nown monitored data? "it#out
t#e 4seudomeasurements 4ro)ided (y state estimation, t#e num(er o,
4#ysical monitorin' locations (ecomes t#e num(er o, constant%)olta'e
se'ments u4on w#ic# t#e indices t#at are calculated? T#is is re,erred
to as monitor%limited se'mentationC.1SD and results in only a ,ew se'ments 4er circuit?
Alt#ou'# t#e calculated inde7 )alues are less accurate, .1S still yields indices t#at are
in,ormati)e?
/i'ure :?3 illustrates t#e t#ree .1S se'ments ,or t#e e7am4le calculation ,eeder
corres4ondin' to t#e t#ree 4ower 2uality monitors, .1,
.-, and .3? T#e e7act num(er o, customers ser)ed ,rom eac# .1S
/i'ure :?3 Circuit ,or e7am4le rms )ariation calculation?
se'ment was not a)aila(le, so )alues o, 6>>, 1>>, and 5>> were
assumed ,or se'ments 1, -, and 3, res4ecti)ely, (ased on t#e load? "it#
t#ese assum4tions, 1 year o, monitorin' data yielded t#e results summari@ed in Ta(le :?-?
T#e sa' indices are ty4ical o, w#at would (e e74ected? T#e num(er
o, customer distur(ances decrease as t#e )olta'e t#res#old decreases?
T#ere were )ery ,ew )olta'e swells on t#is ,eeder? T#e total num(er o,
sa's 4er customer is estimated at -9?6 4er year? O, t#ese, only 9?3 are
(elow 9> 4ercent and 5?: are (elow 6> 4ercent? T#ese two le)els are
ty4ically w#ere end users (e'in to e74erience 4ro(lems, and utilities
t#at use t#ese indices ty4ically set (enc#mar+ tar'ets close to t#ese
)alues?
T#e SAR/I1> )alue o, 5?3 cannot (e com4ared to SAI/I (ecause
SAI/I re,lects only sustained interru4tions? T#e duration%(ased
indicesPSIAR/I, S.AR/I, and STAR/IPare also 2uite interestin'?
T#e maAority o, t#e distur(ances are classi,ied as instantaneous (y
IEEE Standard 116=? Only 5?: o, t#e -9?6 sa' distur(ances are eit#er
momentary or tem4orary? Howe)er, t#ese tend to (e t#e more se)ere
sa's Cma'nitude o, 6> 4ercent and lessD?
:?3?6 !tility a44lications
!tilities are usin' t#e discussed rms )ariation indices to im4ro)e t#eir
systems?
=
One 4roducti)e use o, t#e indices is to com4ute t#e se4arate
indices ,or indi)idual su(stations as well as t#e system inde7 ,or se)eral su(stations? T#e
indi)idual su(station )alues are t#en com4ared
to t#e system )alue? T#ose su(stations t#at e7#i(it si'ni,icantly 4oor
4er,ormance as com4ared to t#e system 4er,ormance are tar'eted ,or
maintenance e,,orts? *ased on t#e sensiti)ity and needs o, t#e customers ser)ed ,rom t#e
tar'eted su(stations, t#e economic )ia(ility o,
4otential miti'atin' actions is assessed? T#e indices #a)e also 4ro)en
33: C#a4ter Ei'#t
TA*1E:?- E7am4le R.S &ariation Inde7 &alues
Calculated ,or Circuit o, /i'? :?3 *ased on 1 ;ear
o, Actual .onitored ata
7 SAR/I7 SIAR/I7 S.AR/I7 STAR/I7
15> >?> >?> >?> >?>
1-> >?> >?> >?> >?>
11> >?6 >?6 >?> >?>
=> -9?6 --?9 5?3 >?6
:> 13?8 :?: 5?3 >?6
9> 9?3 -?6 5?3 >?6
6> 5?: >?6 3?: >?6
1> 5?3 !nde,ined 3?: >?6
to (e e7cellent tools ,or communicatin' 4er,ormance o, t#e 4ower deli)ery system in a
sim4li,ied manner to +ey industrial customers?
:?5 Harmonics Indices
Power electronic de)ices o,,er electrical e,,iciencies and ,le7i(ility (ut
4resent a dou(le%ed'ed coordination 4ro(lem wit# #armonics? Not only
do t#ey 4roduce #armonics, (ut t#ey also are ty4ically more sensiti)e
to t#e resultin' distortion t#an more traditional electromec#anical
load de)ices? End users e74ectin' an im4ro)ed le)el o, ser)ice may
actually e74erience more 4ro(lems? T#is section discusses 4ower 2uality indices ,or
assessin' t#e 2uality o, ser)ice wit# res4ect to #armonic
)olta'e distortion? *e,ore we 'et into t#e de,inition o, t#e indices, some
issues re'ardin' sam4lin' are discussed?
:?5?1 Sam4lin' tec#ni2ues
Power 2uality en'ineers ty4ically con,i'ure 4ower 2uality monitors to
4eriodically record a sam4le o, )olta'e and current ,or eac# o, t#e t#ree
4#ases and t#e neutral? T#e measurements ty4ically consist o, a sin'le
cycle, (ut lon'er sam4les may (e needed to ca4ture suc# 4#enomena as
inter#armonics? T#e 4ower 2uality monitors ta+e sam4les at inter)als
o, 16 to 3> min and record t#ousands o, measurements t#at are summari@ed (y t#e
indices? *esides #armonic distortion, t#e recorded
wa)e,orms yield in,ormation a(out ot#er steady%state c#aracteristics
suc# as 4#ase un(alance, 4ower ,actor, ,orm ,actor, and crest ,actor? "e
will ,ocus #ere on #armonic content?
T#e ,undamental 2uantity used to ,orm t#e indices is t#e TH o, t#e
)olta'e? T#e de,inition o, TH may (e ,ound in C#a4? 6 and is re4eated
#ere in E2? C:?1D:
&TH C:?1D
&olta'e distortion is not a constant )alue? On a ty4ical system, t#e
#armonic distortion ,ollows daily, wee+ly, and seasonal 4atterns? An
e7am4le o, daily 4atterns o, total #armonic )olta'e distortion ,or 1 wee+
is s#own in /i'? :?5? T#is is ty4ical ,or many residential ,eeders w#ere
t#e )olta'e distortion is #i'#est late at ni'#t w#en t#e load is low?
A use,ul met#od o, summari@in' t#e TH sam4les o, trends li+e t#at
in /i'? :?5 is to create a #isto'ram li+e t#at s#own in /i'? :?6? Note t#e
two distinct 4ea+s in t#e distri(ution, w#ic# re,lects t#e (imodal
nature o, t#e #armonic distortion trend?

n
#-
& #
-

&1
Power Quality *enc#mar+in' 33=
Once t#e #isto'ram is 4re4ared, t#e cumulati)e ,re2uency cur)e is
com4uted? T#is is s#own o)erlayin' t#e #isto'ram in /i'? :?6 and #as
(een 4ulled out se4arately in /i'? :?8 to demonstrate t#e com4utation o,
t#e =6t# 4ercentile )alue, +nown as CP=6? In t#is e7am4le, a )olta'e
TH o, 3?19 4ercent is lar'er t#an =6 4ercent o, all ot#er sam4les in t#e
distri(ution? CP=6 is ,re2uently more )alua(le t#an t#e ma7imum )alue
o, a distri(ution (ecause it is less sensiti)e to s4urious measurements?
!sually an electric utility will collect measurements at more t#an
one location and com4ute a di,,erent CP=6 )alue ,or eac# monitorin'
location? /i'ure :?9 s#ows a #isto'ram o, CP=6 )alues com4iled ,rom
di,,erent sites, w#ic# ser)es to summari@e t#e measurements (ot#
35> C#a4ter Ei'#t
>I
1I
-I
3I
5I
6O1O=6 6O3O=6 6O6O=6 6O9O=6 6O=O=6
&TH
/i'ure :?5 Trend o, )olta'e total #armonic distortion demonstratin' daily cycle ,or 1
wee+?
>
6>
1>>
16>
->>
-6>
3>>
>?>I
>?5I
>?:I
1?-I
1?8I
-?>I
-?5I
-?:I
3?-I
3?8I
5?>I
>I
1>I
->I
3>I
5>I
6>I
8>I
9>I
:>I
=>I
1>>I
Cumulati)e /re2uency
Count o, Sam4les
&TH
/i'ure :?6 Histo'ram o, )olta'e total #armonic distortion ,or 1 mont#
demonstratin' (imodal distri(ution?
tem4orally and s4atially? A CP=6 )alue can also (e determined ,rom
t#is #isto'ram, w#ic# is a Gstatistic o, a statisticH t#at can (e used to
4ro)ide a re,erence )alue ,or an entire utility system?
:?5?- C#aracteri@ation o, t#ree%4#ase
#armonic )olta'e measurements
.any distri(ution systems in t#e !nited States su44ly sin'le%4#ase
and ot#er un(alanced loads? T#ere,ore, t#e #armonic content o, eac#
>?>I
>?5I
>?:I
1?-I
1?8I
-?>I
-?5I
-?:I
3?-I
3?8I
5?>I
>I
1>I
->I
3>I
5>I
6>I
8>I
9>I
:>I
=>I
1>>I
CP=6 ] 3?19I
&TH
/i'ure :?8 emonstration o, 'ra4#ical met#od o, calculatin' t#e CP=6
o, a distri(ution?
>
1
-
3
5
6
8
9
>?>I
>?5I
>?:I
1?-I
1?8I
-?>I
-?5I
-?:I
3?-I
3?8I
5?>I
5?5I
5?:I
6?-I
>I
1>I
->I
3>I
5>I
6>I
8>I
9>I
:>I
=>I
1>>I
Count o, Sites
&TH
/i'ure :?9 Histo'ram o, CP=6 )alues ,or )olta'e TH at 65 monitorin' sites?
4rimary 4#ase )olta'e is 'enerally di,,erent? T#is 4resents a 4ro(lem
in c#aracteri@in' t#e #armonic distortion o, a t#ree%4#ase measurement w#ic# #as
)aryin' distortion le)els on eac# 4#ase? T#ere are two
4ossi(le met#ods:
1? Consider eac# 4#ase to (e a se4arate measurement? T#e 4otential
4ro(lem wit# t#is met#od is t#at a count o, #ow o,ten distortion le)els e7ceed a s4eci,ied
le)el could (e 3 times too lar'e?
-? A)era'e t#e distortion le)els on t#e t#ree 4#ases? Eac# t#ree%4#ase
steady%state measurement contri(utes a sin'le distortion le)el to
t#e sam4les? A 4ossi(le draw(ac+ is t#at a #i'# distortion le)el on
one 4#ase is o(scured i, t#e ot#er two 4#ases e7#i(it low distortion
le)els?
T#e latter met#od #as less 4otential ,or inaccuracy and is used ,or
calculatin' t#e #armonic distortion indices 4resented #ere?
:?5?3 e,inition o, #armonic indices
Scala(le indices #a)e (een de)elo4ed to aid in t#e assessment o, t#e
2uality o, ser)ice related to #armonic )olta'e distortion ,or a s4eci,ied
circuit? As wit# ot#er indices, t#ey can (e a44lied to )arious 4arts o, t#e
utility system? An inde7 )alue ,or t#e w#ole system ser)es as a use,ul
metric (ut is not intended as an e7act re4resentation o, t#e 2uality o,
ser)ice 4ro)ided to eac# indi)idual customer? Howe)er, it can (e used
as a (enc#mar+ a'ainst w#ic# inde7 )alues ,or selected areas wit#in
t#e distri(ution system can (e com4ared?
System total #armonic distortion CP=6 CSTH=6D? STH=6 re4resents
t#e CP=6 )alue o, a wei'#ted distri(ution o, t#e indi)idual circuit se'ment CP=6 )alues
,or )olta'e TH Csee earlier discussion concernin'
/i'? :?9D? STH=6 is de,ined (y E2s? C:?-D and C:?3D:
>?=6 C:?-D
>?=6
C:?3D
w#ere scircuit se'ment num(er
isteady%state TH measurement num(er
CP=6s
n
,s C7iD
n
n
,s C7i
D
STH=6
n
,t CCP=6sD1s
n
n
,t CCP=6sD1s
35- C#a4ter Ei'#t
1sconnected +&A ser)ed ,rom circuit se'ment s
,s C7iD4ro(a(ility distri(ution ,unction com4rised o, sam4led TH )alues ,or circuit
se'ment s
CP=6s=6t# 4ercentile cumulati)e 4ro(a(ility )alueJ it is a
statistical 2uantity re4resentin' t#e )alue o, TH
w#ic# is lar'er t#an e7actly =6 4ercent o, t#e sam4les com4risin' t#e TH distri(ution
,or se'ment s
,tCCP=6sD4ro(a(ility distri(ution ,unction com4rised o, t#e
indi)idual circuit se'ment TH CP=6 )alues
E2ui4ment de'radation due to #armonics is o,ten t#e result o, sustained distortion o)er
lon' 4eriods o, time? Hi'# TH le)els t#at
decrease a,ter a relati)ely s#ort duration may not a,,ect end%user or
utility e2ui4ment as muc#? CP=6 ne'lects t#e #i'#est distortion sam4les? T#us, 6 4ercent
o, t#e sam4les can (e )ery #i'#, as mi'#t (e t#e
case ,or a circuit e7#i(itin' s#ort%duration #armonic increases, wit#out
si'ni,icantly a,,ectin' t#e inde7 )alue? IEEE Standard 61=
1>
s4eci,ies
t#at TH limits are not to (e e7ceeded ,or more t#an 1 # 4er day, w#ic#
is a44ro7imately 5 4ercent o, t#e time? T#us, t#e STH=6 )alue will
a44ro7imately corres4ond to t#e allowa(le duration limits de,ined ,or
e7cessi)e TH )alues in t#e IEEE standard?
System a)era'e total #armonic distortion CSATHD? SATH is (ased on
t#e mean )alue o, t#e distri(ution o, )olta'e TH measurements
recorded ,or eac# circuit se'ment rat#er t#an t#e CP=6 )alue?
SATH re4resents t#e wei'#ted a)era'e )olta'e TH e74erienced
o)er t#e monitorin' 4eriod normali@ed (y t#e total connected +&A
ser)ed ,rom t#e assessed system? SATH is de,ined (y E2s? C:?5D and
C:?6D:
SATH C:?5D
.EANTHs C:?6D
+total num(er o, circuit se'ments in t#e system
(ein' assessed
1sconnected +&A ser)ed ,rom circuit se'ment s
N."
i1
THi
N."
+
s1
1s .EANTHs
1T
1Ttotal connected +&A ser)ed ,rom t#e system
(ein' assessed
isteady%state measurement num(er
THi )olta'e total #armonic distortion calculated ,or
measurement window i
N."total num(er o, steady%state measurement windows collected ,or a 'i)en circuit
se'ment o)er
t#e duration o, t#e monitorin' 4eriod
.EANTHsstatistical mean o, t#e TH )alues o(tained
,rom eac# o, t#e steady%state measurement windows ,or circuit se'ment s
T#ese #armonic distortion indices are wei'#ted (y connected +&A?
T#is is one met#od to 'i)e more wei'#t to data ,rom monitorin' sites
deemed more im4ortant? T#is wei'#tin' may also (e determined (y t#e
num(er o, customers, t#e amount o, actual load, sensiti)ity o, customer
loads, etc? Connected load is similar to wei'#tin' met#ods s4eci,ied in
IEC Standard 1>>>%3%8, Assessment o, Emission 1imits ,or istortin'
1oads in .& and H& Power Systems?
System a)era'e e7cessi)e total #armonic distortion ratio inde7TH le)el
CSAETHRITHD? SAETHRITHis a measure o, t#e num(er o, steadystate
measurements t#at e7#i(it a TH )alue e7ceedin' t#e s4eci,ied
t#res#old? It is more di,,icult to calculate ,re2uency%o,%occurrence
indices ,or steady%state 4#enomena suc# as #armonics (ecause t#ey
are not tri''ered measurements? "it#out continuously recordin' data,
steady%state 2uantities can only (e assessed usin' sam4led data? An
a44ro7imation o, t#e amount o, time t#e system TH e7ceeded a certain )alue can (e
calculated ,rom t#e ratio o, e7cessi)e TH sam4les to
t#e total num(er o, sam4les? T#is ratio is considered to (e t#e ,re2uency o, occurrence o,
a s4eci,ied t#res#old TH )alue?
/or eac# circuit se'ment com4risin' t#e assessed system, t#e num(er o, measurements
e7ceedin' t#e TH t#res#old is normali@ed (y
t#e total num(er o, measurements? T#e system a)era'e is t#en com4uted (y wei'#tin'
eac# se'ment ratio (y t#e load ser)ed ,rom t#at
se'ment? SAETHRITHis de,ined (y
SAETHRITH C:?8D
+total num(er o, circuit se'ments in t#e system (ein'
assessed
+
s1
1s
N
N
T
.
H
"
s
s
1T
355 C#a4ter Ei'#t
1s connected +&A ser)ed ,rom circuit se'ment s
1Ttotal connected +&A ser)ed ,rom t#e system (ein'
assessed
isteady%state measurement num(er
THTH t#res#old s4eci,ied ,or calculation o, t#is inde7
NTHs num(er o, steady%state measurements t#at e7#i(it a
TH )alue ,or se'ment sw#ic# e7ceeds t#e s4eci,ied
TH t#res#old )alue
N."s total num(er o, steady%state measurements recorded
,or se'ment so)er t#e assessment 4eriod
SAETHRITH4ro)ides a measure o, t#e 4ortion o, t#e time t#at t#e
desi'nated system e7ceeds a s4eci,ied TH )alue? /or e7am4le, we can
use SATHERI6Ito a44ro7imate t#e amount o, time t#e de,ined system e7ceeds t#e
IEEE Standard 61=%1==- TH limit o, 6 4ercent?
:?5?5 Harmonic (enc#mar+ data
/i'ure :?: s#ows #ow tem4oral a)era'e )olta'e TH is distri(uted ,or
-99 sites in t#e EPRI PQ ProAect? Nearly 1: 4ercent o, t#e monitorin' sites #ad an
a)era'e )alue o, )olta'e TH o, 1?- 4ercent ,or t#e
4eriod ,rom 8O1O=3 to 3O1O=6? T#e data #a)e (een treated (y usin' sam4lin' wei'#ts
desi'ned so t#at t#e c#arts re4resent an estimate o, t#e
entire distri(ution systems o, t#e -5 EPRI PQ utilities? T#e =6 4ercent con,idence le)el
means t#at we are =6 4ercent con,ident t#at t#e
true mean o, t#e sam4le 4o4ulation is (etween 1?53 and 1?91 4ercent?
T#e mean o, t#e distri(ution is t#e same as t#at o, t#e SATH inde7?
>I
-I
5I
8I
:I
1>I
1-I
15I
18I
1:I
>?>
>?8
1?:
1?-
-?5
3?>
3?8
5?-
5?:
6?5
8?>
8?8
>I
->I
5>I
8>I
:>I
1>>I
/re2uency o, Sites
&TH
CID
.ean CSATHD: 1?69I
Standard e)iation: >?>915I
=6I Con,idence Inter)al:
1?53I to 1?91I
/i'ure :?: Histo'ram o, a)era'e )alue ,or )olta'e TH at -99 monitorin' sites ,rom
8O1O=3 to 3O1O=6 Ctreated (y sam4lin' wei'#tsD?
/i'ure :?= 4resents t#e distri(ution o, t#e CP=6 )alues o, )olta'e
TH at all t#e sites? T#e a)era'e CP=6 )alue ,or t#e data sam4led in
t#e 4roAect was -?1: 4ercent? Com4utin' t#e CP=6 o, t#e data 4resented in /i'? :?= 'i)es
t#e STH=6 inde7, 5?>3 4ercent? T#e lar'er
s4read o, sam4les (etween >?- and 8?5 4ercent TH causes t#e wider
=6 4ercent con,idence inter)al? T#e num(er o, monitorin' locations
t#at e7ceeded t#e limits esta(lis#ed (y IEEE Standard 61=%1==- can
also (e o(tained ,rom t#is c#art? O, t#e sites monitored, 3?3 4ercent
e7ceeded t#e 6 4ercent )olta'e TH limit ,or at least 6 4ercent o, sam4les? COnly one
monitored su(station e7ceeded t#e IEEE Standard 61=%1==- limit ,or more t#an =6
4ercent o, sam4les?D
:?5?6 Seasonal e,,ects
Harmonic distortion )aries seasonally as well as daily and wee+ly?
/i'ure :?1> s#ows t#e SATH inde7 ,or eac# o, t#e -9 mont#s o, monitorin' in t#e EPRI
PQ 4roAect? A sim4le a)era'e o, site )alues was
used wit#out t#e sam4lin' wei'#ts? A seasonal 4attern is )ery e)ident?
&olta'e TH tends to (e lower durin' t#e winter and summer mont#s
and 4ea+s in t#e s4rin' and ,all mont#s?
T#e 4eriods o, low TH corres4ond wit# 4ea+ loadin' 4eriods o, t#e
year due to #eatin' and air conditionin' demand? Air conditionin' load
a44arently 4ro)ides ,or more dam4in' e,,ect t#an #eatin' load, w#ic#
mi'#t (e counterintuiti)e? T#e ca4acitor con,i'urations will also
c#an'e ,or t#ese seasons, w#ic# may also a,,ect t#e distortion?
Note t#at t#e distortion trends are u4ward durin' t#e -%year monitorin' 4eriod? Eac#
yearly trend is sli'#tly #i'#er t#an t#e 4re)ious?
358 C#a4ter Ei'#t
>I
-I
5I
8I
:I
1>I
1-I
15I
>?>
>?8
1?:
1?-
-?5
3?>
3?8
5?-
5?:
6?5
8?>
8?8
>I
->I
5>I
8>I
:>I
1>>I
1>I
3>I
6>I
9>I
=>I
/re2uency o, Sites
&TH
CID
.ean : -?1:I
CP=6 CSTH=6D: 5?>3I
Standard e)iation: >?1>1I
=6I Con,idence Inter)al:
1?==I to -?3:I
/i'ure :?= Histo'ram o, CP=6 )alue ,or )olta'e TH at -99 monitorin' sites ,rom 8O1O=3
to 3O1O=6 Ctreated (y sam4lin' wei'#tsD?
T#is would su''est t#at t#ere is some )alidity to t#e increased concern
a(out t#e 4roli,eration o, #armonic%4roducin' 4ower electronic e2ui4ment? Increases in
(ac+'round #armonic distortion attri(uta(le to
increasin' 4ercenta'es o, nonlinear loads #a)e (een o(ser)ed (y ot#ers
as well?
11
:?6 Power Quality Contracts
Once 4er,ormance tar'ets #a)e (een selected, utilities may enter into
contractual a'reements wit# end users wit# res4ect to 4ower 2uality
)ariations? "#ile t#is is ne)er an easy tas+, it was sim4ler w#en end
users #ad to deal only wit# a sin'le, )ertically inte'rated utility com4any? T#e
dere'ulation o, t#e electric 4ower utilities in many areas ,urt#er com4licates t#in's? As
<ennedy
1-
4oints out re'ardin' ,uture
trends, t#ere now mi'#t (e u4 to ,i)e entities in)ol)ed:
1? T#e transmission 4ro)ider CTRANSCOD
-? T#e local distri(utor CISTCOD, or t#e GwiresH com4any
3? One or more inde4endent 4ower 4roducers CIPPsD or mar+et 4ower
4roducers C.PPsD
5? Retail ener'y mar+eters CRETAI1COsD or ener'y ser)ice com4anies
CESCOsD
6? T#e end user
To meet t#e 4er,ormance re2uirements o, t#e end user, t#ere may
#a)e to (e contracts (etween all t#ese entities? "#ile t#e (ul+ o, t#e
1?>I
1?-I
1?5I
1?8I
1?:I
-?>I
SATH
Yan
/e(
.ar
A4r
.ay
Yun
Yul
Au'
Se4
Oct
No)
ec
.ont# o, ProAect
1==6
1==5
1==3
/i'ure :?1> SATH )alues (y mont#, ,rom 8O1O=3 to =O1O=6, unwei'#ted, all sites?
4ower 2uality )ariations may (e t#e result o, e)ents on t#e local distri(utorFs system,
t#ere will also (e e)ents on t#e transmission system t#at will a,,ect lar'e areas? /orced
outa'es at 4ower 4lants can
cause s4i+es in t#e 4ower mar+et and, 4er#a4s, )olta'e re'ulation
issues i, t#e 4ower su44ly (ecomes constrained? T#e retail ener'y
mar+eter, i, any, may ultimately (e res4onsi(le ,or ,inancial o(li'ations and could
coordinate t#e a'reements and 4resent a sin'le 4oint
o, contact ,or t#e end user?
etailed descri4tions o, ser)ice a'reements are outside t#e sco4e o,
t#is (oo+? Some im4ortant c#aracteristics o, contracts ,or rms )olta'e
)ariations and #armonics are 4resented in Sections :?6?1 and :?6?-?
.ore details may (e ,ound in t#e Power Quality Standards and
S4eci,ications "or+(oo+?13
:?6?1 R.S )ariations a'reements
Part o, t#e 4ur4ose o, an interconnection a'reement would (e to educate end users on t#e
realities o, 4ower deli)ery (y wire and t#e costs
associated wit# miti'atin' )olta'e sa's and interru4tions? Anot#er
4art would (e t#e esta(lis#ment o, some ,ormal means (y w#ic# t#e
utility records and e)aluates t#e ,ault 4er,ormance o, its 4ower deli)ery system?
Some o, t#e +ey issues t#at s#ould (e addressed are
1? T#e num(er o, interru4tions e74ected eac# year?
-? T#e num(er o, )olta'e sa's (elow a certain le)el eac# year? T#e le)el
can (e de,ined in terms o, a s4eci,ic num(er suc# as 9> or :> 4ercent?
Alternati)ely, it can (e de,ined in terms o, a cur)e suc# as t#e
C*E.A or ITI cur)e?
3? T#e means (y w#ic# end users can miti'ate rms )ariations?
5? Res4onsi(ilities o, utilities in analy@in' t#e 4er,ormance o, t#e
4ower deli)ery system, ,ollowin' u4 wit# ,ault e)ents, etc?
6? .aintenance e,,orts to reduce t#e num(er o, ,aults ,or e)ents wit#in
t#e control o, t#e utility?
:?6?- Harmonics a'reements
Alt#ou'# #armonics 4ro(lems are not as wides4read as rms )olta'e )ariation 4ro(lems,
#armonics ,rom ASs and ot#er electronic loads can #a)e a
se)ere im4act on ot#er end%user e2ui4ment? In some cases, t#e e2ui4ment
will ,ail to o4erate 4ro4erly, w#ile in ot#er cases, it may su,,er 4remature
,ailure? T#ere,ore, a'reements re'ardin' #armonics can (e )ery im4ortant?
T#e c#ie, tool ,or t#e en,orcement o, #armonic emissions at t#e utility%customer inter,ace
is IEEE Standard 61=%1==-?
1>
T#is is a two%35: C#a4ter Ei'#t
ed'ed sword: One 4art o, t#e standard 4laces limits on #armonic currents t#at can (e
inAected (y end%user loads onto t#e system, w#ile
anot#er 4art e,,ecti)ely esta(lis#es minimum re2uirements ,or t#e
utility? A'reements on #armonics s#ould re,lect t#is (ilateral nature?
Some o, t#e +ey issues t#at s#ould (e addressed are
1? e,inition o, t#e PCC?
-? 1imitation o, t#e #armonic current distortion le)el at t#e PCC to
t#at set (y IEEE Standard 61=%1==- or to anot#er )alue allowed (y
a s4eci,ied e7ce4tion?
3? Periodic maintenance sc#edules ,or ,ilters and ot#er miti'atin'
e2ui4ment? Some e2ui4ment will re2uire constant monitorin' (y
4ermanently installed de)ices?
5? Res4onsi(ilities o, utilities, suc# as
a?<ee4in' t#e system out o, #armonic resonance
(? <ee4in' records a(out new loads comin' onto t#e system Ct#is is
'ettin' tou'#er to do wit# dere'ulationD
c? Per,ormin' en'ineerin' analyses w#en new loads come onto t#e
system to 4re)ent e7acer(ation o, e7istin' 4ro(lems
d?Educatin' end users a(out miti'ation o4tions
e? Periodic monitorin' or constant monitorin' (y 4ermanently
installed de)ices to )eri,y 4ro4er o4eration o, t#e system
6? e,inition o, res4onsi(ilities ,or miti'ation costs w#en limits are
e7ceeded? Is t#e last end user w#o created t#e e7cess load res4onsi(le or is t#e cost
s#ared amon' a class o, end users and t#e utility$
:?6?3 E7am4le contract
One o, t#e most widely 4u(lici@ed e7am4les o, a 4ower 2uality contract
is t#e one (etween etroit Edison and t#e G(i' t#reeH automo(ile manu,acturers? etlo,,
and Sa(in15 re4ort t#at in 1==6 etroit Edison
entered into lon'%term 4ricin' and ser)ice 2uality a'reements wit#
C#rysler Cor4oration Cnow aimlerC#ryslerD, /ord .otor Com4any,
and 0eneral .otors Cor4oration? T#e terms were s4eci,ied in an
a'reement +nown as t#e S4ecial .anu,acturin' Contract CS.CD? T#e
ser)ice a'reement co)ered )olta'e interru4tions and )olta'e sa's and
esta(lis#ed ser)ice 'uarantees wit# com4ensation?
In res4onse to com4etiti)e 4ressures, etroit Edison entered into t#e
1>%year a'reement wit# t#ese customers as a sole su44lier o, 4ower?
T#e ser)ice 'uarantees were created in res4onse to t#e customersF concern t#at t#e utility
mi'#t not #a)e as muc# incenti)e to resol)e 4ower
2uality 4ro(lems i, t#e customers were loc+ed into a 1>%year sole%su44lier a'reement?
T#ere,ore, t#e 4arties de)ised a met#od o, com4ensatin' t#e customers ,or 4ower 2uality
e)ents i, t#e annual sc#edule o,
4ower 2uality tar'ets was e7ceeded? Com4ensation le)els were ne'otiated t#at were
related to t#e cost o, customer 4roduction losses ,ollowPower Quality *enc#mar+in' 35=
in' an interru4tion? T#ese le)els were ,i7ed ,or t#e duration o, t#e
S.C? Initially, only interru4tions o, 4ower were included in t#e 'uarantees? In 1==:,
)olta'e sa' 'uarantees were added t#at made etroit
Edison lia(le i, )olta'e sa' measures e7ceeded t#e ne'otiated 4er,ormance tar'ets?
T#ere,ore, monitorin' o, t#e 4ower 2uality and com4utation o, t#e
ser)ice indices are o, )ery #i'# im4ortance? etroit Edison installed a
4ower 2uality monitorin' system at o)er 6> o, t#e t#ree customersF
locations t#rou'#out its territory? T#e 4ower 2uality monitorin' system allows etroit
Edison to determine t#e ,re2uency and se)erity o,
)olta'e sa's t#at occur at t#e customer locations? Some o, t#e +ey
details ,ollow?
Interru4tion tar'ets? T#e interru4tion tar'ets ,or t#e
aimlerC#rysler and 0eneral .otors locations are eit#er > or 1? T#is
means t#at only one interru4tion is allowed at some o, t#ese locations
and none at ot#er locations in eac# calendar year? T#e ser)ice 'uarantee 4ayment
amounts CS0PAsD ne'otiated ,or t#ese two com4anies
ran'e (etween M->>> and M-=9,>>> and are (ased on t#e ty4e o,
4rocess t#at is (ein' ser)ed? Se)eral o, t#ese locations o4erate wit#
t#eir ser)ices in 4arallel so t#at t#ey usually do not e74erience a @ero)olta'e e)ent?
T#e /ord a'reement was a little di,,erent? T#e locations were s4lit
into si7 'rou4s wit# interru4tion tar'ets ran'in' ,rom one to nine 4er
year? T#e utility would 4ay ,or interru4tions in e7cess o, t#ese tar'ets
at t#e rate s4eci,ied (y t#e ne'otiated S0PA? Interestin'ly, t#e tar'ets
decrease (y 6 4ercent eac# calendar year, rounded to t#e nearest w#ole
num(er, re2uirin' continually im4ro)in' 4er,ormance (y t#e utility?
&olta'e sa' tar'ets? T#e 1==5 a'reement s4eci,ied t#at )olta'e sa's
would (e included in t#e com4ensation sc#eme at a later date? T#e
delay was considered reasona(le (ecause etroit Edison #ad no
means in 4lace ,or ta+in' statistically accurate 4ower 2uality measurements? Installations
o, 4ower 2uality monitors (e'an in 1==6
wit# a total o, 13: monitors installed at t#e S.C locations? T#e utility and t#e customers
,inali@ed t#e )olta'e sa' a'reement a#ead o,
sc#edule at t#e insistence o, t#e customers in Au'ust 1==:, #a)in'
only a(out - years o, measurements ,or t#e (asis o, t#e initial sa'
tar'ets? It would #a)e (een 4re,era(le to #a)e a(out 3 years to esta(lis# t#e tar'ets? T#e
sa' a'reement was made retroacti)e to Yanuary
1, 1==:?
T#e monitors are connected to measure 4#ase%to%'round )olta'es at
t#e 13?-%+& (us and 4#ase%to%4#ase )olta'es at t#e 5?:%+& (uses? Eac#
4ower 2uality monitor is automatically 4olled se)eral times a day usin'
36> C#a4ter Ei'#t
t#ree modems, eac# dedicated to one o, t#e t#ree customers? T#e measurements are t#en
stored in t#e main monitorin' data(ase on a
ser)er? A wor+station runnin' Electrote+Fs PQ&iew 4ro'ram 2ueries
t#e data(ase and im4orts t#e measurements into a data(ase on a "e(
ser)er? T#e rms )olta'e )ariations are c#aracteri@ed and t#e )olta'e
sa' indices com4uted?
T#e 1==: S.C amendment states ,i)e rules t#at esta(lis# a su(set
o, sa's t#at 2uali,y ,or 4ayment?
1? T#e rms )olta'e on any o, t#e t#ree 4#ases must dro4 (elow >?96
4u? T#ere is no minimum duration ,or 2uali,yin' )olta'e sa'sJ all durations are eli'i(le?
T#e t#res#old was esta(lis#ed (ased on t#e ITI cur)e
and discussions wit# t#e customers? Actual e74erience is not a ,actor in
t#e sa' 2uali,ication?
-? &olta'e sa's t#at are caused (y t#e customer are e7cluded ,rom
t#e 2uali,yin' sa' list?
3? &olta'e sa's t#at are measured on a nonloaded ,eeder are not
2uali,yin'? T#is is automatically determined in t#e PQ&iew 4ro'ram
,rom t#e ma7imum load current? Rules - and 3 are in 4lace to ensure
t#at t#e 4er,ormance is only e)aluated at t#e PCC?
5? Only t#e worst )olta'e sa' Clowest rms )olta'eD in a 16%min inter)al at eac# location
can 2uali,y? T#e 16%min inter)al (e'ins w#en t#e
,irst sa' in a c#ronolo'ical list o, sa's is detected and ends w#en eit#er
t#e last sa' in t#e inter)al is detected or at a 4oint 16 min a,ter t#e
,irst? &olta'e sa's t#at occur a,ter t#at 16%min inter)al are considered
4art o, t#e ne7t inter)al and are assessed se4arately? T#is ty4e o, 4rocessin' is called 16%
min tem4oral a''re'ation wit# s4atial a''re'ation
(y location?
6? I, a )olta'e interru4tion is measured durin' a 16%min inter)al,
t#en any )olta'e sa's t#at are also measured at t#e location will not
2uali,y?
Accordin' to etlo,, and Sa(in,15
a44ro7imately -> 4ercent o, all t#e
)olta'e sa's measured (y t#e etroit Edison 4ower 2uality monitorin'
system Cnona''re'atedD ,all (elow >?96 4u? Only a(out : 4ercent o, t#e
nona''re'ated sa's 2uali,y a,ter a44lyin' t#e ,i)e sa' rules and ,or
w#ic# sa' scores are com4uted?
Sa' score de,inition? T#e sa' score is t#e a)era'e 4er%unit )olta'e lost
(y eac# o, t#e t#ree 4#ase )olta'es ,or t#e lowest 2uali,yin' )olta'e sa'
wit#in a 16%min inter)al? It is de,ined (y E2? C:?9D:
Sa' score 1 C:?9D
&A&*&C
3
/or interru4tions, t#e sa' score is de,ined to (e @ero to 4re)ent o)erla4
wit# t#e administration o, )olta'e interru4tions? I, any o, t#e 4#ase
)olta'es are 'reater t#an 1 4u (ecause o, a neutral s#i,t durin' a )olta'e sa', t#en eac# is
set to 1 4u (e,ore t#e com4utation o, t#e sa' score?
T#ese two 4olicies con,ine scores to t#e ran'e >?>:33 to 1? T#e minimum sa' score o,
>?>:33 corres4onds to a condition w#ere t#e )olta'e
on one 4#ase is >?96 4u, w#ic# is t#e t#res#old ,or a 2uali,yin' )olta'e
sa', and t#e ot#er two 4#ase )olta'es are set to 1 4u?
etlo,, and Sa(in re4orted t#at t#e a)era'e sa' score ,rom Yanuary
1, 1==:, until t#eir 4a4er was 4re4ared in ->>> was >?31, wit# :9 4ercent o, t#e sa'
scores (ein' less t#an or e2ual to >?6>?
Sa' score tar'ets? A sa' score tar'et is t#e ma7imum sum o, sa' score
)alues allowa(le ,or a 'rou4 o, locations (e,ore com4ensation is due?
Two o, t#e automa+ers #a)e only one 'rou4 score tar'et, w#ile t#e
t#ird #as si7? T#e sa' scores ,or all 2uali,yin' sa's in a 'rou4 are
summed and com4ared to t#e 'rou4 sa' score tar'et? I, t#e sa' score
total e7ceeds t#e tar'et, com4ensation is com4uted?
T#e S.C a'reement allows sa' score tar'ets to (e recom4uted ,or
t#e ei'#t 'rou4s at t#e start o, eac# calendar year? T#e 'rou4 sa' score
tar'ets are determined (y com4utin' t#e a)era'e 'rou4 sa' score
totals ,or t#e )olta'e sa' data collected ,rom 1==6 and u4 to t#e 4resent
year? T#e tar'ets are e74ected to 'radually sta(ili@e as data ,rom more
years are included?
&olta'e sa' 4ayment? T#e 4ayment due to a location is com4uted (y
determinin' t#e sa' score sum in e7cess o, t#e sa' score tar'et multi4lied
(y t#e S0PA su(Aect to an annual 4ayment ca4? /or e7am4le, assume t#at
a location #as an S0PA o, M1>>,>>> and a sa' score tar'et o, 3?>? I, t#e sa'
score is 3?-:, t#en a 4ayment o, >?-:M1>>,>>>M-:,>>> is due?
An alternati)e to t#e sa' score met#od would (e to cate'ori@e sa's
into (ins (ased on t#eir ma'nitudes? Eac# (in would #a)e a certain
le)el o, 4ayout relati)e to t#e S0PA? Howe)er, t#is could 4roduce lar'e
swin's in 4ayments and could disa44oint customers? One si'ni,icant
(ene,it o, t#e sa' score met#od is t#e lac+ o, a(ru4t c#an'es in sa'
scores and 4ayment amounts?
:?8 Power Quality InsuranceZ
T#is section 4ro4oses a (rie, o)er)iew o, a 4ricin' strate'y ,or 4remium
4ower ser)ices t#at is ,ounded on an insurance 4olicy model?
16,18
36- C#a4ter Ei'#t
ZContri(uted (y Snuller Price, 0re' *all, and C? <? "oo o, Ener'y and En)ironmental
Economics, Inc?
:?8?1 O)er)iew o, 4ower 2uality insurance
conce4t
O,,erin' 4remium 4ower ser)ices re2uires t#e 4ro)ider, eit#er a distri(ution com4any or
an ener'y ser)ices 4ro)ider Cre,erred to #erea,ter as t#e utilityD, to 4rice t#e ser)ices in
suc# a way as to 4ro)ide
(ene,its to (ot# customers and to t#e utility? !sin' an insurance model
in w#ic# customers su(scri(e to t#eir desired le)el o, im4ro)ed 4ower
2uality CPQD ensures t#at no customer will 4ay more t#an its own 4erce4tion o, t#e )alue
or (ene,it associated wit# t#e PQ ser)ices?
Customer (ene,its are uni2ue in t#at t#ey re,lect eac# indi)idual customerFs dama'e
,unction, includin' t#e customerFs ris+ a)ersion?
!tility (ene,its must re,lect t#e ris+ associated wit# o,,erin' insurance and include
returns commensurate wit# o4eratin' in a new com4etiti)e en)ironment?
T#e 4remium PQ ser)ice 4ro'ram uses a (usiness model in)ol)in'
4remiums and claims? T#e utility o,,ers PQ ser)ices under an insurance 4lan? Customers
4ay 4remiums ,or a de,ined le)el o, ser)ice, and
t#e utility 4ays t#e customer directly ,or e)ents e7ceedin' t#e terms o,
t#at ser)ice? Customers are moti)ated to 4ay a 4remium to reduce t#e
uncertainty andOor t#e e74ected )alue o, t#eir dama'e costs? !tilities
assume t#e ,inancial ris+ associated wit# t#e claims in e7c#an'e ,or a
return on t#e a''re'ate 4remiums?
T#e utilityFs insurance ser)ice can ma+e use o, a 4urely ,inancial 4olicy or a 4olicy t#at
incor4orates in)estments in PQ e2ui4ment or ser)ice? In (ot# cases, t#e critical ad)anta'e
o, t#e insurance a44roac#
o)er a cost%o,%ser)ice a44roac# is t#at it allows customers to sel,%select
an a44ro4riate solution ,rom 4olicies t#at are desi'ned wit#out use o,
customer dama'e cost data?
Insurance as a ,inancial 4roduct? T#e utility can create a 4urely ,inancial insurance
4roduct in w#ic# it o,,ers to 4ay customers ,or relia(ility
e)ents co)ered (y t#e 4olicy, and customers 4ay 4remiums? !tilities
will use customer location to estimate an e74ected ,re2uency o, claims?
*ecause t#e e74ected ,re2uency o, claims is di,,erent ,or )arious customer 'rou4in's,
insurance 4remiums will li+ewise (e di,,erent?
Premiums are calculated usin' 4rinci4les o, ,air insurance wit# a mar'in t#at incor4orates
an a44ro4riate le)el o, ris+ miti'ation and return
,or t#e utility? T#e utility ma+es no additional in)estments in relia(ility e2ui4ment or
ser)ices wit# t#e 4urely ,inancial 4roduct? Customers
w#o are ris+ a)erse, or w#o #a)e a #i'#er e74ectation o, t#eir claims
t#an t#e utility, will su(scri(e?
Incor4oratin' PQ in)estments into insurance 4roducts? A utility can
'reatly increase t#e ty4es o, PQ insurance 4roducts it can o,,er i, it conPower Quality
*enc#mar+in' 363
siders t#e role t#at PQ in)estments can 4lay? *y ma+in' suc# in)estments, t#e utility can
o,,er insurance 4roducts wit# #i'#er 4ayout ratios
and im4ro)e customer ser)ice 2uality? To de)elo4 suc# 4roducts, t#e utility must
in)esti'ate t#e ty4es o, PQ solutions t#at could (e im4lemented
,or a 'rou4 o, customers wit# a similar e)ent rate and location? /or
e7am4le, ,or a 'i)en section o, a ,eeder, t#ere may (e ,our di,,erent ty4es
o, PQ in)estments a utility could ma+e, ran'in' ,rom a tree%trimmin'
4ro'ram to installation o, !PS systems at customer sites? /or eac# 4ossi(le solution, t#e
utility estimates t#e cost o, t#e solution and t#e
im4ro)ement in 4ower 2uality t#at would result? *ased on t#ese costs,
and t#e e74ected claims a,ter t#e in)estment is made, t#e utility can
desi'n insurance 4roducts t#at will co)er t#eir com(ined costs and 4ro)ide t#e customers
wit# an ensured le)el o, im4ro)ement in t#eir 4ower
2uality? Power 2uality insurance can (e 4ro)ided ,or a num(er o, distri(ution system
e)ents? Ta(le :?3 s#ows ,i)e 'eneral cate'ories o, PQ
4ro(lems and t#e associated claim 4ayment structure?
:?8?- esi'nin' an insurance 4olicy
T#e 'oals o, a PQ insurance sc#eme are to reco)er t#e cost o, 4ro)idin' t#e
4lan, treat all customers wit#in a 'rou4 e2ually at cost%(ased 4remiums,
im4ro)e e,,icient use o, resources, and (e com4re#ensi(le and acce4ta(le?
/airness? An insurance sc#eme is considered ,air i, t#e e74ected cost
o, claims e2uals t#e 4remiums 4aid? /or e7am4le, assume a customerFs
)alue o, ser)ice Cnet o, t#e ener'y rateD to (e M7O+", w#ic# is uno(ser)a(le? Su44ose t#e
4ro(a(ility o, an outa'e is rand t#e e74ected
(ene,it to t#e customer o, electricity consum4tion is C1 rD7?
Now consider an insurance sc#eme in w#ic# a 4remium o, M4O+"
results in an insurance 4ayment o, M7O+" in t#e e)ent o, an outa'e? T#is
means t#at t#e customer (y (uyin' insurance will o(tain Kr7C1rD7
4L74wit# certainty? T#e customer will (uy t#e insurance i,
365 C#a4ter Ei'#t
TA*1E:?3 Pro4osed Claim Payment Structure ,or PQ Insurance in /i)e 0eneral
Cate'ories
PQ cate'ory Claim 4ayment structure
R.S )ariations MOe)ent cate'ori@ed (y amount o, )ariation as necessary?
Incor4orate any im4act o, duration into an e)ent total?
Sustained interru4tions MOe)ent
MO#our
&olta'e re'ulation MO#our cate'ori@ed as necessary (y ma'nitude indices?
Harmonics MO#our cate'ori@ed as necessary (y com4onent and
ma'nitude indices?
Transients MOe)ent cate'ori@ed as necessary (y ma'nitude indices?
74r7 C:?:D
"#en4C1rD7,t#e insurance sc#eme is ,air and cost%(ased?
Im4lementation? esi'nin' a (asic area ,inancial insurance o4tion
in)ol)es t#e ,ollowin' ste4s:
Ste4 1? Com4ute t#e area%s4eci,ic 4ro(a(ility o, outa'e usin' #istoric outa'e data? /or
e7am4le, t#e 4ro(a(ility o, an outa'e wit# a
duration o, more t#an 1 # is
rC1 #D
Ste4 -? Com4ute t#e ,air insurance 4remium ,or a 'i)en 4ayo,,? /or
e7am4le, i, 4ayo,, M1O+" unser)ed and rC1 #D >?>>>-, t#e ,air
4remium is M>?>>>-O+" unser)ed?
Ste4 3? AdAust t#e 4remium to collect mar'in? Su44ose t#e adder is
M>?>>>1O+" unser)edJ t#en t#e 4osted 4remium is M>?>>>3O+"
unser)ed?
Ste4 5? esi'n ser)ice conditions? Here is an e7am4le?
TSu(scri4tion? A 4artici4atin' customer su(scri(es to t#e e7am4le
o4tion in ste4 3? T#e customer must s4eci,y t#e amount o, +ilowatts
unser)ed to (e insured o)er a 1%year 4eriod? T#e annual 4remium
is com4uted as: +" unser)ed su(scri(ed 4remiumO+"? T#e 4remium is an u4%,ront
4ayment, irres4ecti)e o, w#et#er outa'es actually occur?
TEli'i(ility ,or 4ayo,,s? A 4artici4atin' customer will (e 4aid
accordin' to its su(scri4tion le)el, su(Aect to t#e utilityFs recei4t o,
t#e 4remium ,rom t#e customer? In t#is e7am4le, 4ayo,,s will only
(e ,or outa'es lastin' more t#an 1 #?
:?8?3 AdAustin' ,or PQ in)estment costs
T#e deri)ation in Sec? :?8?- a44lies to an insurance sc#eme in w#ic#
t#e utility does not ma+e any in)estments in PQ im4ro)ement tec#nolo'ies? In a case
w#ere t#e utility does ma+e suc# in)estments, t#e
cost o, t#ese in)estments is added into t#e 4remium:
4CrdDyin)estment cost mar'in C:?=D
w#ererd is t#e 4ro(a(ility o, an outa'e a,ter t#e in)estment is made
andyis t#e 4ayout 4er outa'e?
annual unser)ed #ours ,or suc# outa'es
:98> #
T#e ,act t#at in)estments in PQ solutions will o,ten (e ,inanced
o)er a 4eriod o, se)eral years, and t#at many o, t#ese in)estments
are 4ermanent in nature, raises t#e issue o, w#et#er or not t#e customer will #old t#e
insurance 4olicy lon' enou'# to 4ay ,or t#e
in)estment cost? In suc# cases, t#e insurance 4olicy s#ould #a)e a
clause statin' t#at t#e 4olicy duration is t#e ,ull len't# o, t#e ,inancial li,e o, t#e PQ
solution, and t#at t#e customer is res4onsi(le ,or
4ayin' ,or its s#are o, t#e remainin' cost o, t#e solution s#ould it
cancel t#e 4olicy in ad)ance?
1i+ewise, t#e utilityFs a(ility to o,,er certain insurance 4roducts may
de4end u4on attainin' a minimum le)el o, customer su(scri4tion Ci?e?,
a minimum total re)enue re2uirement ,rom customer 4remiumsD? In
suc# a case, a utilityFs insurance 4olicy o,,erin' can (e 4redicated u4on
t#e le)el o, customer su(scri4tion?
:?9 Power Quality State Estimation
Power 2uality monitorin' is a relati)ely new idea in t#e electric 4ower
industry? "#ile t#ere are now many PQ monitors installed and o4era(le, t#ere are still
considera(ly lar'e 'a4s in co)era'e o, t#e distri(ution ,eeders in t#e !nited States? As
4art o, t#e EPRI R*. 4roAect,
5
in)esti'ators e74lored t#e idea o, estimatin' t#e )olta'es at locations
wit#out monitors 'i)en t#e data at only one monitor or a ,ew monitors?
T#is resulted in t#e de)elo4ment o, t#e EPRI 4ower 2uality state estimator CPQSED,
w#ic# uses ,eeder models and recorded data to estimate
w#at would #a)e (een recorded on t#e customer side o, t#e ser)ice
trans,ormer? In most cases, t#is can (e done wit# su,,icient accuracy to
estimate t#e indices suc# as SAR/I?
T#e ,ollowin' descri(es, in )ery 'eneral terms, t#e a44roac# ta+en
in t#e PQSE to determine t#e (est matc# (etween t#e measured
results and t#e com4uted results? .ost o, t#e e,,ort was ,ocused on
rms )ariations, since t#is is t#e distur(ance classi,ication t#at #as
t#e most wides4read im4act on t#e 4ower 2uality? An o)er)iew o, t#e
al'orit#m is 'i)en #ere? Additional details are a)aila(le ,rom EPRI to
eli'i(le 4arties?
:?9?1 0eneral a44roac#
State estimation tec#ni2ues #a)e (een used ,or many years on transmission systems to
determine steady%state )olta'e and load 2uantities?
T#e most common mat#ematical met#ods are (ased on t#e wei'#ted
least s2uares C"1SD a44roac# to minimi@in' t#e s2uare o, t#e error
(etween t#e measurements and t#e com4uted estimates o, t#e load
2uantities? *y iteratin' t#rou'# some +ind o, o4timi@ation solution
368 C#a4ter Ei'#t
4rocedure, an estimate o, t#e state o, t#e circuit )aria(les can (e
o(tained?
*aran and <elley19
descri(e many o, t#e issues related to 4er,ormin'
state estimation on distri(ution ,eeders? As wit# nearly all 4a4ers on
state estimation, t#eir 4rimary concern is t#e load%related, steady%state
)olta'es and currents t#rou'#out t#e ,eeders? .any o, t#e same 4rinci4les a44ly to
estimatin' t#e )arious PQ )ariation 4#enomena? O, course,
t#ere are some additional c#allen'es in cra,tin' s4eci,ic al'orit#ms?
T#e "1S met#od is ty4ically summari@ed (y ,irst writin' t#e e2uation relatin' t#e
measurements and t#e state )aria(les in t#e system:
@#C7D)
w#ere @measurements
7state )aria(les
#C7D,unction relatin' state )aria(les to measurements
)measurement errors
T#en t#e "1S met#od (oils down to minimi@in' t#e "1S errors o)er
all t#e measurements:
i
wi K@i #i C7DL
-
T#at is, t#is met#od ,inds )ector 7o, state )aria(les t#at minimi@e t#e
"1S error (etween t#e measurements and w#at t#ey are com4uted to
(e? T#e wei'#ts wi are assi'ned to denote t#e relati)e accuracy o, t#e
measurements? T#e #i'#er t#e accuracy o, t#e measurement, t#e
'reater t#e wei'#t?
.any o, t#e 4a4ers dealin' wit# t#e state estimation ,or load 2uantities #a)e ela(orate
mat#ematical re4resentations o, t#e system
(ased on common ,ormulations o, t#e 4ower ,low 4ro(lem and t#e
numerical met#ods ,or sol)in' t#e "1S minimi@ation? It is not easy,
and 4er#a4s im4ossi(le, to accom4lis# a closed%,orm solution ,or all
+inds o, PQ 4#enomena? Iterati)e simulation met#ods are em4loyed
instead? *asically, a num(er o, distur(ance e)ents t#at could #a)e
caused w#at was o(ser)ed are simulated and t#e result is com4ared
wit# measurements? Estimated )alues are stored ,rom t#e simulation
matc#in' t#e measurements most closely?
In many cases on t#e distri(ution ,eeder, we are constrained (y t#e lac+
o, measurements in critical areas? "e are ,orced to ma+e some intelli'ent
'uesses ,ounded on sim4le rules and to ta+e t#e (est o, t#ese results?
/ortunately, a #i'# de'ree o, accuracy is 'enerally not re2uired to ac#ie)e
a reasona(le estimate o, state )aria(les suita(le ,or com4utin' 4ower
2uality indices? /or e7am4le, t#e )olta'e sa' indices #a)e relati)ely coarse
min 7
inter)als C=>, 9>, 6>, and 1> 4ercentD? A )olta'e sa' o, 66 4ercent ,alls in
t#e same (in as one o, 86 4ercent, so t#e estimate can #a)e a si'ni,icant
error w#ile still yieldin' meanin',ul indices?
T#e circuit model ,or PQ state estimation di)ides t#e system into a num(er o, se'ments
across w#ic# t#e 4ower 2uality is assumed to (e constant?
T#e se'mentation is determined (y t#e locations o, t#e a)aila(le monitors
and switc#es? /i'ure :?11 s#ows t#e (asic conce4t? T#is system is simulated ,or se)eral
candidate e)ents t#at mi'#t #a)e caused t#e distur(ance?
T#e simulations yieldin' t#e (est ,it to t#e measurements are assumed to
4ro)ide 'ood estimates o, t#e )olta'es at t#e locations wit#out monitors?
:?9?- Num(er o, monitors
T#e EPRI PQSE was desi'ned to ,unction acce4ta(ly ,or only one monitor at t#e
su(station? O, course, it would ,unction (etter wit# more
36: C#a4ter Ei'#t
*REA<ER
/EEER PQ
.ONITOR
SE0.ENT
C!RRENT
.ONITOR
REC1OSER
/!SE
C!STO.ER%SIE
PQ .ONITOR
/i'ure :?11 Circuit wit# PQ monitors at )arious 4oints?
monitorin' data? "#ile some ,eeders #a)e two or t#ree monitors, most
#a)e only one in t#e su(station? T#is ,orces one to assume t#at all customers e74erience
t#e same )olta'e distur(ance?
es4ite t#e lac+ o, con,irmin' data alon' t#e ,eeder, use,ul results can
(e 4roduced wit# only one monitor? /or e7am4le, t#ere is 'enerally more
concern wit# #ow t#e secondary%side )olta'es a44ear at im4ortant t#ree4#ase customers
t#an wit# )olta'es a44earin' alon' t#e ,eeder? O,ten
t#ese customers are ser)ed wit# trans,ormer connections t#at distort t#e
4rimary )olta'es durin' distur(ances? T#is 4ro(lem can (e addressed sim4ly (y
re4resentin' a 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder and an a44ro4riately connected
trans,ormer? T#is will yield results similar to #a)in' an actual monitor on
t#e secondary side, 4articularly i, t#e customer is near t#e su(station?
T#e accuracy in 4redictin' t#e )olta'es alon' t#e ,eeder im4ro)es dramatically wit# t#e
addition o, Aust one more monitor on t#e ,eeder? T#is
monitor s#ould (e 4laced a44ro7imately one%#al, to two%t#irds o, t#e way
down t#e ,eeder so t#at t#ere is considera(le se4aration ,rom t#e su(station monitor? In
sta'ed tests wit# t#e rms )ariation estimation al'orit#m,
t#e estimator ne)er ,ailed to ,ind t#e correct ,ault location Cto t#e accuracy o, t#e ,eeder
modelD, w#ereas wit# only one monitor, t#e estimator
4roduced somew#at random 4redictions o, w#ere t#e ,ault was located?
O, course, in 4ractice t#e models will (e im4recise and t#e measurements
will also contain errors, so we cannot e74ect t#at t#e ,ault 4osition will
always (e 4redicted wit# suc# accuracy? Howe)er, it s#ould (e e74ected
t#at t#e estimates will im4ro)e considera(ly wit# Aust one more monitorPe)en a
customer%side monitor? !sin' t#ree well%s4aced monitors as
in t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect 'i)es 'ood co)era'e o, t#e main ,eeder?
Ideally, 4ower 2uality state estimation would wor+ (est wit# ,ully
ca4a(le PQ monitors near t#e su(station and on all t#e maAor (ranc#es
o, a t#ree%4#ase ,eeder? T#e limitations are t#ree le)els o, monitorin'
are listed in t#e ta(le:
.onitor con,i'uration le)el Ca4a(ilities
1? Su(station only Ade2uate ,or cases in w#ic# it can (e
assumed all customers on t#e ,eeder see t#e
same )olta'e?
-? Su(station customer%side monitors Accuracy o, 4rediction o, )olta'es alon' t#e
,eeder is considera(ly en#anced i, customer
sites are si'ni,icantly downline ,rom t#e
su(station? Howe)er, it is still di,,icult to
4redict ,ault locations accurately since t#e
,ault current 4at# is not +nown?
3? Su(station PQ monitors on main S#ould yield t#e most accurate results?
t#ree%4#ase ,eeder (ranc#es Im4ro)es on ca4a(ilities 'ained (y
addin' customer%side monitors (y
4ro)idin' in,ormation on t#e ,eeder
current ,lows?
:?9?3 Estimatin' rms )ariations
&olta'e sa's and interru4tions are almost always due to s#ort%circuit
,aults? T#ere,ore, t#e 4rocedure ,or estimatin' )olta'es due to rms
)ariations is (asically to ,ind a ,ault on t#e ,eeder t#at 4roduces )olta'es and currents t#at
most closely matc# w#at was measured on t#e
,ew e7istin' monitors? T#en t#e )olta'es are com4uted at all ot#er
(uses o, interest and assumed to (e w#at would #a)e (een measured i,
a monitor #ad (een 4resent? O, 4articular interest are t#e )olta'es on
t#e load side o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormers?
One can always em4loy a (rute ,orce a44roac# ,or searc#in' out a
,ault location on t#e ,eeder? T#ere may (e no alternati)e i, t#ere is only
one monitor on t#e system, and todayFs ,ast com4uters actually ma+e
t#is a 4ractical a44roac# in many cases? I, t#ere is more t#an one monitor, one can
4ro'ram some intelli'ence into t#e searc# al'orit#m to
limit t#e searc# area? T#is is illustrated in /i'? :?1-? *y o(ser)in' t#e
currents measured (y t#e monitors, it is determined t#at t#e ,ault is
downline ,rom t#e ,irst two monitors on t#e ,eeder? T#ere,ore, t#e
searc# area is restricted to t#e s#aded area?
Some new ty4es o, PQ monitorin' e2ui4ment can 4ro)ide an estimate o, t#e distance to
t#e ,ault? T#is can (e 2uite #el4,ul in 4ro)idin'
a startin' 4oint ,or t#e simulation?
Customer%owned monitors can (e 2uite #el4,ul in identi,yin' t#e 4ro(a(le ,ault location?
T#e load current data are 4ro(a(ly not use,ul, (ut t#e
measured )olta'es can 4ro)ide intelli'ence to im4ro)e t#e estimation?
"#ile t#e customer%side monitors can (e )ery #el4,ul, t#ere are a
num(er o, 4otential 4ro(lems wit# res4ect to rms )ariations:
1? T#e trans,ormer connection, i, not 'rounded wye%wye, may alter t#e
4erce4tion o, t#e )olta'es seen on t#e 4rimary ,eeder and, t#ere,ore,
(y ot#er customers? T#us, t#e monitor )alues do not re4resent t#e
4rimary system )olta'e? An e,,ecti)e rms )ariation estimator would
accommodate )arious trans,ormer connections?
-? T#e 4#asin' may not a'ree wit# t#e utility%side monitorin'? T#is is
a constant (oo++ee4in' 4ro(lem? End users ,re2uently alter t#eir
installations, and any ty4e o, automatic estimatin' system ,or com4utin' PQ indices must
#a)e a ,acility ,or 4eriodically correctin' t#e
4#asin'?
3? T#e trans,ormer im4edance will alter t#e )olta'e measured ,or certain e)ents?
5? T#e current measured at t#e end%user site re4resents only t#e current into t#at
indi)idual load? T#is will (e o, limited use in determinin' t#e state o, t#e ,eeder ,or PQ
indices?
6? T#ere is no direct communications lin+ to 'et t#e data (ac+ to a central site ,or timely
4rocessin'?
38> C#a4ter Ei'#t
:?9?5 Simulation en'ine re2uirements
T#e simulation en'ine ,or 4er,ormin' t#is ty4e o, PQ state estimation
#as re2uirements similar to t#at o, t#e ,ault simulator used to estimate
)olta'e sa's ,or PQ 4lannin' Csee Sec? :?:D? One o, t#e most critical
4ieces o, in,ormation is w#at t#e )olta'e loo+s li+e on t#e end%user side
o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer? In t#e !nited States, t#is trans,ormer can
#a)e one o, se)eral di,,erent connections? T#ere,ore, t#e a(ility to
model a t#ree%4#ase ,eeder in com4lete detail durin' ,ault conditions is
im4erati)e? Some re4resentation o, load is also called ,or? Howe)er, traditional 4ower
,low models will (e inade2uate once t#e )olta'e dro4s
(elow => 4ercent or so?
Anot#er ,eature is t#e a(ility to scan t#rou'# a ran'e o, 4ossi(le
,ault locations and ma'nitudes 2uic+ly? T#ere may (e #undreds o, ,ault
e)ents 4er year to (e e)aluated? Alt#ou'# modern com4uters are
(ecomin' )ery ,ast, com(inin' t#is need wit# t#e detailed circuit modPower Quality
*enc#mar+in' 381
*REA<ER
/EEER PQ
.ONITOR
SE0.ENT
C!RRENT
.ONITOR
REC1OSER
/!SE
C!STO.ER%SIE
PQ .ONITOR
.onitors seein'
,ault current
1imit searc#
to t#is area
N? O?
/i'ure :?1- Intelli'ently limitin' t#e searc# area ,or 4ossi(le ,ault locations?
elin' ca4a(ility creates an a44lication t#at is 2uite ta7in' com4utationally? Ne)ert#eless,
use,ul calculations can (e 4er,ormed wit#in a
reasona(le time on modern 4ersonal com4uters?
One sim4lication t#at eases t#e com4utation and modelin' (urden is
to model only a ,ew ser)ice trans,ormers e74licitly? Sometimes it is su,,icient to model
only one e7am4le o, eac# ty4e o, trans,ormer connection ,ound on t#e system? T#is will
'i)e a reasona(ly 'ood accountin'
o, t#e 4#ase%s#i,tin' e,,ect o, t#e connection wit#out #a)in' to model
eac# indi)idual trans,ormer?
1i+ewise, classes o, loads may (e lum4ed? 1oads wit# lar'e amounts
o, rotatin' mac#ines will o,ten #a)e a tendency to counter t#e e,,ects o,
un(alanced )olta'e sa's, w#ile resisti)e loads are relati)ely 4assi)e?
.odelin' at least one o, eac# class will o,ten 4ro)ide a 'ood 4icture o,
t#e )olta'es e74erienced (y end users? O, course, t#e solution en'ine
must (e ca4a(le o, 4ro)idin' suita(le models ,or t#ese loads?
:?: Includin' Power Quality in istri(ution
Plannin'
T#e traditional a44roac# to distri(ution system 4lannin' calls ,or t#e
most economical system u4'rades, timed to meet 4roAected increases in
4ea+ load? T#e main dri)er is relia(ility? !nless t#e utility #as entered
into PQ contracts wit# se)ere 4enalties, 4ower 2uality is not e74licitly
included in 4lannin' decisions?
Howe)er, PQ considerations may Austi,y modi,yin' t#e in)estment
4lan to 4ro)ide (etter 2uality o, ser)ice as well as su,,icient ca4acity
and relia(ility?
1:V->
I, t#e costs ,or lost 4roduction, cleanu4, and e2ui4ment dama'e were included to some
de'ree, it is more li+ely t#at t#e
in)estment 4lan c#osen would (ene,it (ot# t#e utility and t#e customers? T#e indices
descri(ed 4re)iously 4ro)ide a means o, 2uanti,yin' 4ower 2uality and s#ould 4ro)e
use,ul ,or e)aluatin' 4lannin'
o4tions w#ere t#e ser)ice 2uality is o, #i'# )alue? T#e c#allen'e is to
com4ute t#em ,rom 4redicti)e models rat#er t#an #istorical data?
:?:?1 Plannin' 4rocess
/i'ure :?13 is one way to com4are t#e 'eneral utility in)estment 4lannin' criteria wit#
(ot# traditional and com4etiti)e criteria? T#e traditional criteria assume t#e customerFs
cost o, unser)ed load is )ery #i'#,
so t#e (est decision is w#at can ser)e t#e e74ected 4ea+ load at minimum cost to t#e
utility? T#is is o,ten called least%cost 4lannin'?T#e ris+
t#at t#e 4ea+ load will di,,er ,rom t#e ,orecast #as (een assumed (y t#e
utility rate4ayers, so 4lannin' errors tend to (e on t#e conser)ati)e
side? T#e utility in)ests in more ca4acity t#an actually needed at a
'i)en time to +ee4 a#ead o, t#e load 'rowt#?
38- C#a4ter Ei'#t
In a com4etiti)e (usiness en)ironment, t#e utility must assume
more o, t#e ris+ o, uneconomical in)estments, w#ile (ot# customers
and t#e utility s#are t#e ris+s o, unser)ed load? T#is leads to consideration o, customer
dama'e costs in t#e 4lannin' decision s#own (y t#e
das#ed cur)e in /i'? :?13? As t#e ca4acity o, t#e system increases, t#ere
is li+ely to (e less customer cost due to outa'es? T#e o4timal 4lannin'
decision would t#eoretically minimi@e t#e !%s#a4ed total%cost cur)e
Ce7a''erated ,or clarityD in /i'? :?13? I, customer costs were #i'#er, t#e
o4timal system ca4acity 4oint would (e s#i,ted to t#e ri'#t? "#ile t#is
new decision may (e more economical o)erall, t#e utility may ,ind it
di,,icult to accurately estimate t#e customer dama'e costs to Austi,y
(uildin' less ca4acity? T#is mi'#t (e #ard to Austi,y e)en i, customer
costs are +nown to (e lower? In t#is section, we are mainly interested
in loo+in' at more costly in)estments t#at mi'#t (e Austi,ied (ased on
costs to end users wit# sensiti)e loads?
T#e 4lannin' decision in /i'? :?13 is mainly dri)en (y system ca4acity, w#ic# indirectly
relates to relia(ility? Power 2uality im4acts are an
im4ortant, (ut secondary, ,actor? To incor4orate ca4acity and PQ costs
in t#e same 4lannin' 4rocess, only t#e in)estments t#at im4ro)e 4ower
2uality o)er t#e w#ole system, a,,ectin' more t#an one customer, are
considered? I, t#ere are locali@ed PQ 4ro(lems, or Aust one #i'#%)alue
customer, it (ecomes more a44ro4riate to consider 4oint solutions or
e)en dedicated ,eeders?
/i'ure :?15 s#ows a 4lannin' ,ramewor+ t#at can su44ort 4lannin'
wit# PQ and ot#er additional considerations? T#e (ase case is t#e e7istPower Quality
*enc#mar+in' 383
!tility Cost
Customer Cost
Total Cost
Pea+ Plannin'
Pea+ Plannin' ecision
.in Total Cost
>?>>
-?>>
5?>>
8?>>
:?>>
1>?>>
1-?>>
15?>>
18?>>
1:?>>
->?>>
Cost
>?>> -?>> 5?>> 8?>> :?>> 1>?>>
Ca4acity C."D
/i'ure :?13 Costs im4actin' t#e 4lannin' decision?
in' system wit# no 4lanned in)estmentsJ t#e so%called do%not#in' case?
System 4er,ormance is t#en simulated o)er t#e 4lannin' #ori@on, ty4ically 6 to 1> years
to re,lect t#e ris+ier (usiness en)ironment ,or utilities? !tility incremental costs mi'#t (e
set at @ero in t#e (ase case, or
t#ey mi'#t include )e'etation control and ,ault restoration costs i, t#ose
will (e under study later on? In eac# year, t#e system PQ 4er,ormance
is calculated and t#e customer dama'e cost is accumulated o)er t#e
study system? T#e dama'e cost is a 4roduct o, t#e system 4er,ormance
indices at eac# load (us, and t#e customer costs corres4ondin' to eac#
inde7? To sim4li,y t#e study, t#ese costs mi'#t only include #i'#%)alue
customer loads ,or w#ic# reasona(le cost estimates can (e determined?
At t#e end o, t#e 4lannin' #ori@on simulation, t#e net 4resent )alue o,
t#e total utility%4lus%customer cost is e)aluated? T#is (ecomes t#e cost
o, t#e (ase case, or do%not#in' case? Any attracti)e 4lannin' o4tion
must #a)e a net 4resent )alue o, total cost less t#an t#e (ase case?
To consider desi'n alternati)es ,or im4ro)ed 4ower 2uality, t#e 4lanner sc#edules new
in)estments, c#an'es 4rotecti)e de)ice settin's,
385 C#a4ter Ei'#t
E7istin'
System E7istin'
1oads
AdAust
1oads
Ne7t ;ear
.odi,y
System
In)estment
Sc#edule,
O`.
PQ
Simulators
Total
Cost
/ault
Rates
!tility
Cost
PQ
Indices
Customer
PQ Cost
0rowt#
Rates
1oad
1e)els
PQ Cate'ory
Costs
1oo4 o)er
Plannin'
Hori@on
Starts wit#
o%Not#in'
Case
/i'ure :?15 Power 2uality 4lannin' 4rocessPt#ic+ arrows s#ow in4uts wit# si'ni,icant
uncertainty?
c#an'es t#e )e'etation control 4ractice, etc? Some c#an'es a,,ect t#e
,ault rates, some a,,ect restoration times, some alter t#e (ase system,
and some may result in sc#eduled system u4'rade in)estments? T#e
system is simulated a'ain o)er t#e 4lannin' #ori@on wit# t#ese
c#an'es, and a new 4resent wort# o, total cost is calculated? Note t#at
t#e customer load 'rowt# and cost data s#ould not (e c#an'ed durin'
t#is simulation, (ut t#ey may (e altered w#ile assessin' t#e ris+ o, di,,erent 4lannin'
scenarios?
T#is 4rocess may also (e used to e)aluate distri(ution 'eneration,
demand%side mana'ement CS.D, and distri(ution automation CAD
(y incor4oratin' t#e a44ro4riate simulators?
:?:?- Ris+ )ersus e74ected )alue
T#e (asic 4lannin' 4rocess in /i'? :?15 is tailored to minimi@in' t#e
e74ected )alue o, total cost? T#is is t#e most common 4ractice today,
(ut it s#ould (e adAusted to (etter consider ris+?
-1
T#e 4lannin' decision is (ased on uncertain ,orecasts, to w#ic#
4ro(a(ilities can (e assi'ned? A,ter t#e 4assa'e o, time, t#e actual
4lannin' scenario will (ecome +nown, and t#e o4timal solution will
also (e +nown? It is not li+ely t#at t#e o4timal solution will (e c#osen,
nor is it li+ely t#at errors in t#e 4lannin' decision can (e com4letely
corrected? T#ere,ore, t#ere will (e a de)iation (etween t#e actual cost
and t#e o4timal cost as inducti)ely determined? T#e ty4ical cost minimi@ation is
e2ui)alent to minimi@in' t#e linear norm o, actual de)iations ,rom t#e o4timal solution?
An e7treme ris+%(ased a44roac#
would minimi@e t#e in,inity norm o, actual de)iations ,rom t#e o4timal solutionJ in ot#er
words, it would minimi@e t#e ma7imum re'ret
t#at mi'#t occur? An intermediate a44roac# would use t#e 4o4ular
euclidean norm to minimi@e t#e s2uare o, de)iations ,rom t#e o4timal?
*ot# t#e e74ected )alue and t#e ris+%(ased a44roac#es re2uire 4ro(a(ility estimates ,or
t#e )arious 4lannin' ,orecasts, (ut t#e 2uantity
minimi@ed is di,,erent?
E74ected )alue minimi@ation wor+s well w#en re4eated trials can (e
4er,ormed to mas+ undesira(le results? /or lar'e in)estments in a
com4etiti)e (usiness en)ironment, #owe)er, a ris+%(ased minimi@ation
is 4ro(a(ly more a44ro4riate?
:?:?3 System simulation tools
T#e data re2uirements and analytical com4le7ity ,or simulation so,tware in t#is 4lannin'
met#od ran'e ,rom sim4le (ut uncertain, ,or
lon'%term ca4acity 4lannin', to more detailed and com4le7, ,or desi'n
and o4erational studies? Power 2uality data and analysis re2uirements
tend toward more detail, e)en ,or 4lannin' studies?
Ca4acity 4lannin'? A 4ositi)e%se2uence load ,low 4ro'ram, wit# (alanced load models,
can ade2uately su44ort traditional ca4acity 4lannin' studies? T#e result o, t#ese studies
would (e a sc#edule o,
in)estments in new ca4acity to ser)e e74ected load 'rowt#? T#e maAor
in)estments traditionally include su(stations, trans,ormers, and ,eeders? T#e sc#edule
mi'#t call ,or su(stantial u4'rades to e7istin' ,acilities or ,or (rand new construction?
istri(uted 'eneration #as recently
(een considered as an alternati)e to in)estments in su(stations, trans,ormers, and ,eeders?
T#is may re2uire a new 'enerator model, (ut in
ot#er res4ects t#e e7istin' so,tware would already (e ade2uate?
/ault analysis? To include rms )ariation im4acts in t#e 4lannin'
4rocess, it will (e necessary to construct an e74licit 4#ase%(y%4#ase system model? T#e
rms )olta'e )ariation ma'nitudes com4uted ,rom simulations will (e more accurate w#en
,ull multi4#ase models are used?
/or steady%state )olta'e un(alance, #armonic distortion, and transient
o)er)olta'es, t#e accurate 4#ase im4edances are e)en more im4ortant?
/or all ty4es o, )ariations, t#e loads must (e modeled 4er 4#ase?
T#e customer ser)ice trans,ormers must also (e modeled, wit#
e74licit windin' connections, in order to calculate rms )ariations? T#is
may (e a new data re2uirement ,or t#e utility? "#ile Euro4ean systems
tend to #a)e t#e same .& and 1& connection t#rou'#out, ot#ers, 4articularly Nort#
American systems, use many di,,erent connections? T#e
customer trans,ormer data may already (e a)aila(le ,or #i'#%)alue
customers, ,or use in utility%customer de)ice coordination studies?
Smaller customers can (e a''re'ated (y ty4e o, ser)ice trans,ormer
and 4#ase connection?
Harmonics and transients? Harmonics and transients re4resent an
additional le)el o, com4le7ity in PQ simulation? One area w#ere t#ere
is an interestin' 4lannin' issue is in t#e relations#i4 (etween ca4acitors and #armonics?
!tilities routinely add ca4acitors to increase system ca4acity? Ot#ers re2uire end users to
correct t#e 4ower ,actor o,
t#eir loads to reduce demand on t#e system? Eit#er can result in serious #armonic
resonance 4ro(lems? O, course, simulatin' t#ese can (e
time%consumin'? It is not clear w#en it will (e 4ossi(le to #a)e su,,icient tools and data to
routinely include t#ese 4#enomena in t#e 4lannin' cycle e74licitly? Alt#ou'# t#ere are
tools ,or scannin' 4ro4osed
4lans ,or #armonic 4ro(lems, most utilities will c#oose to address t#ese
issue a,ter t#ey arise?
:?:?5 /ault incidence rates
One o, t#e +ey in4uts to rms )olta'e )ariation simulation is t#e incidence rate ,or
di,,erent +inds o, ,aults? T#e sim4lest a44roac# is to use
388 C#a4ter Ei'#t
an a)era'e ,ault rate 4er unit len't# o, line, wit# an a)era'e 4ercenta'e o, 4ermanent
,aults and a nominal ,ault resistance (ased on system desi'n c#aracteristics? In t#e !nited
States, >?>8 ,aultO+m C>?1
,aultOmiD 4er year is commonly assumed, wit# a(out -> 4ercent o, t#e
,aults (ein' 4ermanent? T#e ,ault resistance is ty4ically ,rom 1 to 6 ,
alt#ou'# some utilities may use as #i'# as -> ?
/or 4lannin' studies, it is im4ortant to se're'ate ,aults caused (y
li'#tnin' ,rom ,aults caused (y )e'etation? T#is can (e done (y outa'e
data analysis, (y li'#tnin' 4er,ormance simulation, or (y usin' t#e
results o, wor+ in 4ro'ress on )e'etation%induced ,aults? "it# se4arate
,ault cate'ories, it (ecomes 4ossi(le to simulate t#e e,,ect o, in)estin'
in im4ro)ed li'#tnin' 4rotection suc# as line arresters, more )e'etation control, and
(etter ,ault%locatin' e2ui4ment on t#e systemFs PQ
4er,ormance? "it#out se4arate ,ault cate'ories, some o, t#e im4ortant
PQ im4ro)ement met#ods cannot (e e)aluated ,or 4lannin' 4ur4oses?
T#e model s#ould also include a se4arate cate'ory ,or ,aults on t#e
su(transmission or transmission system CH& systemD, (ecause t#ese
,aults are not miti'ated (y some o, t#e countermeasures t#at wor+ ,or
,aults on distri(ution ,eeders?
:?:?6 O)ercurrent de)ice res4onse
A +ey com4onent o, rms )olta'e )ariation simulation is t#e res4onse o,
t#e o)ercurrent 4rotecti)e de)ice system? Eac# ,eeder se'ment is
assumed to e74erience ,aults at some annual rate? T#e ,aults can (e
su(di)ided accordin' to 4#ases in)ol)ed, 4ercenta'e o, tem4orary
,aults, ,ault resistance, etc? T#is can result in di,,erent se2uences o,
e)ents and 4atterns o, rms )ariations?
T#e (e#a)ior o, utility ,ault%clearin' de)ices can (e 2uite com4licated? /i'ure :?16 s#ows
one al'orit#m ,or 4er,ormin' t#e simulation
,or a s4eci,ic ,ault location and ty4e? It uses a 4riority 2ueue to esta(lis# t#e o)ercurrent
de)ice o4eratin' time? A detailed, multi4#ase
s#ort%circuit al'orit#m calculates t#e load )olta'es and 4rotecti)e
de)ice currents w#ile t#e ,ault is a44lied? Eac# 4rotecti)e de)ice in t#e
system uses t#e calculated currents and )olta'es to 4redict t#e ne7t
state c#an'e ,or t#at de)ice and 4us#es t#e time o, t#at state c#an'e
onto t#e 4riority 2ueue o, de)ice e)ents? A,ter all 4rotecti)e de)ices
#a)e (een analy@ed, t#e e)ent wit# #i'#est 4riority Clowest timeD is
e7ecuted? T#at de)ice c#an'es state (etween o4en and closed, c#an'in' t#e circuit model?
All t#e ot#er de)ices use t#e actual time o, t#e
state c#an'e to u4date t#eir internal states usin' t#e calculated currents and )olta'es? T#e
4riority 2ueue o, de)ice e)ents is cleared, and
t#e ,ault currents and )olta'es are recalculated ,or t#e new circuit
to4olo'y? T#e simulation o, t#e ,ault ends w#en t#ere are no e)ents
4us#ed onto t#e 4riority 2ueue (y any o, t#e de)ices? T#e ,ault itsel, is
a Gde)iceH and may 4us# a clearin' time ,or tem4orary ,aults, w#ene)er
t#e ,ault #as (een deener'i@ed (y a de)ice o4enin'?
T#e calculated load )olta'es and e)ent durations are used to determine interru4tions and
rms )ariations accordin' to t#e de,inition
descri(ed in t#is c#a4ter? "#en t#e ,ault simulation ends, all t#e load
costs are calculated and t#e ne7t ,ault ty4e and location are considered?
T#e ,ollowin' (rie,ly descri(es #ow t#e 4rotecti)e de)ices are #andled? All de)ices are
assumed to o4erate correctly, e7ce4t ,or relay
38: C#a4ter Ei'#t
A44ly /ault
/ault
Analysis
Calculate StateC#an'e Time
!4date e)ice
State
New Circuit
.odel
Currents,
&olta'es
Switc#in'
All
e)ices
All
e)ices
Pus#
E)ent
Priority
Queue
/irst%E)ent
Time
Clear
Queue
Ne7t /ault I, No
.ore E)ents
/i'ure :?16 E)ent%(ased ,ault simulation usin' a 4riority 2ueue?
o)ertra)el and sym4at#etic tri44in', since t#is can circum)ent measures ta+en
s4eci,ically to im4ro)e 4ower 2uality?
Circuit (rea+er wit# relay? A circuit (rea+er will sc#edule an o4enin'
e)ent i, its currents, adAusted (y t#e associated current trans,ormer
ratio, e7ceed t#e associated relay 4ic+u4 settin'? I, t#e relay #as an
instantaneous settin' and t#e current e7ceeds t#at le)el, t#e e)ent
time will (e t#e relay instantaneous 4ic+u4 time 4lus t#e (rea+er
clearin' time? Ot#erwise, t#e e)ent time will de4end on t#e relayFs
time%current c#aracteristic? I, t#e relay is o, t#e de,inite%time ty4e, t#is
will (e a constant relay settin' 4lus (rea+er clearin' time? I, t#e relay
is o, t#e in)erse ty4e, t#is will (e a current%de4endent time 4lus t#e
(rea+er clearin' time? "e use a44ro7imate time%current cur)es ,or
(ot# relays and reclosers?
I, t#e ,ault current is remo)ed (e,ore t#e (rea+er o4ens, an internal
relay tra)el state )aria(le is u4dated? T#is may 4roduce a sym4at#etic
tri4 due to relay inertia? I, no sym4at#etic tri4 is 4redicted, an e)ent
,or ,ull reset is t#en 4us#ed onto t#e 4riority 2ueue?
T#e circuit (rea+er may #a)e one or two reclosure settin's? I, t#e
(rea+er #as o4ened, it will sc#edule a closin' o4eration at t#e a44ro4riate time? In case
t#ere are su(se2uent e)ents ,rom ot#er de)ices, t#e
(rea+er model must mana'e an internal state )aria(le o, time accumulated toward t#e
reclose o4eration? T#e time (etween o4enin' and
reclosin' is a constant? Once t#e (rea+er recloses, it ,ollows t#e de,ined
,ault%clearin' (e#a)ior? T#ere may (e two reclosin's, at di,,erent time
settin's, (e,ore t#e (rea+er loc+s out and 4us#es no more e)ents?
/ault? A 4ermanent ,ault will not sc#edule any e)ents ,or t#e 4riority
2ueue, (ut will #a)e an associated re4air time? Any customers wit#out
4ower at t#e end o, t#e ,ault simulation will e74erience a sustained
interru4tion, o, duration e2ual to t#e re4air time?
A tem4orary ,ault will sc#edule a clearin' e)ent w#ene)er its )olta'e
is @ero? "#ene)er t#e ,ault is reener'i@ed (e,ore clearin', any accumulated clearin' time
is reset to @ero? !4on clearin', t#e ,ault switc#
state c#an'es ,rom closed to o4en, and t#en t#e ,ault simulation must
continue to account ,or su(se2uent de)ice reclosures?
/use? A ,use will o4en w#en t#e ,ault current and time a44lied 4enetrate t#e minimum
meltin' cur)e, or w#en t#e I
-
t4roduct reac#es t#e
minimum meltin' I
-
t?"e use minimum meltrat#er t#an total clearin'
timein order to (e conser)ati)e in studies o, ,use sa)in'J t#is would not
(e a44ro4riate ,or de)ice coordination studies? E74ulsion ,uses are
modeled wit# a s4line ,it to t#e manu,acturerFs time%current cur)e,
w#ile current%limitin' ,uses are modeled wit# I
-
t?In (ot# cases, i, t#e
,ault is interru4ted (e,ore t#e ,use melts, an internal 4re#eatin' state
)aria(le is u4dated in case t#e ,ault is rea44lied? Howe)er, we do not
s4eci,ically trac+ 4ossi(le ,use dama'e durin' t#e simulation?
I, t#e ,use currents will 4enetrate t#e time%current cur)e or minimum meltin' I
-
t,t#en a ,use meltin' time is 4us#ed onto t#e 4riority
2ueue? I, t#e ,use currents are too low to melt t#e ,use, no e)ent is
4us#ed? Once t#e ,use o4ens, downstream customers will e74erience a
sustained interru4tion e2ual to t#e ,use re4air time?
Recloser? T#e recloser model is )ery similar to t#e circuit (rea+er wit#
relay model 4re)iously discussed? T#e main di,,erences are t#at t#e
recloser can #a)e u4 to ,our tri4s durin' t#e ,ault se2uence, and two
di,,erent time%current cur)es can (e used?
Sectionali@er? A sectionali@er will count t#e num(er o, times t#e current dro4s to @ero and
will o4en a,ter t#is count reac#es a num(er t#at
can )ary ,rom 1 to 3? T#e de)ice will not o4en under eit#er load or ,ault
current?
:?:?8 Customer dama'e costs
Customer dama'e costs are determined (y sur)ey, PQ contract
amounts, or actual s4endin' on miti'ation? In terms o, +ilowatt#ours
unser)ed, estimates ran'e ,rom M-O+"# to more t#an M6>O+"#? A ty4ical cost ,or an
a)era'e ,eeder wit# some industrial and commercial
load is M5 to M8O+"#? /or a44ro7imatin' 4ur4oses, wei'#tin' ,actors
can (e used to e7tend t#ese costs to momentary interru4tions and rms
)ariations assumin' t#at t#e e)ent #as caused an e2ui)alent amount
o, unser)ed ener'y? Alternati)ely, one can use a model similar to t#e
e7am4le in Sec? :?6, w#ic# (asically is (ased on e)ent count? A)era'e
costs 4er e)ent ,or a wide ran'e o, customer classes are ty4ically stated
in t#e ran'e o, M3>>> to M1>,>>>?
"it# suc# #i'# cost )alues, customer dama'e costs will dri)e t#e
4lannin' decisions? Howe)er, t#ese costs are )ery uncertain? Sur)eys
#a)e (een relati)ely consistent, (ut t#e costs are seldom G)eri,iedH wit#
customer 4ayments to im4ro)e relia(ility or 4ower 2uality? /or e7am4le, a''re'atin' t#e
e,,ect on a lar'e num(er o, residential customers
may indicate a si'ni,icant dama'e cost, (ut t#ere is no e)idence t#at
residential customers will 4ay any additional amount ,or im4ro)ed
4ower 2uality, in s4ite o, t#e sur)eys? T#ere may (e a loss o, 'oodwill,
(ut t#is is a so,t cost? Plannin' s#ould ,ocus on #i'#%)alue customers
,or w#ic# t#e dama'e costs are more )eri,ia(le?
Costs ,or ot#er ty4es o, PQ distur(ances are less de,ined? /or e7am4le, t#e economic
e,,ect o, lon'%term steady%state )olta'e un(alance on
39> C#a4ter Ei'#t
motors is not well +nown, alt#ou'# it li+ely causes 4remature ,ailures?
1i+ewise, t#e costs are not well esta(lis#ed ,or #armonic distortion and
transients t#at do not cause load tri44in'?
T#e costs may (e s4eci,ied 4er num(er o, customers Cresidential,
small commercialD, (y ener'y ser)ed, or (y 4ea+ demand? I, t#e cost is
s4eci,ied (y 4ea+ demand, it s#ould (e wei'#ted usin' a load duration
cur)e? /or steady%state )olta'e, #armonic distortion, and transients,
t#e load )ariation s#ould (e included in t#e electrical simulations, (ut
t#is is not necessary ,or sustained interru4tions and rms )ariations?
Se)eral e7am4les and al'orit#m descri4tions are 4ro)ided in t#e
EPRIPower Quality ,or istri(ution Plannin're4ort
1= s#owin' #ow
t#e 4lannin' met#od can (e used ,or ma+in' decisions a(out )arious
in)estments ,or im4ro)in' t#e 4ower 2uality? "eF)e addressed only t#e
ti4 o, t#e ice(er' #ere (ut #o4e,ully #a)e 4ro)ided some ins4iration ,or
readers?
:?= Re,erences
1? EPRI TR%1>8-=5%&-, An Assessment o, istri(ution System Power Quality?&ol? -:
Statistical Summary Re4ort,Electric Power Researc# Institute, Palo Alto, Cali,?,
.ay 1==8?
-? .? .c0rana'#an, A? .ansoor, A? Sundaram, R? 0illes+ie, GEconomic E)aluation
Procedure ,or Assessin' Power Quality Im4ro)ement Alternati)es,H Proceedin's o,
PQA Nort# America,Colum(us, O#io, 1==9?
3? aniel *roo+s, *ill Howe, Esta(lis#in' PQ *enc#mar+s,E Source, *oulder, Colo?,
.ay ->>>?
5? EPRI TR%1>9=3:, EPRI Relia(ility *enc#mar+in' .et#odolo'y,EPRI, Palo Alto,
Cali,?, 1==9?
6? IEEE Standard 1388%1==:, IEEE 0uide ,or Electric Power istri(ution Relia(ility
Indices?
8? ? ? Sa(in, T? E? 0re(e, .? /? .c0rana'#an, A? Sundaram, GStatistical Analysis o,
&olta'e i4s and Interru4tionsP/inal Results ,rom t#e EPRI istri(ution System
Power Quality .onitorin' Sur)ey,H Proceedin's 16t# International Con,erence on
Electricity istri(ution CCIRE F==D,Nice, /rance, Yune 1===?
9? IEEE Standard 116=%1==6, IEEE Recommended Practice on .onitorin' Electric
Power?
:? an Sa(in, GIndices !sed to Assess R.S &ariations,H 4resentation at t#e Summer
Power .eetin' o, IEEE PES and IAS Tas+ /orce on Standard P1658, &olta'e Sa'
Indices, Edmonton, Al(erta, Canada, 1===?
=? ? 1? *roo+s, R? C? u'an, .? "aclawia+, A? Sundaram, GIndices ,or Assessin'
!tility istri(ution System R.S &ariation Per,ormance,H IEEE Transactions on
Power eli)ery,PE%=->%P"R%1%>5%1==9?
1>? IEEE Standard 61=%1==-, IEEE Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems?
11? A? E? Emanuel, Y? Yanc@a+, ? Y? Pile''i, E? .? 0ulac#ens+i, Gistri(ution /eeders
wit# Nonlinear 1oads in t#e NE !SA: Part I? &olta'e istortion /orecast,H IEEE
Transactions on Power eli)ery,&ol? 1>, No? 1, Yanuary 1==6, 44? 35>V359?
1-? *arry "? <ennedy, Power Quality Primer,.c0raw%Hill, New ;or+, ->>>?
13? .? /? .c0rana'#an, *? "? <ennedy, et? al?, Power Quality Standards and
S4eci,ications "or+(oo+,*onne)ille Power Administration, Portland, Ore'?, 1==5?
15? Andy etlo,,, aniel Sa(in, GPower Quality Per,ormance Com4onent o, t#e S4ecial
.anu,acturin' Contracts (etween Power Pro)ider and Customer,H Proceedin's o, t#e
ICHPQ Con,erence,Orlando, /la?, ->>>?
16? S#muel S? Oren, Yose4# A? oucet, GInterru4tion Insurance ,or 0eneration and
istri(ution o, Power 0eneration,H Yournal o, Re'ulatory Economics, &ol? -, 1==>,
44? 6V1=?
18? Yose4# A? oucet, S#muel S? Oren, GOnsite *ac+u4 0eneration and Interru4tion
Insurance ,or Electricity istri(ution,H T#e Ener'y Yournal,&ol? 1-, No? 5, 1==1, 44?
9=V=3?
19? .esut E? *aran, Art#ur "? <elley, GState Estimation ,or Real%Time .onitorin' o,
istri(ution Systems,H IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,&ol? =, No? 3, Au'ust
1==5, 44? 18>1V18>=?
1:? T? E? .cermott, R? C? u'an, 0? Y? *all, GA .et#odolo'y ,or Includin' Power
Quality Concerns in istri(ution Plannin',H EPQ! o==,<ra+ow, Poland, 1===?
1=? EPRI TR%11>358, Power Quality ,or istri(ution Plannin',EPRI, Palo Alto, CA,
A4ril 1==:?
->? .? T? *is#o4, C? A? .cCart#y, &? 0? Rose, E? <? Stane+, GConsiderin' .omentary
and
Sustained Relia(ility Indices in t#e esi'n o, istri(ution /eeder O)ercurrent
Protection,HProceedin's o, 1=== IEEE T` Con,erence,New Orleans, 1a?, 1===, 44?
->8V-11?
-1? &? .iranda, 1? .? Proenca, GPro(a(ilistic C#oice )s? Ris+ AnalysisPCon,licts and
Synt#esis in Power System Plannin',H IEEE Transactions on Power Systems,&ol? 13,
No? 3, Au'ust 1==:, 44? 1>3:V1>53?
:?1> *i(lio'ra4#y
Sa(in, ? ?, *roo+s, ? 1?, Sundaram, A?, GIndices ,or Assessin' Harmonic istortion
,rom Power Quality .easurements: e,initions and *enc#mar+ ata?H IEEE
Transactions on Power eli)ery,&ol? 15, No? -, A4ril 1===, 44? 5:=V5=8?
EPRI Relia(ility *enc#mar+in' A44lication 0uide ,or !tilityOCustomer PQ Indices,
EPRI, Palo Alto, Cali,?, 1===?
39- C#a4ter Ei'#t
393
istri(uted 0eneration
and Power Quality
.any in)ol)ed in 4ower 2uality #a)e also (ecome in)ol)ed in distri(uted 'eneration
C0D (ecause t#ere is considera(le o)erla4 in t#e two
tec#nolo'ies? T#ere,ore, it is )ery a44ro4riate to include a c#a4ter on
t#is to4ic?
As t#e name im4lies, 0 uses smaller%si@ed 'enerators t#an does t#e
ty4ical central station 4lant? T#ey are distri(uted t#rou'#out t#e
4ower system closer to t#e loads? T#e term smaller%si@edcan a44ly to a
wide ran'e o, 'enerator si@es? *ecause t#is (oo+ is 4rimarily concerned
wit# 4ower 2uality o, t#e 4rimary and secondary distri(ution system,
t#e discussion o, 0 will (e con,ined to 'enerator si@es less t#an 1>
."? 0enerators lar'er t#an t#is are ty4ically interconnected at transmission )olta'es
w#ere t#e system is desi'ned to accommodate many
'enerators?
T#e normal distri(ution system deli)ers electric ener'y t#rou'#
wires ,rom a sin'le source o, 4ower to a multitude o, loads? T#us, se)eral 4ower 2uality
issues arise w#en t#ere are multi4le sources? "ill
0 im4ro)e t#e 4ower 2uality or will it de'rade t#e ser)ice end users
#a)e come to e74ect$ T#ere are ar'uments su44ortin' eac# side o, t#is
2uestion, and se)eral o, t#e issues t#at arise are e7amined #ere?
=?1 Resur'ence o, 0
/or more t#an 9 decades, t#e norm ,or t#e electric 4ower industry in
de)elo4ed nations #as (een to 'enerate 4ower in lar'e, centrali@ed 'eneratin' stations and
to distri(ute t#e 4ower to end users t#rou'# trans,ormers, transmission lines, and
distri(ution lines? T#is is o,ten
C#a4ter
=
collecti)ely re,erred to as t#e GwiresH system in 0 literature? In essence,
t#is (oo+ descri(es w#at can 'o wron' wit# deli)ery o, 4ower (y wires?
T#e ori'inal electrical 4ower systems, consistin' o, relati)ely small
'enerators con,i'ured in isolated islands, used 0? T#at model 'a)e
way to t#e 4resent centrali@ed system lar'ely (ecause o, economies o,
scale? Also, t#ere was t#e desire to se2uester electricity 'eneration
,acilities away ,rom 4o4ulation centers ,or en)ironmental reasons and
to locate t#em closer to t#e source o, ,uel and water?
T#e 4assa'e o, t#e Pu(lic !tilities Re'ulatory Act o, 1=9: CP!RPAD
in t#e !nited States in 1=9: was intended to ,oster ener'y inde4endence? Ta7 credits were
'i)en, and 4ower was 4urc#ased at a)oidedcost rates to s4ur de)elo4ment o, renewa(le
and ener'y%e,,icient,
low%emissions tec#nolo'ies? T#is led to a s4urt in t#e de)elo4ment o,
wind, solar, and 'eot#ermal 'eneration as well as 'as%,ired co'eneration Ccom(ined #eat
and 4owerD ,acilities? In t#e mid%1==>s, interest in
0 once a'ain 4ea+ed wit# t#e de)elo4ment o, im4ro)ed 0 tec#nolo'ies and t#e
dere'ulation o, t#e 4ower industry allowin' more 4ower
4roducers to 4artici4ate in t#e mar+et? Also, t#e a44earance o, critical
#i'#%tec#nolo'y loads re2uirin' muc# 'reater relia(ility t#an can (e
ac#ie)ed (y wire deli)ery alone #as created a demand ,or local 'eneration and stora'e to
,ill t#e 'a4?
Some ,uturists see a return to a #i'#%tec# )ersion o, t#e ori'inal
4ower system model? New tec#nolo'ies would allow t#e 'eneration to
(e as widely dis4ersed as t#e load and interconnected 4ower 'rids could
(e small Ci?e?, micro'ridsD? T#e 'eneration would (e 4owered (y renewa(le resources or
clean%(urnin', #i'#%e,,iciency tec#nolo'ies? Ener'y
distri(ution will (e s#i,ted ,rom wires to 4i4es containin' some ty4e o,
,uel, w#ic# many t#in+ will ultimately (e #ydro'en? How t#e industry
mo)es ,rom its 4resent state to t#is ,uture, i, it can at all, is o4en to
2uestion? Recent e,,orts to dere'ulate electric 4ower #a)e (een aimed
not only at ac#ie)in' (etter 4rices ,or 4ower (ut at ena(lin' new tec#nolo'ies? Howe)er,
it is (y no means certain t#at t#e 4ower industry
will e)ol)e into 0 sources? es4ite t#e di,,iculties in wire%(ased deli)ery descri(ed in
t#is (oo+, wires are )ery ro(ust com4ared to 'eneration tec#nolo'ies? Once installed,
t#ey remain silently in ser)ice ,or
decades wit# remar+a(ly little maintenance?
=?1?1 Pers4ecti)es on 0 (ene,its
One +ey to understandin' t#e 0 issue is to reco'ni@e t#at t#ere are
multi4le 4ers4ecti)es on e)ery rele)ant issue? To illustrate, we discuss
t#e (ene,its o, 0 ,rom t#ree di,,erent 4ers4ecti)es?
1?End%user 4ers4ecti)e? T#is is w#ere most o, t#e )alue ,or 0 is
,ound today? End users w#o 4lace a #i'# )alue on electric 4ower can
395 C#a4ter Nine
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality
'enerally (ene,it 'reatly (y #a)in' (ac+u4 'eneration to 4ro)ide
im4ro)ed relia(ility? Ot#ers will ,ind su(stantial (ene,it in #i'#%e,,iciency a44lications,
suc# as com(ined #eat and 4ower, w#ere t#e total
ener'y (ill is reduced? End users may also (e a(le to recei)e com4ensation ,or ma+in'
t#eir 'eneration ca4acity a)aila(le to t#e 4ower system in areas w#ere t#ere are 4otential
4ower s#orta'es?
-?istri(ution utility 4ers4ecti)e? T#e distri(ution utility is interested in sellin' 4ower to
end users t#rou'# its e7istin' networ+ o, lines
and su(stations? 0 can (e used ,or transmission and distri(ution
CT`D ca4acity relie,? In most cases, t#is a44lication #as a limited li,e
until t#e load 'rows su,,iciently to Austi,y (uildin' new T` ,acilities?
T#us, 0 ser)es as a #ed'e a'ainst uncertain load 'rowt#? It also can
ser)e as a #ed'e a'ainst #i'# 4rice s4i+es on t#e 4ower mar+et Ci, 4ermitted (y
re'ulatory a'enciesD?
3?Commercial 4ower 4roducer 4ers4ecti)e? T#ose loo+in' at 0
,rom t#is 4ers4ecti)e are mainly interested in sellin' 4ower or ancillary ser)ices into t#e
area 4ower mar+et? In t#e sense t#at 0 is discussed #ere, most units are too small to (id
indi)idually in t#e 4ower
mar+ets? Commercial a''re'ators will (id t#e ca4acities o, se)eral
units? T#e 0 may (e directly interconnected into t#e 'rid or sim4ly
ser)e t#e load o,,%'rid? T#e latter a)oids many o, t#e 4ro(lems associated wit#
interconnection (ut does not allow t#e ,ull ca4acity o, t#e 0
to (e utili@ed?
isad)anta'es o, 0? T#ere are also di,,erent 4ers4ecti)es on t#e disad)anta'es o, 0?
!tilities are concerned wit# 4ower 2uality issues,
and a 'reat deal o, t#e remainder o, t#is c#a4ter is de)oted to t#at concern? End users
s#ould (e mainly concerned a(out costs and maintenance? o end users really want to
o4erate 'enerators$ "ill electricity
actually cost less and (e more relia(le$ "ill 4ower mar+ets continue to
(e ,a)ora(le toward 0$ T#ere are many unanswered 2uestions?
Howe)er, it seems li+ely t#at t#e amount o, 0 interconnected wit#
t#e utility system will continue to increase ,or t#e ,oreseea(le ,uture?
=?1?- Pers4ecti)es on interconnection
T#ere are also o44osin' 4ers4ecti)es on t#e issue o, interconnectin'
0 to t#e utility system? T#is is t#e source o, muc# contro)ersy in
e,,orts to esta(lis# industry standards ,or interconnection? /i'ures =?1
and =?- illustrate t#e )iews o, t#e two +ey o44osin' 4ositions?
/i'ure =?1 de4icts t#e )iew4oint o, end users and 0 owners w#o want
to interconnect to e7tract one or more o, t#e (ene,its 4re)iously mentioned? rawin's
li+e t#is can (e ,ound in many di,,erent 4u(lications
4romotin' t#e use o, 0? T#e im4lied messa'e related to 4ower 2uality
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 396
is t#at t#e 0 is small com4ared to t#e 'rid? T#is 'rou4 o,ten #as t#e
)iew t#at t#e 'rid is a massi)e entity too lar'e to (e a,,ected (y t#eir relati)ely small
'enerator? /or t#is reason, many #a)e a di,,icult time
understandin' w#y utilities (al+ at interconnectin' and )iew t#e utility
re2uirements sim4ly as o(structionist and desi'ned to a)oid com4etition?
Anot#er as4ect o, t#e end%user )iew4oint t#at is not ca4tured in t#is
drawin' is t#at des4ite t#e lar'e mass o, t#e 'rid, it is )iewed as unrelia(le and 4ro)idin'
GdirtyH 4ower? 0 4ro4onent literature o,ten 4ortrays 0 as im4ro)in' t#e relia(ility o,
t#e system Cincludin' t#e 'ridD
and 4ro)idin' (etter%2uality 4ower?
T#e 4ers4ecti)e on interconnected 0 o, ty4ical utility distri(ution
en'ineers, most o, w#om are )ery conser)ati)e in t#eir a44roac# to
4lannin' and o4erations, is ca4tured in /i'? =?-? T#e si@e o, customerowned 0 is
ma'ni,ied to a44ear muc# lar'er t#an its actual si@e, and
it 4roduces dirty 4ower? It is also a little o,,%center in its desi'n, su''estin' t#at it is not
(uilt and maintained as well as utility e2ui4ment?
398 C#a4ter Nine
THE 0RI
1OA
0EN
/i'ure =?1 End%user and 'enerator owner 4ers4ecti)es on interconnection?
1OA
0EN
/i'ure =?- istri(ution 4lanner 4ers4ecti)e on interconnection?
T#ere are elements o, trut# to eac# o, t#ese 4ositions? T#e intent in
t#is (oo+ is not to ta+e sides in t#is de(ate (ut to 4resent t#e issues as
,airly as 4ossi(le w#ile 4ointin' out #ow to sol)e 4ro(lems related to
4ower 2uality?
=?- 0 Tec#nolo'ies
T#e em4#asis o, t#is c#a4ter is on t#e 4ower as4ects o, 0, and only a
cursory descri4tion o, t#e rele)ant issue wit# t#e tec#nolo'ies will (e
'i)en? Readers are re,erred to Re,s? 1 and - ,or more details? Also, t#e
Internet contains a multitude o, resources on 0? A word o, caution: As
wit# all t#in's on t#e Internet, it is 'ood to maintain a #ealt#y s+e4ticism o, any material
,ound t#ere? Pro4onents and mar+eters ,or 4articular tec#nolo'ies #a)e a way o, ma+in'
t#in's seem )ery attracti)e
w#ile ne'lectin' to in,orm t#e reader o, maAor 4it,alls?
=?-?1 Reci4rocatin' en'ine 'enset
T#e most commonly a44lied 0 tec#nolo'y is t#e reci4rocatin' en'ine'enerator set? A
ty4ical unit is s#own in /i'? =?3? T#is tec#nolo'y is 'enerally t#e least e74ensi)e 0
tec#nolo'y, o,ten (y a ,actor o, -?
Reci4rocatin' 'as or diesel en'ines are mature tec#nolo'ies and are
readily a)aila(le?
!tilities currently ,a)or mo(ile 'ensets mounted on trailers so t#at
t#ey can (e mo)ed to sites w#ere t#ey are needed? A common a44lication is to 4ro)ide
su44ort ,or t#e transmission and distri(ution system
in emer'encies? T#e units are 4laced in su(stations and interconnected
to t#e 'rid t#rou'# trans,ormers t#at ty4ically ste4 u4 t#e )olta'e ,rom
t#e 5:> & 4roduced (y t#e 'enerators? .anu,acturers o, t#ese units
#a)e 'eared u4 4roduction in recent years to meet demands to relie)e
se)ere 'rid constraints t#at #a)e occurred in some areas? One side
e,,ect o, t#is is t#at t#e cost o, t#e units #as dro44ed, widenin' t#e cost
'a4 (etween t#is tec#nolo'y and t#e ne7t least costly o4tion, w#ic# is
'enerally some sort o, com(ustion tur(ine?
iesel 'ensets are 2uite 4o4ular wit# end users ,or (ac+u4 4ower?
One o, t#e disad)anta'es o, t#is tec#nolo'y is #i'# NO7and SO7emissions? T#is se)erely
limits t#e num(er o, #ours t#e units, 4articularly
diesels, may o4erate eac# year to 4er#a4s as ,ew as 16>? T#us, t#e main
a44lications will (e ,or 4ea+in' 'eneration and emer'ency (ac+u4?
Natural 'asV,ired en'ines 4roduce ,ewer emissions and can 'enerally (e o4erated se)eral
t#ousand #ours eac# year? T#us, t#ey are 4o4ular in com(ined #eat and 4ower
co'eneration a44lications in sc#ools,
'o)ernment, and commercial (uildin's w#ere t#ey o4erate at least ,or
t#e (usiness day?
T#e unit s#own in /i'? =?3 #as a sync#ronous alternator, w#ic#
would (e t#e most common con,i'uration ,or stand(y and utility 'rid
su44ort a44lications? Howe)er, it is also common to ,ind reci4rocatin'
en'ines wit# induction 'enerators? T#is is 4articularly true ,or co'eneration a44lications
o, less t#an 3>> +" (ecause it is o,ten sim4ler to
meet interconnection re2uirements wit# induction mac#ines t#at are
not li+ely to su44ort islands?
Reci4rocatin' en'ine 'ensets #a)e consistent 4er,ormance c#aracteristics o)er a wide
ran'e o, en)ironmental conditions wit# e,,iciencies in t#e ran'e o, 36 to 5> 4ercent? T#ey
are less sensiti)e to am(ient
conditions t#an com(ustion tur(ines w#ose 4ower e,,iciency declines
considera(ly as t#e outside air tem4erature rises? Howe)er, t#e waste
#eat ,rom a com(ustion tur(ine is at a muc# #i'#er tem4erature t#an
t#at ,rom a reci4rocatin' en'ine? T#us, tur(ines are 'enerally t#e
c#oice ,or com(ined #eat and 4ower a44lications t#at re2uire 4rocess
steam?
=?-?- Com(ustion C'asD tur(ines
Com(ustion tur(ines commonly used in co'eneration a44lications
interconnected to t#e distri(ution system 'enerally ran'e in si@e ,rom
1 to 1> ."? T#e tur(ines commonly turn at s4eeds o, :>>> to 1-,>>>
39: C#a4ter Nine
/i'ure =?3 iesel reci4rocatin' en'ine 'enset? CCourtesy o, Cummins Inc?D
r4m and are 'eared down to t#e s4eed re2uired (y t#e sync#ronous
alternator Cty4ically 1:>> or 38>> r4m ,or 8>%H@ systemsD? !nits o, 1>
." or lar'er in si@e, in eit#er sim4le% or com(ined%cycle con,i'urations, are commonly
,ound connected to t#e transmission 'rid? Natural
'as is a common ,uel, alt#ou'# )arious li2uid ,uels may also (e used?
One new com(ustion tur(ine tec#nolo'yPt#e microtur(ineP#as
(een res4onsi(le ,or some o, t#e renewed interest in 0? /i'ure =?5
s#ows a microtur(ine (ein' em4loyed in a com(ined #eat and 4ower
a44lication wit# t#e #eat e7c#an'er s#own on t#e le,t? One o, t#e maAor
ad)anta'es o, t#is tec#nolo'y is t#at installations are clean and com4act? T#is allows
de4loyment near li)in' and wor+in' areas, alt#ou'#
t#ere may (e some issues wit# t#e #i'#%4itc#ed tur(ine noise in some
en)ironments?
T#e only mo)in' 4art in a microtur(ine is a one%4iece tur(ine wit# a
4ermanent%ma'net rotor? T#e assem(ly s4ins at s4eeds ty4ically ran'in' ,rom 1>,>>> to
1>>,>>> r4m? T#e alternator out4ut is recti,ied to
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 39=
/i'ure =?5 .icrotur(ine in a com(ined #eat and 4ower installation?
CCourtesy o, Ca4stone Tur(ine Cor4oration?D
direct current immediately and ,ed into an in)erter t#at inter,aces
wit# t#e ac electric 4ower system? T#us, t#e c#aracteristic o, t#e microtur(ine t#at is o,
interest to 4ower 2uality en'ineers is t#e res4onse o,
t#e in)erter to system distur(ances?
.icrotur(ines are 4roduced in si@es o, 3> to 96 +", w#ic# are most
commonly matc#ed to small commercial loads? T#ey may (e 4aralleled
in 4ac+s to ac#ie)e #i'#er ratin's? 1ar'er si@es o, a44ro7imately 3>>
to 5>> +" are also (ecomin' a)aila(le and are sometimes called minitur(ines?
.icrotur(ine electricity 'eneration e,,iciency is o,ten claimed to (e
as #i'# as 3> 4ercent, (ut -6 4ercent is a more li+ely )alue? *ecause
o, its low e,,iciency, it is not 'enerally cost com4etiti)e ,or electricity
'eneration alone? Howe)er, w#en teamed wit# an a44ro4riate t#ermal load, net ener'y
e,,iciencies e7ceedin' 8> 4ercent can (e
ac#ie)ed? T#is tec#nolo'y is (est suited ,or com(ined #eat and 4ower
a44lications in small% to medium%si@ed commercial and industrial
,acilities?
T#ere are nic#e a44lications w#ere microtur(ines are used strictly
,or electricity 'eneration? *ecause microtur(ines #a)e com4act 4ac+a'in' and low
emissions, t#ey ma+e con)enient and en)ironmentally
,riendly stand(y and 4ea+in' 'enerators? T#ey are also used in some
(ase load a44licationsJ #a)e t#e a(ility to acce4t a wide )ariety and
2uality o, ,uelsJ and are a con)enient means to e7tract ener'y ,rom (iomass 'as, ,lare
'as, or natural 'as t#at is not economical to trans4ort
to 4i4elines?
=?-?3 /uel cells
Anot#er e7citin' 0 tec#nolo'y is t#e ,uel cell C/i'? =?6D? T#is tec#nolo'y also occu4ies
a relati)ely small ,oot4rint, is )ery 2uiet, and #as
)irtually no #arm,ul emissions durin' o4eration? /uel cells are e,,icient electricity
'enerators and may (e em4loyed in com(ined #eat
and 4ower a44lications to ac#ie)e amon' t#e )ery (est 4ossi(le
ener'y%con)ersion e,,iciencies? T#ose w#o see t#e ,uture ener'y economy (ased on
#ydro'en see t#e ,uel cell as t#e dominant ener'y%con)ersion tec#nolo'y?
A ,uel cell is (asically a (attery 4owered (y an electroc#emical
4rocess (ased on t#e con)ersion o, #ydro'en? It 4roduces dc )olta'e,
and an in)erter is re2uired ,or inter,acin' to t#e ac 4ower system?
T#e c#ie, draw(ac+ to ,uel cells at 4resent is cost? /uel cell tec#nolo'ies are on t#e order
o, 1> times more e74ensi)e t#an reci4rocatin'
'ensets? T#is will limit t#e im4lementation o, ,uel cells ,or electricity
4roduction to nic#e a44lications until t#ere is a 4rice (rea+t#rou'#?
.any e74ect t#is (rea+t#rou'# to occur w#en t#e ,uel cell is ado4ted
(y t#e automoti)e industry?
3:> C#a4ter Nine
=?-?5 "ind tur(ines
"ind 'eneration ca4acity #as (een increasin' ra4idly and #as (ecome
cost com4etiti)e wit# ot#er means o, 'eneration in some re'ions? A
common im4lementation is to 'rou4 a num(er o, wind tur(ines ran'in' in si@e ,rom 9>>
to 1->> +" eac# into a Gwind ,armH #a)in' a total
ma7imum ca4acity ran'e o, ->> to 6>> ."? One e7am4le is s#own in
/i'? =?8? Suc# lar'e ,arms are interconnected to t#e transmission system rat#er t#an t#e
distri(ution system? Howe)er, smaller ,arms o, 8
to : ." #a)e (een 4ro4osed ,or a44lications suc# as s+i resorts, and
t#ey would (e connected directly to distri(ution ,eeders?
T#e c#ie, 4ower 2uality issue associated wit# wind 'eneration is
)olta'e re'ulation? "ind 'eneration tends to (e located in s4arsely 4o4ulated areas w#ere
t#e electrical system is wea+ relati)e to t#e 'eneration ca4acity? T#is results in )olta'e
)ariations t#at are di,,icult to
mana'e? T#us, it is sometimes im4ossi(le to ser)e loads ,rom t#e same
,eeder t#at ser)es a wind ,arm?
T#ere are t#ree main classes o, 'enerator tec#nolo'ies used ,or t#e
electrical system inter,ace ,or wind tur(ines:
1? Con)entional s2uirrel%ca'e induction mac#ines or wound%rotor induction mac#ines?
T#ese ,re2uently are su44lemented (y switc#ed ca4acitors to com4ensate ,or reacti)e
4ower needs?
-? ou(ly ,ed wound%rotor induction mac#ines t#at em4loy 4ower con)erters to control
t#e rotor current to 4ro)ide reacti)e 4ower control?
3? NonV4ower ,re2uency 'eneration t#at re2uires an in)erter inter,ace?
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 3:1
/i'ure =?6 A ,uel cell 4roducin' electricity and #eat ,or a #os4ital? CCourtesy o,
International /uel Cells, 11C?D
=?-?6 P#oto)oltaic systems
T#e recent 4ower s#orta'es in some states and t#e 4assa'e o, net
meterin' le'islation #as s4urred t#e installation o, roo,to4 4#oto)oltaic solar systems?
/i'ure =?9 s#ows a lar'e system on a commercial
(uildin' in Cali,ornia? A ty4ical si@e ,or a residential unit would (e
(etween - and 8 +"? Once installed, t#e incremental cost o, electricity
is )ery low wit# t#e source o, ener'y (ein' essentially ,ree w#ile it is
a)aila(le? Howe)er, t#e ,irst cost is )ery su(stantial e)en wit# (uydown incenti)es ,rom
'o)ernment 4ro'rams? Installed costs currently
ran'e ,rom M6>>> to M->,>>>O+"? es4ite t#is #i'# cost, 4#oto)oltaic
solar tec#nolo'y is ,a)ored (y many en)ironmentalists and installed
ca4acity can (e e74ected to continue 'rowin'?
P#oto)oltaic solar systems 'enerate dc 4ower w#ile t#e sun is s#inin' on t#em and are
inter,aced to t#e utility system t#rou'# in)erters?
Some systems do not #a)e t#e ca4a(ility to o4erate stand%alonePt#e
in)erters o4erate only in t#e utility%interacti)e mode and re2uire t#e
4resence o, t#e 'rid?
3:- C#a4ter Nine
/i'ure =?8 "ind ,arm in t#e midwestern !nited States? CCourtesy o, Enron Cor4?D
=?3 Inter,ace to t#e !tility System
T#e 4rimary concern #ere is t#e im4act o, 0 on t#e distri(ution system 4ower 2uality?
"#ile t#e ener'y con)ersion tec#nolo'y may 4lay
some role in t#e 4ower 2uality, most 4ower 2uality issues relate to t#e
ty4e o, electrical system inter,ace?
Some nota(le e7ce4tions include:
1? T#e 4ower )ariation ,rom renewa(le sources suc# as wind and solar
can cause )olta'e ,luctuations?
-? Some ,uel cells and microtur(ines do not ,ollow ste4 c#an'es in load
well and must (e su44lemented wit# (attery or ,lyw#eel stora'e to
ac#ie)e t#e im4ro)ed relia(ility e74ected ,rom stand(y 4ower
a44lications?
3? .is,irin' o, reci4rocatin' en'ines can lead to a 4ersistent and irritatin' ty4e o, ,lic+er,
4articularly i, it is ma'ni,ied (y t#e res4onse
o, t#e 4ower system?
T#e main ty4es o, electrical system inter,aces are
1? Sync#ronous mac#ines
-? Async#ronous CinductionD mac#ines
3? Electronic 4ower in)erters
/i'ure =?9 Roo,to4 4#oto)oltaic solar system? CCourtesy o, Power1i'#t
Cor4oration?D
T#e +ey 4ower 2uality issues ,or eac# ty4e o, inter,ace are descri(ed in
Secs? =?3?1 to =?3?3?
=?3?1 Sync#ronous mac#ines
E)en t#ou'# sync#ronous mac#ines use old tec#nolo'y, are common on
4ower systems, and are well understood, t#ere are some concerns w#en
t#ey are a44lied in 'rid 4arallel 0 a44lications? T#ey are t#e 4rimary
ty4e o, electric mac#ine used in (ac+u4 'eneration a44lications? "it#
4ro4er ,ield and 'o)ernor control, t#e mac#ine can ,ollow any load
wit#in its desi'n ca4a(ility? T#e in#erent inertia allows it to (e tolerant o, ste4%load
c#an'es? "#ile t#is is 'ood ,or (ac+u4 4ower, it is t#e
source o, muc# concern to utility distri(ution en'ineers (ecause t#is
tec#nolo'y can easily sustain inad)ertent islands t#at could occur
w#en t#e utility ,eeder (rea+er o4ens? It also can ,eed ,aults and 4ossi(ly inter,ere wit#
utility o)ercurrent 4rotection?
!nless t#e mac#ines are lar'e relati)e to system ca4acity, interconnected sync#ronous
'enerators on distri(ution systems are usually
o4erated wit# a constant 4ower ,actor or constant )ar e7citer control?
/or one t#in', small 0 does not #a)e su,,icient ca4acity to re'ulate
t#e )olta'e w#ile interconnected? Attem4tin' to do so would 'enerally
result in t#e e7citer 'oin' to eit#er o, t#e two e7tremes? Secondly, t#is
a)oids #a)in' t#e )olta'e controls o, se)eral small mac#ines com4etin'
wit# eac# ot#er and t#e utility )olta'e re'ulation sc#eme? A t#ird reason t#is is done is to
reduce t#e c#ances t#at an inad)ertent island will
(e sustained? A nearly e7act matc# o, t#e load at t#e time o, se4aration
would #a)e to e7ist ,or t#e island to esca4e detection?
It is 4ossi(le ,or a sync#ronous mac#ine t#at is lar'e relati)e to t#e
ca4acity o, t#e system at t#e PCC to re'ulate t#e utility system )olta'e? T#is can (e a
4ower 2uality ad)anta'e in certain wea+ systems?
Howe)er, t#is ty4e o, system s#ould (e care,ully studied and coordinated wit# t#e utility
system 4rotection and )olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment? It would (e 4ossi(le to 4ermit only
one 'enerator on eac#
su(station (us to o4erate in t#is ,as#ion wit#out addin' ela(orate controls? T#e 'eneration
will li+ely ta+e o)er )olta'e re'ulation and can
dri)e )olta'e re'ulators to undesira(le ta4 4ositions? Con)ersely, utility )olta'e
re'ulators can dri)e t#e 'enerator e7citer to undesira(le set
4oints? To ensure detection o, utility%side ,aults w#en t#e interconnected 'enerator is
(ein' o4erated under automatic )olta'e control,
many utilities will re2uire a direct trans,er tri4 (etween t#e utility
(rea+er and t#e 'eneration interconnection (rea+er?
One as4ect o, sync#ronous 'enerators t#at is o,ten o)erloo+ed is
t#eir im4edance? Com4ared to t#e utility electrical 4ower system, 'enerators si@ed ,or
ty4ical (ac+u4 4ower 4ur4oses #a)e #i'# im4edances?
T#e su(transient reactance [dp, w#ic# is seen (y #armonics, is o,ten
3:5 C#a4ter Nine
a(out 16 4ercent o, t#e mac#ineFs ratin'? T#e transient reactance, [dd,
w#ic# 'o)erns muc# o, t#e ,ault contri(ution, mi'#t (e around -6 4ercent? T#e
sync#ronous reactance [dis 'enerally o)er 1>> 4ercent? In
contrast, t#e im4edance o, t#e 4ower system seen ,rom t#e main load
(us is 'enerally only 6 to 8 4ercent o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer ratin',
w#ic# is normally lar'er t#an t#e mac#ine ratin'? T#us, end users
e74ectin' a relati)ely seamless trans,er ,rom interconnected o4eration
to isolated (ac+u4 o4eration are o,ten disa44ointed? Some actual e7am4les o, une74ected
conse2uences are
1? T#e #armonic )olta'e distortion increases to intolera(le le)els w#en
t#e 'enerator is attem4tin' to su44ly adAusta(le%s4eed%dri)e loads?
-? T#ere is not enou'# ,ault current to tri4 (rea+ers or (low ,uses t#at
were si@ed (ased on t#e 4ower system contri(ution?
3? T#e )olta'e sa' w#en ele)ator motors are (ein' started causes ,luorescent lam4s to
e7tin'uis#?
0enerators must (e si@ed considera(ly lar'er t#an t#e load to ac#ie)e
satis,actory 4ower 2uality in isolated o4eration?
Anot#er as4ect t#at is o,ten o)erloo+ed is t#at t#e )olta'e wa)e,orm
4roduced (y a sync#ronous mac#ine is not 4er,ect? In certain desi'ns,
t#ere are considera(le t#ird%#armonic currents in t#e )olta'e? !tility
central station 'eneration may also #a)e t#is im4er,ection, (ut t#e
delta windin' o, t#e unit ste4%u4 trans,ormer (loc+s t#e ,low o, t#is
#armonic? T#e ser)ice trans,ormer connection ,or many 4otential enduser 0 locations is
not con,i'ured to do t#is and will result in #i'#
t#ird%#armonic currents ,lowin' in t#e 'enerator and, 4ossi(ly, onto
t#e utility system? T#is is discussed is 'reater detail in Sec? =?6? T#e net
result is t#at sync#ronous 'enerators ,or 'rid 4arallel 0 a44lications
s#ould 'enerally (e desi'ned wit# a -O3 windin' 4itc# to minimi@e t#e
t#ird%#armonic com4onent? Ot#erwise, s4ecial attention must (e 'i)en
to t#e inter,ace trans,ormer connection, or additional e2ui4ment suc#
as a neutral reactor and s#ortin' switc# must (e installed?
=?3?- Async#ronous CinductionD mac#ines
In many ways, it is sim4le to inter,ace induction mac#ines to t#e utility system? Induction
'enerators are induction motors t#at are dri)en
sli'#tly ,aster t#an sync#ronous s4eed? T#ey re2uire anot#er source to
4ro)ide e7citation, w#ic# 'reatly reduces t#e c#ances o, inad)ertent
islandin'? No s4ecial sync#roni@in' e2ui4ment is necessary? In ,act, i,
t#e ca4acity o, t#e electrical 4ower system 4ermits, induction 'enerators can (e started
across t#e line? /or wea+er systems, t#e 4rime
mo)er is started and (rou'#t to near%sync#ronous s4eed (e,ore t#e
mac#ine is interconnected? T#ere will (e an inrus# transient u4on cloistri(uted
0eneration and Power Quality 3:6
sure, (ut t#is would (e relati)ely minor in com4arison to startin' ,rom
a standstill across t#e line?
T#e re2uirements ,or o4eratin' an induction 'enerator are essentially
t#e same as ,or o4eratin' an induction motor o, t#e same si@e? T#e c#ie,
issue is t#at a sim4le induction 'enerator re2uires reacti)e 4ower C)arsD
to e7cite t#e mac#ine ,rom t#e 4ower system to w#ic# it is connected?
Occasionally, t#is is an ad)anta'e w#en t#ere are #i'#%)olta'e 4ro(lems,
(ut more commonly t#ere will (e low%)olta'e 4ro(lems in induction 'enerator
a44lications? T#e usual ,i7 is to add 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors to su44ly t#e
reacti)e 4ower locally? "#ile t#is wor+s well most o,
t#e time, it can (rin' a(out anot#er set o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
One o, t#e 4ro(lems is t#at t#e ca4acitor (an+ will yield resonances
t#at coincide wit# #armonics 4roduced in t#e same ,acility? T#is can
(rin' a(out t#e 4ro(lems descri(ed in C#a4s? 6 and 8?
Anot#er issue is sel,%e7citation? An induction 'enerator t#at is suddenly isolated on a
ca4acitor (an+ can continue to 'enerate ,or some
4eriod o, time? T#is is an unre'ulated )olta'e and will li+ely de)iate
outside t#e normal ran'e 2uic+ly and (e detected? Howe)er, t#is situation can o,ten result
in a ,erroresonant condition wit# dama'in' )olta'es?
3
Induction 'enerators t#at can (ecome isolated on ca4acitor
(an+s and load t#at is less t#an 3 times rated 4ower are usually
re2uired to #a)e instantaneous o)er)olta'e relayin'?
One myt# surroundin' induction 'enerators is t#at t#ey do not ,eed
into utility%side ,aults? Te7t(oo+ e7am4les ty4ically s#ow t#e current
contri(ution into a ,ault ,rom an induction mac#ine dyin' out in 1?6
cycles? "#ile t#is is true ,or t#ree%4#ase ,aults near t#e mac#ine terminals t#at colla4se
t#e terminal 4#ase )olta'es, t#ere are not many
,aults li+e t#is on a utility distri(ution system? .ost are S10 ,aults,
and t#e )olta'e on t#e ,aulted 4#ase does not colla4se to @ero Csee t#e
e7am4les in C#a4? 3D? In ,act, 'enerators ser)ed (y delta%wye trans,ormers may detect
)ery little distur(ance in t#e )olta'e? T#ere are
many com4le7 dynamics occurrin' wit#in t#e mac#ine durin' un(alanced ,aults, and a
detailed electroma'netic transients analysis is
needed to com4ute t#em 4recisely? A common rule o, t#um( is t#at i,
t#e )olta'e su44lyin' t#e induction mac#ine remains #i'#er t#an 8>
4ercent, assume t#at it will continue to ,eed into t#e ,ault as i, it were
a sync#ronous mac#ine? T#is )olta'e le)el is su,,icient to maintain
e7citation le)els wit#in t#e mac#ine?
=?3?3 Electronic 4ower in)erters
All 0 tec#nolo'ies t#at 'enerate eit#er dc or nonV4ower ,re2uency ac
must use an electronic 4ower in)erter to inter,ace wit# t#e electrical
4ower system?
3:8 C#a4ter Nine
T#e early t#yristor%(ased, line%commutated in)erters 2uic+ly de)elo4ed a re4utation ,or
(ein' undesira(le on t#e 4ower system? In ,act,
t#e de)elo4ment o, muc# o, t#e #armonics analysis tec#nolo'y
descri(ed in C#a4s? 6 and 8 was tri''ered (y 4ro4osals to install #undreds o, roo,to4
4#oto)oltaic solar arrays wit# line%commutated in)erters?
5T#ese in)erters 4roduced #armonic currents in similar 4ro4ortion
to loads wit# traditional t#yristor%(ased con)erters? *esides contri(utin' to t#e distortion
on t#e ,eeders, one ,ear was t#at t#is ty4e o, 0
would 4roduce a si'ni,icant amount o, 4ower at t#e #armonic ,re2uencies? Suc# 4ower
does little more t#an #eat u4 wires?
To ac#ie)e (etter control and to a)oid #armonics 4ro(lems, t#e
in)erter tec#nolo'y #as c#an'ed to switc#ed, 4ulse%widt# modulated
tec#nolo'ies? T#is #as resulted in a more ,riendly inter,ace to t#e electrical 4ower system?
/i'ure =?: s#ows t#e (asic com4onents o, a utility interacti)e
in)erter t#at meets t#e re2uirements o, IEEE Standard =-=%->>>?
6
irect current is su44lied on t#e le,t side o, t#e dia'ram eit#er ,rom a
con)ersion tec#nolo'y t#at 4roduces direct current directly or ,rom t#e
recti,ication o, ac 'enerator out4ut? &ariations o, t#is ty4e o, in)erter
are commonly em4loyed on ,uel cells, microtur(ines, 4#oto)oltaic solar
systems, and some wind tur(ines?
T#e dc )olta'e is switc#ed at a )ery #i'# rate wit# an insulated 'ate
(i4olar transistor CI0*TD switc# to create a sinusoid )olta'e or current
o, 4ower ,re2uency? T#e switc#in' ,re2uency is ty4ically on t#e order o,
6> to 1>> times t#e 4ower ,re2uency? T#e ,ilter on t#e out4ut attenuates t#ese #i'#%
,re2uency com4onents to a de'ree t#at t#ey are usually
ne'li'i(le? Howe)er, resonant conditions on t#e 4ower system can
sometimes ma+e t#ese #i'# ,re2uencies noticea(le? T#e lar'est loworder #armonic
Cusually, t#e ,i,t#D is 'enerally less t#an 3 4ercent, and
g
C AC S"ITCH /I1TER
&O1TA0E
C!RRENT
S"ITCHIN0
CONTRO1
/i'ure =?: Sim4li,ied sc#ematic dia'ram o, a modern switc#in' in)erter?
t#e ot#ers are o,ten ne'li'i(le? T#e total #armonic distortion limit is 6
4ercent, (ased on t#e re2uirements o, IEEE Standard 61=%1==-?
Occasionally, some in)erters will e7ceed t#ese limits under s4eci,ic conditions?
.anu,acturers may s+im4 on ,ilterin', or t#ere may (e a ,law
in t#e switc# control al'orit#m? Ne)ert#eless, t#e #armonic issue wit#
modern in)erters is certainly muc# less o, a concern t#an t#ose (ased
on older tec#nolo'ies?
"#ile interconnected to t#e utility, commonly a44lied in)erters (asically attem4t to
'enerate a sine%wa)e current t#at ,ollows t#e )olta'e
wa)e,orm? T#us, t#ey would 4roduce 4ower at unity 4ower ,actor? It is
4ossi(le to 4ro'ram ot#er strate'ies into t#e switc#in' control, (ut t#e
unity 4ower ,actor strate'y is t#e sim4lest and most common? Also, it
allows t#e ,ull current%carryin' ca4a(ility o, t#e switc# to (e used ,or
deli)erin' acti)e 4ower CwattsD? I, t#e in)erter #as stand%alone ca4a(ility, t#e control
o(Aecti)e would c#an'e to 4roducin' a sinusoidal )olta'e
wa)e,orm at 4ower ,re2uency and t#e current would ,ollow t#e load?
One o, t#e ad)anta'es o, suc# an in)erter ,or 0 a44lications is t#at
it can (e switc#ed o,, )ery 2uic+ly w#en trou(le is detected? T#ere may
(e some la' in determinin' t#at somet#in' #as 'one wron', 4articularly i, t#ere are
sync#ronous mac#ines wit# su(stantial inertia maintainin' t#e )olta'e on t#e system?
"#en a distur(ance re2uirin'
disconnection is detected, t#e switc#in' sim4ly ceases? In)erters ty4ically e7#i(it )ery
little inertia and c#an'es can ta+e 4lace in milliseconds? Rotatin' mac#ines may re2uire
se)eral cycles to res4ond? It may
(e 4ossi(le to reclose out o, 4#ase on in)erters wit#out dama'e 4ro)ided current sur'e
limits in t#e semiconductor switc#es are not
e7ceeded? T#us, reconnection and resync#roni@ation are less o, an
issue t#an wit# sync#ronous mac#ines?
T#e a(ility o, in)erters to ,eed utility%side ,aults is usually limited (y
t#e ma7imum current ca4a(ility o, t#e I0*T switc#es? Analysts commonly assume t#at
t#e current will (e limited to - times t#e rated out4ut o, t#e in)erter? O, course, once t#e
current reac#es t#ese )alues,
t#e in)erter will li+ely assume a ,ault and cease o4eration ,or a 4redetermined time? T#is
can (e an ad)anta'e ,or utility interacti)e o4eration (ut can also (e a disad)anta'e ,or
a44lications re2uirin' a certain
amount o, ,ault current to tri4 relays?
!tility interacti)e in)erters com4liant wit# IEEE Standard =-=%->>> also #a)e a
desta(ili@in' si'nal t#at is constantly tryin' to c#an'e
t#e ,re2uency o, t#e control? T#e 4ur4ose is to #el4 ensure t#at inad)ertent islands are
4rom4tly detected? "#ile interconnected wit# t#e
utility, t#e stren't# o, t#e electrical 4ower system o)er4owers t#is tendency toward
desta(ili@ation? I, t#e in)erter system is suddenly isolated on load, t#e ,re2uency will
2uic+ly de)iate, allowin' it to (e
detected (ot# wit#in t#e control and (y e7ternal relays?
3:: C#a4ter Nine
=?5 Power Quality Issues
T#e main 4ower 2uality issues a,,ected (y 0 are
1?Sustained interru4tions? T#is is t#e traditional relia(ility area?
.any 'enerators are desi'ned to 4ro)ide (ac+u4 4ower to t#e load
in case o, 4ower interru4tion? Howe)er, 0 #as t#e 4otential to
increase t#e num(er o, interru4tions in some cases?
-?&olta'e re'ulation? T#is is o,ten t#e most limitin' ,actor ,or #ow
muc# 0 can (e accommodated on a distri(ution ,eeder wit#out
ma+in' c#an'es?
3?Harmonics? T#ere are #armonics concerns wit# (ot# rotatin'
mac#ines and in)erters, alt#ou'# concern wit# in)erters is less wit#
modern tec#nolo'ies?
5?&olta'e sa's? T#is a s4ecial case (ecause 0 may or may not #el4?
Eac# o, t#ese issues is discussed in turn?
=?5?1 Sustained interru4tions
.uc# o, t#e 0 t#at is already in 4lace was installed as (ac+u4 'eneration? T#e most
common tec#nolo'y used ,or (ac+u4 'eneration is
diesel 'ensets? T#e (ul+ o, t#e ca4acity o, t#is ,orm o, 0 can (e reali@ed sim4ly (y
trans,errin' t#e load to t#e (ac+u4 system? Howe)er,
t#ere will (e additional 4ower t#at can (e e7tracted (y 4arallelin' wit#
t#e 4ower system? .any 0 installations will o4erate wit# (etter
4ower 2uality w#ile 4aralleled wit# t#e utility system (ecause o, its
lar'e ca4acity? Howe)er, not all (ac+u4 0 can (e 4aralleled wit#out
'reat e74ense?
Not all 0 tec#nolo'ies are ca4a(le o, si'ni,icant im4ro)ements in
relia(ility? To ac#ie)e im4ro)ement, t#e 0 must (e ca4a(le o, ser)in'
t#e load w#en t#e utility system cannot?
/or e7am4le, a #omeowner may install a roo,to4 4#oto)oltaic solar
system wit# t#e e74ectation o, (ein' a(le to ride t#rou'# rotatin'
(lac+outs? !n,ortunately, t#e less costly systems do not #a)e t#e
4ro4er in)erter and stora'e ca4acity to o4erate stand%alone? T#ere,ore,
t#ere is no im4ro)ement in relia(ility?
!tilities may ac#ie)e im4ro)ed relia(ility (y em4loyin' 0 to co)er
contin'encies w#en 4art o, t#e deli)ery system is out o, ser)ice? In t#is
case, t#e 0 does not ser)e all t#e load, (ut only enou'# to co)er ,or t#e
ca4acity t#at is out o, ser)ice? T#is can allow de,erral o, maAor construction e74enses ,or
a ,ew years? T#e downside is t#at reliance on t#is
sc#eme ,or too many years can ultimately lead to worse relia(ility? T#e
load 'rowt# will o)erta+e t#e (ase ca4acity o, t#e system, re2uirin' load
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 3:=
s#eddin' durin' 4ea+ load conditions or resultin' in t#e ina(ility to
o4erate t#e system at acce4ta(le )olta'e a,ter a ,ault?
=?5?- &olta'e re'ulation
It may initially seem t#at 0 s#ould (e a(le to im4ro)e t#e )olta'e re'ulation on a
,eeder? 0enerator controls are muc# ,aster and smoot#er
t#an con)entional ta4%c#an'in' trans,ormers and switc#ed ca4acitor
(an+s? "it# care,ul en'ineerin', t#is can (e accom4lis#ed wit# su,,iciently lar'e 0?
Howe)er, t#ere are many 4ro(lems associated wit#
)olta'e re'ulation? In cases w#ere t#e 0 is located relati)ely ,ar ,rom
t#e su(station ,or t#e si@e o, 0, )olta'e re'ulation issues are o,ten t#e
most limitin' ,or (ein' a(le to accommodate t#e 0 wit#out c#an'es
to t#e utility system?
It s#ould ,irst (e reco'ni@ed t#at some tec#nolo'ies are unsuita(le
,or re'ulatin' )olta'es? T#is is t#e case ,or sim4le induction mac#ines
and ,or most utility interacti)e in)erters t#at 4roduce no reacti)e
4ower? Secondly, most utilities do not want t#e 0 to attem4t to re'ulate t#e )olta'e
(ecause t#at would inter,ere wit# utility )olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment and increase t#e
c#ances o, su44ortin' an island?
.ulti4le 0 would inter,ere wit# eac# ot#er? /inally, small 0 is sim4ly not 4ower,ul
enou'# to re'ulate t#e )olta'e and will (e dominated
(y t#e daily )olta'e c#an'es on t#e utility system? Small 0 is almost
uni)ersally re2uired to interconnect wit# a ,i7ed 4ower ,actor or ,i7ed
reacti)e 4ower control?
1ar'e 0 'reater t#an 3> 4ercent o, t#e ,eeder ca4acity t#at is set to
re'ulate t#e )olta'e will o,ten re2uire s4ecial communications and control to wor+
4ro4erly wit# t#e utility )olta'e%re'ulatin' e2ui4ment?
One common occurrence is t#at t#e 0 will ta+e o)er t#e )olta'e%re'ulatin' duties and
dri)e t#e su(station load ta4 c#an'er C1TCD into a
si'ni,icant (uc+in' 4osition as t#e load cycles u4 and down? T#is
results in a 4ro(lem w#en t#e 0 suddenly disconnects, as it would ,or
a ,ault? T#e )olta'e is t#en too low to su44ort t#e load and ta+es a
minute or more to reco)er? One solution is to esta(lis# a control sc#eme
t#at loc+s t#e 1TC at a 4reselected ta4 w#en t#e 'enerator is o4eratin' and
interconnected?
1ar'e )olta'e c#an'es are also 4ossi(le i, t#ere were a si'ni,icant
4enetration o, dis4ersed, smaller 0 4roducin' a constant 4ower ,actor? Suddenly
connectin' or disconnectin' suc# 'eneration can result
in a relati)ely lar'e )olta'e c#an'e t#at will 4ersist until reco'ni@ed
(y t#e utility )olta'e%re'ulatin' system? T#is could (e a ,ew minutes,
so t#e c#an'e s#ould (e no more t#an a(out 6 4ercent? One condition
t#at mi'#t 'i)e rise to t#is would (e ,ault clearin' on t#e utility system? All t#e
'eneration would disconnect w#en t#e ,ault occurs, wait 6
min, and t#en reconnect? Customers would ,irst see low )olta'e ,or a
3=> C#a4ter Nine
minute, or so, ,ollowed 6 min later (y #i'# )olta'es? O4tions ,or dealin' wit# t#is include
,aster ta4%c#an'in' )olta'e re'ulators and
re2uirin' t#e load to (e disconnected w#ene)er t#e 0 is ,orced o,,
due to a distur(ance? T#ere is less )olta'e e7cursion w#en t#e 0 is
o4eratin' near unity 4ower ,actor? Howe)er, t#ere may (e some
instances w#ere it will (e ad)anta'eous in normal o4eration to #a)e
t#e 0 4roduce reacti)e 4ower?
=?5?3 Harmonics
T#ere are many w#o still associate 0 wit# (ad e74eriences wit# #armonics ,rom
electronic 4ower con)erters? I, t#yristor%(ased, line%commutated in)erters were still t#e
norm, t#is would (e a lar'e 4ro(lem?
/ortunately, t#e tec#nolo'ies re2uirin' in)erters #a)e ado4ted t#e
switc#in' in)erters li+e t#e one descri(ed 4re)iously in t#is c#a4ter?
T#is #as eliminated t#e (ul+ o, t#e #armonics 4ro(lems ,rom t#ese
tec#nolo'ies?
One 4ro(lem t#at occurs in,re2uently arises w#en a switc#in'
in)erter is installed in a system t#at is resonant at ,re2uencies 4roduced (y t#e switc#in'
4rocess? T#e sym4tom is usually #i'#%,re2uency #as# a44earin' on t#e )olta'e
wa)e,orm? T#e usual 4ower
2uality com4laint, i, any, is t#at cloc+s su44lied (y t#is )olta'e run ,ast
at times? T#is 4ro(lem is 'enerally sol)ed (y addin' a ca4acitor to t#e
(us t#at is o, su,,icient si@e to s#unt o,, t#e #i'#%,re2uency com4onents
wit#out causin' additional resonances?
Harmonics ,rom rotatin' mac#ines are not always ne'li'i(le, 4articularly in 'rid 4arallel
o4eration? T#e utility 4ower system acts as a
s#ort circuit to @ero%se2uence tri4len #armonics in t#e )olta'e, w#ic#
can result in sur4risin'ly #i'# currents? /or 'rounded wye%wye or
delta%wye ser)ice trans,ormers, only sync#ronous mac#ines wit# -O3
4itc# can (e 4aralleled wit#out s4ecial 4ro)isions to limit neutral current? /or ser)ice
trans,ormer connections wit# a delta%connected windin' on t#e 0 side, nearly any ty4e
o, t#ree%4#ase alternator can (e
4aralleled wit#out t#is #armonic 4ro(lem?
=?5?5 &olta'e sa's
T#e most common 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem is a )olta'e sa', (ut t#e a(ility o, 0 to #el4
alle)iate sa's is )ery de4endent on t#e ty4e o, 'eneration tec#nolo'y and t#e
interconnection location? /i'ure =?=
illustrates a case in w#ic# 0 is interconnected on t#e load side o, t#e
ser)ice trans,ormer? urin' a )olta'e sa', 0 mi'#t act to counter t#e
sa'? 1ar'e rotatin' mac#ines can #el4 su44ort t#e )olta'e ma'nitudes
and 4#ase relations#i4s? Alt#ou'# not a normal ,eature, it is concei)a(le to control an
in)erter to counteract )olta'e e7cursions?
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 3=1
T#e 0 in,luence on sa's at its own load (us is aided (y t#e im4edance o, t#e ser)ice
trans,ormer, w#ic# 4ro)ides some isolation ,rom t#e
source o, t#e sa' on t#e utility system? Howe)er, t#is im4edance #inders t#e a(ility o, t#e
0 to 4ro)ide any relie, to ot#er loads on t#e
same ,eeder? 0 lar'er t#an 1 ." will o,ten (e re2uired to #a)e its
own ser)ice trans,ormer? T#e 4oint o, common cou4lin' wit# any load
is t#e 4rimary distri(ution system? T#ere,ore, it is not li+ely t#at 0
connected in t#is manner will #a)e any im4act on t#e )olta'e sa' c#aracteristic seen (y
ot#er loads ser)ed ,rom t#e ,eeder?
=?6 O4eratin' Con,licts
e4loyin' 'eneration alon' utility distri(ution systems naturally creates some con,licts
(ecause t#e desi'n o, t#e system assumes only one
source o, 4ower?
8
A certain amount o, 'eneration can (e accommodated
wit#out ma+in' any c#an'es? At some 4oint, t#e con,licts will (e too
'reat and c#an'es must (e made?
In t#is section, se)eral o, t#e o4eratin' con,licts t#at can result in
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems are descri(ed?
=?6?1 !tility ,ault%clearin' re2uirements
/i'ure =?1> s#ows t#e +ey com4onents o, t#e o)ercurrent 4rotection
system o, a radial ,eeder?
9
T#e lowest%le)el com4onent is t#e lateral
,use, and t#e ot#er de)ices Creclosers and (rea+ersD are desi'ned to con,orm to t#e ,use
c#aracteristic? T#ere will ,re2uently (e two to ,our
,eeders o,, t#e same su(station (us? T#is desi'n is (ased mostly on economic concerns?
T#is is t#e least costly 4rotection sc#eme t#at is a(le
3=- C#a4ter Nine
/i'ure =?= 0 may #el4 reduce )olta'e sa's on
local ,acility (us, (ut im4edance o, interconnection
trans,ormer in#i(its any im4act on adAacent utility
customers?
to ac#ie)e acce4ta(le relia(ility ,or distri(utin' t#e 4ower? One essential c#aracteristic is
t#at only one de)ice #as to o4erate to clear and isolate a s#ort circuit, and local
intelli'ence can accom4lis# t#e tas+
satis,actorily? In contrast, ,aults on t#e transmission system, w#ic#
easily #andles 'eneration, usually re2uire at least two (rea+ers to
o4erate and local intelli'ence is insu,,icient in some cases?
In essence, t#is desi'n is t#e source o, most o, t#e con,licts ,or interconnectin' 0 wit#
t#e utility distri(ution system? *ecause t#ere is too
muc# in,rastructure in 4lace to consider a totally di,,erent distri(ution
system desi'n to (etter accommodate 0, t#e 0 must ada4t to t#e way
t#e utility system wor+s? "it# only one utility de)ice o4eratin' to clear
a ,ault, all ot#er 0 de)ices must inde4endently detect t#e ,ault and se4arate to allow t#e
utility 4rotection system to com4lete t#e clearin' and
isolation 4rocess? T#is is not always sim4le to do ,rom t#e in,ormation
t#at can (e sensed at t#e 'enerator? T#e remainder o, t#is section
descri(es some o, t#e di,,iculties t#at occur? Re,er to C#a4? 3 ,or more
details on t#e ,ault%clearin' 4rocess on radial distri(ution systems?
=?6?- Reclosin'
Reclosin' utility (rea+ers a,ter a ,ault is a )ery common 4ractice, 4articularly t#rou'#out
Nort# America? .ost o, t#e distri(ution lines are
o)er#ead, and it is common to #a)e tem4orary ,aults? Once t#e current
is interru4ted and t#e arc dis4ersed, t#e line insulation is restored?
Reclosin' ena(les t#e 4ower to (e restored to most o, t#e customers
wit#in seconds?
Reclosin' 4resents two s4ecial 4ro(lems wit# res4ect to 0:
1? 0 must disconnect early in t#e reclose inter)al to allow time ,or
t#e arc to dissi4ate so t#at t#e reclose will (e success,ul?
/EEERS
*REA<ER
REC1OSER
/!SE 1ATERA1S
Only t#is de)ice must o4erate
to clear ,ault
/i'ure =?1> Ty4ical o)ercurrent 4rotection o, a utility distri(ution
,eeder?
-? Reclosin' on 0, 4articularly t#ose systems usin' rotatin' mac#ine
tec#nolo'ies, can cause dama'e to t#e 'enerator or 4rime mo)er?
/i'ure =?11 illustrates t#e reclose inter)al (etween t#e ,irst two o4erations o, t#e utility
(rea+er Ct#is re4resents an unsuccess,ul reclose
(ecause t#e ,ault is still 4resentD? T#e 0 relayin' must (e a(le to
detect t#e 4resence o, t#e ,ault ,ollowed (y t#e o4enin' o, t#e utility
,ault interru4ter so t#at it can disconnect early in t#e reclose inter)al
as s#own?
Normally, t#is detection and disconnection 4rocess s#ould (e
strai'#t,orward? Howe)er, some trans,ormer connections ma+e it di,,icult to detect
certain ,aults, w#ic# could delay disconnection?
A 'reater com4licatin' ,actor is t#e use o, instantaneous reclosin' (y
many utilities? T#is is used ,or t#e ,irst reclose inter)al ,or t#e 4ur4ose
o, im4ro)in' 4ower 2uality to sensiti)e customers? T#e (lin+in' cloc+
4ro(lem can (e lar'ely a)erted, and many ot#er ty4es o, loads can ride
t#rou'# t#is (rie, dead time? T#e inter)al ,or instantaneous reclose is
nominally >?6 s, (ut can (e as ,ast as >?- s? T#is is in t#e ran'e o, relayin' and o4enin'
times ,or some 0 (rea+ers? T#us, instantaneous
reclose is )ery li+ely to (e incom4ati(le wit# 0? It 'reatly increases
t#e 4ro(a(ility t#at some 0 will still (e connected w#en t#e reclose
occurs or t#at t#e ,ault did not #a)e enou'# time to clear, resultin' in
an unsuccess,ul reclose?
A reclose inter)al o, at least 1?> s is sa,er w#en t#ere is 0 on t#e
,eeder? .any utilities use -?> or 6?> s ,or t#e ,irst reclose inter)al w#en
0 is installed? T#is minimi@es t#e ris+ t#at t#e 0 will not disconnect in time? I, it is
deemed necessary to maintain t#e instantaneous
reclose, it is 'enerally necessary to em4loy direct trans,er tri4 so t#at
t#e 0 (rea+er is tri44ed simultaneously wit# t#e utility (rea+er?
3=5 C#a4ter Nine
Reclose
Inter)al
0 .ust isconnect Here
/i'ure =?11 0 must disconnect early in t#e ,irst reclose inter)al to
allow t#e ,ault%clearin' 4rocess to 4roceed?
T#is can (e a )ery e74ensi)e 4ro4osition ,or smaller 0 installations?
T#us, ,or some distri(ution systems it will (e necessary to com4romise
one as4ect o, 4ower 2uality to (etter accommodate si'ni,icant
amounts o, 0?
=?6?3 Inter,erence wit# relayin'
T#ree o, t#e more common cases w#ere 0 can inter,ere wit# t#e o)ercurrent 4rotection
relayin' on distri(ution ,eeders will (e e7amined
#ere:
1? Reduction o, reac#
-? Sym4at#etic tri44in' o, ,eeder (rea+ers
3? e,eat o, ,use sa)in'
/i'ure =?1- illustrates t#e reduction%o,%reac# conce4t? Eac# o)ercurrent relay de)ice #as
an assi'ned @one o, 4rotection t#at is determined (y its minimum 4ic+u4 )alue? Some
re,er to t#is 'enerically
as t#e Greac#H o, t#e relay? 0 in,eed can reduce t#e current t#at t#e
relay sees, t#ere(y s#ortenin' its reac#? "#en t#e total 0 ca4acity increases to a certain
amount, t#e in,eed into ,aults can desensiti@e t#e relays and lea)e remote sections o, t#e
,eeder un4rotected?
A low%current C#i'#%im4edanceD ,ault near t#e end o, t#e ,eeder is
more li+ely to 'o undetected until it does su,,icient dama'e to
de)elo4 into a maAor ,ault? T#e 4ower 2uality conse2uences o, t#is
are t#at )olta'e sa's will (e 4rolon'ed ,or some customers and t#e
additional ,ault dama'e will e)entually lead to more sustained
interru4tions?
T#is issue can (e a 4articular 4ro(lem ,or 4ea+in' 'eneration located
near t#e end o, t#e ,eeder? T#is 'eneration is on at 4ea+ load le)el
w#ere t#e o)ercurrent relayin' would normally (e )ery sensiti)e to a
#i'#%im4edance ,ault? T#e 0 in,eed #as t#e 4otential to mas+ many
,aults t#at would ot#erwise (e detected?
Solutions include:
1? ecrease t#e relay minimum 4ic+u4 current to increase t#e @one?
T#is may not (e 4ractical ,or 'round relays t#at are already set to a
)ery sensiti)e le)el?
-? Add a line recloser to create anot#er 4rotection @one t#at e7tends ,ar
4ast t#e end o, t#e ,eeder?
3? !se a trans,ormer connection t#at minimi@es 0 contri(ution to
'round ,aults, since #i'#%im4edance ,aults are li+ely to (e 'round
,aults?
Sym4at#etic tri44in' descri(es a condition w#ere a (rea+er t#at
does not see ,ault current tri4s Gin sym4at#yH wit# t#e (rea+er t#at
did? T#e most common circuit condition on utility distri(ution ,eeders
is (ac+,eed into a 'round ,ault? /or t#e situation s#own in /i'? =?13, t#e
source o, t#e (ac+,eed current is t#e 0? .ost utility ,eeder (rea+ers
do not #a)e directional sensin'? T#ere,ore, t#e 'round relay sees t#e
0 contri(ution as a ,ault and tri4s t#e (rea+er needlessly? T#is situation is e7acer(ated i,
t#e ser)ice trans,ormer ,or t#e 0 #as a
'rounded wye%delta connection?
T#e main solution to t#is 4ro(lem is to use directional o)ercurrent
relayin'? I, a44ro4riate 4otential trans,ormers are not already 4resent,
t#is could end u4 (ein' an e74ensi)e alteration? Since t#e 0 contri(ution in (rea+er * is
li+ely to (e muc# lower t#an t#e ,ault current
t#rou'# (rea+er A, it may (e 4ossi(le to ac#ie)e coordination wit# t#e
a44ro4riate time%delay c#aracteristic or (y raisin' t#e instantaneous
Cor ,astD tri4 4ic+u4 4ast t#e amount o, 0 in,eed?
T#e 4ower 2uality im4act o, t#e sym4at#etic tri44in' is t#at many
customers are interru4ted needlessly? T#e 0 is also ,orced o,,%line,
w#ic# could (e a 4ro(lem ,or t#e 0 owner? T#ere could (e im4acts
,rom t#e solutions as well? *y slowin' t#e 'round tri4, t#ere will (e
more arcin' dama'e to lines and t#rou'#%,ault duty on trans,ormers?
T#is could e)entually lead to increased ,ailures?
/use sa)in' is commonly 4racticed in utility o)ercurrent 4rotection
sc#emes, 4articularly in more rural re'ions? T#e desired se2uence ,or
t#e situation de4icted in /i'? =?15 is ,or t#e recloser R to o4erate (e,ore
t#e lateral ,use #as a c#ance to (low? I, t#e ,ault is tem4orary, t#e arc
will e7tin'uis# and ser)ice will (e restored u4on t#e su(se2uent
reclose, w#ic# normally ta+es 4lace wit#in 1 or - s? T#is sa)es t#e cost
o, sendin' a line crew to c#an'e t#e ,use and im4ro)es t#e relia(ility o,
customers ser)ed on t#e ,used lateral?
3=8 C#a4ter Nine
!TI1IT; *REA<ER
NOR.A1 NONE O/
PROTECTION
RE!CE SO!RCE
C!RRENT
CONTRI*!TION
0ENERATOR
IN/EE
/A!1T
RE!CE NONE
O/ PROTECTION
/i'ure =?1- In,eed ,rom 0 can reduce t#e reac# o, t#e relay?
/use%sa)in' action is a G#orse raceH in t#e (est o, circumstances? It is
a c#allen'e ,or t#e mec#anical recloser to detect t#e ,ault and o4erate
,ast enou'# to 4re)ent dama'e to t#e ,use element? 0 in,eed adds to
t#e current in t#e ,use and ma+es t#is race e)en ti'#ter? At some
amount o, 0 ca4acity t#at is ca4a(le o, ,eedin' t#e ,ault, it will no
lon'er (e 4ossi(le to sa)e t#e ,use?
T#is 4#enomenon limits t#e amount o, sync#ronous mac#ine 0
t#at can (e accommodated wit#out ma+in' c#an'es to t#e system?
/use%sa)in' coordination ,ails ,or a(out t#e same le)el o, 'eneration
t#at causes )olta'e re'ulation 4ro(lems?
Solutions include:
1? Increase t#e si@e o, t#e lateral ,uses? All ,used cutouts in t#e @one
would #a)e to (e c#an'ed, w#ic# could (e 2uite e74ensi)e?
-? C#oose to sim4ly a(andon ,use sa)in', 4articularly i, t#e 0 is only
connected intermittently?
3? Re2uire 0 to #a)e trans,ormer connections t#at do not ,eed sin'leline%to%'round
,aults?
T#e 4ower 2uality im4acts o, t#is are mi7ed? "#ile t#e utility 'enerally )iews ,use
sa)in' as an im4ro)ement in 4ower 2uality, customers
/i'ure =?13 Sym4at#etic tri44in'
o, ,eeder (rea+er C*D ,or 0 in,eed
into ,aults on ot#er ,eeders?
/i'ure =?15 In,eed ,rom 0 can
de,eat ,use sa)in'?
tend to )iew t#e s#ort (lin+ as 4oor ser)ice? T#ere,ore, many utilities
#a)e already a(andoned ,use sa)in' in many areas?
=?6?5 &olta'e re'ulation issues
"#ile t#ere is 'reat concern ,or )arious dynamics and transients issues
t#at are di,,icult to analy@e, )olta'e re'ulation issues are more li+ely
to occur and cause interconnection 4ro(lems? /i'ure =?16 illustrates
one )olta'e re'ulation 4ro(lem t#at can arise w#en t#e total 0 ca4acity on a ,eeder
(ecomes si'ni,icant? T#is 4ro(lem is a conse2uence o,
t#e re2uirement to disconnect all 0 w#en a ,ault occurs?
/i'ure =?16as#ows t#e )olta'e 4ro,ile alon' t#e ,eeder 4rior to t#e
,ault occurrin'? T#e intent o, t#e )olta'e re'ulation sc#eme is to +ee4
t#e )olta'e ma'nitude (etween t#e two limits s#own? In t#is case, t#e
0 #el4s +ee4 t#e )olta'e a(o)e t#e minimum and, in ,act, is lar'e
enou'# to 'i)e a sli'#t )olta'e rise toward t#e end o, t#e ,eeder?
"#en t#e ,ault occurs, t#e 0 disconnects and may remain disconnected ,or u4 to 6 min?
T#e (rea+er recloses wit#in a ,ew seconds,
resultin' in t#e condition s#own in /i'? =?16(?T#e load is now too 'reat
,or t#e ,eeder and t#e 4resent settin's o, t#e )olta'e re'ulation de)ices?
3=: C#a4ter Nine
&O1TA0E PRO/I1E
*E/ORE /A!1T
&O1TA0E PRO/I1E
A/TER REC1OSE
CaD
C(D
/i'ure =?16 &olta'e 4ro,ile c#an'e w#en 0 is ,orced o,, to clear ,aults?
T#ere,ore, t#e )olta'e at t#e end o, t#e ,eeder sa's (elow t#e minimum
and will remain low until )olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment can react? T#is
can (e t#e (etter 4art o, a minute or lon'er, w#ic# increases t#e ris+ o,
dama'e to load e2ui4ment due to e7cessi)ely low )olta'es?
O, course, t#is assumes t#at t#e )olta'e re'ulation de)ices are not
already at t#e ma7imum ta4 4osition? !tility 4lanners will o,ten 4oint
out t#at t#is is one o, t#e dan'ers o, relyin' on 0 to meet ca4acity? It
mas+s t#e true load 'rowt# on t#e system, and t#ere is insu,,icient
(ase ca4acity in t#e wires to deli)er t#e 4ower?
T#is issue can (e one o, t#e more limitin' wit# res4ect to #ow muc#
0 can (e accommodated on a ,eeder? It is 4articularly an issue ,or
len't#y ,eeders on w#ic# t#e 0 is located some considera(le distance
,rom t#e su(station? T#is may (e an attracti)e a44lication o, 0
(ecause it de,ers t#e construction o, maAor wire ,acilities to ser)e t#e
remote area? Howe)er, it can come at t#e cost o, #a)in' to modi,y lon'esta(lis#ed
o4eratin' 4ractices and sacri,icin' some relia(ility o, t#e
system?
It also su''ests one test an analyst can 4er,orm to determine i, a 4ro4osed 0 a44lication
will li+ely re2uire c#an'es on t#e utility system?
T#e test would (e to com4ute t#e )olta'e c#an'e t#at occurs at 4ea+
load i, t#e 0 suddenly disconnects? T#is c#an'e s#ould (e less t#an
a(out 6 4ercent unless t#ere is ,ast%actin' )olta'e re'ulation e2ui4ment t#at can
com4ensate ,or a lar'er c#an'e? A lar'er c#an'e will
re2uire at least some s4ecial studies and 4ossi(le c#an'es to t#e )olta'e re'ulation
control on t#e ,eeder?
T#e amount o, 'eneration t#at can (e accommodated (y t#is test will
o()iously )ary wit# 4osition on t#e ,eeder? One use,ul analysis is to
determine #ow muc# 0 ca4acity can (e accommodated Cwit#out
c#an'eD at )arious distances alon' t#e ,eeder? /or e7am4le, i, one were
to esta(lis# a 6 4ercent c#an'e criterion ,or t#e limit, t#ere would (e a
cur)e o, 'eneration limit )ersus distance similar to t#at s#own in /i'?
=?18? I, a 4ro4osed 0 a44lication ,alls to t#e le,t o, t#e cur)e, it is
li+ely to (e acce4ta(le? I, it ,alls to t#e ri'#t, more en'ineerin' study is
needed to determine #ow to accommodate t#e 0?
T#is sim4le analysis will wor+ ,or one 0 site 4er ,eeder? T#is may
(e ade2uate i, 4enetrations o, 0 are low, (ut t#e 4ro(lem can 'et com4licated 2uic+ly
as more sites are added? One a44roac# is to study
many random distri(utions o, small 0 at 4ea+ load? T#is will result
in a more conser)ati)e screenin' cur)e t#at is s#i,ted downward and to
t#e le,t?
"#en somet#in' must (e done, solutions include:
1? Re2uirin' customer load to disconnect wit# t#e 0? T#is may not (e
4ractical ,or wides4read residential and small commercial loads?
Also, it is di,,icult to ma+e t#is transition seamlessly and t#e load
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 3==
may su,,er downtime anyway, ne'atin' 4ositi)e relia(ility (ene,its
o, 0?
-? Installin' more )olta'e re'ulators, eac# wit# t#e a(ility to (y4ass
t#e normal time delay o, 3> to 56 s and (e'in c#an'in' ta4s immediately? T#is will
minimi@e t#e incon)enience to ot#er customers?
3? Allow 0 to reconnect more 2uic+ly t#an t#e standard 6%min disconnect time? T#is
would (e done more sa,ely (y usin' direct communications (etween t#e 0 and utility
system control?
5? 1imit t#e amount o, 0 on t#e ,eeder?
Anot#er )olta'e re'ulation issue in)ol)in' ste4%)olta'e re'ulators is
illustrated in /i'? =?19? !tility )olta'e re'ulators commonly come wit#
a re)erse%4ower ,eature t#at allows t#e re'ulators to (e used w#en a
,eeder is su44lied ,rom its alternate source? T#e lo'ic is t#at w#en t#e
net 4ower t#rou'# t#e re'ulator is in t#e re)erse direction, t#e re'ulator control switc#es
direction and re'ulates t#e ori'inal source terminal so t#at t#e re'ulator can wor+
4ro4erly? Ot#erwise, t#e control will
attem4t to re'ulate t#e alternate source side, w#ic# would not (e 4ossi(le? T#e ta4
4osition would 'enerally mo)e to one e7treme or t#e
ot#er and stay t#ere?
Assume, ,or e7am4le, t#at se)eral co'eneration sites #a)e (een
added to a ,eeder and t#ere is e7cess 'eneration w#en t#e load is low?
T#e re'ulator now senses re)erse 4ower and attem4ts to re'ulate t#e
utility source? Howe)er, t#e 0 is not nearly as stron' as t#e utility
source and t#e re'ulator will not succeed? Similar to t#e case w#ere t#e
controls ,ail to switc# direction on t#e alternate ,eed, t#e ta4 will (e run
to an e7treme 4osition, o,ten in t#e worst 4ossi(le direction?
To 4re)ent t#is, re'ulator )endors #a)e come u4 wit# co'eneration
,eatures on t#e controls t#at can detect t#is condition? T#e desired
5>> C#a4ter Nine
istance ,rom
Su(station
6I &olta'e C#an'e
Contour
Acce4ta(le
0eneration Ca4acity
.ore Study
Re2uired
/i'ure =?18 Sim4le )olta'e c#an'e test ,or screenin' 0
a44lications?
result is to +ee4 t#e re'ulator loo+in' in t#e ,orward direction? T#e
line%dro4 com4ensator Rand[settin's may also (e c#an'ed w#ile t#e
re)erse%4ower condition e7ists?
0eneration tec#nolo'ies w#ose out4ut )aries ra4idly can (e di,,icult
to #andle on a distri(ution ,eeder? "ind%tur(ine 'eneration is t#e most
di,,icult (ecause t#ere is seldom a su(station near t#e 4ro4osed site?
T#e 'eneration is ty4ically sited se)eral miles ,rom t#e nearest su(station on a ,eeder t#at
already may #a)e se)eral switc#ed ca4acitors
and a )olta'e re'ulator? One e7am4le (ased on a 4ro4osed wind ,arm
at a s+i resort is s#own in /i'? =?1:? T#e line is a ty4ical untrans4osed,
#ori@ontal crossarm 'eometry t#at leads to s4ecial issues? As t#e 4ower
out4ut o, t#e 'enerator )aries, one outside 4#ase will tend to rise in
)olta'e w#ile t#e ot#er tends to dro4? Not only is t#ere a ma'nitude
issue (ut a (alance issue?
T#e results o, simulatin' t#e system )olta'es ,or a44ro7imately 5> min
wit# t#e unc#an'ed control settin's are s#own in /i'? =?1=? Interestin'ly,
t#e (an+ o, sin'le%4#ase )olta'e re'ulators +ee4s t#e t#ree%4#ase )olta'es reasona(ly
well (alanced? T#ere were a ,ew ta4 c#an'es durin' t#is
4eriod, (ut t#e 'reater 4ro(lem #ere is t#e num(er o, ca4acitor%switc#in'
o4erations? A,ter c#an'in' t#e ca4acitor control settin' to a)oid e7cessi)e
o4erations, t#e re'ulator ta4 c#an'es increase si'ni,icantly, w#ic# is ty4ical o, t#is +ind
o, 'eneration? Normally, ca4acitors will switc# once or
twice a day and t#ere may (e a do@en or so re'ulator ta4 c#an'es?
T#ere,ore, su(Aectin' ca4acitors and re'ulators to t#is +ind o, duty will
almost certainly result in 4remature ,ailure?
One solution is to increase t#e (andwidt# on t#e controls so t#at
t#ere are ,ewer actions? T#is will result in more )olta'e )ariation, (ut
it may (e tolera(le? "#ile t#e ma'nitude )ariation in t#is case
e7ceeded - 4ercent, it is not c#an'in' ,ast enou'# to li+ely cause )olta'e ,luctuation
com4laints?
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 5>1
Net Power
Re'ulator .o)es to
Ta4 Position 1imit
0
Re'ulator Switc#es
irection to Try to
Control T#is "ay
/i'ure =?19 E7cess 0 can ,ool re)erse%4ower settin' on line )olta'e re'ulators?
"#en t#e ,luctuation is too 'reat, t#e main recourse is to (uild a se4arate ,eeder ,or t#e
wind 'eneration? Also, some wind 'enerators
em4loy dou(ly ,ed wound%rotor induction mac#ines t#at can control
reacti)e 4ower )ery 2uic+ly? "it# 4ro4er control, t#is can #el4 tame t#e
)olta'e ,luctuations?
=?6?6 Harmonics
Harmonics ,rom 0 come ,rom in)erters and some sync#ronous
mac#ines? In t#e earlier discussion on in)erters in t#is c#a4ter, t#e
measures to eliminate t#e lar'er, low%order #armonics were descri(ed?
T#e P". switc#in' in)erters 4roduce a muc# lower #armonic current
content t#an earlier line%commutated, t#yristor%(ased in)erters?
In IEEE Standard 61=%1==-, 'enerators are limited to t#e most
restricti)e )alues in t#e ta(les on t#e allowa(le amount o, #armonic
current inAection? "#ile 'enerator in)erters are not necessarily any
worse t#an 4ower con)erters used in loads, t#e de)elo4ers o, t#e IEEE
5>- C#a4ter Nine
!NTRANSPOSE O&ERHEA
/EEER, HORINONTA1
CROSSAR. CONSTR!CTION
S"ITCHE CAPACITOR
*AN<S
3-%STEP &O1TA0E
RE0!1ATOR
1>6I
1>>I
Ca4acitor Switc#in'
Re'ulator Ta4
C#an'es
/i'ure =?1: &aryin' 'eneration can cause e7cessi)e duty on utility )olta'e re'ulation
e2ui4ment?
/i'ure =?1= Simulated ca4acitor switc#in' and re'ulator ta4 c#an'es ,or a wind ,arm
connected as s#own in /i'? =?1:?
standard allocated all t#e ca4acity in t#e system to loads, lea)in' )ery
little ,or 'enerators? /ortunately, t#e s#i,t to P". switc#in' tec#nolo'y #as made it
relati)ely easy ,or in)erters to meet t#e standard?
One new distortion 4ro(lem t#at arises wit# t#e modern in)erters is
t#at t#e switc#in' ,re2uencies will occasionally e7cite resonances in
t#e 4rimary distri(ution system? T#is creates non#armonic ,re2uency
si'nals ty4ically at t#e 36t# #armonic and #i'#er ridin' on t#e )olta'e
wa)e,orm? T#is #as an im4act on cloc+s and ot#er circuitry t#at de4end
on a clean )olta'e @ero crossin'? A ty4ical situation in w#ic# t#is mi'#t
occur is an industrial 4ar+ ,ed (y its own su(station and containin' a
,ew t#ousand ,eet o, ca(le? A 2uic+ ,i7 is to add more ca4acitance in t#e
,orm o, 4ower ,actor correction ca4acitors, (ein' care,ul not to cause
additional #arm,ul resonances?
As mentioned in t#e discussion o, t#e c#aracteristics o, sync#ronous
mac#ines, t#ere can (e #armonics 4ro(lems related to @ero%se2uence
tri4len #armonics? /i'ure =?-> s#ows a ty4ical situation w#ere t#is
occurs? T#e ,acility w#ere t#e 'enerator is located is ser)ed at 5:> & (y
a common delta%wye trans,ormer? "#en t#e 'enerator is 4aralleled to
t#e utility system t#rou'# t#is trans,ormer, t#e o4erator is ,re2uently
sur4rised to ,ind a lar'e amount o, current circulatin' in t#e neutral?
In t#e e7am4le s#own, t#e current is -8 4ercent o, t#e mac#ineFs rated
current and is entirely t#ird%#armonic current? T#is can ad)ersely
a,,ect t#e o4eration and e,,iciency o, t#e mac#ine and may result in t#e
,ailure o, some circuit element? In t#is case, t#e 4ro(lem is con,ined to
t#e 'enerator side o, t#e trans,ormer and does not a,,ect t#e 4rimary
distri(ution system (ecause t#e tri4len #armonics are tra44ed (y t#e
delta windin'? T#e same t#in' can #a44en wit# a 'rounded wye%wye
trans,ormer, e7ce4t t#at t#e #armonic currents do reac# t#e 4rimary
distri(ution system?
T#is 4ro(lem is well +nown amon' )endors o, stand(y 'eneration
e2ui4ment? I, +nown (e,ore#and, most will recommend a mac#ine wit#
a -O3 windin' 4itc# t#at can (e 4aralleled wit#out t#is di,,iculty? I, it is
necessary to 4arallel a desi'n t#at does 4roduce si'ni,icant tri4len #armonics, a reactor
can (e added in t#e neutral to limit t#e current ,low
Cas in /i'? =?-6D? A s#ortin' switc# is closed w#en t#e 'enerator is used
,or (ac+u4 4ower to maintain solid 'roundin'?
=?6?8 Islandin'
0 4rotecti)e relays will 'enerally 4er,orm t#eir ,unction inde4endently
o, any outside +nowled'e o, t#e system to w#ic# t#ey are connected?
Per#a4s t#e 'reatest ,ear o, t#e utility 4rotection en'ineer is t#at 0
relayin' will ,ail to detect t#e ,act t#at t#e utility (rea+er #as o4ened
and will continue to ener'i@e a 4ortion o, t#e ,eeder? T#ere,ore, muc#
attention #as (een 4aid to detectin' islands or ,orcin' islands to
(ecome unsta(le so t#ey can (e detected? T#e relia(ility concern is
t#at ot#er customers will (e su(Aected to suc# 4oor%2uality )olta'e
t#at dama'e will (e sustained? T#e utility is ,ear,ul it will (e #eld
lia(le ,or t#e dama'e? T#ere is also t#e sa,ety concern o, a 'enerator
accidentally ener'i@in' t#e line resultin' in inAuries to t#e 4u(lic and
utility 4ersonnel?
Anot#er concern is t#e 0 itsel,? Since reclosin' is common, it is
essential t#at t#e 0 detect t#e island 4rom4tly and disconnect? I, it is
still connected w#en t#e utility (rea+er recloses, dama'e can occur to
4rime mo)ers, s#a,ts, and com4onents o, mac#ines due to t#e s#oc+
,rom out%o,%4#ase reclosin'? T#is #i'#li'#ts one area o, 4otential con,lict wit# utility
4ractices: T#ose utilities usin' instantaneous reclose
may #a)e to e7tend t#e reclose inter)als to ensure t#at t#ere is su,,icient time ,or 0 to
detect t#e island and disconnect?
Relayin' is one way to address t#e issue? T#e main +eys are to detect
t#e de)iations in )olta'e and ,re2uency t#at are outside t#e )alues normally e74ected
w#ile interconnected?
Anot#er a44roac# to anti%islandin' is to ma+e re2uirements ,or t#e
o4eratin' mode ,or t#e 0 w#ile interconnected t#at si'ni,icantly
reduce t#e c#ances t#at t#e 'eneration will matc# t#e load w#en an
inad)ertent island ,orms:
T In)erters o4eratin' in 4arallel are less li+ely to ,orm an island i, t#ey
are actin' as current sources and #a)e a desta(ili@in' si'nal t#at is
constantly tryin' to s#i,t t#e ,re2uency re,erence out o, (and?
6
Islandin' would re2uire anot#er source to 4ro)ide a )olta'e ,or t#e
in)erter to ,ollow? O, course, t#is source could (e 4ro)ided (y any sync#ronous mac#ine
0 t#at remains on t#e island?
5>5 C#a4ter Nine
E1TA%";E
TRANS/OR.ER
N ] 6I
3 :?:I ] -8I
T#ird Harmonic
:?:I T#ird
Harmonic
-99O5:>&
[dH ] 15I
&3] 6I
/i'ure =?-> 0enerators wit# si'ni,icant t#ird%#armonic )olta'e distortion
can 4roduce lar'e circulatin' t#ird%#armonic currents w#en 4aralleled wit#
t#e utility system?
T Interconnected 0 s#ould o4erate in a mode t#at does not attem4t
to re'ulate )olta'e? T#is usually means a constant 4ower ,actor or
constant reacti)e 4ower mode? /or many in)erter%(ased de)ices, t#is
will (e unity 4ower ,actor, 4roducin' watts only? Automatic )olta'e
control s#ould (e a)oided w#ile 0 is interconnected to t#e distri(ution system unless
t#e 'enerator is directly connected to a control
center to recei)e dis4atc#in' and trans,er tri4 si'nals?
"it#out t#e a(ility to re'ulate )olta'e, t#e matc# (etween load and
'eneration would #a)e to (e almost 4er,ect to esca4e detection (y t#e
4rotecti)e relayin'?
"#ile t#ese measures will wor+ in t#e )ast maAority o, cases, t#ere
will (e some w#ere islandin' detection (y local intelli'ence at t#e 0
site is too uncertain? One e7am4le would (e lar'e 'eneration t#at is
4ermitted to o4erate wit# automatic )olta'e control? In suc# cases,
direct trans,er tri4 is usually re2uired?
=?6?9 /erroresonance
T#is section descri(es an interestin' dilemma t#at illustrates t#e con,lictin' re2uirements
t#at arise w#en tryin' to ,it 0 into a system
t#at is not desi'ned ,or it? /erroresonance is a s4ecial +ind o, resonance
in w#ic# t#e inducti)e element is t#e nonlinear c#aracteristic o, an
iron%core de)ice?
:
.ost commonly, ,erroresonance occurs w#en t#e
ma'neti@in' reactance o, a trans,ormer inad)ertently is in series wit#
ca(le or 4ower ,actor ca4acitance?
One interestin' case occurs ,or 0 ser)ed (y ca(le%,ed trans,ormers? It is common
4ractice ,or t#e lar'er 0 installations to #a)e
t#eir own trans,ormer? Also, it is nearly uni)ersal to re2uire 0 to
disconnect at t#e ,irst si'n o, trou(le on t#e utility system? T#is
com(ination o, re2uirements can lead to a common ,erroresonant
condition?
T#e circuit is s#own in /i'? =?-1? !nder'round ca(le runs are normally ,used at t#e 4oint
w#ere t#ey are ta44ed o,, t#e o)er#ead ,eeder
line? T#is is )ariously called t#e riser 4ole or di4 4ole? S#ould somet#in' #a44en t#at
causes one or two ,uses to (low, t#e relayin' on t#e
0 will detect an un(alanced condition and tri4 t#e 'enerator
(rea+er? T#is lea)es t#e trans,ormer isolated on t#e ca(le wit# one or
two o4en 4#ases and no load? Eit#er condition is conduci)e to ,erroresonance (ecause t#e
ca(le ca4acitance in an o4en 4#ase, or
4#ases, now a44ears in series wit# t#e trans,ormerFs ma'neti@in'
im4edance C/i'? =?--D?
T#ere are se)eral reasons w#y t#e riser%4ole ,use may (low or
(ecome o4en? Normally, t#ey are desi'ned to (low ,or ,aults in t#e
ca(le, (ut t#ere are ot#er reasons? S2uirrels or sna+es may clim( t#e
4ole and 'et in contact wit# t#e line? /use elements may also ,ati'ue
due to ,re2uent inrus# currents or li'#tnin' sur'e currents? /used
cutouts may o4en due to corrosion or im4ro4er installation? /inally,
t#ey may (e o4erated (y a line crew ,or maintenance 4ur4oses?
"#et#er a (lown ,use results in dama'e is de4endent on many )aria(les and t#e s4eci,ic
desi'n o, t#e e2ui4ment? A num(er o, ,erroresonance modes are 4ossi(le, de4endin' on
t#e connection o, t#e
trans,ormer, its si@e, and t#e len't# o, ca(le? T#e most susce4ti(le
trans,ormer connections are t#e un'rounded ones? T#e delta con,i'uration wit# one 4#ase
o4en is s#own in /i'? =?-1? T#e o)er)olta'es ,or
t#is condition t#at can occur can easily reac# a )alue o, 3 to 5 4u unless
limited (y arresters?
/i'ure =?-3 s#ows t#e )olta'es com4uted ,or a 3>>%+&A delta%connected trans,ormer ,ed
(y ca(le t#at #as 3> n/ o, ca4acitance? T#is
models a case in w#ic# t#ere is no load on t#e trans,ormer and no
arresters? Arresters would clam4 t#e )olta'e to a lower )alue unless
t#ey #ad t#ermally ,ailed ,rom 4rolon'ed e74osure to t#is wa)e,orm?
T#e #i'# )olta'es and t#e c#aotic wa)es#a4e are due to t#e trans%5>8 C#a4ter Nine
CA*1E
CA*1E CAPACITANCE
/i'ure =?-1 0 (rea+er is re2uired to o4en w#en riser%4ole ,use (lows, leadin'
to ,erroresonance?
/i'ure =?-- Sc#ematic s#owin' ma'neti@in' im4edance o, a delta%connected
trans,ormer in series wit# ca(le ca4acitance w#en ,used cutout is o4ened?
,ormer slammin' in and out o, saturation? T#e ma'netic ,orces associated wit# t#is
c#an'e cause t#e core to emit )ery loud noises t#at are
sometimes descri(ed as t#e sound o, a lar'e (uc+et o, (olts (ein'
s#a+en or a c#orus o, #ammers on an)ils?
T#is can cause ,ailures o, (ot# t#e arresters 4rotectin' t#e trans,ormers and t#e
trans,ormers t#emsel)es? Arresters ,ail t#ermally,
lea)in' t#e trans,ormers un4rotected? T#en t#e trans,ormers may ,ail
eit#er ,rom t#ermal e,,ects or ,rom dielectric ,ailure? It is common ,or
low%)olta'e arresters and transient )olta'e sur'e su44ressors to su,,er
,ailures durin' t#is ty4e o, ,erroresonance?
At one time, it was (elie)ed t#at 'rounded%wye connections were
im4er)ious to ,erroresonance? Howe)er, t#is t#eory was s#own to (e
,alse in a landmar+ 4a4er?
=
"#ile 'rounded%wye trans,ormers made u4
o, t#ree sin'le%4#ase trans,ormers, or a t#ree%4#ase s#ell core desi'n,
are immune to t#is ty4e o, ,erroresonance, t#e maAority o, 4ad%mounted
trans,ormers used in commercial installations are o, t#ree%le''ed or
,i)e%le''ed core desi'n? *ot# are susce4ti(le to ,erroresonance due to
4#ase cou4lin' t#rou'# t#e ma'netic core? Alt#ou'# not immune, t#e
o)er)olta'es are lower t#an wit# un'rounded connections, ty4ically
ran'in' ,rom 1-> to ->> 4ercent? Sometimes, t#e )olta'es are not #i'#
enou'# to cause ,ailure o, t#e trans,ormer? T#e utility line crew
res4ondin' to a trou(le call encounters t#e trans,ormer ma+in' a lot o,
noise, (ut it is still ,unctional wit# no detecta(le dama'e? In ot#er
cases, t#ere could (e a (urned s4ot on t#e 4aint on t#e to4 o, t#e tan+
w#ere t#e #i'# ,lu7es in t#e core #a)e caused #eatin' in t#e tan+?
Primary arresters s#ould (e tested and t#e secondary system ins4ected
,or ,ailed e2ui4ment (e,ore reener'i@in'?
V3
V-
V1
>
1
-
3
5
>?>>> >?>6> >?1>>
Time, s
>?16> >?->>
&olta'e, 4u
/i'ure =?-3 E7am4le ,erroresonant o)er)olta'es ,or delta 4rimary?
T#is situation is not necessarily uni2ue to 0 installations? .any
modern commercial ,acilities are su44lied wit# ca(le%,ed ser)ice trans,ormers t#at are
disconnected ,rom t#e mains w#en t#ere is a 4ro(lem
on t#e utility system? T#e 4ur4ose would (e to switc# to !PS systems
or (ac+u4 'eneration? !n,ortunately, it lea)es t#e trans,ormer isolated
wit# little or no load?
As a 'eneral rule t#ere s#ould (e no line ,uses or sin'le%4#ase
reclosers (etween t#e 'enerator and t#e utility su(station? T#is is to
4re)ent sin'le%4#asin' t#e 'enerator, w#ic# could not only result in
,erroresonance (ut could t#ermally dama'e rotatin' mac#ines? T#is
rule is 4articularly a44ro4riate ,or 0 wit# ca(le%,ed ser)ice trans,ormers? T#e riser%4ole
,uses may (e re4laced wit# solid (lades Cno
,usesD or t#ree%4#ase switc#'ear suc# as a recloser or sectionali@er?
Re4lacin' t#e ,uses wit# solid (lades will reduce t#e relia(ility o, t#e
,eeder section somew#at? Eac# time t#ere is a ,ault on t#e ca(le system, t#e entire ,eeder
or ,eeder section will (e out o, ser)ice? I, t#e ca(le
is s#ort and di'%ins unli+ely, t#is may )ery well (e t#e lowest%cost
o4tion? I, 4rotection is re2uired, t#e t#ree%4#ase switc#'ear o4tion is
4re,erred?
T#e ty4e o, ,erroresonance s#own in /i'? =?-3 is )ery sensiti)e to t#e
amount o, load? I, t#e system can (e arran'ed so t#at t#ere is always a
resisti)e load attac#ed to t#e secondary (us, t#e resonance can (e
dam4ed out? T#e load need not always (e lar'e, (ut must (e si'ni,icant?
In t#e e7am4le cited, a - 4ercent load C8 +"D was su,,icient? Howe)er,
in ot#er cases, more t#an a 1> 4ercent load may (e re2uired?
=?6?: S#unt ca4acitor interaction
!tilities use switc#ed ca4acitors to #el4 su44ort t#e )olta'e durin'
#i'#%load 4eriods? T#ese (an+s are mostly controlled (y local intelli'ence, switc#in' at
4redetermined times or at loadin' le)els as measured (y eit#er )olta'e, current, or +)ar?
Some ty4es o, 0 can also
4roduce reacti)e 4ower C)arsD, and t#is can create control #untin' and
ot#er di,,iculties? T#ere can (e se)eral ca4acitor (an+s on t#e ,eeder as
illustrated in /i'? =?-5? T#e ca4acitors switc# inde4endently o, t#e 'enerator control
unless s4ecial communications and control #a)e (een
added to coordinate dis4atc#? A - to 3 4ercent increase in t#e )olta'e is
common w#en a ty4ical ca4acitor (an+ is ener'i@ed?
0enerators in 4arallel o4eration are 'enerally maintainin' a constant 4ower and 4ower
,actor? T#e reacti)e 4ower o, t#e mac#ine is controlled (y t#e e7citer ,ield, w#ic# will
#a)e certain minimum and
ma7imum )olta'e or ,ield e7citation limits as indicated on t#e dia'ram?
T#e 'enerator control attem4ts to maintain a constant reacti)e 4ower
out4ut until it (um4s u4 a'ainst one o, t#ese limits?
5>: C#a4ter Nine
T#ere can easily (e conditions in w#ic# t#e total reacti)e 4ower out4ut o, t#e 'enerators
and ca4acitors is too 'reat, resultin' in #i'# )olta'es? T#is is 4articularly li+ely w#en
ca4acitors are switc#ed (y time
cloc+ or (y current ma'nitude Cwit#out )olta'e o)errideD? T#ere are at
least t#ree t#in's t#at can #a44en at t#is 4oint to tri4 t#e 'enerator:
1? T#e 'enerator control senses o)er)olta'e at its terminals and
attem4ts to (ac+ down t#e ,ield to com4ensate? Howe)er, t#e utility
system o)er4owers t#e 'enerator and t#e ,ield reduces to a le)el
deemed to (e too low ,or sa,e o4eration o, t#e mac#ine?
-? "#en t#e 'enerator reac#es its )olta'e limit, reacti)e 4ower ,lows
(ac+ into t#e mac#ine? "#en it reac#es a certain le)el, t#e 'enerator 4rotection inter4rets
t#is as a mal,unction?
3? 0 t#at does not 4roduce reacti)e 4ower sim4ly tri4s on o)er)olta'e?
=?6?= Trans,ormer connections
T#e ser)ice trans,ormer used ,or interconnection can #a)e a 'reat
in,luence on t#e im4act 0 will #a)e on t#e 4ower 2uality? T#e ad)anta'es and
disad)anta'es o, t#e common t#ree%4#ase trans,ormer connections are discussed in t#is
section?
0rounded wye%wye connection? T#is is t#e most common connection
a44lied in Nort# America ,or t#ree%4#ase loads? It is ,a)ored (ecause o,
its reduced susce4ti(ility to ,erroresonance on ca(le%,ed loads and
,ewer o4eratin' restrictions w#en (ein' switc#ed ,or maintenance? It is
also 'enerally well (e#a)ed wit# res4ect to 0 interconnection, (ut
t#ere are a cou4le o, issues?
Ad)anta'es include:
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 5>=
/i'ure =?-5 A ty4ical distri(ution ,eeder may em4loy numerous switc#ed
ca4acitor (an+s t#at may interact wit# 'enerator e7citation control and
cause nuisance tri44in'?
T No 4#ase%s#i,tin' o, utility%side )olta'es? T#is ma+es detection o,
utility ,aults (y 0 4rotection relays more certain?
T 1ess concern ,or ,erroresonance, (ut it is not immune to ,erroresonance?
isad)anta'es include:
T Allows 0 to ,eed all ty4es o, ,aults on t#e utility system?
T oes not in#i(it t#e ,low o, @ero%se2uence #armonic currents t#at
mi'#t (e 4roduced ,rom certain +inds o, 'enerators?
*ecause o, t#ese two concerns, it may (e di,,icult to 4arallel some
'enerators usin' t#is trans,ormer connection? I, t#e 0 is a sync#ronous mac#ine, it may
4roduce a small amount o, t#ird%#armonic )olta'e distortion, de4endin' on t#e windin'
4itc# o, t#e mac#ine? I, a
sync#ronous 'enerator does not #a)e a -O3 windin' 4itc#, 4arallelin'
to t#e utility system 4ro)ides a )ery low im4edance 4at# ,or t#e t#ird
#armonics and t#e resultin' neutral currents may dama'e 'enerator
e2ui4ment or sim4ly add unwanted #armonic currents to t#e utility
system? A neutral reactor may (e necessary ,or some wye%connected
mac#ines w#ile t#ey are 4aralleled to t#e utility system to
T 1imit t#e ,low o, @ero%se2uence #armonics C4rinci4ally, t#e t#irdD
T 1imit t#e contri(ution o, t#e 'enerator to 'round ,aults
T#e reactor would (e s#orted w#en o4eratin' t#e 'enerator standalone to 4ro)ide
emer'ency (ac+u4 4ower so t#at a sta(le neutral is
4resented to t#e load?
elta%wye connection? T#is is t#e second most common connection ,or
t#ree%4#ase loads in Nort# America, and t#e most common in Euro4e?
It would 4ro(a(ly (e ,a)ored ,or ser)in' loads in nearly all cases i, it
were not ,or t#e susce4ti(ility o, t#e connection to ,erroresonance in
ca(le%,ed systems?
Ad)anta'es include:
T T#ere is less in,eed into utility%side 'round ,aults?
T T#ird #armonics ,rom t#e 0 do not reac# t#e utility system?
T Some isolation ,rom )olta'e sa's due to utility%side S10 ,aults is 4ro)ided?
T It is di,,icult to detect some S10 ,aults ,rom t#e secondary side (y
)olta'e relayin' alone?
51> C#a4ter Nine
T It is susce4ti(le to ,erroresonance in ca(le%,ed installations?
:
T T#ird #armonics in t#e 0 may cause e7cessi)e current in t#e secondary%side neutral?
T I, islanded on an S10 ,ault, utility arresters can (e su(Aected to
o)er)olta'es Csee Sec? =?8D?
T I, arresters are islanded on an S10 ,ault and t#ere is little load, resonant o)er)olta'es
can result?
T#e last two items are common to all trans,ormers wit# an un'rounded
4rimary connection?
Note t#at w#ile t#is connection 4re)ents t#ird #armonics ,rom t#e
'enerator ,rom reac#in' t#e utility system, it does not 4re)ent t#eir
,low on t#e 0 side Csee /i'? =?->D? As wit# t#e 'rounded wye%wye connection, it is
'enerally not ad)isa(le to directly connect sync#ronous
alternators t#at are not -O3 4itc# wit#out insertin' an im4edance in
t#e neutral to limit t#e t#ird%#armonic current ,low C/i'? =?-6D?
"#ile t#e 4#ase s#i,t can (e (ene,icial to t#e load in reducin' t#e
im4act o, )olta'e sa's due to S10 ,aults, it also ma+es some S10 ,aults
on t#e utility system more di,,icult to detect? T#is increases t#e
c#ances o, islandin' at least (rie,ly (ecause it delays ,ault detection
until t#e utility (rea+er o4erates?
T#ere,ore, it is common to add ot#er relayin' ,unctions to aid in t#e
early detection o, utility%side ,aults? A ne'ati)e%se2uence relay can
ma+e t#e detection more relia(le? "#ile t#e )olta'e ma'nitudes seen
on t#e secondary may not c#an'e muc# durin' a ,ault, t#ey will (e
un(alanced, resultin' in detecta(le ne'ati)e%se2uence )olta'es and
currents?
E1TA%";E
TRANS/OR.ER
OPTIONA1
NE!TRA1
REACTOR AN
*;PASS
S"ITCH
TRANS/OR.ER
/!SES
/i'ure =?-6 elta%wye trans,ormer connection?
Anot#er a44roac# is to add relayin' on t#e 4rimary side o, t#e trans,ormer, suc# as a ty4e
6=0 relay 'round o)er)olta'e t#at can detect t#e
4resence o, t#e S10 ,ault? T#is is an o)er)olta'e relay 4laced in t#e
corner o, a (ro+en delta 4otential trans,ormer t#at measures @erose2uence )olta'e?
elta%delta or un'rounded wye%delta connection? "#ile not in t#e maAority,
t#ese connections are still common ,or commercial and industrial loads?
*ot# #a)e similar (e#a)ior wit# res4ect to ser)in' 0? Neit#er would (e
t#e 4re,erred connection ,or ser)in' most new 0 installations, (ut could
(e encountered in le'acy systems w#ere a customer wis#es to 4arallel 0?
Some in)erter%(ased systems C,uel cells, 4#oto)oltaics, microtur(ines, etc?D re2uire an
un'rounded connection on t#e 0 side (ecause
t#e dc side o, t#e in)erter is 'rounded? T#is is o,ten accom4lis#ed (y
use o, a se4arate isolation trans,ormer rat#er t#an t#e main ser)ice
trans,ormer? Howe)er, eit#er o, t#ese connections would also su,,ice?
T#e delta secondary is sometimes a ,our%wire connection wit# one o, t#e
delta le's center%ta44ed and 'rounded to ser)e sin'le%4#ase 1->%& loads?
T#is is common in smaller commercial ,acilities t#at #a)e t#ree%4#ase
H&AC e2ui4ment alon' wit# ty4ical o,,ice load? I, t#is is t#e case, no 4art
o, a t#ree%4#ase 0 can (e 'rounded w#ile 4aralleled wit# t#e 'rid?
Ad)anta'es include:
T .ore economical trans,ormer installation ,or smaller t#ree%4#ase
ser)ice wit# some sin'le%4#ase loads is 4ossi(le?
T T#e load is isolated ,rom 'round ,aults on t#e utility side?
T 0 would not ty4ically ,eed utility%side 'round ,aults e7ce4t w#en
resonance occurs?
T !n'rounded interconnection can (e 4ro)ided ,or in)erter%(ased systems re2uirin' it?
T !tility%side S10 ,aults are di,,icult to detect?
T !tility arresters are su(Aected to #i'# steady%state o)er)olta'es i,
islanded on an S10 ,ault Csee /i'? =?-8D? T#is is true ,or delta%wye
connections as well?
T T#ese connections are #i'#ly susce4ti(le to ,erroresonance in ca(le,ed installations?
T T#ere are more restrictions on switc#in' ,or utility maintenance?
T#ree%4#ase switc#'ear may (e re2uired on t#e 4rimary (ecause t#ere
are se)eral 4ro(lems t#at can occur i, one attem4ts to 4er,orm sin'le4#ase switc#in'?
T#is will increase t#e cost o, t#e interconnection?
51- C#a4ter Nine
T#e 4rom4t detection o, S10 utility ,aults usin' )olta'e relayin' is a
4ro(lem wit# t#ese connections? T#is will delay ,ault detection until
a,ter t#e utility (rea+er #as o4ened, resultin' in at least a (rie, island?
T#is can result in o)er)olta'es and a resonant condition common to all
un'rounded 4rimary connections? Su44lementin' )olta'e relayin' wit#
ne'ati)e%se2uence relayin' on t#e 0 side can ma+e t#e detection more
certain? Also, it is common to add a 'round o)er)olta'e relay C6=0D on
t#e 4rimary side to detect t#e continuin' 4resence o, a 'round ,ault?
0rounded wye%delta connection? T#is is an interestin' connection
(ecause o, t#e con,lictin' a44lication considerations? .any utility en'ineers (elie)e t#is
is t#e (est windin' connection ,or interconnectin'
'eneration to t#e utility system? T#is is t#e connection used ,or nearly
all central station 'eneration? T#ere are many ad)anta'es, includin':
1? !tility%side ,aults are easily detected 4artly (ecause t#e trans,ormer itsel, acti)ely
4artici4ates in 'round ,aults?
-? Tri4len #armonic )olta'es 4roduced (y t#e 'enerator do not cause any
current to ,low (ecause it is (loc+ed (y t#e delta windin'? T#ere,ore,
nearly any 'enerator can (e 4aralleled wit# t#is connection?
3? Protection sc#emes are well understood (ased on many years o,
e74erience wit# utility 'eneration?
es4ite t#ese (ene,its, one may (e sur4rised to learn t#at t#is connection is not 4ermitted
on distri(ution systems wit#out a 'reat deal o,
study and s4ecial considerations t#at may result in costly modi,ications to t#e system? In
,act, it may not (e 4ossi(le to accommodate t#e
connection on some distri(ution systems (ecause o, t#e incon)enience
to ot#er customers?
0
ARRESTERS
S!*YECTE TO
1INE%TO%1INE
&O1TA0ES
PER.ANENT
1INE%TO%0RO!N
/A!1T
!TI1IT;
INTERR!PTIN0
E&ICE OPEN
!N0RO!NE
TRANS/OR.ER
CONNECTION
/i'ure =?-8 Isolatin' 0 wit# un'rounded ser)ice trans,ormer connection on an S10
,ault can lead to arrester ,ailure?
T#e connection is o,ten re,erred to as a G'round sourceH (ecause it contri(utes to 'round
,aults and will 'enerally disru4t t#e 'round ,ault
relayin' coordination on t#e ,eeder? Ot#er ,eeders connected to t#e same
su(station (us may (e disru4ted also? /i'ure =?-9 s#ows #ow t#e connection contri(utes
to an S10 ,ault on a ,our%wire, multi'rounded neutral distri(ution system, t#e most
common in t#e !nited States? T#e
t#ic+er arrows s#ow t#e normal contri(ution e74ected ,rom t#e main utility source? Only
one 4#ase is in)ol)ed on t#e distri(ution side, and t#e
,ault a44ears to (e a line%to%line ,ault ,rom t#e transmission side? T#e
t#inner arrows s#ow t#e 4at#s o, t#e current ,rom t#e 'rounded wyedelta interconnection
trans,ormer? T#e currents ,low (ac+ t#rou'# t#e
su(station and contri(ute additional current to t#e ,ault? T#e amount
contri(uted would de4end on t#e si@e and im4edance o, t#e trans,ormer?
T#e 'enerator contri(ution is not s#own in /i'? =?-9 ,or clarity? T#is
contri(ution will (e de4endent on t#e ca4a(ility o, t#e 0 to ,eed a
s#ort circuit? In some cases, t#e contri(ution due to t#e trans,ormer
alone will (e lar'er?
T#is c#aracteristic #as a num(er o, 4ossi(le ad)erse side e,,ects
w#en 4resent on t#e distri(ution system:
T Increased ,ault current means increased dama'e at t#e ,ault site,
w#ic# will e)entually lead to more sustained interru4tions and
reduced relia(ility?
T T#e connection is li+ely to cause sym4at#etic tri44in' o, t#e ,eeder
(rea+er ,or ,aults on ot#er ,eeders? T#e trans,ormer su44lies 'round
515 C#a4ter Nine
0
C.!1TI0RO!NE NE!TRA1D
/A!1T
CONTRI*!TION
/RO. R
TRANS/OR.ER
.AIN /A!1T
CONTRI*!TION
/RO. EPS
/i'ure =?-9 0rounded%wye%delta connection acts as a G'round sourceH ,eedin'
'round ,aults?
current to ot#er ,eeders connected to t#e same su(station (us? .any
customers w#o would normally see only a sa' would (e su(Aected to
interru4tions?
T 0round tri4 4ic+u4 le)els must (e increased, and more delay must (e
used to maintain coordination, w#ic# results in less sensiti)e ,ault
4rotection? CAn alternati)e is to use directional o)ercurrent relayin'?D
T Sa's ,or 'round ,aults will 'enerally (e somew#at dee4er Ct#e trans,ormer ma+es t#e
system a44ear more solidly 'roundedD?
T I, ,use sa)in' is (ein' attem4ted, t#e ,ault in,eed, w#ic# is li+ely to
(e lar'er t#an ,rom t#e 0 itsel,, ma+es t#is muc# more di,,icult to
ac#ie)e?
T T#e trans,ormer itsel, is su(Aect to s#ort%circuit ,ailure w#en a
'round ,ault occurs? T#is is 4articularly true ,or smaller trans,ormer
(an+s wit# im4edances less t#an 5 4ercent? A s4ecial trans,ormer
must 'enerally (e ordered?
T T#e trans,ormer is also su(Aect to ,ailure t#ermally (ecause t#e
,eeder load is rarely (alanced? T#us, t#e trans,ormer will act as a
sin+ ,or @ero%se2uence load currents?
T#e distri(ution system can almost always (e en'ineered to wor+
wit# 'rounded wye%delta connections? T#is ma+es t#e 0 interconnection 4rotection
more certain and strai'#t,orward? Howe)er, t#is may
re2uire costly modi,ications t#at could (ecome an insurmounta(le (arrier ,or small% and
medium%si@ed 0? T#e utility must also (e willin'
to acce4t s4ecial trans,ormers and o4eratin' 4rocedures t#at are di,,erent ,rom t#e rest o,
t#e system? Some utilities are unwillin' to do
t#is? One dan'er is t#at i, t#e trans,ormer were to ,ail at some time in
t#e ,uture, t#ose re4lacin' it mi'#t not (e aware t#at it re2uires a certain minimum
im4edance to 4re)ent ,ailure? Re4lacin' it wit# a con)entional trans,ormer may result in
catastro4#ic ,ailure o, t#e
trans,ormer? T#is is a 4articular issue w#en line crews ,rom ot#er com4anies #a)e to (e
(rou'#t in durin' disasters? T#us, many utility com4anies understanda(ly resist use o,
s4ecial o4tions?
=?8 0 on 1ow%&olta'e istri(ution
Networ+sZ
T#e discussions in t#is c#a4ter ,ocus 4rimarily on 0 interconnected
to radial 4rimary or secondary distri(ution circuits, w#ic# is t#e most
ZT#e te7t in t#is section is deri)ed ,rom lecture material ori'inally de)elo4ed (y ? C?
awson and "? E? /eero ,or t#e !ni)ersity o, "isconsinP.adison course
GInterconnectin' istri(uted 0eneration to !tility istri(ution SystemsH and is used
#ere wit# 4ermission?
common distri(ution con,i'uration? Howe)er, in lar'e cities a num(er
o, utilities use a low%)olta'e networ+ met#od o, distri(ution?
T#ese low%)olta'e networ+ systems are o, two maAor su(ty4es, t#e
secondary networ+Calso re,erred to as an area networ+, 'rid networ+,
or street networ+D and t#e s4ot networ+? Secondary networ+s ser)e
numerous sites, usually se)eral city (loc+s, ,rom a 'rid o, low%)olta'e
mains at 1->O->: &, t#ree%4#ase? S4ot networ+s ser)e a sin'le site, usually a lar'e
(uildin' or e)en a 4ortion o, a lar'e (uildin'? T#e secondary )olta'e o, s4ot networ+s is
o,ten -99O5:> &, t#ree%4#ase, (ut
1->O->:%& s4ot networ+s are also used?
Street networ+s and s4ot networ+s are su44lied ,rom two or more 4rimary distri(ution
,eeders t#rou'# inte'rated trans,ormerO(rea+erO4rotection com(inations called networ+
units?T#ese networ+ units are
o,ten located in trans,ormer )aults wit#in t#e (uildin' or in under'round )aults in t#e
street?
/i'ure =?-: s#ows a s4ot networ+ arran'ement wit# t#ree 4rimary
,eeders? T#e 4rimary ,eeders may (e dedicated to t#e s4ot networ+,
may ser)e ot#er networ+ units at di,,erent sites, or may ser)e ordinary
radial distri(ution loads as well?
T#e o(Aecti)e o, t#e networ+ distri(ution desi'n is to ac#ie)e #i'# ser)ice relia(ility wit#
#i'# 4ower 2uality? To accom4lis# t#is, t#e 4rimary
,eeders are o,ten c#osen so t#at t#ey ori'inate at di,,erent su(stations
or, at least at di,,erent (us sections o, t#e same su(station? As will (e
e74lained in Sec? =?8?1, t#e #i'# 4ower 2uality is ac#ie)ed (y #a)in' ,ull
518 C#a4ter Nine
;
N"P
;
;
Networ+ !nits
To /acility
Switc#'ear
Primary /eeders
to ot#er
networ+ units
to ot#er
networ+ units
to ot#er
networ+ units
/i'ure =?-: S4ot networ+ arran'ement?
ser)ice ca4a(ility wit# any ,eeder out o, ser)ice and ra4idly remo)in'
any ,aulted ,eeder ,rom connection to t#e low%)olta'e networ+?
=?8?1 /undamentals o, networ+ o4eration
To 'ain an understandin' o, #ow t#e o4eration o, networ+s di,,ers ,rom
radial ser)ice, we will concentrate on t#e s4ot networ+? In normal o4eration, t#e s4ot
networ+ is su44lied simultaneously ,rom all t#e 4rimary
,eeders, (y 4arallelin' t#e low%)olta'e secondaries o, t#e networ+
trans,ormers on t#e s4ot networ+ (us? In order t#at t#e s4ot networ+
can continue to o4erate i, a 4rimary ,eeder (ecomes ,aulted, t#e networ+ units are eac#
e2ui44ed wit# a low%)olta'e circuit (rea+er, called
t#enetwor+ 4rotector,and a directional%4ower relay called t#e networ+
relayormaster relay?
"#en a 4rimary ,eeder is ,aulted, t#e networ+ relay senses re)erse
4ower ,low C,rom t#e networ+ toward t#e 4rimary ,eederD and o4ens t#e
networ+ 4rotector, t#ere(y isolatin' t#e networ+ (us ,rom t#e ,aulted
,eeder and allowin' ser)ice on t#e networ+ to continue wit#out interru4tion? T#is
,unction is t#e reason ,or t#e name networ+ 4rotector and t#e
reason w#y 0 interconnection to networ+s (ecomes a com4le7 issue?
/i'ure =?-= s#ows t#e o4eration o, a networ+ 4rotector in isolatin' a
,aulted 4rimary ,eeder? 1ater, w#en t#e ,aulted 4rimary ,eeder is
re4aired and returned to ser)ice, t#e networ+ relay senses )olta'e at
t#e trans,ormer side o, t#e o4en networ+ 4rotector? I, t#is )olta'e is
;
N"P
;
;
Networ+ !nits
To /acility
Switc#'ear
Primary /eeders
to ot#er
networ+ units
to ot#er
networ+ units
to ot#er
networ+ units
o4ens
o4ens
/i'ure =?-= Networ+ 4rimary ,eeder ,ault?
suc# t#at 4ower will ,low ,rom t#e networ+ unit to t#e (us w#en t#e
4rotector is closed, t#e networ+ relay commands t#e 4rotector switc# to
reclose? eterminin' w#en t#is reclose will ta+e 4lace may (ecome an
interconnection issue?
T#e networ+ relay is a )ery sensiti)e re)erse%4ower relay, wit# a
4ic+u4 le)el on t#e order o, >?1 4ercent o, t#e rated 4ower o, t#e networ+ trans,ormer?
T#ese settin's can (e as low as 1 to - +"? It is t#e
mission o, t#e re)erse%4ower relay to (e ca4a(le o, sensin' re)erse
4ower ,low wit# no ot#er ,eeder loads t#an t#e core losses o, its own
networ+ trans,ormer? T#is 'reat sensiti)ity is necessary (ecause t#e
networ+ 4rotector must o4erate ,or all ty4es o, ,aults on t#e 4rimary
,eeder, includin' 'round ,aults? Since a delta%connected 4rimary is
commonly used on networ+ trans,ormers, no 'round ,ault current will
,low ,rom t#e networ+ toward t#e 4rimary ,eeder once t#e source su(station ,eeder
circuit (rea+er #as o4ened? T#e 4rimary ,eeder may
#a)e no ot#er loads, or t#e only ot#er loads may (e ot#er networ+ units
t#at #a)e already disconnected ,rom t#e ,aulty ,eeder? T#us t#e networ+ relay must (e
ca4a(le o, sensin' re)erse 4ower usin' only its own
trans,ormerFs losses?
T#is sensiti)e re)erse%4ower ,unction means t#at no 0 can (e connected to t#e networ+
wit# t#e intent to e74ort 4ower to t#e utility
system? It ,urt#er means t#at e)en momentary 4ower re)ersals under
a(normal conditions must (e considered in t#e interconnection
desi'n?
T#e traditional networ+ relay is an electromec#anical de)ice and #as
no intentional time delay? T#e ty4ical o4eratin' time is a(out >?>6 s
C3 cyclesD at normal )olta'e le)els, t#us t#e reason t#at e)en momentary 4ower re)ersals
caused (y t#e 0 are o, concern? .icro4rocessor(ased networ+ relays #a)e re4laced t#e
electromec#anical ty4es in new
networ+ units, and t#ese relays can (e retro,itted into many ty4es o,
e7istin' networ+ units? T#e (asic 4er,ormance o, t#e micro4rocessor
ty4es is similar to t#e electromec#anicals, (ut t#ey #a)e more ,le7i(ility and new
,eatures?
T#e networ+ 4rotector is an air circuit (rea+er s4eci,ically desi'ned
,or t#e ,ault current conditions encountered on low%)olta'e networ+
systems? It o4erates only under t#e control o, t#e networ+ relay? T#e
networ+ 4rotector #as no o)ercurrent 4rotection and does not o4en ,or
,aults on t#e low%)olta'e secondary system? 1ow%)olta'e ,aults are
cleared (y ,uses or (y circuit (rea+ers wit#in t#e ser)ed ,acility? T#e
most critical desi'n c#aracteristic o, almost all networ+ 4rotectors in
ser)ice is t#at t#ey are not intended to se4arate two o4eratin' electrical systems?
T#ere,ore, a 0 can ne)er (e allowed to island on a networ+ (us?
51: C#a4ter Nine
=?8?- Summary o, networ+ interconnection
issues
/rom t#e discussion in t#is section it is clear t#at installin' 0 in ,acilities ser)ed (y a
s4ot networ+ #as a num(er o, s4ecial a44lication 4ro(lems t#at do not arise in t#e usual
radial ser)ice arran'ement?
1? E74ortin' 4ower ,rom a s4ot networ+, or e)en ser)in' t#e entire
,acility load ,rom a 0, is not 4ractical (ecause o, t#e re)erse%4ower
met#od o, 4rotection used on t#e networ+ units? I, 0 e7ceeds t#e onsite load, e)en
momentarily, 4ower ,lows ,rom t#e networ+ toward t#e
4rimary ,eeders and t#e networ+ relays will o4en t#eir networ+ 4rotectors, isolatin' t#e
networ+ ,rom its utility su44ly? .inimum site
loads, suc# as late%ni'#t or wee+end loads, may se)erely limit t#e si@e
or o4eratin' #ours o, a 0? E)en i, a 0 is si@ed to t#e siteFs minimum
load, consideration #as to (e 'i)en to t#e 4ossi(ility o, sudden loss o,
a lar'e load, w#ic# mi'#t cause re)erse 4ower ,low t#rou'# t#e networ+ units?
-? Networ+ 4rotectors (uilt in accordance wit# ANSIOIEEE
Standard C69?1-?55%1==5 are not re2uired to wit#stand t#e 1:>i outo,%4#ase )olta'es t#at
could e7ist across an o4en switc# wit# 0 on t#e
networ+? T#ey also are not re2uired to interru4t ,ault currents wit#
#i'#er[ORratios t#an t#ose usually encountered in low%)olta'e networ+ systems? A
serious ,ailure o, a networ+ 4rotector on a networ+ in
New .e7ico durin' installation test o, 0 demonstrated t#e reality o,
t#is 4ro(lem?
3? T#e ,ault current deli)ery ,rom sync#ronous 0 to e7ternal ,aults
can cause networ+ 4rotectors to o4en, 4otentially isolatin' t#e networ+? /i'ure =?3>
s#ows an e7am4le o, #ow t#is can #a44en? As noted
earlier in t#is c#a4ter, it cannot (e determined #ow induction 'enerators will contri(ute to
un(alanced and #i'#%im4edance ,aults at suc#
locations wit#out detailed studies? I, suc# studies are a(sent, induction
'enerators s#ould (e treated as i, t#ey #a)e sync#ronous 'eneration
ca4a(ility in selectin' t#e a44ro4riate interconnection res4onse to t#is
remote ,ault issue?
5? I, t#e networ+ 4rotectors o4en, isolatin' t#e networ+ and t#e 0
,rom t#e utility source, t#e networ+ relay may re4eatedly attem4t to
reclose t#e networ+ 4rotector, leadin' to destruction o, t#e 4rotector
and t#e 4ossi(ility o, catastro4#ic ,ailure o, t#e networ+ unit?
6? T#e networ+ relays are 4art o, an inte'rated assem(ly in a su(mersi(le enclosure, o,ten
mounted in )aults in t#e street, and are not
as easily modi,ied as a ty4ical relay control sc#eme?
8? Re,errin' (ac+ to /i'? =?-:, i, t#e (us tie (rea+er is o4erated o4en,
or a second su(station is used to su44ly t#e networ+, t#en t#ere is a
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 51=
4ossi(ility t#at 4rotector cyclin' would occur under li'#t%load conditions? T#e addition o,
0 to t#e networ+ (us will worsen t#is condition?
.a+in' t#e determination o, w#en and w#ere t#e cyclin' 4ro(lem
mi'#t emer'e is 4articularly di,,icult on street networ+s wit#out t#e
aid o, so4#isticated load ,low simulations?
=?8?3 Inte'ration tec#ni2ues ,or 0 on
networ+s
es4ite t#is dauntin' list o, 4ro(lems, t#ere are some ways t#at 0
may (e accommodated on s4ot networ+s, (y ta+in' ad)anta'e o, new
tec#nolo'y? In)erter%(ased 0 #as t#e ad)anta'es t#at ,ault current is
)ery limited, to a(out 1>> to ->> 4ercent o, t#e normal in)erter load
current, and t#at an in)erter can res4ond )ery ra4idly to si'nals controllin' its 4ower
out4ut le)el? /i'ure =?31 s#ows a networ+ 0 installation t#at uses t#is a44roac#?
*ecause t#e most critical as4ect o, 0 on networ+s is t#at t#e local
'eneration must ne)er e7ceed t#e local load, t#is e7am4le uses a tieline load control
sc#eme t#at senses t#e total incomin' 4ower to t#e
,acility and adAusts t#e 0 4ower out4ut to ensure t#at 4ower ,low is
always inward?
Ot#er a44roac#es t#at mi'#t (e used are
5-> C#a4ter Nine
;
N"P
;
;
Networ+ !nits
Primary /eeders
;
1ocal
0en
Protectors O4en on
/ault Current /low
/ault
/i'ure =?3> /ault current ,rom sync#ronous local 'eneration?
T Si@e t#e 0 to (e less t#an t#e minimum load t#at e)er e7ists on t#e
networ+, wit# a mar'in ,or sudden loss o, a lar'e load?
T Total t#e incomin' 4ower to t#e networ+ and tri4 t#e 0 w#ene)er
t#e inward 4ower ,low ,alls (elow a sa,e )alue?
All t#ree o, t#ese a44roac#es see+ to a)oid o4enin' t#e networ+ 4rotectors (y limitin'
t#e 0 to less t#an t#e on%site load? Note t#at i,
cyclin' is a 4ro(lem, t#en t#ese tec#ni2ues can (e used to esta(lis#
minimum load w#ere cyclin' will not (e e74erienced? *ecause o, t#e
#i'#%s4eed res4onse o, t#e networ+ relays, t#ere may not (e muc# time
a)aila(le to measure 4ower ,low and ma+e a control decision? T#is
4ro(lem can (e eased (y arran'in' t#e networ+ relays to #a)e a time
delay at low re)erse%4ower le)els, e?'?, re)erse ,low less t#an t#e rated
ca4acity o, t#e networ+ trans,ormer? /or t#e #i'# le)els o, re)erse
4ower ,low t#at occur durin' multi4#ase ,aults on t#e 4rimary ,eeders,
t#e networ+ relays still o4erate instantaneously? /i'ure =?3- s#ows t#e
adAusta(le ,eatures o, t#e time%delayed networ+ relays?
Time delay on low re)erse 4ower is a tec#ni2ue t#at #as (een used
,or many years to deal wit# re'enerati)e loads suc# as ele)ators?
.odern micro4rocessor%(ased networ+ relays 'enerally #a)e t#is
ca4a(ility (uilt in? T#e ad)anta'e o, t#e micro4rocessor is t#at t#is
time delay can (e as s#ort as 8 cycles? I, t#e instantaneous tri4 t#res#old can (e +e4t at or
(elow t#e ratin' o, t#e trans,ormer, t#en suc# a
(rie, time delay may (e acce4ta(le ,rom a 4ower 2uality stand4oint? A
su44lementary o)ercurrent and time%delay relay is needed to add t#e
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 5-1
;
N"P
;
;
Networ+ !nits
Primary /eeders
1ocal
0en
1oad
V

Su(station
/acility
1oads
Tie%1ine
1oad
Cont?
/i'ure =?31 In)erter%(ased 0 on a s4ot networ+?
ca4a(ility to electromec#anical networ+ relays? In t#e 4ast, t#ese su44lemental relays #ad
minimum time delays o, 1 s or more since t#eir
mission was to wait ,or t#e ele)ator to descend? Howe)er, not all utilities endorse t#is
low%current, time%delay tec#ni2ue? Some ,eel t#at
any time delay in o4enin' t#e networ+ 4rotectors de'rades t#e #i'#
ser)ice 2uality t#at t#e networ+ system is intended to 4ro)ide?
T#e load%'eneration control and 0 tri44in' sc#emes mentioned
a(o)e are intended to ensure t#at t#e networ+ 4rotectors are ne)er
o4ened (y e74orted 4ower? As lon' as t#e sc#emes wor+ 4ro4erly, t#e
networ+ 4rotectors are ne)er e74osed to t#e out%o,%4#ase )olta'e conditions t#at may
e7ceed t#e switc# ca4a(ility? Howe)er, (ecause o, t#e
4otentially catastro4#ic conse2uences o, causin' a networ+ 4rotector
,ailure, it is 4rudent to 4ro)ide a (ac+u4? An interloc+in' sc#eme t#at
tri4s t#e 0 instantaneously w#en a certain num(er o, networ+ 4rotectors #a)e o4ened
ensures t#at t#e networ+ 4rotectors will not (e
e74osed to out%o,%4#ase )olta'es ,or more t#an a ,ew cycles? T#e decision as to #ow
many 4rotectors must o4en (e,ore t#e 0 is tri44ed
Cone, two, or allD is a tradeo,, (etween security o, t#e 4rotectors and
nuisance tri44in' o, t#e 0? Note t#at t#is sc#eme does not relie)e t#e
0 installer ,rom t#e res4onsi(ility o, 4ro)idin' stuc+%(rea+er (ac+u4
4rotection ,or t#e 0Fs switc#in' de)ice?
An e)en more secure a44roac# to a)oidin' o)erstressin' t#e networ+
4rotectors is to re4lace e7istin' 4rotectors wit# new desi'ns t#at are
ca4a(le o, interru4tin' ,ault currents ,rom sources wit# #i'#er [OR
5-- C#a4ter Nine
Time
AdAusta(le
delay time
Time delay ,or
low currents
AdAusta(le
instantaneous tri4
t#res#old
Instantaneous tri4
,or #i'#er currents
1>>
Current CI o, trans,ormer ratin'D
/i'ure =?3- AdAusta(le re)erse%4ower c#aracteristic?
ratios and o, wit#standin' out%o,%4#ase )olta'es across t#e o4en
switc#? One maAor !?S? manu,acturer o, networ+ 4rotector units #as
recently introduced suc# #i'#%ca4acity 4rotectors in :>>% to --6>%A ratin's and 4lans to
introduce t#em in ratin's u4 to 8>>> A? T#ese 4rotectors are desi'ned to (e retro,itted in
many e7istin' ty4es o, networ+
units?
A 4ossi(le 0 interconnection 4ro(lem e7ists t#at would in)ol)e networ+ 4rotectors
wit#out a networ+ (us interconnection? I, a 0 is
interconnected on a ,eeder t#at also su44lies a networ+ unit, t#en i, its
,eeder (rea+er is tri44ed and t#e 0 is not ra4idly isolated, it may
im4act one or more o, t#e networ+ units as i, it were isolated on t#e networ+ (us? /or t#is
ty4e o, e)ent to occur, t#e 0 out4ut does not #a)e
to (e matc#ed to t#e ,eeder load? /or t#e e7cess 'eneration case, it only
#as to (e momentarily 'reater t#an t#e load on t#e networ+ (us? !nder
t#is condition t#e 4ower continues to ,low to t#e networ+ (us ,rom t#e
,eeder wit# t#e interconnected 0, w#ic# +ee4s t#at 4rotector closed?
Howe)er, t#e e7cess 4ower ,lows t#rou'# t#e networ+ (ac+ to t#e ot#er
,eeders, resultin' in t#e o4enin' o, t#e 4rotectors connected to t#ose
,eeders? Once o4en, t#ese 4rotectors will (e se4aratin' two inde4endent systems? /or t#e
case o, less 'eneration t#an load, t#e 4rotector
connectin' to t#e ,eeder wit# t#e 'eneration may tri4? A'ain, suc# a
condition would #a)e a 4rotector se4aratin' two inde4endent systems?
T#ere,ore, suc# 0 a44lications s#ould (e a)oided unless t#e 0
(rea+er is interloc+ed wit# t#e ,eeder (rea+er wit# a direct trans,er
tri4 sc#eme?
=?9 Sitin' 0
T#e )alue o, 0 to t#e 4ower deli)ery system is )ery muc# de4endent
on time and location? It must (e a)aila(le w#en needed and must (e
w#ere it is needed? T#is is an o,ten ne'lected or misunderstood conce4t
in discussions a(out 0? .any 4u(lications on 0 assume t#at i, 1
." o, 0 is added to t#e system, 1 ." o, additional load can (e
ser)ed? T#is is not always true?
!tility distri(ution en'ineers 'enerally ,eel more com,orta(le wit#
0 installed on ,acilities t#ey maintain and control? T#e o()ious c#oice
,or a location is a su(station w#ere t#ere is su,,icient s4ace and communications to
control centers? T#is is an a44ro4riate location i, t#e
needs are ca4acity relie, on t#e transmission system or t#e su(station
trans,ormer? It is also ade2uate ,or (asic 4ower su44ly issues, and one
will ,ind many 4ea+in' units in su(stations? Howe)er, to 4ro)ide su44ort ,or distri(ution
,eeders, t#e 0 must (e sited out on t#e ,eeder
away ,rom t#e su(station? Suc# 'eneration will also relie)e ca4acity
constraints on transmission and 4ower su44ly? In ,act, it is more e,,ecistri(uted
0eneration and Power Quality 5-3
ti)e t#an t#e same amount o, 0 installed in t#e su(station?
!n,ortunately, t#is 'eneration is usually customer%owned and distri(ution 4lanners are
reluctant to rely on it ,or ca4acity?
T#e a44lication o, 0 to relie)e ,eeder ca4acity constraints is illustrated in /i'? =?33? T#e
,eeder load #as 'rown to w#ere it e7ceeds a
limit on t#e ,eeder? T#is limit could (e im4osed (y eit#er current ratin's on lines or
switc#'ear? It could also (e im4osed (y (us )olta'e limits? T#ere is 0 on t#e ,eeder at a
location w#ere it can actually relie)e
t#e constraint and is dis4atc#ed near t#e daily 4ea+ to #el4 ser)e t#e
load? T#e strai'#t,orward messa'e o, t#e ,i'ure is t#at t#e load t#at
would ot#erwise #a)e to (e curtailed can now (e ser)ed? T#ere,ore, t#e
relia(ility #as (een im4ro)ed?
T#is a44lication is (ecomin' more common as a means to de,er
e74ansion o, t#e wire%(ased 4ower deli)ery in,rastructure? T#e 'eneration mi'#t (e
leased ,or a 4ea+ load 4eriod? Howe)er, it is more common to o,,er ca4acity credits to
customers located in a44ro4riate areas
to use t#eir (ac+u4 'eneration ,or t#e (ene,it o, t#e utility system? I,
t#ere are no customers wit# 0 in t#e area, utilities may lease s4ace
to connect 'eneration or, de4endin' on re'ulatory rules, may 4ro)ide
some incenti)es ,or customers to add (ac+u4 'eneration?
T#ere is (y no means uni)ersal a'reement t#at t#is is a 4ermanent
solution to t#e relia(ility 4ro(lem? "#en utility 4lanners are s#own
/i'? =?33, most will concede t#e o()ious, (ut not necessarily a'ree t#at
t#is situation re4resents an im4ro)ement in relia(ility? T#ree o, t#e
stron'er ar'uments are
1? I, t#e ,eeder 'oes out, only t#e customer wit# t#e 0 sees an
im4ro)ement in relia(ility? T#ere is no noticea(le c#an'e in t#e ser)ice relia(ility indices?
5-5 C#a4ter Nine
/eeder 1imit 0 is4atc#ed
ON
aily 1oad Pro,ile
0 Sited to Pro)ide /eeder Relie,
/i'ure =?33 0 sited to relie)e ,eeder o)erload constraint?
-? Customer 'eneration cannot (e relied u4on to start w#en needed?
T#us, t#e relia(ility cannot (e e74ected to im4ro)e?
3? !sin' customer%owned 'eneration in t#is ,as#ion mas+s t#e true
load 'rowt#? In)estment in wire ,acilities la's (e#ind demand,
increasin' t#e ris+ t#at t#e distri(ution system will e)entually not
(e a(le to ser)e t#e load?
It s#ould also (e noted t#at t#e ca4acity relie, (ene,it is nulli,ied
w#en t#e distri(ution system is u4'raded and no lon'er #as a constraint? T#us, ca4acity
credits o,,ered ,or t#is a44lication 'enerally
#a)e a s#ort term ran'in' ,rom 8 mont#s to 1 year?
I, one #ad to c#oose a location on t#e distri(ution ,eeder, w#ere
s#ould t#e 0 (e located$ T#e o4timal 0 sitin' 4ro(lem is similar to
t#e o4timal sitin' 4ro(lem ,or s#unt ca4acitor (an+s? .any o, t#e same
al'orit#ms can (e used wit# t#e c#ie, di,,erence (ein' t#at t#e o(Aect
(ein' added 4roduces watts in addition to )ars? Some o, t#e same rules
o, t#um( also a44ly? /or e7am4le, i, t#e load is uni,ormly distri(uted
alon' t#e ,eeder, t#e o4timal 4oint ,or loss reduction and ca4acity relie,
is a44ro7imately two%t#irds o, t#e way down t#e main ,eeder? "#en
t#ere are more 'enerators to consider, t#e 4ro(lem re2uires com4uter
4ro'rams ,or analysis?
T#e utility does not 'enerally #a)e a c#oice in t#e location o, ,eederconnected 0? T#e
location is 'i)en ,or customer%owned 'eneration,
and t#e 4ro(lem is to determine i, t#e location #as any ca4acity%related
)alue to t#e 4ower deli)ery system? O4timal sitin' al'orit#ms can (e
em4loyed to e)aluate t#e relati)e )alue o, alternati)e sites?
One measure o, t#e )alue o, 0 in a location is t#e additional
amount o, load t#at can (e ser)ed relati)e to t#e si@e o, t#e 0?
Transmission networ+s are )ery com4le7 systems t#at are sometimes
constrained (y one small area t#at a,,ects a lar'e 'eo'ra4#ical area? A
relati)ely small amount o, load reduction in t#e constrained area
allows se)eral times t#at amount o, load to (e ser)ed (y t#e system?
T#is e,,ect can also (e seen on distri(ution ,eeders? *ecause o, t#e
sim4le, radial structure o, most ,eeders, t#ere is 'enerally not a constraint so se)ere t#at
0 a44lication will allow t#e ser)in' o, additional load se)eral times 'reater t#an t#e
si@e o, t#e 'enerator?
Howe)er, t#ere can (e a multi4lyin' e,,ect as illustrated in /i'? =?35?
T#is e7am4le assumes t#at t#e constraint is on t#e ,eeder rat#er
t#an on t#e su(station? I, 1 ." o, 'eneration were 4laced in t#e su(station, no additional
load could (e ser)ed on t#e ,eeder (ecause no
,eeder relie, #as (een ac#ie)ed? Howe)er, i, t#ere is a 'ood site on t#e
,eeder, t#e total ,eeder load o,ten can 'row (y as muc# as 1?5 ."? T#is
is a ty4ical ma7imum )alue ,or t#is measure o, 0 (ene,it on radial
distri(ution ,eeders?
Anot#er a44lication t#at is (ecomin' common is t#e use o, 0 to
co)er contin'encies? Traditionally, utilities #a)e (uilt su,,icient wire(ased deli)ery
ca4acity to ser)e t#e 4ea+ load assumin' one maAor ,ailure Ct#e so%called N%1
contin'ency desi'n criterionD? At t#e distri(ution
,eeder le)el, t#is in)ol)es addin' su,,icient ties to ot#er ,eeders so t#at
t#e load can (e con)eniently switc#ed to an alternate ,eeder w#en a
,ailure occurs? T#ere must also (e su,,icient su(station ca4acity to
ser)e t#e normal load and t#e additional load e74ected to (e switc#ed
o)er durin' a ,ailure? T#is results in su(stantial o)erca4acity w#en t#e
system is in its normal state wit# no ,ailures?
One 4otentially 'ood economic a44lication o, 0 is to 4ro)ide su44ort ,or ,eeders w#en
it is necessary to switc# t#em to an alternate
source w#ile re4airs are made? /i'ure =?36 de4icts t#e use o, 0
located on t#e ,eeder ,or t#is 4ur4ose? T#is will (e su(stantially less
costly t#an (uildin' a new ,eeder or u4'radin' a su(station to co)er
t#is contin'ency?
T#e 0 in t#is case is located near t#e tie%4oint (etween two ,eeders?
It is not necessarily used ,or ,eeder su44ort durin' normal conditions
alt#ou'# t#ere would o,ten (e some (ene,its to (e 'ained (y o4eratin'
t#e 0 at 4ea+ load? "#en a ,ailure occurs on eit#er side o, t#e tie, t#e
o4en tie switc# is closed to 4ic+ u4 load ,rom t#e o44osite side? T#e 0
is dis4atc#ed on and connected to #el4 su44ort t#e (ac+u4 ,eeder?
1ocatin' t#e 0 in t#is manner 'i)es t#e utility additional ,le7i(ility and more
recon,i'uration o4tions? Currently, t#e most common 0
tec#nolo'y used ,or t#is a44lication is currently diesel 'ensets? T#e
'ensets may (e mounted on 4orta(le trailers and leased only ,or t#e
4ea+ load season w#en a 4articular contin'ency lea)es t#e system )ulnera(le? One or
more units may (e interconnected t#rou'# a 4ad%5-8 C#a4ter Nine
Pload
P'en
] >
Pload
P'en
] 1?5
/i'ure =?35 A(ility o, 0 to increase t#e ca4acity o, a distri(ution ,eeder is
de4endent on 0 location?
mounted trans,ormer and may also em4loy a recloser wit# a 0 4rotection relay? T#is
ma+es a com4act and sa,e interconnection 4ac+a'e
usin' e2ui4ment ,amiliar to utility 4ersonnel?
=?: Interconnection Standards
Standards ,or interconnection o, 0 to distri(ution systems are e7amined in t#is section?
Two e7am4les illustratin' t#e ran'e o, re2uirements ,or interconnection 4rotection are
4resented?
=?:?1 Industry standards e,,orts
T#ere #a)e (een two main 0 interconnection standards e,,orts in t#e
!nited States? IEEE Standard =-=%->>>6
was de)elo4ed to address
re2uirements ,or in)erters used in 4#oto)oltaic systems interconnected
wit# utility systems? T#e standard #as (een 'enerally a44lied to all
tec#nolo'ies re2uirin' an in)erter inter,ace? One o, t#e main issues
t#is standard addresses is t#e anti%islandin' sc#eme? T#e (asic idea is
to introduce a desta(ili@in' si'nal into t#e switc#in' control so t#at it
will 2uic+ly dri,t in ,re2uency i, allowed to run isolated w#ile t#e control t#in+s it is still
interconnected? Amid ,ears t#at )endors would
inde4endently c#oose sc#emes t#at mi'#t cancel out eac# ot#er, a'reement was reac#ed
on a uni,orm direction to dri)e t#e ,re2uency?
Anot#er, more contested e,,ort #as (een t#e de)elo4ment o, IEEE
Standard P1659,1>
w#ic# #as not (een a44ro)ed as o, t#e time o, t#is
writin'? T#e intent is to de)elo4 a national standard t#at will a44ly to
t#e interconnection o, all ty4es o, 0 to (ot# t#e radial and networ+ distri(ution systems?
&endors, utilities, and end users #a)e Aoined in t#is
e,,ort, w#ic# a44ears to (e con)er'in'? T#is dra,t standard addresses
many o, t#e issues descri(ed in t#is c#a4ter, and t#e a44roac# ta+en
#ere is lar'ely consistent wit# t#e contents o, t#is document?
=?:?- Interconnection re2uirements
T#e (asic re2uirements ,or interconnectin' 0 to t#e utility distri(ution system are listed
#ere?
/i'ure =?36 0 sited near t#e tie%4oint (etween two ,eeders to #el4 su44ort
contin'encies?
&olta'e re'ulation? 0 s#all not attem4t to re'ulate )olta'e w#ile
interconnected unless s4ecial a'reement is reac#ed wit# t#e utility? As
4ointed out 4re)iously, t#is 'enerally means t#at t#e 0 will o4erate
at a constant 4ower ,actor or constant reacti)e 4ower out4ut acce4ta(le
to t#e o4eration o, t#e system? In)erters in utility%interacti)e mode
would ty4ically o4erate (y 4roducin' a current in 4#ase wit# t#e )olta'e to ac#ie)e a
4articular 4ower out4ut le)el?
Anti%islandin'? 0 s#all #a)e relayin' t#at is ca4a(le o, detectin'
w#en it is o4eratin' as an island and disconnect ,rom t#e 4ower system? In)erters s#ould
(e com4liant wit# IEEE Standard =-=%->>> suc#
t#at t#ey would naturally dri,t in ,re2uency w#en isolated ,rom t#e
utility source? Relayin' to detect resonant conditions t#at mi'#t occur
s#ould (e a44lied in susce4ti(le 0 a44lications?
/ault detection? 0 s#all #a)e relayin' ca4a(le o, detectin' ,aults on
t#e utility system and disconnectin' a,ter a time delay o, ty4ically >?18
to -?> s, de4endin' on t#e amount o, de)iation ,rom normal? 0 s#ould
disconnect su,,iciently early in t#e ,irst reclose inter)al to allow tem4orary ,aults to clear?
CT#e utility may #a)e to e7tend t#e ,irst reclose
inter)al to ensure t#at t#is can (e accom4lis#ed?D Howe)er, to 4re)ent
nuisance tri44in' o, t#e 0, t#e tri44in' s#ould not (e too ,ast? T#e
>?18%s C1> cycles at 8> H@D delay is to allow time ,or ,aults on t#e transmission system or
adAacent ,eeder to clear (e,ore tri44in' t#e 0 needlessly?
Settin's 4ro4osed ,or )olta'e and ,re2uency relays ,or t#is a44lication are 'i)en in Ta(le
=?1?
1>
T#e cuto,, )olta'es are nominal 'uidelines
and may #a)e to (e modi,ied ,or some a44lications? A common adAustment is to decrease
t#e )olta'e tri4 le)els to a)oid nuisance tri44in' ,or
,aults on 4arallel ,eeders? /or e7am4le, ,aults on 4arallel ,eeders will
sometimes 'i)e )olta'es less t#an 6> 4ercent, re2uirin' t#e settin' on
5-: C#a4ter Nine
TA*1E=?1 Ty4ical &olta'e and
/re2uency Relay Settin's ,or 0
Interconnection ,or a 8>%H@ System
Condition Clearin' time, s
&6>I >?18
6>I&::I -?>
11>I &1->I 1?>
&1->I >?18
,6=?3 H@ >?18
,8>?6 H@ >?18
t#e 1>%cycle tri4 to (e reduced to 4er#a4s 5> 4ercent? T#e ,re2uency
tri4 settin's may (e adAusted accordin' to local standards? Some utilities may want lar'er
0 to remain connected to a muc# lower ,re2uency Ce?'?, 69 H@D to #el4 wit# system
sta(ility issues ,ollowin' loss
o, a maAor 'eneratin' 4lant or a tie%line?
irect trans,er tri4 Co4tionalD? /or a44lications w#ere it is di,,icult to
detect islands and utility%side ,aults, or w#ere it is not 4ossi(le to coordinate wit# utility
,ault%clearin' de)ices, direct trans,er tri4 s#ould (e
a44lied suc# t#at t#e 0 interconnect (rea+er is tri44ed simultaneously wit# t#e utility
(rea+er? Trans,er tri4 is usually ad)isa(le w#en
0 is 4ermitted to o4erate wit# automatic )olta'e control (ecause t#is
situation is muc# more li+ely to su44ort an inad)ertent island?
Trans,er tri4 is relati)ely costly and is 'enerally a44lied only on lar'e
0 systems? Two relayin' sc#emes ,or meetin' t#ese re2uirements are
4resented in Secs? =?:?3 and =?:?5?
=?:?3 A sim4le interconnection
T#e 4rotection sc#eme s#own in /i'? =?38 a44lies to small systems t#at
are not e74ected to (e a(le to su44ort islands (y t#emsel)es? T#ere is
not uni)ersal a'reement on w#at constitutes a GsmallH 0 system?
Some utilities draw t#e line at 3> +", w#ile ot#ers mi'#t restrict t#is
to less t#an 1> +"? Some may allow t#is +ind o, inter,ace 4rotection ,or
istri(uted 0eneration and Power Quality 5-=
SER&ICE
TRANS/OR.ER
$
$
1OA
R
-9O6= :1 OO!
/i'ure =?38 Sim4le interconnection 4rotection sc#eme ,or
smaller 'enerators?
si@es u4 to 1>> +", or more? T#e two relayin' ,unctions s#own are
e74ected to do most o, t#e wor+ e)en ,or lar'e 0 systems? 1ar'e systems #a)e
additional relayin' to 4ro)ide a 'reater mar'in o, sa,ety?
Small 0 systems would commonly (e connected to t#e load (us at
secondary )olta'e le)els? T#ere would not (e a se4arate trans,ormer,
alt#ou'# t#ere may (e se4arate meterin'? O)ercurrent 4rotection is
4ro)ided (y molded case circuit (rea+ers? T#e main 0 inter,ace 4rotection ,unctions are
1? O)erOunder COO!D )olta'e C-9O6= relayD
-? O)erOunder ,re2uency C:1 OO! relayD
T#ese relays can (e used to tri4 eit#er t#e 'enerator (rea+er or t#e
main ser)ice (rea+er, de4endin' on t#e desired mode o, o4eration?
Tri44in' only t#e 'enerator lea)es t#e load connected, and t#is is 4ro(a(ly t#e desired
o4eration ,or most loads em4loyin' small co'eneration
or 4ea+in' 'enerators? Howe)er, t#e utility may re2uire t#e main
(rea+er to (e tri44ed i, t#e 0 system is runnin' w#en a distur(ance
occurs?
T#e main ser)ice (rea+er would also (e tri44ed i, t#e 0 system is
to (e used ,or (ac+u4 4ower so t#at t#e 0 system can continue to su44ly t#e load o,,%
line? It s#ould (e noted t#at s4ecial controls Cnot s#own
in /i'? =?38D may (e re2uired ,or t#is trans,er to occur seamlessly? It is
not always easy to accom4lis#?
T#e o)erOunder )olta'e relay #as t#e 4rimary res4onsi(ility to detect
utility%side distur(ances? T#ere s#ould (e no ,re2uency de)iation until
t#e utility ,ault interru4ter o4ens? I, t#e ,ault is )ery close to t#e 'enerator interconnection
4oint and t#e )olta'e sa' is dee4, t#e o)ercurrent relayin' may also see t#e ,ault? T#is
will de4end on t#e ca4a(ility
o, t#e 0 system to su44ly ,ault current? T#e o)ercurrent (rea+ers are
necessary ,or 4rotectin' t#e 0 system in case o, an internal ,ault?
Once t#e distri(ution ,eeder is se4arated ,rom t#e utility (ul+ 4ower
system, an island ,orms? T#e )olta'e and ,re2uency relays t#en wor+
in concert to detect t#e island? One would normally e74ect t#e )olta'e
to colla4se )ery 2uic+ly and (e detected (y t#e under)olta'e relay? I,
t#is does not #a44en ,or some reason, t#e ,re2uency s#ould 2uic+ly
dri,t outside t#e narrow (and e74ected w#ile interconnected so t#at t#e
:1 OO! relay would detect it?
=?:?5 A com4le7 interconnection
T#e second 4rotection sc#eme descri(ed #ere re4resents t#e ot#er
e7treme ,rom t#e sim4le sc#eme 4resented in Sec? =?:?3? /i'ure =?39
s#ows t#e +ey ,unctions in an actual distri(ution%connected 0 installation t#at em4loys
a 4rimary%side recloser? T#is is a relati)ely com4le7
53> C#a4ter Nine
interconnection 4rotection sc#eme ,or a lar'e sync#ronous 'enerator?
T#ere are many ot#er )ariant sc#emes t#at may also (e a44lied, and
t#e reader is re,erred to )endors o, 0 4ac+a'es w#ose literature
descri(es t#ese in 'reat detail?
A lar'e 0 installation on t#e distri(ution system would ty4ically
corres4ond to 'enerators in t#e 1% to 1>%." ran'e? .ost 'enerators
lar'er t#an t#is will (e interconnected at t#e transmission le)el and
#a)e relayin' similar to utility central station 'eneration?
/i'ure =?39 s#ows t#e relays necessary ,or inter,ace 4rotection as
well as some o, t#e relays necessary ,or 'enerator 4rotection? Not all
/i'ure =?39 Protection sc#eme ,or a lar'e sync#ronous 'enerator wit# #i'#side recloser?
:1 OO! -9O6= 59 6= I 6= N
-6
58 6>O61&
0
:90
3-R 5> 58 6>O61
C0ENERATOR PROTECTIOND
610
!TI1IT;
*REA<ER OR
REC1OSER
0ENERATOR
TRANS/OR.ER
ANOTHER
0ENERATOR
t#e ,unctions t#at mi'#t (e necessary ,or 4ro4er control o, t#e 'enerator, interloc+in' o,
(rea+ers, etc?, are s#own? T#is installation is com4rised o, multi4le 'enerators connected
identically?
In t#is e7am4le, t#ere is a 4rimary%side utility (rea+er ,or w#ic#
utilities will ty4ically use a common t#ree%4#ase recloser? T#is is a con)enient switc#'ear
4ac+a'e ,or utilities to install and 4ro(a(ly t#e
least costly as well? T#e recloser comes wit# o)ercurrent relayin' Cnot
s#ownD, and a se4arate 0 relay 4ac+a'e #as (een added t#at o4erates
o,, a se4arate 4otential trans,ormer? T#is is t#e main (rea+er used to
ac#ie)e or ensure se4aration o, t#e 'eneratorCsD ,rom t#e utility?
T#e relayin' elements in t#e system and t#eir ,unction are as ,ollows?
Primary side
T -9O6=: standard underOo)er )olta'e relay? T#is ser)es as t#e 4rimary means o, ,ault and
island detection? T#is can (e used to (loc+
closin' o, t#e (rea+er until t#ere is )olta'e 4resent on t#e utility system, or t#ere may (e
a se4arate relay ,or t#at 4ur4ose?
T :1 OO!: standard o)erOunder ,re2uency relay ,or islandin' detection?
T 59: ne'ati)e%se2uence )olta'e relay Co4tionalD? T#is is a (ac+u4
means ,or detectin' utility%side ,aults t#at can (e more sensiti)e t#an
)olta'e ma'nitudes in some cases? Also, it #el4s 4re)ent 'enerator
dama'e due to un(alance, alt#ou'# t#ere is anot#er relay ,or t#at
#ere?
T 6=I: instantaneous C4ea+D o)er)olta'e? T#is is a su44lemental
islandin' detection ,unction? T#is would (e em4loyed in cases w#ere
,erroresonance or ot#er resonance 4#enomena are li+ely? T#is would
occur w#en utility%side ca4acitors interact wit# t#e 'enerator reactance? Since suc#
o)er)olta'es can cause dama'e 2uic+ly, t#e time
delay is muc# s#orter t#an ,or t#e ot#er relaysP(ut not so s#ort t#at
it tri4s on utility ca4acitor%switc#in' transients?
T 6=N Cor 6=0D: neutral or 'round o)er)olta'e? T#is relay is installed
in t#e corner o, a (ro+en delta connection on t#e 4otential trans,ormer? It is a
su44lemental ,ault and islandin' detection relay ,unction t#at measures t#e @ero%se2uence
)olta'e? T#is would detect
conditions in w#ic# t#e 'enerator is islanded on an S10 ,ault? It is
more necessary w#en t#e 4rimary connection o, t#e trans,ormer is
delta or un'rounded%wye?
T#ese relayin' ,unctions may (e mo)ed to t#e secondary side o, t#e ser)ice trans,ormer
i, t#ere is no #i'#%side (rea+er? T#e relays would t#en
tri4 t#e main (rea+er on t#e secondary side?
53- C#a4ter Nine
No re)erse 4ower C3-D ,unction is used at t#is inter,ace (ecause net
e74ort is e74ected?
0enerator side
T 6>O61: o)ercurrent relay? Res4onsi(le ,or tri44in' t#e main (rea+er
,or ,aults wit#in t#e 'enerator system? .ay also tri4 ,or ,aults on t#e
utility system t#at t#e 'enerator ,eeds? T#ere,ore, t#e time delay
must (e coordinated wit# t#e ot#er relays so t#at it does not tri4
inad)ertently?
T 58 relay at trans,ormer: ne'ati)e%se2uence current? Assists in t#e
detection o, ,aults on t#e utility system, 4articularly o4en%4#ase conditions, and tri4s t#e
main (rea+er? C0enerators #a)e a se4arate 58
relay?D
T -6: sync#roni@in' relay? Controls closin' o, t#e main (rea+er w#en
t#e 'enerators are (ein' interconnected to t#e utility? CT#is sc#eme
would also re2uire sync#ronous c#ec+ relays on t#e indi)idual 'enerators i, t#ey are to (e
interconnected se4arately?D
0enerator 4rotection
T :90: di,,erential 'round relay? /or ,ast detection o, 'round ,aults
wit#in t#e 'enerator?
T 610: 'round o)ercurrent? Tri4s t#e 'enerator ,or #i'# neutral currents indicati)e o, a
'round ,ault on t#e secondary system?
T 3-R: re)erse%4ower relay? T#is relay detects 4ower 'oin' into t#e
'enerator, w#ic# would indicate a ,ault? Can (e set )ery sensiti)e?
T 5>: loss o, ,ield relay?
T 58: ne'ati)e%se2uence current? Protects t#e mac#ine a'ainst e7cessi)e un(alanced
currents, w#ic# may result ,rom an internal ,ault
(ut may also (e due to un(alance on t#e utility system?
T 6>O61: o)ercurrent relays? Protects t#e 'enerator a'ainst e7cessi)e
loads and ,aults on eit#er side o, t#e 'enerator (rea+er?
=?= Summary
Readers mi'#t easily 'et t#e im4ression ,rom t#e material in t#is c#a4ter t#at
interconnectin' a 0 installation to t#e distri(ution system is
,rau'#t wit# 0ordian +notVli+e entan'lement 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems?
Howe)er, ,ew 4ro(lems can (e e74ected ,or most 0 a44lications in t#e
near ,uture w#ile t#e total 4enetration is relati)ely low? T#ere is a si'istri(uted
0eneration and Power Quality 533
ni,icant amount o, 0 t#at can (e accommodated wit#out a,,ectin' t#e
o4eration o, t#e distri(ution system, (ut t#ere is a limit? T#e 'rid is not
in,inite in ca4acity?
As a 'eneral rule, 4ro(lems (e'in to a44ear w#en t#e total interconnected 0 ca4acity
a44roac#es 16 4ercent o, t#e ,eeder ca4acity?11,1-
T#is mi'#t dro4 to as little as 6 4ercent o, ca4acity on more rural ,eeders or (e as #i'# as
3> 4ercent i, t#e 0 is clustered near t#e su(station? &olta'e re'ulation 4ro(lems are
o,ten t#e ,irst to a44ear, ,ollowed
(y inter,erence wit# t#e utility ,ault%clearin' 4rocess, w#ic# includes
concerns ,or islandin'?
C#an'es can (e made to accommodate nearly any amount o, 0? As
t#e amount o, 0 increases, t#e sim4le, low%cost distri(ution system
desi'n must (e a(andoned in ,a)or o, a more ca4a(le desi'n? It will
almost certainly (e more costly, (ut en'ineers can ma+e it wor+?
ecidin' w#o 4ays ,or it is anot#er matter?
In a ,uture o, massi)ely distri(uted 'eneration, as some see it, communications and
control will (e +ey? Today, most o, t#e control o, distri(ution systems is accom4lis#ed (y
local intelli'ence o4eratin'
autonomously? Systems wit# #i'# 4enetrations o, 0 would (ene,it
'reatly ,rom ,ast, interconnected communications networ+s? T#is is
one tec#nolo'y s#i,t t#at must accom4any t#e s4read o, 0 i, it is to (e
success,ul in contri(utin' to relia(le, #i'#%2uality electric 4ower?
=?1> Re,erences
1? H? 1? "illis and "? 0? Scott, istri(uted Power 0eneration Plannin' and E)aluation,
.arcel e++er, New ;or+, ->>>?
-? N? Yen+ins, R? Allan, P? Crossley, ? <irsc#en, 0? Str(ac, Em(edded 0eneration,T#e
Institute o, Electrical En'ineers, 1ondon, !?<?, ->>>?
3? "? E? /eero, "? *? 0is#, GO)er)olta'es Caused (y S0 O4eration: Sync#ronous and
Induction 0enerators,H IEEE Transactions on Power eli)ery, Yanuary 1=:8, 44?
-6:V-85?
5? R? C? u'an, ? T? Ri@y, Harmonic Considerations ,or Electric istri(ution /eeders,
ORN1OSu(O:1%=6>11O5, Oa+ Rid'e National 1a(oratory, !?S? OE, .arc# 1=::?
6? IEEE Standard =-=%->>>, Recommended Practice ,or !tility Inter,ace o, P#oto)oltaic
Systems?
8? R? C? u'an, T? E? .cermott, GO4eratin' Con,licts ,or istri(uted 0eneration on
istri(ution Systems,H IEEE IAS ->>1 Rural Electric Power Con,erence Record,
IEEE Catalo' No? >1CH39-15, 1ittle Roc+, Ar+?, .ay ->>1, Pa4er No? >1%A3?
9?Electrical istri(ution%System Protection,3d ed?, Coo4er Power Systems, /ran+s)ille,
"is?, 1==>?
:? R? H? Ho4+inson, G/erroresonance O)er)olta'e Control *ased on TNA Tests o,
T#ree%P#ase elta%"ye Trans,ormer *an+s,H IEEE Transactions on Power
A44aratus and Systems,&ol? :8, No? 1>, Octo(er 1=89, 44? 1-6:V1-86?
=? ? R? Smit#, S? R? Swanson, Y? ? *orst, GO)er)olta'es wit# Remotely%Switc#ed
Ca(le%/ed 0rounded "ye%"ye Trans,ormers,H IEEE Transactions on Power
A44aratus and Systems,&ol? PAS%=5, No? 6, Se4tem(erOOcto(er 1=96, 44? 1:53V1:63?
1>? IEEE Standard P1659, istri(uted Resources Interconnected wit# Electric Power
Systems,ra,t :, P1659 "or+in' 0rou4 o, IEEE SCC -1, T? *asso, Secretary?
535 C#a4ter Nine
11?Protection o, Electric istri(ution Systems wit# is4ersed Stora'e and 0eneration
CS0D e)ices,Oa+ Rid'e National 1a(oratory, Re4ort ORN1OCON%1-3, Se4tem(er
1=:3?
1-? R? C? u'an, T? E? .cermott, ? T? Ri@y, S? Ste,,el, GInterconnectin' Sin'le%P#ase
*ac+u4 0eneration to t#e !tility istri(ution System,H Transmission and
istri(ution Con,erence and E74osition,->>1 IEEEOPES, &ol? 1, ->>1, 44? 5:8V5=1?
=?11 *i(lio'ra4#y
u'an, R? C?, T? E? .cermott, 0? Y? *all, Gistri(ution Plannin' ,or istri(uted
0eneration,HIEEE IAS Rural Electric Power Con,erence Record,IEEE Catalo' No?
>>CH39>91, 1ouis)ille, <y?, .ay 9V=, ->>>, 44? C5%1VC5%9?
En'ineerin' Hand(oo+ ,or is4ersed Ener'y Systems on !tility istri(ution Systems,
EPRI /inal Re4ort, TR%1>66:=, No)em(er 1==6?
Inte'ration o, istri(uted Resources in Electric !tility Systems: Current Interconnection
Practice and !ni,ied A44roac#,EPRI /inal Re4ort, TR%1115:=, No)em(er 1==:?
GInterconnectin' istri(uted 0eneration to !tility istri(ution Systems,H S#ort Course,
T#e e4artment o, En'ineerin' Pro,essional e)elo4ment, !ni)ersity o, "isconsinP
.adison, ->>1?
539
1>
"irin' and 0roundin'
.any 4ower 2uality )ariations t#at occur wit#in customer ,acilities are
related to wirin' and 'roundin' 4ro(lems? It is commonly stated at
4ower 2uality con,erences and in Aournals t#at :> 4ercent o, all t#e
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems re4orted (y customers are related to wirin'
and 'roundin' 4ro(lems wit#in a ,acility? "#ile t#is may (e an e7a''eration, many
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems are sol)ed (y sim4ly ti'#tenin'
a loose connection or re4lacin' a corroded conductor? T#ere,ore, an
e)aluation o, wirin' and 'roundin' 4ractices is a necessary ,irst ste4
w#en e)aluatin' 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems in 'eneral?
T#eNational Electrical Codeq
CNECq
DZ and ot#er im4ortant standards
4ro)ide t#e minimum standards ,or wirin' and 'roundin'? It is o,ten
necessary to 'o (eyond t#e re2uirements o, t#ese standards to ac#ie)e a
system t#at also minimi@es t#e im4act o, 4ower 2uality )ariations C#armonics, transients,
noiseD on connected e2ui4ment? "#ile t#e intent o,
t#is (oo+ is to concentrate on su(Aects t#at are more amena(le to en'ineerin' analysis,
t#e (asic 4rinci4les o, wirin' and 'roundin' are 4resented in t#is c#a4ter to 4ro)ide t#e
reader wit# at least a ,undamental
understandin' o, w#y t#in's are done? Re,erences are 4ro)ided t#rou'#out t#e te7t ,or
readers interested in ,urt#er details?
1>?1 Resources
Selected de,initions are 4resented #ere ,rom t#e IEEE ictionary
CStandard 1>>D, t#e IEEE 0reen *oo+CIEEE Standard 15-D, and t#e
NEC?T#ese are t#e ,undamental resources on wirin' and 'roundin'?
T#eIEEE 0reen *oo+and t#e NEC4ro)ide e7tensi)e in,ormation on
C#a4ter
ZNational Electrical CodeqandNECqare re'istered trademar+s o, t#e National /ire
Protection Association, Inc?, Quincy, .ass? >--8=?
4ro4er 'roundin' 4ractices ,or sa,ety considerations and 4ro4er system
o4eration? Howe)er, t#ese documents do not address concerns ,or
4ower 2uality?
Power 2uality considerations associated wit# wirin' and 'roundin'
4ractices are co)ered in /ederal In,ormation Processin' Standard
C/IPSD =5, 0uideline on Electrical Power ,or AP InstallationsC1=:3D?
T#is is t#e ori'inal source o, muc# o, t#e in,ormation inter4reted and
summari@ed #ere?
T#eIEEE Emerald *oo+ CANSIOIEEE Standard 11>>%1==-, IEEE
Recommended Practice ,or Powerin' and 0roundin' Sensiti)e
Electronic E2ui4mentD u4dates t#e in,ormation 4resented in /IPS =5?
T#is is an e7cellent resource ,or wirin' and 'roundin' wit# res4ect to
4ower 2uality issues and is #i'#ly recommended?
0roundin' 'uidelines to minimi@e noise in electronic circuits are also
co)ered in IEEE Standard 61:, IEEE 0uide ,or t#e Installation o,
Electrical E2ui4ment to .inimi@e Electrical Noise In4uts to Controllers
,rom E7ternal Sources? EPRIFs "irin' and 0roundin' ,or Power
QualityCPu(lication C!?->-8?3?=>D 4ro)ides an e7cellent summary o,
ty4ical wirin' and 'roundin' 4ro(lems alon' wit# recommended solutions? Additional
resources are 4ro)ided in t#e *i(lio'ra4#y at t#e end
o, t#is c#a4ter?
1>?- e,initions
Some o, t#e +ey de,initions o, wirin' and 'roundin' terms ,rom t#ese
documents are included #ere?
IEEE ictionary CStandard 1>>D de,initionZ
'roundin' A conductin' connection, w#et#er intentional or accidental, (y
w#ic# an electric circuit or e2ui4ment is connected to t#e eart#, or to some
conductin' (ody o, relati)ely lar'e e7tent t#at ser)es in 4lace o, t#e eart#?
It is used ,or esta(lis#in' and maintainin' t#e 4otential o, t#e eart# Cor o,
t#e conductin' (odyD or a44ro7imately t#at 4otential, on conductors connected to itJ and
,or conductin' 'round current to and ,rom t#e eart# Cor t#e
conductin' (odyD?
IEEE 0reen *oo+ CIEEE Standard 15-D de,initionsZ
53: C#a4ter Ten
ZRe4rinted ,rom IEEE Standard 1>>%1==-, IEEE Standard ictionary o, Electrical and
Electronic Terms, co4yri'#t E 1==3 (y t#e Institute o, Electrical and Electronics
En'ineers,
Inc? T#e IEEE disclaims any res4onsi(ility or lia(ility resultin' ,rom t#e 4lacement and
use in t#is 4u(lication? In,ormation is re4rinted wit# t#e 4ermission o, t#e IEEE?
un'rounded system A system, circuit, or a44aratus wit#out an intentional
connection to 'round, e7ce4t t#rou'# 4otential indicatin' or measurin' de)ices
or ot#er )ery #i'# im4edance de)ices?
'rounded system A system o, conductors in w#ic# at least one conductor or
4oint Cusually t#e middle wire or neutral 4oint o, trans,ormer or 'enerator
windin'sD is intentionally 'rounded, eit#er solidly or t#rou'# an im4edance?
'rounded solidly Connected directly t#rou'# an ade2uate 'round connection
in w#ic# no im4edance #as (een intentionally inserted?
'rounded e,,ecti)ely 0rounded t#rou'# a su,,iciently low im4edance suc# t#at
,or all system conditions t#e ratio o, @ero se2uence reactance to 4ositi)e se2uence
reactance C[>O[1D is 4ositi)e and less t#an 3, and t#e ratio o, @ero se2uence resistance to
4ositi)e se2uence reactance CR>O[1D is 4ositi)e and less t#an 1?
resistance 'rounded 0rounded t#rou'# im4edance, t#e 4rinci4al element o,
w#ic# is resistance?
inductance 'rounded 0rounded t#rou'# im4edance, t#e 4rinci4al element
o, w#ic# is inductance?
NEC de,initions?m
Re,er to /i'? 1>?1?
'roundin' electrode T#e 'roundin' electrode s#all (e as near as 4ractica(le
to and 4re,era(ly in t#e same area as t#e 'roundin' conductor connection to
t#e system? T#e 'roundin' electrode s#all (e: C1D t#e nearest a)aila(le e,,ecti)ely
'rounded structural metal mem(er o, t#e structureJ or C-D t#e nearest
a)aila(le e,,ecti)ely 'rounded metal water 4i4eJ or C3D ot#er electrodes CSection
-6>%:1 ` -6>%:3D w#ere electrodes s4eci,ied in C1D and C-D are not a)aila(le?
'rounded Connected to eart# or to some conductin' (ody t#at ser)es in 4lace
o, t#e eart#?
'rounded conductor A system or circuit conductor t#at is intentionally
'rounded Ct#e neutral is normally re,erred to as t#e 'rounded conductorD?
'roundin' conductor A conductor used to connect e2ui4ment or t#e
'rounded circuit o, a wirin' system to a 'roundin' electrode or electrodes?
"irin' and 0roundin' 53=
ZRe4rinted ,rom IEEE Standard 15-%1==1, IEEE Recommended Practice ,or
0roundin' o, Industrial and Commerical Power Systems,co4yri'#t E 1==1 (y t#e
Institute o, Electrical and Electronics En'ineers, Inc? T#e IEEE disclaims any
res4onsi(ility or lia(ility resultin' ,rom t#e 4lacement and use in t#is 4u(lication?
In,ormation is
re4rinted wit# t#e 4ermission o, t#e IEEE?
m
Re4rinted wit# 4ermission ,rom N/PA 9>%1==3, t#e National Electrical Codeq, co4yri'#t
E 1==3, National /ire Protection Association, Quincy, .ass? >--8=? T#is
re4rinted material is not t#e com4lete and o,,icial 4osition o, t#e National /ire
Protection Association on t#e re,erenced su(Aect, w#ic# is re4resented only (y t#e
standard in its entirety?
'roundin' conductor, e2ui4ment T#e conductor used to connect t#e noncurrent%carryin'
metal 4arts o, e2ui4ment, raceways, and ot#er enclosures to t#e
system 'rounded conductor andOor t#e 'roundin' electrode conductor at t#e
ser)ice e2ui4ment or at t#e source o, a se4arately deri)ed system?
'roundin' electrode conductor T#e conductor used to connect t#e 'roundin' electrode to
t#e e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor andOor to t#e 'rounded
conductor o, t#e circuit at t#e ser)ice e2ui4ment or at t#e source o, a se4arately
deri)ed system?
'roundin' electrode system e,ined in NECSection -6>%:1 as includin': CaD
metal under'round water 4i4eJ C(D metal ,rame o, t#e (uildin'J CcD concreteencased
electrodeJ and CdD 'round rin'? "#en t#ese elements are a)aila(le,
t#ey are re2uired to (e (onded to'et#er to ,orm t#e 'roundin' electrode system? "#ere a
metal under'round water 4i4e is t#e only 'roundin' electrode
a)aila(le, it must (e su44lemented (y one o, t#e 'roundin' electrodes s4eci,ied
in Section -6>%:1 or -6>%:3?
(ondin' Aum4er, main T#e connector (etween t#e 'rounded circuit conductor
CneutralD and t#e e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor at t#e ser)ice entrance?
(ranc# circuit T#e circuit conductors (etween t#e ,inal o)ercurrent de)ice
4rotectin' t#e circuit and t#e outlets?
conduit enclosure (ond C(ondin' de,initionD T#e 4ermanent Aoinin' o,
metallic 4arts to ,orm an electrically conducti)e 4at#, w#ic# will assure electrical
continuity and t#e ca4acity to conduct sa,ely any current li+ely to (e
im4osed?
,eeder All circuit conductors (etween t#e ser)ice e2ui4ment o, t#e source o,
a se4arately deri)ed system and t#e ,inal (ranc# circuit o)ercurrent de)ice?
55> C#a4ter Ten
N
0
N
0
*ON
NEC -6>%-8CeD
0RO!NIN0%E1ECTROE
CON!CTOR
NEC -6>%-8C(D
0RO!NIN0 E1ECTROE
NEC -6>%-8CcD
EARTH OR SO.E CON!CTIN0 .ATERIA1
EQ!IP.ENT 0RO!NIN0
CON!CTORS
0
N
11
1OA
INS!1ATE
NE!TRA1
.ETA11IC
CON!CTOR
ENC1OS!RE
NEC -6>%=1C(D
S;STE.
O&ERC!RRENT
PROTECTION
S!PP1;
/i'ure 1>?1 Terminolo'y used in NECde,initions?
outlet A 4oint on t#e wirin' system at w#ic# current is ta+en to su44ly utili@ation
e2ui4ment?
o)ercurrent Any current in e7cess o, t#e rated current o, e2ui4ment or t#e
ca4acity o, a conductor? It may result ,rom o)erload, s#ort circuit, or 'round ,ault?
4anel (oard A sin'le 4anel or 'rou4 o, 4anel units desi'ned ,or assem(ly in
t#e ,orm o, a sin'le 4anelJ includin' (uses, automatic o)ercurrent de)ices, and
wit# or wit#out switc#es ,or t#e control o, li'#t, #eat, or 4ower circuitsJ
desi'ned to (e 4laced in a ca(inet or cutout (o7 4laced in or a'ainst a wall or
4artition and accessi(le only ,rom t#e ,ront?
se4arately deri)ed systems A 4remises wirin' system w#ose 4ower is
deri)ed ,rom a 'enerator, a trans,ormer, or con)erter windin's and #as no
direct electrical connection, includin' a solidly connected 'rounded circuit conductor, to
su44ly conductors ori'inatin' in anot#er system?
ser)ice e2ui4ment T#e necessary e2ui4ment, usually consistin' o, a circuit
(rea+er switc# and ,uses, and t#eir accessories, located near t#e 4oint o,
entrance o, su44ly conductors to a (uildin' or ot#er structure, or an ot#erwise
de,ined area, and intended to constitute t#e main control and means o, cuto,,
o, t#e su44ly?
u,er 'round A met#od o, 'roundin' or connection to t#e eart# in w#ic# t#e
rein,orcin' steel Cre(arD o, t#e (uildin', es4ecially at t#e 'round ,loor, ser)es as
a 'roundin' electrode?
1>?3 Reasons ,or 0roundin'
T#e most im4ortant reason ,or 'roundin' is sa,ety? Two im4ortant
as4ects to 'roundin' re2uirements wit# res4ect to sa,ety and one wit#
res4ect to 4ower 2uality are
1?Personnel sa,ety? Personnel sa,ety is t#e 4rimary reason t#at all
e2ui4ment must #a)e a sa,ety e2ui4ment 'round? T#is is desi'ned to
4re)ent t#e 4ossi(ility o, #i'# touc# )olta'es w#en t#ere is a ,ault in a
4iece o, e2ui4ment C/i'? 1>?-D? T#e touc# )olta'e is t#e )olta'e (etween
any two conductin' sur,aces t#at can (e simultaneously touc#ed (y an
indi)idual? T#e eart# may (e one o, t#ese sur,aces?
T#ere s#ould (e no G,loatin'H 4anels or enclosures in t#e )icinity o,
electric circuits? In t#e e)ent o, insulation ,ailure or inad)ertent a44lication o, moisture,
any electric c#ar'e w#ic# a44ears on a 4anel, enclosure, or raceway must (e drained to
G'roundH or to an o(Aect w#ic# is
relia(ly 'rounded?
-?0roundin' to assure 4rotecti)e de)ice o4eration? A 'round ,ault
return 4at# to t#e 4oint w#ere t#e 4ower source neutral conductor is
'rounded is an essential sa,ety ,eature? T#e NECand some local wirin'
codes 4ermit electrically continuous conduit and wirin' de)ice enclosures to ser)e as t#is
'round return 4at#? Some codes re2uire t#e con"irin' and 0roundin' 551
duit to (e su44lemented wit# a (are or insulated conductor included
wit# t#e ot#er 4ower conductors?
An insulation ,ailure or ot#er ,ault t#at allows a 4#ase wire to ma+e
contact wit# an enclosure will ,ind a low%im4edance 4at# (ac+ to t#e
4ower source neutral? T#e resultin' o)ercurrent will cause t#e circuit
(rea+er or ,use to disconnect t#e ,aulted circuit 4rom4tly?
NECArticle -6>%61 states t#at an e,,ecti)e 'roundin' 4at# Ct#e 4at#
to 'round ,rom circuits, e2ui4ment, and conductor enclosuresD s#all
a? *e 4ermanent and continuous
(? Ha)e t#e ca4acity to conduct sa,ely any ,ault current li+ely to (e
im4osed on it
c? Ha)e su,,iciently low im4edance to limit t#e )olta'e to 'round and
to ,acilitate t#e o4eration o, t#e circuit 4rotecti)e de)ices in t#e
circuit
d? Not #a)e t#e eart# as t#e sole e2ui4ment 'round conductor
3?Noise control? Noise control includes transients ,rom all sources?
T#is is w#ere 'roundin' relates to 4ower 2uality? 0roundin' ,or sa,ety
reasons de,ines t#e minimum re2uirements ,or a 'roundin' system?
Anyt#in' t#at is done to t#e 'roundin' system to im4ro)e t#e noise
4er,ormance must (e done in addition to t#e minimum re2uirements
de,ined in t#e NECand local codes?
T#e 4rimary o(Aecti)e o, 'roundin' ,or noise control is to create an
e2ui4otential 'round system? Potential di,,erences (etween di,,erent
'round locations can stress insulation, create circulatin' 'round currents in low%)olta'e
ca(les, and inter,ere wit# sensiti)e e2ui4ment
t#at may (e 'rounded in multi4le locations?
0round )olta'e e2uali@ation o, )olta'e di,,erences (etween 4arts o,
an automated data 4rocessin' CAPD 'roundin' system is accom4lis#ed
in 4art w#en t#e e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductors are connected to t#e
'roundin' 4oint o, a sin'le 4ower source? Howe)er, i, t#e e2ui4ment
'roundin' conductors are lon', it is di,,icult to ac#ie)e a constant 4oten%55- C#a4ter Ten
1ine
Neutral
Sa,ety 0round
System 0round
/ault
1oad
an'erous
Touc#
Potential
!n'rounded
Ca(inet
/i'ure 1>?- Hi'# touc# )olta'e created (y im4ro4er 'roundin'?
tial t#rou'#out t#e 'roundin' system, 4articularly ,or #i'#%,re2uency
noise? Su44lemental conductors, 'round 'rids, low%inductance 'round
4lates, etc?, may (e needed ,or im4ro)in' t#e 4ower 2uality? T#ese must
(e used in addition to t#e e2ui4ment 'round conductors, w#ic# are
re2uired ,or sa,ety, and not as a re4lacement ,or t#em?
1>?5 Ty4ical "irin' and 0roundin'
Pro(lems
Sections 1>?5?1 to 1>?5?9 descri(e some ty4ical 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems
t#at are due to inade2uacies in t#e wirin' and 'roundin' o, electrical
systems? It is use,ul to (e aware o, t#ese ty4ical 4ro(lems w#en 4er,ormin' site sur)eys
(ecause many o, t#e 4ro(lems can (e detected
t#rou'# sim4le o(ser)ations? Ot#er 4ro(lems re2uire measurements o,
)olta'es, currents, or im4edances in t#e circuits?
1>?5?1 Pro(lems wit# conductors and
connectors
One o, t#e ,irst t#in's to (e done durin' a site sur)ey is to ins4ect t#e
ser)ice entrance, main 4anel, and maAor su(4anels ,or 4ro(lems wit#
conductors or connections? A (ad connection C,aulty, loose, or resisti)eD
will result in #eatin', 4ossi(le arcin', and (urnin' o, insulation? Ta(le
1>?1 summari@es some o, t#e wirin' 4ro(lems t#at can (e unco)ered
durin' a site sur)ey?
"irin' and 0roundin' 553
TA*1E1>?1 Pro(lems wit# Conductors and Connectors
Pro(lem o(ser)ed Possi(le cause
*urnt smell at t#e 4anel, /aulted conductor,
Aunction (o7, or load (ad connection, arcin', or
e2ui4ment o)erloaded wirin'
Panel or Aunction (o7 /aulty circuit (rea+er
is warm to t#e touc# or (ad connection
*u@@in' Ccorona e,,ectD Arcin'
Scorc#ed insulation O)erloaded wirin', ,aulted
conductor, or (ad connection
No )olta'e at load Tri44ed (rea+er, (ad connection,
e2ui4ment or ,aulted conductor
Intermittent )olta'e at *ad connection or arcin'
load e2ui4ment
Scorc#ed 4anel or *ad connection or ,aulted conductor
Aunction (o7
1>?5?- .issin' sa,ety 'round
I, t#e sa,ety 'round is missin', a ,ault in t#e e2ui4ment ,rom t#e 4#ase
conductor to t#e enclosure results in line 4otential on t#e e74osed sur,aces o, t#e
e2ui4ment? No (rea+ers will tri4, and a #a@ardous situation results Csee /i'? 1>?-D?
1>?5?3 .ulti4le neutral%to%'round
connections
!nless t#ere is a se4arately deri)ed system, t#e only neutral%to%'round
(ond s#ould (e at t#e ser)ice entrance? T#e neutral and 'round s#ould
(e +e4t se4arate at all 4anel (oards and Aunction (o7es? ownline neutral%to%'round
(onds result in 4arallel 4at#s ,or t#e load return current
w#ere one o, t#e 4at#s (ecomes t#e 'round circuit? T#is can cause
miso4eration o, 4rotecti)e de)ices? Also, durin' a ,ault condition, t#e
,ault current will s4lit (etween t#e 'round and t#e neutral, w#ic#
could 4re)ent 4ro4er o4eration o, 4rotecti)e de)ices Ca serious sa,ety
concernD? T#is is a direct )iolation o, t#e NEC?
1>?5?5 !n'rounded e2ui4ment
Isolated 'rounds are sometimes used due to t#e 4ercei)ed notion o,
o(tainin' a GcleanH 'round? T#e 4ro4er 4rocedure ,or usin' an isolated
'round must (e ,ollowed Csee Sec? 1>?6?6D? Procedures t#at in)ol)e #a)in' an ille'al
insulatin' (us#in' in t#e 4ower source conduit and
re4lacin' t#e 4rescri(ed e2ui4ment 'roundin' conductor wit# one to
an Gisolated dedicated com4uter 'roundH are dan'erous, )iolate code,
and are unli+ely to sol)e noise 4ro(lems?
1>?5?6 Additional 'round rods
0round rods s#ould (e 4art o, a ,acility 'roundin' system and connected w#ere all t#e
(uildin' 'roundin' electrodes C(uildin' steel,
metal water 4i4e, etc?D are (onded to'et#er? .ulti4le 'round rods can
(e (used to'et#er at t#e ser)ice entrance to reduce t#e o)erall 'round
resistance? Isolated 'rounds can (e used ,or sensiti)e e2ui4ment, as
descri(ed 4re)iously? Howe)er, t#ese s#ould not include isolated
'round rods to esta(lis# a new 'round re,erence ,or t#e e2ui4ment?
One )ery im4ortant 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem wit# additional 'round rods
is t#at t#ey create additional 4at#s ,or li'#tnin' stro+e currents to
,low? "it# t#e 'round rod at t#e ser)ice entrance, any li'#tnin' stro+e
current reac#in' t#e ,acility 'oes to 'round at t#e ser)ice entrance and
t#e 'round 4otential o, t#e w#ole ,acility rises to'et#er? "it# additional 'round rods, a
4ortion o, t#e li'#tnin' stro+e current will ,low on
t#e (uildin' wirin' C'reen 'round conductor andOor conduitD to reac#
555 C#a4ter Ten
t#e additional 'round rods? T#is creates a 4ossi(le transient )olta'e
4ro(lem ,or e2ui4ment and a 4ossi(le o)erload 4ro(lem ,or t#e conductors?
1>?5?8 0round loo4s
0round loo4s are one o, t#e most im4ortant 'roundin' 4ro(lems in
many commercial and industrial en)ironments t#at include data 4rocessin' and
communication e2ui4ment? I, two de)ices are 'rounded )ia
di,,erent 4at#s and a communication ca(le (etween t#e de)ices 4ro)ides anot#er 'round
connection (etween t#em, a 'round loo4 results?
Sli'#tly di,,erent 4otentials in t#e two 4ower system 'rounds can cause
circulatin' currents in t#is 'round loo4 i, t#ere is indeed a com4lete
4at#? E)en i, t#ere is not a com4lete 4at#, t#e insulation t#at is 4re)entin' current ,low
may ,las# o)er (ecause t#e communication circuit
insulation le)els are 'enerally 2uite low?
1i+ewise, )ery low ma'nitudes o, circulatin' current can cause
serious noise 4ro(lems? T#e (est solution to t#is 4ro(lem in many
cases is to use o4tical cou4lers in t#e communication lines, t#ere(y
eliminatin' t#e 'round loo4 and 4ro)idin' ade2uate insulation to
wit#stand transient o)er)olta'es? "#en t#is is not 4ractical, t#e
'rounded conductors in t#e si'nal ca(le may #a)e to (e su44lemented
wit# #ea)ier conductors or (etter s#ieldin'? E2ui4ment on (ot# ends
o, t#e ca(le s#ould (e 4rotected wit# arresters in addition to t#e
im4ro)ed 'roundin' (ecause o, t#e cou4lin' t#at can still occur into
si'nal circuits?
1>?5?9 Insu,,icient neutral conductor
Switc#%mode 4ower su44lies and ,luorescent li'#tin' wit# electronic
(allasts are widely used in commercial en)ironments? T#e #i'# t#ird#armonic content
4resent in t#ese load currents can #a)e a )ery im4ortant im4act on t#e re2uired neutral
conductor ratin' ,or t#e su44ly
circuits?
T#ird%#armonic currents in a (alanced system a44ear in t#e @erose2uence circuit? T#is
means t#at t#ird%#armonic currents ,rom t#ree
sin'le%4#ase loads will add in t#e neutral, rat#er t#an cancel as is t#e
case ,or t#e 8>%H@ current? In ty4ical commercial (uildin's wit# a
di)ersity o, switc#ed%mode 4ower su44ly loads, t#e neutral current is
ty4ically in t#e ran'e 15> to 19> 4ercent o, t#e ,undamental ,re2uency
4#ase current ma'nitude?
T#e 4ossi(le solutions to neutral conductor o)erloadin' include t#e
,ollowin':
T Run a se4arate neutral conductor ,or eac# 4#ase in a t#ree%4#ase circuit t#at ser)es
sin'le%4#ase nonlinear loads?
T "#en a s#ared neutral must (e used in a t#ree%4#ase circuit wit#
sin'le%4#ase nonlinear loads, t#e neutral conductor ca4acity s#ould
(e a44ro7imately dou(le t#e 4#ase conductor ca4acity?
T elta%wye trans,ormers Csee Sec? 1>?6?8D desi'ned ,or nonlinear loads
can (e used to limit t#e 4enetration o, #i'# neutral currents? T#ese
trans,ormers s#ould (e 4laced as close as 4ossi(le to t#e nonlinear
loads Ce?'?, in t#e com4uter roomD? T#e neutral conductors on t#e secondary o, eac#
se4arately deri)ed system must (e rated (ased on t#e
e74ected neutral current ma'nitudes?
T /ilters to control t#e t#ird%#armonic current t#at can (e 4laced at
t#e indi)idual loads are (ecomin' a)aila(le? T#ese will (e an alternati)e in e7istin'
installations w#ere c#an'in' t#e wirin' may (e an
e74ensi)e 4ro4osition?
T Ni'@a' trans,ormers 4ro)ide a low im4edance ,or @ero%se2uence #armonic currents
and, li+e ,ilters, can (e 4laced at )arious 4laces alon'
t#e t#ree%4#ase circuit to s#orten t#e 4at# o, t#ird%#armonic currents
and (etter dis4erse t#em?
1>?6 Solutions to "irin' and 0roundin'
Pro(lems
1>?6?1 Pro4er 'roundin' 4ractices
/i'ure 1>?3 illustrates t#e (asic elements o, a 4ro4erly 'rounded electrical system? T#e
im4ortant elements o, t#e electrical system 'roundin'
are descri(ed in Secs? 1>?6?- to 1>?6?6?
558 C#a4ter Ten
N N
SER&ICE
TRANS/OR.ER
/EEER
PANE1
*OAR
*RANCH
CIRC!IT 1OA
Rece4tacle ConduitOEnclosure
*uildin'
0roundin'
Electrode
0roundin'Electrode
Conductor
*!I1IN0
SER&ICE
EQ!IP.ENT
*ondin'
Yum4er
0roundin'
Electrode
0rounded
Ser)ice
Conductor
P#ase Conductor
CHotD
0rounded Conductor
CNeutralD
Insulated
0round Conductor
C0reen "ireD
0 0
/i'ure 1>?3 *asic elements o, a 4ro4erly 'rounded electrical system?
1>?6?- 0round electrode CrodD
T#e 'round rod 4ro)ides t#e electrical connection ,rom t#e 4ower system 'round to eart#?
T#e item o, 4rimary interest in e)aluatin' t#e
ade2uacy o, t#e 'round rod is t#e resistance o, t#is connection? T#ere
are t#ree (asic com4onents o, resistance in a 'round rod:
T Electrode resistance? Resistance due to t#e 4#ysical connection o,
t#e 'roundin' wire to t#e 'roundin' rod?
T Rod%eart# contact resistance? Resistance due to t#e inter,ace
(etween t#e soil and t#e rod? T#is resistance is in)ersely 4ro4ortional to t#e sur,ace area
o, t#e 'roundin' rod Ci?e?, more area o, contact means lower resistanceD?
T 0round resistance? Resistance due to t#e resisti)ity o, t#e soil in
t#e )icinity o, t#e 'roundin' rod? T#e soil resisti)ity )aries o)er a
wide ran'e, de4endin' on t#e soil ty4e and moisture content?
T#e resistance o, t#e 'round%rod connection is im4ortant (ecause it
in,luences transient )olta'e le)els durin' switc#in' e)ents and li'#tnin' transients? Hi'#%
ma'nitude currents durin' li'#tnin' stro+es
result in a )olta'e across t#e resistance, raisin' t#e 'round re,erence
,or t#e entire ,acility? T#e di,,erence in )olta'e (etween t#e 'round re,erence and true
eart# 'round will a44ear at 'rounded e2ui4ment
wit#in t#e ,acility, and t#is can result in dan'erous touc# 4otentials?
1>?6?3 Ser)ice entrance connections
T#e 4rimary com4onents o, a 4ro4erly 'rounded system are ,ound at
t#e ser)ice entrance? T#e neutral 4oint o, t#e su44ly 4ower system is
connected to t#e 'rounded conductor Cneutral wireD at t#is 4oint? T#is
is also t#e one location in t#e system Ce7ce4t in t#e case o, a se4arately
deri)ed systemD w#ere t#e 'rounded conductor is connected to t#e
'round conductor C'reen wireD )ia t#e (ondin' Aum4er? T#e 'round conductor is also
connected to t#e (uildin' 'roundin' electrode )ia t#e
'roundin'%electrode conductor at t#e ser)ice entrance? /or most e,,ecti)e 'roundin', t#e
'roundin'%electrode conductor s#ould (e e7ot#ermically welded at (ot# ends?
T#e 'roundin'%electrode conductor is si@ed (ased on 'uidelines in
t#eNECCSection -6>%=5D? NECta(le -6>%=5 Cre4roduced in Ta(le 1>?-D
4ro)ides t#e (asic 'uidelines?
T#ere are a num(er o, o4tions ,or t#e (uildin' 'roundin' electrode?
It is im4ortant t#at all o, t#e di,,erent 'roundin' electrodes used in a
(uildin' are connected to'et#er at t#e ser)ice entrance? T#e ,ollowin'
are 4ermissi(le ,or use as 'roundin' electrodes:
T !nder'round water 4i4e? CSee NECta(le -6>%=5 ,or 'roundin'electrode conductor
re2uirements ,or connection to t#e neutral (us?D
T *uildin' steel? CSeeNECta(le -6>%=5 ,or 'roundin'%electrode conductor re2uirements
,or connection to t#e neutral (us or t#e under'round water 4i4e?D
T 0round rin'? A 'round rin' can (e used in addition to (uildin' steel
to 4ro)ide a (etter e2ui4otential 'round ,or t#e 'roundin' electrode?
It is connected to t#e main 'roundin' electrode wit# a conductor t#at
is not lar'er t#an t#e 'round rin' conductor?
T Concrete encased electrode? T#is can ser)e a similar 4ur4ose to a
'round rin' and is connected to t#e main 'roundin' electrode wit# a
conductor t#at #as a minimum si@e o, X5 A"0?
T0round rod? T#e 'round rod is connected to t#e main (uildin' 'roundin' electrode wit#
a conductor t#at #as a minimum si@e o, X8 A"0?
T#rou'#out t#e system, a sa,ety 'round must (e maintained to
ensure t#at all e74osed conductors t#at may (e touc#ed are +e4t at an
e2ual 4otential? T#is sa,ety 'round also 4ro)ides a 'round ,ault return
4at# to t#e 4oint w#ere t#e 4ower source neutral conductor is
'rounded? T#e sa,ety 'round can consist o, t#e conduit itsel, or t#e conduit and a se4arate
conductor C'round conductor or 'reen wireD in t#e
conduit? T#is sa,ety 'round ori'inates at t#e ser)ice entrance and is
carried t#rou'#out t#e (uildin'?
1>?6?5 Panel (oard
T#e 4anel (oard is t#e 4oint in t#e system w#ere t#e )arious (ranc#
circuits are su44lied (y a ,eeder ,rom t#e ser)ice entrance? T#e 4anel
55: C#a4ter Ten
TA*1E1>?- 0roundin'%Electrode Conductor ,or AC Systems
Si@e o, lar'est ser)ice entrance
conductor or e2ui)alent area ,or Si@e o, 'roundin'4arallel conductors electrode
conductor
Aluminum or Aluminum or
co44er%clad co44er%clad
Co44er aluminum Co44er aluminum
- or smaller > or smaller : 8
1 or > -O> or 3O> 8 5
-O> or 3O> 5O> or -6> .C.Z 5 -
O)er 3O>V O)er -6> .C.V - >
36> .C. 6>> .C.
O)er 36> .C.V O)er 6>> .C.V > 3O>
8>> .C. =>> .C.
O)er 8>> .C.V O)er =>> .C.V -O> 5O>
11>> .C. 196> .C.
O)er 11>> .C. O)er 196> .C. 3O> -6> .C.
Z.C. million circular mil Cunit o, wire si@eD?
(oard 4ro)ides (rea+ers in series wit# t#e 4#ase conductorsJ connects
t#e 'rounded conductor CneutralD o, t#e (ranc# circuit to t#at o, t#e
,eeder circuitJ and connects t#e 'round conductor C'reen wireD to t#e
,eeder 'round conductor, conduit, and enclosure? It is im4ortant to note
t#at t#ere s#ould not (e a neutral%to%'round connection at t#e 4anel
(oard? T#is neutral%to%'round connection is 4ro#i(ited in t#e NECas it
would result in load return currents ,lowin' in t#e 'round 4at#
(etween t#e 4anel (oard and t#e ser)ice entrance? In order to maintain
an e2ui4otential 'roundin' system, t#e 'round 4at# s#ould not contain
any load return current? Also, ,ault currents would s4lit (etween t#e
neutral conductor and t#e 'round return 4at#? Protection is (ased on
t#e ,ault current ,lowin' in t#e 'round 4at#?
1>?6?6 Isolated 'round
T#e noise 4er,ormance o, t#e su44ly to sensiti)e loads can sometimes
(e im4ro)ed (y 4ro)idin' an isolated 'round to t#e load? T#is is done
usin' isolated 'round rece4tacles, w#ic# are oran'e in color? I, an isolated 'round
rece4tacle is (ein' used downline ,rom t#e 4anel (oard,
t#e isolated 'round conductor is not connected to t#e conduit or enclosure in t#e 4anel
(oard, (ut only to t#e 'round conductor o, t#e su44ly
,eeder C/i'? 1>?5D? T#e conduit is t#e sa,ety 'round in t#is case and is
connected to t#e enclosure? A se4arate conductor can also (e used ,or
t#e sa,ety 'round in addition to t#e conduit? T#is tec#ni2ue is
descri(ed in t#e NEC,Article -95, E7ce4tion 5 on rece4tacles? It is not
descri(ed as a 'roundin' tec#ni2ue?
T#e isolated 'round rece4tacle is oran'e in color ,or identi,ication
4ur4oses? T#is rece4tacle does not #a)e t#e 'round conductor connected to t#e rece4tacle
enclosure or conduit? T#e isolated 'round conductor may 4ass (ac+ t#rou'# se)eral 4anel
(oards wit#out (ein'
"irin' and 0roundin' 55=
N N
SER&ICE
TRANS/OR.ER
/EEER
PANE1
*OAR
*RANCH
CIRC!IT 1OA
Isolated 0round
Rece4tacle
COran'e in ColorD
ConduitOEnclosure
*uildin'
0roundin'
Electrode
0roundin'Electrode
Conductor
*!I1IN0
SER&ICE
EQ!IP.ENT
*ondin'
Yum4er
0roundin'
Electrode
0rounded
Ser)ice
Conductor
P#ase Conductor
CHotD
0rounded Conductor
CNeutralD
Insulated
0round Conductor
C0reen "ireD
I0 0
/i'ure 1>?5 0roundin' con,i'uration ,or an isolated 'round?
connected to local 'round until 'rounded at t#e ser)ice entrance or
ot#er se4arately deri)ed 'round? T#e use o, isolated 'round rece4tacles
re2uires care,ul wirin' 4ractices to a)oid unintentional connections
(etween t#e isolated 'round and t#e sa,ety 'round? In 'eneral, dedicated (ranc# circuits
accom4lis# t#e same o(Aecti)e as isolated 'round
rece4tacles wit#out t#e concern ,or com4licated wirin'?
A s4ecial case o, isolated 'rounds is used ,or 'roundin' some #os4ital e2ui4ment? T#ese
4rocedures are descri(ed in t#e NECand in t#e
"#ite *oo+CIEEE Standard 8>-D?
1>?6?8 Se4arately deri)ed systems
A se4arately deri)ed system #as a 'round re,erence t#at is inde4endent ,rom ot#er
systems? A common e7am4le o, t#is is a delta%wye
isolation trans,ormer C/i'? 1>?6D? T#e wye%connected secondary neutral
is connected to local (uildin' 'round Cnot a se4arate 'round rodD to 4ro)ide a new 'round
re,erence inde4endent ,rom t#e rest o, t#e system?
T#e 4oint in t#e system w#ere t#is new 'round re,erence is de,ined is
li+e a ser)ice entrance in t#at t#e system neutral is connected to t#e
'rounded conductor Cneutral wireD, w#ic# is connected to t#e 'round
conductor wit# a (ondin' Aum4er?
Se4arately deri)ed systems are used to 4ro)ide a local 'round re,erence ,or sensiti)e
loads? T#e local 'round re,erence can #a)e si'ni,icantly reduced noise le)els as
com4ared to t#e system 'round i, an
isolation trans,ormer is used to su44ly t#e se4arately deri)ed system?
An additional (ene,it is t#at neutral currents are locali@ed to t#e load
side o, t#e se4arately deri)ed system? T#is can #el4 reduce neutral
56> C#a4ter Ten
N
N
0
N
SER&ICE
TRANS/OR.ER
/EEER
PANE1
*OAR
*RANCH
CIRC!IT
SEPARATE1;
ERI&E
S;STE.
1OA
Rece4tacle
ConduitOEnclosure
*uildin'
0roundin'
Electrode
0roundin'Electrode
Conductor
*!I1IN0
SER&ICE
EQ!IP.ENT
*ondin'
Yum4er
0roundin'
Electrode
0rounded
Ser)ice
Conductor
P#ase Conductor
CHotD
0rounded Conductor
CNeutralD
Insulated
0round Conductor
C0reen "ireD
CO4tionalD
Cold%"ater Pi4e
or *uildin' Steel
CNot Se4arate
0round RodD
0 0
/i'ure 1>?6 Con,i'uration ,or a se4arately deri)ed system?
current ma'nitudes in t#e o)erall system w#en t#ere are lar'e num(ers
o, sin'le%4#ase nonlinear loads?
1>?6?9 0roundin' tec#ni2ues ,or si'nal
re,erence
.ost o, t#e 'roundin' re2uirements 4re)iously descri(ed deal wit# t#e
concerns ,or sa,ety and 4ro4er o4eration o, 4rotecti)e de)ices?
0roundin' is also used to 4ro)ide a si'nal re,erence 4oint ,or e2ui4ment e7c#an'in'
si'nals o)er communication or control circuits wit#in
a ,acility? T#e re2uirements ,or a si'nal re,erence 'round are o,ten si'ni,icantly di,,erent
,rom t#e re2uirements ,or a sa,ety 'round?
Howe)er, t#e sa,ety 'round re2uirements must always (e considered
,irst w#ene)er desi'nin' a 'roundin' sc#eme?
T#e most im4ortant c#aracteristic o, a si'nal re,erence 'round is t#at
it must #a)e a low im4edance o)er a wide ran'e o, ,re2uencies? One way
to accom4lis# t#is Cat least ,or low ,re2uenciesD is to use an ade2uately
si@ed 'round conductor? Conduit is 4articularly (ad ,or a si'nal re,erence
'round (ecause it relies on continuity o, connections and t#e im4edance
is #i'# relati)e to t#e 4#ase and neutral conductors? !ndersi@ed 'round
conductors #a)e t#e same 4ro(lem o, #i'# im4edance? /or reducin'
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems, t#e 'round conductor s#ould (e at least t#e
same si@e as t#e 4#ase conductors and t#e neutral conductor Ct#e neutral conductor may
need to (e lar'er t#an t#e 4#ase conductors in some
s4ecial cases in)ol)in' nonlinear sin'le%4#ase loadsD?
As ,re2uency increases, t#e wa)elen't# (ecomes s#ort enou'# to
cause resonances ,or relati)ely s#ort len't#s o, wire? A 'ood rule o,
t#um( is t#at w#en t#e len't# o, t#e 'round conductor is 'reater t#an
one%twentiet# o, t#e si'nal wa)elen't#, t#e 'round conductor is no
lon'er e,,ecti)e at t#at ,re2uency? Since t#e 'roundin' system is more
com4licated t#an a sim4le conductor, t#ere is actually a com4licated
im4edance )ersus ,re2uency c#aracteristic in)ol)ed C/i'? 1>?8D?
One way to 4ro)ide a si'nal re,erence 'round to sensiti)e e2ui4ment
t#at is e,,ecti)e o)er a wide ran'e o, ,re2uencies C> to 3> .H@D is to use
a si'nal re,erence 'rid or @ero re,erence 'rid C/i'? 1>?9D? T#is tec#ni2ue
uses a rectan'ular mes# o, co44er wire wit# a(out -%,t s4acin'? It is commonly a44lied in
lar'e data%4rocessin' e2ui4ment rooms? E)en i, a 4ortion o, t#e conductor system is in
resonance at a 4articular ,re2uency,
t#ere will always (e ot#er 4at#s o, t#e 'rid t#at are not in resonance due
to t#e multi4le 4at#s a)aila(le ,or current to ,low? "#en usin' a si'nal
re,erence 'rid, t#e enclosure o, eac# 4iece o, e2ui4ment must still (e connected to a
sin'le common 'round )ia t#e 'round conductor CNEC
re2uirementD? T#e enclosures may also (e connected to t#e closest interconnection o, t#e
'rid to 4ro)ide a #i'#%,re2uency, low%im4edance si'nal
re,erence? /i'ure 1>?8 illustrates t#e e,,ect o, t#e si'nal re,erence 'rid on
t#e o)erall 'round im4edance )ersus ,re2uency c#aracteristic?
56- C#a4ter Ten
1>?6?: .ore on 'roundin' ,or sensiti)e
e2ui4ment
T#e ,ollowin' 4ractices are a44ro4riate ,or any installation wit# e2ui4ment t#at may (e
sensiti)e to noise or distur(ances introduced due to
cou4lin' in t#e 'round system:
T "#ene)er 4ossi(le, use indi)idual (ranc# circuits to 4ower sensiti)e
e2ui4ment? Indi)idual (ranc# circuits 4ro)ide 'ood isolation ,or
#i'#%,re2uency transients and noise?
T Conduit s#ould ne)er (e t#e sole source o, 'roundin' ,or sensiti)e
e2ui4ment Ce)en t#ou'# it may (e le'alD? Currents ,lowin' on t#e
conduit can cause inter,erence wit# communications and electronics?
T 0reen%wire 'rounds s#ould (e t#e same si@e as t#e current%carryin'
conductors, and t#e indi)idual circuit conduit s#ould (e (onded at
(ot# ends?
T !se (uildin' steel as a 'round re,erence, w#ene)er a)aila(le? T#e
(uildin' steel usually 4ro)ides an e7cellent, low%im4edance 'round
re,erence ,or a (uildin'? Additional 'round electrodes Cwater 4i4es,
etc?D can (e used as su44lemental to t#e (uildin' steel?
T#ese 4ractices are o,ten a44lied in com4uter rooms, w#ere t#e ,re2uency res4onse o, t#e
'roundin' system is e)en more im4ortant due
to communication re2uirements (etween di,,erent 4arts o, a com4uter
system:
T Eit#er install a si'nal re,erence 'rid under a raised ,loor or use t#e
raised ,loor as a si'nal re,erence 'rid? T#is is not a re4lacement ,or
>1-35689
0reen "ire `
Si'nal Re,erence 0rid
0reen "ire Only
Im4edance,
/re2uency, .H@
>
6>
1>>
16>
->>
/i'ure 1>?8 E,,ect o, si'nal re,erence 'rid on 'round im4edance?
t#e sa,ety 'round, (ut au'ments t#e sa,ety 'round ,or noise reduction?
T Add a transient su44ression 4late at or near t#e 4ower entry 4oint
Cwit# t#e 4ower ca(lin' laid on to4 o, itD to 4ro)ide a controlled ca4aciti)e and ma'netic
cou4lin' noise (y4ass (etween (uildin' rein,orced
steel and t#e electrical 'round conductors?
1>?6?= Summary o, wirin' and 'roundin'
solutions
T#e 'roundin' system s#ould (e desi'ned to accom4lis# t#ese minimum o(Aecti)es:
1? T#ere s#ould ne)er (e load currents ,lowin' in t#e 'roundin' system under normal
o4eratin' conditions? One can li+ely measure
)ery small currents in t#e 'roundin' system due to inducti)e cou4lin', ca4aciti)e
cou4lin', and t#e connection o, sur'e su44ressors
and t#e li+e? In ,act, i, t#e 'round current is e7actly @ero, t#ere is
4ro(a(ly an o4en 'round connection? Howe)er, t#ese currents
s#ould (e only a tiny ,raction o, t#e load currents?
-? T#ere s#ould (e, as near as 4ossi(le, an e2ui4otential re,erence ,or
all de)ices and locations in t#e system?
3? To a)oid e7cessi)e touc# 4otential sa,ety ris+s, t#e #ousin's o, all
e2ui4ment and enclosures s#ould (e connected to t#e e2ui4otential
'roundin' system?
11
1-
13
N
0
H1
H-
H3
Sensiti)e
E2ui4ment
Incomin'
!tility
Ser)ice
O4tional
Stra4
Raised /loor Su44ortin' Structure
!sed as a Si'nal Re,erence 0rid
/i'ure 1>?9 !se o, a si'nal re,erence 'rid
T#e most im4ortant im4lications resultin' ,rom t#ese o(Aecti)es are:
1? T#ere can only (e one neutral%to%'round (ond ,or any su(system? A
se4arately deri)ed system may (e created wit# a trans,ormer, w#ic#
esta(lis#es a new neutral%to%'round (ond?
-? T#ere must (e su,,icient interconnections in t#e e2ui4otential 4lane
to ac#ie)e a low im4edance o)er a wide ,re2uency ran'e?
3? All e2ui4ment and enclosures s#ould (e 'rounded?
1>?8 *i(lio'ra4#y
In addition to t#e standard re,erence (oo+s cited early, t#e ,ollowin'
(oo+s are recommended ,or ,urt#er readin' on t#is su(Aect:
Hasse, P?, O)er)olta'e Protection o, 1ow &olta'e Systems,IEE Power Series 1-, Peter
Pere'rinus, 1td?, 1ondon, 1==-?
.ardi'uian, .ic#ael, A Hand(oo+ Series on Electroma'netic Inter,erence and
Com4ati(ility,&ol? -, 0roundin' and *ondin',Inter,erence Control Tec#nolo'ies, Inc?,
0aines)ille, &a?, 1=::?
.orrison, Ral4#, and "arren H? 1ewis, 0roundin' and S#ieldin' ,or /acilities,Yo#n
"iley ` Sons, New ;or+, 1==>?
Ott, Henry "?, Noise Reduction Tec#ni2ues in Electronic Systems,-d ed?, Yo#n "iley `
Sons, New ;or+, 1=::?
565 C#a4ter Ten
566
Power Quality .onitorin'
Power 2uality monitorin' is t#e 4rocess o, 'at#erin', analy@in', and
inter4retin' raw measurement data into use,ul in,ormation? T#e
4rocess o, 'at#erin' data is usually carried out (y continuous measurement o, )olta'e
and current o)er an e7tended 4eriod? T#e 4rocess
o, analysis and inter4retation #as (een traditionally 4er,ormed manually, (ut recent
ad)ances in si'nal 4rocessin' and arti,icial intelli'ence
,ields #a)e made it 4ossi(le to desi'n and im4lement intelli'ent systems to automatically
analy@e and inter4ret raw data into use,ul in,ormation wit# minimum #uman inter)ention?
Power 2uality monitorin' 4ro'rams are o,ten dri)en (y t#e demand
,or im4ro)in' t#e systemwide 4ower 2uality 4er,ormance? .any industrial and
commercial customers #a)e e2ui4ment t#at is sensiti)e to
4ower distur(ances, and, t#ere,ore, it is more im4ortant to understand
t#e 2uality o, 4ower (ein' 4ro)ided? E7am4les o, t#ese ,acilities
include com4uter networ+in' and telecommunication ,acilities, semiconductor and
electronics manu,acturin' ,acilities, (iotec#nolo'y and
4#armaceutical la(oratories, and ,inancial data%4rocessin' centers?
Hence, in t#e last decade many utility com4anies #a)e im4lemented
e7tensi)e 4ower 2uality monitorin' 4ro'rams?
In t#is c#a4ter, )arious issues relatin' to 4ower 2uality monitorin' are
descri(ed? Section 11?1 details t#e o(Aecti)es and 4rocedures ,or 4er,ormin' monitorin'?
Section 11?- 4ro)ides #istorical 4ers4ecti)e on )arious
monitorin' instruments? Section 11?3 4ro)ides a descri4tion o, )arious
4ower 2uality monitorin' instruments and t#eir ty4ical ,unctions?
Section 11?5 descri(es met#ods o, assessment o, 4ower 2uality data?
Section 11?6 details t#e a44lications o, intelli'ent systems in automatin'
analysis and inter4retation o, raw 4ower 2uality measurement data?
Section 11?8 re)iews standards dealin' wit# 4ower 2uality monitorin'?
C#a4ter
11
11?1 .onitorin' Considerations
*e,ore em(ar+in' on any 4ower 2uality monitorin' e,,ort, one s#ould
clearly de,ine t#e monitorin' o(Aecti)es? T#e monitorin' o(Aecti)es
o,ten determine t#e c#oice o, monitorin' e2ui4ment, tri''erin' t#res#olds, met#ods ,or
data ac2uisition and stora'e, and analysis and inter4retation re2uirements? Se)eral
common o(Aecti)es o, 4ower 2uality
monitorin' are summari@ed #ere?
.onitorin' to c#aracteri@e system 4er,ormance? T#is is t#e most 'eneral
re2uirement? A 4ower 4roducer may ,ind t#is o(Aecti)e im4ortant i, it
#as t#e need to understand its system 4er,ormance and t#en matc#
t#at system 4er,ormance wit# t#e needs o, customers? System c#aracteri@ation is a
4roacti)ea44roac# to 4ower 2uality monitorin'? *y
understandin' t#e normal 4ower 2uality 4er,ormance o, a system, a
4ro)ider can 2uic+ly identi,y 4ro(lems and can o,,er in,ormation to its
customers to #el4 t#em matc# t#eir sensiti)e e2ui4mentFs c#aracteristics wit# realistic
4ower 2uality c#aracteristics?
.onitorin' to c#aracteri@e s4eci,ic 4ro(lems? .any 4ower 2uality ser)ice de4artments or
4lant mana'ers sol)e 4ro(lems (y 4er,ormin'
s#ort%term monitorin' at s4eci,ic customer sites or at di,,icult loads?
T#is is a reacti)emode o, 4ower 2uality monitorin', (ut it ,re2uently
identi,ies t#e cause o, e2ui4ment incom4ati(ility, w#ic# is t#e ,irst ste4
to a solution?
.onitorin' as 4art o, an en#anced 4ower 2uality ser)ice? .any 4ower
4roducers are currently considerin' additional ser)ices to o,,er customers? One o, t#ese
ser)ices would (e to o,,er di,,erentiated le)els o,
4ower 2uality to matc# t#e needs o, s4eci,ic customers? A 4ro)ider and
customer can to'et#er ac#ie)e t#is 'oal (y modi,yin' t#e 4ower system
or (y installin' e2ui4ment wit#in t#e customerFs 4remises? In eit#er
case, monitorin' (ecomes essential to esta(lis# t#e (enc#mar+s ,or t#e
di,,erentiated ser)ice and to )eri,y t#at t#e utility ac#ie)es contracted
le)els o, 4ower 2uality?
.onitorin' as 4art o, 4redicti)e or Aust%in%time maintenance? Power 2uality data 'at#ered
o)er time can (e analy@ed to 4ro)ide in,ormation
relatin' to s4eci,ic e2ui4ment 4er,ormance? /or e7am4le, a re4etiti)e
arcin' ,ault ,rom an under'round ca(le may si'ni,y im4endin' ca(le
,ailure, or re4etiti)e ca4acitor%switc#in' restri+es may si'ni,y im4endin' ,ailure on t#e
ca4acitor%switc#in' de)ice? E2ui4ment maintenance
can (e 2uic+ly ordered to a)oid catastro4#ic ,ailure, t#us 4re)entin'
maAor 4ower 2uality distur(ances w#ic# ultimately will im4act o)erall
4ower 2uality 4er,ormance?
568 C#a4ter Ele)en
T#e monitorin' 4ro'ram must (e desi'ned (ased on t#e a44ro4riate
o(Aecti)es, and it must ma+e t#e in,ormation a)aila(le in a con)enient
,orm and in a timely manner Ci?e?, immediatelyD? T#e most com4re#ensi)e monitorin'
a44roac# will (e a 4ermanently installed monitorin'
system wit# automatic collection o, in,ormation a(out steady%state
4ower 2uality conditions and ener'y use as well as distur(ances?
11?1?1 .onitorin' as 4art o, a ,acility site
sur)ey
Site sur)eys are 4er,ormed to e)aluate concerns ,or 4ower 2uality and
e2ui4ment 4er,ormance t#rou'#out a ,acility? T#e sur)ey will include
ins4ection o, wirin' and 'roundin' concerns, e2ui4ment connections,
and t#e )olta'e and current c#aracteristics t#rou'#out t#e ,acility?
Power 2uality monitorin', alon' wit# in,rared scans and )isual ins4ections, is an
im4ortant 4art o, t#e o)erall sur)ey?
T#e initial site sur)ey s#ould (e desi'ned to o(tain as muc# in,ormation as 4ossi(le a(out
t#e customer ,acility? T#is in,ormation is es4ecially im4ortant w#en t#e monitorin'
o(Aecti)e is intended to address
s4eci,ic 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems? T#is in,ormation is summari@ed #ere?
1? Nature o, t#e 4ro(lems Cdata loss, nuisance tri4s, com4onent ,ailures, control system
mal,unctions, etc?D
-? C#aracteristics o, t#e sensiti)e e2ui4ment e74eriencin' 4ro(lems
Ce2ui4ment desi'n in,ormation or at least a44lication 'uide in,ormationD
3? T#e times at w#ic# 4ro(lems occur
5? Coincident 4ro(lems or +nown o4erations Ce?'?, ca4acitor switc#in'D
t#at occur at t#e same time
6? Possi(le sources o, 4ower 2uality )ariations wit#in t#e ,acility
Cmotor startin', ca4acitor switc#in', 4ower electronic e2ui4ment
o4eration, arcin' e2ui4ment, etc?D
8? E7istin' 4ower conditionin' e2ui4ment (ein' used
9? Electrical system data Cone%line dia'rams, trans,ormer si@es and
im4edances, load in,ormation, ca4acitor in,ormation, ca(le data, etc?D
Once t#ese (asic data #a)e (een o(tained t#rou'# discussions wit#
t#e customer, a site sur)ey s#ould (e 4er,ormed to )eri,y t#e one%line
dia'rams, electrical system data, wirin' and 'roundin' inte'rity, load
le)els, and (asic 4ower 2uality c#aracteristics? ata ,orms t#at can (e
used ,or t#is initial )eri,ication o, t#e 4ower distri(ution system are
4ro)ided in /i's? 11?1 to 11?5? T#ey can (e used to or'ani@e t#e 4ower
2uality monitorin' results ,rom t#rou'#out t#e ,acility?
Power Quality .onitorin' 569
11?1?- eterminin' w#at to monitor
Power 2uality encom4asses a wide )ariety o, conditions on t#e 4ower system? Im4ortant
distur(ances can ran'e ,rom )ery #i'# ,re2uency
im4ulses caused (y li'#tnin' stro+es or current c#o44in' durin' circuit
interru4tions to lon'%term o)er)olta'es caused (y a re'ulator ta4 switc#in' 4ro(lem? T#e
ran'e o, conditions t#at must (e c#aracteri@ed creates
c#allen'es (ot# in terms o, t#e monitorin' e2ui4ment 4er,ormance s4eci,ications and in
t#e data%collection re2uirements? C#a4ter - details )ar%56: C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?1 /orm ,or recordin' su44ly trans,ormer test data?
ious cate'ories o, 4ower 2uality )ariations alon' wit# met#ods ,or c#aracteri@in' t#e
)ariations and t#e ty4ical causes o, t#e distur(ances?
T#e met#ods ,or c#aracteri@in' t#e 2uality o, ac 4ower are im4ortant
,or t#e monitorin' re2uirements? /or instance, c#aracteri@in' most transients re2uires
#i'#%,re2uency sam4lin' o, t#e actual wa)e,orm? &olta'e
sa's can (e c#aracteri@ed wit# a 4lot o, t#e rms )olta'e )ersus time?
Outa'es can (e de,ined sim4ly (y a time duration? .onitorin' to c#aracteri@e #armonic
distortion le)els and normal )olta'e )ariations
re2uires steady%state sam4lin' wit# results analysis o, trends o)er time?
E7tensi)e monitorin' o, all t#e di,,erent ty4es o, 4ower 2uality )ariations at many
locations may (e rat#er costly in terms o, #ardware,
communications c#ar'es, data mana'ement, and re4ort 4re4aration?
Hence, t#e 4riorities ,or monitorin' s#ould (e determined (ased on t#e
o(Aecti)es o, t#e e,,ort? ProAects to (enc#mar+ system 4er,ormance
s#ould in)ol)e a reasona(ly com4lete monitorin' e,,ort? ProAects
desi'ned to e)aluate com4liance wit# IEEE Standard 61=%1==- ,or #armonic distortion
le)els may only re2uire steady%state monitorin' o,
#armonic le)els? Ot#er 4roAects ,ocused on s4eci,ic industrial 4ro(lems
may only re2uire monitorin' o, rms )ariations, suc# as )olta'e sa's?
Power Quality .onitorin' 56=
/i'ure 11?- /orm ,or recordin' ,eeder circuit test data C,rom 4anelD?
58> C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?3 /orm ,or recordin' (ranc# circuit test data C,rom 4anelD?
/i'ure 11?5 /orm ,or recordin' test data at indi)idual loads?
11?1?3 C#oosin' monitorin' locations
O()iously, we would li+e to monitor conditions at )irtually all locations
t#rou'#out t#e system to com4letely understand t#e o)erall 4ower
2uality? Howe)er, suc# monitorin' may (e 4ro#i(iti)ely e74ensi)e and
t#ere are c#allen'es in data mana'ement, analysis, and inter4retation? /ortunately, ta+in'
measurements ,rom all 4ossi(le locations is
usually not necessary since measurements ta+en ,rom se)eral strate'ic locations can (e
used to determine c#aracteristics o, t#e o)erall system? T#us, it is )ery im4ortant t#at t#e
monitorin' locations (e
selected care,ully (ased on t#e monitorin' o(Aecti)es? "e now 4resent
e7am4les o, #ow to c#oose a monitorin' location?
T#e monitorin' e74erience 'ained ,rom t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect1
4ro)ides an e7cellent e7am4le o, #ow to c#oose monitorin' locations? T#e
4rimary o(Aecti)e o, t#e PQ 4roAect was to c#aracteri@e 4ower 2uality
on t#e !?S? electric utility distri(ution ,eeders? Actual ,eeder monitorin' (e'an in Yune
1==- and was com4leted in Se4tem(er 1==6? Twenty,our di,,erent utilities 4artici4ated in
t#e data%collection e,,ort wit#
almost 3>> measurement sites? .onitorin' ,or t#e 4roAect was desi'ned
to 4ro)ide a statistically )alid set o, data o, t#e )arious 4#enomena
related to 4ower 2uality?
Since t#e 4rimary o(Aecti)e was to c#aracteri@e 4ower 2uality on 4rimary distri(ution
,eeders, monitorin' was done on t#e actual ,eeder
circuits? One monitor was located near t#e su(station, and two additional sites were
selected randomly Csee /i'? 11?6D? *y randomly c#oosin' t#e remote sites, t#e o)erall
4roAect results re4resented 4ower
2uality on distri(ution ,eeders in 'eneral? It may not (e realistic, #owe)er, to assume t#at
t#e t#ree selected sites com4letely c#aracteri@ed
4ower 2uality on t#e indi)idual ,eeders in)ol)ed?
"#en a monitorin' 4roAect in)ol)es c#aracteri@in' s4eci,ic 4ower
2uality 4ro(lems t#at are actually (ein' e74erienced (y customers on
t#e distri(ution system, t#e monitorin' locations s#ould (e at actual
customer ser)ice entrance locations (ecause it includes t#e e,,ect o,
ste4%down trans,ormers su44lyin' t#e customer? ata collected at t#e
ser)ice entrance can also c#aracteri@e t#e customer load current )ariations and #armonic
distortion le)els? .onitorin' at customer ser)ice
entrance locations #as t#e additional ad)anta'e o, reduced transducer
costs? In addition, it 4ro)ides indications o, t#e ori'in o, t#e distur(ances, i?e?, t#e utility
or t#e customer side o, t#e meter?
Anot#er im4ortant as4ect o, t#e monitorin' location w#en c#aracteri@in' s4eci,ic 4ower
2uality 4ro(lems is to locate t#e monitors as
close as 4ossi(le to t#e e2ui4ment a,,ected (y 4ower 2uality )ariations?
It is im4ortant t#at t#e monitor sees t#e same )ariations t#at t#e sensiti)e e2ui4ment sees?
Hi'#%,re2uency transients, in 4articular, can (e
si'ni,icantly di,,erent i, t#ere is si'ni,icant se4aration (etween t#e
monitor and t#e a,,ected e2ui4ment?
A 'ood com4romise a44roac# is to monitor at t#e su(station and at
selected customer ser)ice entrance locations? T#e su(station is im4ortant (ecause it is t#e
PCC ,or most rms )olta'e )ariations? T#e )olta'e
sa' e74erienced at t#e su(station durin' a ,eeder ,ault is e74erienced
(y all t#e customers on ot#er ,eeders su44lied ,rom t#e same su(station
(us? Customer e2ui4ment sensiti)ity and location on a ,eeder to'et#er
determine t#e ser)ice entrance locations ,or monitorin'? /or instance, it
is )alua(le to #a)e a location immediately downline ,rom eac# 4rotec%58- C#a4ter
Ele)en
R
R
R
R
R
PQN
PQN
PQN
C*
.onitorin'
1ocations
Tie Reclosers CN?O?D
istri(ution Su(station
34#
34#
34#
34#
4#C
4#*
3>>+&Ar
/I[E
3>>+&Ar
/I[E
34#
3>>+&Ar
/I[E
NC
4#C NC
4#A NC
R
/i'ure 11?6 Ty4ical distri(ution ,eeder monitorin' sc#eme?
ti)e de)ice on t#e ,eeder? /i'ure 11?8 illustrates t#e conce4t o, a monitorin' system (ased
on monitorin' at su(stations and customer sites? It
also illustrates #ow t#e Internet can (e used to 4ro)ide access to t#e
in,ormation ,or all interested 4arties Cdiscussed in Sec? 11?1?5D?
11?1?5 O4tions ,or 4ermanent 4ower 2uality
monitorin' e2ui4ment
Permanent 4ower 2uality monitorin' systems, suc# as t#e system
illustrated in /i'? 11?8, s#ould ta+e ad)anta'e o, t#e wide )ariety o,
e2ui4ment t#at may #a)e t#e ca4a(ility to record 4ower 2uality in,ormation? Some o, t#e
cate'ories o, e2ui4ment t#at can (e incor4orated
into an o)erall monitorin' system include t#e ,ollowin':
1?i'ital ,ault recorders C/RsD? T#ese may already (e in 4lace at
many su(stations? /R manu,acturers do not desi'n t#e de)ices s4eci,ically ,or 4ower
2uality monitorin'? Howe)er, a /R will ty4ically tri''er
on ,ault e)ents and record t#e )olta'e and current wa)e,orms t#at c#aracteri@e t#e e)ent?
T#is ma+es t#em )alua(le ,or c#aracteri@in' rms disPower Quality .onitorin' 583
istri(ution
Su(station
Transmission
Su(station
.onitorin'
System
ata Collection ata Collection
1ocal Networ+
.onitorin'
ata(ase
ata(ase .ana'ementO
1ocal ata Analysis
Customer
.onitorin'
System
Customer
.onitorin'
System
InternetO
"orld "ide "e(
Cor4orate
Intranet
Power QualityO
Relia(ility
Per,ormance and
ata Analysis
Power QualityO
Ener'y
In,ormation Ser)ice
/i'ure 11?8 Illustration o, system 4ower 2uality monitorin' conce4t wit# monitorin' at
t#e su(station and selected customer locations?
tur(ances, suc# as )olta'e sa's, durin' 4ower system ,aults? /Rs also
o,,er 4eriodic wa)e,orm ca4ture ,or calculatin' #armonic distortion le)els?
-?Smart relays and ot#er IEs? .any ty4es o, su(station e2ui4ment may #a)e t#e
ca4a(ility to (e an intelli'ent electronic de)ice
CIED wit# monitorin' ca4a(ility? .anu,acturers o, de)ices li+e relays
and reclosers t#at monitor t#e current anyway are addin' on t#e ca4a(ility to record
distur(ances and ma+e t#e in,ormation a)aila(le to an
o)erall monitorin' system controller? T#ese de)ices can (e located on
t#e ,eeder circuits as well as at t#e su(station?
3?&olta'e recorders? Power 4ro)iders use a )ariety o, )olta'e
recorders to monitor steady%state )olta'e )ariations on distri(ution
systems? "e are encounterin' more and more so4#isticated models
,ully ca4a(le o, c#aracteri@in' momentary )olta'e sa's and e)en #armonic distortion
le)els? Ty4ically, t#e )olta'e recorder 4ro)ides a
trend t#at 'i)es t#e ma7imum, minimum, and a)era'e )olta'e wit#in
a s4eci,ied sam4lin' window C,or e7am4le, - sD? "it# t#is ty4e o, sam4lin', t#e recorder
can c#aracteri@e a )olta'e sa' ma'nitude ade2uately? Howe)er, it will not 4ro)ide t#e
duration wit# a resolution
less t#an - s?
5?In%4lant 4ower monitors? It is now common ,or monitorin' systems in industrial
,acilities to #a)e some 4ower 2uality ca4a(ilities?
T#ese monitors, 4articularly t#ose located at t#e ser)ice entrance, can
(e used as 4art o, a utility monitorin' 4ro'ram? Ca4a(ilities usually
include wa)es#a4e ca4ture ,or e)aluation o, #armonic distortion le)els, )olta'e 4ro,iles
,or steady%state rms )ariations, and tri''ered
wa)es#a4e ca4tures ,or )olta'e sa' conditions? It is not common ,or
t#ese instruments to #a)e transient monitorin' ca4a(ilities?
6?S4ecial%4ur4ose 4ower 2uality monitors? T#e monitorin' instrument de)elo4ed ,or t#e
EPRI PQ 4roAect was s4eci,ically desi'ned to
measure t#e ,ull ran'e o, 4ower 2uality )ariations? T#is instrument
,eatures monitorin' o, )olta'e and current on all t#ree 4#ases 4lus t#e
neutral? A 15%(it analo'%to%di'ital CAOD (oard 4ro)ides a sam4lin' rate
o, -68 4oints 4er cycle ,or )olta'e and 1-: 4oints 4er cycle ,or current?
T#is #i'# sam4lin' rate allowed detection o, )olta'e #armonics as #i'#
as t#e 1>>t# and current #armonics as #i'# as t#e 6>t#? .ost 4ower
2uality instruments can record (ot# tri''ered and sam4led data?
Tri''erin' s#ould (e (ased u4on rms t#res#olds ,or rms )ariations and
on wa)es#a4e ,or transient )ariations? Simultaneous )olta'e and current monitorin' wit#
tri''erin' o, all c#annels durin' a distur(ance is
an im4ortant ca4a(ility ,or t#ese instruments? Power 2uality monitors
#a)e 4ro)en suita(le ,or su(stations, ,eeder locations, and customer
ser)ice entrance locations?
8?Re)enue meters? Re)enue meters monitor t#e )olta'e and current anyway, so it seems
lo'ical to o,,er alternati)es ,or more ad)anced
585 C#a4ter Ele)en
monitorin' t#at could include recordin' o, 4ower 2uality in,ormation?
&irtually all t#e re)enue meter manu,acturers are mo)in' in t#is
direction, and t#e in,ormation ,rom t#ese meters can t#en (e incor4orated into an o)erall
4ower 2uality monitorin' system?
11?1?6 istur(ance monitor connections
T#e recommended 4ractice is to 4ro)ide in4ut 4ower to t#e monitor
,rom a circuit ot#er t#an t#e circuit to (e monitored? Some manu,acturers include in4ut
,ilters andOor sur'e su44ressors on t#eir 4ower
su44lies t#at can alter distur(ance data i, t#e monitor is 4owered ,rom
t#e same circuit t#at is (ein' monitored?
T#e 'roundin' o, t#e 4ower distur(ance monitor is an im4ortant consideration? T#e
distur(ance monitor will #a)e a 'round connection ,or
t#e si'nal to (e monitored and a 'round connection ,or t#e 4ower su44ly o, t#e
instrument? *ot# o, t#ese 'rounds will (e connected to t#e
instrument c#assis? /or sa,ety reasons, (ot# o, t#ese 'round terminals
s#ould (e connected to eart# 'round? Howe)er, t#is #as t#e 4otential o,
creatin' 'round loo4s i, di,,erent circuits are in)ol)ed?
Sa,ety comes ,irst? T#ere,ore, (ot# 'rounds s#ould (e connected
w#ene)er t#ere is a dou(t a(out w#at to do? I, 'round loo4s can (e a
si'ni,icant 4ro(lem suc# t#at transient currents mi'#t dama'e t#e
instruments or in)alidate t#e measurements, it may (e 4ossi(le to
4ower t#e instrument ,rom t#e same line t#at is (ein' monitored
Cc#ec+ to ma+e sure t#ere is no si'nal conditionin' in t#e 4ower su44lyD? Alternati)ely, it
may (e 4ossi(le to connect Aust one 'round Csi'nal
to (e monitoredD and 4lace t#e instrument on an insulatin' mat?
A44ro4riate sa,ety 4ractices suc# as usin' insulated 'lo)es w#en o4eratin' t#e
instrument must (e em4loyed i, it is 4ossi(le ,or t#e instrument to rise in 4otential wit#
res4ect to ot#er a44aratus and 'round
re,erences wit# w#ic# t#e o4erator can come into contact?
11?1?8 Settin' monitor t#res#olds
istur(ance monitors are desi'ned to detect conditions t#at are a(normal? T#ere,ore, it is
necessary to de,ine t#e ran'e o, conditions t#at can
(e considered normal? Some distur(ance monitors #a)e 4reselected
Cde,aultD t#res#olds t#at can (e used as a startin' 4oint?
T#e (est a44roac# ,or selectin' t#res#olds is to matc# t#em wit# t#e
s4eci,ications o, t#e e2ui4ment t#at is a,,ected? T#is may not always (e
4ossi(le due to a lac+ o, s4eci,ications or a44lication 'uidelines? An
alternati)e a44roac# is to set t#e t#res#olds ,airly ti'#t ,or a 4eriod o,
time Ccollect a lot o, distur(ance dataD and t#en use t#e data collected
to select a44ro4riate t#res#olds ,or lon'er%duration monitorin'?
Some monitorin' systems ad)ertise t#e ad)anta'e o, no setu4s and
no t#res#olds to set? O, course, t#ere #a)e to (e t#res#olds (ecause no
monitor Cso ,arD #as enou'# stora'e ca4acity to sa)e e)ery sin'le cycle
o, t#e )olta'es and currents (ein' monitored? T#e t#res#olds in t#ese
cases are essentially ,i7ed in t#e instruments, and al'orit#ms may (e
adAusted internally (ased on t#e distur(ances (ein' recorded? T#is
ty4e o, system is con)enient ,or t#e user since t#e setu4 is sim4le, (ut
it is still a com4romise since you lose t#e ca4a(ility to c#an'e t#e
t#res#olds (ased on t#e s4eci,ic circumstances at a 4articular location?
11?1?9 Quantities and duration to measure
Sometimes, w#en c#aracteri@in' system distur(ances, it is su,,icient to
monitor only t#e )olta'e si'nals? /or instance, t#e )olta'es 4ro)ide
in,ormation a(out t#e 2uality o, 4ower (ein' deli)ered to a ,acility and
c#aracteri@e t#e transients and )olta'e sa's t#at may a,,ect customer
e2ui4ment? Howe)er, t#ere is a tremendous amount o, in,ormation in
t#e currents associated wit# t#ese distur(ances t#at can #el4 determine t#e cause and
w#et#er or not e2ui4ment was im4acted? Also, current measurements are re2uired i,
#armonics are a concern since t#e
currents c#aracteri@e t#e #armonic inAection ,rom t#e customer onto
t#e 4ower system?
Current measurements are used to c#aracteri@e t#e 'eneration o,
#armonics (y nonlinear loads on t#e system? Current measurements at
indi)idual loads are )alua(le ,or determinin' t#ese #armonic 'eneration c#aracteristics?
Current measurements on ,eeder circuits or at t#e
ser)ice entrance c#aracteri@e a 'rou4 o, loads or t#e entire ,acility as a
source o, #armonics? Current measurements on t#e distri(ution system can (e used to
c#aracteri@e 'rou4s o, customers or an entire ,eeder?
&olta'e measurements #el4 c#aracteri@e t#e system res4onse to t#e
'enerated #armonic currents? Resonance conditions will (e indicated (y
#i'# #armonic )olta'e distortion at s4eci,ic ,re2uencies? In order to determine system
,re2uency res4onse c#aracteristics ,rom measurements, )olta'es and currents must (e
measured simultaneously? In order to measure
#armonic 4ower ,lows, all t#ree 4#ases must (e sam4led simultaneously?
T#e duration o, monitorin' de4ends on t#e monitorin' o(Aecti)es? /or
instance, i, t#e o(Aecti)e is to sol)e 4ro(lems t#at are caused (y )olta'e
sa's durin' remote ,aults on t#e utility system, monitorin' may (e
re2uired ,or a si'ni,icant len't# o, time (ecause system ,aults are 4ro(a(ly rare? I, t#e
4ro(lem in)ol)es ca4acitor switc#in', it may (e 4ossi(le
to c#aracteri@e t#e conditions o)er t#e 4eriod o, a cou4le days? Harmonic
distortion 4ro(lems and ,lic+er 4ro(lems s#ould (e c#aracteri@ed o)er a
4eriod o, at least 1 wee+ to 'et a 4icture o, #ow t#e load c#an'es and #ow
system )ariations may a,,ect t#ese le)els? T#e duration o, monitorin' is
(ecomin' less o, an issue as t#e 'eneral trend is to use 4ermanent 4ower
588 C#a4ter Ele)en
2uality monitorin' systems, ta+in' ad)anta'e o, t#e wide )ariety o,
e2ui4ment t#at can 4ro)ide in,ormation as 4art o, t#e system?
11?1?: /indin' t#e source o, a distur(ance
T#e ,irst ste4 in identi,yin' t#e source o, a distur(ance is to correlate
t#e distur(ance wa)e,orm wit# 4ossi(le causes, as outlined in C#a4? -?
Once a cate'ory ,or t#e cause #as (een determined Ce?'?, load switc#in', ca4acitor
switc#in', remote ,ault condition, recloser o4erationD,
t#e identi,ication (ecomes more strai'#t,orward? T#e ,ollowin' 'eneral
'uidelines can #el4:
T Hi'#%,re2uency )olta'e )ariations will (e limited to locations close to
t#e source o, t#e distur(ance? 1ow%)olta'e C8>> & and (elowD wirin'
o,ten dam4s out #i'#%,re2uency com4onents )ery 2uic+ly due to circuit resistance, so
t#ese ,re2uency com4onents will only a44ear w#en
t#e monitor is located close to t#e source o, t#e distur(ance?
T Power interru4tions close to t#e monitorin' location will cause a )ery
a(ru4t c#an'e in t#e )olta'e? Power interru4tions remote ,rom t#e
monitorin' location will result in a decayin' )olta'e due to stored
ener'y in rotatin' e2ui4ment and ca4acitors?
T T#e #i'#est #armonic )olta'e distortion le)els will occur close to
ca4acitors t#at are causin' resonance 4ro(lems? In t#ese cases, a sin'le ,re2uency will
usually dominate t#e )olta'e #armonic s4ectrum?
11?- Historical Pers4ecti)e o, Power Quality
.easurin' Instruments
Early monitorin' de)ices were (ul+y, #ea)y (o7es t#at re2uired a screwdri)er to ma+e
selections? ata collected were recorded on stri4%c#art
4a4er? One o, t#e earliest 4ower 2uality monitorin' instruments is a
li'#tnin' stri+e recorder de)elo4ed (y 0eneral Electric in t#e 1=->s
-
Csee
/i'? 11?9D? T#e instrument ma+es an im4ulse%li+e mar+ on stri4%c#art
4a4er to record a li'#tnin' stri+e e)ent alon' wit# its time and date o,
occurrence? T#e data were more 2ualitati)e t#en 2uantitati)e, ma+in'
t#e data inter4retation rat#er di,,icult? T#e 4rinci4al com4onent o, t#e
de)ice consisted o, a windu4 cloc+wor+ motor t#at mo)ed t#e stri4 o,
4a4er ,rom one s4ool to anot#er, and a 4air o, electrodes t#at struc+ an
arc across t#e 4a4er?
Si'ni,icant de)elo4ment on 4ower 2uality de)ices was not made until
t#e 1=8>s w#en .art@lo,, de)elo4ed a sur'e counter t#at could ca4ture
a )olta'e wa)e,orm o, li'#tnin' stri+es?
-
T#e de)ice consisted o, a #i'#4ersistence analo' oscillosco4e wit# a lo'arit#mic swee4
rate Csee /i'?
11?:D? T#e im4ro)ement o, t#is de)ice o)er its 4redecessor was t#at t#e
recorded data were 2uantitati)e C)olta'e wa)e,ormsD as o44osed to
2ualitati)e Cmar+s on stri4 c#artsD? *y t#e mid%1=8>s, limitations o,
4ower 2uality de)ices relatin' to t#e tri''er mec#anism and t#e 4reset
,re2uency res4onse were well understood?
.any en'ineers consider t#at t#e ,irst 'eneration o, 4ower 2uality
monitors (e'an in t#e mid%1=9>s w#en ranet@ En'ineerin'
1a(oratories Cnow ranet@%*.ID introduced t#e Series 8>8 4ower line
58: C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?9 Early 4ower 2uality instrument de)elo4ed (y
0E in t#e 1=->s to record li'#tnin' stri+es? CCourtesy o,
Ale7 .cEac#ern, ,rom #is 4ersonal collection o, #istorical
4ower instrumentsJ www?Ale7?.cEac#ern?com?D
/i'ure 11?: .art@lo,, Fs 1=89 sur'e counter? Recorded
data are 2uantitati)e? CCourtesy o, Ale7 .cEac#ern, ,rom
#is 4ersonal collection o, #istorical 4ower instrumentsJ
www?Ale7?.cEac#ern?com?D
distur(ance analy@er s#own in /i'? 11?=?
3,5
T#is was a micro4rocessor(ased monitor%analy@er ,irst manu,actured in 1=96, and many
units
are still in ser)ice? T#e out4ut o, t#ese monitors was te7t%(ased,
4rinted on a 4a4er ta4e? T#e 4rintout descri(ed a distur(ance (y t#e
e)ent ty4e Csa', interru4tion, etc?D and )olta'e ma'nitude? T#ese monitors #ad limited
,unctionalities com4ared to modern monitors, (ut t#e
tri''erin' mec#anics were already well de)elo4ed?
Second%'eneration 4ower 2uality instruments de(uted in t#e mid%1=:>s? T#is 'eneration
o, 4ower 2uality monitors 'enerally ,eatured
,ull 'ra4#ic dis4lay and di'ital memory to )iew and store ca4tured
4ower 2uality e)ents, includin' (ot# transients and steady%state
e)ents? Some instruments #ad a ca4a(ility o, transmittin' data ,rom
a remote monitorin' site to a central location ,or ,urt#er analysis?
Second%'eneration 4ower 2uality instruments )irtually #ad 4er,ected
t#e (asic re2uirements o, t#e tri''erin' mec#anism? Since t#e occurrence o, a 4ower
2uality distur(ance is #i'#ly un4redicta(le, data
/i'ure 11?= A ,irst%'eneration 4ower line distur(ance monitor%analy@er, t#e ranet@ 8>8?
CCourtesy o, ranet@%*.I?D
must (e continuously recorded and 4rocessed wit#out any dead time?
Com4le7 tri''erin' en'ines determine w#at data and #ow muc# data
s#ould (e sa)ed to t#e di'ital memory? Tri''er met#ods include ,i7ed
and ,loatin' limits and sensiti)ities, wa)es#a4e c#an'es, and s4eci,ic
e)ent c#aracteristic 4arameters? T#ese met#ods o4timi@e t#e 4ro(a(ility t#at w#at is
im4ortant to t#e user will (e ca4tured and stored?
*y t#e mid%1==>s, t#e t#ird%'eneration 4ower 2uality instruments
emer'ed? T#e de)elo4ment o, t#e t#ird%'eneration 4ower monitors was
ins4ired in 4art (y t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect? T#is 'eneration o, monitors
was more a44ro4riate as 4art o, a com4lete 4ower 2uality monitorin'
system, and t#e so,tware systems to collect and mana'e t#e data were
also de)elo4ed? Since t#e conclusion o, t#e 4roAect, su(stantial ,ield
e74erience 'ained re)ealed some o, t#e di,,iculties in mana'in' a lar'e
system o, 4ower 2uality monitors
6
:
1? .ana'in' t#e lar'e )olume o, raw measurement data t#at must (e
collected, analy@ed, and arc#i)ed (ecomes a serious c#allen'e as t#e
num(er o, monitorin' 4oints 'rows?
-? T#e data )olume collected at eac# monitorin' 4oint can strain communication
mec#anisms em4loyed to mo)e t#at data ,rom monitor
to analysis 4oint?
3? As understandin' o, system 4er,ormance 'rows t#rou'# t#e ,eed(ac+ 4ro)ided (y t#e
monitorin' data, detailed )iews o, certain
e)ents, suc# as normal ca4acitor switc#in', (ecome less )alua(le
and would (e o, more use in a summary or condensed ,orm?
5? T#e real )alue o, any monitorin' system lies in its a(ility to 'enerate in,ormation
rat#er t#an in collectin' and storin' )olumes o,
detailed raw data?
*ased on t#e e74erience 'ained ,rom t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect, it was
reali@ed t#at t#e in,ormation system as4ect o, a 4ower monitorin' 4ro'ram 4lays a )ery
im4ortant role in trac+in' 4ower 2uality 4er,ormance? T#us, t#e de)elo4ment o, t#e most
recent 'eneration o, 4ower
2uality monitors was 'eared toward meetin' t#e new in,ormation system demand, i?e?, to
(e a(le to disco)er +nowled'e or in,ormation ,rom
t#e collected data as t#ey are ca4tured and to disseminate t#e in,ormation ra4idly? T#is
ty4e o, instrument em4loys e74ert system and
ad)anced communication tec#nolo'ies?
11?3 Power Quality .easurement
E2ui4ment
/rom C#a4? -, it is clear t#at 4ower 2uality 4#enomena co)er a wide
ran'e o, ,re2uencies? T#ey include e)eryt#in' ,rom )ery ,ast transient
59> C#a4ter Ele)en
o)er)olta'es Cmicrosecond time ,rameD to lon'%duration outa'es C#ours
or days time ,rameD? Power 2uality 4ro(lems also include steady%state
4#enomena, suc# as #armonic distortion, and intermittent 4#enomena, suc# as )olta'e
,lic+er? e,initions ,or t#e di,,erent cate'ories
were 4resented in C#a4? -? T#is wide )ariety o, conditions t#at ma+e
u4 4ower 2uality ma+es t#e de)elo4ment o, standard measurement
4rocedures and e2ui4ment )ery di,,icult?
11?3?1 Ty4es o, instruments
Alt#ou'# instruments #a)e (een de)elo4ed t#at measure a wide )ariety o, distur(ances, a
num(er o, di,,erent instruments may (e used,
de4endin' on t#e 4#enomena (ein' in)esti'ated? *asic cate'ories o,
instruments t#at may (e a44lica(le include
T "irin' and 'roundin' test de)ices
T .ultimeters
T Oscillosco4es
T istur(ance analy@ers
T Harmonic analy@ers and s4ectrum analy@ers
T Com(ination distur(ance and #armonic analy@ers
T /lic+er meters
T Ener'y monitors
T#is section and Secs? 11?3?- to 11?3?1- discuss t#e a44lication and
limitations o, t#ese di,,erent instruments? *esides t#ese instruments,
w#ic# measure steady%state si'nals or distur(ances on t#e 4ower system directly, t#ere
are ot#er instruments t#at can (e used to #el4 sol)e
4ower 2uality 4ro(lems (y measurin' am(ient conditions:
T In,rared meters can (e )ery )alua(le in detectin' loose connections
and o)er#eatin' conductors? An annual 4rocedure o, c#ec+in' t#e
system in t#is manner can #el4 4re)ent 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems due
to arcin', (ad connections, and o)erloaded conductors?
T Noise 4ro(lems related to electroma'netic radiation may re2uire
measurement o, ,ield stren't#s in t#e )icinity o, a,,ected e2ui4ment?
.a'netic 'auss meters are used to measure ma'netic ,ield stren't#s
,or inducti)e cou4lin' concerns? Electric ,ield meters can measure
t#e stren't# o, electric ,ields ,or electrostatic cou4lin' concerns?
T Static electricity meters are s4ecial%4ur4ose de)ices used to measure
static electricity in t#e )icinity o, sensiti)e e2ui4ment? Electrostatic
disc#ar'e CESD can (e an im4ortant cause o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems in some ty4es o,
electronic e2ui4ment?
Re'ardless o, t#e ty4e o, instrumentation needed ,or a 4articular
test, t#ere are a num(er o, im4ortant ,actors t#at s#ould (e considered
w#en selectin' t#e instrument? Some o, t#e more im4ortant ,actors
include
T Num(er o, c#annels C)olta'e andOor currentD
T Tem4erature s4eci,ications o, t#e instrument
T Ru''edness o, t#e instrument
T In4ut )olta'e ran'e Ce?'?, > to 8>> &D
T Power re2uirements
T A(ility to measure t#ree%4#ase )olta'es
T In4ut isolation Cisolation (etween in4ut c#annels and ,rom eac#
in4ut to 'roundD
T A(ility to measure currents
T Housin' o, t#e instrument C4orta(le, rac+%mount, etc?D
T Ease o, use Cuser inter,ace, 'ra4#ics ca4a(ility, etc?D
T ocumentation
T Communication ca4a(ility Cmodem, networ+ inter,aceD
T Analysis so,tware
T#e ,le7i(ility Ccom4re#ensi)enessD o, t#e instrument is also im4ortant? T#e more
,unctions t#at can (e 4er,ormed wit# a sin'le instrument, t#e ,ewer t#e num(er o,
instruments re2uired? Reco'ni@in' t#at
t#ere is some crosso)er (etween t#e di,,erent instrument cate'ories,
we discuss t#e (asic cate'ories o, instruments ,or direct measurement
o, 4ower si'nals in Secs? 11?3?- to 11?3?1-?
11?3?- "irin' and 'roundin' testers
.any 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems re4orted (y end users are caused (y
4ro(lems wit# wirin' andOor 'roundin' wit#in t#e ,acility? T#ese 4ro(lems can (e
identi,ied (y )isual ins4ection o, wirin', connections, and
4anel (o7es and also wit# s4ecial test de)ices ,or detectin' wirin' and
'roundin' 4ro(lems?
Im4ortant ca4a(ilities ,or a wirin' and 'roundin' test de)ice include
T etection o, isolated 'round s#orts and neutral%'round (onds
T 0round im4edance and neutral im4edance measurement or indication
T etection o, o4en 'rounds, o4en neutrals, or o4en #ot wires
T etection o, #otOneutral re)ersals or neutralO'round re)ersals
59- C#a4ter Ele)en
T#ree%4#ase wirin' testers s#ould also test ,or 4#ase rotation and
4#ase%to%4#ase )olta'es? T#ese test de)ices can (e 2uite sim4le and
4ro)ide an e7cellent initial test ,or circuit inte'rity? .any 4ro(lems can
(e detected wit#out t#e re2uirement ,or detailed monitorin' usin'
e74ensi)e instrumentation?
11?3?3 .ultimeters
A,ter initial tests o, wirin' inte'rity, it may also (e necessary to ma+e
2uic+ c#ec+s o, t#e )olta'e andOor current le)els wit#in a ,acility?
O)erloadin' o, circuits, under)olta'e and o)er)olta'e 4ro(lems, and
un(alances (etween circuits can (e detected in t#is manner? T#ese
measurements Aust re2uire a sim4le multimeter? Si'nals used to c#ec+
,or t#ese include
T P#ase%to%'round )olta'es
T P#ase%to%neutral )olta'es
T Neutral%to%'round )olta'es
T P#ase%to%4#ase )olta'es Ct#ree%4#ase systemD
T P#ase currents
T Neutral currents
T#e most im4ortant ,actor to consider w#en selectin' and usin' a
multimeter is t#e met#od o, calculation used in t#e meter? All t#e commonly used meters
are cali(rated to 'i)e an rms indication ,or t#e measured si'nal? Howe)er, a num(er o,
di,,erent met#ods are used to
calculate t#e rms )alue? T#e t#ree most common met#ods are
1?Pea+ met#od? Assumin' t#e si'nal to (e a sinusoid, t#e meter
reads t#e 4ea+ o, t#e si'nal and di)ides t#e result (y 1?515 Cs2uare root
o, -D to o(tain t#e rms?
-?A)era'in' met#od? T#e meter determines t#e a)era'e )alue o, a
recti,ied si'nal? /or a clean sinusoidal si'nal Csi'nal containin' only one
,re2uencyD, t#is a)era'e )alue is related to t#e rms )alue (y a constant?
3?True rms? T#e rms )alue o, a si'nal is a measure o, t#e #eatin'
t#at will result i, t#e )olta'e is im4ressed across a resisti)e load? One
met#od o, detectin' t#e true rms )alue is to actually use a t#ermal
detector to measure a #eatin' )alue? .ore modern di'ital meters use a
di'ital calculation o, t#e rms )alue (y s2uarin' t#e si'nal on a sam4le(y%sam4le (asis,
a)era'in' o)er t#e 4eriod, and t#en ta+in' t#e s2uare
root o, t#e result?
T#ese di,,erent met#ods all 'i)e t#e same result ,or a clean, sinusoidal si'nal (ut can 'i)e
si'ni,icantly di,,erent answers ,or distorted
si'nals? T#is is )ery im4ortant (ecause si'ni,icant distortion le)els are
2uite common, es4ecially ,or t#e 4#ase and neutral currents wit#in t#e
,acility? Ta(le 11?1 can (e used to (etter illustrate t#is 4oint?
Eac# wa)e,orm in Ta(le 11?1 #as an rms )alue o, 1?> 4u C1>>?> 4ercentD? T#e
corres4ondin' measured )alues ,or eac# ty4e o, meter are
dis4layed under t#e associated wa)e,orms, normali@ed to t#e true rms
)alue?
11?3?5 i'ital cameras
P#oto'ra4#s are e7tremely use,ul ,or documentation 4ur4oses? T#ose
conductin' t#e measurements o,ten 'et distracted tryin' to 'et instruments to ,unction
4ro4erly and tests coordinated? T#ey are rus#ed and
,ail to write down certain +ey data t#at later turn out to (e im4ortant?
!n,ortunately, #uman memory is unrelia(le w#en t#ere are do@ens o,
measurement details to remem(er? T#e modern di'ital camera #as
(ecome an indis4enda(le tool w#en ta+in' ,ield measurements? It is a
sim4le matter to ta+e 4#oto'ra4#s to document t#e tests? T#e 4#oto'ra4#er can
immediately tell i, t#e s#ot ,ailed and reta+e it wit# a di,,erent e74osure? Ty4ical items to
record 4#oto'ra4#ically durin' ,ield
measurements include
595 C#a4ter Ele)en
TA*1E11?1 Com4arison o, .et#ods ,or .easurin' &olta'es and
Currents wit# .ultimeters
1? Name4lates o, trans,ormers, motors, etc?
-? Instrumentation setu4s
3? Transducer and 4ro(e connections
5? <ey wa)e,orm dis4lays ,rom instruments
6? Su(stations, switc#'ear arran'ements, arrester 4ositions, etc?
8? imensions o, +ey electrical com4onents suc# as ca(le len't#s
&ideo cameras are similarly use,ul w#en t#ere is mo)in' action or random e)ents? /or
e7am4le, t#ey may (e used to #el4 identi,y t#e locations o, ,las#o)ers? .any industrial
,acilities will re2uire s4ecial
4ermission to ta+e 4#oto'ra4#s and may 4lace strin'ent limitations on
t#e distri(ution o, any 4#oto'ra4#s?
11?3?6 Oscillosco4es
An oscillosco4e is )alua(le w#en 4er,ormin' real%time tests? 1oo+in' at
t#e )olta'e and current wa)e,orms can 4ro)ide muc# in,ormation
a(out w#at is #a44enin', e)en wit#out 4er,ormin' detailed #armonic
analysis on t#e wa)e,orms? One can 'et t#e ma'nitudes o, t#e )olta'es
and currents, loo+ ,or o()ious distortion, and detect any maAor )ariations in t#e si'nals?
T#ere are numerous ma+es and models o, oscillosco4es to c#oose
,rom? A di'ital oscillosco4e wit# data stora'e is )alua(le (ecause t#e
wa)e,orm can (e sa)ed and analy@ed? Oscillosco4es in t#is cate'ory
o,ten also #a)e wa)e,orm analysis ca4a(ility Cener'y calculation, s4ectrum analysisD? In
addition, t#e di'ital oscillosco4es can usually (e
o(tained wit# communications so t#at wa)e,orm data can (e u4loaded
to a 4ersonal com4uter ,or additional analysis wit# a so,tware 4ac+a'e?
T#e latest de)elo4ments in oscillosco4es are #and%#eld instruments
wit# t#e ca4a(ility to dis4lay wa)e,orms as well as 4er,ormin' some
si'nal 4rocessin'? T#ese are 2uite use,ul ,or 4ower 2uality in)esti'ations (ecause t#ey
are )ery 4orta(le and can (e o4erated li+e a )olto#m meter C&O.D, (ut yield muc# more
in,ormation? T#ese are ideal
,or initial 4lant sur)eys? A ty4ical de)ice is s#own in /i's? 11?1> and
11?11? T#is 4articular instrument also #as t#e ca4a(ility to analy@e
#armonics and 4ermits connection wit# 4ersonal com4uters ,or ,urt#er
data analysis and inclusion into re4orts as illustrated?
11?3?8 istur(ance analy@ers
istur(ance analy@ers and distur(ance monitors ,orm a cate'ory o,
instruments t#at #a)e (een de)elo4ed s4eci,ically ,or 4ower 2uality
measurements? T#ey ty4ically can measure a wide )ariety o, system
distur(ances ,rom )ery s#ort duration transient )olta'es to lon'%duration outa'es or
under)olta'es? T#res#olds can (e set and t#e instruments le,t unattended to record
distur(ances o)er a 4eriod o, time? T#e
in,ormation is most commonly recorded on a 4a4er ta4e, (ut many
de)ices #a)e attac#ments so t#at it can (e recorded on dis+ as well?
T#ere are (asically two cate'ories o, t#ese de)ices:
1?Con)entional analy@erst#at summari@e e)ents wit# s4eci,ic in,ormation suc# as
o)er)olta'e and under)olta'e ma'nitudes, sa's and
sur'e ma'nitude and duration, transient ma'nitude and duration,
etc?
-?0ra4#ics%(ased analy@erst#at sa)e and 4rint t#e actual wa)e,orm
alon' wit# t#e descri4ti)e in,ormation w#ic# would (e 'enerated (y
one o, t#e con)entional analy@ers
It is o,ten di,,icult to determine t#e c#aracteristics o, a distur(ance
or a transient ,rom t#e summary in,ormation a)aila(le ,rom con)entional distur(ance
analy@ers? /or instance, an oscillatory transient
cannot (e e,,ecti)ely descri(ed (y a 4ea+ and a duration? T#ere,ore, it
598 C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?1> A #and%#eld oscillo'ra4#ic monitorin' instrument? CCourtesy o, /lu+e
Cor4oration?D
is almost im4erati)e to #a)e t#e wa)e,orm ca4ture ca4a(ility o, a
'ra4#ics%(ased distur(ance analy@er ,or detailed analysis o, a 4ower
2uality 4ro(lem C/i'? 11?1-D? Howe)er, a sim4le con)entional distur(ance monitor can (e
)alua(le ,or initial c#ec+s at a 4ro(lem location?
11?3?9 S4ectrum analy@ers and #armonic
analy@ers
Instruments in t#e distur(ance analy@er cate'ory #a)e )ery limited
#armonic analysis ca4a(ilities? Some o, t#e more 4ower,ul analy@ers
#a)e add%on modules t#at can (e used ,or com4utin' ,ast /ourier
trans,orm C//TD calculations to determine t#e lower%order #armonics?
Howe)er, any si'ni,icant #armonic measurement re2uirements will
demand an instrument t#at is desi'ned ,or s4ectral analysis or #armonic analysis?
Im4ortant ca4a(ilities ,or use,ul #armonic measurements include
/i'ure 11?11 emonstratin' t#e use o, a #and%#eld, t#ree4#ase 4ower 2uality monitorin'
instrument to 2uic+ly
e)aluate )olta'es at t#e mains?
T Ca4a(ility to measure (ot# )olta'e and current simultaneously so
t#at #armonic 4ower ,low in,ormation can (e o(tained?
T Ca4a(ility to measure (ot# ma'nitude and 4#ase an'le o, indi)idual
#armonic com4onents Calso needed ,or 4ower ,low calculationsD?
T Sync#roni@ation and a sam4lin' rate ,ast enou'# to o(tain accurate
measurement o, #armonic com4onents u4 to at least t#e 39t# #armonic Ct#is re2uirement
is a com(ination o, a #i'# sam4lin' rate and
a sam4lin' inter)al (ased on t#e 8>%H@ ,undamentalD?
T Ca4a(ility to c#aracteri@e t#e statistical nature o, #armonic distortion le)els C#armonics
le)els c#an'e wit# c#an'in' load conditions
and c#an'in' system conditionsD?
T#ere are (asically t#ree cate'ories o, instruments to consider ,or
#armonic analysis:
1?Sim4le meters? It may sometimes (e necessary to ma+e a 2uic+
c#ec+ o, #armonic le)els at a 4ro(lem location? A sim4le, 4orta(le
meter ,or t#is 4ur4ose is ideal? T#ere are now se)eral #and%#eld
instruments o, t#is ty4e on t#e mar+et? Eac# instrument #as ad)anta'es and
disad)anta'es in its o4eration and desi'n? T#ese de)ices
'enerally use micro4rocessor%(ased circuitry to 4er,orm t#e necessary
calculations to determine indi)idual #armonics u4 to t#e 6>t# #armonic, as well as t#e
rms, t#e TH, and t#e tele4#one in,luence ,actor
CTI/D? Some o, t#ese de)ices can calculate #armonic 4owers Cma'nitudes and an'lesD and
can u4load stored wa)e,orms and calculated
data to a 4ersonal com4uter?
-?0eneral%4ur4ose s4ectrum analy@ers? Instruments in t#is cate'ory are desi'ned to
4er,orm s4ectrum analysis on wa)e,orms ,or a
59: C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?1- 0ra4#ics%(ased analy@er out4ut?
wide )ariety o, a44lications? T#ey are 'eneral si'nal analysis instruments? T#e ad)anta'e
o, t#ese instruments is t#at t#ey #a)e )ery 4ower,ul ca4a(ilities ,or a reasona(le 4rice
since t#ey are desi'ned ,or a
(roader mar+et t#an Aust 4ower system a44lications? T#e disad)anta'e is t#at t#ey are not
desi'ned s4eci,ically ,or sam4lin' 4ower ,re2uency wa)e,orms and, t#ere,ore, must (e
used care,ully to assure
accurate #armonic analysis? T#ere are a wide )ariety o, instruments in
t#is cate'ory?
3?S4ecial%4ur4ose 4ower system #armonic analy@ers? *esides t#e
'eneral%4ur4ose s4ectrum analy@ers Aust descri(ed, t#ere are also a
num(er o, instruments and de)ices t#at #a)e (een desi'ned s4eci,ically ,or 4ower system
#armonic analysis? T#ese are (ased on t#e //T
wit# sam4lin' rates s4eci,ically desi'ned ,or determinin' #armonic
com4onents in 4ower si'nals? T#ey can 'enerally (e le,t in t#e ,ield and
include communications ca4a(ility ,or remote monitorin'?
11?3?: Com(ination distur(ance and
#armonic analy@ers
T#e most recent instruments com(ine #armonic sam4lin' and ener'y
monitorin' ,unctions wit# com4lete distur(ance monitorin' ,unctions
as well? T#e out4ut is 'ra4#ically (ased, and t#e data are remotely
'at#ered o)er 4#one lines into a central data(ase? Statistical analysis
can t#en (e 4er,ormed on t#e data? T#e data are also a)aila(le ,or in4ut
and mani4ulation into ot#er 4ro'rams suc# as s4reads#eets and ot#er
'ra4#ical out4ut 4rocessors?
One e7am4le o, suc# an instrument is s#own in /i'? 11?13? T#is
instrument is desi'ned ,or (ot# utility and end%user a44lications, (ein'
mounted in a suita(le enclosure ,or installation outdoors on utility
4oles? It monitors t#ree%4#ase )olta'es and currents C4lus neutralsD
simultaneously, w#ic# is )ery im4ortant ,or dia'nosin' 4ower 2uality
4ro(lems? T#e instrument ca4tures t#e raw data and sa)es t#e data in
internal stora'e ,or remote downloadin'? O,,%line analysis is 4er,ormed
wit# 4ower,ul so,tware t#at can 4roduce a )ariety o, out4uts suc# as
t#at s#own in /i'? 11?15? T#e to4 c#art s#ows a ty4ical result ,or a )olta'e sa'? *ot# t#e
rms )ariation ,or t#e ,irst >?: s and t#e actual wa)e,orm ,or t#e ,irst 196 ms are s#own?
T#e middle c#art s#ows a ty4ical
wa)e ,ault ca4ture ,rom a ca4acitor%switc#in' o4eration? T#e (ottom
c#art demonstrates t#e ca4a(ility to re4ort #armonics o, a distorted
wa)e,orm? *ot# t#e actual wa)e,orm and t#e #armonic s4ectrum can
(e o(tained?
Anot#er de)ice is s#own in /i'? 11?16? T#is is a 4ower 2uality monitorin' system
desi'ned ,or +ey utility accounts? It monitors t#ree%4#ase
)olta'es and #as t#e ca4a(ility to ca4ture distur(ances and 4a'e 4ower
2uality en'ineers? T#e en'ineers can t#en call in and #ear a )oice messa'e descri(in' t#e
e)ent? It #as memory ,or more t#an 3> e)ents?
T#us, w#ile only a ,ew s#ort years a'o 4ower 2uality monitorin' was
a rare ,eature to (e ,ound in instruments, it is (ecomin' muc# more
common4lace in commercially a)aila(le e2ui4ment?
11?3?= /lic+er metersZ
O)er t#e years, many di,,erent met#ods ,or measurin' ,lic+er #a)e (een
de)elo4ed? T#ese met#ods ran'e ,rom usin' )ery sim4le rms meters
wit# ,lic+er cur)es to ela(orate ,lic+er meters t#at use e7actly tuned ,ilters and statistical
analysis to e)aluate t#e le)el o, )olta'e ,lic+er? T#is
section discusses )arious met#ods a)aila(le ,or measurin' ,lic+er?
/lic+er standards? Alt#ou'# t#e !nited States does not currently #a)e
a standard ,or ,lic+er measurement, t#ere are IEEE standards t#at
address ,lic+er? IEEE Standards 151%1==3
8
and 61=%1==-
9(ot# contain
5:> C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?13 A 4ower 2uality monitorin' instrument ca4a(le o, monitorin' distur(ances,
#armonics, and ot#er steady%state 4#enomena on (ot# utility systems and end%user
systems? CCourtesy o, ranet@%*.I?D
ZT#is su(section was contri(uted (y Ye,, "? Smit# and Eric# "? 0unt#er?
Power Quality .onitorin' 5:1
P#ase C%A &olta'e
R.S &ariation
Tri''er
P#ase A &olta'e
"a)e /ault
P#ase A Current
SS "a)e
Tri''er
:>
:6
=>
=6
1>>
1>6
11>
116
V16>
V1?6
V8>>
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
V5>>
V->>
>
->>
5>>
8>>
1?6
V>?6
>?6
>
V1
1
V1>>
V6>
>
6>
1>>
16>
&olta'e CID &olta'e CID &olta'e C4uD Current CAm4sD Am4s
>
>
>
>
> 1>->3>5>6>
1> -> 3> 5> 6>
1> -> 3> 5> 6> 8> 9>
-6 6> 96 1>> 1-6 16> 196
>?1 >?- >?3 >?5 >?6 >?8 >?9 >?:
Time CsD
Time CmsD
Time CmsD
Time CmsD
Harmonic
uration
>?16> s
.in
:1?3:
A)e
=8?99
.a7
1>1?5
.a7 1?>=5
.in V1?-:>
/und -89?6
R.S -:1?>
C/ 1?99-
.in V5=6?8
.a7 5=:?>
TH 3>?89
HR.S :8?1=
TI/OIT 9>-5=
*.IOElectrote+
!ncali(rated ata
/i'ure 11?15 Out4ut ,rom com(ination distur(ance and #armonic analy@er?
,lic+er cur)es t#at #a)e (een used as 'uides ,or utilities to e)aluate t#e
se)erity o, ,lic+er wit#in t#eir system? *ot# ,lic+er cur)es, ,rom
Standards 151 and 61=, are s#own in /i'? 11?18?
In ot#er countries, a standard met#odolo'y ,or measurin' ,lic+er #as
(een esta(lis#ed? T#e IEC ,lic+er meter is t#e standard ,or measurin'
,lic+er in Euro4e and ot#er countries currently ado4tin' IEC standards? T#e IEC met#od
,or ,lic+er measurement, de,ined in IEC
Standard 81>>>%5%16:
C,ormerly IEC :8:D, is a )ery com4re#ensi)e
a44roac# to ,lic+er measurement and is ,urt#er descri(ed in G/lic+er
.easurement Tec#ni2uesH (elow? .ore recently, t#e IEEE #as (een
wor+in' toward ado4tion o, t#e IEC ,lic+er monitorin' standards wit#
an additional cur)e to account ,or t#e di,,erences (etween -3>%& and
1->%& systems?
/lic+er measurement tec#ni2ues
R.S stri4 c#arts? Historically, ,lic+er #as (een measured usin' rms
meters, load duty cycle, and a ,lic+er cur)e? I, sudden rms )olta'e de)iations occurred
wit# s4eci,ied ,re2uencies e7ceedin' )alues ,ound in
,lic+er cur)es, suc# as one s#own in /i'? 11?18, t#e system was said to
#a)e e74erienced ,lic+er? A sam4le 'ra4# o, rms )olta'e )ariations is
s#own in /i'? 11?19 w#ere lar'e )olta'e de)iations u4 to =?> & rms C &O&
l :?> 4ercent on a 1->%& (aseD are ,ound? !4on com4arin' t#is to t#e
,lic+er cur)e in /i'? 11?18, t#e ,eeder would (e e74eriencin' ,lic+er,
re'ardless o, t#e duty cycle o, t#e load 4roducin' t#e ,lic+er, (ecause
5:- C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?16 A low%cost 4ower 2uality monitor t#at can 4a'e 4ower 2uality en'ineers
w#en distur(ances occur?
any sudden total c#an'e in )olta'e 'reater t#an 9?> & rms results in
o(Aectiona(le ,lic+er, re'ardless o, t#e ,re2uency? T#e ad)anta'e to
suc# a met#od is t#at it is 2uite sim4le in nature and t#e rms data
re2uired are rat#er easy to ac2uire? T#e a44arent disad)anta'e to suc#
a met#od would (e t#e lac+ o, accuracy and ina(ility to o(tain t#e e7act
,re2uency content o, t#e ,lic+er?
/ast /ourier trans,orm? Anot#er met#od t#at #as (een used to measure
,lic+er is to ta+e raw sam4les o, t#e actual )olta'e wa)e,orms and
IEEE 151
IEEE 61=
>?>1 >?1 1 1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>>
C#an'esOmin
&O& CID >?1
1
1>
/i'ure 11?18 /lic+er cur)es ,rom IEEE Standards 151 and 61=?
/i'ure 11?19 R.S )olta'e )ariations?
im4lement a ,ast /ourier trans,orm on t#e demodulated si'nal C,lic+er
si'nal onlyD to e7tract t#e )arious ,re2uencies and ma'nitudes ,ound in
t#e data? T#ese data would t#en (e com4ared to a ,lic+er cur)e? Alt#ou'#
similar to usin' t#e rms stri4 c#arts, t#is met#od more accurately 2uanti,ies t#e data
measured due to t#e ma'nitude and ,re2uency o, t#e
,lic+er (ein' +nown? T#e downside to im4lementin' t#is met#od is associated wit#
2uanti,yin' ,lic+er le)els w#en t#e ,lic+er%4roducin' load
contains multi4le ,lic+er si'nals? Some instruments com4ensate ,or t#is
(y re4ortin' only t#e dominant ,re2uency and discardin' t#e rest?
/lic+er meters? *ecause o, t#e com4le7ity o, 2uanti,yin' ,lic+er le)els
t#at are (ased u4on #uman 4erce4tion, t#e most com4re#ensi)e
a44roac# to measurin' ,lic+er is to use ,lic+er meters? A ,lic+er meter
is essentially a de)ice t#at demodulates t#e ,lic+er si'nal, wei'#ts it
accordin' to esta(lis#ed G,lic+er cur)es,H and 4er,orms statistical
analysis on t#e 4rocessed data?
0enerally, t#ese meters can (e di)ided u4 into t#ree sections? In t#e
,irst section t#e in4ut wa)e,orm is demodulated, t#us remo)in' t#e
carrier si'nal? As a result o, t#e demodulator, a dc o,,set and #i'#er%,re2uency terms
Cside(andsD are 4roduced? T#e second section remo)es
t#ese unwanted terms usin' ,ilters, t#us lea)in' only t#e modulatin'
C,lic+erD si'nal remainin'? T#e second section also consists o, ,ilters
t#at wei'#t t#e modulatin' si'nal accordin' to t#e 4articular meter
s4eci,ications? T#e last section usually consists o, a statistical analysis
o, t#e measured ,lic+er?
T#e most esta(lis#ed met#od ,or doin' t#is is descri(ed in IEC
Standard 81>>>%5%16?:
T#e IEC ,lic+er meter consists o, ,i)e (loc+s,
w#ic# are s#own in /i'? 11?1:?
*loc+ 1 is an in4ut )olta'e ada4ter t#at scales t#e in4ut #al,%cycle
rms )alue to an internal re,erence le)el? T#is allows ,lic+er measurements to (e made
(ased u4on a 4ercent ratio rat#er t#an (e de4endent
u4on t#e in4ut carrier )olta'e le)el?
*loc+ - is sim4ly a s2uarin' demodulator t#at s2uares t#e in4ut to
se4arate t#e )olta'e ,luctuation Cmodulatin' si'nalD ,rom t#e main
)olta'e si'nal Ccarrier si'nalD, t#us simulatin' t#e (e#a)ior o, t#e
incandescent lam4?
*loc+ 3 consists o, multi4le ,ilters t#at ser)e to ,ilter out unwanted
,re2uencies 4roduced ,rom t#e demodulator and also to wei'#t t#e
in4ut si'nal accordin' to t#e incandescent lam4 eye%(rain res4onse?
T#e (asic trans,er ,unction ,or t#e wei'#tin' ,ilter is
HCsD
1sO-
C1sO3DC1sO5D
+1s
s
--s1
-
5:5 C#a4ter Ele)en
5:6
In4ut
trans,ormer
*loc+ 1 *loc+ - *loc+ 3 *loc+ 5 *loc+ 6
etector and
'ain control
emodulator
wit#
s2uarin'
multi4lier
In4ut )olta'e
ada4tor
Si'nal 'enerator
,or cali(ration
c#ec+in'
d*
V3
?>6 36 H@
1
> :?: H@
&
&
Ran'e
selector
S2uarin'
multi4lier
85 le)el
classi,ier
Out4ut
inter,aces
1st
order
slidin'
mean
,ilter
>?6
1?>
-?>
6?>
1>?>
->?>
"ei'#tin' ,ilters
S2uarin' and
smoot#in'
AO
con)erter
Sam4lin'
rate
6> H@
Pro'rammin' o, s#ort and lon'
o(ser)ation 4eriods
Statistical e)aluation o, ,lic+er le)el
Out4ut
and data
dis4lay
and
recordin'
S2uare rooter
r R.S
meter
Out4ut 1:
Hal,%cycle
rms )olta'e
indication
Out4ut -:
"ei'#ted
)olta'e
,luctuation
Out4ut 3:
Ran'e
selection
Out4ut 5:
S#ort time
inte'ration
Out4ut 6:
Recordin'
1%min inte'rator
s
/i'ure 11?1: ia'ram o, t#e IEC ,lic+er meter?
CSee IEC Standard 81>>>%5%16 ,or a descri4tion o, t#e )aria(les used
a(o)e?D
*loc+ 5 consists o, a s2uarin' multi4lier and slidin' mean ,ilter? T#e
)olta'e si'nal is s2uared to simulate t#e nonlinear eye%(rain res4onse,
w#ile t#e slidin' mean ,ilter a)era'es t#e si'nal to simulate t#e s#ortterm stora'e e,,ect
o, t#e (rain? T#e out4ut o, t#is (loc+ is considered
to (e t#e instantaneous ,lic+er le)el? A le)el o, 1 on t#e out4ut o, t#is
(loc+ corres4onds to 4erce4ti(le ,lic+er?
*loc+ 6 consists o, a statistical analysis o, t#e instantaneous ,lic+er
le)el? T#e out4ut o, (loc+ 5 is di)ided into suita(le classes, t#us creatin' a #isto'ram? A
4ro(a(ility density ,unction is created (ased u4on
eac# class, and ,rom t#is a cumulati)e distri(ution ,unction can (e
,ormed?
/lic+er le)el e)aluation can (e di)ided into two cate'ories, s#ortterm and lon'%term?
S#ort%term e)aluation o, ,lic+er se)erity PST is
(ased u4on an o(ser)ation 4eriod o, 1> min? T#is 4eriod is (ased u4on
assessin' distur(ances wit# a s#ort duty cycle or t#ose t#at 4roduce
continuous ,luctuations? PSTcan (e ,ound usin' t#e e2uation
PST >?>31 5P>?1 >?>6- 6P1s >?>86 9P3s >?-:P 1>s > ?>:P6> s
w#ere t#e 4ercenta'es P>?1, P1s,P3s,P1>s
, andP6>s are t#e ,lic+er le)els
t#at are e7ceeded >?1, 1?>, 3?>, 1>?>, and 6>?> 4ercent o, t#e time,
res4ecti)ely? T#ese )alues are ta+en ,rom t#e cumulati)e distri(ution
cur)e discussed 4re)iously? APSTo, 1?> on t#e out4ut o, (loc+ 6 re4resents t#e
o(Aectiona(le Cor irrita(leD limit o, ,lic+er?
/or cases w#ere t#e duty cycle is lon' or )aria(le, suc# as in arc ,urnaces, or distur(ances
on t#e system t#at are caused (y multi4le loads
o4eratin' simultaneously, t#e need ,or t#e lon'%term assessment o,
,lic+er se)erity arises? T#ere,ore, t#e lon'%term ,lic+er se)erity P1Tis
deri)ed ,rom PSTusin' t#e e2uation
P1T
3
w#ereNis t#e num(er o, PSTreadin's and is determined (y t#e duty
cycle o, t#e ,lic+er%4roducin' load? T#e 4ur4ose is to ca4ture one duty
cycle o, t#e ,luctuatin' load? I, t#e duty cycle is un+nown, t#e recommended num(er o,
PSTreadin's is 1- C-%# measurement windowD?
T#e ad)anta'e o, usin' a sin'le 2uantity, li+e Pst, to c#aracteri@e
,lic+er is t#at it 4ro)ides a (asis ,or im4lementin' contracts and
descri(in' ,lic+er le)els in a muc# sim4ler manner? /i'ure 11?1= illustrates t#e Pst le)els
measured at t#e PCC wit# an arc ,urnace o)er a
N
i1
P
3
STi
N
5:8 C#a4ter Ele)en
-5%# 4eriod? T#e melt cycles w#en t#e ,urnace was o4eratin' can (e
clearly identi,ied (y t#e #i'# Pst le)els? Note t#at Pst le)els 'reater
t#an 1?> are usually considered to (e le)els t#at mi'#t result in customers (ein' aware o,
li'#ts ,lic+erin'?
11?3?1> Smart 4ower 2uality monitors
All 4ower 2uality measurement instruments 4re)iously descri(ed are
desi'ned to collect 4ower 2uality data? Some instruments can send t#e
data o)er a telecommunication line to a central 4rocessin' location ,or
analysis and inter4retation? Howe)er, one common ,eature amon'
t#ese instruments is t#at t#ey do not 4ossess t#e ca4a(ility to locally
analy@e, inter4ret, and determine w#at is #a44enin' in t#e 4ower system? T#ey sim4ly
record and transmit data ,or 4ost4rocessin'?
Since t#e conclusion o, t#e EPRI PQ 4roAect in /all 1==6, it was
reali@ed t#at t#ese monitors, alon' wit# t#e monitorin' 4ractice 4re)iously descri(ed,
were inade2uate? An emer'in' trend in 4ower 2uality
monitorin' 4ractice is to collect t#e data, turn t#em into use,ul in,ormation, and
disseminate it to users? All t#ese 4rocesses ta+e 4lace
wit#in t#e instrument itsel,? T#us, a new (reed o, 4ower 2uality monitor was de)elo4ed
wit# inte'rated intelli'ent systems to meet t#is new
c#allen'e? T#is ty4e o, 4ower 2uality monitor is an intelli'ent 4ower
2uality monitor w#ere in,ormation is directly created wit#in t#e
instrument and immediately a)aila(le to t#e users? A smart 4ower
>?>> -:>> 5:>> 8:>> ::>> 1>:>> 1-:>> 15:>> 18:>> 1::>> ->:>> --:>> >:>>
Time
Pst
>
>?6
1
1?6
-
-?6
/i'ure 11?1= /lic+er )ariations at t#e PCC wit# an arc ,urnace c#aracteri@ed (y t#e Pst
le)els ,or a -5%# 4eriod C.arc# 1, ->>1D Cnote t#at t#ere is one Pst )alue e)ery 1> minD?
2uality monitor allows en'ineers to ta+e necessary or a44ro4riate
actions in a timely manner? T#us, instead o, actin' in a reacti)e ,as#ion, en'ineers will
act in a 4roacti)e ,as#ion?
One suc# smart 4ower 2uality monitor was de)elo4ed (y Electrote+
Conce4ts, ranet@%*.I, EPRI, and t#e Tennessee &alley Aut#ority CT&AD
C/i'? 11?->D? T#e system ,eatures on%t#e%s4ot data analysis wit# ra4id
in,ormation dissemination )ia Internet tec#nolo'y, e%mails, 4a'ers, and
,a7es? T#e system consists o, data ac2uisition, data a''re'ation, communication, "e(%
(ased )isuali@ation, and enter4rise mana'ement com4onents? T#e data ac2uisition
com4onent CataNodeD is desi'ned to
measure t#e actual 4ower system )olta'es, currents, and ot#er 2uantities? T#e data
a''re'ation, communication, "e(%(ased )isuali@ation, and
enter4rise mana'ement com4onents are 4er,ormed (y a mission%s4eci,ic
com4uter system called t#e In,oNode? T#e communication (etween t#e
data ac2uisition de)ice and t#e In,oNode is accom4lis#ed t#rou'# serial
RS%-3-O5:6O5-- or Et#ernet communications usin' industry standard
4rotocols C!CA ..S and .od(usD? One or more data ac2uisition de)ices,
or ataNodes, can (e connected to an In,oNode?
T#e In,oNode #as its own ,irmware t#at 'o)erns t#e o)erall ,unctionality o, t#e
monitorin' system? It acts as a s4ecial%4ur4ose data(ase mana'er and "e( ser)er? &arious
s4ecial%4ur4ose intelli'ent
systems are im4lemented wit#in t#is com4uter system? Since it is a
"e( ser)er, any user wit# Internet connecti)ity can access t#e data
and its analysis results stored in its memory system? T#e monitorin'
system su44orts t#e standard ,ile trans,er 4rotocol C/TPD? T#ere,ore, a
data(ase can (e manually arc#i)ed )ia /TP (y sim4ly co4yin' t#e data(ase to any
4ersonal com4uter wit# connecti)ity to t#e mission%s4eci,ic
com4uter system )ia networ+ or modem? Pro4rietary so,tware can (e
used to arc#i)e data ,rom a 'rou4 o, In,oNodes?
11?3?11 Transducer re2uirements
.onitorin' o, 4ower 2uality on 4ower systems o,ten re2uires transducers to o(tain
acce4ta(le )olta'e and current si'nal le)els? &olta'e
monitorin' on secondary systems can usually (e 4er,ormed wit# direct
connections, (ut e)en t#ese locations re2uire current trans,ormers
CCTsD ,or t#e current si'nal?
.any 4ower 2uality monitorin' instruments are desi'ned ,or in4ut
)olta'es u4 to 8>> & rms and current in4uts u4 to 6 A rms? &olta'e and
current transducers must (e selected to 4ro)ide t#ese si'nal le)els?
Two im4ortant concerns must (e addressed in selectin' transducers:
1?Si'nal le)els? Si'nal le)els s#ould use t#e ,ull scale o, t#e instrument wit#out distortin'
or cli44in' t#e desired si'nal?
5:: C#a4ter Ele)en
-?/re2uency res4onse? T#is is 4articularly im4ortant ,or transient
and #armonic distortion monitorin', w#ere #i'#%,re2uency si'nals
are 4articularly im4ortant?
T#ese concerns and transducer installation considerations will now (e
discussed?
Si'nal le)els? Care,ul consideration to si@in' o, )olta'e transducers
C&TsD and CTs is re2uired to ta+e ad)anta'e o, t#e ,ull resolution o, t#e
instrument wit#out cli44in' t#e measured si'nal? Im4ro4er si@in' can
result in dama'e to t#e transducer or monitorin' instrument?
i'ital monitorin' instruments incor4orate t#e use o, analo'%to%di'ital CAOD con)erters?
T#ese AO (oards con)ert t#e analo' si'nal
recei)ed (y t#e instrument ,rom t#e transducers into a di'ital si'nal
,or 4rocessin'? To o(tain t#e most accurate re4resentation o, t#e si'nal
(ein' monitored, it is im4ortant to use as muc# o, t#e ,ull ran'e o, t#e
AO (oard as 4ossi(le? T#e noise le)el o, a ty4ical AO (oard is a44ro7imately 33
4ercent o, t#e ,ull%scale (it )alue C6 (its ,or a 18%(it AO
(oardD? T#ere,ore, as a 'eneral rule, t#e si'nal t#at is in4ut to t#e
instrument s#ould ne)er (e less t#an one%ei'#t# o, t#e ,ull%scale )alue
so t#at it is well a(o)e t#e noise le)el o, t#e AO (oard? T#is can (e
accom4lis#ed (y selectin' t#e 4ro4er transducers?
&olta'e transducers? &Ts s#ould (e si@ed to 4re)ent measured distur(ances ,rom inducin'
saturation in t#e &T? /or transients, t#is 'enerally re2uires t#at t#e +nee 4oint o, t#e
transducer saturation cur)e (e
at least ->> 4ercent o, nominal system )olta'e?
Power Quality .onitorin' 5:=
Si'nature System Arc#itecture
"e( *rowsers
In,oNodes
ataNodes
/i'ure 11?-> A smart 4ower 2uality monitorin' systemPit
turns data into in,ormation on t#e s4ot and ma+es it a)aila(le o)er t#e Internet? CCourtesy
o, ranet@%*.I?D
E7am4le 1? "#en monitorin' on a 1-?59%+& distri(ution ,eeder and
measurin' line%to%'round, t#e nominal )olta'e across t#e 4rimary o,
t#e )olta'e transducer will (e 9->> & rms?
A &T ratio o, 8>:1 will 4roduce an out4ut )olta'e on t#e &T o, 1-> &
rms C19> & 4ea+D ,or a 9->>%& rms in4ut? T#ere,ore, i, t#e ,ull%ran'e
)alue o, t#e instrument is 8>> & rms and t#e instrument incor4orates
a 18%(it AO (oard, 13(its o, t#e AO (oard will (e used?
It is always 'ood 4ractice to incor4orate some allowance in t#e calculations ,or
o)er)olta'e conditions? T#e steady%state )olta'e s#ould
not (e ri'#t at t#e ,ull%scale )alue o, t#e monitorin' instrument? I, an
o)er)olta'e occurred, t#e si'nal would (e cli44ed (y t#e AO (oard, and
t#e measurement would (e useless? Allowin' ,or a ->> 4ercent o)er)olta'e is su''ested?
T#is can (e accom4lis#ed (y c#an'in' t#e in4ut
scale on t#e instrument, or si@in' t#e &T accordin'ly?
Current transducers? Selectin' t#e 4ro4er transducer ,or currents is
more di,,icult? T#e current in any system c#an'es more o,ten and wit#
'reater ma'nitude t#an t#e )olta'e? .ost 4ower 2uality instrument
manu,acturers su44ly CTs wit# t#eir e2ui4ment? T#ese CTs come in a
wide ran'e o, si@es to accommodate di,,erent load le)els? T#e CTs are
usually rated ,or ma7imum continuous load current?
T#e 4ro4er CT current ratin' and turns ratio de4end on t#e measurement o(Aecti)e? I,
,ault or inrus# currents are o, concern, t#e CT
must (e si@ed in t#e ran'e o, -> to 3> times normal load current? T#is
will result in low resolution o, t#e load currents and an ina(ility to
accurately c#aracteri@e load current #armonics?
I, #armonics and load c#aracteri@ation are im4ortant, CTs s#ould (e
selected to accurately c#aracteri@e load currents? T#is 4ermits e)aluation o, load res4onse
to system )olta'e )ariations and accurate calculation o, load current #armonics?
E7am4le -? T#e desired current si'nal to t#e monitorin' instrument
is 1 to - A rms? Assumin' a 1%A )alue, t#e o4timum CT ratio ,or an
a)era'e ,eeder current o, 1-> A rms is 1->:1? .anu,acturerFs data commonly list a
secondary current (ase o, 6 A to descri(e CT turns ratios
rat#er t#an 1 A? T#e 4rimary ratin' ,or a CT wit# a 6%A secondary ratin' is calculated as
,ollows:
CTPRI8>>
T#us, a 8>>:6 CT would (e s4eci,ied?
1->6
1
IPRICTSEC
ISEC
5=> C#a4ter Ele)en
/re2uency res4onse? Transducer ,re2uency res4onse c#aracteristics
can (e illustrated (y 4lottin' t#e ratio correction ,actor CRC/D, w#ic# is
t#e ratio o, t#e e74ected out4ut si'nal Cin4ut scaled (y turns ratioD to
t#e actual out4ut si'nal, as a ,unction o, ,re2uency?
&olta'e transducers? T#e ,re2uency res4onse o, a standard meterin'
class &T de4ends on t#e ty4e and (urden? In 'eneral, t#e (urden
s#ould (e a )ery #i'# im4edance Csee /i's? 11?-1 and 11?--D? T#is is
'enerally not a 4ro(lem wit# most monitorin' e2ui4ment a)aila(le
today? Power 2uality monitorin' instruments, di'ital multimeters
C..sD, oscillosco4es, and ot#er instruments all 4resent a )ery #i'#
im4edance to t#e transducer? "it# a #i'# im4edance (urden, t#e
res4onse is usually ade2uate to at least 6 +H@? A ty4ical RC/ is 4lotted
in /i's? 11?-1 and 11?-- ,or two &T (urdens?
=
Some su(stations use ca4aciti)ely cou4led )olta'e trans,ormers
CCC&TsD ,or )olta'e transducers? T#ese s#ould not(e used ,or 'eneral
4ower 2uality monitorin'? T#ere is a low%)olta'e trans,ormer in 4arallel wit# t#e lower
ca4acitor in t#e ca4aciti)e di)ider? T#is con,i'uration
results in a circuit t#at is tuned to 8> H@ and will not 4ro)ide accurate
re4resentation o, any #i'#er%,re2uency com4onents?
.easurin' )ery #i'# ,re2uency com4onents in t#e )olta'e re2uires a
ca4aciti)e di)ider or 4ure resisti)e di)ider? /i'ure 11?-3 illustrates t#e
di,,erence (etween a CC&T and a ca4aciti)e di)ider? S4ecial%4ur4ose
ca4acitor di)iders can (e o(tained ,or measurements re2uirin' accurate c#aracteri@ation
o, transients u4 to at least 1 .H@?
Current transducers? Standard meterin' class CTs are 'enerally ade2uate
,or ,re2uencies u4 to - +H@ C4#ase error may start to (ecome si'ni,icant
(e,ore t#isD?
1>
/or #i'#er ,re2uencies, window%ty4eCTs wit# a #i'# turns
ratio Cdou'#nut, s4lit%core, (ar%ty4e, and clam4%onD s#ould (e used?
Additional desira(le attri(utes ,or CTs include
1? 1ar'e turns ratio, e?'?, ->>>:6 or 'reater?
-? "indow%ty4e CTs are 4re,erred? Primary woundCTs Ci?e?, CTs in
w#ic# system current ,lows t#rou'# a windin'D may (e used, 4ro)ided t#at t#e num(er o,
turns is less t#an ,i)e?
3? Small remnant ,lu7, e?'?, l1> 4ercent o, t#e core saturation )alue?
5? 1ar'e core area? T#e more steel used in t#e core, t#e (etter t#e ,re2uency res4onse o,
t#e CT?
6? Secondary windin' resistance and lea+a'e im4edance as small as
4ossi(le? As s#own in /i'? 11?-5, t#is allows more o, t#e out4ut si'nal to ,low into t#e
(urden, rat#er t#an t#e stray ca4acitance and
core e7citin' im4edance?
Power Quality .onitorin' 5=1
Installation considerations? .onitorin' on t#e distri(ution 4rimary
re2uires (ot# )olta'e and current transducers? Selection o, t#e (est
com(ination o, t#ese transducers de4ends on a num(er o, ,actors:
T .onitorin' location Csu(station, o)er#ead, under'round, etc?D
T S4ace limitations
T A(ility to interru4t circuit ,or transducer installation
T Need ,or current monitorin'
Su(station transducers? !sually, e7istin' su(station CTs and &Ts
Ce7ce4t CC&TsD can (e used ,or 4ower 2uality monitorin'?
!tility o)er#ead line locations? /or 4ower 2uality monitorin' on distri(ution 4rimary
circuits, it is o,ten desira(le to use a transducer t#at could
(e installed wit#out ta+in' t#e circuit out o, ser)ice? Recently, transducers ,or monitorin'
(ot# )olta'e and current #a)e (een de)elo4ed
t#at can (e installed on a li)e line?
T#ese de)ices incor4orate a resisti)e di)ider%ty4e &T and windowty4e CT in a sin'le
unit? A s4lit%core c#o+e is clam4ed around t#e 4#ase
5=- C#a4ter Ele)en
>?=8
>?=:
1
1?>-
1?>5
1?>8
1?>:
RC/
1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>> 1>>>>> 1>>>>>>
/re2uency in Hert@
/i'ure 11?-1 /re2uency res4onse o, a standard &T wit# 1%. (urden?
1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>> 1>>>>> 1>>>>>>
/re2uency in Hert@
>?=8
>?=:
1
1?>-
1?>5
1?>8
1?>:
RC/
/i'ure 11?-- /re2uency res4onse o, a standard &T wit# 1>>% (urden?
conductor and is used to s#unt t#e line current t#rou'# t#e CT in t#e
insulator? T#is met#od allows t#e de)ice to (e installed on t#e crossarm
in 4lace o, t#e ori'inal insulator? *y usin' t#e s4lit%core c#o+e, t#e
4#ase conductor does not #a)e to (e (ro+en, and t#us, t#e transducers
can (e installed on a li)e line?
Initial tests indicated ade2uate ,re2uency res4onse ,or t#ese transducers? Howe)er, ,ield
e74erience wit# t#ese units #as s#own t#at t#e
,re2uency res4onse, e)en at 8> H@, is de4endent on current ma'nitude,
tem4erature, and secondary ca(le len't#? T#is ma+es t#is ty4e o,
de)ice di,,icult to use ,or accurate 4ower 2uality monitorin'? Care must
(e e7ercised in matc#in' t#ese transducers to t#e instruments?
In 'eneral, all 4rimary sites s#ould (e monitored wit# meterin' class
&Ts and CTs to o(tain accurate results o)er t#e re2uired ,re2uency s4ectrum? Installation
will re2uire a circuit outa'e, (ut con)enient desi'ns
can (e de)elo4ed ,or 4ole%to4 installations to minimi@e t#e outa'e?
Anot#er o4tion ,or monitorin' 4rimary sites in)ol)es monitorin' at
t#e secondary o, an unloaded distri(ution trans,ormer? T#is will 'i)e
accurate results u4 to at least 3 +H@? T#is o4tion does not #el4 wit# t#e
current transducers, (ut it is 4ossi(le to 'et (y wit#out t#e currents at
some circuit locations Ce?'?, end o, t#e ,eederD? T#is o4tion may (e 4articularly attracti)e
,or under'round circuits w#ere t#e monitor can (e
installed on t#e secondary o, a 4ad%mounted trans,ormer?
&out &out
&in &in
0ood *ad
/i'ure 11?-3 Ca4aciti)ely cou4led
)olta'e di)iders?
1> 1>> 1>>> 1>>>> 1>>>>> 1>>>>>>
>?9
>?96
>?:
>?:6
>?=
>?=6
1
1?>6
E2ui)alent circuit ,or determinin' CT ,re2uency res4onse
ideal
trans,ormer
4rimary
windin'
secondary
windin'
N4
Ne
Ns
N( Cs
N:6
e7citin'
im4edance
stray
ca4acitance
(urden
/re2uency in Hert@
1ORC/
/i'ure 11?-5 /re2uency res4onse o, a window%ty4e CT?
Primary wound CTs are a)aila(le ,rom a )ariety o, CT manu,acturers? Re,erence -
concludes t#at any 4rimary wound CT wit# a sin'le turn, or )ery ,ew turns, s#ould #a)e a
,re2uency res4onse u4 to
1> +H@?
End%user CsecondaryD sites? Transducer re2uirements at secondary sites
are muc# sim4ler? irect connection ,or t#e )olta'e is 4ossi(le ,or
1->O->:% or -99O5:>%& rms systems? T#is 4ermits ,ull utili@ation o, t#e
instrumentFs ,re2uency%res4onse ca4a(ility?
Currents can (e monitored wit# eit#er meterin' CTs Cat t#e ser)ice
entrance, ,or e7am4leD or wit# clam4%on CTs Cat locations wit#in t#e
,acilityD? Clam4%on CTs are a)aila(le in a wide ran'e o, turns ratios?
T#e ,re2uency ran'e is usually 4u(lis#ed (y t#e manu,acturer?
Summary o, transducer recommendations? Ta(le 11?- descri(es di,,erent monitorin'
locations and t#e di,,erent ty4es o, transducers t#at are
ade2uate ,or monitorin' at t#ese locations?
Ta(le 11?3 descri(es t#e di,,erent 4ower 2uality 4#enomena and t#e
4ro4er transducers to measure t#at ty4e o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lem?
Ta(les 11?- and 11?3 s#ould (e used in conAunction wit# eac# ot#er to
determine t#e (est transducer ,or a 'i)en a44lication?
Summary o, monitorin' e2ui4ment ca4a(ilities? /i'ure 11?-6 summari@es t#e ca4a(ilities
o, t#e 4re)iously descri(ed meterin' instruments
as t#ey relate to t#e )arious cate'ories o, 4ower 2uality )ariations?
11?5 Assessment o, Power Quality
.easurement ata
As utilities and industrial customers #a)e e74anded t#eir 4ower
2uality monitorin' systems, t#e data mana'ement, analysis, and
inter4retation ,unctions #a)e (ecome t#e most si'ni,icant c#allen'es
in t#e o)erall 4ower 2uality monitorin' e,,ort? In addition, t#e s#i,t
in t#e use o, 4ower 2uality monitorin' ,rom o,,%line (enc#mar+in' to
on%line o4eration wit# automatic identi,ication o, 4ro(lems and concerns #as made t#e
tas+ o, data mana'ement and analysis e)en more
critical?
T#ere are two streams o, 4ower 2uality data analysis, i?e?, o,,%line
and on%line analyses? T#e o,,%line 4ower 2uality data analysis, as t#e
term su''ests, is 4er,ormed o,,%line at t#e central 4rocessin' locations?
On t#e ot#er #and, t#e on%line data analysis is 4er,ormed wit#in t#e
instrument itsel, ,or immediate in,ormation dissemination? *ot# ty4es
o, 4ower 2uality data assessment are descri(ed in Secs? 11?5?1 and
11?5?-?
5=5 C#a4ter Ele)en
TA*1E11?- &T and CT O4tions ,or i,,erent 1ocations
1ocation &T CT
Su(station .eterin' &Ts .eterin' CTs
S4ecial%4ur4ose Relayin' CTs
ca4aciti)e or resisti)e
di)iders
Cali(rated (us#in' ta4s
O)er#ead lines .eterin' &Ts .eterin' CTs
!nder'round .eterin' &Ts .eterin' CTs
locations Pad%mounted trans,ormer
S4ecial%4ur4ose di)iders
Secondary sitesF irect connection .eterin' CTs
ser)ice entrance Clam4%on CTs
In ,acility irect connection Clam4%on CTs
TA*1E11?3 &T and CT Re2uirements ,or i,,erent Power Quality &ariations
Concern &TsZ CTs
&olta'e )ariations Standard meterin' Standard meterin'
Harmonic le)els Standard meterin' "indow%ty4e
1ow%,re2uency transients Standard meterin' wit# "indow%ty4e
Cswitc#in'D #i'#%+nee4oint saturation
Hi'#%,re2uency transients Ca4aciti)e or resisti)e "indow%ty4e
Cli'#tnin'D di)iders
Z&Ts are usually not re2uired at locations (elow 8>> & rms nominal?
/i'ure 11?-6 Power 2uality measurement e2ui4ment ca4a(ilities?
11?5?1 O,,%line 4ower 2uality data
assessment
O,,%line 4ower 2uality data assessment is carried out se4arately ,rom
t#e monitorin' instruments? edicated com4uter so,tware is used ,or
t#is 4ur4ose? 1ar'e%scale monitorin' 4roAects wit# lar'e )olumes o,
data to analy@e o,ten 4resent a c#allen'in' set o, re2uirements ,or
so,tware desi'ners and a44lication en'ineers? /irst, t#e so,tware
must inte'rate well wit# monitorin' e2ui4ment and t#e lar'e num(er o, 4roducti)ity tools
t#at are currently a)aila(le? T#e stora'e o,
)ast 2uantities o, (ot# distur(ance and steady%state measurement
data re2uires an e,,icient and well%suited data(ase? ata mana'ement tools t#at can
2uic+ly c#aracteri@e and load 4ower 2uality data
must (e de)ised, and analysis tools must (e inte'rated wit# t#e data(ase? Automation o,
data mana'ement and re4ort 'eneration tas+s
must (e su44orted, and t#e desi'n must allow ,or ,uture e74ansion
and customi@in'?
T#e new standard ,ormat ,or interc#an'in' 4ower 2uality dataPt#e
Power Quality ata Interc#an'e /ormat CPQI/DPma+es s#arin' o,
data (etween di,,erent ty4es o, monitorin' systems muc# more ,easi(le? T#is means t#at
a44lications ,or data mana'ement and data
analysis can (e written (y t#ird 4arties and measurement data ,rom a
wide )ariety o, monitorin' systems can (e accessi(le to t#ese systems?
PQ&iew Cwww?42)iew?comD is an e7am4le o, t#is ty4e o, t#ird%4arty
a44lication? T#e PQI/ standard is descri(ed in Sec? 11?8?
T#e o,,%line 4ower 2uality data assessment so,tware usually 4er,orms t#e ,ollowin'
,unctions:
T &iewin' o, indi)idual distur(ance e)ents?
T R.S )ariation analysis w#ic# includes ta(ulations o, )olta'e sa's
and swells, ma'nitude%duration scatter 4lots (ased on C*E.A, ITI,
or user%s4eci,ied ma'nitude%duration cur)es, and com4utations o, a
wide ran'e o, rms indices suc# as SAR/I, SIAR/I, and CAII?
T Steady%state analysis w#ic# includes trends o, rms )olta'es, rms currents, and ne'ati)e%
and @ero%se2uence un(alances? In addition,
many so,tware systems 4ro)ide statistical analysis o, )arious minimum, a)era'e,
ma7imum, standard de)iation, count, and cumulati)e 4ro(a(ility le)els? Statistics can (e
tem4orally a''re'ated and
dynamically ,iltered? /i'ures 11?-8 and 11?-9 s#ow t#e time trend o,
4#ase A rms )olta'e alon' wit# its #isto'ram re4resentation?
T Harmonic analysis w#ere users can 4er,orm )olta'e and current #armonic s4ectra,
statistical analysis o, )arious #armonic indices, and
trendin' o)ertime?
5=8 C#a4ter Ele)en
T Transient analysis w#ic# includes statistical analysis o, ma7imum
)olta'e, transient durations, and transient ,re2uency?
T Standardi@ed 4ower 2uality re4orts Ce?'? daily re4orts, mont#ly
re4orts, statistical 4er,ormance re4orts, e7ecuti)e summaries, customer 4ower 2uality
summariesD?
Sam4les: 15>5
.inimum: 8:93?>:>8
A)era'e: 9-:5?9>==
.a7imum: 98>>?39-8
8:>>
8=>>
9>>>
91>>
9->>
93>>
95>>
96>>
98>>
99>>
5O-8O=6 6O1O=6 6O8O=6 6O11O=6 6O18O=6 6O-1O=6 6O-8O=6 6O31O=6 8O6O=6
& R.S A
/i'ure 11?-8 Time trend o, an rms )olta'e is a standard ,eature in many 4ower 2uality
analysis so,tware 4ro'rams?
>
->
5>
8>
:>
1>>
1->
Count
8:9>
8=1>
8=6>
8==>
9>3>
9>9>
911>
916>
91=>
9-3>
9-9>
931>
936>
93=>
959>
961>
966>
96=>
953>
>I
1>I
->I
3>I
5>I
6>I
8>I
9>I
:>I
=>I
1>>I
Sam4les: 15>5
.inimum: 8:93?>:>8
A)era'e: 9-:5?9>==
.a7imum: 98>>?39-8
& R.S A
/i'ure 11?-9 Histo'ram re4resentation o, rms )olta'e indicates t#e statistical distri(ution
o, t#e rms )olta'e ma'nitude?
T Analysis o, 4rotecti)e de)ice o4eration Cidenti,y 4ro(lemsD?
T Analysis o, ener'y use?
T Correlation o, 4ower 2uality le)els or ener'y use wit# im4ortant
4arameters Ce?'?, )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance )ersus li'#tnin' ,las#
densityD?
T E2ui4ment 4er,ormance as a ,unction o, 4ower 2uality le)els Ce2ui4ment sensiti)ity
re4ortsD?
11?5?- On%line 4ower 2uality data
assessment
On%line 4ower 2uality data assessment analy@es data as t#ey are ca4tured? T#e analysis
results are a)aila(le immediately ,or ra4id dissemination? Com4le7ity in t#e so,tware
desi'n re2uirement ,or on%line
assessment is usually #i'#er t#an t#at o, o,,%line? .ost ,eatures a)aila(le in o,,%line
analysis so,tware can also (e made a)aila(le in an online system? One o, t#e 4rimary
ad)anta'es o, on%line data analysis is
t#at it can 4ro)ide instant messa'e deli)ery to noti,y users o, s4eci,ic
e)ents o, interest? !sers can t#en ta+e immediate actions u4on recei)in' t#e noti,ications?
/i'ure 11?-: illustrates a sim4le messa'e deli)ered to a user re4ortin' t#at a ca4acitor
(an+ located u4stream ,rom a
data ac2uisition node called GataNode H>=^663>H was ener'i@ed at
>6%16%->>- at >5:68:11 A?.? T#e messa'e also details t#e transient
c#aracteristics suc# as t#e ma'nitude, ,re2uency, and duration alon'
wit# t#e relati)e location o, t#e ca4acitor (an+ ,rom t#e data ac2uisition node?
/i'ure 11?-= s#ows anot#er e7am4le o, t#e on%line 4ower 2uality
assessment? It s#ows t#e time trend o, a ,i,t#%#armonic current ma'nitude alon' wit# its
statistical distri(ution? T#e data and its analysis
are dis4layed on a standard "e( (rowser? Here a user can analy@e data
u4 to t#e current time? T#is on%line system #as t#e ca4a(ility o, 4er,ormin' a ,ull ran'e o,
transient, #armonic, and steady%state c#aracteri@ation alon' wit# t#eir statistical
distri(ution analysis com4ara(le
to t#at in o,,%line assessment analysis?
11?6 A44lication o, Intelli'ent Systems
.any ad)anced 4ower 2uality monitorin' systems are e2ui44ed wit#
eit#er o,,%line or on%line intelli'ent systems to e)aluate distur(ances
and system conditions so as to ma+e conclusions a(out t#e cause o, t#e
4ro(lem or e)en 4redict 4ro(lems (e,ore t#ey occur? T#e a44lications o,
intelli'ent systems or autonomous e74ert systems in monitorin'
instruments #el4 en'ineers determine t#e system condition ra4idly?
5=: C#a4ter Ele)en
T#is is es4ecially im4ortant w#en restorin' ser)ice ,ollowin' maAor distur(ances?
T#e im4lementation o, intelli'ent systems wit#in a monitorin'
instrument can si'ni,icantly increase t#e )alue o, a monitorin' a44lication since it can
'enerate in,ormation rat#er t#an Aust collect data?
11
T#e intelli'ent systems are 4ac+a'ed as indi)idual autonomous e74ert
system modules, w#ere eac# module 4er,orms s4eci,ic ,unctions?
E7am4les include an e74ert system module t#at analy@es ca4acitorswitc#in' transients
and determines t#e relati)e location o, t#e ca4acitor (an+, and an e74ert system module
to determine t#e relati)e
location o, t#e ,ault causin' a )olta'e sa'? Sections 11?6?1 and 11?6?-
descri(e t#e a44roac# in desi'nin' an autonomous e74ert system ,or
4ower 2uality data assessment, and 'i)e a44lication e7am4les?
11?6?1 *asic desi'n o, an e74ert system ,or
monitorin' a44lications
T#e de)elo4ment o, an autonomous e74ert system calls ,or many
a44roac#es suc# as si'nal 4rocessin' and rule%(ased tec#ni2ues alon'
wit# t#e +nowled'e%disco)ery a44roac# commonly +nown as data minin'? *e,ore t#e
e74ert system module is desi'ned, t#e ,unctionalities or
o(Aecti)es o, t#e module must (e clearly de,ined? In ot#er words, t#e
desi'ners or de)elo4ers o, t#e e74ert system module must #a)e a clear
understandin' a(out w#at +nowled'e t#ey are tryin' to disco)er ,rom
)olumes o, raw measurement data? T#is is )ery im4ortant since t#ey will
ultimately determine t#e o)erall desi'n o, t#e e74ert system module?
Power Quality .onitorin' 5==
/i'ure 11?-: On%line data analysis can send e%mail noti,ications to users a(out t#e
occurrence o, s4eci,ic e)ents?
T#e 4rocess o, turnin' raw measurement data into +nowled'e
in)ol)es data selection and 4re4aration, in,ormation e7traction ,rom
selected data, in,ormation assimilation, and re4ort 4resentation? T#ese
ste4s Cillustrated in /i'? 11?3>D are commonly +nown as +nowled'e disco)ery or data
minin'?
1-
T#e ,irst ste4 in t#e +nowled'e disco)ery is to select a44ro4riate
measurement 2uantities and disre'ard ot#er ty4es o, measurements
t#at do not 4ro)ide rele)ant in,ormation? In addition, durin' t#e dataselection 4rocess
4reliminary analyses are usually carried out to
ensure t#e 2uality o, t#e measurement? /or e7am4le, an e74ert system
module is de)elo4ed to retrie)e a s4eci,ic answer, and it re2uires measurements o,
instantaneous t#ree%4#ase )olta'e and current wa)e,orms to (e a)aila(le? T#e data%
selection tas+ is res4onsi(le ,or
ensurin' t#at all re2uired 4#ase )olta'e and current wa)e,orm data
are a)aila(le (e,ore 4roceedin' to t#e ne7t ste4? In some instances, it
mi'#t (e necessary to inter4olate or e7tra4olate data in t#is ste4?
Ot#er 4reliminary e7aminations include c#ec+in' any outlier ma'nitudes, missin' data
se2uences, corru4ted data, etc? E7amination on
data 2uality is im4ortant as t#e accuracy o, t#e +nowled'e disco)ered
is determined (y t#e 2uality o, data?
6>> C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?-= On%line data analysis dis4layed on a standard "e( (rowser? T#e analysis
includes t#e trend o, minimum, ma7imum, and a)era'e )alues o, t#e ,i,t#%#armonic
)olta'e distortion alon' wit# a statistical distri(ution o, t#e a)era'e )alues?
T#e second ste4 attem4ts to re4resent t#e data and 4roAect t#em
onto domains in w#ic# a solution is more ,a)ora(le to disco)er?
Si'nal%4rocessin' tec#ni2ues and 4ower system analysis are a44lied?
An e7am4le o, t#is ste4 is to trans,orm data into anot#er domain
w#ere t#e in,ormation mi'#t (e located? T#e /ourier trans,orm is
4er,ormed to unco)er ,re2uency in,ormation ,or steady%state si'nals,
t#e wa)elet trans,orm is 4er,ormed to ,ind t#e tem4oral and ,re2uency in,ormation ,or
transient si'nals, and ot#er trans,orms may
(e 4er,ormed as well?
Now t#at t#e data are already 4roAected onto ot#er s4aces or domains,
we are ready to e7tract t#e desired in,ormation? Tec#ni2ues to e7tract
t#e in,ormation )ary ,rom so4#isticated ones, suc# as 4attern reco'nition, neural
networ+s, and mac#ine learnin', to sim4le ones, suc# as
,indin' t#e ma7imum )alue in t#e trans,ormed si'nal or countin' t#e
num(er o, 4oints in w#ic# t#e ma'nitude o, a )olta'e wa)e,orm is a(o)e
a 4redetermined t#res#old )alue? One e7am4le is loo+in' ,or #armonic
,re2uencies o, a distorted wa)e,orm? In t#e second ste4 t#e wa)e,orm is
trans,ormed usin' t#e /ourier trans,orm, resultin' in a ,re2uencydomain si'nal? A sim4le
#armonic ,re2uency e7traction 4rocess mi'#t
(e accom4lis#ed (y ,irst com4utin' t#e noise le)el in t#e ,re2uencydomain si'nal, and
su(se2uently settin' a t#res#old num(er to se)eral,old t#at o, t#e noise le)el? Any
ma'nitude #i'#er t#an t#e t#res#old
num(er may indicate t#e 4resence o, #armonic ,re2uencies?
Power Quality .onitorin' 6>1
Trans,ormed
ata Raw
ata
Selected
ata
E7tracted
In,ormation Assimilated
In,ormation
<nowled'e de,inition:
t T#e 'oals o, t#e end user
t Answer to a s4eci,ic 2uestion
<nowled'e
ata selection:
t Remo)e outliers
t Select rele)ant data
ata trans,ormation:
t Rearran'e data ,a)ora(le
,or e7traction
t /re2uency domain,
time%scale domain
ata minin':
t E7tract ,eatures or 4atterns
t E74ert systems
t Neural networ+s
t .ac#ine learnin'
t Pattern reco'nition
t etc?
In,ormation assimilation:
t Incor4orate 4ieces o,
in,ormationO+nowled'e
t Resol)e con,lictin' in,ormation
Inter4retation and
re4ort 4resentation:
t Inter4ret assimilated
in,ormation into +nowled'e
t Re4ort 4resentation
/i'ure 11?3> Process o, turnin' raw data into answers or +nowled'e?
T#e data minin' ste4 usually results in scattered 4ieces o, in,ormation? T#ese 4ieces o,
in,ormation are assimilated to ,orm +nowled'e? In
some instances assimilation o, in,ormation is not readily 4ossi(le since
some 4ieces o, in,ormation con,lict wit# eac# ot#er? I, t#e con,lictin'
in,ormation cannot (e resol)ed, t#e 2uality o, t#e answer 4ro)ided
mi'#t #a)e limited use? T#e last ste4 in t#e c#ain is inter4retation o,
+nowled'e and re4ort 4resentation?
11?6?- E7am4le a44lications o, e74ert
systems
One or more autonomous e74ert system modules can (e im4lemented
wit#in an ad)anced 4ower 2uality monitorin' system? "#en a 4ower
2uality e)ent is ca4tured, all modules will (e in)o+ed? Eac# module
will attem4t to disco)er t#e uni2ue +nowled'e it is desi'ned to loo+ ,or?
Once t#e uni2ue +nowled'e is disco)ered, t#e +nowled'e will (e a)aila(le ,or users to
ins4ect? T#e +nowled'e can (e )iewed on a standard
(rowser, or sent as an e%mail, 4a'er, or ,a7 messa'e? "e 4resent a ,ew
e7am4les o, autonomous e74ert systems?
&olta'e sa' direction module? &olta'e sa's are some o, t#e most im4ortant distur(ances
on utility systems? T#ey are usually caused (y a
remote ,ault somew#ere on t#e 4ower systemJ #owe)er, t#ey can also
(e caused (y a ,ault inside end%user ,acilities? eterminin' t#e location
o, t#e ,ault causin' t#e )olta'e sa' can (e an im4ortant ste4 toward
4re)entin' )olta'e sa's in t#e ,uture and assi'nin' res4onsi(ility ,or
addressin' t#e 4ro(lem? /or instance, understandin' t#e ,ault location
is necessary ,or im4lementin' contracts t#at include )olta'e sa' 4er,ormance
s4eci,ications? T#e su44lier would not (e res4onsi(le ,or sa's
t#at are caused (y ,aults wit#in t#e customer ,acility? T#is is also
im4ortant w#en tryin' to assess 4er,ormance o, t#e distri(ution system in com4arison to
t#e transmission system as t#e cause o, )olta'e
sa' e)ents t#at can im4act customer o4erations? T#e ,ault locations
can #el4 identi,y ,uture 4ro(lems or locations w#ere maintenance or
system c#an'es are re2uired? An e74ert system to identi,y t#e ,ault
location Cat least u4stream or downstream ,rom t#e monitorin' locationD can #el4 in all
t#ese cases?
An autonomous e74ert system module called t#e )olta'e sa' direction module is
desi'ned Aust ,or t#at 4ur4ose, i?e?, to detect and identi,y
a )olta'e sa' e)ent and su(se2uently determine t#e ori'in Cu4stream
or downstream ,rom t#e monitorin' locationD o, t#e )olta'e sa' e)ent?
I, a data ac2uisition node is installed at a customer PCC, t#e source o,
t#e )olta'e sa' will (e eit#er on t#e utility or t#e customer side o, t#e
meter? I, t#e monitorin' 4oint is at a distri(ution su(station trans%6>- C#a4ter Ele)en
,ormer, t#e source o, t#e )olta'e sa' will (e eit#er t#e distri(ution system or t#e
transmission system?
T#e )olta'e sa' direction module wor+s (y com4arin' current and
)olta'e rms ma'nitudes (ot# (e,ore and a,ter t#e sa' e)ent? It trac+s
4#ase an'le c#an'es ,rom 4re,ault to 4ost,ault? *y assem(lin' in,ormation ,rom t#e rms
ma'nitude com4arison and t#e 4#ase an'le
(e#a)ior, t#e ori'in o, t#e )olta'e sa' e)ent can (e accurately determined? In addition,
t#e )olta'e sa' direction module is e2ui44ed wit#
al'orit#ms to assess t#e 2uality o, t#e +nowled'e or answer disco)ered?
I, t#e answer is deemed accurate, it will (e sent as an out4utJ ot#erwise, it will (e
ne'lected and no answer will (e 4ro)ided? In t#is way,
inaccurate or ,alse +nowled'e can (e minimi@ed? Inaccurate +nowled'e
can (e due to a num(er o, ,actors, 4rimarily to missin' data and unresol)ed con,lictin'
c#aracteristics?
Out4uts o, t#e )olta'e sa' direction module can (e dis4layed on a
com4uter screen usin' "e( (rowser so,tware, dis4layed in 4rinted
4a4er ,ormat, sent to a 4a'er, or sent as an e%mail? /i'ure 11?31 s#ows
an out4ut o, a )olta'e sa' direction e74ert system module? T#e ,irst column indicates t#e
e)ent time, t#e second column indicates t#e monitor
identi,ication, t#e t#ird column indicates e)ent ty4es, t#e ,ourt# column indicates t#e
tri''ered c#annel, and ,inally t#e ,i,t# column indicates t#e c#aracteristics o, t#e e)ent
and out4uts o, t#e answer
module?
/i'ure 11?31 A standard "e( (rowser is t#e inter,ace (etween t#e monitorin' system
and users? Out4uts o, t#e )olta'e sa' direction module are s#own in t#e last column o,
t#e ta(le?
/i'ure 11?31 s#ows an e)ent ta(le wit# se)eral )olta'e sa' e)ents
t#at occurred at 11:18:66 A?.? on A4ril -5, ->>-? A tree (ranc# t#at ,ell
across a 13%+& o)er#ead line caused t#e sa' e)ents? A total o, ,i)e automatic reclosure
o4erations were 4er,ormed (e,ore t#e (rea+er ,inally
tri44ed and loc+ed out? T#ere were two data ac2uisition nodes a)aila(le to ca4ture t#is
distur(ance: one at t#e su(station, i?e?, at t#e secondary o, 181O13%+& trans,ormer
C1C!*Su(D, w#ere t#e a,,ected
o)er#ead line was ser)ed, and one at t#e ser)ice entrance o, a
Electrote+ o,,ice com4le7 CH>=^663>D located a(out >?6 mi ,rom t#e
su(station? CSee /i'? 11?3: ,or t#e 'eo'ra4#ical locations o, t#ese data
ac2uisition nodes?D O()iously, t#e 1C!*Su( and H>=^663> data ac2uisition nodes
s#ould re4ort t#at t#e directions or t#e relati)e ori'in o,
)olta'e sa's are downstream and u4stream, res4ecti)ely? Analysis 4ro)ided (y t#e
)olta'e sa' direction module re4orts t#e direction o, t#e
)olta'e sa' correctly? Note t#at t#ere are two )olta'e sa' e)ents w#ere
6>5 C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?3- An e)ent summary re4ort detailin' time o, occurrence and e)ent
c#aracteristics? T#ere are ,i)e )olta'e sa' e)ents associated wit# t#e autoreclosure
o4eration ,ollowin' a ,ault? T#e )olta'e sa' direction module identi,ies t#e ori'in o, t#e
sa' correctly?
t#e module does not 4ro)ide any +nowled'e a(out t#e ori'in o, t#e sa'
e)ent? T#is #a44ens since t#e al'orit#ms were una(le to resol)e con,lictin'
c#aracteristics e7tracted ,rom t#e data? /i'ure 11?3- s#ows t#e
ta(le o, t#e sa' e)ents associated wit# t#is ,ault?
Radial ,ault locator module? Radial distri(ution ,eeders are susce4ti(le
to )arious s#ort%circuit e)ents suc# as symmetrical ,aults Ct#ree%4#aseD
and unsymmetrical ,aults, includin' sin'le%line%to%'round, dou(leline%to%'round, and
line%to%line ,aults? T#ese system ,aults arise ,rom
)arious conditions ran'in' ,rom natural causes suc# as se)ere weat#er
conditions and animal contacts to #uman inter)ention and errors,
includin' e2ui4ment ,ailure? Quic+ly identi,yin' t#e source and location o, ,aults is t#e
+ey to cost%e,,icient system restoration? T#e current
4ractice to locate t#e ,aults is to send a line4erson to 4atrol t#e sus4ected ,eeders? "#ile
t#is is a 4ro)en met#od, it is certainly not a coste,,ecti)e way to restore 4ower?
An e74ert system module called t#e radial ,ault locator is de)elo4ed
to estimate t#e distance to a ,ault location ,rom t#e location w#ere t#e
measurements were made? T#e uni2ue ,eature o, t#is module is t#at it
only re2uires a set o, t#ree%4#ase )olta'es and currents ,rom a sin'le
measurement location wit# t#e se2uence im4edance data o, t#e 4rimary distri(ution
,eeder? T#e module wor+s (y ,irst identi,yin' a 4ermanent ,ault e)ent (ased on t#e
'round ,ault and 4#ase ,ault 4ic+u4
current t#res#old? !sers can enter t#ese )alues in t#e answer module
setu4 window s#own in /i'? 11?33? Once a 4ermanent ,ault e)ent is
identi,ied, t#e distance to ,ault estimation is carried out (ased on t#e
a44arent im4edance a44roac#?
13
Estimates o, t#e distance to t#e ,ault
are t#en dis4layed in a com4uter screen wit# t#e "e( (rowser illustrated in /i'? 11?35 or
sent to a line4erson )ia a 4a'er? T#e line4erson
can 2uic+ly 4in4oint t#e ,ault location? T#is e7am4le illustrates t#e
emer'in' trend in smart 4ower 2uality monitorin', i?e?, collect 4ower
2uality data and e7tract and ,ormulate in,ormation ,or users to 4er,orm necessary actions?
Ca4acitor%switc#in' direction module? Ca4acitor%switc#in' o4erations
are t#e most common cause o, transient e)ents on t#e 4ower system?
"#en a ca4acitor (an+ is ener'i@ed, it interacts wit# t#e system inductance, yieldin'
oscillatory transients? T#e transient o)er)olta'e in an
uncontrolled switc#in' is (etween 1?> to -?> 4u wit# ty4ical o)er)olta'es o, 1?3 to 1?5 4u
and ,re2uencies o, -6> to 1>>> H@? Transients due
to ener'i@in' utility ca4acitor (an+s can 4ro4a'ate into customer ,acilities? Common
4ro(lems associated wit# t#e switc#in' transients
include tri44in' o,, sensiti)e e2ui4ment suc# adAusta(le%s4eed dri)es
and ot#er electronically controlled loads? Some lar'er end%user ,acilities
may also #a)e ca4acitor (an+s to 4ro)ide reacti)e 4ower and )olta'e
su44ort as well?
"#en a sensiti)e load tri4s o,, due to ca4acitor%switc#in' transients,
it is im4ortant to +now w#ere t#e ca4acitor (an+ is, w#et#er it is on t#e
utility side or in t#e customer ,acility? A ca4acitor%switc#in' direction
e74ert system module is desi'ned to detect and identi,y a ca4acitorswitc#in' e)ent and
determine t#e relati)e location o, t#e ca4acitor
(an+ ,rom t#e 4oint w#ere measurements were collected? It only
re2uires a set o, t#ree%4#ase )olta'es and currents to 4er,orm t#e tas+s
mentioned? T#is module is use,ul to determine t#e res4onsi(le 4arties,
i?e?, t#e utility or customer, and #el4 en'ineers 4in4oint t#e 4ro(lematic ca4acitor (an+?
T#e ca4acitor%switc#in' transient direction module wor+s as ,ollows?
"#en an e)ent is ca4tured, t#e module will e7tract t#e in,ormation
and re4resent it in domains w#ere detection and identi,ication are
more ,a)ora(le? T#e domains w#ere t#e in,ormation is re4resented are
in t#e time%, ,re2uency%, and time%scale Cwa)eletD domains? I, t#e root
cause o, t#e e)ent is due to a ca4acitor (an+ ener'i@ation, t#e answer
6>8 C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?33 Setu4 window ,or t#e radial ,ault location answer module?
/i'ure 11?35 T#e distance estimates 4resented in ta(ular ,orm?
module will 4roceed to determine t#e most 4ro(a(le location o, t#e
ca4acitor (an+?
T#ere are only two 4ossi(le locations wit# res4ect to t#e monitorin'
location, i?e?, u4stream or downstream? T#e e74ert system module
wor+s well wit# 'rounded, un'rounded, delta%con,i'ured, and wye% Cor
star%D con,i'ured ca4acitor (an+s? It also wor+s well ,or (ac+%to%(ac+
ca4acitor (an+s? T#e ca4acitor%switc#in' transient direction module is
e2ui44ed wit# al'orit#ms to determine t#e 2uality o, t#e in,ormation
it disco)ers? T#us, t#e module may 4ro)ide an undetermined answer?
T#is answer is certainly (etter t#an an incorrect one?
An e7am4le a44lication o, t#e answer module to analy@e data ca4ture
,rom a data ac2uisition node installed at an o,,ice com4le7 ser)ice
entrance is s#own in /i'? 11?36? T#e analysis results are s#own in /i'?
11?38, w#ic# is a screen ca4ture ,rom a standard "e( (rowser? Since t#e
o,,ice com4le7 #as no ca4acitor (an+s, any ca4acitor%switc#in' transients must ori'inate
,rom t#e utility side located u4stream ,rom t#e
data ac2uisition node? T#e module correctly determines t#e relati)e
location o, t#e ca4acitor (an+? Note t#at t#ere are some instances w#ere
t#e e74ert system was not a(le to determine t#e relati)e location o, t#e
ca4acitor (an+? /rom t#e time stam4 o, t#e e)ents, it is clear t#at ca4acitor (an+
ener'i@ations occur at a(out 6:>> A?.? and 9:>> P?.? eac# day?
Ca4acitor%switc#in' o4eration ins4ection module? As descri(ed, ca4acitor%switc#in'
transients are t#e most common cause o, transient
e)ents on t#e 4ower system and are results o, ca4acitor (an+ ener'i@ation o4eration? One
common t#in' t#at can 'o wron' wit# a ca4acitor (an+ is ,or a ,use to (low? Some
ca4acitor (an+s may not (e
o4eratin' 4ro4erly ,or mont#s (e,ore utility 4ersonnel notice t#e 4ro(lem? Routine
maintenance is usually 4er,ormed (y dri)in' alon' t#e
line and )isually ins4ectin' t#e ca4acitor (an+?
An autonomous e74ert system was de)elo4ed ,or su(station a44lications to analy@e
downstream transient data and determine i, a ca4acitor%switc#in' o4eration is 4er,ormed
success,ully and dis4lay a
warnin' messa'e i, t#e o4eration was not success,ul?15
"it# t#e lar'e
num(er o, ca4acitor (an+s on most 4ower systems, t#is e74ert system
module can (e a si'ni,icant (ene,it to 4ower systems en'ineers in identi,yin' 4ro(lems
and correlatin' t#em wit# ca4acitor%switc#in' e)ents?
Success,ul ca4acitor (an+ ener'i@ation is c#aracteri@ed (y a uni,orm
increase o, +)ar on eac# 4#ase w#ose total corres4onds to t#e ca4acitor +)ar si@e? /or
e7am4le, w#en a 1->>%+)ar ca4acitor (an+ is ener'i@ed, reacti)e 4ower o, a44ro7imately
5>> +)ar s#ould a44ear on eac#
4#ase? T#e total +)ar increase can (e determined (y com4utin' +)ar
c#an'es in indi)idual 4#ases ,rom t#e current and )olta'e wa)e,orms
(e,ore and a,ter t#e switc#in' o4eration? T#is total com4uted +)ar
6>: C#a4ter Ele)en
.onitorin'
system
O,,ice
com4le7 load
/i'ure 11?36 All ca4acitors are u4stream ,rom t#e monitorin' location? T#ere,ore, t#e
answer module s#ould re4ort u4stream ca4acitor switc#in' w#en suc# an e)ent is
ca4tured?
/i'ure 11?38 T#e out4ut o, t#e ca4acitor%switc#in' answer module ,or t#e one%line
dia'ram
4resented in /i'? 11?36?
c#an'e is t#en com4ared to t#e actual or 4#ysical ca4acitor (an+ +)ar
su44lied (y a user? I, t#e e74ected +)ar was not reali@ed, t#e ca4acitor
(an+ or its switc#in' de)ice may (e #a)in' some 4ro(lems?
/i'ure 11?39 s#ows t#e a44lication o, t#e ca4acitor%switc#in' o4eration ins4ector e74ert
system in a commercial monitorin' system? T#e
monitorin' location is at t#e su(stationJ t#us, all ca4acitor (an+s alon'
t#e ,eeders are downstream ,rom t#e monitorin' location? T#e ,irst
ca4acitor%switc#in' e)ent indicates t#at two 4#ases o, t#e ca4acitor
are out o, ser)ice? Eit#er t#e ,uses #a)e (lown or t#e switc# is mal,unctionin'? T#e
second e)ent s#ows a success,ul ca4acitor%switc#in'
o4eration?
1i'#tnin' correlation module? T#e maAority o, )olta'e sa's and outa'es
in t#e !nited States are attri(uted to weat#er%related conditions suc#
as t#understorms? /or e7am4le, T&A #as a44ro7imately 19,>>> mi o,
transmission lines w#ere li'#tnin' accounts ,or as muc# as 56 4ercent
o, t#e ,aults on t#eir system? T#e li'#tnin' correlation e74ert system
module is desi'ned to correlate li'#tnin' stri+es wit# measured 4ower
2uality e)ents and ma+e t#at in,ormation a)aila(le in real time
directly at t#e 4oint o, measurement? Armed wit# t#e correlation
results, en'ineers can e)aluate t#e cause and im4act o, )olta'e sa's ,or
a s4eci,ic customer at a s4eci,ic monitorin' 4oint as well as e)aluate
t#e im4act on all customers ,or a 'i)en e)ent?
"#en t#e li'#tnin' correlation module detects a )olta'e sa' or transient e)ent, it 2ueries
a li'#tnin' data(ase )ia t#e Internet? T#e li'#tnin' data are 4ro)ided (y t#e !?S? National
1i'#tnin' etection
Networ+ o4erated (y 0lo(al Atmos4#erics, Inc? I, t#e 2uery returns a
result set, t#e li'#tnin' correlation module will store t#is in,ormation
in t#e monitorin' system data(ase alon' wit# t#e distur(ance data ,or
in,ormation dissemination? T#e li'#tnin' data include t#e e)ent time
o, t#e stri+e, t#e latitude and lon'itude o, stri+e location, t#e current
ma'nitude, and num(er o, stro+es?
Power Quality .onitorin' 6>=
/i'ure 11?39 Analysis results o, t#e ca4acitor%switc#in' ins4ector e74ert system?
T#e ,ollowin' e7am4le illustrates #ow t#e module 4er,orms its ,unction? On Easter
Sunday, .arc# 31, ->>-, in <no7)ille, Tennessee, t#e
location o, t#e Electrote+ Conce4ts 4rimary en'ineerin' o,,ice, t#understorms mo)ed
t#rou'# t#e area around 11:>> A?.? /i'ure 11?3:
s#ows t#e ,our li'#tnin' stri+es in t#e Cedar *lu,, area o, <no7)ille?
T#e o,,ice com4le7, mar+ed as GElectrote+,H #as a data ac2uisition node
at t#e ser)ice entrance? Anot#er data ac2uisition node mar+ed as
GCedar *lu,, Su(stationH is connected at t#e 181O13%+& trans,ormer on
t#e 13%+& side at t#e su(station t#at ,eeds t#e Electrote+ o,,ice a(out
1
u-mi away?
urin' t#e time o, t#e storm, t#e 4ower monitorin' system ca4tured
a num(er o, e)ents? T#e stri+es s#own in /i'? 11?3: were all wit#in se)eral +ilometers o,
t#e su(station and are located directly on +nown distri(ution system ri'#t o, way?
S4eci,ically, t#ere were two e)ents t#at
correlated wit#in 1>> ms o, li'#tnin' stri+es durin' t#e storm as
s#own in t#e out4ut o, t#e li'#tnin' correlation module in /i'? 11?3=?
1i'#tnin' stri+e data are summari@ed in Ta(le 11?5?
61> C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?3: 1i'#tnin' stri+es near a su(station ser)in' t#e Electrote+ o,,ice on Easter
Sunday mornin' in ->>-?
T#e out4ut o, t#e li'#tnin' correlation module clearly s#ows t#e correlation (etween
4ower 2uality e)ents and li'#tnin' stri+es? Note t#at
t#e 4ower monitorin' system is e2ui44ed wit# 0PS%(ased time sync#roni@ationJ t#us, it
is ca4a(le o, ma+in' 4recise multisource e)ent
correlation? Two li'#tnin' stri+es, at 11:13:16 A?.? and 11:15:35 A?.?,
s#own in Ta(le 11?5 are ca4tured in (ot# data ac2uisition nodes
installed at t#e Electrote+ o,,ice and t#e su(station?
11?6?3 /uture a44lications
T#ere are many a44lications ,or t#e intelli'ent 4ower 2uality monitorin' conce4t? Some
o, t#e more im4ortant a44lications are listed in t#is
section? T#e e7am4les descri(ed in Sec? 11?6?- are also included in t#is
listin'?
/i'ure 11?3= Out4uts o, t#e li'#tnin' correlation e74ert system module?
TA*1E11?5 1i'#tnin' Stro+e ata
.a' istance
Time stam4 1atitude 1on'itude C+AD C+mD Stro+es Ty4e
3O31O->>- 11:16:-1?9>> 36?=8-
:5?>5:
6: 8 1> C0Z
3O31O->>- 11:15:5-?9>> 31?336
::?=-1 13- 89: 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:15:35?6>> 36?=51
:5?>93
8- 3 - C0
3O31O->>- 11:15:31?:>> 31?8=8
::?98> 5- 83: 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:15:11?1>> 31?65=
::?956
3- 85= - C0
3O31O->>- 11:15:>=?:>> 31?::6
::?5>8
1> 8>> 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:15:>:?=>> 31?9>6
::?359
1> 81- 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:38?3>> 31?93=
::?699
15 8-3 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:38?3>> 31?::9
::?:5= 15 8-9 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:38?->> 3-?16>
::?663 5- 6:9 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:38?>>> 31?9-6
::?9-> -- 833 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:18?>>> 36?=83
:5?>=9
:6 -C0 3O31O->>- 11:13:16?=>> 36?=51
:5?>:8
1- - 1 C0
3O31O->>- 11:13:>3?:>> 31?98=
::?98:
1: 83- 3 C0
ZC0cloud to 'round?
Industrial 4ower 2uality monitorin' a44lications
T Ener'y and demand 4ro,ilin' wit# identi,ication o, o44ortunities ,or
ener'y sa)in's and demand reduction
T Harmonics e)aluations to identi,y trans,ormer loadin' concerns,
sources o, #armonics, 4ro(lems indicatin' miso4eration o, e2ui4ment Csuc# as
con)ertersD, and resonance concerns associated wit#
4ower ,actor correction
T &olta'e sa' im4acts e)aluation to identi,y sensiti)e e2ui4ment and
4ossi(le o44ortunities ,or 4rocess ride%t#rou'# im4ro)ement
T Power ,actor correction e)aluation to identi,y 4ro4er o4eration o,
ca4acitor (an+s, switc#in' concerns, resonance concerns, and o4timi@in' 4er,ormance to
minimi@e electric (ills
T .otor startin' e)aluation to identi,y switc#in' 4ro(lems, inrus#
current concerns, and 4rotection de)ice o4eration
T S#ort%circuit 4rotection e)aluation to e)aluate 4ro4er o4eration o,
4rotecti)e de)ices (ased on s#ort%circuit current c#aracteristics,
time%current cur)es, etc?
Power system 4er,ormance assessment and (enc#mar+in'
T Trendin' and analysis o, steady%state 4ower 2uality 4arameters C)olta'e re'ulation,
un(alance, ,lic+er, #armonicsD ,or 4er,ormance trends,
correlation wit# system conditions Cca4acitor (an+s, 'eneration, loadin', etc?D, and
identi,ication o, conditions t#at need attention
T &olta'e sa' c#aracteri@in' and assessment to identi,y t#e cause o,
t#e )olta'e sa's Ctransmission or distri(utionD and to c#aracteri@e
t#e e)ents ,or classi,ication and analysis Cincludin' a''re'ation o,
multi4le e)ents and identi,ication o, su(e)ents ,or analysis wit#
res4ect to 4rotecti)e de)ice o4erationsD
T Ca4acitor%switc#in' c#aracteri@ation to identi,y t#e source o, t#e
transient Cu4line or downlineD, locate t#e ca4acitor (an+, and c#aracteri@e t#e e)ents ,or
data(ase mana'ement and analysis
T Per,ormance inde7 calculations and re4ortin' ,or system (enc#mar+in' 4ur4oses and
,or 4rioriti@in' o, system maintenance and
im4ro)ement in)estments
A44lications ,or system maintenance, o4erations, and relia(ility
T 1ocatin' ,aults? T#is is one o, t#e most im4ortant (ene,its o, t#e
monitorin' systems? It can im4ro)e res4onse time ,or re4airin' cir%61- C#a4ter Ele)en
cuits dramatically and also identi,y 4ro(lem conditions related to
multi4le ,aults o)er time in t#e same location?
T Ca4acitor (an+ 4er,ormance assessment? Smart a44lications can
identi,y ,use (lowin', can ,ailures, switc# 4ro(lems Crestri+es, rei'nitionsD, and
resonance concerns?
T &olta'e re'ulator 4er,ormance assessment to identi,y unusual o4erations, arcin'
4ro(lems, re'ulation 4ro(lems, etc?
T istri(uted 'enerator 4er,ormance assessment? Smart systems s#ould
identi,y interconnection issues, suc# as 4rotecti)e de)ice coordination
4ro(lems, #armonic inAection concerns, islandin' 4ro(lems, etc?
T Inci4ient ,ault identi,ier? Researc# #as s#own t#at ca(le ,aults and
arrester ,aults are o,ten 4receded (y current disc#ar'es t#at occur
wee+s (e,ore t#e actual ,ailure? T#is is an ideal e74ert system a44lication ,or t#e
monitorin' system?
T Trans,ormer loadin' assessment can e)aluate trans,ormer loss o, li,e
issues related to loadin' and can also include #armonic loadin'
im4acts in t#e calculations?
T /eeder (rea+er 4er,ormance assessment can identi,y coordination
4ro(lems, 4ro4er o4eration ,or s#ort%circuit conditions, nuisance
tri44in', etc?
11?6?5 Power 2uality monitorin' and
t#e Internet
.any utilities #a)e ado4ted 4ower 2uality monitorin' systems to continuously assess
system 4er,ormance and 4ro)ide ,aster res4onse to
system 4ro(lems? It is clear t#at intranet and Internet access to t#e
in,ormation #as (een +ey to t#e success o, t#ese systems? An e7am4le
o, a com4letely "e( (ased 4ower 2uality monitorin' system is t#e
result o, researc# initiated (y T&A and EPRI C/i'? 11?5>D?
S4eci,ications ,or t#e system were de)elo4ed wit# t#e #el4 o, all t#e
mem(ers o, t#e EPRI Power Quality Tar'et 'rou4 to su44ort t#e )ariety o, a44lications
w#ic# must (e su44orted (y suc# a system? T#e
result was a modular system wit# a com4letely o4en arc#itecture so
t#at it can (e inter,aced wit# a wide )ariety o, 4lat,orms?
A,ter #el4in' wit# t#e de)elo4ment o, t#e system, T&A is de4loyin'
t#e "e(%(ased monitorin' systems at im4ortant customers and su(stations t#rou'#out
t#eir system? T&A distri(utors are also ta+in'
ad)anta'e o, t#e system? It already #ad an e7tensi)e 4ower 2uality
monitorin' system in 4lace, and t#e new system is inte'rated wit# t#e
e7istin' monitorin' system in,rastructure at t#e central data mana'ement le)el Center4rise
le)elD, as illustrated in /i'? 11?51? T#is 4ro)ides
t#e ca4a(ility to 4ro)ide systemwide analysis o, t#e 4ower 2uality
in,ormation?
T#e ,uture o, t#ese systems in)ol)es inte'ration wit# ot#er data%collection de)ices in t#e
su(station and t#e ,acility? Standard inter,aces li+e t#e
Power Quality ata Interc#an'e /ormat CPQI/D and CO.TRAE are
used to s#are t#e in,ormation, and standard 4rotocols li+e !CA are used ,or
t#e communications? T#e intelli'ent a44lications descri(ed will (e a44lied
at (ot# t#e su(station le)el and at t#e enter4rise le)el, as a44ro4riate?
11?6?6 Summary and ,uture direction
Power 2uality monitorin' is ,ast (ecomin' an inte'ral com4onent o,
'eneral distri(ution system monitorin', as well as an im4ortant customer ser)ice? Power
4roducers are inte'ratin' 4ower 2uality monitorin' wit# monitorin' ,or ener'y
mana'ement, e)aluation o, 4rotecti)e
de)ice o4eration, and distri(ution automation ,unctions? T#e 4ower
2uality in,ormation s#ould (e a)aila(le t#rou'#out t#e com4any )ia
t#e intranet and s#ould (e made a)aila(le to customers ,or e)aluation
o, ,acility 4ower conditionin' re2uirements?
615 C#a4ter Ele)en
/i'ure 11?5> E7am4le o, "e(%(ased inter,ace to t#e 4ower 2uality monitorin' system ,or
easy e)aluation o, system 4er,ormance and indi)idual distur(ances?
T#e 4ower 2uality in,ormation s#ould (e analy@ed and summari@ed
in a ,orm t#at can (e used to 4rioriti@e system e74enditures and to
#el4 customers understand t#e system 4er,ormance? T#ere,ore,
4ower 2uality indices s#ould (e (ased on customer e2ui4ment sensiti)ity? T#e SAR/I
inde7 ,or )olta'e sa's is an e7cellent e7am4le o,
t#is conce4t?
Power 2uality encom4asses a wide ran'e o, conditions and distur(ances? T#ere,ore, t#e
re2uirements ,or t#e monitorin' system can (e
2uite su(stantial, as descri(ed in t#is c#a4ter? Ta(le 11?6 summari@es
t#e (asic re2uirements as a ,unction o, t#e di,,erent ty4es o, 4ower
2uality )ariations?
T#e in,ormation ,rom 4ower 2uality monitorin' systems can #el4
im4ro)e t#e e,,iciency o, o4eratin' t#e system and t#e relia(ility o, customer o4erations?
T#ese are (ene,its t#at cannot (e i'nored? T#e ca4a(ilities and a44lications ,or 4ower
2uality monitors are continually
e)ol)in'? On'oin' de)elo4ment and new a44lications are descri(ed on
)arious Internet sites? One suc# use,ul site is www?4owermonitorin'?com?
SCAA
Ser)er
Ser)er Ser)er
.odem
PQ&iew
ata(ase
"or+stations
.aster
0ateway
"ANOIntranetOialu4
CTCPOIPD
ialu4
CPro4rietaryD
Su(station
In,oNode
ataNode
ataNode
Hu(
.odem or
irect
Networ+
Connection
/i'ure 11?51 Enter4rise%le)el inte'ration o, 4ower 2uality in,ormation ,rom a "e(%(ased
4ower 2uality monitorin' system wit# t#e o)erall monitorin' system data(ase at T&A?
618
TA*1E 11?6 Summary o, .onitorin' Re2uirements ,or i,,erent Ty4es o, Power Quality
&ariations
Ty4e o, 4ower Re2uirements ,or Analysis and dis4lay
2uality )ariation monitorin' re2uirements
&olta'e re'ulation T#ree%4#ase )olta'es Trendin'
and un(alance
R.S ma'nitudes Statistical e)aluation
o, )olta'e le)els and
Continuous monitorin' un(alance le)els
wit# 4eriodic ma7imum,
minimum, and a)era'e
sam4les
Currents ,or res4onse
o, e2ui4ment
Harmonic T#ree%4#ase )olta'es Indi)idual wa)e,orms and //Ts
distortion and currents
#armonicsD Trends o, #armonic le)els
"a)e,orm c#aracteristics CTH and indi)idual
1-: sam4les 4er cycle minimum Statistical c#aracteristics o,
#armonic le)els
Sync#roni@ed sam4lin' o, all E)aluation o, neutral conductor
)olta'es and currents loadin' issues
Con,i'ura(le sam4lin' E)aluation wit# res4ect to standards
c#aracteristics Ce?'?, IEEE 61=, EN 6>18>D
E)aluation o, trends to
indicate e2ui4ment 4ro(lems
619
&olta'e sa's, swells, T#ree%4#ase )olta'es and "a)e,orm 4lots and rms )s? time
and s#ort%duration currents ,or eac# e)ent 4lots wit# 4re% and 4oste)ent
interru4tions t#at is ca4tured in,ormation included
Con,i'ura(le t#res#olds ,or E)aluation o, cause o, eac# e)ent
tri''erin' e)ents C,ault u4line or downline ,rom
t#e monitorin'D
C#aracteristics o, e)ents wit#
actual )olta'e and current &olta'es and currents to e)aluate
wa)e,orms, as well as rms )s? load interaction issues
time 4lots
.a'nitude duration 4lots su4erim4osed
R.S resolution o, 1 cycle or wit# e2ui4ment ride%t#rou'# c#aracteristics
(etter durin' t#e rms )s? Ce?'?, ITI cur)e or SE.I cur)eD
time e)ents and ,or tri''erin'
Statistical summary o, 4er,ormance
Ce?'?, (ar c#artsD ,or (enc#mar+in'
E)aluation o, 4ower conditionin'
e2ui4ment 4er,ormance durin' e)ents
Transients T#ree%4#ase )olta'es and "a)e,orm 4lots
currents wit# com4lete
wa)e,orms E)aluation o, e)ent causes
Ce?'?, ca4acitor switc#in' u4line
.inimum o, 1-: sam4les or downline ,rom monitorD
4er cycle ,or e)ents ,rom t#e
4ower su44ly system Correlation o, e)ents
Ce?'?, ca4acitor switc#in'D wit# switc#in' o4erations
Con,i'ura(le t#res#olds Statistical summaries o,
,or tri''erin' transient 4er,ormance ,or
(enc#mar+in'
Tri''erin' (ased on
wa)e,orm )ariations, not
Aust 4ea+ )olta'e
11?8 Power Quality .onitorin' Standards
Standards are )ery im4ortant in t#e area o, 4ower 2uality monitorin'?
Power 2uality le)els must (e de,ined consistently and c#aracteri@ed
usin' t#e same met#ods i, t#ey are 'oin' to (e com4ared ,rom one site
to anot#er and ,rom one system to anot#er? IEEE 116= is t#e IEEE
"or+in' 0rou4 t#at coordinates t#e de)elo4ment o, 4ower 2uality
monitorin' standards? T#e e7istin' IEEE 116= 4ro)ides 'eneral 'uidelines and
de,initions ,or monitorin' 4ower 2uality, and t#ere are t#ree
se4arate tas+ ,orces t#at are wor+in' on more s4eci,ic 'uidelines and
re2uirements? .uc# o, t#is wor+ is (ein' coordinated wit# IEC acti)ities so t#at t#e
monitorin' re2uirements can (e more consistent internationally? T#is section descri(es
t#e most im4ortant IEEE and IEC
standards? T#ese standards are a mo)in' tar'et as t#ere are many
'rou4s wor+in' on new de)elo4ments?
11?8?1 IEEE 116=: 0uide ,or 4ower 2uality
monitorin'
IEEE Standard 116=
16
was de)elo4ed to 4ro)ide 'eneral 'uidelines ,or
4ower 2uality measurements and to 4ro)ide standard de,initions ,or
t#e di,,erent cate'ories o, 4ower 2uality 4ro(lems? T#ese de,initions
were 4ro)ided 4re)iously in C#a4? - and 4ro)ide t#e (asis ,or a common lan'ua'e in
descri(in' 4ower 2uality 4#enomena? Power 2uality
monitorin' e2ui4ment can use t#is lan'ua'e to correctly di,,erentiate
(etween di,,erent 4ower 2uality )ariations and distur(ances?
A,ter 4u(lication o, t#e (asic monitorin' 'uidelines, wor+in' 'rou4s
were esta(lis#ed ,or de)elo4ment o, more ad)anced 'uides ,or 4ower 2uality monitorin'?
T#ree wor+in' 'rou4s were esta(lis#ed? Pro'ress can (e
trac+ed at t#e IEEE 116= we(site: #tt4:OO'rou4er?ieee?or'O'rou4sO116=O?
T#e IEEE 116=?1 "or+in' 0rou4 is de)elo4in' 'uidelines ,or instrumentation
re2uirements associated wit# di,,erent ty4es o, 4ower 2uality 4#enomena? T#ese
re2uirements address issues li+e sam4lin' rate
re2uirements, sync#roni@ation, AO sam4lin' accuracy, and num(er o,
cycles to sam4le?
T#e IEEE 116=?- "or+in' 0rou4 is de)elo4in' 'uidelines ,or c#aracteri@in' di,,erent
4ower 2uality 4#enomena? T#is includes de,inition
o, im4ortant c#aracteristics t#at may relate to t#e im4acts o, t#e 4ower
2uality )ariations Csuc# as minimum ma'nitude, duration, 4#ase s#i,t,
and num(er o, 4#ases ,or )olta'e sa'sD? E7am4le wa)e,orms #a)e (een
collected illustratin' t#e im4ortance o, di,,erent c#aracteristics o, t#e
4ower 2uality )ariations?
Recently, t#e wor+ o, t#e IEEE 116=?1 and 116=?- "or+in' 0rou4s
#as (een com(ined into a sin'le tas+ ,orce and is (ein' coordinated
wit# t#e de)elo4ment on an international standard ,or c#aracteri@in'
61: C#a4ter Ele)en
4ower 2uality )ariations wit# monitorin' e2ui4mentPIEC 81>>>%5%3>
18
Csee Sec? 11?8?-D?
T#e IEEE 116=?3 "or+in' 0rou4 is de,inin' an interc#an'e ,ormat
t#at can (e used to e7c#an'e 4ower 2uality monitorin' in,ormation
(etween di,,erent a44lications? IEEE de)elo4ed t#e CO.TRAE ,ormat ,or e7c#an'in'
wa)e,orm data (etween ,ault recorders and ot#er
a44lications, suc# as relay testin' e2ui4ment? A more com4lete data
interc#an'e ,ormat is needed ,or 4ower 2uality data, w#ic# can include
#armonic s4ectra, rms en)elo4es, c#aracteri@ed 4ower 2uality data,
and statistical 4ower 2uality data, as well as steady%state and distur(ance wa)e,orms? T#e
new Power Quality ata Interc#an'e /ormat
CPQI/D #as (een de,ined, and t#e standard is (ein' (alloted at t#e
time o, t#is writin'?
19T#e common data interc#an'e ,ormat will allow
so,tware de)elo4ers to de)elo4 a44lications ,or analy@in' 4ower 2uality e)ents and
4ro(lems inde4endently ,rom t#e manu,acturers o, t#e
actual 4ower 2uality monitorin' e2ui4ment?
11?8?- IEC 81>>>%5%3>: Testin' and
.easurement Tec#ni2uesPPower Quality
.easurement .et#ods
IEC standards ,or monitorin' 4ower 2uality 4#enomena are 4ro)ided
in a series o, documents wit# t#e num(ers 81>>>%5%77? T#e indi)idual
standards in t#is series co)er s4eci,ic re2uirements ,or eac# ty4e o,
4ower 2uality )ariation or concern? /or instance, IEC 81>>>%5%9 4ro)ides t#e
s4eci,ications ,or monitorin' #armonic distortion le)els? IEC
81>>>%5%16 4ro)ides t#e s4eci,ications ,or monitorin' ,lic+er, as 4re)iously descri(ed?
T#e o)erall re2uirements ,or c#aracteri@in' 4ower
2uality 4#enomena are summari@ed in a new standard t#at is Aust
(ein' com4leted wit#in IEC C81>>>%5%3>D? T#is new standard re,ers to
t#e a44ro4riate indi)idual standards Cli+e 81>>>%5%9 and 81>>>%5%16D
,or detailed s4eci,ications w#ere a44ro4riate?
T#is standard 4ro)ides detailed re2uirements ,or t#e measurement
4rocedures and t#e accuracy re2uirements o, t#e measurements? Not
all monitorin' e2ui4ment will (e a(le to meet t#e e7act re2uirements
o, t#is standard? As a result, two classes o, measurement e2ui4ment
#a)e (een de,ined w#ic# can (ot# (e considered com4liant wit# t#e
4rocedures o, IEC 81>>>%5%3>:
T Class A 4er,ormance is ,or measurements w#ere )ery 4recise accuracy is re2uired? Two
instruments t#at com4ly wit# t#e re2uirements
o, class A s#ould 'i)e t#e same results Cwit#in t#e s4eci,ied le)els o,
accuracyD ,or any o, t#e ty4es o, 4ower 2uality )ariations considered?
T#ese instruments could (e a44ro4riate ,or la(oratories or ,or s4ecial
a44lications w#ere #i'#ly 4recise results are re2uired?
T Class * 4er,ormance still indicates t#at t#e recommended 4rocedures ,or c#aracteri@in'
4ower 2uality )ariations are used (ut t#at
t#e e7act accuracy re2uirements may not (e met? T#ese instruments
are a44ro4riate ,or most system 4ower 2uality monitorin' Csur)eys,
trou(les#ootin', c#aracteri@in' 4er,ormance, etc?D?
T#e conce4t o, a''re'ation is also introduced in t#is standard?
A''re'ation is used so t#at multi4le measurements t#at are associated
wit# essentially t#e same e)ent are not counted multi4le times? /or
e7am4le, multi4le )olta'e sa's caused (y reclosin' o4erations s#ould
only (e counted as a sin'le e)ent ,or e)aluatin' t#e im4act on customers and t#e num(er
o, 4ro(lem e)ents on t#e system? T#ree di,,erent a''re'ation inter)als are de,ined in IEC
81>>>%5%3>: 3 s, 1> min,
and - #?
As mentioned, t#e wor+ in IEC 81>>>%5%3> is also (ecomin' t#e (asis
,or u4dates and en#ancements to t#e IEEE 4ower 2uality monitorin'
standards CIEEE 116= seriesD? T#is is 4art o, t#e 'eneral trend toward
internationali@in' 4ower 2uality standards?
T#ese a''re'ation 4eriods are also )ery im4ortant inter)als ,or c#aracteri@in' steady%
state 4ower 2uality )ariations li+e )olta'e ma'nitude, un(alance, #armonics, and ,lic+er?
All t#ese 2uantities are
descri(ed statistically usin' 1>%min )alues as t#e most im4ortant
2uantity?
Note t#at t#e (asic measurement 4eriod ,or t#e steady%state 4ower
2uality 4arameters is ->> ms? T#is 4ermits c#aracteri@ation o, inter#armonics in 6%H@
(ins, and it 4ro)ides some smoot#in' o, )ery ,ast
c#an'es t#at s#ould not (e considered 4art o, steady%state 4ower 2uality 4er,ormance? O,
course, )olta'e sa's and transients are c#aracteri@ed wit# actual wa)e,orms and rms
)ersus time 4lots?
11?9 Re,erences
1? EPRI%RP3>=:%>1, An Assessment o, istri(ution System Power Quality?
-? A? .cEac#ern, GRoles o, Intelli'ent Systems in Power Quality .onitorin': Past,
Present, and /uture,H Con,erence Record,Power En'ineerin' Society Summer
.eetin', ->>1, &ol? -, 44? 11>3V11>6?
3? R? P? *in'#am, GRecent Ad)ancements in .onitorin' t#e Quality o, t#e Su44ly,H
Power En'ineerin' Society Summer .eetin', ->>1, &ol? -, 44? 11>8V11>=?
5? ranet@ En'ineerin' 1a(oratories, GSeries 8>8 Power%1ine istur(ance Analy@er,H
ecem(er 1=96?
6? E? "? 0unt#er, Y? Rossman, GA44lication o, Ad)anced C#aracteri@ation Al'orit#ms,
!CA and Internet Communications Tec#nolo'y at t#e Point o, Power Quantity and
Quality .easurement,H Con,erence Proceedin's o, EPRI PQA 1===?
8? IEEE Standard 151%1==3: Recommended Practice ,or Power istri(ution in
Industrial Plants?
9? IEEE Standard 61=%1==-: Recommended Practices and Re2uirements ,or Harmonic
Control in Electrical Power Systems?
6-> C#a4ter Ele)en
:? IEC 81>>>%5%16, Electroma'netic Com4ati(ility CE.CD? Part 5: Testin' and
.easurin' Tec#ni2ues? Section 16: /lic+ermeterP/unctional and esi'n
S4eci,ications?
=? ? A? ou'lass, Potential Trans,ormer Accuracy at 8>%H@ &olta'es a(o)e and (elow
Ratin' and at /re2uencies a(o)e 8> H@?Presented at t#e IEEE Power En'ineerin'
Society Summer .eetin', .innea4olis, .inn?, Yuly 13V1:, 1=:>?
1>? ? A? ou'lass, GCurrent Trans,ormer Accuracy wit# Asymmetric and Hi'#
/re2uency /ault Currents,H IEEE Transactions on Power A44aratus on Systems,&ol?
PAS%1>>, No? 3, .arc# 1=:1?
11? S? Santoso, Y? ? 1amoree, GAnswer .odule: A Custom%*uilt .odule to .eet
S4eci,ic
Power .onitorin' Tas+s,H Con,erence Proceedin's o, EPRI PQA ->>1, Pitts(ur'#,
Pa?
1-? !? /ayyad, 0? Piatets+y%S#a4iro, P? Smyt#, G/rom ata .inin' to <nowled'e
isco)ery: An O)er)iew,H in !? /ayyad, 0? Piatets+y%S#a4iro, P? Smyt#, R?
!t#urusamy, eds?, Ad)ances in <nowled'e isco)ery and ata .inin',.IT Press,
1==8, 44? 591V5=5?
13? S? Santoso, R? C? u'an, Y? ? 1amoree, A? Sundaram, Gistance Estimation
Tec#ni2ue ,or Sin'le 1ine%to%0round /aults in a Radial istri(ution System,H
Con,erence Record,Power En'ineerin' Society "inter .eetin', ->>> IEEE, &ol? 5,
44? -661V-666?
15? S? Santoso, Y? ? 1amoree, .? /? .c0rana'#an, GSi'nature Analysis to Trac+
Ca4acitor Switc#in' Per,ormance,H Con,erence Record, Transmission and
istri(ution Con,erence and E74osition, ->>1 IEEEOPES, &ol? 1, 44? -6=V-83?
16? IEEE Standard 116=%1==6, Recommended Practice on .onitorin' Electric Power?
18? ra,t Standard IEC 81>>>%5%3> 99AO368OC&, Power Quality .easurement
.et#ods?
19? IEEE ra,t Standard P116=?3, Recommended Practice ,or a Power Quality ata
Interc#an'e /ormatPAn E7tensi(le /ile /ormat ,or t#e E7c#an'e o, Power Quality
.easurement and Simulation ata,SCC --?
11?: *i(lio'ra4#y
Co++inides, C? Y?, 1? E? *anta, A? P? .elio4oulos, GTransducer Per,ormances ,or Power
System Harmonic .easurements,H Proceedin's o, t#e International Con,erence on
Harmonics,"orcester, .ass?, Octo(er 1=:5?
GCom4utation o, Current Trans,ormer Transient Per,ormance,H IEEE Transactions on
Power eli)ery,&ol? P"R%3, No? 5, Octo(er 1=::?
0reenwood, A? N?, Electrical Transients in Power Systems,-d ed?, Yo#n "iley ` Sons,
New ;or+, 1==1, c#a4? 1:?
.cS#ane, E? 1?, .? E? Col(au'#, Ad)ance Current and &olta'e Trans,ormers ,or Power
istri(ution Systems,PRI Re4ort E1%8-:=, 1=:=?
Power Quality .onitorin' 6-1

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