D.

Conversation Analysis
1. The Definition of Conversation Analysis
Conversational Analysis is one of the methods used for studying
language. Markee (2007) states that conversational analysis is a methodology for
analyzing a broad range of speech exchange systems that are collectively known
as talk-in-interaction.
Furthermore, Psathas describes another definition about conversation
analysis
Conversation analysis studies the order/ organization/ orderliness of
social action, particularly those social actions that are located in
everyday interaction, in discursive practices, in the sayings/ tellings/
doings of members of society (Psathas, 1995:2).
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From those two definitions, it can be concluded that conversation
analysis concerns on analyzing turn -taking system of conversation between two
speakers which focuses on issues of meaning and context in interaction. Sacks and
Levinson state conversation analysis is primary focus towards utterance sequence
and the organization of such sequences. A primary concept is turn-taking. This
means that one participant is talking and then stops and another participant is
talking and stops and so on (in Goldkul, 2003:57). In other word, Sinwongsuwat
(2007) explains that a conversation must fill the adjacency pair principle, the type
of sequences that contains sequentially-ordered utterances often found together in
pairs. Sacks et al. (in Sinwongsuwat, 2007) note that in conversation not only
does turn-taking occur, with one speaker tending to talk at a time, but turns are
also taken with as little gap or overlap between them as possible.
2. Types of Conversation
Generally, there are two main types of talk-in-interaction, ordinary
conversation and institutional talk.
Ordinary conversation is the kind of casual, everyday talk that
typically occurs between friends and acquaintances, either face to face or on
the telephone, and is considered to be the default speech exchange system in all
talk-in-interaction.
Meanwhile, Institutional talk focuses on more restricted
environments in which the goals of the participants are more limited and
institution-specific. Institutional talk tends to become more and more ritualized
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than ordinary conversation. It includes debates, classroom talk, broadcast news
interview, press conferences, doctor-patient interactions, courtroom
interactions, emergency telephone calls, etc.
3. Sequential and Sequence Organization
Psathas (1995) explains that greetings and opening and closing are
important to study in conversation analysis. It can sign the demonstration,
analysis, or formula of sequential structure, rules, or methodical procedures.
According to Sinwongsuwat, there are 2 organizations of the conversation. They
are:
a. Sequential organization
This organization shows that conversation is sequentially
ordered/organized. Throughout its course, utterances are produced on a turnby-
turn basis and linked together in such a way that the next one is to be
understood as responding to/related to/constrained by the previous one.
Furthermore, there is not gap or overlap inside the conversation.
b. Sequence organization
This organization may expand the sequence beyond the minimal
adjacency pair. The sequence organization allows turns at talk and their
absence, indicated by silence, pause, to be non trivially described and
accounted for. In this sequence, the participants sometimes broaden the
conversation. There are three types of expansion sequence which are preexpansion,
insert-expansion, and post expansion.
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Pre expansion sequences can be of different types according to
be the action types of the base sequence, particularly of the base first pairpart,
they are projecting. For instance, a pre-invitation sequence is
preliminary to a possible invitation, a pre-offer to a possible offer, a preannouncement
to a possible announcement, a pre-telling to a possible
telling. As with a base sequence, a pre-sequence can prompt different
types of responses. For instance go-ahead, blocking, or hedging responses.
Meanwhile, the insert-expansion sequences are expansion
sequences which are positioned after a base first pair part and before a
projected base second pair part, oriented/addressed to be the base first pair
part, and are initiated by the prospective recipient of the preceding base
first pair part. There are two classes of insert expansion, post-first and presecond.
Post - first insert sequences are usually initiated to implement a
repair, being a repair-type sequence. They are addressed to problems in
hearing ore understand talk, especially in the proceeding first pair part.
Post-first insert sequences look backward to clarify the talk of the first pair
part.
In the other hands, pre second insert sequences are often action
type-specific, being preliminary to some particular type of second pair part
which has been made relevant next by the type of first pair part to which it
is responding. Pre second looks forward, apparently to establish the
resources necessary for the implementation of the pending second pair
part.
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The last part of the sequence organization is post-expansion. Post
expansion can be recognized as the form of closure. Some changes can be
completed only with greeting or leave-taking.