FUNDAMENTALS OF STABILITY

Stability is the tendency of a vessel to rotate one way or the

other when forcibly inclined. Stability can be broken down into
several categories, each of which are alternatively emphasized in
designing and operating Navy and Coast Guard ships.
STABILITY
INITIAL STABILITY - The stability of a ship in the range
from 0 to 7/10 of inclination.
OVERALL STABILITY - A general measure of a ship's ability
to resist capsizing in a given condition of loading.
DYNAMIC STABILITY - The work done in heeling a ship to a
given angle of heel.
THE LAWS OF BUOYANCY
1. Floating objects possess the property of
buoyancy.
2. A floating body displaces a volume of water
equal in weight to the weight of the body.
3. A body immersed (or floating) in water will
be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the water displaced.
EXAMPLE OF GRAVITY -VS- BUOYANCY


1 ton of steel 1 ton of steel
If the cube of steel is placed in water it sinks. There is not
enough displaced volume for the forces of buoyancy to act upon. If
the ships hull is placed in the water it will float. The larger
volume of the ship's hull allows the forces of buoyancy to support
the hull's weight.
The ship's hull will sink to a draft where the forces of buoyancy
and the forces of gravity are equal.
DISPLACEMENT
The weight of the volume of water that is displaced by the
underwater portion of the hull is equal to the weight of the ship.
This is known as a ship's displacement. The unit of measurement
for displacement is the Long Ton (1 LT = 2240 LBS).
GRAVITY
The force of gravity acts vertically downward through the ship's
center of gravity. The magnitude of the force depends on the
ship's total weight.
UNITS OF MEASURE
Force: A push or pull that tends to produce
motion or a change in motion. Units: tons,
pounds, Newtons, etc.
Parallel forces may be mathematically summed to
produce one "Net Force" considered to act
through one point.
Weight: The force of gravity acting on a body.
This force acts towards the center of the earth.
Units: tons, pounds, kilograms, etc.
Moment: The tendency of a force to produce a
rotation about a pivot point. This works like a
torque wrench acting on a bolt. Units: foot
tons, Newton meters, etc.

Volume: The number of cubic units in an object.
Units: Cubic feet (FT
3
), cubic inches, etc. The
volume of any compartment onboard a ship can be
found using the equation:

Specific The specific volume of a fluid is its volume per unit.
Volume: weight. Units: cubic feet per ton (FT
3
/LT). The specific
volume of liquids (NSTM 096 Table 096-1) used most frequently in
this unit are:
Salt Water = 35 FT
3
/LT
Fresh Water = 36 FT
3
/LT
Diesel Fuel = 43 FT
3
/LT
CALCULATING THE WEIGHT OF FLOODING WATER
A compartment has the following dimensions:
Length = 20 FT Flooded with salt
Breadth = 20 FT water to a depth
Height = 8 FT of 6 FT
1. First, calculate the volume of water that has been added to
the compartment.
Volume = Length x Breadth x Depth of Flooding Water
= 20 FT x 20 FT x 6 FT
= 2400 FT
3

2. Second, divide the volume of water by its specific volume.

STABILITY REFERENCE POINTS



M - Metacenter


G - Center of Gravity


B - Center of Buoyancy
K - Keel
K - Keel: The base line reference point from which all other
reference point measurements are compared.
B - Center of Buoyancy: The
geometric center of the ship's
underwater hull body. It is
the point at which all the
forces of buoyancy may be
considered to act in a
vertically upward direction.

The Center of Buoyancy will move as the shape of the underwater
portion of the hull body changes. When the ship rolls to
starboard, "B" moves to starboard, and when the ship rolls to
port, "B" moves to port.

When the ship's hull is made heavier, the drafts increase as the
ship sits deeper in the water. "B" will move up.
When the ship's hull is lightened, the drafts decrease as the ship
sits shallower in the water. "B" will move down.



** The Center of Buoyancy moves
in the same direction as the
ships waterline. **

G - Center of Gravity: The
point at which all forces of
gravity acting on the ship
can be considered to act. "G"
is the center of mass of the
vessel. The position of "G"
is dependent upon the
distribution of weights
within the ship. As the
distribution of weights is
altered, the position of "G"
will react as follows:



M - Metacenter: As the ship
is inclined through small
angles of heel, the lines of
buoyant force intersect at a
point called the metacenter.
As the ship is inclined, the
center of buoyancy moves in
an arc as it continues to
seek the geometric center of
the underwater hull body.
This arc describes the
metacentric radius.



1. "G" moves towards a weight addition
2. "G" moves away from a weight removal
3. "G" moves in the same direction as a weight shift




As the ship continues to heel
in excess of 7-10 degrees,
the metacenter will move as
shown.

The position of the metacenter is a function of the position of
the center of buoyancy, thus a function of the displacement of the
ship. The position of "M" moves as follows:

As the Center of Buoyancy moves up, the Metacenter moves down.
As the Center of Buoyancy moves down, the Metacenter moves up.
LINEAR MEASUREMENTS IN STABILITY


KG - Height of the ships Center of Gravity the above Keel: This
measurement is found in section II(a) of the DC Book for several
conditions of loading. To find "KG" for loading conditions other
than those in the DC Book, calculations must be performed.
KM - Height of Metacenter above the Keel: This measurement is
found by using the Draft Diagram and Functions of Form Curves
located in section II(a) of the DC Book.
GM - Metacentric Height: This measurement is calculated by
subtracting KG from KM (GM = KM - KG). GM is a measure of the
ship's initial stability.
BM - Metacentric Radius: The distance between the Center of
Buoyancy and the Metacenter. It is actually the radius of the
circle for the movements of "B" at small angles of heel.
THE STABILITY TRIANGLE
When a ship is inclined, the center of buoyancy shifts off
centerline while the center of gravity remains in the same
location. Since the forces of buoyancy and gravity are equal and
act along parallel lines, but in opposite directions, a rotation
is developed. This is called a couple, two moments acting
simultaneously to produce rotation. This rotation returns the ship
to where the forces of buoyancy and gravity balance out.


The distance between the forces of buoyancy and gravity is known
as the ships righting arm. As shown above, the righting arm is a
perpendicular line drawn from the center of gravity to the point
of intersection on the force of buoyancy line.
For small angles of heel (0
o
through 7
o
to 10
o
, metacenter doesnt
move), the value for the ships righting arm (GZ) may be found by
using trigonometry:








Using the Sine function to solve for the righting arm:

With initial stability (0
o
to 7
o
-10
o
) the metacenter does not move,
and the Sine function is almost linear (a straight line.)
Therefore, the size of the ships Righting Arm, GZ, is directly
proportional to the size of the ships Metacentric Height, GM.
Thus, GM is a good measure of the ships initial stability.
RIGHTING MOMENT (RM)
The Righting Moment is the best measure of a ship's overall
stability. It describes the ship's true tendency to resist
inclination and return to equilibrium. The Righting Moment is
equal to the ships Righting Arm multiplied by the ships
displacement.

Example:
A destroyer displaces 6000 LT and has a righting arm of 2.4 FT
when inclined to 40 degrees. What is the ships Righting Moment?
RM = 2.4 FT x 6000 LT
RM = 14,400 FT-Tons (pronounced "foot tons")
STABILITY CONDITIONS
The positions of Gravity and the Metacenter will indicate the
initial stability of a ship. Following damage, the ship will
assume one of the following three stability conditions:
POSITIVE STABILITY
The metacenter is located above
the ships center of gravity. As
the ship is inclined, Righting
Arms are created which tend to
return the ship to its original,
vertical position.



NEUTRAL STABILITY
The metacenter and the ships
center of gravity are in the same
location. As the ship is inclined,
no Righting Arms are created.
(until the metacenter starts to
move after the ship is inclined
past 7
o
-10
o
)



NEGATIVE STABILITY
The ships center of gravity is
located above the metacenter. As
the ship is inclined, negative
Righting Arms (called upsetting
arms) are created which tend to
capsize the ship.


STATICAL STABILITY CURVE (RIGHTING ARM CURVE)
When a ship is inclined through all angles of heel, and the
righting arm for each angle is measured, the statical stability
curve is produced. This curve is a "snapshot" of the ship's
stability at that particular loading condition.


Much information can be obtained from this curve, including:
Range of Stability: This ship will generate Righting Arms when
inclined from 0
o
to approximately 74
o
. (This curve usually assumes
that the entire superstructure is watertight.)
Maximum Righting Arm: The largest separation between the forces of
buoyancy and gravity. This is where the ship exerts the most
energy to right itself.
Angle of Maximum Righting Arm: The angle of inclination where the
maximum Righting Arm occurs.
Danger Angle: One half the angle of the maximum Righting Arm.
SHIP'S HULL MARKINGS
Calculative Draft Marks Used for determining displacement and
other properties of the ship for stability and damage control.
These draft marks indicate the depth of the keel (baseline) below
the waterline.
Two possible marking systems:
a. Roman numerals 3" in height (prior to 1972)
b. Arabic numerals 6" in height
Navigational Draft Marks
Ships operating drafts. These draft marks include the depth of
any projections below the keel of the ship.
a. Arabic numerals 6" in height
Limiting Draft Marks
"...installed on those ships whose limiting displacements are
known. As limiting displacements are determined, such markings
will be installed. If such drafts are exceeded, it means
jeopardizing the ship's ability to survive damage or heavy
weather." (NSTM 079 - 14.26)
Limiting drafts are assigned to maintain reserve buoyancy
(freeboard) prior to damage, and to prevent excessive hull
stresses as a result of overloading.
Plimsoll Marks (Load lines)
Markings of minimum allowable freeboard for registered cargo-
carrying ships. Located amidships on both the port and starboard
sides the ship.
Since the required minimum freeboard varies with water density and
severity of weather, different markings are used for:
- TF - Tropical Fresh Water
- F - Fresh Water
- T - Tropical Water (sea water)
- S - Standard Summer
- W - Winter
- WNA - Winter North Atlantic

DRAFT DIAGRAM AND FUNCTIONS OF FORM
The Draft Diagram is a nomogram located in section II(a) of the
Damage Control Book. Each ship platform will have its own Draft
Diagram and it may vary between individual ships. It is used for
determining the ships displacement, as well as other properties
of the ship, including:
- Moment to Trim One Inch (MT1")
- Tons per Inch Immersion (TPI)
- Height of Metacenter (KM)
- Longitudinal Center of Flotation (LCF)
- Longitudinal Center of Buoyancy (LCB)
Instructions for use:
1. Draw a straight line (LINE #1) between the
ship's forward and aft draft readings (use
calculative drafts)
2. Where LINE #1 intersects the Displacement
Curve is the ship's displacement at those given
drafts.
3. Draw a horizontal line (LINE #2) through the
ship's displacement. (Hint: When the forward and
aft drafts are equal, the line is horizontal)
4. MT1", TPI, KM, and LCB are determined using LINE #2.
5. Draw a vertical line (LINE #3) through the
ship's displacement (There is no way to ensure
this line is vertical - just eyeball it.)
6. Where LINE #3 intersects the LCF Curve is the
ship's LCF for the given drafts.




Example:
FFG-21 has the following drafts: Forward: 14'0" Aft: 15'6"
Find: 1. Ship's Displacement: 3600 LT
2. KM: 22.37 FT
3. MT1": 758 FT-Ton per Inch
4. TPI: 32.2 LT per Inch
5. LCB: 2.1 FT Aft of Midships
6. LCF: 24 FT Aft of Midships
CROSS CURVES OF STABILITY
The Cross Curves Of Stability are used to determine the length of
the righting arm at any angle of inclination for a given
displacement. Using the ship's displacement (from the Draft
Diagram and Functions of Form) a statical stability curve for the
ship can be constructed.
Instructions for use:
1. Enter the ships displacement along the horizontal
axis.
2. Draw a vertical line at the ship's
displacement. (Hint: "tick marks" are located
along the top of the curve to assist in drawing
this vertical line)
3. The displacement line will cross each "angle
of inclination" curve at various points.
4. The righting arm for each angle of
inclination is read along the vertical axis
(left side).
5. Each righting arm is plotted at the
corresponding angle of inclination on the
"Statical Stability Curve Plotting Sheet" or on
regular graph paper.