CHAPTER 6 :

INVERTERS
Inverter is a converter that changes the constant DC input to variable voltage,
variable frequency AC output
DC Inverter
L
o
a
d
voltage and
Output of desired
frequency
2
3
Inverters use controlled turn-on
turn-off devices, such as BJTs,
MOSFETs, IGBTs, and GTOs.
4
3

UPS (uninterruptible power supply)

As a variable voltage variable frequency AC supply,

for variable speed AC motors

Wide variety of applications in power transmission

such as reactive power controllers and adaptive
power filters

Other industrial and domestic applications such as:

Induction heating

5
4

Based on the type of the supply:

Voltage-sourced and current-sourced inverters
-

Based on the circuit configuration

Based on the control method

6
Harmonics: Harmonics by definition are a steady state distortion of the
fundamental frequency (50Hz).
Harmonic distortion of current occurs when sinusoidal voltage is applied to a non-linear load (ex. electronic
ballast, PLC, adjustable-speed drive, arc furnace, any ac/dc converter). The result is a distortion of the fundamental
current waveform. This distortion occurs in integer multiples of the fundamental frequency (50Hz). Hence,
the 2nd Harmonic has a frequency = 2 x 50 = 100Hz,
the 3rd Harmonic = 150Hz and so on.
Voltage distortion, on the other hand, is generated indirectly as result of harmonic currents flowing through a
distribution system.
Reference at http://www.hersheyenergy.com/harmonics.html
7
8
FUNDAMENTAL
COMPONENT
3
RD
HARMONIC
5
RD
HARMONIC
t
DC V 4
V
dc
-V
dc
V
1
3
1 V
5
1 V
INVERTER OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
t 2t
9
Why need to consider harmonics?
Sinusoidal waveform quality must match TNB supply.
Power Quality issues
Harmonics may cause degradation of equipment. Equipment need to be de-rated.
Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) is a measure to determine the quality of a given waveform.
10
11
12
Fourier Series
Study of harmonics requires
understanding of wave shapes.
Fourier Series is a tool to
analyse wave shapes.
( )
( )
( )
t
n b n a a v f
d n v f
n
b
d n v f
n
a
d v f
n
a
n
n n o
n
n
o
e u
u u
u u
t
u u
t
u
t
t
t
t
=
+ + =
=
=
=

}
}
}

=
where
sin cos
2
1
) (
Fourier Inverse
term) sin" (" sin ) (
1
term) cos" (" cos ) (
1
term) DC" (" ) (
1
Series Fourier
1
2
0
2
0
2
0
13
Example : Harmonics of square-wave
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(

=
=
(

=
=
(

+ =
} }
} }
} }
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
u u u u
t
u u u u
t
u u
t
2
0
2
0
2
0
sin sin
0 cos cos
0
1
d n d n
n
V
b
d n d n
n
V
a
d V d V
n
a
dc
n
dc
n
dc dc o
V
dc
-V
dc
u=et
t 2t
14
( ) ( ) | |
| |
| |
| |
t
t
t
t
t
t t
t
t t t
t
u u
t
t
t
t
n
V
b
n
b
n n
n
n
V
n n
n
V
n n n
n
V
n n
n
V
b
dc
n
n
dc
dc
dc
dc
n
4
1 cos odd, is n When
exist) not do harmonics even i.e. (
0
1 cos even, is When
) cos 1 (
2
) cos 1 ( ) cos 1 (
) cos 2 (cos ) cos 0 (cos
cos cos
Solving,
2
0
=
=
=
=
=
+ =
+ =
+ =
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
(

=
=
(

=
=
(

+ =
} }
} }
} }
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
u u u u
t
u u u u
t
u u
t
2
0
2
0
2
0
sin sin
0 cos cos
0
1
d n d n
n
V
b
d n d n
V
a
d V d V a
dc
n
dc
n
dc dc o
V
dc
-V
dc
u=et
t 2t
( )

=
|
.
|

\
|
=
+ + =
,... 5 , 3 , 1
1
sin
4
) (
sin cos
2
1
) (
n
dc
n
n n o
n
n
V
t v
n b n a a t v
u
t
u u
Summary of Fourier Series Analysis
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
R I P P
)
2
I
( I I
t nw sin I t i
t nw sin V t v
2
rms , n
1 n
n
1 n
2
1 n
n
1 n
2
rms , n rms
n o n
1 n
o
n o n
1 n
0

=
= =
= =
| + =
u + =
. n harmonic
at impedance load : Z
) L n ( R : Z
Z
V
I
n
2
0
2
n
n
n
n
e +
=
Use Fourier Series in square wave output give->
( ) ( ) t n sin
n
V 4
t v
o
dc
odd n
o
e
t
=

=
16
EEEB433 Chapter#6 11
t n
V
V
s
p n o
4
, ,
=
Note the amplitude of the n
th
harmonic satisfies
And only odd harmonics are exist
at 50Hz, 150Hz, 250Hz,
17
EEEB433 Chapter#6 12
Note that: the amplitude of the nth current
component is equivalent to
( )
2 2
, ,
,
L R
V
Z
V
I
n o
n
n o
n o
e n +
= =
Therefore low order (n) voltage
harmonics causes considerable
current distortion
18
EEEB433 Chapter#6 13
Note that: the amplitude of the nth current
component is equivalent to
( )
2 2
, ,
,
L R
V
Z
V
I
n o
n
n o
n o
e n +
= =
While high order harmonics see
high impedance from the
inductive load and causes very
small distortion
19
v
O 1
+

L
C
v
O 2
(LOW PASS)
FILTER
+

v
O 1
v
O 2
BEFORE FILTERING AFTER FILTERING
INVERTER LOAD DC SUPPLY
Output of the inverter is chopped AC voltage with zero DC component. It contain
harmonics.
An LC section low-pass filter is normally fitted at the inverter output to reduce the high
frequency harmonics.
Definition
Unipolar Modulation
Vout change between
0 & +Vdc, 0 & -Vdc
RMS
Vary by varying pulse width
Quality of I
Better Q because increased the fsw.
Increased for quality
Vstress
0 to Vdc
Bipolar Modulation
Vout
-Vdc
+Vdc
Quality of I
More ripple. Big notch
Vstress
-Vdc to Vdc
20
INVERTERS BASED ON TYPE OF SUPPLY
21
22
Inverter
L
o
a
d
Rectifier
(uncontrolled)
3-phase
AC
L
DC Link
Inductor is large,
and can be considered as
an ideal current source
The input can
not be open
circuited
As voltage sourced inverter is the
most common type (practically), it is
the only type covered in this course
23
5
Inverter
L
o
a
d
Rectifier
(uncontrolled)
3-phase
AC
L
C
DC Link
DC
Capacitor is large, can be considered as
an ideal voltage source. Act as filter
for rectifier & DC_DC converter
The input can
not be short
circuited
DC supply is from
- Battery
- PV
- Grid/ wind
generator with
rectifier
INVERTERS BASED ON CIRCUIT
CONFIGURATION
24
I
DC
I
ac
+

V
DC
V
ac
+

25
1.Single-Phase Half-Bridge Inverter
26
The freewheeling diodes permit current to flow
even if all switches are open. These diodes also
permit lagging currents to flow in inductive
loads
V
o
R
L
+

V
C1
V
C2
+
-
+
-
S
1
S
2
V
dc
2
Vdc
2
Vdc

S1 ON
S2 OFF
S1 OFF
S2 ON
t
0
G
27
Also known as the inverter leg.
Basic building block for full bridge, three phase and higher order inverters.
G is the centre point. Both capacitors have the same value. Thus the DC link is equally spilt into two.
The top and bottom switch has to be complementary, i.e. If the top switch is closed (on), the bottom must
be off, and vice-versa.
I
DC
I
ac
+

V
DC
V
ac
+

28
2. Single-Phase Full-Bridge Inverter
V
DC
S1
S4
S3
+ v
O

V
DC
S1
S4
S3
S2
+ v
O

V
DC
v
O
t
t
S1,S2 ON; S3,S4 OFF for t
1
< t < t
2
t 2t
v
O
-V
DC
t
S3,S4 ON ; S1,S2 OFF for t
2
< t < t
3
S2
2
V
s
2
V
s
s
V
2
V
s

2
V
s

s
V
t
t
t
t 2
t 2
t 2
t e
t e
t e
ao
V
bo
V
o
V
29
SWITCHING RULES:
S1&S2 conduct at the same time
S3&S4 conduct at the same time
30
Switching state
(base on top switches)
Vab = Vao Vbo = -Vdc/2 (-Vdc/2) = 0 = Vout
31
iii) Overview
C D B A
32
RL-Load
S1 & S2 on
33
34
S3 & S4 on
( ) ( ) ( )
T t
T
, Be
R
Vdc
T
t , Ae
R
Vdc
t i t i t i
T
t
t
n f o
s s +

s s + =
+ =
t
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
0
2
( ) : t i
f
forced current
( ) : t i
n
natural current
R
L
= t
iv) Current expression:
In steady state.
( )
R
Vdc
in A
ax Be
R
Vdc T
i
in Ae
R
Vdc
o i
o
o
o
o
=
= +

=
|
.
|

\
|
= + =
Im
Im
2
Im
R
Vdc
ax B + = Im
( )

s s
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

s s
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
t
|
.
|

\
|

t

T t
T
, e
R
Vdc
ax Im
R
Vdc
T
t , e
R
Vdc
min I
R
Vdc
t i
T
t
t
o
2
2
0
2
By symmetryImax=Imin =
|
.
|

\
|
2
T
i
o
|
.
|

\
|
t

|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
T
e
R
Vdc
in Im
R
dc V
(
(
(

= =
t

2
2
1
1
T
T
e
e
R
Vdc
in Im ax Im
rms load current :
( )
Is Vdc P
ce resis load R R rms I P
dt e
R
Vdc
in
R
Vdc
T
dt t i
T
Irms
dc
L
T
t T
o
=
= =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
} }

tan
Im
2 1
2
2
2
0 0
2
t
If the switches are ideal , then
L dc
P = P .
.
38
Example 8.1 (Daniel W. Hart)
Square-Wave Inverter with RL load
The full-bridge inverter in figure 8.1 has a
switching sequence that produce a square wave
voltage across a series RL load. The switching
frequency is 60Hz, V
dc
=100V, R=10, and
L=25mH. Determine :
a) An expression for load current
b) The power absorbed by the load
c) The average current in the dc source
39
iii) Overview
C D B A
40
Solution
a) T=1/f=1/60=0.0167s
t=L/R=0.025/10=0.0025s
T/2t=3.33.
use the current expression to determine max. & min. current
A 31 . 9
e 1
e 1
10
100
e 1
e 1
R
Vdc
in Im ax Im
33 . 3
33 . 3
2
T
2
T
=
(

=
(
(
(

= =

( )
( )

s s +
s s
=

60
1
t
120
1
, e 31 . 19 10
120
1
t 0 , e 31 . 19 10
t i
0025 . 0 00835 . 0 t
0025 . 0
t
o
Use the max. & min. current & substitute into i
o
(t) expression
( )

s s
|
.
|

\
|
+ +

s s
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
t
|
.
|

\
|

t

T t
T
, e
R
Vdc
ax Im
R
Vdc
T
t , e
R
Vdc
min I
R
Vdc
t i
T
t
t
o
2
2
0
2
41
Solution
b) Power is computed
from
( )
Is Vdc P
ce resis load R R rms I P
dt e
R
Vdc
in
R
Vdc
T
dt t i
T
Irms
dc
L
T
t T
o
=
= =
(

|
.
|

\
|
+ = =
} }

tan
Im
2 1
2
2
2
0 0
2
t
A 41 . 4
100
441
V
P
I
W 441 10 x 64 . 6 R I P
A 64 . 6 dt e ) 31 . 19 10 (
120
1
I
dc
dc
s
2
rms
2
L
2
120
1
0
0025 . 0
t
rms
= = =
= = =
=
(

=
}

c) Average source current can also be computed by equating
source and load power, assuming lossless converter.
Voltage equation for square wave at the load is given by:
Therefore the amplitude, peak value:
42
Example 8.2 (Daniel W. Hart)
Fourier Series Solution for the Square-Wave Inverter
For inverter in example 8.1 (f=60Hz, V
dc
=100V, R=10, and L=25mH),
determine the amplitude of the Fourier series terms for the square wave
load voltage, the amplitude of the Fourier series terms for load current, and
the power absorbed by the load.
( ) ( ) t n sin
n
V 4
t v
o
dc
odd n
o
e
t
=

=
t
=
t
=
n
100 * 4
n
V 4
V
dc
n
43
2 2 2
0
2
n
n
n
n
)] 025 . 0 )( 120 ( n [ 10
n
400
) L n ( R
V
Z
V
I
t +
t
=
e +
= =
The amplitude of each current term is determined by:
Power at each frequency is determined by:
R
2
I
R I P
or
R I P P
2
n
2
rms , n n
2
rms , n
1 n
n
1 n
|
.
|

\
|
= =
= =


=

=
44
n f
n
(Hz) V
n
(V)
Z
n
()
I
n
(A) P
n
(W)
1 60 127.3 13.7 9.27 429.3
3 180 42.4 30.0 1.42 10
5 300 25.5 48.2 0.53 1.4
7 420 18.2 66.7 0.27 0.37
9 540 14.1 85.4 0.17 0.14
As the harmonic number, n increases, the amplitude of Fourier voltage component decreases &
magnitude of the corresponding impedance increases, both resulting in small currents for higher-order
harmonics. Therefore, only the first few terms of the series are practical interest.
Power Absorbed by the load is computed:
W 441 ....... 14 . 0 37 . 0 4 . 1 0 . 10 3 . 429 P P
n
1 n
~ + + + + + = =