Mechanical Lab - II

Practical Manual



DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA
SURATHKAL











Name:
Roll no.:
Semester:
Batch:
Instructor:
CONTENTS
Sl.No. Description Page No. Marks (10) Signature
1. Single Stage Air Compressor
2. Centrifugal Blower
3. Test on Heat Exchangers
4. Computerized Refrigeration Test Rig
5. Whirling of Shafts
6. Vibration of Spring Mass System
7. Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod
8. Heat Exchangers Though Lagged Pipe
9. Composite Wall Apparatus
10. Measurement of Emissivity
11. Heat Transfer through Extended Surfaces



Marks Awarded for Record=



Signature of the Lab Instructor





Single Stage Air Compressor
EXP NO: 1 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To study the performance of a single stage air compressor at different delivery pressures.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Elgi Single Stage Air Compressor with Receiver
a. Delivery pressure = 9.7 bar
b. Free air delivered = 10.73 m
3
/hr
c. Speed = 750 rpm
d. Bore = 70 mm
e. Stroke = 85 mm
f. Cooling: Air Cooled
2. Driving Motor
a. 3 phase Induction Motor
b. Power = 2 hp
c. Speed = 2880 rpm
d. Voltage = 420 V
e. Current = 3 A
3. Manometer
4. Energy meter; Constant = 150 rev/KWhr
5. Tachometer
6. Planimeter
DESCRIPTION:
The compressor outlet is connected to a storage tank which receivers the compressed air and
stores it. The air to the inlet is sucked through an orifice across which the manometer is connected.
The compressor is driven by an electric motor. The speed of the compressor is measured by a
mechanical type tachometer.
PROCEDURE:
Energy meter is connected between two lines to measure the power input to the motor. The
outlet valve of the receiver is kept open to facilitate starting. Then the motor is switched on. When the
compressor reaches its normal speed, the outlet valve or the receiver is closed and pressure is built up.
When the pressures reaches, say 2 bars the outlet valve adjusted is so that the delivery pressure
remains constant at 2 bars. At this point, manometer reader, speed of motor (using tachometer) and
energy meter readings are noted down. After the pressure reaches the maximum value, the pressure is
gradually decreased by adjusting the outlet valve and all the readings at the same pressures of 8, 7, 6,
4, 2 bars are noted. The average of these two may be taken as the final reading.
Note: Sufficient time must be allowed for the compressor to adjust itself for the steady state values of
loads. The delivery pressure must not be allowed to exceed the maximum rated value.
OBSERVATIONS:
Energy meter constant = 150 rev/KWhr
Spring strength of indicator = 15.2 10
-3
(N/mm
2
)/mm
Orifice constant, K = 0.02655
Length of Indicator Diagram in mm =
Efficiency of motor = 75%

Trial
No.
Delivery
Pressure
(Pd)(bar)
Energy Meter Reading
Manometer
Reading (h)
(cm) of H2O
Speed (N)
(rpm)
Area of Indicator
Diagram (a) (mm
2
)
Rev. (w) Time (t) (sec)






CALCULATIONS:

Trial
No.
Delivery
Pressure
(bar)
Shaft Power
(KW)
MEP
(N/mm
2
)
Indicated
Power (KW)
Free Air
Delivered
(m
3
/min)
Isothermal
Power (KW)
Isothermal
Efficiency
Mechanical
Efficiency
Overall
Efficiency
Volumetric
Efficiency








1. Input to motor (kW) = 24

=
2. Shaft Power (SP) (kW) = Efficiency of motor Input to motor
=
3. Mean Effective Pressure (MEP) (N/mm
2
) = Pm =

S =

4. IP (kW) =

60000
=

Where A = area of piston (mm
2
) and L = length of stroke (m)
5. Free Air Delivered (FAD) (m
3
/min) V1 =
T
i
P
i
h
P
o
T
o

Assuming Ti = To = T and Pi = Po = P
V = h
T
P
=

Where,
T = Ambient temperature of air (K)
P = Ambient pressure (cm of Hg)
h = Pressure head across the orifice (cm of H2O)
6. Isothermal Power (kW) =

1
ln()
60000

Where V1 is in m
3
/min, P1 = intake pressure = P/75 bar abs.

r =

2
=
(

+
1
)

1 .
=


Therefor Isothermal Power =


7. Mechanical Efficiency =

=


8. Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal Power/Indicated Power =





9. Overall Efficiency = Isothermal Power/Shaft Power =



10. Volumetric Efficiency =
/

=
Where D = piston dia. (m) and L = stroke length (m)




RESULTS:
The performance characteristic curves of the single stage air compressor are obtained,
tabulated and plotted on the graph sheet.
The performance characteristic curves are: FAD, SP, IP, mech, iso, overall, vol vs Pd















Centrifugal Blower
EXP NO: 2 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the characteristics of a centrifugal blower.
APPARATUS: The motor-blower setup with flow measurement devices
SPECIFICATIONS:
Blower:
Flow rate =
Pressure =
Outlet dia. = 10cm
Speed = 2880rpm
Energy meter constant = 320 rev/kW-hr
Motor:
Power = 2hp
Efficiency = 90%
DESCRIPTION:
The centrifugal blower is directly coupled to an induction motor. The outlet of the blower is
connected to a pipe in which there is a tapping to measure the delivery head. The delivery head is
changed by means of a butterfly valve placed in the delivery pipe. The motor is connected to the
mains through an energy meter to measure the input to the motor.
PROCEDURE:
The butterfly valve is fully closed and the motor is switched on. Due to the leakage past the
valve there may be a small air flow and this is indicated by the manometer reading. The delivery head,
the pressure difference across the orifice place and the energy meter readings are noted down. The
experiment is repeated for different delivery heads by opening the valve.

OBSERVATIONS:
Position of
valve
Energy Meter Reading
Delivery Pressure
(h1) in cm of H2O
Head across flow
meter (h) in cm of
H2O
Flow rate (Q)
in m
3
/hr
Rev in
w
Time (t) in sec
Fully closed
closed
closed
closed
Fully open

CALCULATIONS:
1. Input power to motor (IP)(KW) =
3600
320
=


2. Input to blower (SP)(KW) = IP
motor
=

3. Output of the blower (OP)(KW) =

360010
3

a. a = sp. weight of air (N/m
3
)
b. Q = Volume of air delivered (m
3
/hr) = 171

=
c. H = head in metres of air =

100

=





4. Output (KW) =

1
9810
360010
3
100
= 2.725
1
10
5
=

5. Blower efficiency =


100 =



RESULTS:
Position of valve Output of blower (KW) Input to blower (KW) Blower Efficiency
Fully closed
closed
closed
closed
Fully open

The following characteristic curves of the blower are drawn:
1. Discharge volume vs. Delivery head
2. Blower efficiency vs. Delivery head
3. SP vs. Delivery head

Test on Heat Exchangers
EXP NO: 3 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient and effectiveness of a double pipe heat
exchanger under conditions of parallel flow and counter flow.
THEORY:
Heat transfer from one fluid to another fluid is given by the expression,
= ()

Where,
()

is the mean temperature difference

U is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the inside area
A is the inside area of the heat exchanger


Temperature Profiles for Parallel and Counter Flow Heat Exchangers

For which ()

log(

)


Parallel Flow Counter Flow
i Thi - Tci Thi - Tco
o Tho - Tco Tho - Tci
This expression for the mean temperature difference is known as the Log Mean Temperature
Difference (LMTD).
=

()

In order to make comparisons between various types of heat exchangers, the term Heat Exchanger
Effectiveness is used, which is defined as:
=



Actual heat transfer may be computed by calculating the energy lost by the hot fluid or the
energy gained by the cold fluid as =

) or =

).
Both for parallel and counter flow heat exchanger where

and

Wh = weight of hot fluid flowing per unit time
Wc = weight of cold fluid flowing per unit time
Cph and Cpc are the specific heats of the hot and cold fluid respectively
Maximum possible heat transfer is given by

)
Where Cmin is either Cph or Cpc, whichever is lesser.
Hence, effectiveness
=

)
=

)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
It consists of two concentric pipes of specific length through which hot and cold fluids pass.
By opening and closing suitable valves the heat exchangers can be operated either in parallel or
counter flow configurations. Provision has
to be made to measure flow rates as well as
inlet and outlet temperatures for both
fluids. The heat exchanger is insulated
from outside to prevent any loss to
atmosphere. The entire setup is mounted on
a frame.


PROCEDURE:
The heat exchanger is set for parallel flow operation by suitably manipulating the valves.
After steady state is reached the flow rate and temperature are recorded.
Next, the heat exchanger is set for counter flow operation and after steady state conditions are
reached, the required data is recorded. The experiment can be repeated for different flow rates and
with different fluids. The values of U and E are calculated for each set of specific conditions.
OBSERVATIONS:
Heat transfer area of the pipe = 0.0612m
2

Data Recorded Parallel Flow Counter Flow
Hot Fluid
Flow rate (kg/min) (Wh)
Inlet Temperature (C) (Thi)
Outlet Temperature (C) (Tho)
Cold Fluid
Flow rate (kg/min) (W
h
)
Inlet Temperature (C) (Tci)
Outlet Temperature (C) (Tco)

RESULTS:
Calculated Values Parallel Flow Counter Flow
LMTD (C)
U (W/m
2
K)
Effectiveness ()


Computerized Refrigeration Test Rig
EXP NO: 4 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To find the coefficient of performance (COP) of a standard vapor compression cycle
refrigeration system using computerized refrigeration test rig.
THEORY:
The coefficient of performance (COP) of a refrigerator is defined as follows:
=
()
()

OBSERVATIONS:
1. Efficiency of motor ( m) = 0.9
2. Mechanical efficiency of compressor ( c) = 0.85

Parameter Trial 1 Trial 2
Energy meter readings (W)
Suction pressure (P1)(psi)
Discharge pressure (P2)(psi)
Refrigerant temperature at inlet
to compressor (T1)(C)

Refrigerant temperature at
outlet from compressor (T2)(C)

Refrigerant temperature at
outlet from condenser (T3)(C)

Refrigerant temperature at inlet
to evaporator (T4)(C)

Water temperature in chiller
(T5)(C)



CALCULATIONS:
1. 1.01325 bar = 14.7 psi
1 psi = 0.068 bar
Pressure = 0.068 pressure gauge reading + 1 atm (bar) =


2. Work done by compressor (W) = Wattmeter reading m c =



3. Refrigeration effect (N)(kW) =

=


a. mw = mass of water in chiller
b. Cp = specific heat of water = 4.1868J/kgC
c. T = drop in water temp.




4. COPactual =
()
()



RESULTS:
The coefficient of performance of the given VCRS is



Whirling of Shafts
EXP NO: 5 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To verify experimentally that the critical speeds of rotating systems are the natural frequencies
of their transverse vibrations.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A shaft supported in two bearings and driven through belt drive by an electric motor with a
rheostat for varying the speed
A stroboscope for measurement of speed
Standard discs of known weights
THEORY:
Centrifugal forces resulting from unbalance in the rotating masses produce lateral vibrations
of the rotating shafts. When a rotating system has a speed equal to the natural frequency of the
system, the system is said to be in a state of resonance and the amplitude of vibration may become
very large. If the shaft runs at this speed or near this speed, fatigue failure is likely to occur. In
addition , the vibration this produced will cause undue wear of moving parts and noise. This speed is
known as Critical Speed, Whirling Speed, or Whipping Speed.

S = geometric centre of the disc
G = centre of gravity of the disc
O = point where the bearing centre line and the plane of the disc intersect
r = distance between O and S lateral deflection of the shaft
e = distance between S and G
m = mass of the disc
= angular velocity of the shaft
K = lateral stiffness of the shaft

When the shaft is rotating, for equilibrium:
Restoring force of the shaft = Centrifugal force
kr = m
2
(r+e) or = (

2
) (1 (

2
))
Where

= , the natural frequency of lateral vibrations of the shaft and disc. When the speed
of rotation equals the natural frequency of the system, the deflection r approaches infinity leading to
instability. Thus this speed of rotation is called critical speed. r is positive below the critical speed and
negative for speeds greater than the critical speed. Natural frequency of transverse vibrations of the
following systems is considered:
1. Uniformly loaded shaft
2. Simply supported shaft with a single disc
3. Simply supported shaft with two discs
4. Simply supported shaft with three discs
PROCEDURE:
1. Determine theoretically the natural frequency of the given system using the relevant
equations. Measure the diameter of the cross section of the shaft and the length of the shaft
between the bearings.
2. Run the shaft and determine the whirling speed of the shaft.
3. Tabulate the results.
CALCULATIONS AND OBSERVATIONS:
Diameter of the cross section of the shaft (d) = 0.8 cm
Density of the shaft material (steel) () = 0.0078 kg/cm
3

Weight of the shaft/unit length (W) = (d
2
/4)* =

Moment of inertia of the shaft (I) = d
2
/64

=
Youngs modulus of the material (E) = 2.1 10
6
kg/cm
2
= 2.06 10
7
N/cm
2


Case 1 - Uniformly distributed loaded shaft

Static deflection

= (5 384 )(
4
)
=

Natural frequency

= 5.623 60

cpm
=
Cases 2 to 4
Static deflection due to uniformly distributed load

= (5 384 )(
4
) =


Static deflection due to concentrated load
1
= (
1

1
2

1
2
) 3 =


Similarly,
2
= (
2

2
2

2
2
) 3 =

Natural frequency of the system:

=
4.987 60

1
+
2
++

=

System Deflection () (cm)
Natural Frequency (fn) (cpm)
Theoretical Experimental








RESULTS:The comparisons of theoretical and experimental natural frequency are shown for
different loading conditions. Relieving
Vibration of Spring Mass Systems
EXP NO: 6 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the natural frequencies of the given spring-mass systems theoretically and verify
them experimentally.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Springs
2. Mass
3. Steel scale
4. Stopwatch
THEORY:
Spring or springs with a single mass attached constitute a single degree of free system. The
spring may be a single spring, two springs in series, springs in parallel combination or a combination
of the above configurations. Any arrangement of the springs can be reduced to an equivalent single
spring system. The possible combinations are:
1. Single spring mass system
2. Two springs connected in series mass system
3. Two springs in parallel mass system
4. Two springs in parallel connected with third spring in series mass system
Determination of equivalent spring
constants in each case is done as follows:
Two springs in series:

=

1
+
2




Two springs in parallel:
=
1
+
2



Two springs in parallel and the third spring in series with the other two springs:
=
(
1
+
2
)
3

1
+
2
+
3

For single degree of freedom system the theoretical natural frequency of the system is given by:

=
60
2

=
60
2

n = natural frequency (cpm)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
st = static deflection of the free end of the spring when the mass it attached to it (m)
k = spring stiffness (N/m)
m = W/g where W = weight of the mass attached to the spring (N)

The following assumptions are made in deriving the natural frequency equation:
1. The spring is linear and of negligible mass
2. Mass is rigid
3. The mass is constrained to vibrate in a vertical plane
4. Damping effect of support and surrounding air is neglected

PROCEDURE:
1. The spring is suspended from the fixed support and its initial length is measure. Its final
length is also measured after the weight has been attached to the spring. Then the stiffness of
the spring is given by the ratio of the weight in Newton to the deflection of the spring in
meters. Stiffness of all the springs is determined in the same way.
2. Springs in the required configurations are suspended from the support. The equivalent
stiffness is calculated from the formula corresponding to the system configuration. The
theoretical natural frequency is calculated.
3. The system is disturbed from its equilibrium position by pulling the weight vertically and
releasing it.
4. The number of oscillations completed in one minute is noted down with the help of a stop
watch. The results are tabulated.


OBSERVATIONS:
System
Stiffness of the
springs (N/m)
Equivalent spring
stiffness (N/m)
Theoretical natural
frequency (cpm)
Actual natural
frequency (cpm)





RESULTS:
The theoretical and experimental natural frequencies of different spring mass systems are determined
and tabulated.

Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod
EXP NO: 7 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the thermal conductivity of the given metal rod.
THEORY:
From Fouriers Law of Heat Conduction:
=

Where,
Q = rate of heat conduction (W)
A = area of heat transfer, (m
2
)
k = thermal conductivity of the material, (W/mK)

= thermal gradient (K/m)

Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and may be defined as the amount of heat
conducted per unit time through unit area when a unit temperature difference is maintained across unit
thickness.
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a brass rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heating coil
while the other end projects into the cooling water jacket. The rod is insulated with glass wool to
minimize the radiation and convection loss from the surface of the rod and this ensures nearly
constant temperature gradient throughout the length of the rod. The temperature of the rod is measure
at five different locations. The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the heat input.
Water is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise can be measured.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material: Brass rod
Size of the specimen: 20mm, 450mm long
Cylindrical shell: 300mm long
Voltmeter: Digital type, 0-300V, AC
Ammeter: Digital type, 0-2A, AC
Dimmer for heating coil: 0-230V, 12A
Heater: Band type Nichrome heater, 250W
Thermocouple used: Cr-Al, 11 nos.
Temperature indicator: Digital type, 0-199.9

PROCEDURE:
1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.
2. Give heat input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer and adjust the voltage to the
required value.
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust its flow rate so that the heat is
taken away from the specimen constantly.
4. Allow sufficient time for the apparatus to reach steady state.
5. Take readings from the voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Note the temperatures along the length of the specimen rod at 5 different locations.
7. Note down the inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water and measure the flow rate of
water.
8. Repeat the experiment with different heat inputs.

OBSERVATIONS:
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Voltmeter reading (V) (volts)
Ammeter reading (I) (amps)
Heat input (VI) (W)
M
e
t
a
l

R
o
d

T
h
e
r
m
o
c
o
u
p
l
e

R
e
a
d
i
n
g
s

(

C
)

T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
Volume flow rate of water (Vf)
(cc/min)



CALCULATIONS:
Plot the variation of temperature along the length of the rod.
From the graph, obtain dT/dx, which is the slope of the straight line passing through/near the points
on the graph.
Assuming no heat loss,
heat conducted through the rod = heat carried away by the cooling water.
=

(
11

10
)
Where,
k = thermal conductivity of metal rod (W/mK)
A = cross sectional area of metal rod (m
2
) = (d
2
/4)
d = diameter of the specimen = 20mm
Cp = specific heat of water = 4.187kJ/kgK
Thus, the thermal conductivity k of metal rod can be evaluated.

=
=

(
11

10
)

=



RESULTS:
1. Graph of variation of temperature along the length of the rod is plotted.
2. Thermal conductivity of the rod is

Heat Transfer Through Lagged Pipe
EXP NO: 8 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the heat flow rate through lagged pipe for known value of thermal conductivity
of lagging material.
DESCRIPTION:
To apparatus consists of two concentric pipe mounted on suitable stands. The inside pipe consists of
the heater. Between the first cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is to be done is saw
dust. The thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders to measure the temperature. The input
to the heater is varied through a dimmerstat and measured on a wattmeter. The experiment can be
conducted at various values of input and calculations can be made accordingly.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Inner pipe diameter (d1) = 45mm
Outer pipe diameter (d2) = 75mm
Length of the pipe (l) = 500mm
Surface temperature on inner pipe T1, T2 and T3
Inner surface temperature on outer pipe T4 and T5
Heater control unit = 2A
Wattmeter = 1200W
Insulating materials
1. Thermal conductivity (asbestos), (K1) = 0.26W/mK
2. Thermal conductivity (saw dust), (K2) = 0.069W/mK
LIMITS AND PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep dimmerstat at zero position before start.
2. Increase voltage gradually.
3. Keep the assembly undisturbed while testing.
4. Read the temperature indicator.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the apparatus and vary dimmerstat to desired value by using voltmeter and
ammeter.
2. Take readings of all the 5 thermocouples when steady state is reached.



OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. No. Heat Input (Vi) (W)
Thermocouple Readings (C)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5


CALCULATIONS:
1. Mean temperature (C)

1
+
2
+
3
3
=

4
+
5
2
=

2. Heat conducted through composite cylinder

=
2(

)
ln(
2

2
)

1
=

3. Effective thermal conductivity

=
ln(
2

2
)
2(

)
=

4. Temperature profile based on Keff

=
ln(
2

2
)
2

=
RESULTS:
The effective thermal conductivity of the lagged pipe is



Composite Wall Apparatus
EXP NO: 9 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the thermal conductivity of different wall material and overall heat transfer
coefficient of the composite wall.
THEORY:
Thermal conductivity of a composite wall is given by:
=

=
1

1
+

2
+

3

Q = heat input (W)
A = area of heat flow (m
2
)
T = temperature difference (C)
U = overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
K)
K = thermal conductivity of material (W/mK)
L = thickness of wall (m)
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of three walls made of cast iron, press wood, and Bakelite having the
same thickness. The three walls are clamped on both sides using bolts and nuts. On one side of the
composite wall, a heater is provided. The heater input can be varied using a dimmerstat.
Thermocouples are embedded at top and bottom wall sections to find out the average temperature.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of composite wall (D) = 150mm
Thickness of each wall (L) = 6mm
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the apparatus.
2. Adjust power input to required value using dimmerstat.
3. Allow sufficient time to reach steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.


OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. No.
Heat input
in watts (W)
Temperature readings (C)
T1 (TH) T2 (TC) T3 (TP) T4 T5

CALCULATIONS:
1. Temperature at outer surface of Bakelite (TB) =

4
+
5
2
=
2. Heat transfer area (A) =

2
4
=

3. Thermal conductivity of CI wall (KC) =

)
=


4. Thermal conductivity of press wood wall (KP) =

)
=


5. Thermal conductivity of Bakelite wall (KB) =

)
=

6. Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) =
1

1
+

2
+

3
=

RESULTS:
The thermal conductivity each wall is found and the overall heat transfer coefficient was calculated.
CI wall
Press wood
Bakelite
Overall heat transfer coefficient

Measurement of Emissivity
EXP NO: 10 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:

AIM: To determine the emissivity of a gray surface.
THEORY:
When heat is supplied at a constant rate to a body, heat loss takes place by conduction,
convection and radiation. If two bodies of the same geometry are heated under identical conditions,
the heat loss by conduction and convection can be assumed to be same for both the bodies. The heat
loss by radiation depends on:
a. Characteristic of the material
b. Geometry of the surface
c. Temperature of the surface
Rate of heat loss to surrounding air by radiation is given by:
=
1

1
(
1
4

2
4
)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4

A1 = surface area (m
2
)
1 = emissivity
T1 = surface temperature of the body (K)
T2 = surrounding atmospheric temperature (K)
APPARATUS:
Two circular plates of identical dimensions (150mm dia), one of which is made black by
applying a thick layer of lamp black while the other plate whose emissivity is to be measured is a gray
body. Heating coils are provided at the bottom of the plates. The plates are mounted on an asbestos
cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to ensure undisturbed natural convection. Two thermocouples
are mounted on the same plate to measure the temperature. One thermocouple is in the chamber to
measure the chamber air temperature.
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the apparatus.
2. Adjust power input to required value using dimmerstat to both the plates, giving equal power
to each.
3. When steady state is achieved, note down all the thermocouple readings.
4. Repeat experiment for different values of input power.



OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. No.
Heat Input
(W)
Temperature of black
surface (C)
Temperature of test
surface (C)
Ambient
temperature (C)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5



CALCULATIONS:
1. Temperature of the black body (K)

1
+
2
2
+273 =

2. Temperature of the gray body (K)

3
+
4
2
+273 =

3. Chamber air temperature (K)

=
5
+273 =

4. Emissivity of test plate (gray body)
=

4
=


RESULTS:
The emissivity of the gray body is found to be


Heat Transfer through Extended Surfaces
EXP NO: 11 LABORATORY TEMPERATURE:
DATE: LABORATORY PRESSURE:
AIM:
1. To find out the temperature distribution along the given fin for constant base temperature
under natural and forced flow conditions.
2. To find out effectiveness, fin efficiency, heat transfer (theoretical and experimental) of the fin
under both conditions.
APPARATUS:
Set of fins of circular cross section of length L is fitted in the rectangular duct as shown. The
base of the fin is fixed to a heater plate for heating the fin. Thermocouples are provided on the surface
of the fin. The duct is provided with a blower to control the air flow with the help of a valve at the
suction end. A multichannel temperature indicator is provided to monitor different temperature points.
An anemometer has been provided to measure the air velocity through the duct. Digital ammeter,
voltmeter and wattmeter have been provided to measure power input to the heater. Two heat
regulators to vary power input to the heaters are provided. The two heaters are sandwiched between
metal plates. Heater 1 regulates the heat flow of outer heater, heat input of which is indicated by the
voltmeter and ammeter. Heater 2 regulates the heat flow of inner heater, heat input of which is
indicated by the wattmeter. A total of 20 thermocouples have been provided in the experiment.
Temperature can be read by channel selector 3 by keeping the other two at 8
th
point. CH1 reads
temperature from 1 to 7, CH2 reads from 8 to 15 and CH3 reads from 16 to 20.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Length of the pin fin (L) = 150mm
2. Diameter of the pin fin (D) = 12.5mm
3. Thermal conductivity of material (K)
a. Brass = 111W/mK
b. Copper = 327W/mK
c. Stainless steel = 45W/mK
4. Duct size = 100mm 200mm
5. Distance between each thermocouple on pin fin = 45mm
PROCEDURE:
Natural Convection
1. Switch on the power supply to the apparatus.
2. Adjust Heater 1 and Heater 2 by observing voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter to obtain the
required heat input.
3. Wait till steady state is reached.
4. Note down voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and thermocouple readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of heat input.

Forced Convection
1. Switch on the power supply to the apparatus.
2. Adjust Heater 1 and Heater 2 by observing voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter to obtain the
required heat input.
3. Start the blower and set the velocity to the required value.
4. Wait till steady state is reached.
5. Note down voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, thermocouple and hot wire anemometer readings.
6. Repeat the experiment for different values of heat input.
CALCULATIONS:
Natural Convection
1. Surface mean temperature
Tmf =

.
=
2. Air temperature (Ta) =
3. Tm =

2
=
At which temperature air properties are to be read:
=
Cp =
Kair =
=
4. Prandtl number (Pr)
Pr =

=
5. Grashoff number (Gr)
Gr =

3
()

2
=

=
1

+273
=
=

=
6. Nusselt number (Nu) =
Nu = 0.59(Gr.Pr)
0.25
where 10
4
<Gr.Pr<10
9

Nu = 0.13(Gr.Pr)
0.33
where 10
9
<Gr.Pr<10
12

7.

=

8. Perimeter (P) = D =
9. K = thermal conductivity of fin material =
10. Ac =

2
4
=

11. m =

=


12. Effectiveness of fin
=
tanh()

/
=

13. Fin efficiency
=
tanh()
tan()
=

14. Temperature distribution along the length of the fin:

+(

) (
cosh(( ))
cosh(mL)
)
Tx = temperature of the fin at distance X on the fin measured from base (C)
To = fin base temperature (C)
Ta = ambient temperature (C)





15. Actual heat transfer rate
= (

) tanh()


Forced Convection
1. Surface mean temperature
Tmf =

.
=
2. Air temperature (Ta) =
3. Tm =

2
=
At which temperature air properties are to be read:
air =
Kair =
=
Cp =

4. Reynolds number (Re)
=

=
V = velocity of air (m/s)
D
eq
= duct area (m
2
)
5. Nusselt number (Nu)=
Nu = 0.618(Re)
0.466
where 40<Re<4000
Nu = 0.174(Re)
0.618
where 4000<Re<40000


6. h =
Nu

= where D = diameter of fin

7. m =

=





8. Effectiveness of fin
=
tanh()

/
=

9. Fin efficiency
=
tanh()
tan()
=


10. Temperature distribution along the length of the fin:

+(

) (
cosh(( ))
cosh(mL)
)
Tx = temperature of the fin at distance X on the fin measured from base (C)
To = fin base temperature (C)
Ta = ambient temperature (C)





11. Actual heat transfer rate
= (

) tanh()


Type of
flow
Heater 1 Heater 2
Brass Fin
(top-left)
SS fin
(top middle)
Brass fin
(top-right)
Voltmeter
(V)
Ammeter
(A)
Wattmeter
(W)
T1
(C)
T2
(C)
T3
(C)
T4
(C)
T5
(C)
T6
(C)
T7
(C)
T8
(C)
T9
(C)
Natural
Forced

Brass fin
(bottom-left)
Copper fin
(bottom-middle)
Brass fin
(bottom-right)
Ambient
temperature
Air outlet
temperature
Air
velocity
(m/s)
T10
(C)
T11
(C)
T12
(C)
T13
(C)
T14
(C)
T15
(C)
T16
(C)
T17
(C)
T18
(C)
T19
(C)
T20
(C)


Fin
Material
Type of
flow
Power
(W)
hth
(W/m
2
K)
Measured temperature Theoretical temperature

Tbase T45 T90 Tbase T45 T90
Brass
TL
Natural
Forced
SS
TM
Natural
Forced
Brass
TR
Natural
Forced
Brass
BL
Natural
Forced
Copper
BM
Natural
Forced
Brass
BR
Natural
Forced