Schlumberger - WEC - Well Evaluation Conference (Eng)

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com
2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

PARA COMPRAR AL DETAL O AL MAYOR, ESTE Y OTROS PRODUCTOS, FAVOR PREGUNTAR POR EL GAJIRO BLANCO, EN EL MERCADO LAS PLAYITAS.
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W E L L E VA L U AT I O N
CONFERENCE
Contents
Foreword
Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs of Venezuela
Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Appendix
Units and abbreviations, Index
CARACAS, DECEMBER 1997


ell Evaluation Conferences have been held regularly in the major oil-producing countries of the world for 25 years.
The last one to be held in Venezuela was in 1980, during the rapid accumulation of reserves following nationalization,
and soon after the introduction of computerized service units at the wellsite. Since 1980 many things have changed, both in the
needs of the oil industry and the techniques available to meet those needs. Once again in Venezuela, we are at the beginning of
a new era in exploration and production, and in the application of new value-adding technologies.
The goal of this new book is to show how technology has solved some of the exploration and development problems which
are particularly relevant to Venezuela. Our theme is Optimizing well production and reservoir understanding from well data.
The range of topics is wider than before and reflects the current focus on the integration of different services, both in application
and organization.
Within this theme we present examples of well planning and efficiency, evaluating new wells and the reservoirs around them,
and evaluating old wells and increasing their production. Many techniques are considered in terms of their efficiency, quality of
information, and economics. We have included a concise description of the geology of Venezuela and an overview of the typical
Venezuelan hydrocarbon reservoirs.
This information has been produced in three formatsa Spanish-language book, an English-language book, and on CD-ROM
in both languages. Essentially all the examples are from Venezuela, for which we must thank PDVSA, its affiliates, and the other
companies who gave permission to publish their data. We also thank the authors and contributors for their time and efforts.
We dedicate this book to the many professionals who have contributed to the successful exploitation of hydrocarbons in
Venezuela, and to the many others now arriving to pursue the challenge.
J. Yearwood
A. Nicoletti
Vice-President and General Manager,
Vice-President GeoQuest
Latin America and the Caribbean, Dowell
Latin America
A. Campo
Vice-President and General Manager
South America, Mexico and the Caribbean,
Wireline & Testing
J. Qualtrough
C. Paolini
Manager, Latin America
Vice-President, Latin America,
Anadrill
Integrated Project Management
Schlumberger Oilfield Services

The preparation of this book

has been coordinated by:
J.M.Singer
with the assistance of:
P.Laurent and J-C. Bernys
and the authors and contributors
mentioned in each chapter,
and the support of:
R.Gutierrez (PDVSA), O.Surez (Maraven),
D.Flores (Corpoven), L.Escandn (Lagoven),
L.Escoffery, J-L.Roche, D.Gawick, J.Cuesta
and C.Torres.


Chapter 1
Petroleum Geology of Venezuela
General geology
The history of oil exploration
in Venezuela
Petroleum basins
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF VENEZUELA
Figure 1.0
100,000 m
200,000 m
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
700,000 m
900,000
La Vela
offshore
1,300,000 m
Gulf of Venezuela
La Vela
Coro
Tiguale
W.Mara
Mara
La Paz
er
Tocu y o
YARACUY
Valencia
Riv
CARABOBO
Barquisimeto
Lama
ZULIA
o
Ca
tat u
Lake
Maracaibo
er
R iv
Yucal - Placer
San Juan
de los Morros
San Carlos
Trujillo
Motatn
El Rosario
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
Lago Ceuta
Lamar
centro Tomoraro
Ro de Oro
Tu
Los Teques
Mene Grande
Alturitas
Caracas
Maracay
LARA
Bachaquero
Urdaneta
D.F.
San Felipe
Cabimas
Ta Juana
Lagunillas
Boscn
1,100,000 m
FALCON
Las Palmas
Hombre Pintado
Media
Maracaibo
La
Mene de Maurda
Concepcin Ambrosio
Sibucara
Gu a
1.43
sa
re
Ri
1,200,000 m
er
Caribbean Sea
Cumarebo
El Mamn
Ri
v
Fig
1,000,000 m
800,000 m
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
COJEDES
48
1.
PORTUGUESA
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
fig
Barinas
48
40
Mrida
1.45
1.
Tarra
Bella Vista
Fig
36
1.
Las Cruces
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Las Mercedes
Guanare
fig
Los Manueles
Tucupido
Punzn
TRUJILLO
1.
ig
Ri
Apure River
G u
rico R ive
r
1.48
r
ve
Fig
ur
er
TACHIRA
Sinco
MACHETE
aR
i
BARINAS
GUARICO
Silvestre
at
Silvn
MERIDA
900,000 m
San Fernando
de Apure
San Cristbal
La Alquitrana
APURE
800,000 m
La Victoria
Guafita
Arauca R i ver
Ri
auca ver
Ar
BOLIVAR
Legend
Oil field
State Boundaries
Gas field
Cross Section
Condensate field
State Capitol
Oil + Condensate field
River
700,000 m
0
0
20
40
20
Meta River
60 80 100 120 km
40
60
80 miles
COLOMBIA
600,000 m
100,000 m
200,000 m
300,000 m
400,000 m
500,000 m
600,000 m
Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.

700,000 m
800,000 m
900,000
00 m
700,000 m
800,000 m
1,000,000 m
1,100,000 m
1,200,000 m
1,300,000 m
1,400,000 m
1,300,000 m
Tobago
Caribbean Sea
Dragn
Patao
Margarita Island
Mejillones
La Asuncin
Ro Caribe
N. ESPARTA
1,200,000 m
Coche
Cubagua
SUCRE
Cuman
Caracas
Barcelona
ig
Dakoa
Guavinita
Las Mercedes
Ruiz
Beln
Palacio
Copa Macoya
Saban
Ipire
Bella Vista
Un
ar
e
Riv
e
Fig
PAO
1.50
HAMACA
Ori n
River
co
v
1.50
BELT
ZUATA
Ciudad
Bolvar
Fig
Aro iv
R
er
San Fernando
de Apure
Caroni
ua
1.48
rico R ive
r
Fig
ORINOCO
MACHETE
er
G u
Piln
Morichal
aR
i
Apure River
1,000,000 m
Bitor Area
Cerro
Negro
1.45
GUARICO
DELTA
Bombal
Uracoa
Tucupita
Jobo
Barso
ig
re iv
Tig R e
Greater Temblador
area Temblador
Fig
48
1.
ive r
Punzn
8
4
1.
Tajali
Maturin
El Furrial
Carito
a ip a
Santa BrbaraG u n
es
Tucupido
al
La Ceiba
Tacat
Greater Oficina
area
Greater Anaco
area
Loran
rn
Jobal
Roblecito Valle
Jusepn
Pirital
ANZOATEGUI
1,100,000 m
de
Yucal - Placer
Quiriquire
Orocual
Manresa
Quiamare
San Juan
de los Morros
Posa
MONAGAS
Pe
MIRANDA
ARAGUA
er
Riv
Tu
Los Teques
Gulf of Paria
iv
1.5
Maracay
Trinidad
Jua
San
R
Fig
D.F.
BO
Ri
er
900,000 m
AMACURO
Reclamation
Zone
BOLIVAR
Greater Anaco area
Greater Oficina area
Santa Rosa
La Florida
El Roble
Casca
Carisito
Maulpa
aR
Onado
ver
00 m
900,000 m
BOLIVAR
Aguasay
San Joaqun
Casma
Cantaura
San Roque
Santa Ana
El Toco
Acema
Mata
Acema - Casma
Mapiri
Kaki
Naroo
Boca
Guere
Oscurote
Nipa
Oritupano
Guara
Leona
Chimire
Budare
Elotes
Oficina
Dacin
Lobo
Adas
Trico
Oveja
700,000 m
800,000 m
Melones
900,000 m

Figure 1.1
68
64
60
Guajira Aruba
Peninsula
Paraguan Bonaire
Grenada
Caribbean
Sea
Peninsula
Gulf
Coro
of
Venezuela
La Tortuga
Tobago
Porlamar
nge
Paria
Maracaibo uis Ra ange
Araya
La Costa Range Cuman
C.
de
La
Costa
L
R
Trinidad
a
Caracas
Cariaco Carpano
Sanaragu
Barcelona
Valencia
B
Los Teques
Interior Range
Lake Barquisimeto
Interior Range
ipa
Maturn
Maracaibo es
uan
d Trujillo
(Central Branch) (Eastern Branch)
R. G igre
T
An
Tucupita
Rio
Guanare
n
a
el
zu
ne Mrida Barinas
e
Ciudad
Bolvar
V
o
ric
ua
o G sa
Ri
e
gu
rtu
Po
o
Ri
Apu
co
rino
San Rio O
Fernando
re
100- 250 m
0-100 m
Rio Meta
Puerto
Ayacucho
Mountain
Belts
a
an
ay if
u
s
G as
M
Foothill
Regions
Plains and
Coastal Plains
Colombia
100
0
50
200 km
Brazil
150
68
The Venezuelan physiographic provinces are:

1) The mountain belts:
Venezuelan Andes and the
Caribbean Mountain System
(Perij, San Luis; Baragua
and La Costa Range); 2) the
foothills; 3) the coastal plains;
4) the plains between the
Orinoco River and the mountain belts; 5) and the
Guayana Province or Massif
(after NB-18-ll map; MMH,
Brazil
72
1976).
Reclamation Zone
250 to > 5000 m
Rio Arauca
Sea
Level
3
11
Guyana
Rio
S. Cristbal
7
ic
nt n
tla a
A ce
O
Co
lom
11
bia
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
e
72
64
the chapter, and also a time chart with the

main geological ages indicated and a
geopolitical map with all Venezuelan cities
and places cited in the text (Fig. 1.0). Also,
we include a section called the History of
Oil Exploration in Venezuela for those who
may be interested in the history and growth
of Venezuelas most important industry. At
the end of the chapter, a list of references
consulted for the compilation of figures and
text is provided. We also include references
to other papers and books that should be
useful to those who wish to study the
geology of Venezuelan petroleum basins in
more detail.
60
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter on the
Petroleum Geology and Basins of Venezuela
is to give the reader a general overview of
the geology of the country. Our knowledge
has been greatly enhanced by the oil
industry and mining activities that have been
ongoing for almost a century. Without
entering into a detailed analysis of the
numerous and unsolved problems with the
geology, we have integrated the information
presented in many papers and books written
on Venezuelan geology. We have tried to
attribute the original contributions of all
authors, and have also presented summations based upon our own experience. We
have avoided specialized and detailed points
of view concerning stratigraphy, sedimentology and geotectonic evolution,
instead choosing to simplify the geology
because of our diverse readership and
limited writing space. For non-specialized
readers, we include a Glossary at the end of
Physiographic provinces
There are five main physiographic
provinces in Venezuela (Fig. 1.1):
1. Mountain ranges
a.Venezuelan Andes system
b. Caribbean mountain system (Perij
Range, San Luis and Baragua Ranges, La
Costa Mountain Range)
2. Foothill regions
3. Coastal plains
4. Mainland plains
5. Guayana Province.
Rocks of a wide age range (Precambrian
through Neogene) are found in the
mountain ranges of La Costa and the Andes.
Their formation history is closely associated
with the evolution of the northern margin of
the South American plate from the Eocene to
the present. The foothill regions (9430 km2)
are covered by Neogene molassic sediments
whose main physiographic features are
terraces formed during glaciation/deglaciation processes.

GENERAL GEOLOGY
PRECAMBRIAN
Figure 1.2
Cenozoic Orogenic
Belt
Caribbean Sea
Caribbean Frontal
Thrust
300 km
us
Santa
hm
Marta
Upper
Ist
a
Paleozoic
m
a
n
Orogenic
Pa
Belt
Caracas
Valencia
Lower Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
Mrida
San
Cristbal Apure Fault
Venezuela
Weste
rn Ran
ge
East
ern R
ange
Pacific Ocean
Bogot
62
Paleozoic and Cenozoic

Basins as a Precambrian
Basement
Trinidad
o
pin n
Es rabe
G
Ciudad
Bolvar
ult
Fa
ira
tam
Al
Cuchivero
Imataca
Province
Province
Guayana Shield
Pastora
Province
Roraima
Province
Reclamation
Zone
78
Cuchivero
Province
Brazil
Colombia
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt
Imataca Province
Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Pastora Province
Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Cuchivero Province
Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins

of the Precambrian Basement
Roraima Province
Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement,

Imataca Province Possible Extension
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Overthrusting
Northern South Americas

distribution of allochthonous
terranes in which
Precambrian rocks are
present. These terranes
were sequentially sutured to
the South American
continent during the
Ordovician-Silurian and later
during Late Mesozoic
through Recent.
The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are

concentrated in four broad regions: 1) north
of Falcn State (Fig.1.0), 2) Barcelona
coastline (Anzotegui State), 3) Orinoco
River delta (Delta Amacuro State), and 4)
north of Sucre State. The mainland plains
(260,000 km2), with an extensive drainage
network, encompass the land between the
northern mountain ranges and the Guayana
Province; they are the result of the
sedimentary filling of the Eastern and
Barinas-Apure Basins.
In the south is the Guayana Province
(also called Guayana Massif, Guayana
Shield, or Guayana Cratn in the
geological literature) with 425,000 km2 of
Precambrian-age terranes, with some
Pleistocene plains built by the Orinoco River
and some of its tributaries.
Precambrian terranes
The Venezuelan Precambrian terranes
outcrop in the main mountain ranges of the
country and in the Guayana Province.
Because of the tectonic history of the northern South American plate, both allochthonous and autochthonous Precambrian rocks
are found. Figure 1.2 shows the distribution
of these terranes; those located north of the
Orinoco River were overridden by Paleozoicage crustal fragments that were accreted, or
added, to the South American plate.
The autochthonous terranes are located
in the Guayana Province, and also form part
of the basement of the Paleozoic to Cenozoic
sedimentary basins south of the Apure Fault.
There are four provinces of Precambrian
rocks in the Guayana Province: Imataca,
Pastora, Cuchivero and Roraima (Fig. 1.2).
It has not been possible to discriminate
different provinces (with respect to age) in
the basement of the oil basins to the north of
Guayana Province; this is because there are
few wells that have reached the basement in
these basins and the available descriptive
information is scarce.
The accretion of allochthonous terranes
on the South America plate began during the
Early Paleozoic (Caledonian Orogeny: 570 to
385 Ma); part of these rocks outcrop near
Mrida and San Cristbal in western
Venezuela. Later, during the Hercinian
Orogeny (385 to 245 Ma), occurred the
suturation, or welding of the allochthonous
blocks. These included Precambrian rocks,
among which only the granitic rocks of the
Sierra Nevada in the Santa Marta Massif
(Colombia) have been dated (Fig. 1.2). The
last collision began during the Cretaceous;
this allochthon includes rocks of
Precambrian age near the city of Caracas
(Federal District) and south of Valencia
(Carabobo State).

Distribution
Figure 1.3
78
100
62
300 km
200
Cenozoic
Orogenic Belt
Panam
Isthmus
Caribbean
Frontal Thrust
Santa
Upper Marta
Caracas
Paleozoic
Orogenic
Belt
El Bal
Early Paleozoic
Orogenic Belt
78
nge
rn R
a
Weste
rn Ra
nge
Caparo
ult
re Fa
Apu
Bogot
no
pi en
lt
Es rab Fau
G
a
ir
ta
Al
Venezuela
Reclamation
Zone
Lower
Paleozoic
Basin
Colombia
East
e
Pacific Ocean
Caribbean Sea
Guayana Shield
4
62
Cenozoic Orogenic Belt
Lower Paleozoic Basin
Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Guayana Shield
Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt
Boundaries of the
Cordilleran Systems
Brazil
Overthrusting
Northern South Americas

distribution of allochthonous
terranes in which Paleozoic
rocks are present. These
terranes were sequentially
sutured during the
Ordovician and Silurian, then
during the Carboniferous and
finally during Late Mesozoic
through Recent.
Paleozoic terranes
The rocks of Paleozoic age in Venezuela
are found in several regions, geologically
grouped as allochthonous or autochthonous
terranes of South America. The autochthonous terranes are found in the
subsurface of the Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Basins (Fig. 1.21), south of the Apure Fault
(Fig. 1.3). These rocks are typical red beds
from Gondwana (South America and Africa
before its rupture) and Laurentia (North
America and Greenland before its rupture);
they are preserved only in the deep
structural depressions of these Venezuelan
basins. The allochthonous terranes are
distinguished by the age in which they were
tectonically accreted to the north of the
South American plate; there are those
accreted during the Early Paleozoic, others
during the Late Paleozoic and the latest
during the Mesozoic.
Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of

allochthonous terranes that were welded to
the Lower Paleozoic autochthons during
OrdovicianSilurian time. Those rocks
accreted during the Lower Paleozoic are
now considered part of the basement from
the point of view of later Caribbean tectonic
history. They include that part of the
orogenic belt north of the Apure Fault, the
actual Andes and Maracaibo Basin.
In the Andes, rocks of the Lower
Paleozoic allochthonous terranes include
granitic and shelf/slope sedimentary rocks
(OrdovicianSilurian). Ordovician metasedimentary rocks are found in the subsurface
basement of the Maracaibo Basin and in the
Andes. Devonian-age allochthonous terranes,
welded to South America during the Late
Paleozoic, outcrop in the Perij Mountains.
Part of the accretionary history of the
Upper Paleozoic onto the Lower Paleozoic
includes granitic rocks, formed as a result of
subduction below the northern border of
South America. These include rocks of the El
Bal region (Permian age) and those found
in the subsurface of Eastern, Barinas-Apure
and Maracaibo Basins (Carboniferous age).
The accreted belt included sedimentary
sequences of Carboniferous and Permian
ages; these rocks now outcrop in the Perij
and Andes Mountains.
The last of these allochthonous terranes
is the Caribbean Mountain System that
extends from Guajira Peninsula (Western
North Venezuela) to Paria Peninsula (Eastern
North Venezuela), including the subsurface
basement of the Gulf of Venezuela and the
La Costa Mountain Range. In this terrane
Paleozoic rocks of Devonian to Permian
ages are found.

GENERAL GEOLOGY
PA L E O Z O I C A N D M E S O Z O I C
Figure 1.4
Age
Perij and Guajira
Andes
Gurico and Cojedes
La Costa Range
Ipire
Pueblo Nuevo
Las Brisas (Zenda)
Macuro
Seco Cojoro/COCINAS
La Quinta
Conglomerates
El Totumo
Macoita
Jurassic
La Quinta
La G
Tinacoa Volcanics
Guacamayas
?
Triassic
Correlation chart of the most
Mesozoic terranes
important Triassic-Jurassic
units in Venezuela.
Triassic-Jurassic
The Triassic is not present in Venezuela

or, at least, no evidence of its presence has
been found and documented. The oldest
part of the Jurassic system (208 to 181 Ma) is
represented by Volcnicas de la Ge (Perij)
and Volcnicas de Guacamayas (El Bal),
which predated the red bed sedimentation
of the La Quinta Formation and the whole
expansion process related to the Gulf of
Mexico or Proto-Caribe opening. They are
the lateral equivalents of the Volcnicas de
El Totumo (Perij) (Fig. 1.4),
Figure 1.5
Guajira
73
63
Paraguan
12
Pe
rij
Caribbean Sea
12
Coro
Maracaibo
El Pilar Fault
Ur
Caracas
ica 4
Fa
ul
Espino
t
Graben
In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

(the supercontinent comprising America,
Europe and Africa) rifting produced several
main structural features that later influenced
the evolution of the Venezuelan sedimentary
basins. Inside continental Venezuela, the
Proto-Caribe
opening
induced
the
development of northeast-oriented extension valleys or grabens (Fig. 1.5). Among
these valleys are the Apure-Mantecal,
Espino, Andes-Perij and Maracaibo grabens.
It has been postulated that the Jurassic rocks
in the deepest parts of the Interior Mountain
Range of Eastern Venezuela were involved
in this deformation, as deduced by the trend
of the main grabens, such as Apure-Mantecal
and Espino. However, this theory has not yet
been proven.
All these grabens were filled during
the Jurassic by red bed (continental)
sediments, diverse volcanics, and occasional
shallow-marine clastics and limestones.
Their preserved sequences outcrop in many
places: the Guajira and Paraguan Peninsulas
(Cojoro and Cocinas Groups; Pueblo Nuevo
Formation), and the widespread La Quinta
Formation of Western Venezuela. They also
occur in the subsurface of Eastern Venezuela
Basin (Ipire Formation).
Trinidad
Maturn
Andes
3
8
Santander
Massif
73
Colombia
Apure-Mantecal
Graben
100
200
300 km
63
Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perij Range; 2) as part of the economic

basement of Maracaibo Basin; 3) in the Andes; 4) in Barinas-Apure and Eastern
Venezuela Basins (Apure-Mantecal and Espino Graben). It is believed that they are
involved in deep thrusting within Eastern Venezuelas Interior Range (after Bartok,
1993; Passalacqua et. al., 1995; and Lugo and Mann, 1995).

Cretaceous
Figure 1.6
Early Cretaceous. The major sedimentary facies distribution and stratigraphy

of Early Cretaceous rocks (146 to 95 Ma) are
shown in Figs. 1.6 and 1.7.
In Western Venezuela, the sedimentation
was initially controlled by the Jurassic grabenfault systems. This is evidenced by the
variable thicknesses of Rio Negro Formation
clastics, which range from more than 2 km
near the south of Machiques Trough, to only
a few meters thick in some places of the
North-Andean flank. Later the subsidence
stabilised and there was an extensive
transgression of an open sea over the Western
Venezuelan shelf causing the carbonate
sedimentation of the Cogollo Group. The
lateral clastic equivalent of these carbonates
in the Cratn or Guayana Province margins is
the Aguardiente Formation. In Central Venezuela, there are some remains of an older
(?)
S
Chimana U
C
El Cantil
R
E
Barranqun
COGOLLO
TEMBLADOR
Through
U
Th riban
rou te
gh
Ro Negro
Machiques
Peas Altas
Aguardiente
Canoa
Guayana
Shield
200 km
Exposed Igneous and Metamorphic

Basement (Guayana Shield).
Shelf Environment
Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial Environment
Sandy Clastics
Hemipelagic/Pelagic
Limestones and Shales
Coastal and Transitional Environment

Sandy-Shale Clastics
Sediment Supply
Direction
Distribution of dominant sedimentary facies during the Neocomian-Albian (Early

Cretaceous) north of the Guayana Shield. Representative stratigraphical units of this
facies association are indicated.
Figure 1.7
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Andes and Barinas-Apure
Northern Gurico
Eastern
Interior Range
La Grita (Capacho)
Albian
Aptian
Querecual(*)
(Cutacual, "Valle Grande")
Maraca
C
Aguardiente
O
G
Lisure
O Guimaros
Pich
Apn L Tib
Apn
L
Machiques
O
Ro Negro
Tib
Chimana
"Punceres"
(Exotic
Blocks)
"Gucharo"
El Cantil
"El Mapurite"
Garca
Taguarumo
"Basal Clastics"
Picuda
Barremian
Barranqun
Ro Negro
Morro Blanco
?
Macaira Limestone
?
Neocomian
Venados
"Ro Solo"
?
Carbonate Reservoir
Sand / Seal Pairs
Sand / Sandstone Reservoir
Seal
(*)
The Querecual Formation

extends to the Late
Cretaceous
See Yoris, 1985, 1988, 1992, on Sucre Group.
Source Rock
Correlation chart of the most important Early Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Informal units are within quotation marks.

GENERAL GEOLOGY
MESOZOIC
(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf,

which is discontinuous along the
deformation (mountain) front to the north of
Gurico State (Macaira Limestone).
Figure 1.8
Maracaibo
Socuy
Caracas
La Luna
Mucaria
Navay
Infante
Gu
ay
ac
n
Capacho
Barcelona
Maturn
GUAYUTA
TEMBLADOR
Escandalosa
Guayana Shield
0
200 km
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
(Guayana Craton)
Shelf Carbonates
Continental-Fluvial
Sandy Clastics
Bathyal (Pelagic) and Shelf Shaly

Limestone, Chert and Siliceous
Mudstone
Coastal and Transitional Sandy

and Shaly Clastics
Bathyal and Abyssal Hemipelagic/

Pelagic Shales and Limestones
Dominant sedimentary facies

distribution during the
Cenomanian-Campanian
(Late Cretaceous) at the
northern edge of the
Guayana Shield North. Typical
units of these sets of facies
are indicated.
In Eastern Venezuela, the sedimentary

history resembles that of a passive Atlantic
type margin. These rocks belong to the Sucre
Group, which at the base are sandy clastics
and some shelf limestones of the Barranqun
Formation (whose thickness is more uniform
than its Western Venezuela equivalent). Later,
extensive and well defined carbonate-clastic
shelf sedimentation was developed (El Cantil
and Chimana Formations). The main
difference with the Early Cretaceous of
Western Venezuela is that in the Interior
Range of Eastern Venezuela, the lower
contact with older sequences is unknown
and the thicknesses of the Early Cretaceous
units are greater. For example, the
Barranqun Formation is more than 1 km
thick everywhere, with massive, carbonate
shelf sedimentation in its middle part (Morro
Blanco Member of Barremian age114 to 118
Ma) in the northernmost outcrops.
The thickness of both El Cantil and Chimana

Formations is several times the thickness of
their lateral equivalent in Western Venezuela,
the Cogollo Group.
Late Cretaceous. The distribution of
paleoenvironments and stratigraphic units
during the Late Cretaceous is shown in Figs.
1.8 and 1.9. Figure 1.10 condenses the
correlation chart for these units for all of
Venezuela.
A diachronic and extensive marine
invasion began at the end of the Albian,
moving from east to west and invading the
south of Venezuela, which had been
emerged and undergoing erosion since Late
Jurassic and possibly Paleozoic times. This
marine invasion coincides with the
worldwide transgressive pulse of the Late
Cretaceous, recorded in America and Europe
through the sedimentation of organic-rich
limestones, shales and cherts; these rocks are
recognized in Venezuela as the QuerecualSan Antonio (Guayuta Group), Mucaria,
Navay and La Luna Formations. The
maximum transgression and lack of oxygen
is believed to have occurred between the
Turonian and the Campanian (72 to 91 Ma).
The La Luna, Navay and Querecual
Formations are the source rocks for the oil
basins of Venezuela, and were deposited
during the late Albian to the Turonian (95 to
88 Ma). The La Luna Formation ranges
between 50 and 300 m thick in Western
Venezuela, while the Navay Formation is
close to 600 m thick in the South-Andean
Flank and thickens to the northeast.
In Western Venezuela, the lateral facies
variations of these source rocks consist of
pelagic and phosphatic limestones, dark
shales and shelly limestones that grade to
sandy clastics and glauconitic facies in the
southeastern flank of the Andes in Tachira
State. In North-Central Venezuela, these
facies occur in the Mucaria Formation and
Guayuta Group .

Figure 1.9
on e
ati c
m van
r
d
fo A
?
De nt
o
Fr
Marine Sediments (Undifferentiated)
Mito Juan
?
Coln
San Juan
Cujisal
?
Positive areas that include
Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks
Ro de Oro
Burgita
Guayana
Shield
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Sandy Clastics
Clay-Silt Clasts
Sedimentary Supply
Direction
Positive Areas
Shallow Marine
Carbonates
Postulated
Depocenter Axis
Thrust Front
Sedimentary facies distribution during the Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) at the

northern edge of the Guayana Shield. Typical units of these sets of facies are
indicated. Notice that the axis of the Western Venezuela depocenter is subparallel
to the deformation front, as a consequence of the plate collision between Nazca
and South American plates.
The Guayuta Group is thickest in NorthEastern Venezuela, being more than 1 km thick
in its type area (Anzotegui State). In the
Eastern Basin, this unit changes laterally to the
south, losing its source rock character by giving
way to sedimentation from shallower
environments, from shelf to coastline and even
continental, which are defined in the
subsurface as the Canoa and Tigre Formations
(Temblador Group).
The Late Cretaceous in Venezuela ends in
the Maastrichtian, with units that are regressive
relative to the deeper environments of the
source rock.
In Perij and the Maracaibo Basin,
the La Luna Formation grades vertically to
glauconitic limestones (Socuy Member), and
dark shales with thin sandstones defined as
the Colon and Mito Juan Formations. In
the North-Andean Flank, the glauconiticphosphatic Tres Esquinas Member is present,
which is the possible diachronic equivalent of
the Socuy Member, underlying the dark shales
of the Coln Formation.
In the South-Andean Flank, the upper
contact with the source rock is gradational to
erosive with the basal sandstones of Burgita
Formation.
Figure 1.10
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Age
Mito Juan
Maastrichtian
Coln
North-Andean
Flank
Mito Juan
South-Andean
Flank
Coln
Burgita
Tres Esquinas
Socuy
Santonian
La Luna
Navay
Campanian
Quevedo
La Morita
Coniacian
La Luna
Guayacn / Caliza "O"
Southern Flank
Eastern Basin
Infante
G
U
A
(Mucaria, San Antonio
Y "Ro Chvez" , Querecual,
"Querecual
of the North " )
U
T
A
(Regional hiatus
at the base?)
?
Capacho
Eastern
Interior Range
Vidoo
San Juan
Tigre
San Antonio U
A
TEMBLADOR
GROUP
?
"Exotic Blocks "
?
Y
U
Canoa
Guayacn
Turonian
Cenomanian
North of
Gurico
Gurico
Querecual
Escandalosa
?
Seboruco
Reservoir (Carbonate)
Sand / Seal Pairs
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
Source Rock
Correlation chart of the most important Late Cretaceous units of Venezuela. Gurico and Vidoo Formations
continue through the Paleocene; Canoa and Querecual Formations start by the end of Late Albian.
T
A

GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.11
Lesser Antilles
Arc
Caribbean Plate
Early Paleocene *
La Victoria
Middle Paleocene *
Early Eocene*
Trujillo
Maracaibo
P
Guasare/Marcelina ag
e
en
am
M
Cl arin Trujillo
as e
tic
Pauj
s
ne
Li
s
ic
st
a
Cl
Shallow
Clastics
Western
Range of
Colombia
Collision
Peas Blancas
South American
Block
Orocu/Mirador
B
Humocaro
Ba
Faralln
Plate
Andean Block
deep
Fore
Gobernador
Misoa
Barcelona
Roblecito
llo
-B
SM
Morn
EL
Shallow
Clastics
Matatere
a
Sh
Central
American Arc
on
b
ar
MaracaiboSta. Marta
Block
es
at
Gurico
Guayana Shield
(*) Deformation Front Position
50 km
Orocue/Mirador = Barco-Los Cuervos-Mirador-Carbonera Fms. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)

Gurico = Garrapata-Gurico Fms. Event (Paleocene)
Gobernador = Gobernador-Masparrito Fms. Event (Eocene)
Trujillo = Trujillo Fm. Event (Paleocene-Eocene)
Humocaro
= Humocaro-Quebrada Arriba Fms. Event (Eocene)
Misoa = Misoa-Cas-Pauj Fms. Event (Eocene)
La Victoria
= La Victoria-Santa Rita-Jarillal Fms. Event (Eocene)
= Direction of sediment supply
= Thrust front
ESE migration of the

Caribbean deformation front
and associated episutural
sedimentation during
Paleocene-Eocene times.
The Andean-South American
boundary was located at
the present position of the
Santa Marta-Bucaramanga
(SM-B) and Bocono
(B) fault systems.
= Exposed areas
In North-Central Venezuela, the lateral

equivalents of the Mucaria Formation grade
vertically to the hemipelagic and turbidite
sequences of the lower Guarico Formation.
To the east, the bathyal sandstones of the San
Juan Formation overlie the black cherts and
sandstones of the San Antonio Formation.
Then, in turn, the San Juan Formation grades
vertically to the dark shales of the Vidoo
Formation (late Maastrichtian60 to 65 Ma).
Cenozoic terrains
Paleogene
Paleocene-Eocene of Western Venezuela.

During late Cretaceous (Fig. 1.9) to early
Paleocene, Western Venezuela was affected
by the collision between the Nazca Plate
(Pacific Ocean) and Western Colombia. There
is evidence that the sedimentation of the
Orocu Group (and probably Guasare and
Marcelina Formations) was controlled by the
deformation fronts of this collision (Fig. 1.11).
These fronts generated successively younger

depocenters to the east of the actual Perij
Mountain range.
Figure 1.11 summarizes the sedimentation and gradual evolution of the
deformation front as the Caribbean plate
passed north of the South American plate
during the Paleocene-Eocene. For simplicity,
several formations are summarized by one
name only (e.g., Misoa refers to the
sedimentation of lateral equivalents and/or
closely related units, such as the Misoa, Cas
and Pauj Formations). Each event carries
the most distinctive formation or group name.
To the northeast of the South American
plate, the oblique collision of the Lesser
Antilles arc generated a series of sheets, or
nappes, trending towards the south and
southeast. These control the turbidite
sedimentation of formations such as Trujillo
and Morn.

1 10
Figure 1.12
Volcanic
Arc
Caribbean
Plate
Late Eocene
200 Km
Oca
Fault System
Frontal Thrust
Maximum
Subsidence Area
?
South American Plate
Advance of Allochthonous Terranes
?
Shallow Clastic Sediments
Foredeep Sediments
Positive Areas
Pull-Apart Basin
Thrust Front
Generation of pull-apart basins at the boundary between the Caribbean and South
American plates; the maximum subsidence areas were located north of Falcn State
at this time (Late Eocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
Figure 1.13
Lesser
Antilles
eV
olc
an
ic
c
Ar
Ac
tiv
V
Caribbean Plate
Extinct Volcanic Arc
X
XPampatar-Punta Carnero
Oceanic
Sedi
me
Caribbean Deformation
Limit
Peas Blancas
? Foredeep
ntat
io n
(U n
d iff
Vid
o
o-
Car
Barcelona
n ti
ate
d)
ata
Tinajitas
Caratas
50 Km
ere
Sl
op
Roblecito
Atlantic
Ocean
Maturn
Clastic Shelf
Positive Area
?
?
Paleocene-Eocene
Shallow Sandy Clastics
Lime-Clay Clastics Predominate over the

Sandy Clastics (Slope Environment)
Turbidites
Positive Areas
Limestones
Direction of Sediment Supply

Thrust Front
On the other hand, during the

Paleocene, to the north and west of
Maracaibo Basin, the Guasare Formation
was deposited in shallower environments
further away from the deformation fronts,
and afterwards the Marcelina Formation in
coastal-marsh environments.
During the Eocene, a complex sedimentary setting existed in the Maracaibo
Basin. Distinct deltaic/estuarine, coastal/fluvial
and marine systems developed, depending on
their geographic position with respect to the
different deformation fronts, such as in Perij
or later on in Lara to the east. Formations such
as Barco-Los Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera
(deposited between the Paleocene and Middle
Eocene65-40 Ma) represent two similar
sedimentary pulses of fluvial-deltaic origin in
the western part of Maracaibo Basin. In the
central part of the basin, the Guasare, Trujillo,
Misoa, Cas and Pauj Formations were more
marine lateral equivalents of the Barco-Los
Cuervos and Mirador-Carbonera, with a
relative, gradual deepening of environments
to the northeast. In the Barbacoas region, east
of Trujillo State, the average depth of the
Eocene sea was shallow enough to deposit
the transitional and coastal-marine sediments
of Gobernador-Masparrito and HumocaroQuebrada Arriba Formations. Meanwhile, in
Falcn State just north of the south-verging
deformation fronts, the La Victoria-Santa Rita
and Jarillal Formations were deposited. This
sedimentation was associated with extensional basin subsidence related to along-strike
faulting (i.e., a pull- apart basin) (Fig. 1.12).
Paleocene - Eocene of North - Central
Venezuela. Part of the accretion due to the
Lesser Antilles is probably represented by the
sediments of the Gurico Formation, plus the
limestone and other older units in the
olistostromes. During the Paleogene and
Neogene, this fold and thrust belt migrated to
the south and east of the nothern margin of
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the northern flank of the
Eastern Basin during the Paleocene-Eocene.
1 11

GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.14
Western Venezuela: Perij, Lake

Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank
Age
Carbonera
E
o
c
e
n
e
Pauj
Western Venezuela:
Trujillo, Lara and South-Andean
Flank and Barinas-Apure
Carbonera Mene Grande

Pauj
Guasare
Barco
?
Coln/Mito
Juan
Colon/mito Juan
Maastricht
Los Cuervos
Barco
O
R
O
C
U
E
T
r
u
j
i
l
l
o
H
u
m
o
c
a
r
o
M
o
r
a
n
V
a
l
l
e
Roblecito
La Pascua/ Los Jabillos

?
Peas
Blancas
Tinajitas
?
H
o
n
d
o
Gurico
Coln
Sand/Seal Pairs
Eroded/Unconformable
Formation extends into the

Campanian; the Carbonera,
Pauj, La Pascua, Roblecito
and Los Jabillos Formations
extend into the Oligocene.
The Gurico Formation may
reach down to the top of the
Maastrichtian wherever the
Vidoo
San Juan
Eroded Interval
Venezuela. The Coln
Caratas
?
(?) Garrapata
Reservoir (Sandy)
Paleocene-Eocene of
Seal
Correlation chart for the
absent.
Eastern Venezuela
Jarillal
Garrapata Formation is
North-Central
Venezuela
Santa Rita
Marcelina
O
R
O
C
U
E
La Victoria
(Misoa/Qda. Arriba/Gobernador)
Los Cuervos
P
a
l
e
o
c
e
n
e
Masparrito
(Misoa/Mirador)
Cerro Misin
?
Pagey
Cas
(Mirador/La Sierra)
Falcn
the South American plate. Those rocks

originally sedimented in the trough just in
front of the belt (the foredeep) were later
uplifted, eroded and re-sedimented into
the trough.
While the Caribbean plate moved to the
east between the South American and North
American plates, the influence of the fold
and thrust belts also moved, but to the
south, producing the new foredeep of the
Roblecito Formation, with a probable age
between the Late Eocene and Oligocene (?)
(39-23 Ma). South of the new foredeep, the
lithosphere bent due to the new load,
causing the influx of the clastics that
produced the La Pascua Formation.
Paleocene-Eocene of Eastern Venezuela.
During the Paleocene and Early Eocene, the
sedimentation was not influenced by the
Caribbean deformation fronts. The Vidoo
(hemipelagic marls, siltstones and clays) and
Caratas (sandstones) Formations accumulated on a passive continental margin slope.
It is possible that the influence of the

oblique collision of the Caribbean plate on
Eastern Venezuela began in the Middle
Eocenethe first evidence may be in the
sandy-glauconitic and foraminiferal-rich
carbonates deposited on the foredeep
margins located north of Venezuela (Peas
Blancas and Punta Carnero Formations and
Tinajitas Member of Caratas Formation). On
Margarita Island, the sandy and carbonaterich turbidites of the Pampatar (sandy rich)
and Punta Carnero (carbonate rich)
Formations represent a separate sedimentation from the Gurico and Roblecito, both
in time and space, and are probably related
to accretion near Barbados.
Figure 1.13 summarizes conceptually
the relationship between stratigraphic units
and deformation fronts. Figure 1.14 summarizes the Paleocene-Eocene stratigraphic
nomenclature, emphasizing the potential
character of each unit as a seal or reservoir.

1 12
Figure 1.15
Positive
Area
?
San Luis / Patiecitos
da
a Sala
a/Agu
Pecay
Guacharaca
Castillo
Casupal
El Paraso
Churuguara
Positive Area
?
Positive
Area
Carbonera
ito
Roblec
El Bal
Arc
La Pascua
?
?
Co
Len
lo
Guafita
bi
Guayana
Shield
rea
eA
v
i
t
i
s
Igneous-Metamorphic
Po
50 km
Basement
Shallow Sandy
Clastics
Limestones
Depocenter Axis
Sandy and Pelitic

Clastics of Shallow and
Deep Environmen(Turbidites)
Positive Areas
Extensional Basin
Direction of
Sediment Supply
Pelitic Clastics of
Shallow Marine
Environment
Thrust Front
Sedimentary regional framework in Western Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, BarinasApure Basins and Gurico Sub-Basin) during the Oligocene. The main depocenters
are located in Tchira (Len Formation), Falcn (Pecaya and Agua Salada Formations)
and Gurico (Roblecito Formation).
Figure 1.16
Caribbean Plate
Main
Depocenter
Oligocene-Miocene
La Vela Cove
La Pascua-Roblecito
(Central-North)
Urumaco
Trough
Basin"Foreland"
Incipient
Oca Fault
System
Capiricual-Carapita
(Eastern)
Frontal Thrust Advance

Shallow Clastic
Sediments
Positive Areas
Plate Movement
Vectors
200 km
Extensional
Trough
Oligocene of Western and North-Central

Venezuela. Since the Oligocene, the
sedimentary accumulation in Maracaibo
Basin was preserved mainly on its flanks. To
the west are the sandy clastics of the
Carbonera and Ceibote Formations (El
Fausto Group), to the south and east are the
fine clastics of the Len Formation (Fig.
1.15), and to the center is the Icotea
Formation (assigned by several authors to
the Oligocene). The Icotea is only found in
structurally controlled depressions, and its
characteristic lithology consists of siltstones
and claystones, with minor proportions of
sandstones.
The Falcn Basin reached its maximum
development and deepening during the
Oligocene. The sedimentation in the Falcn
region resulted from a different tectonic
setting than that of the Maracaibo Basin,
Barinas-Apure and Eastern Basins. Figure
1.16 shows the extensional basins associated
with major strike-slip faulting, especially in
the north of Falcn State. These gradually
evolved to the east, while the Caribbean
plate moved in the same direction.
In the north of central Venezuela, the
trough containing the Roblecito Formation
migrated to the east and southeast, favoring
the advance of La Pascua sandstones to the
south. These were followed and overlaid by
clastics from the foredeep.
Oligocene of Eastern Venezuela. During
the latest Eocene and Oligocene, the
sedimentation in the Interior Mountain
Range is represented by the Los Jabillos
(diverse sandy clastics), Areo (fine marine
and glauconitic clastics) and part of the
Naricual (shallow marine and coastal-fluvial
pelitic and sandy clastics) Formations.
Thrust Front
Maximum development of the Falcn State pull-apart and generation of extensive positive
areas in Maracaibo Basin and northern Falcn. Toward the south and east, the foreland
basin evolved, developing "troughs" like those of the La Pascua-Roblecito Formations (Late
Eocene-Oligocene) and Carapita-Capiricual (Early-Middle Miocene) (after Macellari, 1995).
1 13

Figure 1.18
GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
sediment source for the Naricual Formation

and its equivalents (e.g., Quebradn
Formation) is shownon the north side is a
fold-and-thrust belt source, and on the south
side is a Cratn Interior source. Something
similar occurs with the La Pascua and
Roblecito Formation equivalents, called the
Merecure Formation in the subsurface of the
southern flank of the Maturn Basin.
Following the diachronism principle, it is
assigned a younger age (Miocene), similar to
the surface Merecure Group.
Figure 1.18 summarizes the Oligocene
stratigraphic nomenclature, characterizing the
units as potential seals or reservoirs.
Figure 1.17
Extinct Island Arc
X
A
ve
Isl
an
dA
rc
Caribbean Plate
Limit of the
Caribbean Deformation
cti
Roblecito
Areo(?)
Areo(?)
Barcelona
Clastic Shelf/Transitional
Environment/Deltas
?
La Pascua
Slope
Naricual/Quebradn
Los Jabillos
Merecure/"Naricual"
Chaguaramas
?
Oligocene
Merecure
50 km
Shallow Sandy Clastics
Positive Areas
Silt-clay Clastics Predominate over

the Sand Fraction (Slope Environment)
Direction of Sediment
Supply
Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation at the north flank of the Eastern
Basin of Venezuela during the Oligocene. There is a strong difference between the
Naricual in the subsurface and as defined in its type region: the "Merecure Formation"
name has been used for subsurface equivalents of the Merecure Group formations
(Los Jabillos, Areo and Naricual Formations) that crop out in the Interior Range.
Figure 1.17 summarizes conceptually

the relationship between the stratigraphic
units and deformation fronts. The double
Neogene and Quaternary
In Venezuela, the Neogene is

characterized by important mountainbuilding episodes, which are a direct
consequence of the Caribbean and South
American plate interactions. Figures 1.15 and
1.16 show in a general way the beginning of
the Andean uplift, and the structures
generated by the eastern movement of the
Caribbean plate between the North
American and South American plates during
the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene.
Figure 1.18
O
l
i
g
o
c
e
n
e
Western Venezuela, Trujillo,

Lara, South-Andean Flank
and Barinas-Apure
Western Venezuela
Perij
Lake Maracaibo, North-Andean Flank
Palmar
Ceibote
Palmar/Parngula
PALMAR/PARANGULA
?
G
u
Len
Western Venezuela
Falcn Basin
North-Central
Eastern Venezuela
Venezuela
Naricual
Naricual
(Churuguara/Castillo/Pecaya/
San Luis/Agua Salada)
?
Quebradn
Areo
f
Icotea
Carbonera
Age
i
Carbonera
?
Pauj/Mene Grande
Late Eoc.
Guardulio
El Paraso
M
E
R
E
C
U
R
E
Roblecito
a
Arauca
Pagey(?)
Eroded/Unconformable Contact
Sand/Seal Pairs
Sandy Reservoir
Seal
La Pascua
?
Los Jabillos
Caratas/
Roblecito ?
Eroded Interval
Correlation chart of the most important Late Eocene through Oligocene units of Venezuela. Pauj, Mene Grande and Pagey Formations
extend into Middle Eocene; El Fausto Group and Churuguara, Castillo, Pecaya, San Luis, Agua Salada and Quebradn Formations extend
into the Miocene.

1 14
During this time, extensional (Falcn Basin)

and foreland basins were created. In
Western Venezuela, the Barinas-Apure
foreland basin was influenced by the
formation of the Colombian and Venezuelan
Andes. The Eastern Venezuela basins
resulted from the oblique collision between
the Caribbean plate and the northwestern
margin of the South American plate. In the
Pliocene (Figs. 1.19 and 1.20), the uplifting
of Northern Venezuela produced the
present-day distribution of petroleum basins
(Fig. 1.21) and generated the La Costa and
Venezuelan Andes mountain ranges
(dividing the Maracaibo and Barinas-Apure
Basins). Figure 1.22 summarizes the

Neogene and Pleistocene stratigraphic units,
showing their potentiality as source rocks,
seals or reservoirs.
In Western Venezuela, the Andean uplift
produced significant thicknesses of molasse
sediments (Guayabo Group, and La Villa, La
Puerta and El Milagro FormationsFig. 1.22).
In places, both the North-Andean and SouthAndean flanks have molasse sediments that
reach more than 5 km thick (15,000 ft). In the
Perij Mountain range, the El Fausto Group is
the molasse-equivalent unit, and is related to
the mountains of the deformation front on
the west side of Maracaibo Basin.
El Pilar Fault
Coro
Capadare
PPee
rriijj
Ra
ng
e
Oca Fault
Lake
Maracaibo
GUAYABO
Mrida
Mrida
Co
lo
bi
bi
m
lo
El
Ba
l
uccaa
YYu
Roo
Quebradn
Quiamare
Quiamare
Ar
c
Carapita
Carapita
La La
Pica
Pica
Capiricual
Capiricual
Quiamare
Quiamare
Oficina-Freites
Merecure
Chaguaramas
Merecure
??
Guayana Shield
R
a -augl ul
nagr
P
ar
Guayana Shield
Quiriquire
Quiriquire
Las
Piedras
Las Piedras
La Costa Range
La Rosa
Lagunillas La
La Puerta
Puerta
Lagunillas
Co
Isl
an
d
Agua Salada
Urumaco
Urumaco
Caujarao
Caujarao
Socorro
Socorro
ss
de
n
n
A
Ar
cc
Caribbean Plate
?
?
BBaa
rrb
Pr a d
ism os
Figure 1.19
00
100
50
50
200
200km
km
Igneous-Metamorphic
Basement
Basement
150
150
Continental Environment Conglomerates

Continental Environment Conglomerates
and
SandyClastics
Clastics
and Sandy
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand
and Pelitic Clastics
Deltaic-Fluvial Environment, Sand

and pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine
and Foredeep Environment,
Fluvial
and Coastal
Environment
Sandy Clastics
Fluvial and Coastal
Environment
Sandy
Clastics
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Shallow Environment Carbonates
Positive Zones
Pelitic Clastics
Open-Marine and Foredeep Environment,
Pelitic Clastics
Sediments Supply
Positive Zones Thrust Front
Regional geologic framework for the sedimentation in all Venezuela (Maracaibo, Falcn, Barinas-Apure and Eastern basins) during the
Miocene-Pliocene. The largest accumulations of continental sediments occur on the flanks of the Andes and La Costa Range. The most
important reservoirs of Venezuela were deposited during this epoch: La Rosa, Lagunillas, Isnot (Guayabo Group), Carapita, Oficina,
Chaguaramas and Merecure Formations.
1 15

GENERAL GEOLOGY
CENOZOIC
Figure 1.20
Pliocene/Recent
Caribbean Plate
North
of Ven
ezuela
Curaza
Deep
o Prom
inence
Oca Fault
San Sebastin
Maximum
Fault
Subsidence Areas
o
jill e
Truang
R
Maracaibo
Basin
Falcn
Basin
Bocon
Fault
South-American
Plate
de
An
200 km
Positive Areas
Shallow Clastic
Sediments
Thrust Front
Plate Movement
Vectors
Northern Venezuela regional
The La Rosa and Lagunillas Formations

predate the distal environments of the Perij
and Andes molasses. The La Rosa Formation,
with its basal sandstones (Santa Brbara
Member), is of major petroleum importance.
Its characteristic middle shale interval has
lateral sandy variations that are important reservoirs in the eastern coast of Lake.
Maracaibo. Its thickness varies from 70 to
1100 m (230 to 3600 ft) because the unit was
deposited over an irregular erosional surface
filling of the foreland basins

and uplifting due to the
deformation of extensive
areas associated with the
Bocono, San Sebastin and
Oca fault systems.
Extensional basins persist
north of Falcn State (after
Macellari, 1995.)
Figure 1.21
68
Peri
j R
ang
e
Falcn
Maracaibo Basin
Caribbean Sea
60
Maracaibo
Basin
Trujillo
s
de
An
n
ela Barinas
zu
ne
Ve
Barinas-Apure
S. Cristbal
Basin
Cuman La Costa Range

Barcelona
Maturn
Eastern
Maturn
Basin
Sub-basin
Gurico
Sub-basin
.L
a
100
0
50
200 km
150
68
72
11
Porlamar
Caracas
La Costa Range
B
E.
bi
m
lo
Co
7
o Belt
Orinoc
San
Fernando
co
no
Ori
e
Riv
64
Trinidad
At
O lan
ce tic
an
Ciudad Bolvar
a
an
ay if
Gu ass
M
60
Reclamation
Zone
Coro
11
64
Margarita
Basin
Guyana
72
and is fault-controlled. The La Rosa

Formation is believed to be Early to Middle
Miocene age (20 to 15 Ma).
The Lagunillas Formation overlays
the La Rosa and consists of transitional
shallow, coastal, and continental sediments
that reach more than 1000 m (3280 ft) thick
in the center of Maracaibo Basin.
It is a very important reservoir in the eastern
coast fields, where it has been divided into
five members, all of which have oil
potential. It is equivalent in age (Middle to
Late Miocene15 to 6 Ma) to the La Puerta
Formation and part of Guayabo and El
Fausto Groups.
In the Barinas-Apure Basin, the
Parangula and Ro Yuca Formations
(continental sediments) are the distal
equivalents of the Guayabo Group.
In the Falcn region, open sea
environments can be found, ranging from
deep-marine turbidites (e.g., Pecaya Formation) to shallow clastics (e.g., Cerro Pelado
Formation) and carbonates (e.g., San Luis
Formation). The final filling of the Falcn
Basin during the Pliocene was with the
conglomeratic-marine clastics of La Vela
Formation and the continental Coro
Conglomerate (Pliocene-Pleistocene).
In North-Central Venezuela, the main
environments of deposition are fluvial and
continental, resulting in the upper Quebradon and Quiamare Formations. They
increase in thickness considerably to the east
and south.
Venezuelan petroliferous basins on the basis of its Sedimentary Provinces (after

Prez de Meja et. al., 1980). E. B. L. = El Bal Lineament, Eastern and BarinasApure basins limit.

1 16
Figure 1.22
Age
Perij and
Lake Maracaibo
Andes
El Milagro
Terrazas
Pleistocene
Barinas-Apure
Maturn
(N) Sub-Basin (S)

Mesa
Betijoque
La Villa,
Los Ranchos,
Lagunillas
Isnot
Middle
Miocene
EL FAUSTO/
La Rosa
Ro Yuca
G
U
A
Y
A
B
O
Las Piedras
Las Piedras/
Quiriquire
AGUA SALADA
Castillo/Agua Clara
Pedregoso/San Luis
?
Freites
Chaguaramas
Sand/Seal Pairs
Reservoir (Sandy)
Seal
Uchirito/
Capiricual
Oficina
Carapita
Merecure
Guacharaca
Quiamare
La Pica
Socorro
Cerro Pelado
Parngula
Palmar
Interior
Range
LA PUERTA/Codore/
La Vela/Urumaco/
Caujarao
Carapita
LA PUERTA (*)
Early
Miocene
Gurico
Sub-Basin
San Gregorio/Coro
Pliocene
Late
Miocene
Falcn
Guanapa
Source Rock
Figure 1.23
Correlation chart of the

most important units in the
Venezuelan Neogene. (N)
and (S) indicate northern
and southern flanks of the
Maturn Sub-Basin.
The El Fausto Group,
and the Palmar, Guaharaca,
Chaguaramas and Merecure
Formations extend into
Late Oligocene.
1 17
To the south of the Gurico Mountain

front, in the Gurico and Maturn Sub-Basins
(including the eastern Interior Mountain
Range), transitional deltaic to shallowmarine environments are represented by the
Merecure and Oficina Formations (Gurico
and western Anzotegui States). They are
both of great importance as petroleum
reservoirs. These units change gradationally
to the east to deeper-water environments
represented by the Capiricual and Carapita
Formations. The Carapita Formation is a
distinctive turbidite unit and is also of great
petroleum importance.
To the south, in the Oficina fields and
the Orinoco Belt, are found the diachronical
younger equivalents of the Neogene cycle.
The basal unit, usually discordant over the
Temblador Group, is the sandy Merecure
Formation, and overlying it is the deltaic
Oficina Formation. The Miocene equivalents
of these units in the Gurico SubBasinOrinoco Belt have been named the
Chaguaramas Formation.
(*)
Group
To the northeast, the Maturn Sub-Basin

is filled with shallower facies, such as the
Uchirito and Quiamare Formations in its
northern flank. The Quiamare Formation
represents a great variety of environments:
lagoon, fluvial channels and alluvial fans,
reaching several kilometers in thickness in
Eastern Anzotegui. On the southern flank,
the Freites Formation shales overlie the
Oficina Formation. These shales are
eventually overlain by the deltaic La Pica
Formation and the molassic Morichito, Las
Piedras and Quiriquire Formations (Pliocene
age). The sedimentary cycle ends with the
Mesa Formation of Pleistocene age.

THE HISTORY OF OIL EXPLORATION IN VENEZUELA
The beginning
Before the 1800s, only brief references
were made to Venezuelan hydrocarbons in
the literature. The first mention of hydrocarbons was made by Fernandez de Oviedo
in 1535, where he wrote of oil seepages off
the western shore of Cubagua Island. In 1540,
he referred to the presence of bitumen on the
Gulf of Venezuela shores (Martnez, 1976).
Nothing more is found in the literature until
the early 1800s.
Crew - month
500
Nationalization
O.P.E.P. Foundation
End of concessions
Massive
concessions
World War II
600
World War I
700
Great Depression
Figure 1.23
400
Surface geology
300
Seismic (2-D + 3-D)

Gravimetry (+magnetometry
from 1936)
200
100
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Exploratory activity in
Venezuela. Surface methods.
(Source: Martnez, 1976 and
1994; M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
J. Mndez Z., 1976 and R.
Varela, 1987, in Mndez Z.,
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
1800 to 1900
In 1814, Alexander von Humboldt
reported asphalt deposits along Venezuelas
northern shoreline (Martnez, 1976).
Geologist Herman Karsten (1851) published
a description of oil seepage sites located
between Betijoque and Escuque, towns in
Trujillo State, southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Urbani, 1991).
Oil seeps along La Alquitrana Creek in
Tchira State lured local investors into applying for an exploitation concession under the
name of Cien Minas de Asfalto. It was
granted to them in 1878 (Martnez, 1976).
Compaa Minera Petrolia del Tchira
exploited this concession by open mining
until 1883, when the first well which

produced oil, Eureka-1, was completed.
Eureka-1 had a production of 1.5 bbl (194
liters) per day (Mndez, 1978). Previously
Salvador-1, the first well drilled in Venezuela,
had been abandoned as dry by this company
after reaching a final depth of 53 m. These
wells were drilled with a percussion rig, the
first oil drilling rig in the country.
1901 to 1920
Well locations were chosen by surface
geology and direct hydrocarbon observation
during the first decades of this century.
Bababui-1, a 188-m (617-ft) deep well,
discovered the Guanaco oil field in 1913.
Mene Grande, near Lake Maracaibos eastern
shoreline, was the first giant find in
Venezuela (Fig. 1.25). The discovery well
was Zumaque-1, a 135-m (443-ft) well,
drilled after a recommendation by geologist
Ralph Arnold. Arnold and a team of about 50
colleagues systematically explored more than
50 million hectares assigned to General
Asphalt (later Caribbean Petroleum) all over
Venezuela. Of these, 512,000 hectares were
selected for exploitation. Totumo, discovered
in 1913, was the first producer from the
basement, and La Rosa Field, found by the
well Santa Brbara-1 drilled in 1917, was the
first of a giant later recognized as the Bolvar
Coastal Field (BCF). BCF covers an extensive
land and offshore region on the eastern coast
of Lake Maracaibo. The maximum depth
reached by an exploratory well by 1917 was
1,400 m (4,600 ft).
1921 to 1940
From 1920 onward, surface exploration
activity increased (Fig. 1.23). Efforts were
concentrated on Zulia and Falcn States in
western Venezuela, and northern Anzotegui
and Monagas States in Eastern Venezuela.

1 18
Pioneering gravimetric surveys started in 1924

and contributed to the identification of
regional highs, mainly of igneousmetamorphic basement close to the surface.
As a result of the surface exploration effort
and subsequent exploratory drilling during
the 1920s, several important discoveries
occurred: La Paz in 1923, and La Concepcin
in 1925, in Zulia State; Quiriquire in 1928, in
Monagas State (a giant oilfield in a Pliocene
alluvial fan), and Pedernales (Delta Amacuro)
in 1933, in an anticline produced by mud
diapirism. Other relevant discoveries during
this period were the Bachaquero area (now
within BCF, Zulia) in 1930, and Cumarebo
Field (Falcn State) in 1931.
Figure 1.24
End of
concessions
World War II
Great Depression
World War I
200
Massive
concessions
5
Nationalization
Evaluation of
the Orinoco
Belt
3
100
2
Maximum depths reached

km
Number of exploratory wells

per year
300
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Exploration drilling in Venezuela. (Source: Martnez, 1976 and 1994;

M.E.M., 1985 to 1995; Mndez Z., 1976 and Varela, 1987, Mndez Z.,
1989; M.M.H.,1962 to 1984).
The year 1933 heralded the beginning of

the use of seismic as a surface tool for
exploration (Fig. 1.23), and results were
quickly seen. Large discoveries occurred in
Eastern Venezuela: in 1936, Temblador, the
first field discovered in southern Monagas; in
1937, the first field of the Greater Oficina
Area was discovered in Anzotegui State; and
Jusepn Field was found in northern Monagas
in 1938.
1 19
Surface geology continued to render

benefits in Monagas: Santa Ana, the first field
of the Greater Anaco Area, was found in
1936; and El Roble and San Joaqun were
found in 1939. Subsurface geology methods,
using regional knowledge, data from core
and ditch samples obtained during drilling,
and electrical well logging as of 1929, gave
very significant results. Some of the
discoveries include Orocual Field (Monagas)
in 1933, and the Eocene Misoa Formation oil
sands of the LL-370 Area (Lagunillas, BCF,
Lake Maracaibo) discovered in 1938. The
maximum exploratory drilling depth reached
by 1940 was 3,400 m (11,150 ft) (Fig. 1.24).
1941 to 1950
The exploratory activity during this
decade was affected by World War II and the
post-war world, with large oil needs
prompting an increase in exploratory drilling
(Fig. 1.24). Surface exploration, however,
diminished, since most of the field personnel
went to war. It was not until the end of
WWII that surface activities showed a strong
upward rebound, reaching levels never
before seen in Venezuela (Fig. 1.23). With an
increase in exploratory drilling after the war,
reserves and production doubled during the
decade (Fig. 1.26), and 63 fields were found.
This compares to the 41 fields found from
1880 to 1940. The three most relevant
discoveries were the Las Mercedes Field
(Gurico State) in 1941, commercial oil in
the Cretaceous of La Paz Field (Zulia State)
in 1944, and the giant accumulation of extraheavy crude in Boscn (also in Zulia State),
in 1946.

Figure 1.25
Mene Grande
C.C. Bolvar
Los Barrosos2
La Paz
La Concepcin
Quiriquire
Bachaquero
Pedernales
La Canoa1
Oficina
Jusepn
Las Mercedes
La Paz and Mara (K)
Boscn
La Paz and Mara
(Basement)
Urdaneta
Lama, Centro
Orocual,
Lamar,
JoboMorichal
Onado
Sur del Lago
Cerro Negro
Patao
Ro Caribe
Loran, cocuina
Guafita
Incorporation of
El Furrial
200
1.500
1.000
100
Millions of barrels
Millions of cubic meters per year
300
.500
Note: From 1914 to 1954
a total of 3.0 billion cubic
meters were incorporated into the
reserves through revisions, new
discoveries and extensions.
0
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
0
2000
Year
Reserves from exploratory

drilling in Venezuela.
(Increments and revisions not
included). (Sources: Martnez,
A.R., 1976, 1987 and 1994;
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
Exploratory drilling added more fields to

the Greater Areas of Oficina, Anaco and Las
Mercedes. The new Hydrocarbons Law of
1943 provided for the duration of all existing
concessions to be extended 40 more years, a
positive move for the oil industry, although
the states share in exploitation benefits was
increased by way of taxes. In addition,
abundant new concessions were granted
during 1944 and 1945, which also had a
significant positive effect on exploration.
From 1945 on, exploratory evaluation
intensified and all technology on hand was
applied. Gravimetry and seismic surveys
were carried out in areas offshore of Lake
Maracaibo, and aerial magnetics and other
advanced techniques under development
were tested in Venezuela. These technologies contributed to a significant increase
in the regional knowledge of the Venezuelan
sedimentary basins. Exploration drilling rigs
reached depths of approximately 5,200 m
(17,000 ft), as can be seen in Fig. 1.24.
1951 to 1960
The oil from the Middle East, less
expensive and of good quality, affected the
intensity of Venezuelan exploration, and
surface activity was reduced by more than
half (Fig. 1.23). However, drilling activity
maintained a high level during the decade.
New concessions granted in 1956 and 1957
kept the interest in Venezuelan oil high
throughout the rest of this decade.
Discoveries continued in the Greater Oficina
Area and, to a lesser extent, in Gurico.
During 1957 and 1958, the Lake Maracaibo
region yielded large Tertiary finds in its
central and central-eastern areas, including
Ceuta, Centro, Lama, Lamar and Lago Fields.
The first Venezuelan continental platform
find was Posa-112A, an offshore field in the
Gulf of Paria. The maximum exploratory
drilling depth reached during this period
was 5,348 m (17,541 ft).
1961 to 1976
The no more concessions policy
adopted by the Venezuelan State greatly
affected the operating strategies of the
concession holders during this prenationalization period. A drastic reduction in
surface exploration activities is shown in Fig.
1.23. By 1968, exploratory drilling reached
the lowest level of activity since 1940.
Exploratory wells were restricted to already
identified areas, with their objectives being
new reservoirs above, below or near known
oil reservoirs. This type of exploration
yielded discoveries such as the deep
Cretaceous in Central Lake and Urdaneta
Fields. Frontier drilling and surface
exploration activities by the concessionaires
ceased completely.

1 20
The Corporacin Venezolana del

Petrleo (CVP), the Venezuelan State oil
company, was founded in 1960 and started
operations the following year. This company
became the leader in exploration on land
and offshore Venezuela. It acquired 80,000
km of seismic and drilled nearly 200
exploratory wells during this period
(Velarde, 1991). CVP started exploration of
the La Vela area, offshore Falcn State, in
1972, and the evaluation of southern Lake
Maracaibo in 1971 by means of service
contracts. After a bidding process, service
contracts were signed the same year.
70
10
60
Massive
concessions
End of concessions
O.P.E.P. Foundation
50
40
30
BSTB
Cumulative production and reserves

at year end (Bm3)
Figure 1.26
20
10
Reserves
0
1910
Production
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Year
Production and reserves in

Venezuela. (Sources:
Martnez, A.R., 1994;
M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
1 21
A significant discovery during the

period, besides findings in the abovementioned La Vela and southern Lake areas,
was Onado Field (1971) in Monagas State.
The exploratory drilling record was 5,813 m
(19,067 ft) in 1976.
CVP and the Ministerio de Minas e

Hidrocarburos started evaluating the Orinoco
Belt by seismic surveys and drilling. By then,
about 60 wells had been drilled by the
concessionaires in the so-called Tar Belt, and
most of them had been abandoned without
testing. The La Canoa 1, a 1,176-m (3857-ft)
deep exploratory well, tested 6 m3 (40 bbl)
per day of 7API gravity before being
abandoned (Martnez, 1987). This well,
located in southern Anzotegui, is
considered to be the discovery well of the
Faja del Orinoco.
1976 (nationalization)
to the present
By 1978, state-owned Petrleos de
Venezuela, S.A., a holding in charge of the
nationalized oil industry, assigned the Orinoco
Belt to its existing operating affiliates:
Corpoven, Lagoven, Maraven and Meneven.
They each proceeded to evaluate their
assigned portion. The campaign was finished
five years later (Fig. 1.24) after 669 wells were
drilled, and 15,000 km of Vibroseis seismic
lines and 54,000 km2 of aerial magnetics were
acquired (Martnez, 1987).
Since the nationalization, surface exploration is based almost exclusively on geophysics, remote sensing and geochemistry. It
steadily increased until the 1980s (Fig. 1.23),
when it reached its maximum level for the
last 15 years. This activity was directed
toward frontier and traditional areas. 3-D
seismic has been used since the 1980s as an
additional tool for both exploration and
reservoir description.

Figure 1.27
Number of discoveries
Total number of exploratory wells
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.40
0.38
1950
1960
1970
Year
1980
1990
2000
Cumulative exploratory
success since 1950, showing
an almost 47% success rate
with no downward trend
(from M.E.M., 1985 to 1995;
M.M.H., 1962 to 1984).
Exploratory objectives have become

deeper and more remote, as the most
significant recent finds show (Fig. 1.25).
These include Patao and other giant gas
fields offshore north of Paria Peninsula (1979
to 1982); Ro Caribe condensate accumulation also in the same region (1981); Morro
heavy oil in the Gulf of Paria (1980), and
Loran and Cocuina, gas accumulations east
of Delta Amacuro (1983) (Fig. 1.0). Northern
Monagas and Anzotegui, both in Eastern
Venezuela, contain the largest discoveries
since 1986 along the El Furrial Trend:
Tertiary and Cretaceous reservoirs that are
more than 4,000 m deep. Western
Venezuelas Guafita and Victoria findings
near the Colombian border are also quite
significant. An exploratory drilling depth
record of 6,640 m (21,780 ft) was set in 1993.
What now?
The future points to more discoveries in
the above frontier areas, as well as
exploration and re-exploration in traditional
areas near existing facilities. New, high-risk
objectives will become the standard of dayto-day exploration activities; exploration for
bypassed hydrocarbons already has high
priority. Modern drilling technology will
allow deeper and more precise subsurface
evaluation. Improved knowledge of
Venezuelan basins, supported by new
geological and geochemical criteria, and
new seismic acquisition and processing
technologies, will open new frontiers and
substantiate
re-exploration.
Modern
petrophysical well logging technologies,
some of which are described in other
chapters of this book, already permit
measuring and interpreting a large variety of
rock and fluid properties. Their proper use
will further enable us to accurately assess
the subsurface. Venezuela still has a wealth
of hydrocarbons to be discovered. Figure
1.27 displays graphically the exploratory
success during the last 45 years, showing an
almost 47% success rate with no downward
trend, and Fig. 1.26 shows nearly 1 billion
barrels of oil added during the period. This
is the result of integrating all technologies,
from exploration through enhanced oil
recovery. Venezuelan oil provinces have not
yet disclosed all their secrets; only by using
modern exploration technologies will they
be revealed.

1 22
Fossiliferous massive limestones,

nodular, marly and often calcareous
shales.
Ro
Negro
<180
White coarse-grained sandstones.
Lake Maracaibo composite stratigraphic column (from Parnaud et al.,

1995, Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980, and Roger et al., 1989).
Seal
Source
Reser.
Form.
Thick.
(ft)
1300-1500
500-900
150-200
1100-1200
Age
Miocene
Los Ranchos
Productive interval.
Porosity 7.120%.
Average permeability 149 md.
160-400
150278
295-330
335520
Cuiba
EL FAUSTO
Macoa
Peroc
600 106-300
Carbonaceous shales and

siltstones.
Sandy shales; the sand and
silt content increase to the top.
100 - 300
Oligocene-Miocene
Early-Middle Eocene Eoc.
Mirador
Carbonaceous sandstones,
siltstones and shales.
Dense, laminated limestone,

dark gray to black,
carbonaceous to butiminous,
calcareous shales.
70-120
Glauconitic sandstones and sandy

limestones, with sandy laminated mud
intercalations, and some shelly limestone
layers.
***
Coarse-grained sandstone to
conglomerate.
Shaly intervals.
100-130
Crystalline limestones with Ostrea Sp.,

with shale and marl intercalations.
Tib
Guim.
500-600m
Pich
55-180
Lisure
Apn
Cretaceous
120
Maraca
**
Claystones and variegated

siltstones. Thin sandstones
and lignites (scarce).
Calcareous sandstones,
glauconitic, sandy and
coquinoid limestones with
some shales.
250-650
900
100-300
Socuy
Fossiliferous limestones and calcareous

sandstones.
Dark and massive microfossiliferous
shales, with some thin sandstones and
limestone layers.
Fetid calcareous limestones and shales,
elliptical concretions.
Los Cuervos
"C Sand"
120445
La
Coln/
LunaMito
Juan
are
as
Gu
Paleocene
Intercalation of sandstones, siltstones

and some limestone layers in the lower
part.
1000-1600
Misoa
"B Sand"
Siltstones, hard shales/mudstones and

sandstones.
Claystones with some

siltstones and sandstones.
Barco
50180
Icotea
Sandstones and gray shales

with lesser amounts of
siltstones and conglomerates.
Variegated claystones, red to

purple, sandstones and
lignites.
La Luna
dle
Mid
Sta.
Brbara
Lithological Description
Maraca
Marine shales with iron-rich concretions;

variable amounts of interstratified
sandstones.
Upper
250
La Rosa
Tertiary
er
Lo
Cretaceous
na
gu
La

y
log
ho
Lit
Figure 1.30
COGOLLO
Lisure
Seal
Reservoir
Source Rock
Graphic
Lithology
Thickness
(m)
Member
Bachaquero
Shales, claystone, weakly consolidated

sandstones, and some interstratified
lignites.
300-900
Formation
,
,,
,
,
Lagunillas
Age
Figures 1.28 and 1.29
Apn
Hard bluish-gray limestone

and few intervals of sandy
and calcareous shales.
Thick beds of sandy

limestone.
**** <100
*C b
** C t t
Sandstones and conglomerates.

*** C l Mit J
**** R N
Composite stratigraphic column of the Maracaibo

Basin to North Andes flank (after Gonzlez de
Juana et al., 1980).
1 23

PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Figure 1.30
W
Perij
Range
L
Los a Vill
Ran a
cho
s
Post-Miocene
El Fau
"B"
"B"
Misoa
Misoa
"C"
"C"
Paleocene
Trujillo
Range
Pauj
La Puerta
Lagunillas
La Rosa
Miocene
sto
Bachaquero Fault
Eocene
lo
1.8 Km
il
Truj
Cretaceous
Basement
Ju
ra
ss
ic
Two way time ( sec)
Lagunillas
Lama
Icotea High
Urdaeta
10 km
5
6
Shaly (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Maracaibo Basin
The Maracaibo Basin (Fig. 1.21) is the
most important petroliferous basin of Venezuela. The main source rock is the La Luna
Formation (Figs. 1.28 and 1.29) of Late Cretaceous age; its facies extend along all of
Western Venezuela and Colombia. There are
some other source rocks of secondary importance in the Cogollo (Machiques Member of the
Apn Formation) and Orocu (Los Cuervos
Formation) Groups. The oil was generated,
migrated and accumulated in several phases,
the Andean uplift being the most important
one. These points will be elaborated later.
East-West Maracaibo
Basin section (after
Parnaud et al., 1995).
Figure 1.31
200
150
100
70
60
50
40
Tr
L
J
E M L
K
E
30
Cenozoic
Mesozoic
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Tertiary
Olig.
20
10
(Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Sand/Seal Pairs
The main clastic reservoirs are the Ro

Negro and Aguardiente Formations (Cretaceous), Orocu Group (Paleocene), MiradorMisoa (Eocene), Lagunillas and La Rosa
Formations (Miocene) (see the stratigraphic
columns in Figs. 1.28Perij/Lake Maracaibo
and 1.29North-Andean Flank). The
outstanding carbonate reservoirs belong to the
Cogollo Group (Early Cretaceous). The most
important regional seals are the Coln (Late
Cretaceous) and Pauj (Eocene) Formations.
Note: The sequence of
events in the petroleum
events system is as
follows: the sedimentary
record is indicated in the
row named "Formations;"
in this case there is sediment preservation between the Early Cretaceous and the Late Paleocene, followed by a 5
to 6 Ma hiatus; then
there are sediments
preserved between the
Early Eocene and the Eocene-Oligocene limit.
The source rock is generated at the end of the
Early and part of the Late
Cretaceous. The seal is
deposited at the end of
the Late Cretaceous and
Eocene times. Reservoir
rocks are deposited
during the Late Cretaceous and Eocene. The
source rock in this
system (La Luna Formation) is buried during

Late Cretaceous, and
partially unloaded between the Late Paleocene
and Early Eocene; burial
continues during the rest
of the Eocene. Stratigraphic and structural
traps are formed between the Late Cretaceous, Paleocene and
Late Eocene. The generation, migration and
accumulation from the
source rock for this system takes place during
Late Eocene, and the
preservation of the traps
takes place since the
Oligocene. So the critical
moment, or the time
when there is the maximum probability for oil
entrapment and preservation, is the EoceneOligocene limit.
"Phase 1" petroleum system, Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).

1 24
Figure 1.32
Falcn
Basin
llo
Pe
rij
ji
Tru
Co
Gulf of Venezuela
Ra
ng
e
lo
m
bi
a
Oca Fault
ng
Ra
e
8
Oil Field, Eocene Reservoir

La Luna Source Rock Matured or OverMatured during the Phase 1 (38 My)
de
Lake
Maracaibo
La Luna System Limit (Phase 1)
lan
e
zu
e0
n
Ve
Maracaibo Basin Limit
An
km
50
Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation source rock,
Phase 1 (38 Ma) (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.33
200
Tr
L
150
Mesozoic
J
E M L
E
100
70
60
K
L
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Olig.
Eocene
20
10
Miocene
(Ma)
Geologic time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation,migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 2" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 25
Locally, the Machiques Member (Apn

Formation) is a good seal, as well as the
thick interstratified shale intervals of the
reservoirs toward the center of Lake
Maracaibo, such as Misoa, Lagunillas and La
Rosa (Fig. 1.30Lake Maracaibo EW
section). Other good seals include the shaly
Len Formation and some thick intervals of
the molasse (Guayabo and El Fausto Groups;
Andes and Perij, respectively).
The main oil fields are located on the
Eastern Coast of Lake Maracaibo and the
main production comes from Tertiary
reservoirs; for example, Cabimas, Ta Juana,
Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Mene Grande and
Motatn. On the west coast there are fields
with production from the Cretaceous and
even Tertiary; for example, Urdaneta (Lake
Maracaibo) and several fields of the Perij
foothills, such as La Concepcin, Mara, La
Paz, Boscn and Alturitas. In the central part
of the lake, fields are located along the fault
systems of Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.30), including
the Lago, Centro, Lama and Lamar Fields.
The oil gravity is quite diverse. In
general, the lighter types occur in the deep
Cretaceous reservoirs, becoming heavier as
depths get shallower. In the upper Tertiary
reservoirs of the lakes Eastern Coast, some
of the oils have gravities less than 13API.
Petroleum Systems
Figures 1.31 and 1.32 represent the

northeast Lake Maracaibo petroleum system
generated by the La Luna Formation source
rocks. Oil generation occurs in the northeast
part of the basin, with migration and
accumulation in the southwest during the
Late Eocene. The main traps occur along the
Icotea high, containing Cretaceous and
Eocene reservoirs. The highest probabilities
of accumulation, or critical moment, is
found close to the Oligocene-Eocene
boundary (Fig. 1.31).

PETROLEUM BASINS
MARACAIBO
Gulf of Venezuela
e
Pe
rij
Ra
ng
ult
a Fa
Icote
Or
lin
oc
Lake
Maracaibo
aF
ati
Gr
pL
Fault
Matured and Over-Matured
Source Rock Area (Fm. La Luna)
during Phase 2 (Present Time)
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
r
de
an
nt ssif
a
M
Sa
Petroleum System
La Luna, Phase 2
it
an
An
el
u
ez
n
Ve
Condensate or Gas
Producing Field
Petroleum System Limit of the
Orocu Group
Sa
Oil Field/
Condensate/Gas
km
de
ou
im
Oil Field
50
Lake
on Maracaibo
orm
Gas
window
Icote
a Fa
ult
lom
Co
Ra
ij
Pe
r
rce
Ma
ng
Ra
ang
Oil
window
Falcn
Basin
illo
R
jillo
Tru
ng
e
bia
j
Tru
Col
om
bia
Gulf of Venezuela
Matured or Over-Matured Orocu

Group Limit at the Present Time
Oil Seeps of Continental or
Mixed Origin
Faults
50
km
Defined petroleum system at the Maracaibo Basin, Orocu

Defined petroleum system in the Maracaibo Basin, La Luna Formation
source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Group source rock, at the present time (after Talukdar and

Marcano, 1994).
Another system results from the

Cretaceous source rock (mainly La Luna
Formation), but in this case it is widespread
across the hydrographic basin of Lake
Maracaibo (Fig. 1.33), reaching over-maturity
conditions in some areas. Generation,
migration and accumulation occurred during
the Andean uplift, filling reservoirs
throughout almost the entire sedimentary
column. The critical moment is considered
to be the present. This system is the most
important for the Tertiary hydrocarbon
accumulation, especially in the structures
of the following areas or fields: Western
region and Eastern Coast of Maracaibo
Lake, Urdaneta and Lama-Icotea (Fig. 1.34).
The third system is related to the

Orocu Group, southwest Lake Maracaibo.
This generation seems to be responsible for
the oil fields to the northeast of Santander
Massif, close to the Colombia-Venezuela
border. Generation, migration and accumulation occurred at the climax of Andean
uplifting (Pliocene), which produced the
complete separation of Maracaibo and
Barinas-Apure oil basins.

1 26
Figure 1.36
NW
SE
Maracaibo Basin
Perij
Range
Mrida Andes
Lama-Icotea
Structure
Perij
Fault
Macoa
Alturitas
Urdaneta
Fault
South-Andean
Flank
North-Andean
Flank
Bocon Fault
Lama-Icotea
System Fault
Barinas-Apure
Basin
4 km
20 km
Neogene
Late Cretaceous
Jurassic
Paleogene
Early Cretaceous
Igneous-Metamorphic Basement
NW-SE structural cross section through the Maracaibo Basin, from the Mrida Andes to the Perij Range.
Figure 1.37
200
100
150
70
60
Mesozoic
J
Tr
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
Q
Miocene PP
(Ma)
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
This large structural system reactivated

old structures, and also involved the
igneous-metamorphic basement (Fig. 1.36).
The critical moment is at the present, and
the main reservoir is the Paleogene clastic
sequence (Fig. 1.37).
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration,
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
"Phase 3" petroleum system; Maracaibo Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Mirador
Mirador Formation
Formation
Los
Los Cuervos
Cuervos Formation
Formation
Middle Eocene (Bartoniense) unconformity between the Mirador and Los Cuervos
Formations (Rubio de San Antonio Road, Tchira State). Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.
1 27

PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
300500
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Lithology
550 1400
Thickness
(m)
Form./Mbr.
Pagey/Guafita/Len
330-450
Guanarito
Sandstone proportion increases in the

middle part of the formation; the unit is
called "Guaranito Member".
Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, often glauconitic; calcareous glauconitic sandstones.
Often calcareous, massive sandstones, with

some shale and siltstone intercalations.
Dark gray shales.
Sandstones calcareous.
*Aguardiente
Composite stratigraphic column of the South Andean flank, Barinas-Apure
Basin (after Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980, and Kiser, 1989).
50-300
Micaceous, sometimes glauconitic and

calcareous sandstone. Lower middle is
regionally shalier.
Siliceous mudstone, quartzose sandstones

and cherty limestone.
Shales and dark limestones.
Bioclastic and sandy limestones, permeable massive sandstones and black shales.
Calcareous sandstones and sandy

limestones.
Ro Negro <300
Very permeable massive sandstones.
Fine to coarse-grained, pale gray to brown,

sandstones sometimes calcareous. Shales
and siltstones also included.
350-420
180-210
150-180
Burgita
te
rdien
Agua
Dark gray to bluish orbitoidal limestones.
150-427
Productive interval
Ferriferous sandstones, carbonaceous,

dark gray (often calcareous) fossiliferous
150-500
Dark shales and siltstones varying laterally

to sandstones, siltstones and limestones.
Its deepest facies is considered a good
source rock.
EscandalosaLa Morita
Siliceous mudstones, quartzitic sandstones

and cherty limestone. Abundant phosphatic
beds with fish remains. They constitute the
shallow shelf equivalents of the deeper and
farther La Luna Formation environments.
Gobernador
Cretaceous
Barco
Sandier sequence as compared with the

underlying Navay Formation. Basal sandstones suggest erosive contact; variable
proportions of shale, limestone and
sandstone.
Quevedo
Coarse-grained conglomerates, finegrained sandstones, siltstones and

variegated claystones.
Pagey
Masparrito
The Oroce Group includes Barco Formation

(lower) and Los Cuervos Formation (upper),
with regional thickness varying from 0 to
838 m in the South-Andean flank. Barco
Formation is mainly sandstone while Los
Cuervos Formation is finer grained and
carbonaceous.
Quevedo
Sandy clastics.
La Morita
"R"
Carbonaceous siltstone and few sandstones.
Navay
2000-3000
335-520
150 - 427
"P"
la
gu
rn
Pa
Middle Eocene-Oligocene
MioPliocene
Age
Seal
,
,
,
,
,

,
,

,
,

,

,

,

,
160-400
295330
150-278
Los Cuervos
350-420
150 - 180
180 - 210
OROCUE
Burgita
Campanian
Maastricht.
Coniacian-Santonian
Navay
Escandalosa
Cenomanian-Turonian
Conglomerates, sandstones and claystones

in diverse proportions.
Generally, these molassic sediments are
attributed principally to alluvial fan
environments that flanked the Andean
Range.
Sandstones with a slight shaly/silty interval

near the top. Time equivalents in the Barinas
Basin are: (sandy/calcareous) Gobernador,
(shaly) Pagey and (sandy) El Cobre
Formations.
"S"
Alb.
Lithological
Description
Pelitic and minor sandy sequence.

Dissappears toward the Barinas Basin due
to erosion prior to the sedimentation of the
Parngula Formation.
"O"
Reserv.
Source
Form.
Thick.
(m)
Stage
GUAYABO/Parngula/Ro Yuca
Len/Guafita/
Carbonera
Mirador
Age
Paleocene
Late
Cretaceous
Graphic
Lithology
,,
,
,,
Early Eocene
to Middle
Eocene-Oligocene
Tertiary
Miocene-Pliocene
Series
White coarse-grained sandstones;

conglomerates.
Composite stratigraphic column for the northern part of
Barinas-Apure Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).

1 28
Figure 1.40
NW
SE
Two way time (sec)
RoYuca
Pagey
Gobernador
Navay
Parngula
Guardulio
Guafita
3.5 km
Aguardiente
Escandalosa
Paleozoic
0
10 km
Shale (Seal)
Carbonate
Sandy / Conglomeratic
Source Rock
Sand / Seal Pairs
Barinas-Apure Basin
The Barinas-Apure Basin (Fig. 1.21) is
located to the SSE of the Andean Mountain
Range. The main source rock is the Navay
Formation (Figs. 1.38 and 1.39), of Late
Cretaceous age and a lateral facies
equivalent of La Luna Formation. Secondary
source rocks have been found in the Orocu
Group (Los Cuervos Formation), but only in
the deepest depocenters, associated with the
great molassic thicknesses caused by the
Andean uplift.
NW-SE cross section of the

Barinas-Apure Basin (after
Parnaud et al., 1995).
Figure 1.41
The main clastic reservoirs are the

following formations: Escandalosa and
Burgita (Cretaceous), Orocu Group
(Paleocene), Mirador-Guafita (Arauca
Member) (Eocene-Oligocene) (Figs. 1.38 and
1.39). The most relevant carbonate reservoirs
are the limestones with secondary porosity
in the Guayacn Member (Limestone),
Escandalosa Formation. Regional-scale seals
are the shale intervals of Burgita (Late
Cretaceous), Pagey (Eocene) and Guafita
(Guardulio Member) Formations (Fig. 1.40).
Note: Compound names are given to the petroleum

systems, referring to the source rock and the main
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
0 (Ma)
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
?
?
?
reservoir names (for example: La Luna-Burgita). If

the system is well known by the correlation between
the hydrocarbon in the reservoir and the source rock,
it is annotated with (!). If the system is hypothetical,
Seal
with only geochemical evidence about the
Reservoir
hydrocarbons origin, it is annotated with (.). Finally,
Burial
Trap formation
Generation, migration
accumulation
Preservation
if the petroleum system is totally speculative, with

only geological or geophysical evidence, it is
annotated with (?).
Critical moment
Events chart for the La Luna-Burgita (!) petroleum system of the Barinas-Apure
Basin, during the Caribbean terranes emplacement over the Mrida High.
1 29

PETROLEUM BASINS
BARINAS-APURE BASIN
The main oil fields are to the south of

Barinas city, the most important being the
San Silvestre, Sinco, La Victoria and Guafita.
La Victoria and Guafita are close to the
Colombia-Venezuela border.
Figure 1.42
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Oligo. Miocene
Q
PP
(Ma)
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Navay-Gobernador (!) petroleum system, in the Barinas-Apure
Basin north of the Mrida Arc, during the Andean uplift.
Oil gravities between 22 and 28API

have been reported in Barinas oil fields. In
Guafita and La Victoria oil fields (Apure),
oil gravities between 30 and 36 API have
been found.
Petroleum systems
Two events account for the generation,

migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons
(Figs. 1.41 and 1.42). The first event is related
to the La Luna-Burgita system caused by
petroleum generation in Maracaibo Basin
and its migration to the SSE. In this case there
are two seals, both of them of Cretaceous
age. The upper seal is the basal shale of
Burgita Formation, and the lower seal is the
shale of La Morita Member (Navay
Formation). The main reservoirs belong to
Cretaceous formations such as Aguardiente,
Escandalosa (Limestone or Guayacn
Member) and Burgita (basal sandstones).
The second event is related to the
depocenter of the South-Andean flank, with
a present-time critical moment. The source
rock is still of Cretaceous age and the
reservoir includes Eocene-age formations
such as Gobernador and Pagey. The
Guardulio Member (Guafita Formation) is
the most important regional seal. In this
second event, it is possible that remigration
of the oil trapped during the Eocene pulse of
La Luna-Burgita system occurred.
La Luna Formation. Picture of an outcrop in the Cuite River (Apure State). Courtesy
of Franklin Yoris.

1 30
Figure 1.43
Dabajuro Platform
WSW
A
Urumaco Trough
Caujarao
Socorro
ENE
Lines Displacement
A'
Coro
o
Codo
Urumac
Codore
re
C
auja
Socorro
rao
Cerro P
Location
elado
Agua
?
C
Und
ulf Coro
Igneous-Metamorphic Map
?
aG
iffere lara
zuel
ntiat
Basement
A'
ene
ed B
V
Dabajuro
40 km
asem
ent
A
Venezuela
Lines Displacement
La Puerta
Eoce
Creta Paleoce ne
ne
ceous
La Quinta
co
Uruma o
Socorr
La Puerta
?
Eocene
NE-SW geological/structural
cross section through
the Falcn Basin (after
Macellari, 1995).
Falcn Basin
The Falcn Basin (see Fig. 1.21) is
located to the east of Maracaibo Basin, and
is separated by the Trujillo Range. The
source rock has been identified as the shales
of the Agua Clara Formation (Fig. 1.43);
however, shales of source rock potential
have also been identified in the deltaicmarine sediments of Guacharaca and Agua
Salada Formations.
The main clastic reservoirs include the
following formations: Agua Clara (La Vela
Cove and Western Falcn), Socorro
(Cumarebo Oil Field) and La Puerta Group
(Western Falcn) (Fig. 1.43).
Figure 1.44
200
150
100
Mesozoic
Tr
J
K
E
L E M L
70
60
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
The oil fields of Falcn Basin are, from

west to east: Mene Grande de Mauroa,
Media, Hombre Pintado, Las Palmas,
Tiguaje, Mamn, La Vela and Cumarebo.
Petroleum Systems
Figure 1.44 shows the Falcn Basin

petroleum system. Because of the regional
geothermal gradient increase, the main
source rock (Oligocene) generated
hydrocarbons long before the structural
configuration of the entrapment mechanism
was established during the OligoceneMiocene transition. The reservoirs are
concentrated in Oligo-Miocene stratigraphic
units, with their structural configuration
being formed between the Late Miocene and
Pliocene. This time lag between the
generation of hydrocarbons and trap
formation led to the loss of large quantities
of hydrocarbons.
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Agua Clara petroleum system (!), in the Falcn Basin.
1 31

PETROLEUM BASINS
FALCON AND EASTERN BASINS
Figure 1.45
Caucagua-El Tinaco
Belt
Coastal
Range Belt
Caribbean
Deformation Belt
La Victoria
Fault
San Sebastin
Fault
Los Roques
Island
20
40
Villa de Cura
Belt
Bonaire Basin
Orinoco
River
Tar
Belt
Late-Recent Miocene
Jurassic
Precambrian, Paleozoic and Mesozoic

Accretionary Crust
Middle Paleocene-Miocene
Early Paleozoic
Precambrian-Paleozoic Continental Crust
Cretaceous
Ocean Crust
Eastern Basin
The Eastern Venezuelan Basin (Fig.
1.21) is the second in importance. It is
limited by the La Costa Mountain Range to
the north, by the Orinoco River to the south,
by the Orinoco Delta platform to the east
and by the El Bal Lineament to the west. It
has been operationally subdivided in two
sub-basins, the Gurico and Maturn.
Clara petroleum system (!)

in the Falcn Basin (after
Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.46
NW
SE
1080
1060
1040
1020
1000
980
960
940
920
Allochthonous
5000
Thrusting
Front
Altamira
Fault
km
Events chart for the Agua
1100
0
Gurico
Fault
Espino
Graben
Cretaceous-Eocene
Oligocene-Basal
Early Eocene- Middle
Gurico Sub-Basin
This subdivision includes Gurico and
part of the oil fields in northern Anzotegui
state. The sub-basins northern flank is
influenced by the deformation front in
which the Gurico Fault system is located
(Fig. 1.45). This deformation front overrides
and overloads Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks,
producing a complex tectonic setting (Fig.
1.46). To the south, the structure is less
complicatedthere are structural (extensional) depressions that preserved Jurassic
and Paleozoic rocks (Fig. 1.47) and regional
pinching-out of the Cretaceous-Tertiary
sequences to the south (Fig. 1.48). The main
traps are combination structural-stratigraphic
traps, especially in fields far from the
deformation front.
10000
15000
2km
NW-SE cross section on the basis of seismic interpretation and with well control in
the Guarumen mountain front (after Figueroa and Hernandez, 1990). CretaceousEocene-Oligocene rocks override the autochthonous basal (Early) Oligocene,
indicating a Miocene-Pliocene age for the last deformation.

1 32
Figure 1.47
NE
SW
DP = 170m
400
380
NZZ-88X
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
(Proj. 2.8 Km to SE)
0.0
1.0
Cretaceous
Base
Jurassic
Basalts
2.0
Early
Cambrian
G
u
r
CORPOVEN ico
3.0
Basement
NZZ-88X
P-C
MARAVEN
6
P-
50 Km
P.F.: 14730'
ui
eg
t
zo
An
Valle La Pascua
2 km
Seismic line in the NE-SW direction,

through the Jurassic Graben to the
The main source rock (Guayuta and

Temblador Groups) is currently presumed
to have been overridden by the Gurico
North Deformation Front (Fig. 1.48). Hydrocarbon generation is related to advance of
the nappe, rapidly bringing the source rock
to the gas window due to tectonic
overloading since at least the Late Eocene.
south of the Gurico Sub-Basin (modified from Daal et al., 1989). This section
shows how the Paleozoic sediments
were preserved (Cambrian as well as
Jurassic with basalt) in the deep parts
of the Espinto Graben. The final well
depth projected over the seismic line
was 14,730 ft (4.490 m).
This may be why the main hydrocarbon in

the fields near the Mountain Front is gas
rather than oil. Nevertheless, generation of
hydrocarbons has been postulated close to
the Late Miocene faults in the Central Gurico
region. The rocks contain marine organic
matter and appear to have migrated only a
short distance. This suggests that the
Temblador Group (Fig. 1.49) is an important
source rock for the oil in the Gurico State
fields. Paraffinic hydrocarbons may have
been generated from source rocks in
reservoir formations such as the Roblecito
and Oficina.
The main oil fields are, from west to
east: Palacio, La Mercedes, Yucal-El Placer,
Tucupido, El Jobal, Socorro and Macoya;
Yucal-El Placer is a gas field. To the south of
Gurico State, the Cretaceous and Tertiary
units gradually pinch-out (Fig. 1.48), creating
stratigraphic traps and asphalt seals in what
has been named the Orinoco Belt (Fig. 1.50).
Figure 1.48
Las Mercedes
Field
Palacio
Field
Mucaria,Garrapata, VILLA DE CURA

Gurico and others
N
Macapra River
Orinoco River
Recent
(Altagracia de Orituco, Gurico State) to the

0 m
Chaguaramas
1000
Roblecito
La P
ascu
a
Carrizal
1000
50
of the intersection of the cross section with the
2000
G-D-6 to CAMAZ-1, south of Camatagua.
Infante
100
Orinoco River, approximately 160 km south
Macapra River, and along the section from wells
Temblador
0
Structural cross sections from a point near the

southern limit of the Guatopo National Park
Quartzose
sandstone 3000
Ba
km
sem
en
These cross sections show the depth to the
(autochthon) Cretaceous top, below the thrusting

A
G-D-6
GRICO-6
B
CAMAZ-1
GXB-1
front that includes igneous-metamorphic rocks

(Villa de Cura Group) and Cretaceous-Tertiary
Chaguaramas N.M
....
....
sedimentary rocks such as Mucaria, Garrapata,

La P
Roblecito
ascu
a
....
...
- --. .---
1 33
10
20
30
km
40
50
Gurico, Roblecito, Peas Blancas, Naricual,
1000
m
Quebradn, Quiamare and Chaguaramas Forma-
2000
. ..
500
Cr
eta
tions (the last six concentrated in the thrusting
ce
front, in the so-called "Chacual Complex" (after

ou
Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980).

PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN

,

,

,
,
,
,

,

,
,
,
Oficina
Seal
Reservoir
Graphic
Lithology
Source
Rock
Group
Formation
Figure 1.49
Coarse-grained sandstone.
5800'
Granular conglomerate.
Lignite, leaves.
5836'
Occasional shales.
Dolomitic limestones.
5900'
TEMBLADOR
Tigre
5925'
6000'
Shales with Lingula.
Ferrolithic levels.
Dolomitic limestones.
Exogyra.
6100'
6117'
Whitish and speckled

mudstones interval.
6200'
Speckled siltstones.
Canoa
Pebble conglomerates.
Whitish siltstones.
Speckled mudstones and
sandstones interval.
6300'
Pebble conglomerates.
6400'
Whitish weathered residual

rock.
6421'
Granite.
Basement
Lithological profile of the Tigre No. 1 well, Gurico State (after

Gonzlez de Juana et al., 1980).
The reservoirs are Neogene, and migration

probably occurred not only from north to
south, but from northeast to southeast.
The origin for the naphthenic-paraffinic oil
types is considered to be a Cretaceous
source rock, with tens of kilometers
migration, traveling along the Tertiary basal
discordance (Neogene-Cretaceous and
Neogene-Basement). The Orinoco Belt
extends to the east, delimiting the south
border for the whole Eastern Basin. Its
stratigraphy is shown in the geologic section
of Fig. 1.50.
The most important shale seals are found
in the same units as the reservoirs, e.g.
Roblecito, Chaguaramas and Oficina Formations. The traps are combinations of structural
(extensional faults) and stratigraphic
(channels) traps.
Petroleum Systems
The Gurico Sub-Basin is complex in its

petroleum system. Four such systems are
recognized: 1) Querecual-Oficina (!) (Fig.
1.51), 2) Temblador-La Pascua (!) (Fig. 1.52),
3) Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) (Fig. 1.53), and
4) Oficina (!) (Fig. 1.54). The source rock of
the Querecual-Oficina system is the
Querecual Formation, which occurs as blocks
and extremely faulted outcrops along the
whole Gurico Mountain Front. After
deposition (Late Cretaceous), it was first
overburdened and then involved in the
Caribbean tectonics during the Eocene and
Oligocene. Reservoir sedimentation (Oficina
and Merecure Formations) occurs during the
Late Oligocene and Miocene, and trap formation occurs during the structural formation of
the Eastern Basin during the Eocene. The
generation, migration and accumulation of
hydrocarbons have occurred continuously
since the beginning of the Oligocene, from
the deepest part of the thrusting front, to the
southern distal pinch-out of the Eastern Basin.

1 34
Figure 1.50
Aproximately 570 km
East
West
Hamaca-Cerro Negro
Machete-Zuata
Western Province
Eastern Province
Aprox. 6000'
Chaguaramas
Las Piedras
Freites
Roblecito
Oficina
Oficina
La Pascua
K
K
PK
PK
PK
PK
Carrizal
+
+
+
Altamira
+
+
+
+
Metamorphic Basement
(Precambrian (?) )
Hato Viejo
Sandy Reservoir
Shaly Seals
Paleozoic Basement (Sedimentary)
Sand-Seal Pairs
Carbonate Reservoir
Precambrian Basement (Igneous-Metamorphic)
Schematic structural configuration of the Orinoco Belt (after Audemard et al., 1985).
Figure 1.51
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
10
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Oficina oil system (!), in the Oficina area, Gurico
Sub-Basin (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
In the Oficina Formation, the Miocene

extensional fault systems are the main
trapping mechanisms for the Gurico and
Maturn (southern flank) Sub-Basins.
Specifically the Querecual-Oficina System
refers only to the area of the Oficina (near the
Gurico-Anzotegui southern border) in the
Gurico Sub-Basin, located to the south of
Gurico and Anzotegui states. Its critical
moment is present-time.
1 35
El Cantil Formation (Gucharo Member). Areal

view of the Las Puertas del Guarapiche,
Monagas State. Courtesy of Franklin Yoris.

PETROLEUM BASINS
GUARICO SUB-BASIN
Figure 1.52
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
K
J
E M L
40
30
20
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Geological time
Q scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Temblador Group-La Pascua (!) petroleum system in central
Gurico (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.53
200
150
100
70
60
50
Mesozoic
Tr
E M L
40
30
20
0 (Ma)
10
Cenozoic
K
Geological time
Q scale
Tertiary
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Querecual-Chaguaramas (!) petroleum system,

Orinoco River Belt (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.54
200
Tr
L
150
100
70
60
50
E M L
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Mesozoic
J
K
L
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological time
scale
Petroleum
Miocene PP
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
The Temblador-La Pascua System covers

the central area of Gurico State. The main
reservoirs are the Temblador Group proper
and the Roblecito and La Pascua Formations.
The burial of the source rock occurred from
the Eocene, with hydrocarbon generation
since the Oligocene. This produced a big
loss of hydrocarbons, because the structural
traps did not form until the end of Miocene.
The probable critical moment is around the
Miocene-Pliocene limit.
The Querecual-Chaguaramas System is
a consequence of the previously discussed
system. The traps, which are essentially
stratigraphic and asphaltic seals, occur along
the southern border of the Eastern Basin,
creating the Orinoco Belt. The QuerecualChaguaramas System is applicable to the
whole of the Orinoco Belt, including the
southern border of the Maturn Sub-Basin,
where the reservoir rocks are the lateral
equivalents of the Chaguaramas Formation
in Gurico Sub-Basin. The critical moment is
believed to be present-time.
In the Oficina System, hydrocarbons are
believed to have been generated from
Miocene source rocks (coals, carbonaceous
siltstones) in the Oficina Formation proper.
The sandstones of the same formation are
the reservoirs, but some of the oil may have
escaped to the underlying Merecure
Formation, with extensional-faulting traps
formed during Late Miocene. The source
rock overburden can be related to the thick
Pliocene (molasse) sequences, associated
with the uplifting of the Interior Mountain
Range and the resulting lithospheric flexure
that generates extensional faulting. The
critical moment is present-time.
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Oficina (!) petroleum system, Oficina area, Gurico Sub-Basin
(after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).

1 36
Figure 1.55
SE
NW
Interior Range
Araya
Sub-Basin
Margarita - Los Testigos
Platform
El Pilar
Fault
Margarita
Island
Maturn
Sub-Basin
Turimiquire
Morichito
Basin
Caribbean
Plate
Orinoco
River
Pirital
Block
Maturn
South American
Plate
Vertical and horizontal scale

10
km
0
km
Pleistocene
Cretaceous
Oceanic Crust
Late Oligocene - Pliocene
Jurassic
Accretionary Crust
Paleocene - Early Oligocene
Early Paleozoic
Continental Crust
20
Dextral
Transcurrent
Component
Conceptual NW-SE geological cross section from Margarita-Los Testigos shelf to the Orinoco River. The north flank of the Maturn SubBasin is associated with the thrusting fronts of large cortical blocks, emplaced to the south due to the collision between the Caribbean and
South American plates.
Figure 1.56
Middle
Miocene
Paleogene
to Late
Cretaceous
Late Jurassic
Lit
ta l
or
Las Piedras (Litoral)
al
er
r
Ca
Late
Miocene
Mesa (Continental)
Pliocene
Basin
(Piggy-Back)
Pirital High
U
Pleistocene
Foredeep
Basin
ap
it a
o
pap
Cha oral)
La Pica (Marine)
it
L
(
a"
apit
Car
per Deep water
"Up
shales and turbidites
Quiriquire (Continental)
l
Continenta
Mo
nti
rich
ne
ito
nta
l
Co
Undifferentiated Cretaceous Allochthon
"Middle Carapita "

SANTA ANITA and
M ERE
TEMBLADOR
Paleozoic
Pir
ital
CUR
2
km
Fau
lt
EG
rou
ps
"Lower Ca
rapita "
Shallow Water
Sandstones and
Limestones
Deep water
shales and turbidites
Crystalline Basement
La Quinta
Formation
Structural cross section showing the tectono-stratigraphic units in the Maturn SubBasins northern flank. The figure also illustrates the complex tectonic and
sedimentary units that constitute the vertical and lateral equivalents of the Carapita
Formation in the subsurface; coeval foredeep environment sediments were
deposited in the south, while north of the Pirital High, a piggy-back basin was
Maturn Sub-Basin
The Maturn Sub-Basin (Fig. 1.55) is the
main Eastern Basin petroliferous unit. The
structural deformation and pinch-out of
stratigraphic units to the south define two
operational domains: north and south of the
Pirital Thrust (Figs. 1.55 and 1.56).
The stratigraphy of the eastern Interior
Range is representative of sedimentation on
the northern flank of the main Maturn SubBasin (Fig. 1.57). A thick and complex
sedimentary sequence ranges from the
Lower Cretaceous to Pleistocene. On the
southern flank, a simpler stratigraphy occurs,
similar to that of the Gurico Sub-Basin in
the subsurface. The Temblador Group (Fig.
1.49) represents the Cretaceous, and the
overlying Tertiary is mainly OligocenePleistocene, with alternating fluvial-deltaic
and shallow marine environments eventually
overlain by continental sediments (Fig. 1.50).
developed, with shallow and continental environments (after Roure et al., 1994). The
Santa Anita Group includes the formations San Juan, Vidoo and Caratas.
1 37

,,
,
,
PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Carapita
San Juan
?
70
Sandstones and shales.

T = 0-650 m.
Cretaceous
Late
San Antonio
M
Siliceous limestones, sandstones and black cherts.

T = 250-500 m.
80
90
Querecual M
El Cantil
100
Early
110
. .
ana . .
Chim
8
?
. .
. .
Gucharo
. .
(Upper.)
Gucharo(Low.)
?
7
Garca
6
Barranqun 53 4 .
2 .
.
.
?
1 = Mbr. Tinajitas
2 = Capas Ro Solo
3 = Venados
4 = Morro Blanco
5 = Picuda
6 = Taguarumo
130 7= Mapurite
8 = Punceres
120
Pelagic black limestones.

T= 650-750 m.
Limestones, sandstones and
shales, the glauconitic content
is high in some places.
T= 270-535 m.
Bioclastic limestones and argillaceous limestones; the sandy
contents increase to the top.
T = 700-1000 m.
Sandstones. T = 157 m.
Shales and limestones.
T = 186 m.
Sandstones, limestones and
carbonaceous siltstones.
T = 1400-2400 m.
Member
Dark shales increasing its

sandy contents to the south.
T = 700-200 m.
6000'
Sandstones
with regular
shale
interbedding
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
6500'
6595'
Chapapotal
60
Thick sandstones interbedded

with dark shales; the Tinajitas
Member is calcareous and
glauconitic.
T = 700-200 m.
V
i
d
o
Las Piedras
La Pica
5458'
5500'
5800'
Middle
Early
50
Late
Paleocene
Caratas
Early
Paleogene
Eocene
Areo
?
Los Jabillos
?
40
Lithological
Description
5635'
30
Electric
Log
Sandstones interbedded with

calcareous siltstones and coals.
T = 2000 m.
Shales, siltstones, and glauconitic sandstones. T = 300m
Naricual
20
Uchirito
Formation
Quiriquire,etc.
?
Quiamare
10
Sandstones and claystones.

T = 275 m.
Conglomerates, sandstones
and often calcareous shale/
claystones.
T = 3000-4600 m.
Calcareous conglomerates.
Black calcareous shales, interbedded turbiditic sandstones;
conglomerates at the top.
T = 1000-2000 m.
Shales with
thin sandy
beds, probably
turbiditic.
7000'
7190'
Midd. Late
Early
Neogene
Miocene
Oligocene
Late Early Late
Lithostratigraphic
gy
lo
Units
ho
S Lit
N
Mesa ?
Las Piedras,
Pleistocene
Plio- Late
cene Early
Seal
Ma
Source
Series
Reserv.
7500'
Sandstones
with many
shale
interbeddings
(sandy
turbiditic
facies).
8000'
Carbonate reservoir
8075'
Seal rock
Mainly shales
with some thin
sandy beds
(probably
turbiditic).
Sandy reservoir
Sand/seal pairs
Transgressive
advance
Regressive
progradation
General source rock
8500'
T = Thickness
Integrated stratigraphic column (time scale) for
Electrical log from Well Q-297, in
the Interior Range (Maturn Sub-Basin northern
Cahipo block of the Quiriquire
flank) (after Yoris, 1992).
Field, State of Monagas. This is

typical
Member
of
the
of
the
Chapapotal
Carapita
Formation (after Gonzlez de

Juana et al., 1980). The turbidite
regime of the sand-seal pairs of
the Carapita Formation is the
same throughout all the region
(approximately 80 km to the
west of the Quiriquire oil field),
and in the El Furrial Field, 40 km
to the southeast (after Yoris,
1989, 1982).
The main source rock in the Interior

Range is the Guayuta Group, especially the
Querecual Formation. Its thickness is double
that of its Western Venezuela lateral
equivalent (La Luna Formation) and it has
similar characteristics as source rock. The
lateral transition of the Cretaceous from the
northern flank of the sub-basin to the
southern Temblador Group is not known in
the subsurface because of the considerable
thickness of the Neogene sequence. Nevertheless, it is believed that the Cretaceous
source rock is still of good quality in the
Greater Oficina Area, which generated part of
the oil present in these fields.
The main source rock for the North
Monagas region was probably Cretaceous
(Guayuta Group), although the possibility of
younger source rocks is not discarded.
Younger source rocks would need organic
matter of continental affinity (e.g., the
Naricual Formation is coaly/carbonaceous).
The most important reservoirs are of
Tertiary age; in North Monagas fields they
consist of Carapita, Naricual, Los Jabillos and
Caratas Formations (Fig. 1.57). Late Cretaceous sandstones (San Juan Formation) are
also good reservoirs, and the youngest MioPliocene reservoirs belong to La Pica and the
molassic Las Piedras-Quiriquire Formations
(Fig. 1.56). Structural traps, such as those in
El Furrial Field (Fig. 1.58) are of prime importance for hydrocarbon accumulations.
Major regional seals for the CretaceousTertiary sequence in the northern flank of the
sub-basin are the Vidoo, Areo and Carapita
Formations (Fig. 1.57). The Areo and Carapita
also have lenticular reservoirs, such as the
turbiditic lobes of the Carapita Formation
(Chapapotal Member; see Fig. 1.59).
To the south of the sub-basin, in the
Oficina fields of Anzotegui and Monagas
states, the main reservoirs are Merecure and
Oficina Formations. Regional shale seals
belong to the same units, and the overlying
Freites Formation is also an important
regional seal.

1 38
Figure 1.59
El Furrial
1400
1500
3
Seconds
Carapita
Mere
cure
Creta
ceous
1 km
Structural interpretation from El Furrial Field (after Pernaud et al., 1995). In this section,
the trap is made of a structural high associated with the development of a thrust with
vergence to the south.
Figure 1.60
200
150
100
70
60
Mesozoic
TR
J
L E M L
K
E
Paleo.
50
40
30
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Eocene
Olig.
20
0 (Ma)
10
Geological
time scale
Petroleum
system events
Miocene PP
From west to east the main oil fields in

the north of Monagas state are: Oficina Major
Area, Quiamare, Jusepn, El Furrial, Orocual,
Boquern, Quiriquire and Pedernales.
In the south the sub-basin also includes
the Orinoco Belt. It has Neogene reservoirs
and Cretaceous source rock, with distal
migration occurring along and across the
Cretaceous-Neogene and Basement-Neogene
discordances.
Oil gravities are quite varied. In El
Furrial and nearby fields medium-type oils
are common; Quiamare-La Ceiba produced
oils with average 41API; in the Oficina
fields, light, medium and heavy oils are
found; and in the Orinoco Belt the oil is
always heavy. In general, heavy oils are
found at the basin margins with the
youngest and shallowest reservoirs; this is
the case for the Orinoco Belt in the southern
flank and the Quiriquire, Manresa and
Guanoco fields in the northern flank. The
last two fields contain extra-heavy oils.
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for Guayuta-Oficina (!) petroleum system, Maturn Sub-Basin.

The kitchen is located below the Pirital Block (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
Figure 1.61
200
Tr
L
150
100
Mesozoic
J
E M L
70
60
40
30
20
10
Cenozoic
Tertiary
K
E
50
Paleo.
Eocene
Olig.
0 (Ma)
Geological time
Q scale
Miocene PP
Petroleum
system events
Formations
Source rock
Seal
Reservoir
Burial
Trap formation
Generation migration
accumulation
Preservation
Critical moment
Events chart for the Guayuta-Carapita (!) petroleum system for the Maturn
Sub-Basin. The kitchen is located both in the autochthonous and in the Furrial
(allochthonous) blocks (after Talukdar and Marcano, 1994).
1 39
Petroleum Systems
The main petroleum systems of Maturn

Sub-Basin are: 1) Guayuta-Oficina (!) (Fig.
1.60), and 2) Guayuta-Carapita (!) (Fig. 1.61).
The first one is related to the oil fields of the
southern flank, and includes the Late
Cretaceous Querecual and San Antonio
Formations (Guayuta Group) as the main
source rocks, overloaded (stratigraphically
and tectonically) until the present day. The
main reservoirs include Oligo-Miocene units
such as Merecure, Oficina and Freites
Formations. The principal seals are the
Oficina and Freites Formations, and trap
formation began during the Oligocene deformation and continues to the present.
The generation, migration and accumulation
of hydrocarbons is reaching the critical
moment at the present. Generation began in
the Late Paleocene when the Caribbean
nappes overthrusted the South American
plate, far to the west and northwest of their
actual position.

PETROLEUM BASINS
M AT U R I N S U B - B A S I N
Figure 1.62
Caribbean Sea
El Pilar Fault
N
San
Fran
cisco
Fault
Inmature
Mature
Pi
rit
al
Very mature
Th
ru
sti
Maturn
ng
ront
ion F
mat
r
Defo
Orinoco River
Ciudad Bolvar
The second system, the GuayutaCarapita (!), is related to the northern flank of
the Maturn Sub-Basin. It is characterized by
heterogeneous reservoirs and seals, with a
younger hydrocarbon generation than the
Guayuta-Oficina system. The generationmigration and the trap formation are Late
Oligocene to Present, with critical moment at
the present time. Important seals are Vidoo,
Areo and Carapita Formations, with minor
seal capacity in the molassic units such as
Morichito, Las Piedras and Quiriquire
Formations. San Juan, Caratas, Los Jabillos,
Merecure (subsurface Naricual), Carapita,
La Pica, Las Piedras and Quiriquire Formations are important reservoirs.
The kitchen for the Maturn Sub-Basin
source rock is summarized in Fig. 1.62,
showing that the source rock is in a gas
window below the deformation front, and its
maturity zone (oil window) is actually
feeding the sub-basins southern flank.
20
km
Hydrocarbons kitchen for the Interior Range and Maturn

Sub-Basin (after Parnaud et al., 1995).
AUTHORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter was written by F.Yoris and M.Ostos (E.I.G.LITOS C.A.)

with the collaboration of the personnel of LITOS C.A. and of L.Zamora.
The History of Exploration of Venezuela was written by L.Zamora.

1 40
The following definitions are either quoted directly or

paraphrased from Bates and Jackson (1987), and are
presented here as a reference for the chapters in this book
that discuss geological concepts. If the reader wants more
information about these terms, the mentioned reference or
specialized books are recommended.
Allochthonous: Formed or produced elsewhere than in its
present place. Here, this term is used to designate
portions of Earths crust, separated from their original
basement and tectonically transported long distances, and
being finally emplaced as allochthonous terranes.
Asthenosphere: see Lithosphere.
Authochthonous: Formed or produced in the place where
now found. Here, this term is used for the Earths crustal
portions that are rooted on their original basement.
Bathyal: Pertaining to the ocean environment or depth
zone between 200 and 2000 meters.
Chert: Microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline sedimentary
rock consisting dominantly of quartz crystals less than 30
microns in diameter. It may contain amorphous silica or
impurities such as calcite, iron oxide, and the remains of
siliceous and other organisms.
Clastic sediments: Sediments formed by particles derived
from the erosion/weathering of preexisting rocks or other
sediments, being transported by wind or water. The clastic
fractions are: clay ( < 1/256 mm diameter), silt (1/256 to
1/16 mm), sand (1/16 to 2 mm) and gravel ( > 2 mm).
Rocks dominated by silt and clay fractions are shales and
(siliceous) mudstones, by sand are sandstones, and by
gravel are conglomerates.
Conglomerate: see Clastic sediments.
Diachronism: The transgression, across time planes or
biozones, by a rock unit whose age differs from place to
place.
Economic basement: In the oil industry, the oldest rocks
in a given place that do not contain hydrocarbons (ex:
sedimentary Jurassic rocks in the Venezuelan oil basins, or
igneous and metamorphic rocks with no porosity and
permeability).
Gondwana: The Late Paleozoic continent of the Southern
Hemisphere. The term originates from the Gondwana
System of India, which is Carboniferous to Jurassic age
and includes glacially derived and coal sediments.
Graben: Elongated portion of the Earths crust, relatively
depressed in comparison with surrounding areas and
bounded by faults on its long sides.
1 41
Half-graben: A depressed block bounded on one side by

a listric fault. This name is used for some of the relic
portions of Western Venezuela Jurassic grabens in which
the La Quinta Formation outcrops in the Andes.
Hemipelagic sediments: Typical sediments of the
continental margin and abyssal plain. More than 25% of
the fraction coarser than 5 microns must be either
terrigenous, volcanogenic, and/or neritic.
Laurasia: The Northern Hemisphere equivalent of
Gondwana in the Southern Hemisphere, and from which
the Northern Hemisphere continents were derived.
Laurentia: A name that is widely and confusingly used for
granites and orogenies of Precambrian age in the
Canadian Shield.
Limestone: A sedimentary rock made up of more than 50%
calcium carbonate (calcite); also a carbonate sedimentary
rock containing more than 95% calcite and less than 5%
dolomite.
Lithosphere: The solid portion of the Earth, including the
crust and part of the upper mantle. Its rigid behavior
contrasts with the underlying asthenosphere, which is
capable of flow via convection cells while maintaining
its solid constitution.
Molasse: An extensive, post-orogenic sedimentary
formation resulting from the wearing down of elevated
mountain ranges, during or immediately after orogeny. It
is usually very thick.
Nappe: A sheetlike, allochthonous rock unit, which has
moved on a predominantly horizontal surface. The
mechanism of transport is usually thrust faulting.
Neritic sediments: Those sediments deposited in a marine
environment between low tide level and the shelf break.
Olistolite: see Olistostrome.
Olistostrome: Stratigraphic intervals made up of chaotic,
lithologically diverse blocks (Olistolites, sometimes up to
several kilometers long), accumulated by sliding and
slumping of unconsolidated sediment.
Orogenesis: Literally, the process of formation of
mountains. In modern usage, orogenic mountain chains
are considered the collision boundaries between tectonic
plates.
Pangea: A supercontinent that existed 200 to 300 million
years ago and included most of the existing continental
crust. From this supercontinent the present continents
were derived by fragmentation and displacement via
plate tectonics.

GLOSSARY
Tectonic plate: A rigid portion of the Earths lithosphere with

seismic activity along its borders. Over geologic time, it has
been postulated that the Earths tectonic plates moved over
the asthenosphere via convection cell mechanisms.
Terrain: A tract or region of the Earths surface considered
as a physical feature, an ecological environment, or some
planned activity of man. Here, the usage is physical
(geological).
Terrane: A fault-bounded body of rock of regional extent.
A terrane is generally considered to be a discrete
allochthonous fragment of oceanic or continental material
added to a craton at an active margin by accretion.
Thrust front: Regions of the lithosphere associated with
nappe emplacement; normally they form mountain ranges
near collisional plate limits. Ex: in Venezuela, the Interior
Mountain Range (Serrana del Interior) is considered a
thrust front associated with the nappe emplacement
caused by the collision between the Caribbean and South
American Plates. Thrust fronts are also associated with
fold and thrust belts.
Transgression: The spread or extension of
the sea over land areas. A transgressive
sedimentary sequence is that in which the
Numeric
paleodepth of its sediments steadily
Eonotheme
Eratheme
System and Sub-system
Series
Age
(Period and Sub-period)
(Eon)
(Era)
(Epoch)
(Ma)
increase as they decrease in age.
Holocene
Quaternary
1.64
Pleistocene
Trough: An elongated crustal depression,
Pilocene
23.3
Neogene
usually associated with a subduction-type
Cenozoic
Miocene
Tertiary
Oligocene, Eocene,
65
plate boundary or transformal limit (ex:
Paleogene
Paleocene
Upper (Late)
Marianas Trough, in the Pacific Ocean).
Cretaceous
Lower (Early)
145.8
Upper (Late)
Troughs (also: foredeeps) can be found
Medium (Middle)
Jurassic
208
Mesozoic
Lower (Early)
parallel to the trend of fold and thrust
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
Triassic
245
Lower (Early)
belts due to the lithospheric plate flexure
Upper (Late)
Permian
Lower (Early)
290
produced by its weight.
Carboniferous
362.5
Turbidite: Sediment body deposited from
Upper (Late)
Medium (Middle)
408.5
Devonian
turbidity currents.
Lower (Early)
Paleozoic
Turbidity currents: Density currents
Silurian
439
Upper (Late)
caused by different amounts of matter in
Ordovician
Medium (Middle)
Lower (Early)
suspension. They commonly occur along
510
Cambrian
the continental slopes and delta fronts,
570
where the discharge of sediments can be
very high.
2500
Archaic
Vergence: The direction of movement of
lithospheric masses involved in thrusting;
also the direction of overturning or of
Main units of the Chronostratigraphic (Geochronological) Global Standard Scale:
inclination of a fold.
Ages are in millions of years (Ma) corresponding to those of Harland et al (1990)
ic
zo
er
o
ot
Pr
Precambrian
Fanerozoic
Pelagic sediments: Marine sediments formed mainly from

open ocean-suspended particles. These particles can be
either nektonic or planktonic. The term pelagic also refers
to the water of the ocean as an environment.
Pull-apart basin: An extensional basin formed between
two strike-slip faults.
Regression: A retreat or contraction of the sea from land
areas, with a potential increase in subaerially exposed
areas. A regressive sedimentary sequence is identified
when its sediments paleodepth steadily decreases as they
decrease in age.
Sandstone: see Clastic sediments.
Shale: see Clastic sediments.
Siltstone: see Clastic sediments.
Subsidence: The downward settling of the Earths surface
with little or no horizontal motion. In a sedimentary basin,
an increase in subsidence results in a higher capacity to
receive sediment. If the basin is trough-shaped, the basin
axis reflects the deepest subsidence points.
Salvador (1994 : 86) modified.

1 42
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1 44
Chapter 2
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela
Introduction
Ta Juana (onshore)
Lagunillas
Ta Juana (offshore)
Ceuta
Mara Oeste
Silvestre
Oveja
Santa Rosa
Carito
El Furrial
Pedernales
Cerro Negro
HYDROCARBON RESERVOIRS IN VENEZUELA
Introduction
During the last eight decades Venezuela
has been outstanding worldwide as one of
the most important countries for its
significant oil reserves, production potential
and variety of crudes. In this chapter,
Venezuelan hydrocarbon accumulations are
described from the exploitation point of
view, first in a broad basin-to-basin overview, and then in a discussion of 12 specific
reservoirs that are typical of Venezuelan oil
fields. Their geographical and geological
locations are defined, petrophysical and
thermodynamic properties are indicated,
reserves and extracted fluids are quantified,
and their particular reservoir drive mechanisms are characterized.
Table 2.1
Western Province
Maracaibo
Area
Primary oil fields
Western Coast
La Paz, Boscn, Concepcin, Mara, Los Claros,

Urdaneta, Los Manueles, Tarra
Lama, Lamar, Centro
Ta Juana, Lagunillas, Bachaquero, Ceuta,
Motatn, Barua, Ambrosio
Center Lake
Eastern Coast*
Falcn
Western
Eastern
Tiguaje, Hombre Pintado, Media, El Mene

La Vela, La Ensenada, Cumarebo
Barinas-Apure
Barinas
Apure
Silvestre, Silvan, Sinco, Pez-Mingo

Guafita, La Victoria
Eastern Province
Area
Primary oil fields
Maturn**
Anaco
Oficina
Santa Rosa, San Joaqun, El Roble, Santa Ana

Melones, Oficina Central, Yopales, Oveja,
Oritupano, Dacin, Ostra, Mata
North Monagas
South Monagas
Orinoco Belt
El Furrial, Santa. Brbara, Jusepn, Carito,

Pedernales, Quiriquire
Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Piln
Cerro Negro, Hamaca, Zuata, Machete
Las Mercedes
Beln, Guavinita, Palacio
Gurico**
Geographical location
A total of 360 oil fields have been
identified in Venezuela, representing more
than 17,300 hydrocarbon reservoirs in an
area of 23.41106 acres (13% of the national
territory surface), of which 52% is found in
the eastern province and the remaining in
the western province (Fig 1.0 from Geology
chapter and Table 2.1).
General description
Before describing the different hydrocarbon accumulations, it is important to
mention that Venezuela produces all of the
crude oil types currently existing in the
world. Specific API gravity classification is
as follows:
Bitumen
(B)
up to 8.2
Extra-heavy crudes
(XH)
up to 9.9
Heavy crudes
(H)
from 10.0 to 21.9
Medium crudes
(M)
from 22.0 to 29.9
Light crudes
and condensates
(L)
(C)
from 30.0 up
Western Province
1) Maracaibo Basin
The main hydrocarbon accumulations

are found in the Eocene and Pliocene sandstones of deltaic origin. In general, the
lightest crudes and condensates lie in the
oldest and deepest formations (Cretaceous,
Basement, Paleocene, Eocene).
*Also called Bolvar District Coast or Bolvar Coastal Field (BCF)

** Sub-basin
Geographical location of the main oil fields in Venezuela.

Offshore Area
Member
Upper
Medium
BAMED38
Lower
BAINF59
Laguna
Reservoir
BASUP10
BASUP57
BA2
A3
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
Sta.
Brb. Lower Upper Lower Lag.
La Rosa
Laguna
MIOCENE
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
AGE
Formation
Figure 2.1
BA12
BA16
A10
LL345
LL711
LL12
LL34
LR11
SB1471
SB05
EOCENE
Stratigraphic nomenclature of
Miocene reservoirsBolvar
District Coast (Source: Roger,
J. V. et al., 1989).
a) Eastern Coast
Onshore oil fields are the Cabimas, Ta
Juana, Lagunillas and Bachaquero, which
produce heavy crudes from the Miocene-age
Lagunillas and La Rosa Formations that
overlie the Eocene unconformity (Fig. 2.1).
These reservoirs extend offshore along the
lake coast, but at greater depth, which
affects fluid properties and results in heavy
to medium crudes.
The Misoa Formation sandstones
constitute the main Eocene hydrocarbon
reservoirs. Crudes are medium to light,
varying with depth. The B sandstone
package, divided into nine members, mainly
produces medium crude and partially light
crude from the B-7 to B-5 sandstones. The
C sandstone package has a light crude
accumulation and the C-7 to C-4 members
are the main producers.
Gas and condensates from the Cretaceous have been discovered in the Ambrosio
Field, close to Cabimas, north of the Lake.
The prevailing production mechanisms
are solution gas, water drive, and compaction, as well as gas and/or water injection for
pressure maintenance in the reservoirs.
Later in this chapter, the Ta Juana,
Lower Lagunillas-07, B-6-X.03, and Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676 are described as
examples of Eastern Coast reservoir .
Table 2.2
Formation
Member*
Gravity
API
Depth
M ft
OOIP
MMSTB
Recovery
Factor (%)
Drive**
Sta. Barbara (a)
2932
711
750
30
1,2
Misoa (b)
2934
7.113.5
7600
40
1,2,4
Guasare (c)
3538
1017.5
10
17
2,3
S/L/C (d)
3242
12.420
720
21.5
1,2,3
*(a) Miocene, (b) Eocene, (c) Paleocene, (d) Cretaceous Socuy/La Luna/Cogollo
** 1. Water, 2. Solution gas, 3. Gas cap, 4. Expansion
b) Center Lake
In the Center Lake area the most
important oil fields are Lama, Lamar and
Centro. Production comes primarily from the
Eocene (B and C sandstones) and partially from the Miocene La Rosa Formation,
Santa Barbara Member. Crudes are mainly
light. Light oil is also produced from the
Paleocene Guasare Formation limestones.
The Cogollo Group, including the Maraca,
Lisure and Apn Formations, as well as the
La Luna Formation and the Socuy Member,
all of Cretaceous age, are fractured
sandstones and light oil producers. Some
Lama Field characteristics, shown in the
Table 2.2, describe the Center Lake oil
accumulations in general terms.
c) Western coast
The areas most important fields are
Boscn, Mara-La Paz and Urdaneta northward and Tara-Manueles southward. In
general, oil from Basement and Cretaceous
limestones is light, and heavy to medium
from the Tertiary (Eocene, Misoa Formation
to the north, Mirador Formation to the
south). There are some exceptions, such as
heavy crudes from the Eocene Boscn and
Urdaneta Fields and 16API Cretaceous Mara
Field (see Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir description later in this chapter). The La Paz
Field produces light oil from the Basement
and Cretaceous; however, nearby the La
Concepcin Field is a light oil and gas
producer from the Tertiary. To the south,
medium to light oil accumulations are found
in the Tertiary, and the Cretaceous limestones contain gas and condensates. The
light to medium oil from the Cretaceous limestones are in the center zone, which includes
Alpuf, San Jose and Machiques Fields.
Characteristics of the oil-producing sands in the Lama Field, located in Center Lake.

2) Falcn Basin
Figure 2.2
Formation
depth range
AGE
Sand
In the Falcn Basin the hydrocarbon accumulations occur in

Oligomiocene rocks. In general the
oil from the Falcn Western fields
(Tiguaje, El Mene, Hombre
Pintado) and some from Eastern
fields (Mene de Acosta, Cumarebo)
comes from sandstones. From the
Ensenada y La Vela areas, production comes from carbonates.
Crudes are light with low sulfur
and metal content.
Member
A710
B
C
D
F
LOWER-MIDDLE MIOCENE
TERTIARY
AQA6
H
IJ
KL
MN
UP
R
S
Oficina
10005000 feet
Azul
Moreno
Naranja
Verde
Amarillo
Colorado
OLIGOCENE
T
Merecure
2501500 feet
a) Barinas
Heavy to medium crudes are produced from the Eocene GobeStratigraphic column Oficina Formation
rnador Formation (Members A
Greater Oficina Area (Source: Roger, J. V.
and B) and medium crude from
et al., 1989).
the Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation (Member P). The Pez-Mingo, Hato
and Sinco Fields are located in the southern
area; Silvestre (see reservoir P1/2 [0017] later
in this chapter) is in the center area, and
Figure 2.3a
40,000
30 Percentage of each region total
34.823
34.819
MMSTB
30,000
48
67
20,000
16.370
22
10.956
10,000
9.716
8.430
15
47
6.340
4.665
30
1
22
108
12
2.087
0
3
C
L M
XH
Venezuela
6.654
4
4
M H XH
Western
3.765
13
4.676
9
7
1.979
C
b) Apure
Light crudes come from Guafita
(Oligocene Carbonera Formation, Members
A and B) and La Victoria Fields
(Cretaceous Escandalosa Formation). The
reservoirs main drive mechanisms are water
and fluid expansion.
Eastern Province
1) Maturn sub-basin
3) BarinasApure Basin
Temblador
8002000 feet
CRETACEOUS
Silvan, Maporal and Palmita Fields are in the

northern area. Water is the prevailing
reservoir drive mechanism.
H XH
Eastern
The most important hydrocarbon

accumulations occur in Tertiary formations
mainly from the Oligocene (Merecure
Formation) and the Miocene (Oficina and
Merecure Formations), (Fig. 2.2). More than
10,000 proven reservoirs have been
classified, most of them being small, with
variable rock and fluid characteristics and all
with known natural production mechanisms.
a) Greater Oficina Area
South Anaco thrust fault reservoirs
mainly contain saturated and unsaturated
oils, as well as some dry gas and condensate
types.
The produced crudes are light (Zapata,
Nardo, Chimire, Kaki, Sato, La Ceibita, Zulos,
Budare), medium (Oficina Central, Limn,
Yopales, Nipa, Mata, Oscurote, Aguasay) and
heavy (Melones, Migas, Oveja, Dacin,
Ostra). As an example, see J-3 (OM-100)
Oveja reservoir later in this chapter.
Sandstone thicknesses vary from 3 to 100 ft
and the depths of the productive intervals
are between 4000 and 14,000 ft. Porosity
varies from 10 to 35% and permeability from
50 to 1000 md, and sometimes several
darcies. Most of these reservoirs have a gas
cap and some contain only gas.
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by region and type of crude.

b) Greater Anaco Area

The main fields in this area are Santa
Rosa (see RG-14-COEF reservoir description), Joaqun, Santa Ana and El Toco. They
are located north of the Anaco thrust fault.
Oil and condensate reservoirs prevail, even
though some dry gas reservoirs are present.
The average depth is around 7000 ft, and
average net oil sand (NOS) and net
condensate sand (NCS) are each 18 ft thick.
Porosity, permeability and water saturation
are approximately 17%, 160 md and 15%,
respectively. Average oil gravity is 39API
and condensate is 51API. In the Greater
Oficina and Anaco areas secondary recovery
(gas and/or water), steam and air injection,
and gas recycling projects have been
implemented.
Figure 2.3b
Venezuela
25%
29%
Western
50%
65%
10%
Eastern
21%
Orinoco Belt
5%
0.2%
Western
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
95%
99.8%
5%
4%
Eastern
2%
San Tom*
9%
70%
13%
Anaco
11%
6%
27%
N.Monagas**
8%
S.Monagas
44%
Gurico
1%
Orinoco Belt
* Mainly Oficina
** Includes other
minor fields
Oil
c) North Monagas Area

The main light oil fields are Jusepn,
Santa Brbara, Mulata/Carito, El Furrial;
medium to heavy crude fields are Orocual
and Manresa (Las Piedras Formation); and
near the Amacuro Delta medium to heavy
crudes are from Pedernales (La Pica Formation). Also described later in this chapter are
the so-called Naricual Sands from Carito
Central and El Furrial Fields. The main difference between these two is a huge gas cap in
Carito Central.
Associated and
solution gas
Remaining oil and gas reserves (1996) by region and geographical area.
Figure 2.3c
Western
2%
1%
12%
Maracaibo
98%
Barinas-Apure
CL
88%
99%
H XH
Eastern
1%
2%
3%
2%
3%
10%
13%
55%
35%
41%
37%
23%
1%
M
5%
2%
11%
74%
Anaco
1%
San Tom
N.Monagas
49%
S.Monagas
37%
Gurico
95%
Orinoco Belt
XH
Remaining oil reserves (1996) by type of crude and geographical area.

Table 2.3 Injection projects
Projects
Total (Active)
Water
Gas
Gas & Water
Steam
Total
83 (54)
119 (83)
13 (12)
2 (0)
217 (149)
Injected Volume
MMBWPD
MMscf/D
920
Oil Production
MMBOPD
MMSTB
970
543
317
(Primary & Secondary)

483
974
6972
3867
179
7138
1463
1287
323
1636
18,300*
*38% cumulative oil production (19141996)
Secondary recovery projects in Venezuela, 1996).
d) South Monagas Area

The main oil fields in this area are Piln,
Jobo, Morichal, El Salto, Temblador, Uracoa,
Bombal and Tucupita. Heavy and extraheavy crudes come from the Miocene
Oficina Formation. The thickest Member is
Morichal, overlain by Yabo, Jobo and Piln
Members. Reservoirs are shallow (1200 ft),
and oil viscosity is high (1200 cp, but can
reach up to 15,000 cp or more). Average
porosity, permeability and water saturation
are 30%, 2500 md and 27%, respectively.
Figure 2.4
Western
Eastern
30 Percentage of each region total
20000
24%
MMSTB
18000
17,782
17,481
14,903
14000
13,903
12,187
10000
36 36
40
8013
6000
2
2000
1
25
792
37
5 4174
22
L M H XH
2879 3578
36 25 31 3 383
575
217
383
C
76%
L M H XH
Western
Venezuela
M H XH
Eastern
Cumulative oil production (19141996) by region and type of crude.
e) Orinoco Belt
The 8.9 million acres in the Orinoco
Belt area have been divided into four sectors
from east to west: Cerro Negro (see Bitor
Area reservoir description), Hamaca, Zuata
and Machete. For the next decade, 600
MBOPD of enhanced crude (synthetic) are
expected from five major projects. Also, an
additional production of 400 MBOPD is
expected, which would be used to prepare
and export Orimulsin (70% extra-heavy oil
with 29% water and 1% surfactant).
2) Gurico sub-basin
Figure 2.5a
400
30
Western
Percentage of each region total

389
Eastern
388
42%
58%
300
MMSTB
285
35
281
35
200
207
176
182
44
28
25
100
105
103
The producing zones of the Gurico

sub-basin consist of the Cretaceous Tigre
Formation and the Tertiary La Pascua,
Roblecito and Chaguaramos Formations.
Commercial production is located in the
Greater Las Mercedes area where 20
hydrocarbon accumulations are distributed
between seven fields. Southward crudes
have low gravity and high viscosity; to the
north condensate, associated gas and dry gas
are found; and in the center transitionalgravity crudes are present. In the early stages
of production, water was the main reservoir
drive, which later on was replaced by a
solution gas drive.
45
22
27
22
35
28
3
2
C
M H XH
Venezuela
4
C
L M H XH
Western
35
22
7
C L M H XH
Eastern
Annual oil production (1996) by region and type of crude.

97% of the total proven remaining dry

gas reserves (13,600 Bscf) are found in the
eastern part of the country and the other 3%
occur within Occident.
Figure 2.5b
5%
Venezuela
Western
37%
58%
Eastern
58%
42%
Orinoco Belt
8%
Western
0.6%
Maracaibo
Barinas-Apure
92%
1%
11%
99.4%
Eastern
6%
5%
1%
8%
Anaco
17%
San Tom
41%
48%
N.Monagas
S.Monagas
57%
Gurico
Orinoco Belt
Oil
Annual oil and gas production

(1996) by region and
geographical area.
5%
Associated and
solution gas
Estimated reserves as of 12/31/96

By the end of 1996 total hydrocarbon
reserves in Venezuela, including proven,
probable and possible, are more than
200,000 million barrels of oil and 242,000 Bcf
of gas, of which 30,000 Bcf are associated
gas. Worldwide, Venezuela ranks sixth
among countries with major remaining
proven crude reserves, seventh with
remaining gas reserves and sixth as an
annual oil producer.
Estimated proven oil and gas reserves as
of December 31, 1996 are indicated in the
table on this page and shown by area and
type of crudes in Figs. 2.3a, 2.3b and 2.3c.
Oil
MMSTB
Gas*
Bscf
Original in place
838,680
291,629
Recovery factor (%)
14.5
66.6
Remaining reserves
72,666**
129,610
Production until 12/31/96

During the last eight decades until
December 1996, Venezuela has produced
48,600 MMSTB of oil (Fig. 2.4), 64,600 Bscf
of associated and solution gas, and 585 Bcf
of dry gas from almost 40,000 wells. During
1996, production capacity was 3.4 MMBOPD
(see distribution by region, area and type of
crudes in Figs. 2.5a and 2.5b) from 14,900
active wells. Another 15,000 wells can be
reactivated when needed.
Venezuelan hydrocarbon exploitation
was the result of natural depletion (natural
flow, artificial gas lift, mechanical and electrical pumping); enhanced recovery (cyclic
steam injection, in-situ combustion, polymers injection, and others); and, during the
last 50 years, by secondary recovery to maintain reservoir pressure and displace additional oil (gas and/or water injection, steam
drive injection). Table 2.3 shows the secondary recovery efforts in Venezuela (data from
the Ministry of Energy and Mines, 1996).
* Includes associated and solution gas, as well as 23,070

Bscf injected gas.
** Includes 2263 MMSTB of bitumen from the Orinoco Belt
(Bitor Area).

Figure 2.6
Geographical location of typical reservoirs.
West Mara
5
Maracaibo
Altagracia
Cabimas
B-6-X.03 1 Ta Juana
3
2 Lagunillas
LL-07
Bachaquero
Lake
Maracaibo
4
Ceuta
Barinas
Silvestre
6
0
Cumana
Barcelona
El Carito
40 km
El Furrial
11
9 10 Maturn Pedernales
Santa Rosa
8
50 km
Tucupita
Typical hydrocarbon
reservoirs
A total of 12 reservoirs are
identified in Fig. 2.6 and the following
table, and are considered typical of the
area in which they are located. Each of
these reservoirs is described below from the
production, geological, petrophysical and
reservoir engineering points of view.
oco
Oveja
7
0
Bitor Area Orin

12
50 km
Ciudad Bolvar
Ref.
Field
Reservoirs
Ta Juana
Lagunillas Formation
Lagunillas
Lower Lagunillas-07
Ta Juana
B-6-X-.03
Ceuta
Eocene C/VLG-3676
West Mara
Cretaceous DM-115
Silvestre
P1/2 (0017)
Oveja
J-3 (OM-100)
Santa Rosa
RG-14-COEF
Carito Central
Naricual Sands
10
El Furrial
Naricual Sands
11
Pedernales
P2 Sands
12
Cerro Negro
Morichal Member

RESERVOIR: LAGUNILLAS FORMATION
Introduction
The Ta Juana Field (onshore) is located
northeast of Lake Maracaibo between
the towns of Cabimas and Lagunillas
(Fig. 2.7). It is divided into Principal Ta
Juana and East Ta Juana Fields on which
18 thermal projects (17 cyclic steam injection
and one steam drive injection) have been
parceled out. The field has a heavy oil
accumulation (original oil in place [OOIP] of
more than 11,000 MMSTB) extending over
an area of more than 39,000 acres. There
have been 2700 wells drilled, 1800 of which
are still active.
Figure 2.7
Maracaibo
Boscn
Cabimas
Tia Juana
Lagunillas
Bachaquero
Machango
Mene
Grande
Los
Claros
FIELD: TIA JUANA (ONSHORE)
Location map of the Ta

Juana Field.
Figure 2.8
250'
'
250
U D
U
U D
750'
U
U D D
U D
U D
0'
U D
L D
D
U U
D D
75
U U
D D
U D
1250'
U D
U
D
125
0'
75
U D
0'
D U
D U
DU
D U
D U
D U
D U
1750
'
D U
D U
Lake
Maracaibo
Geology
a) Structure
The Ta Juana Field structure is a

monocline oriented northwestsoutheast
and gently dipping an average of 4 to 6 to
the southwest. The intersecting faults are
normal, with variable directions and
displacements (between 20 and 250 ft). The
main fault has a preferential northwestsoutheast trend (Fig. 2.8).
b) Stratigraphy
The post-Eocene stratigraphic sequence

(Fig. 2.9) in the Ta Juana Field consists,
from bottom to top, of the La Rosa
Formation of Miocene age, which
unconformably overlies the Misoa Formation
of Eocene age; the Miocene Lagunillas
Formation, which is subdivided into four
members: Lower Lagunillas, Ojeda (the most
shaly), Laguna and Bachaquero, with Lower
Lagunillas being the most important
producer; and the La Puerta Formation of
Mio-Pliocene age. The contacts between
these three main formations are conformable. The La Rosa Formation (70 ft
thick) consists of greenish-gray laminated
shales interbedded with thin sandstone
layers. The Lagunillas Formation (1260 ft
thick) is a sequence of shales, clays and
sandstones with occasional lignite layers.
The La Puerta Formation is a sequence of
white and gray clays, claystones and gray
sandstones.
D U
2250
'
12
50
U
D U
1750
'
'
Structural contour
D
Fault
Lower Lagunillas Top
Structural map of the Ta Juana reservoir.

c) Depositional environment
Formation (AGE)
Member
Figure 2.9
The Lower Lagunillas Member in the

Ta Juana Field consists of paralic, nonmarine sediments showing eventual marine
transgressions. Toward the northwest, the
lower section consists of alluvial fan and
fluvial deposits. Conglomeratic sandstones
are very common, as well as claystone
conglomerates with a sandy matrix and
some intervals of claystones and
heterolites. Near the top of the section it is
less sandy, with the paralic deposits being
more common, consisting of medium- to
fine-grained sandstones.
ILD
GR
0
(gAPI)
ILM
Depth
120 (ft) .2 (ohm-m) 2000
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
Lower Lagunillas
2300
2400
Petrophysical properties
The formation is a sequence of shales
and high-porosity (approximately 36%), unconsolidated sandstones (Fig. 2.9). Permeabilities are between 2 and 6 darcies and
irreducible water saturation is approximately 10%. The primary clays are
kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite, whose
volumes may reach 10 to 20%. The typical
interpretation parameters for the WaxmanSmits equation are: a=1, m*=1.6, n*=2.0, and
rg=2.6 g/cm3. Water salinity is between
2500 and 3500 ppm equivalent NaCl.
2500
La Rosa
2600
Typical log of the Lower

Lagunillas in Ta Juana Field.
The cutoffs used for porosity, water

saturation and shaliness are 20%, 50% and
50%, respectively.
Fluid properties
The oil formation volume factor (FVF)
is 1.05 RB/STB and the initial gas-oil ratio
(GOR) is 90 scf/STB at a 725 psia bubble
point pressure and 113F. These values are
averages and vary according to the
producing sandstone depth. Oil gravity
fluctuates between 9.2 and 14API (12API
average) and the temperature between 100
and 125F. The original pressure was
between 400 and 1000 psia, oil viscosity at
100F and atmospheric pressure between
1500 and 70,000 cp.
Reserves calculations were made
based on a 39,429-acre area, 130-ft average
sandstone thickness, 36% porosity, 68% oil
saturation, and an oil FVF of 1.05 RB/STB.
The official results are OOIP=11,114
MMSTB, recovery factor=25%, and
remaining reserves=1002 MMSTB.
Reservoir behavior until 12/31/96
a) Production, injection and pressure history
Figure 2.10
Wells-month
4000
Wells-month
3000
2000
1000
80
60
400
40
20
0
0
Qo
Np
1500
M-6
SDI
CSI
Thermal
recovery Generalization
pilot
tests
150
0
'52
'60
'64
'68
'72
500
CSI+
Additives
Nationalization
Large scale
CSI test
'56
1000
shut-in due
to market
'76
'80
'84
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
GOR
B, S &W
B, S & W (%)
GOR (scf/STB)
The Ta Juana Field was discovered in

1928. Since then and until 1959, the cold
average production was about 75 MBOPD,
with accumulations of 418 MMSTB coming
from approximately 900 wells. From 1957
until 1962, thermal recovery tests were
completed, such as Cyclic Steam Injection
(CSI), In Situ Combustion (dry and wet)
and Thermal Sandwich. In 1964, a CSI
project was started on a large scale, which
increased the production to 110 MBOPD.
0
'88
'92
'96
Year
Production history of the Ta Juana reservoir.

Figure 2.11
Principal Ta Juana
East Ta Juana
R
A
APTJN
(Project A-3)
B
Proj. B/C-3
C
Proj. C-5 ext.
Proj. C-2/3 4
Proj. C-3/4
APTJEN
(C-7)
Proj. C-5
Proj. D-2/E-2
Project D-6
Proj. D/E-3
Proj. E-8
A total of 18 thermal projects have been

completed (Fig. 2.11). These are: 7 CSI in
Principal Ta Juana, including the so-called
Peripheral Areas along the field boundaries,
and 11 in East Ta Juana, including the M-6
SDI project. A total of 34.1 MM tons of steam
were injected into 2266 wells, recovering
1775 MMSTB of oil, 1039 MMSTB of which
are additional to what would have been
produced by natural depletion. An average of
approximately 4675 tons of steam has been
injected per cycle.
b) Reservoirs drive mechanisms

F
Proj. F-7
Proj. G-2/3
G
APTJC
Proj.
H-6
Proj.
H-7
Proj. G-2/3 ext.

Project
J-7
APTJEE
K
Project M-6
(inj. alt.)
Project M-6
(inj. cont.)
Lake
Maracaibo
M
N
APTJES
Thermal projects in the Ta Juana Field.
Figure 2.12
Graphic scale
5 10 km
400 cm
400
20
Ta Juana
500
Lagunillas
400
0
Lake
Maracaibo
400
Bachaquero
Then, starting in 1969, the CSI was

generalized for the whole Ta Juana
Field until a 230 MBOPD peak was
reached. The production then declined
to 60 BOPD in 1986. The M-6 Steam
Drive Injection (SDI) project was
initiated in 1978. Low production
between 1987 and 1991 is a consequence of partially shut-in wells due
to adverse marketing conditions. The
field is presently producing approximately 80 MBOPD with 18% B, S & W
and a GOR of 220 scf/STB (Fig. 2.10).
The main production mechanisms that

activate the Lagunillas Formation reservoirs in
Ta Juana Field are solution gas drive and
compaction. Compaction is especially
outstanding in the unconsolidated sandstones
of Ta Juana and other Bolvar District Coast
fields. Compaction is a consequence of fluid
pressure reduction in the reservoir during
production, which at the same time increases
the over-layer pressure. This causes these
layers to sink into the reservoir, which is
reflected as subsidence on the ground surface
(Fig. 2.12). Average subsidence until 1996
was approximately 15 ft. However,
compaction is an effective way to maintain
the reservoir pressure and, therefore, to
increase total oil recovery. Around 70% of the
production can be allocated to compaction.
50
Subsidence in the Bolvar

District Coast.

2 10
RESERVOIR: LOWER LAGUNILLAS07
Introduction
The Lower Lagunillas-07 (LL-07)
reservoir is located on Lake Maracaibos
eastern coast (offshore), in front of the
town of Lagunillas and north of
Bachaquero (Fig. 2.13). Its production life
started in 1926 and to date about 960 wells
that are approximately 4200 ft deep have
been completed. The reservoir covers an
estimated area of 31,000 acres and its OOIP
is 3830 MMSTB of heavy crude. Since 1984,
water from the Lagunillas Tank Yard has
been injected into the reservoir to maintain
its pressure, increase oil recovery and
eliminate the drainage of water effluents into
Lake Maracaibo.
Figure 2.13
Ta Juana
FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)
Lagunillas
LL-07
Lake
Maracaibo
Bachaquero
Location map of the

LL-07 reservoir.
Figure 2.14
Isopach
60
650'
700
'
0'
Reservoir limit
D
20
34
Well
ke
Di
00'
Fault
0'
2000 Meters
550'
S. 55000
D
U
36
00
LL07
0'
0'
70
'
50
U
D
U
80
0'
40
0'
00
U D
'
50
UD
S. 60000
20
650'
0'
50'
0
35
The isopach-structural map built on top

of the LL-A sandstone (Fig. 2.14) indicates a
monocline with 3 to 3.5 dip southwestward. The LL-07 reservoir extends to the
northwest (not shown on the map) at the
Laguna Member lease. To the southwest, the
reservoir is limited by a normal fault dipping
to the north, and is northwest-southeastoriented. Also to the south is an oil-water
contact that was originally found at
approximately 5000 ft subsea. To the
southwest and central-eastern areas there
are several extension faults with 30- to 50-ft
displacements intersecting the reservoir, but
they have a relatively small impact on its
trapping mechanism.
The LL-07 reservoir consists of the

Laguna and Lower Lagunillas Members of
the Lagunillas Formation, and the La Rosa
and Santa Brbara Members of the La Rosa
Formation, both of Miocene age (Fig. 2.15).
The reservoir conformably underlies the
Bachaquero Member, also from the
Lagunillas Formation, and uniformly overlies
the post-Eocene formations. The most
important member is the Lower Lagunillas,
which contains 89% of OOIP. This member
has been divided into three layers: LL-A, LLB and LL-C. The Laguna Member is
subdivided into four lenses, from LaA to
LaD, and the La Rosa Formation into two
lenses, the LRA and LRB.
'
U D
a) Structure
b) Stratigraphy
Structural
Geology
40
0'
40
0'
48
00'
D
U
46
00'
550'
U D
S. 65000
5
00
52
700'
00
'
0'
D
U
650'
5400'
350'
500'
E. 30000
E. 35000
E. 40000
Isopach-structural map of the LL-07 reservoir, on top of LL-A.
2 11

FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
GR
Member
Formation (AGE)
Figure 2.15
(gAPI)
100
CALI
0.8
RHOB
ILD
Depth
(ft)
18
0.2
(in.)
2000 1.9
(ohm-m)
(g / cm3)
8.9
LaA
Laguna
3500
Lagunillas (MIOCENE)
LaB
LaC
3600
LaD
Data from 800 wells, of which only 31
have porosity logs, were used to determine
LL-07 reservoir petrophysical properties; a
few cores were also taken. A 12-ohm-m
resistivity was considered the cutoff to
estimate NOS thickness. The range of
sandstone thickness, porosity and oil saturation for each of the Lower Lagunillas Member
layers are as follows:
LLA
Lower Lagunillas
3700
LLB
3800
La Rosa
Sta. La.
Brb. Rosa
LLC
LRA
3900
LL-A
LL-B
LL-C
Thickness (ft)
2051
2654
1743
Porosity (%)
18.629.1
22.429.7
27.133.1
Oil Saturation (%) 84.685.9
76.285.0
30.267.2
LRB
Typical log in the LL-07 reservoir.

Figure 2.16
The Laguna Member and La Rosa

Formation sandstones do not have as attractive petrophysical properties or good lateral
continuity as the Lower Lagunillas Member.
A 1500-md average permeability was
determined from a permeability-thickness
ratio varying between 25 and 275 darcies/ft,
and was validated by core analysis.
400
Qo (MBOPD) B,S&W (%) GOR (scf/STB) Producers
The Laguna and Lower Lagunillas

Members of reservoir LL-07 consist mainly of
fluvial-deltaic deposits with some coastal
marine sediments, while the La Rosa
Formation is predominantly marine. In
general, the Laguna Member represents a
less extensive progradation than that of
the Lower Lagunillas, since fewer and
thinner sandstones are present. Its fluvial
deposition apparently did not extend as far
westward and southwestward as the Lower
Lagunillas Member.
200
0
2000
1000
0
80
40
0
40
20
0
'56
'60
'64
'68
'72
'76
'80
'84
'88
'92
'96
Year
Production history of the LL-07 reservoir.

2 12
FIELD: LAGUNILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.17
500
150
400
120
300
90
200
60
100
30
Qiw (MBPD)
Wi (MMSTB)
Water injection rate per day, Qiw

Cumulative water injected, Wi
0
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
Injection history of the LL-07 reservoir.
Fluid properties
Data from pressure-volume-temperature
(PVT) analyses (samples taken at 3700 ft
subsea and 140F) were used to determine
the LL-07 reservoir fluid properties, as
shown below:
Original pressure
1785
psia
Bubble point pressure, Pb
1785
psia
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.145
RB/STB
GOR @ Pb
213
scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ Pb
21
cp
Oil gravity
18
API

The following average data were used
to calculate oil reserves: 68 ft sandstone
thickness, 31,639 acres of area, 30% porosity
and 84% oil saturation. Results are shown in
the next table:
OOIP
3828 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
44.75%
Remaining reserves
201 MMSTB
*Including primary (39.29%) and secondary (5.46%)
89% of OOIP comes from the Lower

Lagunillas Member (LL-A=40%, LL-B=35%,
LL-C=14%), an average of 10% from the
Laguna Member, and less than 1% from the
La Rosa Formation.
2 13
The LL-07 reservoir production life

started in May 1926, and by December 1996
has produced 1512 MMSTB of 18API heavy
oil, 179 MMSTB of water and 863 Bscf of
gas. A total of 960 wells have been
completed. 284 of these wells are, on
mechanical pumps, producing 34,250 BOPD
(average December 1996) with a 850 scf/STB
GOR and 47% B, S & W. Until 1979 the
annual decline rate was 7.2%, when more
wells were completed in the reservoir,
increasing its production until 1984. In
February 1984 a water effluents injection
project was initiated on the southern flank.
The production continues to decline but at
an annual rate of 1.8%. Since 1991, the
production was maintained constant above
30,000 BOPD (Fig. 2.16). Water effluents
coming from the Lagunillas Tank Yard were
injected, mainly in the LL-A, LL-B and LL-C
lenses through 10 injector wells at a rate of
90 to 110 MBWPD, totaling 446 MMbbl of
water (Fig. 2.17). It was observed that the
injected water in the LL-C which was already
flooded, invaded the LL-B through vertical
communication.
The original bubble point pressure
declined from 1785 psia at a rate of 0.67
psia/MMSTB. The water injection started in
1984 when the pressure was 780 psia and
the cumulative oil production was 1400
MMSTB (Fig. 2.18). Pressure increased in the
reservoir up to the actual 911 psia, indicating
that the secondary recovery was beneficial
(between 1000 and 1400 psia were observed
in the non-drained areas, between 600 and
800 psia in the productive zone, and
between 900 and 1200 psia in the area close
to the injectors). Cumulative fluid
replacement is 78%. Cyclic steam injection
has been successfully tested in six wells; this
is another production technique that will
allow the recovery of substantial remaining
heavy oil reserves.

FIELD: LAGUMILLAS (LAKE)
Figure 2.18
1800
Pressure (psia)
1600
1400
Injection start
February 1984
1200
1000
800
600
~
~
~
~
The LL-07 reservoirs prevailing

production mechanism is rock compaction
mostly in the central-eastern region. Water
has also made a very important contribution
to oil recovery and, so has, to a lesser extent,
solution gas drive. Finally, water effluents
injection, which has been successful in
maintaining the pressure in the reservoir,
should be considered as another production
mechanism.
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
Pressure history of the LL-07 reservoir.
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.19
Maracaibo
Cabimas
Lake
Maracaibo
Ta
Juana
B6XX.03
Location map of the

B-6-X.03 reservoir.
FIELD: TIA JUANA (LAKE)
Introduction
The B-6-X.03 reservoir is located
offshore of the eastern coast of Lake
Maracaibo in the North Eocene area of the
Ta Juana Field (Fig. 2.19). It is characterized
by a medium OOIP of 2300 MMSTB, and by
gas injection at the top of the reservoir
combined with four water injection projects.
Cumulative oil production since 1945 has
been 456 MMSTB from 240 producers
associated with 70 water injectors and two
gas injectors.
Geology
a) Structure
The reservoir structure consists of two

asymmetrical anticlines (Fig. 2.20). The first
one, in the Punta Benitez area of the
northern block, has a flank facing NNW with
a 10 to 15 variable dip. The SSE flank has a
2 to 4 gentle dip. The second structure is
located in the southern block at the NNW
reservoir limit of the Ta Juana sector. It
extends toward the SSE as a monocline
gently dipping between 2 and 4. The B-6X.03 is limited by normal faults that separate
it from the B-6-X.02, B-6-X.10 and B-6-X.29
reservoirs. Possible communication exists
between the Area Sur-03 and B-7-X.04/B-6X.10 reservoirs, as well as between the
reservoir in the furthest southern sector and
the B-6-X.85.

2 14
RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.20
B-6-X.49
N
B-6-X.01
B-6-X.29
NORTH-03
70
4
0
00
U D
B-6-X.02
NORTH-02
DU
00
5
0
470
B-6-X.93
U D
NORTH-01
D U
SOUTH-03
D U
50
The B-6-X.03 reservoir reflects six

prevailing environments of deposition:
crevasse fan, littoral, stream mouth bars, main
channel, distributary channel and delta front.
SOUTH-01
B-6-X.10
550
600
The source of basic petrophysical data
is from 24 cores from 24 wells with almost
1500 porosity and 1900 permeability
measurements. The correlation between
permeability and porosity is very poor for
each of the available cores. Therefore, two
groups of correlations have been established
according to the interpreted environment of
deposition, which affects the porous matrix.
SOUTH-02
A-01
UD
Structural
Area limit
B-6-X.85
The B-6-X.03 reservoir is part of the

Misoa Formation B sandstones of Eocene
age belonging to the Lake Maracaibo North
Eocene geological area (Fig. 2.21). It
conformably overlies and underlies the B-7X and B-5-X members, respectively. The B6-X.03 reservoir is divided into three
intervals called A, B and C from top to
bottom. A has the poorest geological and
petrophysical characteristics, with an
average thickness of 15 ft. It is believed to
have been eroded in several places. B and
C each have a 60-ft average thickness.
Each sandstone body is massive and shows
good vertical transmissibility.
Fault
Anticline axis
Structural map of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.4
Area
Datum
ft subsea
Temp.
F
Gravity
API
Rsi
scf/STB
Pb
psia
Bob
RB/STB
Mob
cp
B-6-X.03
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North01
5600
184
25.0
305
1720
1.201
3.80
North02
5275
178
26.0
379
1816
1.238
2.15
North03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
South01
5800
187
22.1
260
1646
1.179
5.30
South02
5950
190
20.9
226
1602
1.162
7.10
South03
5200
177
26.5
396
1838
1.246
2.10
Fluid property average values for the six regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 15

RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.21
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ILD
1
(ohm-m)
SFLU
1000
(ohm-m)
RXO
1000
45
(p.u.)
RHOB
-15
(ohm-m)
1000
1.9
(g cm3)
2.9
CALI
4
14
(gAPI)
150
B5X
(in.)
GR
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
6800
B6X
Misoa (EOCENE)
6900
Permeability
63 to 144 md
Porosity
14 to 15.2%
Oil saturation
77.7 to 85.2%
Fluid properties
Average fluid property values for the six
regions that divide the B-6-X.03 reservoir are
shown in Table 2.4:
The reservoirs formation water analysis
indicates 8000 ppm chlorine with 3000 ppm
bicarbonates.
7000
7100
B7X
The resulting two equations were considered reliable tools for obtaining area
distributions and permeability trends in all
reservoir layers and sectors. Based on 55
drainage capillary pressure tests, a correlation of the irreducible water saturation with
permeability and porosity was elaborated.
The ranges of the petrophysical properties
are as follows:

The B-6-X.03 reservoirs estimated
reserves, as well as those regions with water
injection, are shown in Table 2.5.
7200

Typical log in the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Table 2.5
Area (acres)
Thickness (ft)
OOIP (MMSTB)
Prim. recov. factor (%)
Sec. recov. factor (%)
Remain. reserves (MMSTB)
B-6-X.03
North-01
North-02
South-01
South-02
16,663
1200
2030
1920
2240
186
186
186
186
166
2528
164
277
247
257
20.4
26.9
29.0
26.6
18.1
9.8
20.8
12.7
14.5
13.2
308
13
17
58
The B-6-X.03 reservoirs estimated reserves, as well as those regions with
B-6-X.03 commercial production started

in 1947, and until 1952 it produced by
natural depletion. A flank water injection
pilot test was initiated south of the reservoir,
but was suspended in 1978 due to high
heterogeneity and discontinuity of the
sandstones. Gas injection at the top of the
reservoir started in 1974. A strategy to
implement four water injection pattern
projects was established in the North-01
area in 1980, South-01 area in 1983, North02 area in 1984 and South-02 area in 1986.
By the end of 1996, the cumulative oil
water injection.
2 16

RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.22
180
Number of producers
120
60
0
400 Cumulative oil production (MMSTB)
200
0
Oil production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
Liquid production rate per calendar day (MSTB)
40
0
4 GOR (Mscf/STB)
2
0
B, S & W (%)
50
0
'54 '56 '58 '60 '62 '64
'66 '68 '70 '72
'74 '76 '78 '80
'82 '84 '86 '88 '90 '92 '94 '96
Year
Production history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
Figure 2.23
production was 457.3 MMSTB, of which 267

MMSTB came from the four water injection
projects (60.3 MMSTB of water and 698.7
Bscf of gas). Average production during
December 1996 was 15,540 BOPD (7860
BOPD correspond to water injection
projects) with a 3850 scf/STB GOR and
49.4% B, S & W (Fig. 2.22). By December
1996, 535.1 MMbbl of water and 337 Bcf of
gas had been injected into the B-6-X.03
reservoir (Fig. 2.23), resulting in a 117%
cumulative replacement (gas 64% and water
55%). General information on water
injection is shown in Table 2.6.
From January 1974 to date, 337 Bcf of
gas have been injected in the North and
South blocks (14.6 Bcf in 1996).
The original pressure taken in 1944 at
5300 ft subsea declined from 2500 psia to
990 psia in 1973 (Fig. 2.24) when the
secondary recovery projects were initiated.
In 1996 the pressure was 1444 psia. During
the last eight years the reservoir pressure has
been maintained between 1404 to 1508 psia.
150
120
Water injection rate per calendar day (MSTB)
90
60
30
0
100
Gas injection rate per calendar day (MMscf)
75
50
25
0
Cumulative water injection (MMSTB)
Cumulative gas injection (Bscf)
400
200
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
Year
Injection history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.
2 17

RESERVOIR: B-6-X.03
Figure 2.24
2600
2400
Pressure (psia)
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
1945
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
During the natural depletion period, the

prevailing production mechanism was
solution gas drive. To a lesser extent, gas
gravitational segregation and a water drive
from a small aquifer located in the southern
sector of the reservoir are also production
mechanisms. The combined gas and water
injection projects have successfully
maintained the reservoir pressure and
should be considered as secondary
production mechanisms.
Year
Pressure history of the B-6-X.03 reservoir.

Table 2.6
Project
Starting date
South block
North01
Type
Volume
MMbbl
1996 Average
MBWPD
6/73 (a)
Flank
44.0
12/80 (b)
Pattern (c)
137.3
South01
1/83
Pattern (c)
147.5
16.0
North02
11/84
Pattern (c)
135.9
29.4
South02
5/86
Pattern (c)
70.4
10.6
Total
535.1
56.0
Water injection in the B-6-X.03 reservoir: a) suspended in 1978, b) suspended in July

1995 and c) 1:1L. modified.
RESERVOIR: EOCENE C/VLG-3676

Figure 2.25
Bachaquero
Mene
Grande
III
IV
XI
VII
XII
Barua
Motatn
Ceuta: VLG-3676
Location map of the Ceuta
Introduction
The Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir is
located southeast of Lake Maracaibo
(Block VII) and southwest of Ceuta Field
(Fig. 2.25), extending over one of its
subdivisions called Area 2 Sur. With a
proven oil area of 28,000 acres containing an
OOIP of almost 2800 MMSTB of light oil, the
Area 2 Sur is considered one of the most
attractive fields in Ceuta, confirmed by the
high productivity of its completed wells and
the potential reservoir development to the
south.
FIELD: CEUTA
Geology
a) Structure
At the Eocene level, the structure is an

oriented east-west homocline with 3 to 7
gentle dip to the south (Fig. 2.26). Its most
important components are the north-southtrending VLC-70 and VLG-3686 faults
dipping to the east, being the reservoirs
western
and
eastern
boundaries,
respectively. The northern limit is a
northeast-oriented normal fault. The
southern limit has not been determined,
since this area is under consideration for
expanding the reservoir.
Field.

2 18
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.26
Structural
D
13900'U
0'
1460
D
U
Well
14000'
141
D
00
142
00'
U
Fault
00
1
14
14200'
14300'
14400'
14500'
14600'
U
ault
14700'
6 86 f
14800'
14900'
D U
V L G- 3
15000'
15100'
15200'
15300'
VLC-0 7 0 f a
ult
15400'
15500'
15600'
15700'
15800'
15900'
16000'
16100'
16200'
0'
1630
16400'
16500'
'
16700
16900'
16600'
16800'
17000'
17100'
2 19
Structural map of the
b) Stratigraphy
VLG-3676 reservoir.
The stratigraphic sequence from top to

bottom consists of the El Milagro and Onia
Formations of Pleistocene-Pliocene age, then
the La Puerta, Lagunillas (Lower Lagunillas,
Laguna and Bachaquero Members) and La
Rosa Formations of Miocene age. Miocene
rocks unconformably overlie the Eocene
Misoa Formation, which is partially eroded
at the B sands (Upper: B-1 to B-5, Lower:
B-6/7) level. Those sandstones conformably
overlie the C productive sands (Upper: C-1
to C-3, Lower: C-4 to C-7). The upper C

section thickness varies from 600 to 900 ft
and consists of interbedded sandstones and
shales, the C-3 interval being the cleanest.
The lower C section thickness varies from
700 to 800 ft and consists of clean and
massive sandstones interbedded with thin
shale layers. The Misoa Formation
unconformably overlies the Paleocene
Guasare Formation limestones. Hydrocarbon
accumulation is controlled by stratigraphic
and structural factors that have created
complex sandstone body continuities and
distributions, primarily in the C-2 and
C-3 sands.
The basal section of the Eocene

C/VLG-3676 reservoir was deposited by a
complex, fluvial-dominated delta prograding
into a brackish-water estuary. The
development of numerous distributary
channels enabled the deltaic system to
advance rapidly. A subsequent marine
transgression caused the channels to retreat,
where they were overlain by delta front
deposits such as mouth bars and prodelta
shales. The geometry of these deposits
varies from asymmetrical, elongate channel
sandstones to long, laminated mouth bar
deposits. The width of the channels is
estimated is to be approximately 20 times
their thickness.
The Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir is a
continuous sequence of shales and shaly
sandstones, some of them of considerable
thickness (Fig 2.27). The most productive
facies have porosities varying from 11 to
17%, the irreducible water saturation is
around 20% and shale volume less than 15%.
Shales are mainly composed of kaolinite and
illite with some smectite.

FIELD: CEUTA
Petrophysical evaluation was made

through a study of porosity (density/neutron) and resistivity logs, with the following
results for each productive sand:
Figure 2.27
RXO
0.2
(ohm-m)
IMPH
2000
0.2
(ohm-m)
2000 45
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
GR
(gAPI)
120
CALI
0.6
C-1
(in.)
16
Depth
(ft)
16200
Misoa (EOCENE)
16400
C-2
16600
C-3
16800
C-4
17000
NPHI
IDPH
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
-15
Sand
NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water
saturation (%)
C-1
1247
11.514.3
2843
C-2
62.595
12.014.4
1935
C-3
2667.5
12.013.5
2535
C-4
010.5
11.316.7
3948
RHOB
2000 1.9
(g / cm3)
2.9
Water saturation calculations were

determined using the Waxman-Smits
equation with a = 1, m* = 1.9 to 2.0, n* =
1.85 to 2.0. Cutoffs for water saturation,
porosity and clay volume were 50%, 10%,
and 50%, respectively.
A 70-md average (range 50 to 1000 md)
absolute permeability was obtained from
core analysis and validated by build-up
pressure restoration calculations. The upper
C and lower C sands salinity was
estimated to be 8100 and 5900 ppm
equivalent NaCl, respectively. Starting in
1996, oil-based mud (OBM) is used
routinely, which limits log interpretation but
allows us to have a hole adjusted to the bit
diameter.
Fluid properties
PVT analysis of a C-3 producer (samples
taken at 15,000 ft subsea and 309F) yields
the following characteristics:
Original pressure
10,000 psia
Bubble point pressure, pb
3442 psia
Oil FVF @ pb
1.791 RB/STB
GOR @ pb
1148 scf/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.253 cp
Oil gravity
36.8API
C-5
Typical log of the VLG-3676 reservoir.

2 20
FIELD: CEUTA
Figure 2.28
OOIP
2780 MMSTB
Recovery factor
17%
Remaining reserves
437 MMSTB
Wells-month
30
15
a) Production and pressure history

GOR
B, S & W
80
60
40
20
0
B, S & W (%)
0
Oil rate
Np
30
30
20
20
10
10
0
'77
'79
'81
'83
'85
'87
'89
'91
'93
'95
NP (MMSTB)
Oil rate (MBOPD) GOR (Mscf/STB)
0
'97
Year
Production history of the VLG-3676 reservoir.
Figure 2.29
10000
Pressure (psia)
Several
wells
8000
6000
4000
~
~
~
~
0
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
'98
Year
Pressure history of C-3 unit

in the VLG-3676 reservoir.
2 21

The last Eocene C/VLG-3676 hydrocarbon reserves calculation, including all C1 to C-7 sands, was made in September
1996. The resulting 23% increase in OOIP
was caused by the drilling of a well south of
the Area 2 Sur. The results are as follows:
Since 1979, a total of 35 wells have been

completed in the Eocene C/VLG-3676
reservoir, of which 23 are producing an
average of 36.6 MBOPD. Cumulative oil
production is 36 MMSTB (Fig. 2.28). Until
1993, the exploitation plan consisted of
multiple selective completions and then was
focused to non-selective single completions
with commingled production of C-1 to C-6
sands. The production distribution has been
estimated as follows: 61%, 28%, 8% and 3%
from C-3, C-2, C-5 and C-4 sands, respectively. The GOR has gradually increased up
to the 1000 scf/STB level, while water
production is practically insignificant.
At 15,000 ft subsea, the original pressure
was estimated at 9950 psia for all the
reservoir sandstones. To date (Fig. 2.29) the
pressure in the northern sector of the
reservoir is lower for individual sand, such
as: 5450 psia in C-3, the most productive
sand, 7005 psia in C-2, and approximately
9500 psia in C-4 and C-5. In the southern
sectors with little or no production, the
pressure stays around 10,000 psia. With a
bubble point pressure of 3442 psi, the
reservoir is still highly undersaturated.
b) Reservoirs drive mechanism
Expansion of the rocks and fluids is the

main production mechanism of the Eocene
C/VLG-3676 reservoir, based on production behavior and fluid characteristics.

Figure 2.30
RESERVOIR: CRETACEOUS DM115
FIELD: WEST MARA
Introduction
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir of the
West Mara Field is located northeast of
Maracaibo approximately 8 miles west of the
Mara Field (Fig. 2.30). Since 1951 it has
produced a 15API undersaturated heavy oil
from the Cretaceous (datum: 5500 ft subsea).
Production is mainly from the Apn
Formation in the lower section of the
Cogollo Group; however, all the wells are
completed with the entire Cogollo Group
(1400 ft) open to production.
Figure 2.30
West Mara
Mara
La Paz
Bajo
Grande
Boscn
Lake
Maracaibo
Location map of the West

Mara Field.
0'
90
0'
10
D
U
'
90
0'
70
0'
0'
730
50
0'
0'
0'
50
0'
10
50
0'
50
0'
30
D
U
The structural interpretation was based

on the analysis of a 1982 migrated 2-D
seismic survey integrated with the
stratigraphic correlation of wells drilled in the
area. A structure map was built on top of the
Socuy Member, which is part of the Coln
Formation (Fig. 2.31). The main structural
configuration is a major reverse fault oriented
N45E on its west branch and S60E on its
east branch. This reverse fault, with an
average of 3500 ft vertical thrust in its center
section, divides the area into a downthrown
block to the north (dip lower than 20) cut by
reserve faults oriented N20W and N10E, as
well as by normal faults with a N25W
direction. An upthrown block to the south
has normal faults oriented N30W with
vertical displacements between 50 and 1000
ft and dips between 75 and 80. Other minor
faults, perpendicular to the major reverse
fault with 50 to 55 dips, divide the area into
seven structural blocks, dipping approximately 20 southward, two of which have
been under exploitation. It is assumed that
there was no initial gas cap since gas-oil
contacts were not detected. Water-oil
contacts were not found but estimated to be
between 6500 and 7500 ft subsea.
0'
90
Structural
D
a) Structure
890
70
0'
5
70
0'
00'
41
D
U
90
0'
0'
90
0'
90
0'
'
00
0'
0'
10
D
U
0'
0
37
0'
'
2900
770
10
0'
'
'
00
930
1
4
8900
D U
7300
'
00
90
10
6
U D
0'
0'
Figure 2.31
Geology
Fault
Well
0.5
1.0 km
Structural map of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.

2 22
FIELD: WEST MARA
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.32
Formation
Group (AGE)
HLLD
GR
(gAPI)
150
(ohm-m)
HLLS
20000
0.3
(V/V)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
RXOZ
20000
0.3
(ohm-m)
20000
2.1
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
Maraca
Depth
(ft)
Lisure
4250
4500
Cogollo (LOWER-MIDDLE CRETACEOUS)
CMRP
2.7
The Cretaceous in the West Mara Field

has 3000 ft average thickness. This section
lies unconformably on top of Paleozoic
rocks and conformably underlies the
Guasare Formation of Paleocene age. The
Cretaceous sequence, from bottom to top,
consists of the Rio Negro Formation (65 ft),
Cogollo Group (1400 ft), La Luna Formation
(340 ft) and Mito Juan/Coln (1200 ft)
Formations. The hydrocarbon accumulations
are found in the Cogollo Group limestones
(Apn, Lisure and Maraca Formations) and
in the La Luna Formation. The Cogollo
Group is characterized by mixed carbonates
and siliciclastics in its lower section and
clean carbonates in its upper section. The La
Luna Formation consists of a mixture of
limestones interbedded with marine shales.
It is also considered to be the main source
rock in the Maracaibo Basin.
4750
Deposition of the Ro Negro Formation

reflects a fluvio-shoreline environment,
bars and lateral lagoons in the Apn
Formation, marine in the Maraca Formation
and low-energy euxinitic marine in the La
Luna Formation.
Apn
5000
5250
5500
Modern resistivity and porosity logs
(Fig. 2.32) were run in the Cretaceous
formations in various wells. This information
was complemented by lithology logs with
the results shown in Table 2.7.
The Archie equation (a=1, m=1.5 to 2.2,
n=2) was used to calculate the hydrocarbon
saturation in the virgin zone. Selection criteria were established for the NOS and the net
oil limestone (NOL) with cutoffs as follows:
porosity less than 3%, water saturation
60% and Vsh 0%. Water salinity is between
30,000 and 40,000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Typical log of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
2 23

FIELD: WEST MARA
Tabla2.7
Formation
NOL/NOS
(ft)
Porosity
(%)
Water saturation
(%)
La Luna
24/125
<3
1025
Cogollo Group
Maraca
Lisure
Apn
7/10
9/100
115/288
912
912
1012
1214
2530
2025
0/18
810
20100
Ro Negro
Fluid properties
Results from a PVT analysis of 15.7API
oil gravity taken at 5500 ft subsea at 157F
are shown in Fig. 2.33.
Petrophysical properties in the West Mara Field.
Figure 2.33
200
1.14
180
1.12
Solution gas
(scf STB)
1.10
pb = 1117 psia
1.08
120
100
1.06
80
1.04
60
1.02
40
Oil volumetric factor

(RB STB)
160
140
1.00
20
0
0
400
800
1200
1600
2000
Matrix permeability between 1 and 3 md has

been assumed. For OOIP calculations, the
following parameters were assumed: average
porosity and oil saturation estimated at 11.0
and 85%, respectively, area of 3020 acres and
average thickness of 178 ft.
2400
2800
3200
0.98
3600

Since the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir
is fractured, heterogeneous and with a high
degree of uncertainty in the rock property
values, several reserves estimates have been
made. The last one, in 1995, indicates an
OOIP of 503 MMSTB and 47.7 MMSTB
of remaining reserves, for a recovery factor
of 15.0%.
Pressure (psia)
PVT fluid analysis of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
GOR (scf/STB)
Figure 2.34
3000
1500
20
10
Qo (MBOPD)
0
Qo
NP
12
20
9
6
10
3
0
'72
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
'96
0
'98
B, S & W (%) Np (MMSTB)
30
The Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, from

the West Mara Field, was discovered in 1951
after drilling well DM-115. So far 14 wells
have been drilled, of which five are still in
production and one has been abandoned
because of high water production during a
drill stem evaluation test.
Year
Production history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.

2 24
FIELD: WEST MARA
Figure 2.35
2800
2700
Several
wells
Pressure (psia)
2600
2500
2400
2300
2200
2100
2000
1900
5
10
15
20
Cumulative production (MMSTB)
Pressure history of the Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir.
The reservoirs cumulative production is

27.8 MMSTB of oil, 3.9 MMSTB of water and
7.2 Bscf of gas. Presently the reservoir is
producing by natural flow and submersible
electrical pumps at 6.6 MBOPD with
15% B, S & W and 800 scf/STB GOR
(Fig.2.34).
The original pressure of 2588 psia (more
than 1400 psia above the bubble point
pressure) was calculated from early tests.
The pressure has gradually declined and is
now 2000 psia, indicating that the reservoir
is still undersaturated (Fig. 2.35).
The reservoirs pressure and production

behavior suggest that the main reservoir energy source is a water drive probably combined
with the fractured limestone compaction.
RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017)
Figure 2.36
Barinas
Northern
Area
Silvan Maporal
Estero
Palmita
Central
Area
Silvestre
Hato
Southern
Area
Sinco
Paez-Mingo
Location map of the

Silvestre Field.
2 25
Introduction
Reservoir P-1/2 (0017) from Silvestre
Field is located approximately 22 miles
southeast of the town of Barinas (Fig.
2.36). The field covers an area of 482 acres
with an average sandstone thickness of 59 ft.
Commercial production started in 1962, two
years after its discovery. This is a highly
undersaturated reservoir and its original
pressure was 4120 psia versus a bubble point
pressure of 175 psia. The field is produced
by electrical-submersible pumping. The oil
characteristics are: 23.5API medium oil,
practically without gas (GOR 19 scf/STB) but
with a large volume of water that represents
about 60% of the total fluid production.
F I E L D : S I LV E S T R E
Geology
a) Structure
Silvestre is structurally higher than the

other Barinas Basin fields. The reservoir
structure is a small dome with a very gentle
2 dip on the north flank and displays faults
dipping to the east, west and south. The
northeast-oriented fault dips southward with
an approximate 50 ft throw. Another
northwest-oriented fault with similar
displacement dips eastward (Fig. 2.37). The
P-1/2 (0017) reservoir limits are: to the north
and east, a water-oil contact at 9450 ft
subsea; and to the south, west and east,
normal faults.

RESERVOIR: P-1/2 (0017)
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.37
Structural
9500'
Isopach
D
Fault
W.
O.
C.
.@
Well
0'
45
O.
U D
40
0'
U
D
25'
D
0'
0
93
50'
125'
100'
75'
Isopach-structural map of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
Figure 2.38
NPHI
Formation
(AGE)
Sand
La Morita
(CRET.)
ILM
2
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
(ohm-m)
2000
.45
RHOB
ILD
2
(ohm-m)
-.15
(V/V)
2000
11650
1.9
2.9
(g cm3)
DTCO
160
40
(ms ft )
DTSM
240
40
(ms ft)
The Escandalosa Formation of Early

Cretaceous age has been divided into four
members called, from bottom to top, S,
R, P, and O, with P being the main
producer in the basin. This member consists
of two sandy sections interbedded with a
thin layer of shale (Fig. 2.38). In the P-1/2
(0017) reservoir, this lenticular shaly layer
has an irregular, thin development, so that
both P-1 and P-2 sands form a single homogeneous lens (as far as production behavior
is concerned). The top and bottom of the P1/2 sand are well defined by a regional shaly
layer of constant thickness, and there is no
vertical communication with the underlying
and overlying layers. The P-1/2 sand is
medium to coarse-grained, crossed-stratified,
and contains residues of carbonaceous
plant material and occasional compacted
limolite intervals.
The P-1/2 sandstone deposition is

interpreted as a fluvial-deltaic environment
with some littoral influence. Distributary
channels over stream mouth bars show
littoral reworking. The axis of the best
reservoir rock development strikes southwest to northeast through the area.
P1
11750
Discovery well core data and other
porosity logs were used to determine P-1/2
(0017) reservoir rock properties. Average
values are shown in the following table:
11800
From cores
P2
Escandalosa (CRETACEOUS)
11700
11850
Porosity (%)
18.7
Water saturation (%)
39.0
R1
Permeability (md)
556
From logs
20.1
34.0
90753*
*Timur equation
Other data: area: 482 acres; thickness: 59 ft
R2
11900
Type log of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir in the Silvestre Field.

2 26
RESERVOIR: P 1/2 (0017)

Reserves were calculated using the
volumetric method. OOIP was 36 MMSTB,
remaining reserves 7.5 MMSTB and the
recovery factor 29.8%.
6000
Wp
Np
B, S & W
Pressure
5000
4000
4120
3850
3726
3000
3800
3600
3354

100
2000
50
1000
10
'62
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
'95
B, S & W (%)
Cumulative fluid (MSTB), Pressure (psia)
Figure 2.39
'97
Year
Production and pressure history of the P-1/2 (0017) reservoir.
The main interpretation issue is the

water salinity. While logs (spontaneous
potential [SP], resistivity/porosity in the
water zone) tend to show salinity at
approximately 10,000 ppm (NaCl), the
samples vary but tend to show much lower
salinity. Clay volumes are low and mainly
consist of kaolinite.
Fluid properties
PVT analysis comes from a bottom
sample taken in March 1958 (datum: 9383 ft
subsea, temperature 290F). The resulting
values were validated with Eastern
Venezuela crude correlations obtained from
a PVT statistical analysis and are as follows:
2 27
Original pressure, pi
4120
psia
175
psia
GOR @ pb
19
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pi
1.1133
RB/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.153
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
2.20
cp
Oil gravity
23.5
API
A total of 8.3 MMSTB of fluids has been

produced by mechanical and electricalsubmersible pumping, including 3.2 MMSTB
of medium oil and 5.1 MMSTB of water
(61.5% of total fluids) (Fig. 2.39). The
average production for December 1996 is 50
BOPD with 200 scf/STB GOR and 86% B,
S & W.
The original reservoir pressure of 4120
psia was based on a static pressure
measurement taken in the discovery well in
1957. During 1976, 1986 and 1988 static and
dynamic fluid levels were determined. After
producing for more than 25 years, the
reservoir pressure has always remained
above 3350 psia.
The reservoir characteristics and behavior indicate that the prevailing production
mechanism is a strong water drive.

RESERVOIR: J-3 (OM100)
Introduction
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, from the
Oveja Field, is located approximately 13
miles southwest of San Tom in the State of
Anzotegui (Fig. 2.40) and extends over
2300 acres. Commercial production was
initiated in June 1954. Starting in 1957, in
order to maintain the declining pressure,
water was injected for three years and then
gas from 1963 to the present. The reservoir
has produced approximately 55 MMSTB of
20API heavy oil, of which 37 MMSTB
(more than 25% of the OOIP was due to gas
injection, which maintained the reservoir
pressure for more than 12 years.
Figure 2.40
10 km
Guara
Central
SanTom
Oficina
Norte
Oficina
Central
FIELD: OVEJA
Guara Este
Ganso
El Tigre
Ostra
Oca
Oleos
Oveja
Miga
Yopales Sur
Location map of the Oveja

Field.
Geology
a) Structure
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir structure

consists of a homocline oriented northwestsoutheast and dipping approximately 2 to
the northeast.
Figure 2.41
Structural
Pinch-out
O .O
.W.
C@
U
D
Producer
34
26'
(ES
T)
3
40
0'
33
50'
30
0'
Injector (gas)
The reservoir limits (Fig. 2.41) are: to

the north, a normal fault with approximately
50 ft of displacement northeast-southwestoriented and dipping to the south, with an
oil-water contact at 3426 ft subsea; to the
south, a normal fault with approximately 150
ft of displacement east-west-oriented and
dipping to the south; and to the east and
west by rock and sandstone pinch-outs.
b) Stratigraphy
The J-3 sand is located in the middle of

the Oficina Formation (early to medium
Miocene age) stratigraphically overlying the
Merecure Formation. The NOS maximum
thickness of about 50 ft is reached in the
central part of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir
pinching out to the east and west.
The deposition of the J-3 sandstones is

interpreted to be fluvio-deltaic point bars.
This interpretation is derived from SP curves
and knowledge of the Oficina Formation.
Petrophysical properties were estimated
by analyzing 13 complete sets of logs (Fig.
2.42). Porosity values were determined by
density and neutron log data corrected for
shaliness. The resulting average values were
compatible with those obtained from core
data from two wells:
Injector (water)
D
Fault
Average values
Range
30.2
10.9
2384
29.033.4
4.817.0
9584267
Porosity (%)
Permeability (md)
O.G.O
.C
D U
0'
10
.@
3
- 3 18
2
1' ( 00
ES '
T)
Other reservoir data:

Shale resistivity (Rsh)
Shale porosity
Shale volume (Vsh) (%)
Water resistivity (Rw)
0'
325
11.52
18.6
13.5
0.103
ohm-m
%
%
ohm-m
U
D
-319
1
U
D
Structural map of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.

2 28
FIELD: OVEJA
Fluid properties
Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) fluid properties
were derived from correlation with other
similar reservoirs. Those parameters, as well
as others of importance, are shown below:
Figure 2.42
GR
Formation (AGE)
(gAPI)
150
SFLU
SP
Sand
200
(MV)
0.0
0.2
(ohm-m)
CALI
0.8
Depth
(ft)
18
(in.)
NPHI
2000 60
(p.u.)
0.2
(ohm-m)
0.0
RHOB
ILO
(g/cm3)
2000 1.65
2.65
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
I2
4000
Datum
3300
ft subsea
Temperature
149
Initial pressure
1482
psia
Bubble point pressure, Pb
1482
psia
GOR @ Pb
209
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ Pb
1.127
RB/STB
Gas FVF @ Pb
1667
RCF/scf
Oil viscosity @ Pb
4.65
cp
Oil gravity
20.0
API
I3
I4
I5
I6
J1

Reservoir J-3 (OM-100) covers an area
of 2280 acres and has an average NOS
thickness of 33.7 ft. Reserves were calculated
using the volumetric method with the
following results:
4100
J2
J3
K
L0
4200
L1
OOIP
149.3 MMSTB
L2
Recovery factor*
37.5%
Remaining reserves
0.7 MMSTB
Figure 2.45
*Includes primary (12.6%) and secondary (24.2%)
mainly from gas injection.
Typical log of the Oveja Field.

Figure 2.43
20
80
60
40
10
Gp
GOR
GOR (Mscf STB)

Gp (Bscf)
20
70
0
B, S & W (%)
Wp (MSTB)
6
4
30
2
0
10
0
Qo (MBOPD)
Np (MMSTB)
60
40
5
20
0
'54
'57
'60
'63
'66
'69
'72
'75
'78
'81
'84
'87
'90
'93
0
'96
Np
Qo
Wp
B, S & W
The J-3 (OM-100) reservoir was discovered in 1952 but commercial production
did not start until 1954. The cumulative production to date has reached 55 MMSTB of
oil, 7 MMSTB of water and 74 Bscf of gas
(Fig. 2.43) through natural flow and
mechanical pumping. By the end of 1996,
the average daily production was 370 BOPD
with 39% B, S & W and 11,000 scf/STB GOR.
The almost 25% recovery of the OOIP was
due mainly to the large volume (more than
100 Bscf) of gas injected into this heavy
crude reservoir (Fig. 2.44). Oil recovery by
natural depletion was less than 13%.
Year
Production history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
2 29

FIELD: OVEJA
Figure 2.44
1700
140
Gas inj.
Water inj.
120
1300
100
1100
80
900
60
700
40
500
20
300
'53
'61
'57
'65
'69
'73
'77
'81
'85
'89
Year
'93
0
'97
10
Water inj. (MMSTB)
1500
Gas inj. (Bscf)
Pressure (psia)
Pressure
Injection and pressure history of the J-3 (OM-100) reservoir.
In 1954, the reservoirs original pressure

was 1482 psia, declining to 1380 psia by
November 1957, when a water injection
project was implemented. This project was

interrupted three years later and the pressure
continued to drop. A gas injection project
was started in December 1963 when the
reservoir pressure was 1215 psia and a
solution gas cap developed. In 1975 the
pressure was 1320 psia while the current one
is about 1060 psia, 60 psia below the project
goal for pressure maintenance (Fig. 2.44).
Originally the reservoir was considered

saturated without initial gas cap. During the
natural flow period, solution gas and water
were the main natural reservoirs drive mechanisms. Gas injection after 1963 is considered
a secondary production mechanism because
of its efficiency.
RESERVOIR: RG-14-COEF
Figure 2.45
La Vieja
La Ceiba
10 km
Greater
Anaco Area
Santa
Rosa
El Roble
Anaco
San Joaqun
Santa Ana
El Toco
Anaco thrust
fault
Location map of
the Santa Rosa Field.
Introduction
Reservoir RG-14-COEF, discovered in
1947, is located approximately 6 miles
north of Anaco, in the State of Anzotegui
(Fig. 2.45), and extends over approximately
26,000 acres. The reservoir is characterized
by a large gas condensate cap covering a
light oil leg. Gas injection started in 1959
after a sharp pressure drop in the reservoir.
After cumulative injection of 2220 Bscf of
gas, the oil and condensate cumulative
production is 118 MMSTB, which represents
a 61.2% recovery from the original volume
of liquids in place.
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
Geology
a) Structure
The Greater Anaco Area is located on

the upthrown block north of the Anaco
thrust fault, along which is a series of domes
with the hydrocarbon fields, San Joaqun,
Santa Ana, El Toco, El Roble, San Roque and
Santa Rosa.
The Santa Rosa dome is elongated in a
N45E direction. It is asymmetrical with a
gentle 8 to 11 northwest flank and a steep
southeast flank dipping 20 into the Anaco
thrust fault. The dome is cut by two
southeast-dipping faults that are parallel to
the axis of the Santa Rosa dome. The
reservoir RG-14-COEF covers the greater
portion of the Santa Rosa Fields proven area
and consists of a structural-stratigraphic trap,
whose limits are shown on the isopachstructural map (Fig. 2.46).

2 30
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.46
50 60O
40
10 20
5
.W.O.C. @ -1
30 40 50
....
....
....
....
50
1500
. @ -10500(Est
.)
O.C.O.C
....
....
10000
60
(Es 70 80
t.)
70
....
....
40
....
60
. ...
9000
80
90
100
70
000
700
8000
Structural
Isopach
Fault
Oil producer
Gas injector
00
N
Isopach-structural map of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.

Figure 2.47
AT10
AT30
GR
150
AT60
( gAPI )
Sand
Formation (AGE)
AT20
200
SP
( mV )
100
Depth
(ft)
Oficina (EARLY TO MIDDLE MIOCENE)
8450
0.1
Reservoir RG-14 corresponds to the COE and CO-F sandstone subdivisions of the
Colorado Member, which is the lowermost
member of Oficina Formation of Early to
Middle Miocene age. The CO-EF sands are
divided into four bodies: CO-E1, CO-E2, COE3 and CO-F1, which are separated by
shales that are locally discontinuous and
coalescing. The NOS increases from
southwest to northeast and reaches its
greatest thickness of 70 to 90 ft in the northcentral sector.
AT90
( ohm-m )
1000
Deposition of the CO-EF occurred in a

deltaic environment with two distinguishing
units: a channel overlying mouth bar
deposits and a splay overlying distal bar
deposits. The first type of sandstones is
found in the northeast section of the
reservoir where different lenses coalesce and
have greater sandstone thickness and initial
porosity. The second type of sandstones is
found in the southwest section of the
reservoir. There the lenses are separated by
shales and have a more heterogeneous
nature than the channel, resulting in less
productive wells.
COD
8500
COE
8550
COF1
8600
COF2
COF3
8650
Petrophysical properties were determined from porosity, resistivity, gamma ray
logs (Fig. 2.47), and core analysis data.
Average rock properties for the gas
condensate cap and the oil leg are as
follows:
Oil leg
zone
Gas condensate cap
56
40
Area (acres)
3500
22,670
Porosity (%)
10
13.8
Permeability (md)
150
300
Irred. water saturation (%)
20
15
Thickness (ft)
Typical log of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
2 31

FIELD: SANTA ROSA

Simulation was used to estimate reserves:
Figure 2.48
120
30
Qo
Np
100
80
15
60
10
40
20
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
20
4000
Cumulative oil (MMSTB)
Oil rate (MBOPD)
25
0
'54
5000
Pressure
1000
Year
Production and pressure

history of the RG-14-COEF
reservoir.
Other studies show an average porosity

of 15%, maximum porosity of 20% and
average permeability of 286 md. Producing
facies are clean with only small amounts of
kaolinite. Water salinity is 14,500 ppm (NaCl).
Fluid properties
Oil leg fluids were determined from
a PVT test taken at 7750 ft subsea and
280F in well RG-120, which yielded the
following data:
Original pressure
4445
psia
4240
psia
GOR @ pb
1476
scf/STB
Oil FVF @ pb
1.944
RB/STB
Oil viscosity @ pb
0.25
cp
Oil gravity
37.2
API
Initial GOR
1881
scf/STB
To determine the fluid properties in the

gas condensate cap a PVT analysis was
performed by recombining the separator
products (oil and gas) taken from well RG58. The recombined fluid showed a dew
point pressure of 4675 psia at 274F. The
measured condensate gravity was 51.5API
and the initial gas condensate GOR was
13,200 scf/STB.
Condensate
MMSTB
Oil
MMSTB
Gas
Bscf
Original hydrocarbons in place
131.4
60.7
1345.6
Recovery factor (%)
73.2
60.0
Remaining reserves
8.1
6.7
Originally the CO-EF sands contained

approximately 100 bbl of condensate per
MMscf of gas. The 14.8 MMSTB of remaining
fluids are mainly located in the northeastern,
eastern and southern sections of the
reservoir.
Production of reservoir RG-14-COEF

started in April 1950 from well RG-14, which
was completed in the gas-condensate cap.
Gas injection started in 1955 after some
pressure drop in the reservoir. Until
December 1996, 10 wells have been drilled
into the oil leg and 10 into the condensate
zone. The cumulative production of these
wells through natural flow and artificial gas
lift is 1177.6 MMSTB of oil and condensate,
1673 Bscf of gas and 9.6 MMSTB of water.
The produced gas exceeds the original
gas in place by 327 Bscf, which indicates
that a great percentage of it is coming from
the injected gas (2220 Bscf through 13
injection wells).
After more than 40 years of gas
injection, production has dropped sharply,
while GOR water percentages have
substantially increased (330 BOPD, 100,000
scf/STB and 39% B, S & W). The reservoir
pressure has declined from 4445 psia to 2625
psia and is explained by leakage of some of
the gas injected into the eastern flank of the
dome which passed laterally to the western
flank and the CO-G sand. See Figs. 2.48 and
2.49 for a graphical display of the
production, pressure, and injection histories.

2 32
FIELD: SANTA ROSA
Figure 2.49
400
Qgi
Pressure
Gi
2500
350
1500
200
150
1000
100
500
50
0
'54
'60
'66
'72
'78
'84
'90
0
'96
4000
3000
2000
Pressure (psia)
Injection rate (MMscf/D)
2000
250
Cumulative injection gas (MMscf)
300
5000
During the first four years, condensate

was produced from the reservoir by natural
flow. The gas cap drive was apparently
limited, since a 100-psia pressure drop was
observed that led the operator to inject gas
into the RG-14-COEF reservoir. This
secondary recovery project was very
profitable early in its production life, since to
date 61.2% of the original fluids (oil and
condensate) in place has been recovered.
1000
Year
Injection history of the RG-14-COEF reservoir.
RESERVOIR: NARICUAL SANDS
Figure 2.50
North Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
Location map of the Carito

Field.
2 33
50 km
Introduction
The Carito Field is located 25 miles west
of Maturn, the Monagas State capital (Fig.
2.50). The field has been divided into three
areas: North Carito, West Carito and Center
Carito. The latter, with almost 1900 MMSTB
original fluids (oil and condensate) in place
of what has been locally called the Naricual
Formation, has one of the basins largest
hydrocarbon reserves. The 1400-ft thick
sandstone is characterized by a huge gas
condensate cap and has a peculiarity in that
the dew pressure, as well as the bubble
point pressure in the oil leg, varies with
depth, resulting in quite substantial changes
in fluid properties and type of produced
crude.
FIELD: CARITO CENTRAL
Geology
a) Structure
The Naricual Formation is a short

anticline-type of structure, oriented from
WSW to ENE. The northern, eastern and
southern reservoir limits are reverse faults
with displacements between 800 and 1000 ft,
detected from seismic interpretation. The
western limit is a reverse fault identified by
wells in the area. These faults and the
structural configuration at the top of the
hydrocarbon accumulations are shown in
Fig. 2.51.

Figure 2.51
Structural
D
1700
Fault
17200'
17000'
16800'16
600'
16400'
Producer
U
Injector
From electric logs and core analysis it

was determined that the Lower Naricual
corresponds to braided stream channel
deposits. At the bottom of the Middle
Naricual, nearshore deposits (coastal and
sublittoral bars) are interpreted, and in its
middle and upper sections there are tideinfluenced deposits (tidal channels and tidal
flats). In the Upper Naricual, the deposits are
interpreted to be coastal bars at the base,
grading up to more marine deposits in the
middle, and up to shallow shelf deposits at
the top.
0'
0'
1 6 00
U
1 50
14 0 0 0 '
U D
0'
40
14
14 6 0 0 '
1 4 8 0 0'
1 5 0 0 0'
14
0'
80
00
14 4 0 0 '
60
14
U
D
D
U
14 0 0 0 '
15
166
00'
D
D
14 2 0 0 '
15000'
'
1 5 2 0 0'
15000
'
00
0'
0'
U
D
Structural map of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
b) Stratigraphy
The locally named Naricual Formation, which is still under study, has been
divided into three sandstone bodies: Lower
Naricual (700 ft thickness), Middle Naricual
(400 ft thickness) and Upper Naricual (400 ft
thickness). All the Naricual section is composed of sandy layers interbedded with
shales of variable thickness and extent. The
Naricual underlies the Carapita Formation
shales of Oligo-Miocene age. The pressure
behavior in these Naricual sandstone
packages is uniform and similar, indicating
some type of vertical communication.
The formation is a sequence of
sandstones and shales interbedded with coal
layers, all of which are clearly seen on
regular logs (Fig. 2.52). More difficult to
observe are the sandstones containing tar,
which are found at some levels in the
reservoir. The main producing facies have
porosities between 11 and 15%. Permeabilities are from 40 to 1000 md and the
irreducible water saturations are low (10 to
15%). They contain relatively small amounts
of kaolinite and carbonate cement. However,
facies with porosities of 7% and shale
volumes up to 30% are also considered
productive. Typical log interpretation parameters are m and n=1.8, and formation
water salinity=13,000 ppm (NaCl). Permeability varies considerably with porosity and
clay content, and is not easy to determine
accurately. OBM is used routinely.

2 34
LLD
CALI
Sand
Formation
(AGE)
Figure 2.52
(in.)
(gAPI)
GR
200
NPHI
DTCO
40
-.15 140
(ms ft )
(V/V)
RHOB
DTSM
1.9
2.9 240
40
(g cm3)
(ms ft)
.45
14
LLS
Depth
(ft)
MSFL
1
(ohm-m)
1000
Fluid properties
The results of 22 PVT analyses from the
oil leg and five from the gas condensate cap,
as well as pressure measurements and initial
production tests, show a fluid distribution
from top to bottom as: gas, condensate,
volatile, light and medium crude (Fig. 2.53).
This gradation leads to a variation of fluid
properties with depth, as can be observed in
Table 2.8. Other important data are indicated
below:
"Upper Naricual"
14200
Datum
14,400 ft subsea
Average temperature
280F
Original pressure at datum
11,367 psia
Oil gravity
2032API
Gas condensate gravity
33.535.5API
14600
"Middle Naricual"
"Naricual" (OLIGOCENE)
14400
14800
"Lower Naricual"
15000
There is an approximate 200-ft gas-toliquid transition zone where a critical fluid

was observed in which gas and oil
viscosities and densities are similar. To
maximize hydrocarbon recovery from this
kind of reservoir, pressure should be
maintained above the minimum dew point
(7000 psia in this case) to avoid condensate
oil loss by retrograde condensation (liquid
makeup in the reservoir), as well as
asphaltene deposits in the rocks.
The Naricual Formation sands have a
huge gas condensate cap (m=1.2). The estimated fluids (oil and condensate) are as
follows:
Original fluids in place
1883 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
58.0%
Remaining reserves
838 MMSTB
15200
*Primary (28%) and secondary (30%)
Typical log of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
2 35

The original fluids in place reserves

include 713 MMSTB of condensate from the
gas cap. The original gas in place reserves
has been estimated at 2954 Bscf and the
original gas in solution in place in 1179 Bscf.
Table 2.8
Zone
Sat. P
psia
Oil FVF
RB/STB
Init. GOR
scf/STB
Oil visc.
cp
Cond. content
STB/MMscf
Upper gas cap
9220
2.047
1870
0.156
184
Middle gas cap
8375
2.043
1844
0.156
228
Lower gas cap
7445
2.038
1816
0.157
307
Gas/oil interph.
11,300
2.058
1932
0.155
307
Upper oil
5500
1.890
1531
0.169
32
Middle oil
4000
1.524
864
0.415
Lower oil
3500
1.430
686
0.640

Fluid property variations of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Figure 2.53
12,000
Upper gas cap zone

13,000
Depth (ft ss)
Medium gas cap zone

Lower gas cap zone
Gas-oil interphase @ 14,040 ft
14,000
Transition zone @ 200 ft
Upper crude zone

15,000
Saturation
pressure
Medium crude zone
16,000
Lower crude zone
Original
pressure
O.W.O.C @16,585 ft
17,000
0
10
11
12
13
Pressure (Mpsia)
Fluids column of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.
Since April 1988, when the Naricual

Formation started its production life, to
date, 21 wells have been drilled, 15 of which
were dual string completions. Cumulative
production is 258.7 MMSTB of oil (13.57% of
the OOIP), 362.7 Bscf of gas and practically
no water. The December 1996 average
production was 103.4 MBOPD by natural
flow with traces of water and 1880 scf/STB
GOR (Fig. 2.54). On December 24, 1996, a
gas injection project was initiated. The
discovery wells original reservoir pressure
was 11,367 psia calculated at a datum of
14,040 ft subsea. Drill stem pressure tests
taken from other wells and corrected at
datum, using defined pressure gradients for
each fluid zone, indicated a 15.4
psia/MMSTB decline index. Actual pressure
is 7630 psia.
Figure 2.54
300
140
Qo
Np
250
100
200
80
150
60
100
40
Np (MMSTB)
Qo (MBOPD)
120
50
20
0
Qg
Gp
400
500
400
300
300
200
200
100
Gp (Bscf)
Qg (MMscf/D)
The prevailing reservoir production

mechanisms are rock-fluid expansion
combined with a gas cap drive.
100
0
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
'97
0
'98
Year
Production history of the Naricual Sands in the Carito Central Field.

2 36
Figure 2.55
North
Carito
West
Carito
El Furrial
Maturn
Central
Carito
Santa
Brbara
50 km
Location map of
El Furrial Field.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
Introduction
El Furrial Field is located in north
Monagas State, approximately 22 miles west
of Maturn (Fig. 2.55). The locally named
Naricual Formation, containing 6900
MMSTB OOIP, is considered one of the
largest medium-gravity oil reserves in the
area. The hydrocarbon column consists of an
asphaltene type of crude, characterized by
the variation of API oil gravity, asphaltene
content and thermodynamic properties with
depth. The reservoirs are volumetric-type and
highly undersaturated, without gas caps, and
have a bitumen layer that inhibits the aquifer
activity. To prevent pressure dropping down
to the critical point, where asphaltenes
precipitate, water was injected into the
reservoir. This will substantially increase the
total oil recovery.
Geology
a) Structure
The structure at the top of the hydrocarbon accumulation is a symmetric anticline

6 miles long by 5 miles wide with a N70E
strike. The north flank dip varies between 18
and 24 and the south flank between 16 and
21. These anticline flanks are cut by reverse
Figure 2.56
N
U
El Corozo
'
0
00
0'
00
'
-1
60
00
-1 '
60
0
0'
-1
60
0
60
-1 D
D
U
-1
50
00
'
-1
Structural
D
Carito
Fault
Oil producer
faults approximately parallel to the structural

axis; those of the northern flank with the
downthrown side to the north and those of
the southern flank with the downthrown side
to the south. A downthrown-side normal fault
system transversely cuts the structure (Fig.
2.56).
Northern and southern reservoir boundaries are determined by a bituminous layer
(tar mat) present in all the structures, while
the eastern and western limits consist of
normal faults separating El Furrial Field from
the adjacent El Corozo and Carito Fields,
respectively.
b) Stratigraphy
The stratigraphic sequences of more

than 16,000 ft drilled within the El Furrial
Field include Upper Cretaceous to Recent.
All the section is primarily siliciclastic.
Most of the El Furrial oil accumulations
are considered to be found in sandstones
that are locally called Naricual Formation
of Oligocene age. This assumption, as well
as the lithostratigraphic nomenclature of the
area, is still under study. These sandstones
are divided into three stratigraphic bodies
that are separated by laterally extensive
shales (Fig. 2.57): Lower Naricual, with
approximately 400 ft sandstone thickness,
Middle Naricual also with 400 ft, and Upper
Naricual with an average of 700 ft. The
pressure behavior (Fig. 2.58) indicates there
is some communication between the three
bodies in spite of the extensive shales
separating them. The Naricual Formation
overlies a section of shales that are probably
pre-Oligocene, and underlies the OligoMiocene Carapita Formation shales. The
Carapita shales are the regional seal for the
oldest hydrocarbon accumulations in the
Oligocene: Santa Brbara; West, North, and
Center Carito; El Corozo and El Furrial
reservoirs. It must be emphasized that this
description is unofficial and still under study.
Injector
Structural map of the Naricual Sands in El Furrial Field.
2 37

FIELD: EL FURRIAL
ILD
CALI
6
Sand
Form. (AGE)
Figure 2.57
(in.)
16
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
NPHI
(ohm-m)
ILM
2000
.45
(ohm-m) 2000
1.9
(V/V)
RHOB
(g cm3)
-.15
2.9
15000
"Upper Naricual"
"Naricual " (OLIGOCENE)
15100
15200
15300
"Middle Naricual"
15400
15500
Naricual Formation
partial log in El Furrial
Field.
The Lower Naricual section was

deposited in a nearshore environment
formed by estuarine tidal channels,
paleosurfaces, littoral bars and bays. The
Middle Naricual was deposited in a
sublittoral neritic environment with a
condensation surface at the base, and the
Upper Naricual in a coastal marine
environment with coastal bars and bays,
estuarine channels, and paleosurfaces.
Table 2.9
Sand
Average petrophysical properties for
each Naricual Sands are shown in Table 2.9.
Pressure build-up tests and drill stem
tests characterized these Naricual Sands
as relatively homogeneous and of high
flow capacity.
The Simandoux equation was used to
determine the water saturation (m and
n=1.89, a=0.81). Formation water salinity is
approximately 18000 ppm equivalent NaCl.
Porosity was calculated through an equation
where matrix and fluid densities were 2.65
and 0.89 g/cm3, respectively. Permeability
was considered to be a function of effective
porosity, water saturation and shaliness,
which in the best zones is low (less
than 5%).
Fluid properties
There is a linear relationship between
depth and temperature. The geothermal
gradient in El Furrial Field is 1.43F/100 ft
with 272F at 13,000 ft subsea. There are
substantial variations in the chemical
characteristics of the fluids and the
hydrocarbon thermodynamic properties in
both horizontal and vertical directions,
which are related to API oil gravity, as
shown in Table 2.10.
Variations
in
the
hydrocarbon
thermodynamic properties have resulted in
the formation of a high-viscosity bituminous
layer of variable thickness. This layer occurs
at the base of the structure and all across the
field. Likewise, an approximate 350-ft
thickness of medium crude to bitumen
transition zone has been found. Three
different fluid sectors are shown in the next
table (depths are in ft subsea):
Porosity
(%)
Permeability
(md)
Water
saturation (%)
NOS
(ft)
Lower Naricual
14.8
268
8.3
290
Middle Naricual
15.1
370
7.7
162
North
15,400
15,800
15,700
Upper Naricual
15.3
509
7.2
220
South
14,650
14,900
14,800
East
15,250
15,400
15,300
Sector
Top transition Top bitumen

16API
zone
layer
crude level
Petrophysical properties of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.

2 38
FIELD: EL FURRIAL

The Naricual Sands original oil in
place (OOIP) has been estimated by
reservoir simulation, considering the
hydrocarbon column above the 16API oil
gravity level. Reserves are shown below:
Figure 2.58
Pressure (psia)
12000
Upper Nar.
Medium Nar.
Lower Nar.
10000
8000
6000
Qo
Np
700
Qo (MBOPD)
600
500
400
200
300
200
100
100
0
0
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
6881 MMSTB
Recovery factor*
46.65%
Remaining reserves
2431 MMSTB
* Including primary (13.45%) and secondary (33.2%)
Np (MMSTB)
300
OOIP
'96
Year
Reservoir studies indicate the feasibility

of implementing a high-pressure (7000 psi)
miscible gas injection project at the top of
the formation. This project will start in 1998
and additional oil recovery of 333 MMSTB
(5% of the OOIP) is estimated.
Production and pressure history of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.

Table 2.10

Chemical properties:
Oil gravity
(API)
29.6< 8
Asphaltene
(% weight)
Sulfur
(% weight)
Vanadium
(ppm)
Iron
(ppm)
0,636,0
0,692,41
6,4562
2,21391,0
pb
(psia)
GOR @ pb
(scf/STB)
Bo @ pb
(RB/STB)
Oil viscosity
@ pb (cp)
48601517
1436245
1,9151,249
0,263,2
Thermodynamic properties:
Oil gravity
(API)
29,6< 8
Chemical and thermodynamic properties of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.
Figure 2.59
Cumulative injection (MMSTB)

and Injection rate (MBWPD)
600
500
Cumulative injection
Injection rate
550 MBWPD
plant
400
400 MBWPD
plant
300
200
100 6 MBWPD
plant
50 MBWPD
plant
0
'92
'93
'94
'95
Since 1986, cumulative oil production

has been 779 MMSTB and production of 370
MBOPD is from 58 wells (Fig. 2.58). Water
injection started in 1992 at a 6 MBWPD rate
and now has reached 550 MBWPD. Water
has been injected into 35 wells with a
cumulative injection of 420 MMbbl (Fig.
2.59).
The original Naricual Formation
pressure was 11,020 psia at a datum of
13,000 ft subsea. The pressure gradient
varies from 0.30 psia/ft at the top to 0.325
psia/ft at the base of the medium crude
column. By the end of 1992, after producing
approximately 272 MMSTB of oil, the
pressure drop was 3039 psia (down to 7971
psia), indicating an 11.2 psia/MMSTB
pressure decline factor. From 1992 to date,
when the water injection started, this factor
was reduced to 2.7 psia/MMSTB, indicating
that the pressure maintenance project is
highly beneficial (Fig. 2.58).
'96
Year
Injection history of the Naricual Sands, El Furrial Field.
2 39

The El Furrial Naricual Formation

sands are highly undersaturated. The bituminous layer inhibits the water drive of any
underlying aquifer from being transmitted to
the overlying hydrocarbon reservoir, whose
behavior is volumetric. Taking these
RESERVOIR: P2 SANDSTONES
Figure 2.60
Caripito
Guanoco
Pedernales
0
Maturn
Location map of the

Pedernales Field.
40 km
Introduction
The Pedernales Field is on the northern
margin of the Orinoco delta in the
Amacuro Delta Territory (Fig. 2.60). It
lies beneath mangrove swamps and
tide-influenced river channels. The P2
sands are the main producers of the La
Pica Formation. The field was
discovered in 1933 but was shut-in for
long periods of time because of World
War II, remote access and contract
expirations with different operators. In
March 1993 an Operating Services
Agreement was signed to reactivate and
develop the Pedernales area. A total of 76
MMSTB of heavy to medium oil has been
estimated as proven reserves, as well as 377
MMSTB probable recoverable oil reserves.
Geology
a) Structure
The Pedernales Field is located on the

northern flank of the Pedernales structure,
which is a large decapitated anticline.
FIELD: EL FURRIAL
characteristics into consideration, the prevailing drive mechanism was rock and fluid
expansion until 1992, during the natural
depletion period; later on, expansion was
assisted by a water injection secondary
recovery project, which maintained the
pressure above the bubble point.
FIELD: PEDERNALES
The field is SW-ENE-oriented and has been

divided into four areas: SW and Central,
from which has come most of the
cumulative oil production, and NE and ENE
segments, which are in the development
phase (Fig. 2.61). Originally it was believed
that the Pedernales anticline was the result
of mud diapirism, but recent 3-D seismic
data indicate that the structure is also due to
faulting with deep thrusts. The reservoir dips
approximately 45 to the northwest and
trapping is mainly stratigraphic. P2 sands are
laterally bounded by transgressive NW-SEtrending faults. The upper limit has been
taken at approximately 3000 ft true vertical
depth (TVD) subsea and no oil-gas contact
has been detected. The base of the field is
defined by oil-water contacts (in SW/Central
areas at approximately 7240 ft TVD subsea;
in the NE area at +-7400 ft TVD, and +-7850
ft TVD subsea in the ENE area). The SW
reservoir limit is not stratigraphic but a
proven area boundary.

2 40
FIELD: PEDERNALES
b) Stratigraphy
Figure 2.61
N
EENE
Cotorra
Island
'
00
90
ENE
'
00
70
'
00
60
'
00
50
NE
'
0
00
'
00
40'
00
30 0'
0
20
Central
SW
9000'
'
00
20 00'
10
8000'
7000' 00'
'60 00'
50
Structural
Parcel limit
Fault
Well
Structural map of the P2 sands.

Figure 2.62
Sand
Member
Formation
(AGE)
ICM
0.2
GR
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(ft)
Top P2
4900
5000
P2
5100
Pedernales
NPHI
2000 60
IDL
Top Perdernales
La Pica (MIO-PLIOCENE)
(ohm-m)
5200
5300
5400
0.2
(ohm-m)
(p.u.)
1.65
(g / cm3)
The oil in Pedernales Field is contained

in Pliocene sandstones and siltstones
deposited within a delta top (paralic) to
shallow marine environments. The SW and
Central parts of the field are characterized by
delta top distributary channels and delta
front mouth bars that are cut by incised
valley fills. The NE and ENE segments are
dominated by shoreface sands with intervals
of mouth bar sands (Fig. 2.63).
0.0
RHOB
2000
The Pedernales reservoir sandstones are

a lower Pliocene member of the MioPliocene La Pica Formation (Fig. 2.62). The
Pedernales sandstones were largely
deposited as lowstand wedges underlain by
the Amacuro highstand wedge and overlain
by a transgressive systems tract. The seal is
provided by the lower Cotorra shale
member.
2.65
Petrophysical studies of wireline logs
and limited cores show the lithology in the
Pedernales to be predominantly sandstones,
siltstones and shales. Clays are mainly illite
with some kaolinite and smectite. The
sandstones are fine- to medium-grained and
have good to moderate sorting with little or
no cementation. In the finer, shalier
sandstones, irreducible water can be high.
There is good agreement between core
and porosity logs. Water salinity is
approximately 20,000 ppm (NaCl) and m
and n are less than 2.0. Permeability was
estimated using available log and core data
and crossed-checked against test data. Cutoff
criteria to define net sand thickness were
60%, 13% and 50% for volume shale,
porosity and water saturation, respectively.
5500
P5
Top P5
5600
Typical log in the Pedernales Field.
2
41

FIELD: PEDERNALES
Fluid properties
The Pedernales sandstones contain
undersaturated oil of 17 to 23API oil gravity
with 3% sulfur. Fluid data are limited and of
poor quality. Reservoir fluid properties were
derived using an equation of state that considers the variation of properties with depth.
Results at a datum of 5500 ft TVD subsea are
shown below:
Figure 2.63
SW
Central
NE
ENE
Top Ped
Upper sand
"sheet"
Basin
fill
Base
Ped
Am ac ur o Me mb e r
Pedernales Field.
3200
Bubble point pressure,

Pb (psia)
18333461
2671
Oil viscosity @ pb (cp)
10.318.2
13.3
Oil FVF @ pb (RB/STB)
1.131.24
1.19
GOR @ pb (scf/STB)
268558
413
1723
21.5
Data from the SW and ENE segments

are quite similar.
Shoreline delta front depositional environment

(shoreface and mouth bar sands)
Ranges of these parameters are shown

in the next table:
correlation in the
Most likely
29003400
Oil gravity (API)
Delta top delta front depositional environment

(incised valley, channel and mouth bar sands)
SW-ENE stratigraphic
Range
Original pressure (psia)
Net oil sand
128254
ft
Porosity
1630
Water saturation
1837
Permeability
1001000
md

Proven reserves have been calculated
using two methods, the volumetric and
reservoir simulation methods, with similar
results:
OOIP
973
MMSTB
Recovery factor
14.2
Remaining reserves
76
MMSTB
3500
18
Pressure
Field GOR
Monthly oil rate
16
3000
(33 Producers)
14
(11 Prod.)
2500
12
2000
10
8
6
1500
(11 Producers)
(17 Producers)
1000
World
War II
500
2
0
'35
'40
'45
'50
'55
'60
'65
'70
'75
'80
'85
'90
Reservoir average pressure (psia)
Oil rate (MSTB/D) and GOR (Mscf/STB)
Figure 2.64
Probable recoverable reserves were

officially estimated to be 377 MMSTB
considering a recovery factor of 12% and
1509 MMSTB probable OOIP.
0
'95
Year
Production and pressure history of the P2 sands, Pedernales Field.

2 42
FIELD: PEDERNALES

The Pedernales Field has produced

from the P2 sands 61.8 MMSTB of
oil over a period of 61 years (1935 to 1996)
in four separate phases. During the first
phase (1935 to 1942) the field reached a
peak of 5000 BOPD and yielded a total
production of 9 MMSTB, followed by a fouryear shut-in due to World War II. Production
during the second phase (1947 to 1965)
reached a peak of 12,000 BOPD (43
producers) and yielded a cumulative oil
recovery of 57 MMSTB and 56 Bscf of gas,
then was shut-in again for 16 years after
the expiration of the operators contract.
RESERVOIR: MORICHAL MEMBER
Figure 2.65
Temblador
El Salto
Jobo
Piln
Morichal
Cerro Negro
Bitor Area
Orinoco River
Puerto
Ordaz
Location map of the Bitor

Area.
2 43
The third phase of production (1981 to 1985)

peaked at 1000 BOPD (17 wells were drilled)
with an additional 1 MMSTB. The final phase
started with an Operating Services Agreement signed in 1993. The production has
been between 15,000 and 20,000 BOPD from
an additional 15 completed wells. A gas
injection project was started in September
1995 in the southwest area. See Fig. 2.64 for
a graphical display of the P2 production and
pressure history.
Rock and fluid expansion was the main

reservoir production mechanism until bubble point pressure was reached, and then
solution gas became the prevailing drive.
FIELD: CERRO NEGRO (BITOR AREA)
Introduction
The Orinoco Belt is known to be the
largest heavy and extra-heavy oil accumulation in the world, with 1200 billion
barrels of OOIP extending over an area of
approximately 13.3 million acres. Cerro
Negro (Fig. 2.65) is one of four blocks within
the Orinoco Belt and is located on its eastern
segment, south of Monagas and Anzotegui
states. Part of Cerro Negro is the Bitor Area,
which covers a surface area of 45,000 acres
and has an original bitumen in place (OBIP)
of more than 19.6 billion barrels. The oil
production is mostly used as raw material for
the Orimulsin (70% crude, 29% water and
1% surfactant), which is considered to be an
alternate source of energy of high commercial value on the international markets.
Geology
a) Structure
The Bitor Area structure is monoclinelike with a gentle north dip of approximately
4 and is fractured by multiple east-westoriented faults, as well as some minor
northeast-southwest-oriented faults. These
minor faults cut the main faults at
approximately 45 (Fig. 2.66). Most of these
faults are non-sealing, normal and of large
extent (more than 9 miles). Variable vertical
displacements range from 50 to 200 ft. The
vertical displacements north of Bitor Area
are larger than in the south. It is quite
difficult to detect faults on the electrical logs
because of the massiveness of the sandstones. The hydrocarbon accumulations are
essentially controlled by stratigraphic traps
and neither regional oil-water contacts nor
gas-oil contacts can be found on the logs.

c) Depositional Environment
Figure 2.66
2900'
2800'
2600'
2300'
N
Morichal Member Top
2200'
2200'
Structural
2100'
Parcel limit
Fault
Illustrated structural map of the Morichal Member.
Producing zones are closely related to

the depositional environment and lithofacies
interpretations (Fig. 2.67). Particularly,
"peak-to-peak" correlation of the Morichal
Member fluvial section cannot be performed
because there are no regional shaly intervals
of enough lateral extent to help distinguish
individual sandstones. Instead, there are
massive sandstone packages with good
vertical development and horizontal
coalescence.
The petrophysical evaluation of Morichal, Yabo, and Jobo/Piln Members is
based on a study that included 70 wells with
appropriate porosity logs (density/neutron)
and 206 wells with only resistivity curves
(laterolog) as well as two wells with core
analysis. The results are as follows:
b) Stratigraphy
The Bitor Area stratigraphic column

(Fig. 2.67) has an average thickness of 3000
ft. The Oficina Formation sandstones of
early Miocene age, deposited on a preTertiary unconformity, were arbitrarily
divided into 16 producing zones: Morichal
Member (from 0-16 to 0-11), Yabo Member
(from 0-10 to 0-9), and Jobo/Piln Member
(from 0-8 to 0-4). The remaining three zones
(F-3 to F-1) belong to the basal section of the
Freites Formation (Middle Miocene). The Las
Piedras Formation (Late Miocene to Pliocene) unconformably overlies the Freites
Formation. The Mesa Formation (Pliocene),
which overlies the Las Piedras Forma-tion,
contains huge volumes of sweet water
usable for industrial and domestic purposes.
Net sand thickness (ft)
Range
Morichal
Member
150470
218
Shale volume (Vsh) (%)
512
Porosity (%)
2835
31
400020,000
1000
1126
18
Permeability (md)
The cutoffs used to determine the petrophysical characteristics and the net bitumen
sand in wells with porosity logs are:
Sw=4.5%, Vsh=40%, Porosity=20% and
Swi=7%. The petrophysical parameters are:
Rw=0.50 ohm-m, a=1.0, n=2.0 and m=1.7. It
is important to observe that the low
resistivity values shown on the logs, at the
bottoms and tops of the massive sandstones,
are caused by normal granulometric changes
in the lithofacies that may be associated with
an increase in clay content and not
necessarily by high water saturation. In
addition, 40 ft is considered to be the minimum thickness for a commercial sandstone.

2 44
Gamma Ray
API
Freites
(MIDDLE
MIOCENE)
Form.
(AGE)
Member
Figure 2.67
Unit
Environment
Fluid properties
In the following table, fluid property
averages from several wells are compared
with a PVT analysis from well CO-04,
considered to be the most representative of
the reservoir.
F1
F2
Shallow marine
Deltaic margin
Average
PVT CO-04
Bubble point pressure* (psia)
1143
1040
Datum (ft subsea)
2500
2266
F3
Piln
04
05
Lower deltaic plane

to delta front
06
Jobo
07ab
Deltaic deposits
07c
Marine events
GBR @ pb (scf/STB)
72
79
Bitumen FVF @ pb (RB/STB)
1.047
1.047
Bitumen viscosity @ pb (cp)
8200
5900
Temperature (F)
131
126
Bitumen gravity (API)
8.2
8.0
08
09
Yabo
Oficina (LOWER MIOCENE)
* Same as original pressure
010
Coastal zone
The analyzed metals content is: 3.8% sulfur, 80 ppm nickel, and 300 ppm vanadium.
Tidal deposists
(marine)
011a
011b
012
Lower deltaic plane
Morichal
Fluvial deposits
013

Table 2.11 shows the Bitor Area
bitumen reserves (MMSTB) representing
only 1.6% of the Orinoco Belt.
Deltaic deposits

014
a) Production history
015
016
Landside
Valley fills
Igneous-metamorphic Basement (PRE-TERTIARY)
Stratigraphic column in the Bitor Area.
Table 2.11
OBIP (MMSTB)
Morichal
Jobo
Total
18,541
1055
21
19,617
Recovery factor (%)
12.2
9.0
9.0
12.0
Remaining reserves (MMSTB)
2166
95
2263
Bitor Area estimated bitumen reserves as of 1996.
2 45
Piln
The Morichal Members remaining

reserves represent about 96% of the Bitor
Area. A major portion, now under
exploitation, includes a pilot test initiated
back in 1984 in the so-called Production
Experimental Blocks. It is difficult to analyze
production behavior because of the large
numbers of field tests and the unpredictable
production shutdowns that occurred
between 1984 and 1996. The cumulative
bitumen production until December 1996
was 96 MMSTB and, for that month, the
average production was 70 MBBPD with
12% B, S and W and 160 scf/STB GBR.

Other field tests worth mentioning are the

cyclic steam injection, well spacings of 150,
300 and 400 m, and the use of different
types of diluent and well completions. See
Fig. 2.68 for a graphical display of the
production history.
Figure 2.68
400
Producers
200
0
Water cut, B, S & W (%)
50
800
Gas-bitumen ratio, GBR (scf/STB)
400
0
Bitumen production rate, Qb (BBPD)
50000
25000
0
'83
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
'94
'95
'96
Year
Production history of the Bitor Area.
By July 1996 a total of 349 wells had been

drilled, including four horizontal wells
where electrical submersible pumps were
successfully installed with added diluent at
the pump entry level. Also, a total of 23
horizontal reentries were performed, initially
completed with a progressive cavity pump.
It is assumed that the Morichal Member

crude was initially gas-saturated at its
original pressure. This assumption implies a
possible gas-solution drive. Compaction, as
in the Bolvar District Coast, might have
helped oil recovery. However, cumulative
bitumen production is relatively small
compared to the OBIP and subsidence has
not yet been observed. Incidentally, there is
some water invasion but neither its source
nor its energy are yet well known. All these
reservoir drive mechanisms must only be
considered as possible until better information on the Bitor Area, through special
studies of pressure/production behavior
analysis, is obtained.
AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS
This chapter was written by J-C. Bernys

with the collaboration of L.Zamora, S.Antnez (MEM), F.Chiquito (PDVSA), A.Herrera
(BITOR), F.Rodrguez (Corpoven), O.Romero (Lagoven), O.Surez (Maraven)
and with contributions from M.Miln (MEM), F.Garca (PDVSA), I.Benzaqun (BITOR),
P.Talarico and D.Flores (Corpoven), C.Camacho, L. Escandn and K.Larrauri (Lagoven),
M.Rampazzo, X.Verenzuela, J.C.Ustariz and M.Mndez (Maraven), and E.Cazier,
B.Cunningham and H.Torres (BP de Venezuela).

2 46
Roger, J.V, N. Arteaga, J. Cabrera, G. Valera, P. Jam, M. Castillo, T. Boesi, Z.A.

Sancevic, Salazar, G. Rivero, F. Gmez, R. Lpez 1989- Explotacin
Seccin II: Ingeniera de yacimientos y Geologa de produccin ) en la
Industria Venezolana de los Hidrocarburos. Efraim Barberii, Editor TcnicoEdiciones del Cepet, Caracas 2 tomos.
J.C. Bernys PDVSA 1981 Aplicacin de los procesos trmicos para la
explotacin de los crudos pesados en Venezuela
Lagoven Informe de progreso 1996 Proyecto de recuperacin secundaria Yacimiento LL-07.
M.A. Shagroni, T. C. Boberg, J. A. Gonzlez, L. E. Matheus Exxon/Lagoven
LL-7 Reservoir Engineering studies
Lagoven- Ing. de Petrleo Dpto. de Produccin Divisin de Occidente
1993- Evaluacin del comportamiento de inyeccin de aguas efluentes del
yacimiento Lag. Inf. -07
J.E. Gonzlez- Lagoven 1993 Estudio de Ingeniera B-6-X.03
Lagoven Informe de progreso 1996 - Yacimiento B-6-X.03 - Proyectos de
inyeccin de agua Norte-1, Norte-2, Sur-1, Sur-2
L. Rodrguez, J. Miranda - Corpoven 1988 - Simulacin del comportamiento de produccin del yacimiento 0017 Arena P1/2 - Campo Silvestre
Simupet C.A. 1994 Estudio integrado de los campos Ostra, Oveja , Yopales
Sur-Yacimientos: OM -100, Arena-J-3, Campo Oveja - Informe preliminar
2 47
G. Zambrano, A. Granado A. Rincn - SPE 18279 1988 - A Compositional

Simulation Evaluation of the Santa Rosa Colorado EF Reservoir, Eastern
Venezuela
V. Villarroel - AAPG (Structural Traps VIII) 1993 -Santa Rosa Field
Venezuela - Eastern Venezuela Basin
Corpoven Gerencia de explotacin reas norte de Monagas, 1994Memoria descriptiva Proyecto de recuperacin secundaria mediante la
inyeccin de gas en la formacin Naricual del campo Mulata/El Carito
Lagoven/Corpoven - 1992 - Estudio del campo El Furrial para la implantacin
de un proyecto de recuperacin secundaria mediante un proyecto de inyeccin de agua en la formacin Naricual
Lagoven/Corpoven - Informe de progreso - 1996 Proyecto de recuperacin
secundaria yacimiento Naricual Campo El Furrial
J. Herbas Pizarro SPE 23685 1992 Reservoir engineering studies to
implement additional recovery projects in El Furrial Field
M.Villalba, P. Prez, C. Marcano Corpoven 1996 Memoria descriptiva
Proyecto perforacin horizontal Yacimiento RG-14 (COEF) Campo Santa
Rosa British Petroleum 1996 Pedernales Phase 2 Reservoir Studies
A. Santos, M. Gonzlez Geo Exploracin, C. A. 1996 Evaluacin geolgica rea Bitor

Chapter 3
Well Planning
Chapter overview
Risk analysis in well construction
The choice of drilling fluids to minimize
reservoir damage
Predicting wellbore stability
Geosteering
WELL PLANNING
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Optimizing well production and

reservoir understanding from well data (the
theme of this book) depends heavily on the
quality of the wellsquality in the sense of
being fit for the purpose, which in this case
is to give an expected rate of production
and/or amount of data from the reservoir.
These data must be acquired at a minimum
cost consistent with safe practices and
minimum impact on the environment.
Quality undoubtedly depends on good
planning. This chapter discusses some
aspects of this planning, in particular the
need to look at the whole picture, and the
particular case of horizontal wells.
Well construction is increasingly focused
on ensuring an optimum return on each well
by taking into account the needs of the many
stakeholdersdrillers, production engineers,
geologists, geophysicists, and petrophysicists,
as well as investors and managers. A key
issue is how to reconcile these needs and,
when conflicts arise, how to judge one
against another. One method is risk analysis.
The first section describes the process of risk
analysis and points out how geoscience
needs can be included along with the
traditional drilling needs.
Drilling fluids can have a strong effect on
production rate and data acquisition. The
problem of choosing the right fluid is a very
good example of how the requirements of
different groups need to be considered and
balanced against one another. The choice is
not always obvious; for example, using a
fluid that causes formation damage may or
may not be important, depending on the
completion and stimulation plans. This article
discusses the factors involved and shows
results from the sort of laboratory studies that
can help quantify these factors better.
Horizontal wells have spurred much of

the recent focus on well planning. The
placement of the well, stability of the
borehole, and effects of a very long reservoir
section are some of the issues that require
more precise and integrated planning. The
next section shows how data from a pilot
hole were used to plan the drilling and
completion of a horizontal well. In particular,
the pilot hole showed that if the well was
drilled parallel to the minimum stress it could
be completed openhole, thereby considerably reducing the investment. The well was
successfully drilled and completed,
producing at double the rate for a typical
vertical well in the area.
The final section discusses the technique
of steering a horizontal well geologically
rather than geometrically. This technique
depends on good planning, good wellsite
software and coordination and on having
formation measurements as close as possible
to the bit. An important part of planning is to
model the response of the measurements for
various possible scenarios so that if these
occur while drilling, the correct decisions can
be made more easily. The examples show
how wells can be steered successfully within
sands as thin as 5 ft for more than a thousand
feet of section.

R I S K A N A LY S I S I N W E L L C O N S T R U C T I O N
A change in general philosophy

concerning drilling or well construction has
taken place in the past several years. Along
with industry right-sizing, integrated services,
and increased global competitiveness has
come a way of thinking that keeps the end
in mind. Historically, the drilling profession
has been segregated not only functionally
from geoscience, reservoir, and production
counterparts, but, more importantly, in their
goals and objectives. Drillers have been
primarily interested in well designs that
resulted in getting the well down quickly,
with problem-free operations and the lowest
possible cost. Geoscientists, on the other
hand, were interested in obtaining as much
information as possible, reducing damage to
the reservoir, and having numerous testing
and completion options available to them.
With the changes that have taken place
in the last several years, both relating to
economics and the work force, we must now
concentrate on the big picture. Drillers must
concentrate not only on drilling performance,
but the effect their designs have on data
acquisition, reservoir characteristics and
ultimate well performance and economics.
Geoscientists, reservoir engineers, and
production engineers must now concentrate
not only on optimum reservoir performance,
but operational risks and economic/
operational tradeoffs in well design. Clear
and concise goals and objectives for each
project must be in place and all disciplines
must work together to economically achieve
them. These goals and objectives must be
focused to produce the optimum return on
each well or project undertaken. This requires
an understanding of how each disciplines
problems and/or concerns affect the projects
ultimate economics.
This section starts by describing the
overall objectives of well construction, the
priorities in well construction and the concept
of risk/reward. Example A then introduces
decision trees and shows how design
decisions have typically been made in the

past by drilling engineers with cost
information only. Next, one particular area of
well construction designthe wellbore
geometryis described and used as the basis
for Example B. In this example, the decision
tree employs information from various
disciplines and reveals the value of this
information. The designs are based on more
than just cost data and result in designs with
the end in mind. This technique allows the
melding of each disciplines expertise into a
more accurate decision-making process.
Well construction
Design hierarchy
In any operation, a hierarchy of

importance must be placed on all assets or
resources so that the decision-making process
is consistent with critical items such as safety
and technical integrity. Prioritizing these
resources can best be described by a simple
statement that has been used for quite some
time in drilling organizations: the PEOPLE,
the RIG, the WELL. Well design, operations,
and the decision-making process must all
follow this hierarchy (Fig. 3.1).
The safety of personnel is obviously the
number one goal in any operation we
undertake. Personnel safety should always be
the number one concern in well design and
rig-site operations.
The drilling rig represents a resource that
has a fixed value and thus is considered
higher in priority than the well under
construction. Additionally, rig safety policies
are, for the most part, consistent with
personnel safety. Any attempt to keep
problems away from the surface, and thus the
rig and the environment, aid in the ultimate
goal of personnel safety. Any risk of
personnel safety while attempting to salvage
the physical equipment of the rig would be
counter to the hierarchy.

WELL PLANNING
Last in our hierarchy is the well under

construction. No fixed value can be assigned
to the well and, therefore, it is placed under
the drilling rig in the hierarchy. Many safety
hazards can be eliminated prior to reaching
the surface (thereby keeping them away from
the rig, the personnel and the environment)
by forfeiting the wellbore. In many instances,
forfeiture of the wellbore allows salvaging the
drilling rig and ensures the safety of
personnel.
Therefore, the well must be designed
both technically and operationally consistent
to the hierarchy described. Getting the well to
the depth objective, evaluating the wellbore,
and finally completing the wellbore then
become the secondary hierarchy. This
grouping is fairly obvious. For example,
being able to evaluate or complete a well is
of no consequence if the well cannot reach
the objective formation. Each of these
(reaching depth objective, evaluating, and
completing) must be planned for with
reasonable assurance.
Figure 3.1
PEOPLE
RIG
RIG
WELL
WELL
The hierarchy of importance
used in drilling design.
Figure 3.2
Estimated well costs

$1,450,000
(0
.1
5)
Risked well costs
$1,000,000
M
(0.65)
$1,037,500
Reasonable assurance
A well plan that provides a 99% chance

that all objectives will be accomplished is
usually both an uneconomic and unrealistic
plan. This is where engineering, risk
management, and operational experience
play an invaluable role in well construction.
Options relating to mud systems, rig
equipment, borehole geometry, completion
and testing methods, cement design, extent of
evaluation, and others must be examined and
a reasonable level of assurance obtained in
the final design to meet the goals and
objectives of the well. In most cases,
operational experience is the most valuable
resource for success in this endeavor.
Obviously, reasonable assurance can
take on various definitions as we apply
different goals, objectives, potential
economic returns, and well types. For
instance, the goals and objectives for a
$100,000 shallow development well are
somewhat different from those of a
$20,000,000 exploration well in the jungle.
Therefore, reasonable assurance will
undoubtedly take on a different meaning.
For instance, a more expensive and complex
drilling fluid is justified in the latter case due
to the increased exposure versus that of a
shallow development well. Although this
example is extreme, others fall within a wide
spectrum of possibilities.
er
as
0)
us
.2
ua
l
(0
$850,000
Operational risk assessment:
Se
tl
in
Well construction design: Using

risk/reward/economics
El
$1,000,000
at
(0
in
.2
0)
im
H
e
lin
er
.1
5)
ed
c ce
Su
5)
6
.
(0
(0
.2
5)
M
(0.60)
$1,750,000
(0
.1
5)
A typical decision tree analysis for eliminating a casing point.
$775,000
(0
(0.3
5)
$1,847,500
$825,000
$2,200,000
Fai
$1,200,750
M
(0.65)
$852,500
$1,650,000
Various preliminary designs that meet the

goals and objectives of the well, as well as
health, safety, and environment (HSE) and
technical requirements must be reviewed. All
of the preliminary designs will have inherent
advantages and disadvantages. Each design
must be evaluated on the basis of operational
merit, risk/reward, and economics. Historically, operational merit has been used to
select the final design without much input
from other disciplines or extensive economics.

Figure 3.3
20 in. @ 300 ft
20 in. @ 300 ft
1712 -in. hole
1338 -in. @ 4000 ft
958 -in. @ 4000 ft
1214 -in. hole
Lost circulation
zone
958 -in. @ 8500 ft
Reservoir
7-in. @ 10,500 ft
7-in. @ 10,500 ft
Two well construction options.
For years, decision trees much like Example A

have been employed by drilling engineers to
aid in operational decision-making. Although
very simple in nature, this example provides
the basics of decision tree analysis.
Example A: Eliminating
a casing point
Figure 3.2 shows a common decision tree
analysis. In this simple example, the option to
eliminate an intermediate liner is being evaluated. Typically, this liner is set to cover a lost
circulation zone above the target reservoir (Fig.
3.3). The engineer is evaluating the use of a
new lost circulation material in conjunction
with improved drilling practices in attempts to
eliminate the string. First, lets examine the
lower branch that relates to eliminating the
liner.
The possible outcomes (success and

failure) are identified and the appropriate
decision tree branches drawn. Next, an
estimated cost is calculated for each possible
outcome (high, medium, and low). Notice
that successful elimination of the liner results
in a lower cost relative to the same cost
outcome (high, median, or low) of setting the
liner as usual (upper branch). This
improvement is what the engineer is looking
for and is the result of reduced casing,
cementing, and time costs. Once these steps
are taken, the engineer assigns probabilities
for each of the possible outcomes and cost
scenarios. In this case, the engineer has
assigned a 65% probability of success for
eliminating the liner. Probabilities for high
well cost, median well costs, and low well
costs have also been assigned. Notice that the
probability for an above-average well cost is
more in the case of failure than in the case of
success. This is normal as the risk/unknown
is greater in this case. (Note: this method
requires probability inputs that are somewhat
arbitrary. This does not render the technique
invalid, as a sensitivity analysis is typically
done and the results incorporated into the
decision-making process.)
The top branch describes the decision to
set the liner across the lost circulation zone as
normal operations dictate. Again, an
estimated cost is calculated and probabilities
assigned to them. Notice that these values are
somewhat different than those assigned to the
high, median, and low cases in the bottom
branch. This is because of uncertainty in
eliminating the casing string. When
uncertainty exists, the probability for the
actual cost being higher than average should
be greater.

WELL PLANNING
The engineer now applies the probability

factors to each of the costs and arrives at a
risked cost for eliminating the liner as well
as setting the liner as usual. If necessary, a
sensitivity analysis is done to more completely evaluate the data. Sensitivity analysis
is usually reserved for more complex trees
where multiple options are present. In this
case, setting the casing as usual has resulted
in a lower risked cost as compared to
attempting to eliminate the liner.
In past years, designs with little regard to
the overall picture were sometimes selected
because of cost or operational advantages. In
todays environment, the reservoir and
economics in general must play a crucial role
in final design selection. Decision trees, risk
analysis concepts, and input from the various
disciplines can be used to select the design
that yields the maximum return on the
resource.
The challenge of well construction is
finding the optimum design for each
operation, a design that within reasonable
assurance accomplishes the goals and
objectives, is economic, and ensures the
safety of both rig and personnel. This
responsibility now must be shared by all
appropriate disciplines instead of by the
drilling engineer alone.
Discussed below is one particular design
the wellbore geometry configuration. An
example decision tree shows how a particular
design can benefit from the input of all the
appropriate disciplines and the resulting
economic analysis.
Wellbore geometry
Numerous factors influence the selection
of wellbore geometry. As a result, many
options are usually evaluated to select the
configuration that economically achieves the
stated goals of the well. Following is a partial
list of factors usually considered when
designing wellbore geometry.
problem zones (lost circulation, pore

pressure, instability, etc.)
requested completion (size of tubulars
and other equipment)
equipment availability
geological and reservoir data (reservoir
structure and composition, targets, etc.).
The geometry of the borehole is always
designed from the bottom up. Consideration
is given to the number of strings needed to
reach the final objective within reasonable
assurance. Depending on the type of well
and, in some cases, economics, a contingency
string may be allowed for in the preliminary
design. This particular portion of the design is
usually done when all of the information
from the above designs are gathered, as all
influence the configuration of the borehole.
Below is an example of how risk analysis can
be used to select wellbore geometry. In this
example, the accuracy of assessing the
position of a geological target is being
evaluated in a horizontal well application.
The optimum wellbore geometry will be
selected using drilling, geological, and
directional expertise combined in a risk
analysis approach.
Example B: Deciding to
drill a pilot hole
Example A was one of an operational
decision that has typically been made by well
construction (drilling) personnel solely on
cost information. Example B, on the other
hand, uses cost information in conjunction
with information provided by the geologist,
directional personnel, and others. The
additional input results in more accurate
decision making.
In this example, the team is attempting to
decide whether or not a vertical pilot hole
should be drilled prior to constructing a
lateral in a horizontal prospect (Fig. 3.4).

Figure 3.4
Construct the build

and lateral sections
without a pilot hole.
Reservoir target
Construct a vertical
pilot hole, log, then
plug back and construct
the lateral.
Construct a pilot hole at

45 , log, then plug back
and construct the lateral.
Three possible options for drilling a horizontal well.
Figure 3.5
Estimated well costs

.4
0)
$3,500,000
(0
Risked costs
M
(0.35)
$3,075,000
ol
e
th
.2
0)
(0
H
M
(0.50)
lo
0)
.3
pi
$2,500,000
$2,500,000
(0
$3,000,000
$2,300,000
L
$2,150,000
.1
5)
im
in
at
$3,100,000
Drill 45 pilot hole
(0
El
$2,842,500
5)
.2
$2,888,000
(0
ed
eed
nn
c ti o
e
)
r
5
Cor
( 0 .7
No
c or
r ec
tion
nee
(0.2
ded
5)
$2,295,000
M
(0.65)
$2,850,000
Dr
.
(0
ill
)
20
ve
$2,650,000
r ti
ca
lp
e
ol
th
ilo
(0
.1
0
$3,300,000
M
(0.60)
$2,970,000
$3,000,000
L
(0
0)
.3
$2,800,000
A decision tree analysis using input from geoscientists, directional personnel and
others, as well as drilling engineers.
The reservoir is 8 ft thick and requires a

significant amount of geologic knowledge to
enter the reservoir target. Historically, these
teams have used a pilot hole drilled through
the reservoir to identify geologic tops so that
the curve could be designed and built with a
high degree of accuracy. The information
obtained by drilling and the subsequent
logging of the pilot hole has enabled the
construction of the lateral as desired with little
need for significant course correction.
From experience in the area and by using
measurements at the bit, the geologist
believes that the reservoir top could be picked
with reasonable certainty and the well cost
potentially reduced by eliminating the pilot
hole. The alternative of constructing a pilot
hole at 45, logging, and then correcting the
build rate is also being evaluated. Each of
these three alternatives have both monetary
and operational advantages and disadvantages
that need to be evaluated prior to selecting a
wellbore configuration (Fig. 3.5).
The top branch has been dedicated to
eliminating the pilot hole. The drilling engineer, with consultation from directional personnel and offset data, feels that without a
pilot hole the need for a significant course
correction is 75%. Course correction is being
defined as a probable plugback and redrill for
a portion of the hole. Note that the probability
for a higher-than-average cost is greater (40%
versus 20%) on the correction needed
branch than on the no correction needed
branch. This, as in the other examples shown,
is because of the uncertainty involved in unfamiliar activities. The middle branch relates to
penetrating the reservoir at a 45 angle,
logging, then constructing the final portion of
the curve. The bottom branch represents
constructing the vertical pilot hole, plugging
back, then building the curve (the conventional plan). The probability in the bottom
branch for high cost (10%) is lower than that
of the other options because this method has
been used before, and the cost estimates have
more basis.

WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.6
Reservoir
Reservoir characterization
Production
Production rates and
flowstream data
WELL
CONSTRUCTION
Geophysics
Seismic information
and interpretation
The boardroom of well

construction.
Geology
Structure and targets
Completion
Subsurface equipment
requirements
Petrophysics
Formation properties
After the branches were constructed, the

drilling engineer calculated the estimated cost
for each outcome and placed them in the tree
accordingly. Costs and risks associated with
the following were included:
geologic uncertainty for each case
setting/sidetracking off openhole cement
plug(s) in case of course correction
rig time associated with each possible
outcome
and others.
Once risked, the decision tree revealed
that the lowest risked cost is the case of
penetrating the reservoir at 45, logging, then
constructing the remainder of the curve.

Again, the decision (as well as the cost estimates) has been oversimplified for presentation purposes. In this case, the pilot hole
might well be eliminated as there is little difference between its cost and the 45 pilot
hole. However simplified, it demonstrates the
need for decision evaluation with input from
all disciplines.
Conclusion
In reality, net present value (NPV) is used
more often than cost data alone. Cash flowstream calculations are performed with
reserves, expected revenue, cost estimates,
taxes, and others to arrive at NPV for each
option. Once NPVs are assigned to the various
options, they are risked with the probability
factors assigned. With this method, the option
with the largest NPV is the optimum choice. In
either case the important point is that modern
well construction design takes into account
the goals of all disciplines (Fig. 3.6). The
decision tree is one method by which these
different goals can be quantified and put
together to arrive at a reasonable assurance
that they are met.
THE CHOICE OF DRILLING FLUIDS TO MINIMIZE RESERVOIR DAMAGE
Introduction
The current nearly obsessive interest in
minimizing formation damage from drilling
fluids is a direct result of the increased
exposure of producing formations to drilling
fluids by horizontal drilling. This is as it should
be. Perforating or fracturing procedures in
vertical wells that penetrate feet or meters
deep into a formation often render irrelevant
the effects of invading drilling fluid within a
radius of inches in the wellbore, but the nearwellbore effects of fluid in openhole
completions can be highly significant. The
object of the mud engineers efforts should be
3
to design and run a drilling fluid for a

production well such that it is possible to
demonstrate with production data that, at least
with respect to the effects of drilling fluid, the
well produces to its maximum potential.
Laboratory studies
Data that unequivocally demonstrate this
are in short supply. Usually, the best we can
do is design a well simulation that helps
predict what the effects of various muds will
be, and apply that knowledge when drilling.
While not all of the mechanisms of formation
damage are mud-related, the majority are,

Figure 3.7
kro
krw
Kro, Krw
0
0
(a)
Mud solids invasion
Filter cake plugging
Formation fines migration
Clay swelling
Polymer adsorption
precipitation
Scale formation
Wax formation (paraffin,
asphaltine)
Sludge formation
Stress-induced permeability change
Perforation plugging
A summary of the
mechanisms of formation
damage. The heavy type
indicates mud-induced
damage mechanisms.
Sw
(b)
Wettabililty change
Fluid saturation change
(blocking)
Emulsion formation
Water coning
Gas breakout
Condensate banking
and their prevention must be a major design

factor in most horizontal wells (Fig. 3.7).
However, the tools we use to predict
formation damage from drilling fluids are
flawed. Standardization of methodology
between laboratories is nonexistent. When
possible, cores from the actual formation in
question are used; more often standard core
material is used, e.g., Clashach and Birchover
Sandstone. There are at least six variables in
the experimental procedures for testing
return permeability that will affect the results:
1. A major variable is the decision to
compare permeabilities based on a given
time period or on a given volume
throughput. The results may vary
enormously depending on this choice of
parameter.
2. Core lengths and diameters vary greatly.
These decisions are largely based on a
decision on how much time should be
devoted to each experiment.
3. Core preparations vary greatly. In some
laboratories, the cores are cleaned with a
methanol-toluene or similar solvent
system to remove asphaltenes prior to
testing. Other labs use the cores as is.
4. The experimental conditions with

respect to pressure and temperature vary
greatly between labs.
5. Post-test procedures also vary. Some
laboratories simulate completion cleanup
steps with backflow pressures, which
also vary; others do not.
6. The drilling fluids themselves will perform differently depending on whether
or not the test mud formulations included drilled solids (real or simulated).
Given the range of possible mud
formulations (i.e., with the same name but
with and without drill solids), varying mud
weights with different weighting agents,
along with the range of possible test
conditions, laboratory data suggest that
relatively small changes in drilling parameters
or downhole conditions can radically affect
our efforts to choose the right fluid for a
particular formation.
As a result, the choice of drilling fluids is
often made by simple intuition; i.e., what
seems to make sense for a formation. Our
intuition leads us to believe that:
1. Saturated, sized salt drilling fluids are
formation-friendly, because it makes
sense to assume that salt particles that
may enter a formation will also be
dissolved away when exposed to
unsaturated fluid.
2. Polymer fluids with calcium carbonate as
a weighting/bridging agent might invade
a formation, but should easily be
removed with acid.
3. Any fluid that contains bentonite should
be avoided, because it seems likely that
fine bentonite particles will invade a
formation, hydrate and be difficult or
impossible to remove, thus impeding
hydrocarbon flow through the formation.
4. The use of barite should be avoided
because barite particles cannot be
removed from a formation by dissolution
in acid or water.

WELL PLANNING
Figures 3.8 & 3.9
100
Percent of initial permeability
100
50
Static
Dynamic
50
Static
Dynamic
Recovery in permeability for
Recovery in permeability for 13 ppg fluids,
10.5 ppg fluids Clashhach
Clashach Sandstone, 60 min filtration:
Sandstone, 60 min filtration,
MMH weighted with CaCO3, Polymer
MMH weighted with
weighted with CaCO3, Saturated sized salt
CaCO3, MMH weighted

with barite, Polymer
weighted with CaCO3,
Saturated sized salt,
KCl polymer weighted
with CaCO3
Recent data suggest that our intuition is

wrong. Not only does our intuition fail to
identify the most cost-effective solution to drilling a formation without damage, data suggest
that what we intuitively identify as the least
damaging, can be the most damaging fluid.
Why do observed data contradict what
seems like common sense? It may be that the
simple model to which our intuition leads us
is wrong. Our intuitive model fails to take into
account the true nature of the effects of a
Figures 3.10 & 3.11

100
100
50
Static
Dynamic
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
50
Different backflushing
Recovery in permeability for 10.5
Recovered permeability for Clashach Sand-
ppg fluids, Birchover Sandstone,
stone, 300 psi differential, 240 min
60 min filtration: MMH weighted
a) when filter cake left in situ, b) with 2 psi
with CaCO3, Polymer weighted
backflush pressure c) with 6 psi backflush
with CaCO3, Saturated sized salt
pressure d) with 10 psi backflush pressure:

MMH weighted with CaCO3, Polymer
weighted with CaCO3, Saturated sized salt
drilling fluid on and in a formation: filter cake

formation, particle invasion (added solids
and drilled solids), filtrate invasion (water, oil,
polymer), and the reverse of these: filter
cake, particle and filtrate removal.
Tests were conducted recently at
Schlumberger Cambridge Research (SCR)
comparing formation damage, as measured
by permeability after static and dynamic filtration, with three different types of fluids. The
results were somewhat surprising. Static filtration tests with 10.5 ppg fluids resulted in
similar (within experimental error) permeability recoveries from mixed-metal hydroxide
(MMH ) weighted with barite, MMH weighted
with calcium carbonate (CaCO3), polymer
mud weighted with CaCO3 and sized salt.
Only the results with potassium chloride (KCl)
polymer mud weighted with CaCO3 were
significantly lower. Dynamic filtration, on the
other hand, gave the best permeabilities with
MMH weighted with barite, and polymer
weighted with CaCO3, followed by the others
(Fig. 3.8). The same fluids in the same
formation, but weighted to 13 ppg, gave
different results: the best return permeability
was observed with the polymer fluid,
followed by saturated, sized salt and MMH
weighted with CaCO3 (MMH with barite was
not tested) (see Fig. 3.9).
The same fluids at 10.5 ppg were tested
in the far less permeable Birchover sandstone
(Clashach permeability averaged 644 md and
average pore size was 26.6 microns;
Birchover averaged 12.5 md permeability and
average pore size was 2.64 microns). All gave
complete (100%) return permeabilities (Fig.
3.10). The effect of applying simulated
reservoir pressure to remove mudcake
decreased return permeability using the sized
salt system more than with either MMH or the
polymer fluid (Fig. 3.11). When cores were
backflushed at a variety of pressures, the
sized salt system showed less recovery than
the others, especially at the lower pressures,
again suggesting the resistance to cake
removal with the sized salt system.

Figure 3.12
A stable, effective, external filter cake (cake on top, formation underneath).

Figure 3.13
Partially internal and external filter cakes with sized salt mud.
Figure 3.14
Photographs of the cores used in the

above experiments help us make adjustments
to our intuitive model of how drilling fluids
affect formation damage. It is true that the
invasion of solids along with filtrate is a major
mechanism of formation damage. As any
mud engineer knows, the quality and
quantity of mud solids determine the quality
of the filter cake and quantity of fluid loss in
time. In the same way, the nature and amount
of solids in the fluids determines what does
and does not invade the formation, both solid
and liquid. Again, mud engineers know that
the ideal filter cake material is a mixture of
different size particles, including the flat clay
platelets that overlap each other to reduce the
permeability and porosity of the filter cake.
The MMH-bentonite complex contributes to
this feature by preventing invasion of the clay
particles. The result is a stable, effective
external filter cake (Fig. 3.12); i.e., a barrier
external to the formation that impedes
invasion of both solids and filtrate to the
formation. In some cases, the contrast with
the sized salt system is observable. The sized
salt system tends to form both external and
internal filter cakes because of the nature of
the bridging material that allows invasion by
salt crystals (Fig. 3.13). Often, the difference
is irrelevant because the salt may be easily
removed with undersaturated fluid. There is
reason to believe, however, that the polymercoated salt crystals are, in some cases, not so
easy to remove and persist in the formation,
impeding hydrocarbon flow (Fig. 3.14).
But do the solids that invade the
formation and stay there necessarily reduce
permeability significantly? Not at all.
The right size solids in relation to pore
throat size bridge the formation and result
in less permeability damage. In that case,
one would not want the salt or calcium
carbonate particles to be removed.
One would want them to continue their
Possible polymer-coated salt crystals within the formation.

3 10
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.15
VISPLEX filter cake in the

process of being removed at
4 psi back pressure.
bridging function at least until the external

filter cake can be totally removed during a
completion or production phase (Figs. 3.15
and 3.16). However, on one point everyone
seems to agree: ultra-fine, low-density solids
are no good for either drilling fluid or
formations.
WBM versus OBM and
particle size distribution
For some operators and in some
situations the choice of fluid can be a moot
point. The difficulties and economics of
drilling high angle wells in deep, hot formations may dictate the use of Oil Based Mud.
Figure 3.16
The increased risk of stuck pipe and the

likelihood of exposing the formation for
longer periods of time to water based mud
(WBM) make the case for OBM a strong one.
Indeed, it is not uncommon for an operator to
have an intuitive preference for, for example,
salt saturated mud, when practicalities
encourage the use of OBM. It is not surprising
that the particle size distribution of the fluid,
an exceedingly difficult parameter to control,
and one which we are only recently starting to
measure with regularity and accuracy, is a
crucial factor in the results of return permeability tests. One would expect, for example,
that return permeabilities would change when
the average particle size is greater than ultra
fine, i.e. larger than 8-10 microns. It is worth
noting that API standard barite contains very
few particles smaller than that. The problem
is, of course, that if one tries to exclude fluids
with a high concentration of ultra-fines, then
one of the most important economic
advantages of OBM gets lost, i.e. the reservoir
drilling fluid can no longer be a used fluid
from previous holes.
One typical approach demonstrates the
difficulty of conducting a controlled experiment in order to determine the most appropriate fluid for a particular situation. In this
approach the first five of the six aforementioned variables are carefully defined and
maintained in the study: 1) Actual cores from
the formation may be used, 2) Suitable core
lengths and diameters can be chosen and
maintained, 3) Core preparations may include
a toluene wash and a KCl displacement, 4)
The temperatures and pressures of the
experiment are chosen to be consistent with
drilling conditions, 5) No completion simulation is planned. The sixth variable, i.e. mud
type, can be chosen both with respect to the
generic mud type used and the condition of
the mud, i.e., with respect to the size
distribution of the solids. Still, however, the
results of such work can be difficult to
Core surface after filter cake in Fig. 3.15 has parted.
3 11

interpret. For example, the data may favor the

invert oil based mud (IOBM) as it may seem
to cause the least reduction in return permeability. But because the particle size distribution
of the muds in a field situation is so difficult
to control, it is often suggested that this parameter, rather than mud type, may cause the
observed differences in permeability reduction. Often the relative effect of overbalance
pressure is difficult to separate from the effects
of particle size distribution. So, the balance of
the data, added to practical considerations,
often results in a decision to use OBM, while
attempts are made to monitor and control
particle size distribution as well as to minimize
overbalance. Furthermore, we are only in the
early stages of investigating the impact of
completion fluids on permeability reduction.
So, it is far from clear what should be the
answer to the crucial question: what is the
relationship between these data, especially
the results of return permeability tests, and
actual production results?
The control of drilling solids quantity and
quality in OBM is difficult. With WBM the
rheological and fluid loss properties give clear
indications of the buildup of fine solids. This
is not so with OBMs, which are far more
tolerant to solids from a purely drilling point
of view. When a fluid performs well from a
drilling point of view, it is difficult to justify
replacing it based on retort measurements of
solids. Therefore, strict control of particle sizes
will require the availability of particle size
analysis on a frequent and rapid turnaround
basis, plus a policy of replacing fluids that fail
to meet a particle size specification. Improved
solids control equipment and practices may
well help to keep mud particles in an acceptable size range. As mentioned previously, to
dispose of contaminated OBM on this basis
is difficult in the absence of sufficient actual
well production data that demonstrate in the
field what is observed in the lab.
The only alternative to this practice may be to
drill under-balanced and therefore remove the

source of energy that forces drilling fluids into
the formation. However, other non-mud-related factors cannot be ruled out either, such as
wax formation as a component of the crude.
An integrated approach
First, it must be realized that contact with
any drilling fluid will cause some damage to
any formation. The question, then, is not how
to avoid formation damage, but how to avoid
formation damage that will affect hydrocarbon production. The ultimate goal is to
develop a tool for drilling fluid design that
can account for this as well as pure drilling
problems; in other words, one that combines
the skills and concerns of reservoir, petroleum, drilling and fluids engineers.
Millions may have already been spent
trying to avoid formation damage that really
doesnt matter. As stated before, when a
vertical well is fractured, the resulting induced
fractures may extend thousands of feet into
the reservoir, rendering irrelevant solids and
filtrate invasion within feet of the well bore.
From a formation damage point of view, the
fluid loss, fine solids content and the nature of
the weighting agent affected nothing. The
difficulty with horizontal wells that are to be
completed without cementing and perforating, is that more of the producing formation
is exposed to the over-balanced drilling fluid
and it is generally exposed for a longer time.
So, the drilling fluid must be chosen so as to
minimize the formation damage at initial contact, and reduce the time of contact through
better drilling rates. This choice must include
decisions on whether various washes and
breakers, designed to remove filter cake, are
likely to help or ultimately cause more
damage. An alternative is simply to skip
the washes and back-produce the drilling
fluid through the completion equipment.
The use of a fluid such as MMH, which

3 12
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.17
Polymer
WBM
Mud types
Sized Salt
Brine (NaCl)
Formate
Brine
MMH
OBM
Advantages
Flexible
Cheap
Easy cake removal

NaCI compatible
with formation
fluids
Easy cleanup
Good density range
compatible with
most formation
fluids
Excellent hole
cleaning
Avoids erosion of
soft formations
Minimal loss to
fractures
Low fluid loss

Filtrate compatible
with most formation
fluids
Stable under
reservoir conditions
Disadvantages
Damage,
esp. from
PHPA?
Difficult
cleanup
because
of polymers
Density restrictions
(10.4 - 12.1; 13.3
with NaBr)
Possible problem
with polymer
cleanup
Difficult to yield
polymers in brine
Expensive
Difficult to yield
polymers in brine
Sensitive to
contamination by
many mud
polymers
Questions
regarding
bentonite in
reservoir fluid
Limited fluid loss
control compared
to polymer muds
Environmental
restrictions
Possible damage due
to surfactants,
especially in tight
formations
and gas reservoirs
Non-conductive
nature limits data
acquisition
The advantages and

disadvantages of various
reservoir drilling fluids.
produces a wall cake that is more easily

removed than that from salt-saturated or
OBM, may be the best solution for some
wells. But the question becomes still more
complicated when the produced fluid must
also pass through production screens. Large
particles that had no effect on the formation
may bridge off screens.
Conclusion
The central question, then, is how can
one predict when a particular fluid is likely to
affect the permeability of a formation or the
performance of production screens enough to
affect production? The answer will depend on
many factors that are particular to a well.
No one can responsibly suggest the use of a
particular fluid without considering the whole
picture, including consideration of reservoir

type and quality, completion design, depth of
damage versus length of perforations (if any),
and mechanism and efficiency of filter cake
removal (in openhole completions), in addition to the usual parameters directly relevant
to drilling. Figure 3.17 outlines the main
advantages and disadvantages of each of
various possible reservoir drilling fluids.
To fully answer crucial questions related
to formation damage caused by drilling fluid,
it is necessary to conduct tests with cores and
conditions as close as possible to actual reservoir conditions, and to confirm the results
with actual well production data from wells
drilled with a variety of drilling fluid types
and qualities.
PREDICTING WELLBORE STABILITY
The BLower reservoir of the Misoa

Formation is located in the north part of Block
III in Lake Maracaibo. The structural map
(Fig. 3.18) shows that the top of the reservoir
is on the upthrown side of a fault system that
acts as a seal for the hydrocarbon
accumulation to the north. An oil-water
3 13
contact, originally at 9741 ft, is the limit of the

accumulation to the south. The structural dip
is quite uniform with a magnitude of 2 to 4
in the south/southeast direction.
The cumulative production of the
BLower reservoir is 26 MMSTB and the remaining reserves are estimated at 36 MMSTB.

Figure 3.18
1116
1110
1050
1091
1184
994
1031
95
00
'
925
988
OOWC 9741
96
00
Producer
'
1009
1008
970
0'
500 m
Scale
Structural map of BLower reservoir.

Figure 3.19
Moved hydrocarbon
Water
Gas
Oil
Mudcake
Quartz
Washout
BS
Permeability to Oil
6
16
Caliper Permeability to Water
6 (in.) 16 Permeability to Gas
Intrinsic Permeability
Depth
0.1 100
1000
(md)
(ft)
Water
Bound water
Moved hydrocarbon
Montmorillonite
Gas
Kaolinite
Oil
Sw
(%)
Fluid analysis
0 0.5
(V / V)
Illite
Volumetric analysis
0 1
0
(V / V)
9600
9650
9700
The ELAN volumetric analysis over the B-6 reservoir shows two sand bodies
separated by a shale bed.
The current production of approximately 7000

BOPD comes from seven active wells.
The reservoir is characterized by sand
bodies varying from 40 to 120 ft thick and
separated by shaly sections 10 to 30 ft thick. It
is divided into three flow units, the most
prospective being the top unit, B-6. Apart
from being structurally higher, B-6 exhibits a
better sandstone development and better
continuity. Therefore, drilling the horizontal
well VLC-1184 in the B-6 unit was considered
the best option to more efficiently drain the
remaining hydrocarbon and avoid early water
production due to water-coning.
A vertical pilot hole was first drilled to
acquire essential information and perform the
analyses required to plan the horizontal section. This pilot hole was located as far updip
(i.e., as far north) as possible, while seeking
to minimize the risk of crossing the fault. The
horizontal distance needed to land the
horizontal hole was obviously an additional
criterion in the choice of this location.
Horizontal target selection
Extensive logging and coring were
performed in the 978-in. pilot hole to gather
information needed both to characterize the
BLower Formation and to evaluate wellbore
stability. The ELAN volumetric analysis obtained from the openhole logs over the B-6
reservoir (Fig. 3.19) shows two sand bodies
separated by a 20-ft shale bed. The lower sand
is 51 ft thick with an effective porosity
between 18 and 20 p.u. and an oil saturation
ranging from 70% to 90%. The upper sand,
approximately 40 ft thick, is slightly cleaner
and consequently the effective porosity is
larger by 1 to 2 p.u. This is in agreement with
the core analysis, which shows a generally
coarser-grained sandstone. The oil saturation
is similar and the permeability, being 500 md,
is marginally higher. The clay content,
however, increases significantly in the top 10
ft and reduces the effective porosity. The core
analysis reveals a very fine-grained sandstone
in this zone.

3 14
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.20
LLHD
GR
Depth
(ft)
Presure
(psia)
LLHS
(gAPI)
150 0.20
(ohmm)
2000
2000
3000
B6
9600
9700
9800
The MDT pressure points show a single gradient over the entire B-6 reservoir.
Figure 3.21
Dev.1
Caliper 1-3
-20
(in.)
20
Azimuth
Caliper 2-4
-20
Depth
(ft)
(in.)
Differential caliper
20
Bit size
-20
(in.)
(in.)
10
Ovalization azimuth
0
20.
20
Rupture zones
(deg)
200
Pad 1 azimuth
Ovalization
0
(deg)
Pad 1
azimuth
N
W
400
9400
9500
9600
9700
9800
The Break-out Orientation Log is computed from both FMI calipers.
3 15
Hole
azimuth
0 (deg) 10
E
S
Hole
deviation
0 (deg) 10
The upper sand was selected for placing

the horizontal section. Being structurally higher, it will delay the production of water. Crucial
information was provided by the pressure
measurements obtained with the MDT* Modular Formation Dynamics Tester. The pressure
points are aligned over the entire B-6 reservoir
(Fig. 3.20) indicating that both sands are
hydraulically connected, most likely because
the shale bed separating the two sand bodies
is not continuous. Therefore, producing from
the upper sand will drain the bottom sand as
well.
The thickness of this sand should provide a reasonably safe margin for navigating
the horizontal hole. To reduce the risk of
crossing the fault, the horizontal section
should be drilled from east to west, the well
VLC-1050 providing an excellent control of
the fault in that direction (Fig. 3.18).
Borehole stability analysis
Using the information collected in the
pilot hole, a wellbore stability analysis was
performed to ensure that the horizontal hole
could be drilled within the targeted sandstone
in the planned direction without formation
failure, such as rock collapsing or fracturing.
After determining the direction of the minimum horizontal stress, which would be the
preferred hole direction for mechanical stability, wellbore stability simulation was performed to estimate the mud weight required
to support the borehole wall.
Determining the minimum
horizontal stress direction
The key data for determining the minimum horizontal stress direction were the twoaxis caliper log from the FMI* Fullbore Formation MicroImager, and the anisotropy log
computed from DSI* Dipole Shear Sonic
Imager data.
The Break-out Orientation Log (BOL)
computes the hole enlargement in the direction of the two FMI calipers. The difference
between the enlargements, or the differential

Figure 3.22
Fast shear T
Slow shear T
GR
0
(gAPI)
350
150
CALI
5
Depth
(ft)
(in.)
20
Hole azimuth
0
(deg)
360 0
(deg)
90
50
Processing window
Time-based anisotropy
Fast shear waveform
0
0
Fast shear azimuth
(ms / ft)
DT-based anisotropy
(%)
4
8
50
16 <
Slow shear waveform

1100
(ms)
6600
9500
9600
9700
The DSI anisotropy log

computes the direction of
the fast shear wave.
enlargement, indicates borehole ovalization

in the direction of the caliper showing the
greater enlargement. Break-outs are a form of
enlargement caused by unequal horizontal
stresses and are identified by abrupt
ovalization. Their azimuth indicates the
direction of the minimum horizontal stress.
The results of the BOL processing from
well VLC-1184 in the interval 9820 to 9330 ft
are displayed on Fig. 3.21. Track 1 shows
actual and nominal values of the caliper pair.
Track 2 shows the differential enlargement
with the yellow shading, which indicates
values greater than the ovalization threshold.
The flags on the right side highlight the
intervals with the most probable break-outs.
In track 3, the azimuth of the FMI pad 1 is
displayed together with the azimuth of the
long axis of the borehole. This azimuth is
computed only when the ovalization is above

the threshold. In track 4, the distribution of
break-outs is presented together with the
borehole orientation. There are no break-outs
in the B-6 reservoir; hence, the horizontal
stresses directions cannot be evaluated there.
However, the shale interval immediately
above exhibits some damage with break-outs
distributed around an azimuth of 118.
In an anisotropic medium, such as a rock
exhibiting differences in horizontal stresses,
sonic shear waves split into two waves with
orthogonal polarizations. One component, the
fast shear, is oriented in the direction of maximum horizontal stress and travels faster than
the second component, the slow shear, which
runs parallel to the minimum horizontal stress.
The anisotropy log computes the fast and
slow shear slownesses and the fast shear
polarization angle. It uses input from the DSI
run in Both Cross Dipole mode. This mode
consists of recording shear information at
each orthogonal dipole receiver of the DSI
tool for each firing of the orthogonal dipole
sources (DSI box 433). This acquisition mode
provides two in-line and two cross-line components. It is unlikely that any of these four
components are aligned with the fast or slow
shear waves. However, the 4-component data
contain all azimuthal information so that fast
shear azimuth, as well as slow and fast shear
slownesses, can be extracted using a component rotation technique (Alford, 1986). The
direction of the measured fast shear wave
provides the direction of the maximum horizontal stress. The DSI is run in combination
with an inclinometry tool so the computed
direction can be related to north.
Figure 3.22 presents the acoustic
anisotropy log obtained in well VLC-1184
over the interval from 9460 to 9770 ft. Track 3
displays both fast and slow shear slownesses
and the percent of anisotropy computed by
two methods. The two quantities, Dt-based
anisotropy and Time-based anisotropy, are
derived from the difference of slowness and
difference of arrival time between the two

3 16
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.23
North
Depth (ft)
9450.0
9498.0
9548.5
9599.0
West
9649.5
East
9700.0
South
The DSI anisotropy results

can also be presented
on a crossplot.
shear waveforms, respectively. The azimuth of

the fast shear (the azimuth of the maximum
horizontal stress) is shown in track 2. Track 4
displays actual fast and slow shear waveforms
from receiver 7 together with the processing
window. At levels of higher anisotropy, the time
difference between the waveforms can be seen.
It is also convenient for trend analysis to
display the fast shear azimuth on a crossplot
scaled east-west and south-north on the
horizontal and vertical axis, respectively
(Fig. 3.23). The color of the dots indicates
depth range. The fast shear direction in well
VLC-1184 is consistent over the entire interval,
with an average azimuth of 15.
The core recovered from the interval 9540
to 9600 ft was oriented in order to perform stress
orientation measurements that would validate
the maximum stress direction derived from
wireline logs. Several methods were used, such
as Anelastic Strain Recovery (ASR), Shear Wave
Amplitude Anisotropy (SWAA) and Acoustic
Anisotropy Analysis (AAA).
Figure 3.24 compares the wireline-derived
horizontal maximum stress directions with the
directions obtained from core measurements.
The direction obtained by both wireline
methods are in good agreement with the
direction returned by the ASR core-based
Figure 3.24
N
AAA
SWAA
ASR DSI
BOL
S
Comparison of wireline- and
core-derived horizontal
maximum stress directions.
3 17
In the AAA method anisotropic velocities are used as indications of in-situ stress orientations. Velocities are measured in
multiple directions perpendicular to the axis of the core, and in the
axial direction. It is a two-dimentional analysis, with an assumption that one of the principal stress is parallel to the core axis.
The SWAA method is based on finding the maximum absorbtion of shear waves propagated vertically through a specimen.
Two shear wave sources are placed along the core axis and one of
the sources is rotated in small angular increments. The amplitude
of the shear wave is measured for each increment and with continued rotation the minimum shear wave amplitude is determined.
The direction of the core corresponding to the minimum amplitude
infers the direction of the maximum in-situ horizontal stress.
ASR relies on monitoring time dependant strain relaxation of
freshly-cut, oriented core. The strain recovery, due to the relaxation
of the sample detached from its parent rock mass (the core), is
measured and is related to the directions of magnitudes of the insitu stresses, using elastic or viscoelastic relationships. ASR is a
completely three-dimensional measurement and does not require
assumptions about the magnitudes or directions of any of the
principal stresses.
technique i.e NNE. The AAA and SWA methods

show NNW and do not agree with the previous
methods.
The three-dimension core measurements
also showed a maximum stress oriented at 45
from the vertical. The principal stresses are
therefore not in an horizontal plane and the
two-dimension measurements such as AAA
and SWA have to be taken with caution.
Borehole stability simulation and mud
weight prediction
The borehole stability simulation is done
with the interactive workstation program
IMPACT. IMPACT analyzes and predicts well
behavior by integrating information from logs,
well tests and core measurements. The computation is organized in individual modules that
compute elastic moduli, rock strength and
stresses (Fig. 3.25). Once the mechanical
properties evaluation is done, the user chooses
the application that corresponds to the problem
to be analyzed: hydraulic fracturing design,
wellbore stability evaluation, or sanding
evaluation.
The minimum inputs required by IMPACT
are compressional and shear slowness logs, a
density log, and a volumetric analysis of the
formation such as ELAN.
The first module computes the dynamic
elastic moduli using one of the following
models: Single Component, Biot-Gasmann or
Shear modulus. Statistical analysis tools are
available to relate log-derived elastic moduli
with static moduli measured from cores.
Dynamic elastic moduli in well VLC-1184 were
calculated using the single component model.
In this model, elastic moduli are a function of
the formation bulk density and the
compressional and shear velocities.
The second module calculates static
moduli and rock strength parameters from elastic moduli and formation volumes. Various
empirical correlations are available, and core
measurements can be input to user-defined
correlations. In well VLC-1184, UCS (Unconfined Compressive Strength) values computed

Figure 3.25
Figure 3.25
Log measurements
Sonic waveform
analysis (STC)
Dtc
Bulk volume
analysis (ELAN)
Dts
Minerals, fluids
volumes
rb
Impact
Static-dynamic
correlations
Elastic moduli
Lab measurements
on cores
Rock strength
Overburden,
pore pressure,
stress measurements
Stress computations
sx
Pressure steps,
perforations
Hydro-fracturing
height growth
IMPACT program flowchart.
Fracturing
models
sx sy
Failure
analysis
Borehole stability:
critical mud weight
and well deviation
Failure
criteria
Sanding:
critical drawdown
from several correlations were compared to

UCS obtained from laboratory measurements
made on cores from nearby wells. The Brie
correlation (Brie, 1996) gave the best match
and was therefore selected.
In the next module, the vertical stress is
evaluated from the integration of formation
density or from a geostatic gradient, the pore
pressure is calculated from a pore pressure
gradient, calibrated with MDT pressure points,
and the horizontal stresses are derived from the
vertical stress through a choice of models.
External information can be used; for instance,
in the IMPACT run for well VLC-1184, the
minimum horizontal stress was determined
from a minifrac performed in the well VLC-988,

close to the planned horizontal well (Fig. 3.18).
For wellbore stability applications, various
failure models are available from the failure
analysis module. For well VLC-1184, the MohrCoulomb model was used to perform wellbore
stability simulations for the two extreme cases of
a horizontal hole parallel to the minimum
horizontal stress direction and parallel to the
maximum horizontal stress.
Figure 3.26 displays the results of the
simulations for the horizontal holes (tracks 3
and 4) as well as the mechanical stability
analysis done for the vertical pilot hole (track
2). The safe mud weight window represents
the range of mud weight that will safely
support the borehole wall. If the actual mud
weight is less than the minimum safe mud
weight, breakouts, or hole collapse, can occur.
If the mud weight is too high, it may fracture
the formation.
In the vertical hole, the actual mud weight
(red line) is well within the safe mud weight
window over the entire B-6 reservoir, and effectively the caliper log in track 1 does not show
any borehole failure. In the shale above,
however, the caliper indicates formation
collapse when the mud weight is outside the
safe window.
When the hole is parallel to the minimum
horizontal stress, the safe mud weight window
is quite large, especially in the sandstones. This
window is actually larger than for the vertical
hole because the stress regime derived from
mini-frac led to the model:
Ty > Tz > Tx
where Tx, Ty, Tz are the minimum horizontal

stress, maximum horizontal stress, and vertical
stress, respectively.
When the horizontal hole is drilled perpendicular to the minimum horizontal stress,
the safe mud weight window shrinks significantly and the mechanical stability could
become marginal in the middle of the target
(upper) sandstone.

3 18
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.26
Vertical hole
Simulation for horizontal hole
Hole parallel to
minimum
horizontal stress
Hole perpendicular to
minimum
horizontal stress
Caliper
Depth
(in.)
(ft) 15 0 15
Gas
Oil
Actual mud weight

(lbm / gal)
20
Stability
Stability
Stability
Quartz
Bound
water
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
Instability
Instability
Instability
Illite
Mudcake
Washout
Moved
hydrocarbon
Water
9500
9600
9700
Wellbore stability simulation performed with

the IMPACT program.
Drilling of horizontal section

and production results.
After setting a cement plug in the vertical
pilot hole, a 978-in. deviated hole was kicked off
at 9128 ft and drilled with a radius of curvature
of 13 for 100 ft until the inclination reached
77.5 at the depth of 9737 ft MD (measured
depth). At that depth the hole azimuth was
313, which corresponds to an optimal trajectory both to avoid the fault and to minimize the
stress on the borehole wall. A 7-in. casing was
set and the hole size was reduced to 618 in. The
final angle of 90 was reached in the target at a
depth of 9579 ft TVD.
The horizontal section was drilled for 1237
ft with an azimuth ranging from within 311.5
and 315. Operational problems occurred
while running the completion and it was eventually decided to leave the horizontal section
open. The initial production of VLC-1184
reached 2000 BNP, and after seven months it
was 1700 BOPD with a water-cut of 0.5%.
These good results show that, as predicted by
logs and cores, the borehole was stable
enough to be left as an open-hole completion.
GEOSTEERING
Introduction
GeoSteering is the real-time steering of
horizontal and high-angle wells using whiledrilling formation evaluation data. It guides
wells to optimum geological destinations,
rather than directionally steering wells to
predetermined (possibly non-optimum) geometric locations.
Directional drilling has evolved to the
point where the geometric target can be hit
with high accuracy. Unfortunately, geologic
maps based on surface seismic data and offset
well data are not this accurate. Uncertainties
in the determination of the depth and lateral
position of the target are combined with the
inability to predict subtle features such as
small changes in formation dip, pinchouts and
small displacement faults.
3 19
In addition to a sensitive and fast-acting

directional drilling capability, a GeoSteering
system has three key components. First is the
ability to obtain azimuthal formation information from as close to the bit as possible.
The further a measurement is behind the bit,
the longer it will take to observe, for example,
that the well has left the reservoir, and the
longer it will take to correct the trajectory. The
azimuthal information indicates whether the
well is going out of the top or the bottom of
the reservoir. Second, in order to actually steer
the well, the directional driller needs to have
a good idea of what changes in the downhole
measurements mean in terms of formation
geometry, and to have some idea of what to
expect if he makes a course correction.

GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.27
Sensor looking up.

Low GR sees mostly sand
Sensor looking down.

High GR sees mostly shale
Roof and floor detection a)

by rotating the azimuthal
sensors to look up or
down. b) by comparing bit
resistivity, which reads the
average around the tool
near the bit, and button
resistivity which is further
behind but can be pointed
up or down.
This information is provided by pre-job planning and modeling of the target and surrounding formations, and needs to be displayed on
a wellsite screen along with the data recorded
while drilling. Since the exact geometry cannot be predicted with the accuracy required,
several different scenarios are prepared,
representing the response of the most likely
alternatives. Only in this way can the well be
steered geologically rather than geometrically.
Lastly, it is important to have a GeoSteering
coordinator at the wellsite to coordinate
between the geologist, the logging-whiledrilling (LWD) engineer, the directional driller
and anyone else involved in the operation.
The first capability is provided by the
GeoSteering Tool (GST), which provides an
azimuthal resistivity and gamma ray (GR)
measurement from as close as 2.5 ft from the
bit (Chapter 45). In oil-based or very fresh
mud, the only resistivity-based measurement
that works is the bit resistivity, and that only
qualitatively. This works because, unlike the
other electrodes, the bit is in contact with the
formation so that current can pass between it
and any other part of the drillstring in contact
with the formation, such as a stabilizer. In such
muds it is necessary to use an induction-based
measurement such as the ARC5* Array
Resistivity Compensated tool, even though the
distance behind the bit is much greater. The
planning and modeling capability is provided
by the PowerPlan package and INFORM
(Integrated Forward Modeling), and by the
GeoSteering screen at the wellsite.
In practice different variations are used
for different situations. One case is
Geostopping, meaning the use of LWD data to
set casing or coring points as close to the
target as possible. Clearly the closer the
measurement is to the bit, the more exactly
the casing point can be picked. In other
situations the GST measurements are
sufficient to indicate whether the borehole is
moving out of the current formation, and
whether it is doing so by the roof or the floor.
An example is shown below. In yet other
situations, pre-job modeling and geosteering

are used to keep the well within the target, as
shown in the last example.
Roof and floor detection
The principle of using the GST for roof
and floor detection is shown in Fig. 3.27. Single
point station readings are taken with the sensor
facing up or down. These readings can be
plotted on a polar plot with zero at the center
and the value increasing toward the perimeter.
In this case, when the GR sensor looks up the
readings are high, indicating shale, while when
it looks down it reads low, indicating
sandstone. The largest dot shows the most
recent reading. The azimuthal resistivity faces
in the opposite direction and is used in the
same way. Alternatively the azimuthal
resistivity can be compared with the bit
resistivity, which is an azimuthal average
nearer the bit. The difference between the two
indicates the trend.
Figure 3.28 shows the logs recorded
while drilling a horizontal well in Eastern
Venezuela. The target was a 3 ft. thick interval
with the highest resistivity (70 ohm-m) within
a sand about 12 ft. thick. The casing shoe was
set at 3872 ft with the well nearly horizontal.
Near 4000 ft, while sliding with the button
facing highside, the resistivity at the bit was
found to be higher than the resistivity above
the well. (76 ohm-m vs 60 ohm-m see Fig.
3.28. The tool face curve in the depth track
shows that it is facing up at this point).Given
that the well had previously moved through a
long shale section, it was felt that this was a
strong enough indication that the well was
moving in the right direction, and that drilling
need not be inconvenienced by making a roof
and floor test. The decision was made to
rotate and both ROP (rate of penetration) and
resistivity increased. For the next 250 ft. the
well dropped while the resistivity remained
high. However, at 4250 ft. the bit resistivity
started to fall. Since this could have been
either the roof of the sand moving down or
the floor being reached, it was decided to

3 20
WELL PLANNING
5000
4900
4800
4700
4600
4500
4400
4300
4200
4100
4000
(ohm-m)
0 180 0 180 4
(ft h)
500
(ohm-m)
Bit Resistivity
ROP
(ft)
3465
TVD
GR
(gAPI)
150
3445
Depth
(ft)
GTF
(deg)
Button Resistivity
400
400
Figure 3.28
Geosteering logs in a horizontal well. When the tool is sliding, the tool face readings are smooth and indicate the direction of the sensors.
Resistivity is up, GR down when Tool face = 0 (GTF in center of depth track); resistivity is down, GR up when toolface = 180 (GTF is at
either edge of depth track). Data gaps are caused by high ROP.
make an azimuthal check. The button

resistivity in Fig. 3.28 is seen to fluctuate as the
checks are made between 4250 ft and 4390 ft.
The button resistivity is clearly greater than
the bit resistivity when the button is highside
e.g. at 4265 ft. This showed that the well was
approaching the floor and needed to move
up. By 4330 ft. the well was being steered
upwards. Monitoring of the azimuthal
resistivity and GR continued.
By 4600 ft. MD, while sliding with the
bent sub turned lowside to reduce angle, the
bit resistivity started dropping and was lower
than the resistivity facing down. The GR has
increased while the lowside resistivity remains
high around 70 ohm-m. This, combined with
the drop in bit resistivity suggests that the well
has reached the roof of the sand. The
reduction in angle was continued and
resistivity remained high for another 330 ft.
After 4950 ft. MD the sudden fall in
resistivity induced another comparison of
both GR and resistivity above and below the
well. Several measurements taken around
4990 ft were plotted on a polar plot (Fig.
3 21
3.29) and show clearly that above the well the

GR is low and the resistivity high, while
below the well the opposite is true. The
better sand is therefore above the well.
Drilling continued sliding highside, with
some increase in resistivity, but it soon
became clear that the well had left the good
part of the sand. The well was sidetracked
and drilled down from 5000 ft., but with the
same result. It was concluded that the sand
had pinched out.
Overall the well was steered within an 8
ft. sand for more than 1000 ft., much of the
time in the high resistivity section. This was
achieved by regular comparisons of the bit
resistivities with the azimuthal measurements
taken while sliding to control angle. Thus
even though the sand pinched out 600 ft.
short of the expected horizontal reach, the
well produced 1400 bbl/day, 700 bbl/day
more than planned.

GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.29
On bottom
BITRA (TN) (ohm-m)

12.31
CRPM_N (RPM)
239.00
BUTRA (TN) = 5.11

BUTGTF (N) = 5.11
GRN = 16.00
GRGTF (N) = 16.00
BUTRA (TN) (square)

min max
interval
0.0
30.00 3.00
GR_N (dot)
min max
0.0
100.0
interval
10.0
Wellsite screen for azimuthal measurements near 4990 ft. The green GR points are
clearly higher below the well, while the red resistivity points are higher above. Both
indicate a better sand above the well.
Figure 3.30
400 Plan View
1 = 200'
MFA 188
MFA 204
< North
400
800
MFA 186
1200
MFA128
1600
GeoSteering with pre-job planning

The wellsite geologist or GeoSteering
coordinator needs an initial well plan that is
based on all available data. He also needs a
way to recognize when the geology changes
to a point where the initial well plan must be
modified to reach and stay within the targeted
pay zone. The procedure is described below
and illustrated with an example from a well in
the Arecuna Field.
First, logs from wells that bound the
planned well are plotted in map view and
vertical cross section with offset and true
vertical depth (TVD) referenced to the
planned well surface location. The vertical
section can be viewed from various azimuths.
Normally the azimuth of the planned well is
selected, but one might also want to see other
views, such as perpendicular to the geological
strike. Figure 3.30 shows the plan view for the
new well MFA 204 with the existing vertical
well MFA 128 and the horizontal wells MFA
188 and MFA 186.
A geological cross section with well-towell correlations (using tools such as StratLog
or WellPix) is useful to decide which wells
best represent the expected geology and
which marker beds are continuous. At this
stage, it should also be observed which
measurements best characterize the marker
beds in the offset wells in order to decide
which tools to run (i.e., if a gas/oil contact is
an important marker for well placement, then
density/neutron tools should be part of the
LWD BHA in order to identify this marker).
3-D seismic cross sections taken along
the azimuth of the planned well are useful in
determining the continuity of marker beds.
An idea of expected structural dip can also be
seen from the seismic section and used in
creating initial models.
2000
2400
2400
2000
1600
1200
800
400
400
800
East >
Plan view of the proposed well (MFA 204) with nearby existing wells.

3 22
WELL PLANNING
INFORM
Figure 3.31
Offset - logs
Squared - logs
Trejectory #2
Trejectory #1
Tool response
1100
G
1200
1300
1400
1500
r
1600
1700
Cross section
Layer column with

petrophysical properties
Relative angle tables
2000 Real-time logs

200
E
20
2
0.2
Rps
Rad Hres
2000 Modeled logs

200
D
20
2
0.2
Rps
Rad
Simulated logs
for different trajectories
MB1: Delete, MB2: Pick, Mb3: Correlate

MD (ft) : 3998.03
TVD (ft) : 3537.46
Rps (ohm-m) : 2000
Rad (ohm-m) : 2000
Hres (ohm-m) : ****
Grc (API) : 102.38
Trph (pu) : ****
A
Rhob (g cm3) : ****
Shift (ft) : 2.60
Actual trajectory
Trajectory (TVD vs. MD)
Hole depth (ft): 4113.0
Planned trajectory Deepest sensor (ft): 4052.0
Model under rig

Offset profile (Rt)
3000
3200
D
C
3400
3600
4100
INFORM (Integrated Forward Modeling) is an

interactive workstation-based system that has been
developed to support horizontal well operations during the
pre-job planning and formation evaluation phases. At the
heart of the system is a comprehensive array of
Measurement While Drilling/Logging While Drilling
(MWD/LWD) and wireline logging tool forward models
linked to an interactive graphical display. Primarily a tool
for the petrophysicist, the system also provides tight
integration with other oilfield disciplines.
During pre-job planning, geological information,
including cross section data and marker positions, is used
to assist in the construction of a petrophysical model of the
prospect. This model is integrated with trajectory files from
the Drilling Planning Center to predict MWD/LWD tool
response. All these data are accessible from a database and
may be viewed and manipulated through interactive
graphical displays.
3 23
3900
3700
3500
3300
3100
2900
2700
200 20 2 0.2
Well site geosteering screen
Map
The figure above breaks the INFORM process into

basic steps.
1. Geologic cross sections, seismics, isopach maps and log
data from nearby wells are examined along an azimuth
parallel to the planned wellbore trajectory.
2. Wells logs representative of the expected geology are
corrected and squared into common layers of virgin
formation properties.
3. A cross section of the Geological model is formed within
INFORM, represented by a series of one or more layer
columns of petrophysical properties.
4. A database of log responses to this Geologic model is
created, based on the tools that will be run in the
planned well (especially those tools used for geosteering
purposes), and using detailed knowledge of their
response to different geometries. This is called a Relative
Angle Table or RANGDB.
5. Planned well trajectories can be combined with the
database to simulate possible log responses in a
particular well before it is drilled. This simulation is also
known as Forward Modeling.
6. The RANGDB can be exported to the Anadrill
GeoSteering Screen to allow real-time investigation of
new geological scenarios as real-time data are compared
to the simulated logs.

GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.31
PSR (2,3)
0.2
0
MFA186
2400 MFA 128
ILD (1)
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPI)
2000
150
MFA 204
MFA188 MFA 128 MFA 188 MFA 186
1
2
3
2500
2600
2700
2800
True vertical depth (ft)
2900
3000
3100
3200
3300
3400
3500
3600
3700
3800
Cross section with nearby well logs (right) in the vicinity of the well; an image of the
GR dipping at 1 between MFA 128 and MFA 188; and the GR predicted along the
trajectory of MFA 204.
Pre-planning with INFORM

The correlation wells chosen for modeling
are converted to layers of petrophysical properties. In this case, GR and resistivity were considered adequate for formation top identification. Computer models are created that represent the response of these logs to many of the
situations we expect to encounter. Currently,
major 2-D geological features such as layering,
dip and faulting, can be modeled (see INFORM
box). During the pre-well planning phase,
these models are used to create measured
depth logs for various geological scenarios.

These logs, normally delivered in hard copy,
can be used by the wellsite geologist (or
GeoSteering coordinator) to aid in picking
correlations during execution of the job.
Figure 3.31 shows one scenario where the
structural dip is 1 as correlated from well MFA
128 to MFA 188. The existing well data are
shown on the right. The image in the middle
shows the GR interpolated between the two
wells (the higher the GR, the darker the color).
The planned well is shown in dark blue with
the predicted GR along its trajectory. Other
scenarios might assume a horizontal section
followed by a section of increased dip, or
horizontal formations with a fault crossing at
some point along the planned trajectory.
For many reasons the targeted pay zone
may not be exactly as expected. These may
be geological, because of changes in
thickness, dip or the presence of minor faults;
or they may be more petrophysical, with
changes in fluids or shale content. Therefore,
an additional pre-well planning phase is to
predict what the logs will look like if the
target has changed. This is particularly a
problem with unorientated resistivity and GR
tools because we may recognize that we are
leaving the reservoir, but not be sure if we are
coming up into the roof or going down in to
the floor. Modeling can show what tool
response to expect for each scenario and aid
in making the appropriate correction to bring
the Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) back onto
the correct path. Even with the GST,
the response of other measurements can
help determine what action to take in
complex situations.

3 24
Figures 3.32 and 3.33 show two

scenarios. In Fig. 3.32, the formation dips
down half way along the horizontal section,
and the well moves first into the shalier
section at the top and then out into overlying
shale. In Fig. 3.33, the formation dips up.
Figure 3.32
ATTN
(ohm-m)
Phase
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPI)
Cross section N37E - GR formation property

150
120
90
60
30
0
1000
33.48
41.76
50.52
57.84
73.32
83.76
90.00
95.52
98.28
101.16
103.80
105.96
109.44
116.40
123.23
100
10
1
1000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
Modeled
Phase
Modeled
Attn
100
10
1
TVD (ft)
3350
T-Sand
U1-Sand
3750
3000
800
Drift along the section (ft)
100
200
GR
Model and predicted logs if the trajectory leaves the target

by the roof of the U1 sandstone.
Figure 3.33
ATTN
(ohm-m)
Phase
(ohm-m)
GR
(gAPZ)
Cross section N37E - GR formation property

150
120
90
60
30
0
1000
33.48
41.76
50.52
57.84
73.32
83.76
90.00
95.52
98.28
101.16
103.80
105.96
109.44
116.40
123.23
100
10
1
1000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
Modeled
Phase
Modeled
Attn
100
10
1
TVD (ft)
3450
3750
3000
800
Model and predicted logs if the trajectory leaves the target

by the floor of the U1 sandstone.
3 25
0 50
150
GR
250
The GeoSteering operation

The INFORM models are imported to the
wellsite GeoSteering screen. During the
buildup phase of the well, the GeoSteering
coordinator, working with the geologist,
matches events seen on the real-time logs
with the synthetic curves calculated by the
model. The model is then updated, adjusting
formation top TVDs and inclination.
Figure 3.34 shows a printout of the realtime GeoSteering screen during the buildup
section. The display consists of five subpanels
labeled A, B, C, D, and E. The user makes
correlations between modeled logs in Panel
D and measured logs in Panel E. Digital
values of the most recent correlation (in this
case correlation 9) are displayed in Panel A.
In Panel B there is a log called the offset
profile. The screen can be used to geosteer
with either GR, resistivity, density or porosity
data. Note that these profile data are
displayed versus formation TVD projected to
a vertical line that lies directly under the rig
(this is an important factor to consider when
formation dip is significant). In Panel C, both
the planned (blue dash line) and the actual
measured (solid black line) wellbore
trajectories are shown. The measured
trajectory is updated in real time from the
measurement while drilling (MWD) survey
measurements and is also extrapolated ahead
by 150 ft using the last two surveys.
The real-time logs are shown in Panel E
at the top of the display screen. These logs
can come from a variety of downhole tools,
depending on the mode selected by the
user. Panel D represents the modeled or
expected tool response when drilling
through the lithology sequence, as defined
by the profile shown in Panel B, along the

Figure 3.35
GEOSTEERING
Figure 3.34
2000 Real-time logs

200
E
20
2
9
0.2
2000 Modeled logs
200
D
20
2
9
0.2
Rps
Rad Hres
MB1: Delete, MB2: Pick, Mb3: Correlate
76
Rps
Rad
76
Actual trajectory
MD (ft) : 3998.03
TVD (ft) : 3537.46
Rps (ohm-m) : 2000
Rad (ohm-m) : 2000
Hres (ohm-m) : ****
Grc (API) : 102.38
Trph (pu) : ****
A
Rhob (g cm3) : ****
Shift (ft) : 2.60
Hole depth (ft): 4113.0
Planned trajectory Deepest sensor (ft): 4052.0
Model under rig

Offset profile (Rt)
3000
D
C
3200
T-sand
3400
3600
4100
3900
3700
3500
The GeoSteering screen at
3300
3100
2900
2700
200 20 2 0.2
drilled trajectory (black curve in Panel C).

Note that both the modeled logs and realtime logs are shown versus measured depth.
Also, note that the modeled logs are
extrapolated 150 ft to provide the user with
look-ahead-of-the-bit capabilities.
To recompute the modeled logs, the
GeoSteering screen user clicks on events (bed
boundaries, horns, etc.) present on the real-
4113 ft during the buildup.
Figure 3.35
2000
200
20
2
0.2
2000
200
20
2
0.2
Rps
Real-time logs
Rad Hres
A
2
Rps
Modeled logs
0
2
Rad
MD (ft) : 5078.55
TVD (ft) : 3567.18
Rps (ohm-m) : ****
Rad (ohm-m) : ****
Hres (ohm-m) : ****
Grc (API) : ****
Trph (pu) : ****
Rhob (g cm3) : ****
Shift (ft) : 8.97

3400
3500
T-sand
U1 Objective
3600
3700
7500
7000
6500
6000
5500
5000
4500
4000
time logs (Panel E) and correlates them by

clicking on the same features present in the
modeled logs (Panel D). The vertical dashed
green lines show the picks made on these
logs, and the horizontal dashed green lines
show the boundary or event in question in
the profile data. If a good match is found, the
GeoSteering coordinator or field geologist
can identify exactly where the bit lies within
the lithology sequence shown in the profile
of Panel B.
Once an event has been selected on both
the model and real-time logs, the model logs
are recomputed so that the two events
correlate and line up at the same measured
depth. This is achieved automatically by either
applying a TVD shift to the offset profile or by
introducing a dip in the model.
Correlations can be removed by simply
clicking on them and the model logs revert
back to the state they were in before that
particular correlation was made. As a result, the
GeoSteering screen user can investigate many
scenarios in real time while drilling the well.
Each scenario calculates and displays a new set
of modeled logs. For example, in this well,
correlation 9 in Fig. 3.34 matches a polarization
horn on the resistivity, predicted by the model
and later seen in the real-time logs. A
polarization horn is a non-linear effect with
induction-type measurements created as the
tool crosses formations of large resistivity
contrast at a high angle. It is particularly strong
with 2-MHz tools. (Chapter 839)
The model shown in Fig. 3.34 was used
until the moment when the bit crossed an
upper shale into the top of the target sandstone U1 (see U1 top in Fig. 3.35). Casing was
run and the planned trajectory modified to
the actual TVD at which the sandstone was
encountered. Correlations from the GeoSteering screen also give a prediction of what
inclination to expect the target sandstone to
maintain as the well continues.
200 20 2 0.2
The GeoSteering screen at 6195 ft in the horizontal section.

3 26
WELL PLANNING
Figure 3.36
2000
Phase
(ohm-m)
0.2
A
Depth
(ft)
4200
4250
4300
4350
4400
4450
4500
4550
4600
4650
150
GR
(gAPI)
0
Real-time log display of GR and phase resistivity in the horizontal section.
Figure 3.37
MFA 204
MFA 128
3050
Vertical Section View

Section at 216.85
MFA186
3100
3150
True vertical depth (ft)
3200
3250
3300
MFA188
3350
3400
3450
3500
Original Plan
3550
3600
U1 Objective
3650
3700
3200
2600
2000
1400
800
200
Section departure (ft)
Comparison of the original (geometric) planned and actual (geosteered) trajectory.
3 27
Figure 3.35 shows continuation of the well

in a 618-in. hole running the SLIM1* and ARC5.
The GeoSteering screen has now switched to a
second model that better represents the U1
sandstone and can be used to try and maintain
the BHA within this sandstone.
Initially the well dropped low (difficult to
build an angle in the soft sandstone) and at
4400 ft (A) the resistivity began to fall. This is
shown more clearly on the real-time log display
in Fig. 3.36. Soon after, at B, the resistivity
started to increase again and so did the GR. The
question arose, are we at the bottom of the U1
sandstone or is it just another shale stringer as
seen at the top of U1? The pre-job modeling
gave the answer. The sharp rise at B,
accompanied by the rise in GR, was much
better explained by Fig. 3.33 than Fig. 3.32. The
conclusion was that the well was crossing the
floor of the U1 sandstone and that the sharp rise
in resistivity was due to a polarization horn. The
decision was made to come up sharply, so that
by C the GR had dropped and resistivity
returned to U1 consistent levels.

GEOSTEERING
At 5100 ft MD (-2200 ft drift), the

resistivity began to fall again, and at this point
the well was climbing at 92 (Fig 3.35). The
formation model (Fig. 3.35, correlation 2)
showed the well approaching the thin shaly
streaks at the top of the U1 sandstone. No
drilling parameters indicated any change.
However, the drop in resistivity and
confidence in the model were sufficient to
convince the wellsite coordinators to drop the
well slightly to maintain it within the target
zone and avoid the thin shaly layers.
Figure 3.37 compares the trajectory of the
original plan and the actual well. There is no
doubt that a purely geometrically drilled well
would have missed the objective entirely. In
practice, some adjustments would probably
have been made at the casing point. However,
without the pre-job modeling and planning,
and with the uncertainties in formation tops
and dips, it would have been difficult to know
whether the well was leaving the target by the

top or the bottom at 4400 ft, and it would
have been difficult to keep systematically
within the sandstone.
Conclusion
GeoSteering helps ensure that horizontal
and highly deviated wells reach and stay
within their targets. Measurements close to the
bit help decide the precise point at which to
stop drilling and set casing or start coring .
Azimuthal measurements near the bit determine if the well is leaving the target by the
roof or the floor. Pre-job modeling and the
wellsite GeoSteering screen allow comparisons of actual vs. predicted measurements as
a basis for steering the well. Not all effects are
modeled, but GeoSteering offers more choices
and instils more confidence in decisionmaking, thus minimizing the risk of drilling
horizontal wells.
This chapter was written by D.Eubank, M.Silverstone, P.Laurent, and S.Low

with contributions from L.Gaetano (Corpoven), J.Fernandez (Lagoven), G.Gonzlez
(Maraven) and G.Farruggio and with the permission of Maraven, Lagoven and Corpoven to
publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Fraser, L., Reid, P., Williamson, D., and Enriquez Jr, F., 1995, Mechanistic
investigation of the formation damaging characteristics of mixed metal
hydroxide drill-in fluids and comparison with polymer-base fluids, SPE 30501,
Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition
held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Gonzlez, G., Coll, C., Gamero, H., Meza, E., Simon, C., Cespedes, A, and de
mena, J., 1997, Pozo horizontal VLC-1184 Reto Tecnologico, SVIP 084,
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petroleo, XI Jornadas Technicas de
Petroleo en Maturin, Monagas, Feb 19-22.
Esmersoy, C., Koster, K., Williams, M., Boyd, A., and Kane, M., 1994, Dipole
shear anisotropy logging, presented at the 64th Annual International meeting,
Society of Exploration Geophysicists, Los Angeles, California, October 23-28.
Brie, A., and Bratton, T., 1996, IMPACT, a geomechanical wellbore evaluation
system, ISRM news journal, vol2 no. 1.
Terratec, 1996, Static and dynamic properties and in-situ stress direction, well
VLC-1184.
Alford, R.M., 1986, Shear data in the presence of azimuthal anisotropy.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1995, Horizontal Well Planning, Evaluation
and Execution.
Prilliman, J. D., Allen, D. F., and Lehtonen, L. R., 1995, Horizontal well placement and petrophysical evaluation using LWD, SPE Paper 30549, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Wu, P., Tabanou, J. R., and Bonner, S. D., 1996, Petrophysical interpretation
of a multispacing 2-MHz MWD resistivity tool in vertical and horizontal wells,
SPE Paper 36547, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition held in Denver, Colorado, U.S.A., October 6-9.

3 28
Chapter 4
Data Quality and Acquisition Efficiency
Chapter overview
Logging While Drilling
The PLATFORM EXPRESS
Pressure gauge performance
Wireline job planning
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S I T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Most of the fundamental physical

quantities measured in boreholes, such as
resistivity and pressure, have remained the
same over the last few decades. What has
changed dramatically is the quality of the
data and the efficiency with which it is
acquired. This chapter focuses on recent
advances made in both these areas, and
shows the effect they can have on
well evaluation.
The oil industry has always put
considerable effort into improving the
quality of the measurements in use. Quality
includes not only the accuracy, repeatability
and resolution of data, but also its reliability
and insensitivity to environmental factors
such as shock and temperature, and
unwanted borehole or invasion effects. More
recently, there has been a focus on the
efficiency of data acquisition. The total cost
of acquiring data includes not only the cost
of the measurement but also the cost of the
drilling rig and other fixed assets that are
tied up while making the measurement.
Improvements in efficiency lead immediately to cost savings, and thus, in the long
term, to wider and better use of the data.
Section 1 introduces Logging While
Drilling (LWD). LWD tools can now make a
range of measurements that is almost as
wide as wireline tools, with the advantage
that they are available in real time and
before significant invasion or hole enlargement. LWD can bring a major improvement
in data quality and efficiency, especially in
highly deviated and horizontal wells. It also
provides some entirely new measurements.
Section 2 describes the PLATFORM

EXPRESS. This tool was designed specifically
to set a new standard for recording the classic
triple-combo measurements (principally resistivity, density and neutron). Sensors, electronics, mechanics and software have all
been re-engineered specifically to improve
data quality and operational efficiency.
Section 3 discusses the importance of
pressure gauge metrology for accurate
pressure transient analysis, especially in the
use of derivatives to identify flow regimes. A
variety of sensors are now available with the
Universal Pressure Platform, allowing the
correct sensor to be chosen for the
conditions and accuracy required.
In the past, logging tools made one or
two measurements and their response was
hard-wired. Now, many measurements can
be made during the same run, and their
response can be controlled by software. This
complexity puts a premium on good job
planning, both of the individual tools and of
the overall job. The last section of the
chapter discusses the issues involved and
shows examples of job planning software.

LOGGING WHILE DRILLING
The fundamental advantage of using LWD

is to obtain formation measurements while
drilling. Because information is available in
real time, decisions are made faster regarding
casing or coring programs, completion
intervals, and subsequent wireline logging
requirements. An additional benefit is that
better hole conditions usually prevail early in
the life of the drainhole, minimizing
environmental effects requiring corrections.
Furthermore, LWD provides important new
data that have not been available from
wireline services, such as azimuthal density,
anisotropy, and information from near-bit
sensors needed for real-time decisions.
We first review the features of the main

LWD tools in use today. We then show the
applications of LWD as a wireline replacement, followed by the applications only available with LWD and the applications to
optimize drilling.
LWD features
Table 4.1 is an overview of all present
LWD services, showing tool sizes and the
most important features and applications.
The basic physics of the principal
LWD measurements are further summarized below.
Table 4.1
Tool
ADN
CDN
ARC5/IMPULSE
CDR
RAB
ISONIC
GST
Tool sizes
4.75" 6.75"
6.75" 8.0"
4.75" 6.75"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
6.75" 8.25"
Sensor
Type
Density: Crystal
Neutron: Helium
Caliper: Ultrasonic
Transducer
Density: Crystal
Neutron: Helium
2 MHz EM Wave
Gamma ray:
Crystal
2 MHz EM Wave
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Focused direct
current
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Monopole
sonic source
Direct current
Gamma ray:
Crystal
Basic
Outputs
Azi. RHOBs: ROBB

ROBU ROBL ROBR
Azi. DHROs, PEFs
Avg. RHOB, PEF
and DHRO
TNPH
Ultrasonic caliper:
VERD + HORD
Attenuation
resistivities: A10H A16H
A22H A28H A34H
Phase shift
resistivities: P10H P16H
P22H P28H P34H
GR
PCAL
DT
ITT
Bit resistivity
Button resistivity
GR
Inclination
Toolface
Basic
Features
Bulk density
Neutron porosity
Hole diameter
Bulk density
Neutron porosity
5 x phase resistivity
5 x attenuation
resistivity
Gamma ray
Phase resistivity
Attenuation
resistivity
Gamma ray
Bit resistivity
Azi. resistivity
Azi. gamma ray
Inclination at the bit
Extended
Features
4 x azi. density
Rotational Borehole-corrected corrected density
neutron porosity
Differential caliper
2 x ultrasonic caliper
Borehole-corrected
resistivity
Phase caliper
Borehole-corrected 3 x azimuthal
Extended waveform Geosteering
resistivity
Azimuthal testing processing
Phase caliper
Rt inversion
Invasion profile
Rh & Rv inversion
Rt inversion
Rh & Rv inversion
Main
Hydrocarbon
Applications detection
Lithology
determination
Density imaging
Borehole volume
TNPH
RHOB (average)
RHOB (rotational)
PEF
DCAL
Hydrocarbon
detection
Lithology
determination
ATR
PSR
GR/SGR (U,P,Th)
PCAL
RBit
RRing
RSB
RMB
RDB
GR
Bit resistivity
DT compressional
4 x laterolog type from downhole
resistivities
waveform
Azi. gamma ray
Real-time DT
Borehole imaging Seismic correlation Azimuthal station

Formation dip
while drilling
measurement
Real-time
Interval velocity
formation dip
DT-derived porosity
Over-pressured
zone detection


,,

,,

,,

,,
D ATA Q U A L I T Y A N D A C Q U I S T I O N E F F I C I E N C Y
Figures 4.1a and 4.1b

(a)
(b)
Formation 1
Up
Left
Right
Detectors
Left
Up
Right
Down
Down
Stabilizer
Formation
Formation 2
As the drill collar rotates, the

ADN measurements are
ADN* Azimuthal Density Neutron
summed into four quadrants.
The ADN provides a compensated neutron, a lithodensity, and an ultrasonic caliper

measurement. The measurements are separated into four quadrants: up, left, down,
and right (Fig. 4.1). In deviated and
horizontal wells, the down quadrant of the
lithodensity provides an accurate measurement in conditions where the hole diameter
is larger than the tool diameter (i.e.,
collar+stabilizer). This occurs when the tool
is run slick, or an under-gauge stabilizer is
used (Fig. 4.1a). If a full-gauge stabilizer is
used, then all quadrant lithodensities will be
accurate and this can provide a way of
measuring formation heterogeneity (Fig.
4.1b).
The Ultrasonic measurement is made
with a sensor in-line with, and only a few
inches away from, the lithodensity detectors.
The hole diameter is obtained by summing
the standoff measured in opposite
quadrants. This provides two diameters
(vertical and horizontal) that give an
indication of hole shape and condition. The
Neutron measurements are by their nature
relatively unfocused, and therefore the four
quadrants are usually summed and
presented as a single curve.
The up, left and right
quadrants may only be valid

with a stabilizer, as in (b).
Figure 4.2
Attenuation
resistivity
Phase shift
resistivity
R
R
T
Volume investigated by the
Compensated Dual Resistivity (CDR)
The CDR provides a Phase

Shift Resistivity and an
Attenuation Resistivity with
different depths of
investigation and vertical
resolutions.
The radioactive logging sources used

within the tool are wireline-retrievable,
should the conditions necessitate their
recovery back to the surface. The ADN can
be run stand-alone or in real time.
CDR* Compensated Dual Resistivity Tool
The CDR sends a 2-MHz electromagnetic wave from a transmitter T, and

measures the phase shift and attenuation
between a pair of receivers R (Fig. 4.2).
Borehole compensation is achieved by
sending signals sequentially from two transmitters, one above and one below the
receivers, and averaging the results. After
transformation, these measurements provide
two Electromagnetic Propagation Resistivities with different depths of investigation
and vertical resolutions (Rps refers to
Resistivity Phase Shallow and Rad refers to
Resistivity Attenuation Deep). In most
conditions the depths of investigation are
shallower than a dual induction, but the vertical resolutions are higher. A calibrated
gamma ray (GR), either regular or
spectroscopy, is also available.
The resistivity data can be inverted
to determine R t and invasion profile, or
anisotropy.
ARC5* Array Resistivity Compensated,

5 depths of investigation
The ARC5 makes 10 independent,

borehole-compensated, 2-MHz Electromagnetic Propagation Resistivity measurements
with different depths of investigation using
an array of five transmitters and two
receivers (Fig. 4.3). The physics of the
measurements are the same as the CDR, with
both phase shift and attenuation being
measured between the receivers for each
transmitter firing. The two receivers are
spaced 6 in. apart in the middle of the array.
The transmitters are located 10, 22, and 34
in. above, and 16 and 28 in. below the
midpoint between the two receivers.

RAB* Resistivity-at-the-Bit tool
Figure 4.3
Antenna
spacing (in.)
34
22
10
3
0
-3
-16
-28
Array Resistivity Compensated (ARC5)

borehole compensation
T
R
Mixed
asymmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
symmetrical
BHC
Mixed
pseudoBHC
The ARC5 transmitter measurements are combined in five different ways

to determine borehole compensated resistivity with five different spacings.
Figure 4.4
Resistivity-at-the-Bit
(RAB) tool
Upper
transmitter
Azimuthal
electrodes
Ring electrode
Azimuthal GR
Lower
transmitter
Borehole compensation is achieved by combining, for example, the 16-in. transmitter

measurements with a suitable average of the
10-in. and 22-in. transmitter measurements.
In this way five borehole-compensated receiver-transmitter spacings are obtained with
different depths of investigation, each one
with phase shift and attenuation resistivity.
The GR measurement is made with
a scintillation detector and photomultiplier tube. It provides a total GR output in
API units.
The resistivity data can be inverted
to determine R t and invasion profile, or
anisotropy.
The RAB makes up to five laterologtype resistivity measurements by sending

current into the formation and measuring the
potential at five different electrodes (Fig.
4.4). The Bit Resistivity, RBit, uses the lower
few inches of the RAB and everything below
as a measure electrode. The measure point is
at the midpoint of this electrode and has a
vertical resolution nearly equal to its length.
The RAB also provides an accurate,
high-resolution (approx. 2 in.), focused
lateral resistivity measurement for formation
evaluation. This measurement, termed
RRingRing
Resistivity,
is
made
by a 112-in. high, cylindrical electrode about
3 ft above the lower end of the RAB.
The investigation diameter of RRing is
approximately 22 in.
When run with its optional three button
electrodes, the RAB provides three more
high-resolution, focused, lateral resistivity
measurements for formation evaluation.
The buttons are longitudinally spaced along
the RAB to provide staggered diameters of
investigation of approximately 11, 15 and 19
in. Furthermore, these measurements are
acquired azimuthally as the RAB rotates,
with about 68 angular resolution. An
azimuthal orientation system uses the
earths magnetic field as a reference to
determine the angular position of the tool in
the wellbore as the drillstring rotates.
Azimuthally acquired button measurements
are displayed as fullbore images of the
formation resistivity.
Resistivity
at the Bit
The RAB is a laterolog-type

resistivity tool that provides
five separate resistivities and
a resistivity image.

GST* GeoSteering Tool
Surfaceadjustable
bent housing
Figure 4.5
PowerPak
PDM
Geosteering tool
NBS with,
azimuthal resist.,
azimuthal GR,
inclination
and RPM
Stabilizer
+
Bit resistivity
bearings
Azimuthal resistivity
E-Mag
Azimuthal
gamma gay (GR)
The GST provides bit

resistivity, azimuthal resistivity, azimuthal GR and inclination within 6 ft of the bit in
order to make geosteering
decisions in real time.
The data are used to compute an

invasion profile, R t, and to quantify such
sources of azimuthal variation as formation
dip and large fractures. Formation dips can
be computed and transmitted to the surface
in real time.
The GR measurement is focused, and
may be acquired in four quadrants,
referenced to down.
Figure 4.6
.2
GR
0
(gAPI)
200
.2
Caliper
(in.)
.2
16 Depth
(ft) .2
RING
(ohm-m)
RBM
(ohm-m)
RBD
(ohm-m)
RBS
(ohm-m)
ROBB
2000 1.65
2000
60
(g cm3)
TNPH
(p.u.)
The GST* GeoSteering Tool is based on

a standard steerable downhole motor with
the addition of a 4-ft long nearbit sub (NBS)
(Fig. 4.5). It includes a fixed bent housing
between the bearing section and the surfaceadjustable bent housing.
The NBS is an assembly that provides
bit resistivity, azimuthal resistivity, azimuthal
GR, inclination, tool face, and motor
information. Measurements are made at a
distance of 2.5 to 8 ft from the bit face. The
NBS uses wireless telemetry (E-mag) to
communicate with the Measurement While
Drilling (MWD) tool above the power
section so that no direct wiring through the
motor or other drill string components is
needed.
Resistivity and GR from the GST are
oriented with respect to the GST tool face to
provide resistivity up/down data and GR
up/down data for geosteering purposes
(Chapter 319).
2.65
LWD applications
2000
PEB
2000 0
4200
4400
4600
10
TLC* Tough Logging Conditions

System Replacement
The most obvious use of LWD is as a

replacement of TLC* Tough Logging
Conditions System drillpipe-conveyed logging operations for more efficient wellsite
operations. Virtually all horizontal wells in
Venezuela requiring basic petrophysical and
geological data are currently being logged
with LWD.
Figure 4.6 shows the standard LWD
suite RAB and ADN run in a horizontal well
in the Bare Field in Eastern Venezuela. The
log shows the reservoir section where the
differences in resistivity mainly reflect
Standard petrophysical data from a horizontal well (MFB-444)

in the Bare Field through the reservoir zone.

Figures 4.7 and 4.8
.1
.1
0
GR
(gAPI)
200
.1
.1
Depth
(ft)
.1
P10H
(ohm-m)
P16H
(ohm-m)
P22H
(ohm-m)
P28H
(ohm-m)
P34H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
1000
.1
A10H
(ohm-m)
A16H
(ohm-m)
A22H
(ohm-m)
A28H
(ohm-m)
A34H
(ohm-m)
RHOB
1000
1000
GR
0
(gAPI)
.2
200
LLD
(ohm-m)
2000
60
1000
1000
1.65
CALI
(in.)
1000
16 Depth .2
(ft)
LLS
(ohm-m)
(g cm3)
TNPH
(p.u.)
2.65
DRHO
2000
-.75
(g cm3)
.25
5600
4100
4200
5800
4300
4400
6000
Wireline data from a vertical well in Bloque 1, Lake Maracaibo.

4500
Resistivity data from

the ARC5 in the vertical
well VLA-1230 in Bloque 1,
Lake Maracaibo.
Data quality is good.
varying shale content in the reservoir sand.

The data are conventional Caliper,
ROBB, PEB and TNPH from the ADN, and
four resistivities (Shallow Button, Medium
Button, Deep Button and Ring resistivity)
from the RAB. There is a significant hydrocarbon separation between ROBB and TNPH.
This feature is generally more pronounced
on LWD logs since the mud filtrate has had
less time to invade the formation. The RAB
resistivities show separations with the
shallow resistivities less than the deep, which
in this case are interpreted as caused by
invasion. R t can eventually be modeled if the
resistivities were considered to be influenced
by nearby beds.
If similar data had been acquired with

wireline on TLC, an estimated 24 hours of
extra rig time would have been necessary.
During the same run electrical image data
were acquired (see Fig. 4.10). If this data
had also been acquired on wireline, an additional TLC run would have been necessary.
Example 1
Figure 4.7 shows an ARC5 log passing

through a sand/shale interval from a vertical
well in Bloque 1 of Lake Maracaibo. In this
area wireline-conveyed tools often do not
reach total depth because of formation
instability, even though the wells are
vertical. Figure 4.8 shows a typical wireline
log from the same area where the data are
strongly affected by washouts in the hole.

Figure 4.9
GR
(API)
200
Depth
(ft)
.1
P10H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P16H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P22H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P28H
(ohm-m)
1000
.1
P34H
(ohm-m)
1000
17500
After several unsuccessful wireline attempts,

an ARC5 was run in real time on a trip after
drilling. The ARC5 shows a well developed
sandstone reservoir between 17,480 ft and
17,560 ft which would otherwise have been
missed, since the cuttings had indicated
shale. The mud was oil-based with a highsalinity water. From the separation of the
phase shift resistivity curves it can be seen
that the water phase has invaded the
reservoir section.
Real-time recording was chosen so as to
evaluate the zone as quickly as possible, but
also to check the tool function close to its temperature limit (305F). A bottomhole temperature of 296F was recorded.
LWD-only applications
Azimuthal data
17600
17700
17800
Resistivity data from the
Example 2
ARC5 from the vertical well
LWD has recently been used as the only

means of logging vertical wells where
borehole stability problems exclude the use
of conventional wireline logging. Figure 4.9
shows a vertical, deep and hot well in the
Sur Del Lago region of Lake Maracaibo.
SLE-3 in Sur del Lago in Lake

Maracaibo.
Figure 4.10 is a log from the same well

as Fig. 4.6, here showing the importance of
having azimuthal data to determine petrophysical and geological heterogeneities. The
full data set acquired while drilling includes
neutron porosity (TNPH), azimuthal
densities and formation photoelectric factor
(PEF), vertical and horizontal borehole
diameter, laterolog-type resistivities with
four depths of investigation, borehole
imaging and formation dips.
On the unidirectional logs shown in
Fig. 4.6, TNPH and ROBB data suggest a
vertical fracture zone at 4555 ft. On the RAB
images shown in Fig. 4.10 it can be seen
that the apparent fracture zone is in fact
only present at the bottom of the well.
Other features of azimuthal logs can also
be seen in Fig. 4.10. At 4400 ft the borehole
crosses a thin shale that has a dip of 4 in the
direction WNW. At 4630 ft the Vertical and
Horizontal Diameters default to 6.5 in., indicating that the BHA is stationary, and that the
bit was being rotated only by the mud motor.

(p.u.)
11
100
GR
(gAPI)
0
VERD
(in.)
HORD
ROBB
ROBL
ROBU
ROBR 45
Depth
3
(
g
cm
)
2.15
1.65
(ft)
TNPH
15
Figure 4.10
4400
4500
4450
4600
4550
TD: 4/283
Bottom of
the borehole
4405
4410
The log shows the azimuthal

data from a horizontal well in
the Bare Field.
4415
4420
4453
4454
4455
4456
4457
4458
4459
4425
The ADN is oriented in line with the tool

face, allowing the density detectors to be in
continuous contact with the formation even
when drilling with mud motors. Thus, the
only density output available is the bottom
quadrant, ROBBthe others are simply not
present. Throughout most of the log the
quadrants ROBL, ROBH and ROBU are
measuring densities considerably lower than
ROBB, implying that these quadrants were
affected by mud between the detectors and
the formation. This is because the ADN was
run slick (without stabilizer) and the only
point in direct contact with the formation
was the bottom quadrant (ROBB).
Pre-invasion Rt determination
In most cases, experience has shown

that there is some degree of invasion even
when acquiring LWD data during the
drilling process. In Fig. 4.7 the separation of
the Phase Shift resistivities indicates a
slightly invaded zone from 4500 to 4600 ft.
However, the deeper-reading Attenuation
Resistivities overlay each other and agree
with the 34-in. Phase Shift Resistivity,
implying that they are all reading R t. Thus, in
spite of some invasion, R t can be read
directly from the curves without the need
for inversion.

Figure 4.11
Moved water
Moved oil
Washout
.2
(in.)
Wireline Gamma Ray
16
.2
(gAPI)
150
.2
CDR Gamma Ray

0
(gAPI)
20
Laterolog shallow
Wireline caliper
6
MSFL
(ohm-m)
Depth
(ft)
150
(ohm-m)
Phase shift resistivity
2000
(ohm-m)
2000
Attenuation resistivity
.2
(ohm-m)
2000
X650
Spherical Focused log (MSFL) recorded 34

hours after drilling. The changes in resistivity
clearly indicate the moved fluids. In the nonpermeable shale at the top, CDR and LLS
agree. At the bottom MSFL > LLS > CDR
(Attenuation and Phase Shift resistivity).
This is a clear indication of a water zone
where the fresh mud filtrate is displacing the
saltier formation water (Rmf > Rw). The LLS is
being affected by the much greater volume
of mud filtrate present at the time of wireline
logging. Above, from X620 to X780 ft the
profile is reversed, with MSFL < LLS < CDR.
This is clearly an oil zone, with the LLS
reading lower because oil has been displaced
by mud filtrate. Note that the same effect
could have been seen by running the CDR
through the zone on a later wiper trip.
This would have allowed an immediate,
clear indication of moved oil without the
wireline logs.
Hole degradation
X700
The log shows both Wireline

and LWD data from a vertical
well in Lake Maracaibo.
The difference in resistivity
values is caused by timedependent invasion.
In cases where the invasion is deeper,

an R t inversion can be made in playback. In
horizontal wells where factors other than just
invasion influence the resistivity measurements, modeling has to be used to deduce
the correct R t (Chapter 835).
Time-lapse logging fluid identification
Invasion can be turned to advantage

when logs are run at different times, hence at
different stages of invasion. Fig. 4.11 shows a
CDR log recorded while drilling with a
wireline shallow Laterolog (LLS) and Micro4
While apparent resistivities computed

from the attenuation and phase shift of the
CDR's 2-MHz electromagnetic wave are
borehole-compensated, and therefore insensitive to changes in hole diameter, the
relative phase between receivers and
transmitters is sensitive to borehole size
and mud conductivity. This sensitivity is used
to estimate an average borehole diameter
when a sufficient contrast between the
mud and formation conductivities exists.
Since the phase caliper can be obtained during
drilling or on subsequent bit trips, time-lapsed
overlays can provide information on hole
alteration while drilling the well.
Figure 4.12 is a three-pass overlay of
caliper measurements taken while drilling,
while conditioning the hole running in,
and conditioning pulling out. The drilling
and conditioning down passes indicate
wellbore alteration with time. This includes
both enlargements at X620 and X740 ft (A)
and reductions in diameter from X600 to
X640 ft and X700 to X760 ft (B). In this

Figure 4.12
Drilling rate
100
(ft/hr)
Gamma Ray
(gAPI)
(in.)
16
200
Reaming in caliper
(in.)
16
200
Phase resistivity
0
150
2
Drilling
0
3
(RPS)

,
,

Reaming out caliper
Reaming
0
3
(RPS)
(ohm-m)
Attenuation resistivity
(ohm-m)
Drilling phase caliper
X700
Reaming In
X800
(in.)
16
Successful geosteering depends on building a pre-job model and running a GST. The
pre-job model computes the LWD logs that
are expected along the planned trajectory of
the well. The model uses as input the local
geology (e.g., cross sections, seismic sections,
isopach maps), petrophysical properties of the
beds in and near the well, and accurate
knowledge of LWD tool response. The input,
computations, and output are handled by the
program INFORM. A more detailed description is given in Chapter 323.
Later, while drilling, the predicted LWD
logs are compared to the real-time LWD data
to confirm the validity of the geological
model or to re-evaluate it in real time. The
INFORM model can be used with conventional LWD tools and/or the GST. The
advantage of the GST is that the near-bit
sensors allow immediate correction of the
trajectory when unpredicted changes occur.
The GST can be used in connection with the
INFORM pre-job modeling or on its own, as
in the example below.
GeoSteering
X900
Drilling
The log shows the evolution

in hole diameter from subsequent runs measured by the
Phase Caliper.
example, the conductivity contrast between

the mud and formation allows us to measure
the hole diameter with an accuracy of 0.5 in.
and 36 in. vertical resolution. The maximum
diameter that can be read by the phase
caliper is approximately 24 in.
Optimizing drilling
The ultimate goal of drilling, and in particular of extended-reach drilling, is to place

the well in the optimal position in the reservoir. This can best be achieved by geosteering, or altering the trajectory of the well
according to the geological changes
encountered while drilling.
Figure 4.13 on the following page shows

a well in the Budare Field in Eastern
Venezuela where the GST was run on its own
solely to optimize drilling. As the GST
determined that the upper sandstone (Sand
1) was much thinner than anticipated, it was
decided to continue down to a lower target
(Sand 2) without plugging back and sidetracking. By having the inclination at the bit,
it was possible to steer sharply down through
the dividing shale and avoid setting casing to
protect this zone. On encountering the lower
reservoir, the GST allowed the drainage hole
to be drilled smoothly, without any doglegs.
Doglegs could not only have impeded the
completion of the well but also reduced the
efficiency of the horizontal section.

4 10
Figure 4.13
4330
TVD (ft)
yyyyyyy
,,,,,,,
,,,,,,,
yyyyyyy
C
4380
TM
Sand 1
4430
U1/4
Sand 2
4480
2850
2650
2450
2250
2050
1850
1650
1450
70
140
Gamma ray (gAPI)
60
120
Bit resistivity (ohm-m)
100
50
GR
40
80
60
30
20
40
Res.
10
0
2850
2650
2450
2250
20
2050
1850
1650
1450
0
1250
Horizontal displacement (ft)
The upper drawing shows

the trajectory, and the lower
graph shows the resistivity and
GR data from a well where the
real-time data determined the
actual well placement.
THE PLATFORM
The upper part of Fig. 4.13 shows the

trajectory penetrating the upper thin
sandstone at A, dropping through the shale
(B) and then taking a smooth horizontal
path through the reservoir (C). The lower
Conclusions
It can be observed from the examples
shown that LWD has moved from a costoriented alternative to wireline logging, to a
method of acquiring petrophysical data on
its own merits. This is seen in the increasing
number of vertical and slightly deviated
wells logged only with LWD.
LWD not only acquires conventional
petrophysical measurements under the optimal borehole conditions, but gives additional information such as azimuthal densities, pre-invasion R t, anisotropy evaluation,
and allows more precise geosteering.
Apart from the obvious aim to acquire
the best petrophysical data in any borehole,
LWD has a major function in placing
extended-reach wells in the optimum position in the reservoir, thereby maximizing production and minimizing future interventions.
EXPRESS
Introduction
Wireline logging has undergone many
improvements in the decades since the
Schlumberger brothers invented it in 1927.
However, the PLATFORM EXPRESS (PEX)
technology that was introduced into
Venezuela early in 1996 is one of the first to
focus so strongly on efficiency and reliability
as well as data quality. That becomes
apparent when this new technology is
compared to the industry standard, the triplecombo. PEX logging has proven to be much
4 11
part shows RBIT and GR from the GST along

the horizontal displacement. The fluctuations of the GR in the reservoir reflect
varying shaliness in the sandstone.
In summary, the GST avoided a sidetrack, minimized shale exposure in the deviated section, and ensured a smooth trajectory
in the reservoir.
faster (3600 ft/hr), more reliable (three to four

times), and have higher-quality answers than
previously was possible.
Efficiency is one of the major benefits,
and several factors contribute to this increased efficiency. They include higher
logging speeds, reduced rig-up/rig-down and
before-and-after calibration times, and faster
turn-around on wellsite processing. Figure
4.14 shows the average overall logging time
as well as time saved using the PEX for
operations in Venezuela over the past year.

THE PLATFORM
Figure 4.14
Hours
PLATFORM EXPRESS (average times)

Average PEX
logging time
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Eastern Venezuela
Western Venezuela
Venezuela total
Average savings
per well
PEX Logging Time averaged over a one-year period (seven hours), and average
time saved using this technology (three hours).
Figure 4.15
Highly integrated
gamma ray
neutron sonde
HGNS
GR
24 in.
N
24 in.
EXPRESS
Figure 4.15 shows the basic PEX as well

as the vertical resolutions for each measurement. Higher vertical resolution, together with
a new sensor design, combine to provide
measurements that are better matched in
resolution and measurement volume. This,
together with full environmental corrections
and depth matching, lead to improved quicklook and advanced interpretations. The box
on page 418 is an example of the normal
wellsite quicklook presentation used in
Venezuela. It includes an explanation of the
mnemonics used in this and other PEX
presentations, and a visual calibration of the
lithology column.
The example in the box, also highlights
the PEX triple-detector densitys ability to
read accurately in very washed-out holes. The
sandstones from 3170 ft to 3192 ft are washed
out up to 6 in. over gauge, and yet the density and PEX curves are reading correctly. The
resistivity profile in track 3 indicates invasion
and hydrocarbons. With the combination of
these measurements, we are confident that
we are correctly evaluating these sandstones.
Electronics
cartridge
pb,Pe
16 in.,
8 in., 2 in.
High-resolution
mechanical
sonde
HRMS
High-resolution
azimuthal
laterolog
sonde
Array induction
imager tool
HALS
Rxo,hmc
2 in.
Rt
12 in.
AIT
PEX offers a choice of resistivity measurements: either laterolog

(HALS, left) or induction (AIT, right).
Sensor descriptions
PEX sensors set new standards in formation evaluation accuracy. Either the AIT* Array
Induction Imager tool or the HALS* HighResolution Azimuthal Laterolog Sonde can be
used for resistivity measurements, and both
have a vertical resolution of 12 in. under
optimal conditions. The AIT consists of eight
three-coil arrays that all have a single frequency transmitter coil. In addition, each of
these arrays has a receiver coil and a secondary
bucking coil. The coils are spaced along the
sonde in a folded array structure, resulting in a
short, compact sonde. The various signals are
combined to produce outputs at 1-ft, 2-ft, and
4-ft vertical resolutions with a depth of
investigation into the formation fixed at 10 in.,
20 in., 30 in., 60 in., and 90 in. An Rm/SP sensor
provides an SP curve without adding an
external sensor, and also provides a highly
accurate, continuous Rm measurement

4 12
that is invaluable for

borehole corrections.
The MCFL* MicroCylindrical Focused Log
is an Rxo device mounted on a single, fully artiFlex
joint
culated pad that presses
against the formation
and
is
integrated
between the density
detectors. It is designed
to measure the resistivity of a cylindrical
volume extending only
a few inches into the
formation, correspondFlex
ing to the invaded zone
joint
and to a very similar
volume of formation
measured by the density. A microlog-type of
Density skid logging in washed-out hole. The unique
measurement is also
design of this system allows the pad to freefloat and
taken from this pad.
follow very rugose hole shapes.
Sensors
for
TLD*
Three-Detector Lithology Density measureFigure 4.17
ments are mounted on the same pad. Three
detectors are located 16 in., 8 in. and 2 in.
from the source, measuring the scattered
gamma rays in nine distinct energy windows.
The counts in each of these windows are
then inverted using a forward response
model, yielding formation density, formation
PEF, mudcake density, mudcake thickness
and mudcake PEF. The combination of the
three detectors allows for the reconstruction
of a very robust 16-in. vertical resolution
density. The high-resolution density is
reconstructed from the backscatter and shortspacing detectors using the low-resolution
measurement as a constraint to the processing, and has a vertical resolution of 6 in. The
backscatter detector is used in characterizing
the very shallow zone properties such as
rugosity, standoff and mudcake, as well as
improving the statistics in very dense
formations. Flex joints and the freefloating
Integrated Density/
pad assembly greatly improve the pad
Microresistivity pad.
Figure 4.16
4 13
application in rough holes, as can be seen

in Fig. 4.16. The high-resolution skid with
its associated sensors is shown in Fig. 4.17
Note the integration of sensors TLDBS
(Back Scatter Detector), SS (Short Spacing
Detector), LS (Long Spacing Detector),
MCFLML (MicroLog) in this pad. An
example of how the density performs in
washed-out holes is shown in Fig. 4.18.
This example comes from the Melones
Field in Eastern Venezuela and clearly highlights the ability of the PEX to get very highquality data in a highly rugose and washedout hole. The density measurement continues
to read good formation signal throughout the
various washouts because of the unique
ability of the PEX flexibility and TLD pad
articulation to follow the washout and read
correctly. These good-quality outputs are
important in this hydrocarbon-bearing zone,
that has an R t of approximately 20 ohms and
an effective porosity of approximately 32%.
A single Highly Integrated Gamma Ray
Neutron Sonde (HGNS) provides gamma ray
and neutron porosity measurements with a
vertical resolution of 24 in. from a 6-in. sampling rate. Alpha processing is used to achieve
a 12-in. vertical resolution of the neutron log.
Both neutron outputs are fully corrected for
environmental effects, with the near and far
count rates being dead-time corrected as well
as depth- and resolution-matched. Corrections
usually applied in the field are for hole size,
standoff, mudcake, borehole salinity, mud
weight, pressure and temperature. Small
calibration sources are included internally so
that tools no longer require external
calibration sources as earlier tools did. The
HGNS also incorporates the telemetry for the
tool, as well as a Z-axis accelerometer to
accurately measure downhole tool movement.
This allows the data to be speed-corrected so
that all PEX measurements can be depthmatched in real time, allowing more accurate
determination of bed boundaries and less
chance of misinterpretation and the possibility
of missing thin zones.

THE PLATFORM
Figure 4.18
AIT-H 2'
10"
HMIN
50
DSOZ
(ohm-m)
20"
AIT-H
HCAL
BS
Resistivity
6
(in.)
16 Image
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0 100
Depth
(ft)
HMNO
PEFZ
30"
60"
10
PXND
90"
AHTD2
DPHZ
RXOZ
AHTD1
RT
ECGR
(in.)
(gAPI) 150 90 90 0.2 (ohm-m) 200 0.5
(mv)
NPOR
(V/V)
VCL
(p.u.)
0 0
200 0
RWA
(ohm-m)
2440
2460
Log Quality Control

Real-time Log Quality Control (LQC)
helps ensure efficient delivery of the bestquality data. If the field engineer or observer
can make a good judgment of data quality
while it is being recorded, there is still
time to recover from a problem or to re-log an
anomaly. PEX LQC has been enhanced by the
introduction of several images and presen-
Rugose hole example. One

of the many examples of
high-quality measurements
in a very washed-out hole.
Figure 4.19
White = absent
(degf)
200
Corrected
velocity
(ft/hr)
0
7200
Deviation
Cable
5
(deg)
45
speed
(ft/hr)
ECGR
0
7200
0
(gAPI)
150
Tension
RSOZ
DSOZ
(lbf)
AIT-H borehole/form ratio
25
20
0 0
(in.)
HCAL
BS
(in.)
Track 1
16
1000
Depth
(ft)
sc
850
sc
900
sc
950
*** Flag Tracks ***

Green = good Yellow = warn
MCFL hardware
RXO processing
HAIT hardware
HAIT array[1-2]
HAIT array[3-4]
HAIT array[5-6]
HAIT array[7-8]
12 34567
Red/Black = bad
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Accelerometer
Pe correction
Density detector
Neutron porosity 3
3
Density comp.
Density correction
Pef computation
0.75 (g / cm3) 0.25
AIT-H QC fully
Hdrx
calibrated signals
Rwo/RBA ratio
A4
A8
0.5
1.5
Delta neutron
A3
A7
porosity
A2
A6
0.1
(V/V)
0.1
GR borehole
A5
A1
correction factor
(in.)
16 1 2 3 4 5 0.5
1.5
Nuclear flags
100
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Resistivity flags
Cartridge temperature
Track 2
Track 3
EXPRESS
tations that provide a graphic and rapid means

of detecting problems. It is available at several
levels and in two main forms:
1. Flags: A composite of a number of conditions that indicate the status or quality of
the downhole tool or measurement. If
any one of the conditions that are incorporated in the flag are out of specification, then the flag will be raised to alert
the observer.
2. Curves: These can be hardware-specific
(e.g., downhole voltages), processing
related (e.g., modeling errors), or related
to corrections made to the raw measurements because of environmental effects.
Figure 4.19 shows a PEX LQC log. The
density and resistivity standoff curves, DSOZ
and RSOZ (track 1, right margin, in this case
no standoff is present), appear once a
threshold value is reached, indicating several
possible causesmud is too fresh for microresistivity measurements, barite is present in
the mud, or the density tool has been miscalibrated. Also in track 1 is an Environmentally
Corrected Gamma Ray (ECGR). In track 2 the
green stripes are flags showing whether the
raw array signals (A1 to A8) are consistent
and whether the MCFL hardware and processing is within range. The raw array signals
are also displayed to watch for spiking.
Another stripe in the depth track will turn red
if an electronics fault is detected. The MCFL
and HALS also have flags representing hardware quality and curves corresponding to the
amount of borehole corrections being applied.
The nuclear presentation (track 3) consists of
quality flags for the accelerometer, density
detector, neutron porosity, density computation and PEF computation. The RHOB and
PEF computation flags are based on the better
quantification of errors with PEX. For
example, it is possible to say with confidence
that the RHOB accuracy is within 0.01 g/cc
with no mudcake and 0.02 g/cm3 with a
mudcake of 0.5 in.
LQC curves and Flags. Note that once inside casing, the density, PEX, and all
resistivity flags are turned on, indicating invalid readings.

4 14
Figure 4.20
HMIN, HMIN_rep
HMNO, HMNO_rep
(ohm-m)
50
HCAL, HCAL_rep
DSO,
DSO_rep
(in.)
8
28
RSO,
RSO_rep
Depth
(ft)
PEFZ, PEFZ_rep
AIT-H 2'
10
SP, SP_rep
100
(mv)
(gAPI)
90", 90"_rep
NPOR, NPOR_rep
AIT-H
10", 10"_rep
DPHZ, DPHZ_rep
Resistivity
(p.u.)
150 Image
.2 (ohm-m) 200 50
0
GR, GR_rep
VCL
RWA, RWA_rep
0
(ohm-m)
4200
4300
Repeat analysis example.

The main run was logged at
3600 ft/hr while the repeat
was run at 1800 ft/hr.
4 15
The repeat section analysis (Fig. 4.20) is

a powerful presentation that allows the
engineer and observer to see all curves from
the main and repeat pass overlaid on each
other. Shading between curves indicates
when the separation is beyond an acceptable
tolerance. Even with the numerous washouts
throughout this section, there is near-perfect
agreement in all of the outputs.
Reliability
The PEX was specifically designed to be
a very reliable tool with a temperature and
pressure rating of 260F and 10,000 psi. These
ratings are lower than usual, but cover more
than 75% of the wells in Venezuela. The
major reason for this outstanding reliability,
which is more than three times greater than
that of conventional triple-combo tools, is the
total redesign of the components, boards, and
how they are mounted in the tool. All PEX
components must pass the same rigorous
shock and cyclical temperature tests used for
LWD tools (2000 shocks of 250 G/ 2 msec and
200 temperature cycles to 125C with a fivehour peak temperature stay each cycle). This
also makes PEX much more reliable to use for
TLC (pipe-conveyed logging) jobs where any
failure will cause excessive down time. The
tools short design in conjunction with
knuckles also make it the best candidate
available for pipe-conveyed logging. Shortradius wells with build rates from vertical to
horizontal in 100 ft have been logged without
the AIT; with the AIT the maximum build rate
to date has been 69/100 ft in a 7-in. hole.
This far surpasses what was available in the
past and allows a full evaluation in such
short- and medium-radius wells. There is a
more than a three-fold increase in jobs
between lost time failure seen in Venezuela
over the first year of operation.
Efficiency
PEX efficiency gains are made in a
variety of ways. The shorter length allows
the tools to be handled more easily and
quickly. Less rat hole is required to get log
readings over the lowest sections of the well.
Figure 4.21 provides a picture of just how
much this difference in length really is. This
reduction in length, together with the
increased speed of rig-up and rig-down,
reduced calibration time, and ability to log at
twice the speed while providing higher
quality measurements, all decrease the time
required to perform a job.

THE PLATFORM
Table 4.2 is an example of total savings

available by planning and using PEX, and is
taken from an actual case in Western Venezuela. Significant savings are achieved when
a wiper trip or an additional run are avoided.
However, even the logging-related times
are reduced by five hours, or $6250, by
saving 30 minutes here and there in different operations.
Figure 4.22 is an average of many wells
logged in Venezuela over a one-year time
period. It is broken down into PEX, PEXsonic combo, and standard triple-combosonic runs. In this direct comparison of actual
Venezuelan figures, it can be seen that PEX
has saved an average of 6.9 hours per well.
The main savings come from one less run in
the hole, but savings can be also be seen in
the area of rig-up/rig-down (0.6 hr) and a
direct comparison of logging time (0.7 hr).
Figure 4.21
Triple-combo
90 ft
P PLATFORM
TFORM E XPRESS
EXPRESS
38 ft
Triple-combo versus PEX

length (90 ft versus 38 ft)
the PEX wins every time.
Figure 4.22
EXPRESS
Table 4.2
PLATFORM EXPRESS Value
Day rig rate
$30,000
Drilling rate
50 ft/hr
Logging interval
7000 ft
Total depth
12000 ft
Event
PEX
Drill rat hole
0.76 hr
Triple-Combo
1.80 hr
Initial surface calibration
0.25 hr
0.75 hr
Rig up tool
0.30 hr
1.00 hr
RIH to TD
0.80 hr
0.80 hr
Interval logging time
1.94 hr
3.89 hr
POOH
0.33 hr
0.33 hr
Final surface calibration
0.25 hr
0.75 hr
Rig down tool
0.30 hr
1.00 hr
Total logging-related time
4.9 hr
Conditioning trip
0.0 hr
12.0 hr
Additional run
0.0 hr
5.0 hr
Reliability
0.0 hr
1.0 hr
Total rig-related cost
$6,172
$35,403
Measurement quality
10.3 hr
$1,000
$0
Real-time answer products $1,000
$0
Total PEX added value
$0
PLATFORM EXPRESS
$2,000
savings: $31,231 and 23.4 hr
14
Rig-up
RIH 1
PEX/Triple-combo
TOOH 1
Change
12
Time (hours)
10
13.4
1.4
RIH 2
DSI/BHC
TOOH 2
Rig-down
1.3
3.6
8
6
6.5
1.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
2.6
2.9
3.0
0.7
0.8
5.5
0.8
0.9
4
2
0
1.0
PEX
PEX/BHC-DSI
Breakdown of PEX versus non-PEX logging times.
Non-PEX
Figure 4.23
3,500
3,000
Rig cost-avg/hr
Avg $/well saved
$3,100
Total $ saved
$490,000
$3,500
$3,600
450,000
400,000
350,000
$335,000
2,500
300,000
250,000
2,000
200,000
1,500
$155,000
1,000
500,000
$875
$1,050
$988
150,000
100,000
500
50,000
Total rig time $ saved
Avg. rig time $ saved
4,000
The DSI (page 433) can be combined with

PEX to create a very powerful combination.
Logging speed in these cases is usually
governed by how many modes are utilized
with the DSI. In the combined DSI/PEX data
above, the tool was normally run at 900
ft/hr.
From March 1996 through March 1997,
PEX was run in 141 wells for 11 different
operators, and saved a total of nearly
$500,000 in rig time (Fig. 4.23). Rig time
saved by avoiding a wiper trip is not
included in this figure. A detailed
breakdown of rig time was used for each
operator to arrive at the average savings per
well for Eastern, Western and total
Venezuela. These savings ($3,500 per well)
represent 32% of the total time it would have
taken to log with standard technology.
0
Eastern Venezuela
Western Venezuela
Venezuela total
Average dollars saved over a one-year period with PEX (3/963/97).

4 16
Figure 4.24
LDT density
GR
0
(gAPI)
150
PLATFORM EXPRESS
density
16 1.7
(g / cm3)
2.7
CALI
Depth
6
(ft)
(in.)
1.8
Rhob LDT
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.4
2.2
2
11210
Rhoz PLATFORM EXPRESS
2.6
11180
1.8
Comparison of LDT and TLD in a fairly good hole.
Examples
LDT/TLD comparison example (Fig. 4.24):
Both the LDT and the TLD were run on this
well in central Lake Maracaibo. The logging
speeds were 1800 and 3600 ft/hr, respectively. The agreement, although not perfect, is
well within specifications of 0.01 g/cm3.
Several other comparison logs have been run
in Venezuela over the last year; generally
there is excellent agreement between the two
when pad contact with the LDT is good.
HMIN
50
HMNO
(ohm-m)
HCAL
DSOZ
BS
(in.)
16
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0 100
Depth
(ft)
(mv)
AHTD2
0
ECGR
0
(gAPI)
AIT-H
Resistivity
Image
150
AHTD1
(in.)
90
90
3920
3950
PEX log with O/W contact.
4090
4110
PEX log with G/O contact.
4 17
AIT-H 2'
10"
20"
30"
60"
90"
RXOZ
RT
0.2 (ohm-m) 200
PEFZ
0
10
Invasion oil/water (O/W) contact example:

This example (Fig. 4.25) comes from a field in
Eastern Venezuela and clearly shows an O/W
contact at 3940 ft. The microlog curves (HMIN,
HMNO) in track 2 indicates good permeability
in the hydrocarbon-bearing section from 3925
to 3940 ft. Track 3 gives a visual picture of the
fluid invasion. A fresh mud invasion profile is
clearly seen on the AIT in track 4 in the water
section from 3940 to 3950 ft. The PEFZ curve,
as well as the Neutron/Density overlay in track
5, all confirm a very clean sandstone. In this
real-time quicklook presentation, the Rwa curve
in track 7 gives a direct indication of Rw in the
clean, water-bearing sections, in this case indicating an Rw of approximately 0.2 ohm-m.
Once again, the measurements are all of
excellent quality even though the wellbore is
somewhat rugose.
Invasion gas/oil (G/O) contact example: This
example (Fig. 4.26) also comes from Eastern
Venezuela and clearly shows a G/O contact at
4095 ft. The microlog curves in track 2 indicates
high resistivity close to the borehole and fairly
low invasion. The resistivity image in track 3 also
shows very little invasion throughout most of
this zone. The PEX curve, as well as the Neutron/Density overlay in track 5, all confirm a very
clean sandstone. A coal streak at the top of this
example is identified by the Density reading.
PXND
DPHZ
NPOR
0.5
(V/V)
VCL
(p.u.)
0
200
RWA
0
(ohm-m)
Conclusions
PEX provides a standard logging suite at
an entirely new level of reliability and efficiency. This has and will continue to translate
into large savings in time and costs. Over a
one-year period, savings of three hours of rig
time, or $3,500 per well, have been achieved.
Reliability has decreased down-time by a factor
of three to four. As a result, there are a variety
of service guarantees currently in use, such that
if logging time exceeds an agreed-upon
amount, a penalty is incurred. Improved
sensors and tool design provide more accurate
and precise measurements, especially in bad
hole or difficult borehole conditions.

THE PLATFORM
EXPRESS
PEX Quicklook presentation:
HMIN
Tens
0 (lb ft) 5000
50
DSOZ
HMNO
(ohm-m)
HCAL
BS
(in.)
16
SP
RSOZ
2 (in.) 0
100
(mv)
ECGR
Depth
(ft)
(gAPI)
150
AIT-H
Resistivity
Image
AHTD2
AHTD1
(in.)
90
90
0.2
AIT-H 2'
10"
20"
30"
60"
90"
RXOZ
RT
(ohm-m)
PEFZ
0
10
PXND
DPHZ
VCL
NPOR
RWA
(p.u.)
200
0.5
(V/V)
200
(ohm-m)
3170
3200
Track 1
Track 2
Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Vcl =
5%
Anhydrite
Vcl =
35%
Vcl =
65%
Vcl =
95%
Lithology calibration.
The color scheme indicates
quartz, dolomite, calcite
and anhydrite values.
Track 3
Track 4
Track 5
Track 1: Conventional track 1 data

including Density (DSOZ) and Resistivity
(RSOZ) standoff measurements, as well as
a tension (Tens) curve.
Track 2: Calculated micro-normal and
micro-inverse curves (HMIN, HMNO) from
the micro-resistivity measurement. Separation is a qualitative permeability indicator
since it occurs in front of mudcake, which
accumulates at permeable intervals. Also
included are the caliper (HCAL), spontaneous potential (SP), and ECGR curves.
Track 3: A resistivity invasion profile, from
the center of the borehole out to 90 in., in
which red is high resistivity and blue is low
(note the invasion at 3180 ft is approximately 20 to 30 in.).
Track 4: AIT log showing all five depths of
investigations (10, 20, 30, 60, 90 in.) for the
induction log and RXOZ with an 18-in.
vertical resolution for easier comparison
with induction measurements. Vertical resolution of the RXOZ measurement can be as
good as 1 in.
Track 6
Track 7
Track 5: Contains the environmentally corrected neutron porosity (TNPH) and a standard resolution density porosity (DPHZ) as
well as a xplot porosity (PXND) and the
photoelectric effect data (PEFZ) (note the
excellent overlay throughout most of the
sandstone (3173 to 3190 ft) even though
the hole is very washed out).
Track 6: A lithology quicklook using inputs
from density, photoelectric effect, and GR
or SP. The left margin is clay volume. Minor
changes in clay content stand out; i.e., the
thin streaks below 3192 ft.
Track 7: An Rwa curve rounds out the
presentation as a quicklook indicator of
hydrocarbons. An R xo /R t ratio can also be
displayed. In a clean, 100% wet sandstone,
Rwa equals the formation water resistivity.
As clay content increases,

the color tone shifts
toward red.

4 18
PRESSURE GAUGE PERFORMANCE
Pressure transient analysis started to

evolve in the 1930s. In 1936 Theis published
his line source solution, which was the first
use of the concept of a type-curve matching
approach to well test analysis. In the 1950s
Horner developed his classic semi-log analysis technique, which allowed permeabilitythickness product, skin and extrapolated
reservoir pressure to be determined from data
corresponding to a cylindrical flow regime
during a pressure buildup survey. Because of
the ease of use of Horners graphical method,
the Horner plot became the standard analysis
technique in well testing. In the 1970s
Gringarten et al. brought widespread acceptance of type-curve matching techniques with
the publication of a type-curve for a well with
wellbore storage and skin in a homogeneous,
infinite-acting reservoir. This type-curve
graphed the solution to the diffusivity
equation for these boundary conditions in
truly independent, dimensionless parameters.
Gringarten et al. demonstrated the importance of a log-log plot of pressure-change
versus elapsed time to diagnose flow regimes
from a direct comparison with the typecurves. They showed that unless Horners
technique was applied to the data acquired
during the infinite-acting flow regime, then
erroneous results could be obtained.
Gringarten et al. proposed a well test analysis
methodology that consisted of:
model diagnosis from the shape of the
pressure-change versus elapsed time
data graphed on a log-log scale
type-curve matching made on the
appropriate model, allowing initial
estimates of well and reservoir
parameters to be determined
flow regime identification made from
comparison with the type-curve
specialized analyses, such as the
Generalized Horner Plot for infiniteacting flow, allowing the parameter
estimates from type-curve matching to
be cross-checked and refined
model verification by forward modeling
4 19
and comparing the simulated pressure

history with the actual pressure history.
The shortcoming of the methodology
was that the log-log plot of pressure-change
versus elapsed time did not display a unique
shape during infinite-acting cylindrical flow,
and that the plot was not very sensitive to
variations in pressure at late time. In 1983,
Bourdet et al. introduced the use of the
pressure derivative in well test analysis.
The technique involves plotting the rate of
change of pressure (pressure derivative) with
respect to a time function versus elapsed time
on a log-log scale. The derivative plot has the
distinct advantage of yielding a zero slope
line (horizontal stabilization) during
cylindrical flow regimes. Furthermore, the
derivative is very sensitive to changing flow
regimes, even if they occur at late time.
The widespread use of personal computers has enabled the pressure derivative and
type-curve modeling approach to transient
pressure analysis to be universally applied in
the oil industry.
Pressure gauge metrology
As mentioned above, the pressure
derivative is extremely sensitive to pressure
variations brought about by changes in the
flow regimes occurring in the reservoir. This
places the utmost importance on the metrology of the pressure sensing and recording
instrument that is used to acquire the
transient pressure data. If the pressure gauge
introduces pressure changes that are related
to the characteristics of the instrument, and
not caused by real changes in pressure, then
incorrect interpretation can result and,
consequently, significantly erroneous well
and reservoir parameters may be calculated.
The downhole environment presents
challenging conditions for the operation of a
pressure gauge. The gauge may be subjected
to shocks while being conveyed in and out of
the well; exposed to high bottomhole
pressures and temperatures that may change
rapidly because of production, injection or

driftthe change of pressure measured

by the sensor over a given time period
when a constant reference pressure
is applied
noisethe peak-to-peak variation of the
measured pressure when a constant
reference is applied.
stimulation; exposed to hostile chemicals such

as hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or
stimulation acid; and it may be subject to
vibration due to flow or shock from tubingconveyed perforating guns. The gauge must
be designed so that the metrological performance is maintained even in these harsh
conditions. The gauge metrological performance is measured by many criteria, and some
of the most important ones are defined below:
accuracythe maximum expected variation of the measured value from the
true value
repeatabilitythe maximum expected
variation when the same measurement
is repeated many times
resolutionthe smallest change in the
actual value that can be detected by the
sensor
transient response during a temperature
variationthe tendency of the sensor to
change the measured pressure when the
temperature of the sensor environment
is changed
hysteresisif the true pressure applied to
the sensor is increased gradually up to the
sensors maximum working pressure and
then reduced back to zero, then the
hysteresis is the maximum difference at
any true pressure value between the
value measured on the increasing cycle
to that measured on the decreasing cycle
Effects of gauge metrology on

transient pressure interpretation
The pressure gauge characteristics that
are of greatest concern when a gauge is used
for acquiring pressure data for transient analysis are the gauge drift, noise, pressure resolution and transient response to a temperature
variation. The transient response to a temperature variation is particularly important
when testing gas wells. The effects of these
sensor characteristics on well test interpretation can be demonstrated with simulated
data using analytical well and reservoir
models. In all the examples that follow, a
formation thickness of 100 ft and well
production of 5,000 barrels of oil per day
(BOPD) have been taken.
Figure 4.27 shows the log-log plot of a
buildup in a formation with a permeability of
1 darcy. The model used was that of wellbore
storage and skin in an infinite-acting homogeneous reservoir. The data points have been
simulated, including 0.5 psi/day gauge drift.
It can be seen that these simulated data
102
101
100
Derivative of model
101
104
Derivative of model with

0.5 psi day gauge drift
k=1000 md
103
102
101
100
Elapsed time (hr)
101
102
Pressure change and derivative (psi)

103
102
101
Derivative of model
2 psi day gauge drift
k=100 md
100
104
103
102
101
100
101
102
Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of drift on a buildup in an infinite-acting
The effect of drift on a buildup in an infinite-acting
homogeneous reservoir.

4 20
Figures 4.33 and
103
102
101
Derivative of model
10
104

2 psi day gauge drift
k=100 md
103
102
101
100
101
102

103
102
101
Derivative of model
10

0.04 psi day gauge drift
k=100 md
103
102
101
Elapsed time (hr)
100
101
102
103
Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of drift on a buildup in a homogeneous
The effect of drift on a long buildup in a homogeneous
reservoir with a constant pressure boundary.
reservoir with constant pressure boundary.
deviate from the model at late time and

falsely indicate a boundary or reduction of
permeability away from the well. Figure 4.28
shows the same case, but with a formation
permeability of 100 md and a gauge drift of 2
psi/day, a similar erroneous late time deviation is observed.
Figure 4.29 uses a model of a well in a
homogeneous reservoir with a constant
pressure boundary at 300 ft from the well.
When 2 psi/day gauge drift is considered,
the derivative assumes a shape that could be
incorrectly diagnosed as that of a well in a
heterogeneous (dual-porosity) reservoir.
Figure 4.30 considers a long duration

buildup of 400 hours in a homogeneous
reservoir but with a constant pressure
boundary at 2500 ft from the well. Applying
only 0.04 psi/day of gauge drift renders the
effect of the late boundary almost
imperceptible.
These examples serve to highlight the
detrimental effect that sensor instability can
have on well test interpretation. Even
relatively small gauge drift can have a
significant impact on the trend of the pressure
derivative, which can lead to erroneous
interpretation. The effects are more marked if
the permeability-thickness product is high
and/or the test duration is long.
103
102
101
Derivative of model
100
104

0.25 psi noise
k=100 md
103
102
101
100
Elapsed time (hr)
4 21
101
102

102
101
100
Derivative of model
0.25 psi noise
k=1000 md
101
104
103
102
101
100
101
Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of noise on a buildup in an infinite-acting
The effect of noise on a buildup in an infinite-acting

102
102
101
100
Derivative of model
0.1 psi gauge resolution
k=1000 md
101
104
103
102
101
100
101
102

103
102
101
Derivative of model
Derivative of model with 0.5 psi noise,
0.1 psi gauge resolution and 2 psi
gauge drift
k=200 md
100
104
Elapsed time (hr)
103
102
101
100
101
102
Elapsed time (hr)
The effect of gauge resolution on a buildup in an infinite-
The effect of noise, gauge drift and resolution on a buildup in a
acting homogeneous reservoir.
homogeneous formation with constant pressure boundary.
Figure 4.31 displays the case of a well in

a homogeneous reservoir of 100 md permeability. The simulated data show the effect
on the derivative of 0.25 psi peak-to-peak
random noise (no gauge drift is included).
Although the effect of the noise is evident, it
is not detrimental to the data interpretation.
The model in Fig. 4.32 is generated with the
same parameters as used in Fig. 4.31 except
that the formation permeability is 1 darcy.
The noise level of 0.25 psi has now become
detrimental to making a reliable model
diagnosis and interpretation.
Figure 4.33 illustrates the effect of gauge
resolution. The model used is the case of a
well in a homogeneous reservoir of 1 darcy
permeability. The simulated data incorporate
the effect of a pressure gauge resolution of
0.1 psi. While the resolution degrades the
quality of the derivative, the interpretation
would not be compromised in this case.
In general, the effects of gauge noise and
gauge resolution on the derivative response
are mitigated by the powerful smoothing
algorithm used to generate the pressure derivative. In the case of a real pressure sensor,
the effects of gauge drift, noise and resolution
can not be separated, as has been done here.
Figure 4.34 shows a model of a well in a

homogeneous formation of 200 md permeability with a constant pressure boundary at
300 ft from the well. The simulated data
includes 0.5 psi peak-to-peak random noise,
2 psi/day gauge drift, and gauge resolution of
0.1 psi. It is clear that such data would lead to
a totally erroneous interpretation.
A further consideration is the transient
response to a temperature variation of the sensor. This characteristic leads to a transient measuring error in the observed pressure entirely
caused by a temperature change of the sensor.
The effect is non-linear and is a function
of the magnitude of the temperature change
and the rate of change of temperature.
This effect will be particularly acute in gas
wells where rapid and large changes in
wellbore temperature can be expected. If a
suitable gauge is not used in such wells, a
significant distortion of the pressure derivative will be observed.

4 22
Figure 4.35
Electric
line
section
Battery
section
Microcontroller
UNIGAGE
recorder
section
EEPROM
data memory
Processor
Sensor sub
section
CQG
sensor
Customized
quartzdyne
sensor
Sapphire
sensor
Tool architecture for the

Universal Pressure Platform
family of gauges.
4 23
The Universal Pressure Platform

The design of the Universal Pressure
Platform of gauges was made with primary
consideration placed on the gauge metrology.
The tool architecture of the Universal
Pressure Platform family of gauges is modular
(see Fig. 4.35) and the tools comprise three
basic components:
a power section, which is either a
battery or an electric line adapter
through which power is supplied
from the surface through a cable
a common recorder section, which contains the microprocessor and memory
a sensor section, which can incorporate
one of a variety of sensors. The appropriate gauge sensor can be chosen to
obtain the best metrological performance
within the acquisition constraints.
The Universal Pressure Platform family of
gauges is as follows:
UNIGAGE-CQG (WCQR). This gauge
comprises a Schlumberger Crystal Quartz
Gauge, which uses a single quartz crystal resonator. Two independent modes of resonance
are induced in the crystal, one of which is
mainly pressure-dependent and the other
which is mainly temperature-dependent. In
this way, a temperature-compensated pressure
is obtained with almost no thermal inertia
effects. This sensor is unique in that it has a
dynamic response that is as good as a strain
gauge but has stability, accuracy and resolution characteristics of a crystal gauge.
UNIGAGE-QUARTZ (WTQR). This
gauge uses a Schlumberger-modified Quartzdyne sensor. This sensor uses two separate
quartz crystal resonators for temperature and
pressure measurement, which leads to
significant thermal inertia. The sensor does,
however, have excellent stability, accuracy
and resolution. The sensor has the advantage of having a low power consumption
and so is used for long-duration well tests
where stability is important, but where large
temperature variations are not expected.
Technology is currently being developed to

reduce the power consumption of the
WCQR, which will make this WTQR gauge
obsolete.
UNIGAGE-HSapphire (WTSR). This
gauge incorporates a 20,000-psi hostile environment sapphire strain gauge. The sensor
employs the strain gauge measurement principle in that strain-dependent resistors are
sputtered onto a sapphire crystal substrate.
The sapphire has the advantage that, unlike
metal substrates, the creep characteristics of
the sapphire are very low, which gives the
gauge excellent long-term stability.
UNIGAGE-Sapphire (SLSR). This gauge
incorporates a 10,000-psi sapphire strain
gauge sensor. It is identical in principle of
operation as the WTSR except that it is used
in non-hostile conditions.
Features
To obtain superior metrological performance, the entire gauge has been designed
for data quality, reliability and shock
resistance. To this end, the following design
features were imposed on the Universal
Pressure Platform tools:
The entire gauge, including the sensor
section, is rated for Class 6 (harsh
environment). A summary of Class 6 test
specifications are shock tests of 500 G for
2 msec repeated three times per axis,
and vibration tests from 10 to 185 Hz for
20 minutes repeated three times per axis.
A complete history log of cumulative
tool usage and jobs are stored in the
memory of the recorder. This provides a
way of tracking the gauge utilization so
that appropriate preventative maintenance and recalibration can be conveniently scheduled before any degradation in performance is observed.

The tool can store up to 120,000 pressure

and 120,000 temperature points,
allowing high-density data acquisition in
long-duration tests. This memory can be
boosted to 480,000 data sets by simply
changing the memory hybrid chip. The
simultaneous acquisition of temperature
and pressure gives optimal metrological
performance.
A memory guard feature can be selected when programming the tool to
extend the memory life. When 80% of
the memory is filled, the scanning rate
changes according to the memory
guard algorithm. In this way, the last
remaining memory will never be
completely filled before the battery
autonomy has been consumed.
This feature allows for unexpected
changes in the test program after the
gauges have been run in the hole.
Metrological specifications
The metrological performance of each

of the UNIGAGE tools is given in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3
Characteristics
WCQR
WTQR
WTSR
SLSR
Pressure rating, psi
16,000
18,000
20,000
10,000
Temperature rating, C
177
177
190
130
Battery autonomy
Standard option, days
Extended life option, months
50
9
70
12
40
6
50
6
Pressure accuracy, psi
1 to 2.5
3.2
5 to 10
Pressure resolution, psi

(at 1 sec scanning rate)
0.01
0.01
0.1
0.05
Temperature accuracy, C
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
Temperature resolution, C
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
First day drift

(at 150 C, 10Kpsi), psi day
Nil
<2
<2
<2
First week drift

(at 150 C, 10Kpsi), psi day
0.029
0.1
< 0.57
< 0.57
Long term drift

(at 150 C, 10Kpsi), psi 6 months
< 2.0
<3
< 35
< 26
<1
<4
< 12
< 12
Stabilization time @4000

psi for 10C step change, mins
Field examples
Some examples from tests run in
Venezuela using the Universal Pressure
Platform tools are discussed below. They
serve to demonstrate the high performance
of these gauges.
Example 1. High temperature
and pressure environment
This example describes a job performed

for a major oil company in Western
Venezuela. The bottomhole pressure reached
almost 11,000 psi and the maximum recorded
temperature was 320F. For this test a
WCQR and a WTQR were run in tandem.
They were run into the well on wireline while
the well was flowing. Figure 4.36 shows the
plot of the pressure recorded by both gauges
together with the difference in pressure
between them. It can be seen that while
running in the hole there is a difference of up
to 20 psi between the reading of the gauges.
This is caused by the thermal inertia of
the WTQR, which leads to a pressure error
when the temperature is changing rapidly.
The WCQR, on the other hand, has almost no
thermal inertia and reads the correct pressure
while running in the hole. When both gauges
reach the bottom of the well, the difference in
pressure between the gauges stabilizes at
around 3 psi, which is consistent with the
difference in hydrostatic pressure between
the gauges and the accuracy of the gauges.
The constant difference between two gauges,
which incorporate totally different measuring
sensors, indicates that there is almost imperceptible drift of the gauges. This gives confidence that the pressure derivative is representative of the reservoir response. The
log-log plot of the buildup recorded
by the WCQR is shown in Fig. 4.37. The
derivative of the pressure is very smooth and
has been interpreted using a model for a
partially penetrating well with changing
wellbore storage in a homogeneous reservoir.
The type-curve match is very good.

4 24
10,000
Pressure (psi)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
20
WTQR
WCQR
Running in hole
Difference
10
0
-10
20
40
102
101
Type-curve model
Derivative of
pressure
h= 80 ft
kr = 29 md
hw = 36 ft
kz = 0.06 md
Zw = 38 ft
S = 91
kz
hw
Zw
kr
100
101
103
102
Elapsed time (hr)
101
100
101
Elapsed time (hr)
Downhole pressures by two different types of gauges
Buildup data from the WCQR shown in Fig. 4.36. The deriva-
(WCQR and WTQR), showing negligible drift.
tive is very smooth and is interpreted with a model for partial

penetration with changing wellbore storage.
Example 2. High mobility reservoir
In this example, a WTQR gauge was run

on electrical cable for a production test in
Eastern Venezuela. Bottomhole pressure was
approximately 7,500 psia and the bottomhole
temperature was 280F.
This well produced from a very productive gas condensate reservoir. The productivity index was 350 Mscf/D/psi, which meant
that at 17 Mscf/D/psi, the drawdown was less
than 50 psi. A Modified Isochronal test was
performed (Fig. 4.38) in which the shut-in
periods lasted only 6 hr.. At the end of each
shut-in the rate of the pressure increase was

approximately 0.005 psi/min. Only gauges
with a very high resolution can pick up such
small pressure changes. The high resolution
of the WTQR is ideal for use in these very
high mobility wells. The log-log plot of the
pressure derivative and the type-curve model
match for the second buildup period are
shown in Fig. 4.39. The high mobility results
in wellbore storage only lasting around 1 min,
which makes it difficult to obtain a clearly
defined wellbore storage regime, but enough
data were captured to define a type-curve

108
80,000
7580
Flow rate
Simulated pressure
Pressure data
Derivative of model
Pressure (psia)
7560
7550
40,000
7540
20,000
Flow rate
7530
7520
20
30
40
50
60
Flow rate (Mscf D)
60,000
Pseudopressure change
and derivative (psi2 cp)
Derivative of pressure
7570
107
106
kh = 337,000 mdft cp
S = 1.9
k = 240 md
105
104
103
102
101
100
Elapsed time (hr)
Elapsed time (hr)
Recorded and modeled data from a modified isochronal test
Interpretation of the second buildup period in Fig. 4.38.
in a high-productivity gas condensate reservoir.
In spite of the very small pressure changes, the derivative

is well defined.
4 25

101

108
Pseudo-pressure change
and derivative (psi2 cp)
16000
Pressure (psia)
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
107
kh = 59 md
S = 1.3
Mobility ratio = 0.45
Mobility change at
71 ft
Derivative of model
Derivative of data
106
105
4000
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
103
102
101
100
101
102
Elapsed time (hr)

Large pressure changes on a WTQR gauge in a deep,
Elapsed time (hr)

Buildup data from the WTQR shown in Fig. 4.40. The smooth
hot well.
derivative indicates low hysteresis on the gauge.
match. The infinite-acting radial flow regime

is smooth and well defined on the derivative
despite the high formation mobility, which
causes a very small rate of pressure change at
the end of the buildup. The quality of the
match can be seen in the simulation of the
entire pressure history in Fig. 4.38. In such a
high-mobility formation, the gauge metrology
is extremely important. Any small degree of
gauge drift would erroneously indicate barriers in the reservoir, and excessive noise or
low resolution would lead to a poorly defined
derivative that would be impossible to
interpret reliably. This example demonstrates
the benefit of employing a high-quality
pressure sensor in these types of tests.
Example 3. Hydraulic
fracturing/Injectivity testing
Two WTQR gauges were run in a well in

Eastern Venezuela. An injectivity test was performed on the well before the main production testing. During the injectivity test, an
absolute maximum pressure of 16,000 psia
was reached while the gauges were downhole (Fig. 4.40). The temperature under static
conditions was approximately 300F. During
testing, the bottomhole pressure was drawn
down to approximately 5000 psi. Consequently, the gauges in this test were exposed
to variations in pressure of 11,000 psi. The
log-log plot of the final buildup and the
interpretation model are shown in Fig. 4.41.
The interpretation model is for a well in a

reservoir where the mobility of the formation
in a zone up to 70 ft from the wellbore is
around 50% lower than the virgin reservoir
beyond. This reduction in mobility has
probably been caused by the injectivity
testing operation. The low hysteresis of
the WTQR allows it to be exposed to rapid
and large cycles of pressure and still be able
to acquire high-quality data suitable for
reliable interpretation. The derivative in this
case is smooth and yields an interpretation
that is easily reconciled with the events
during the test.
Conclusion
By using simulated data, the importance
of high stability, good resolution, and low
noise characteristics of a pressure sensor have
been demonstrated. The Universal Pressure
Platform family of gauges have been designed to deliver good metrological performance.
A range of sensors are available so that a
sensor can be chosen for a particular well
test to obtain the best metrological performance within the operational and environmental constraints.
Three field examples were presented
from Venezuela that serve to demonstrate
the ability of the Universal Pressure Platform
family of gauges to capture high-quality
pressure data under a range of conditions.

4 26
WIRELINE JOB PLANNING
Traditionally, logging tools were designed for a specific measurement or environment. Typical examples are the induction
resistivity and laterolog resistivity tools, which
were each designed for different mud systems.
The induction works in non-conductive muds
and the laterolog in salt-saturated muds, and
both work in moderately conductive muds up
to certain limits. These tools were normally
run alone because the tool architecture and
recording systems did not support simultaneous measurements. Major gains in
efficiency were made by combining various
tools and expanding the recording systems to
handle more data. For example, developing
the three-channel recorder enabled the SP to
be recorded in the same pass as the resistivity
measurements. The recording systems and
tools continued to evolve throughout the
1970s and 1980s, allowing more and more
single-measurement tools to be combined and
more information to be recorded. This
approach greatly increased wellsite efficiency.
In these wells, pre-job planning was limited to
providing the tool requested or required for
the environment and minimizing the descents
into the well.
During the 1990s, data recording, analysis systems and borehole measurement platforms have evolved exponentially. The architecture of the borehole tools has changed
from a simple tool design for a specific
environment to a measurement platform that
is adaptable to the environment in which it
will be used. Changes in the surface recording systems allow many different combinations of measurements to be made at the
same time. The complete evaluation system
(surface and downhole) can now be adapted
to specific well environments and operating
conditions. This adaptive approach allows the
highest-quality measurements to be made in
the most efficient manner possible. While this
approach increases wellsite efficiency, it
requires more pre-job planning for determining the individual measurements and
4 27
incorporating them into a complete well

evaluation. We illustrate this approach in the
following example of a well evaluation plan.
Proposed well evaluation
The following scenario will be used to
demonstrate effective pre-job planning: a
development well with casing set at 3,000 ft,
and an 8.5 in. bit size down to 10,000 ft. The
sandstone-shale environment has an average
porosity of 20% in the deepest 2,000-ft zone
of interest. The expected hydrocarbon type
is oil with an API gravity of 25, gas-oil ratio
(GOR) of 200, and a bottomhole temperature of 200F.
The requested logging program is standard resistivity, formation density, neutron
porosity, microlog, natural GR, compressional
velocity, shear velocity, nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) porosity, permeability and
bound fluid volume. While most of the logs
will be run over the entire well, the NMR
measurements and shear velocities are only
needed over the deepest 2,000-ft zone of
interest. The logging tools that will be used
are the PEX*, CMR* Combinable Magnetic
Resonance tool, and the DSI*.
CMR job plan
The pre-job planning starts with the
CMR, which has a wide range of operating
modes depending on the formation, the
borehole and the client objective. The
physics of NMR logging is reviewed in
Chapter 5. NMR logging is special because
of the relatively long time required between
each measurement to align the hydrogen
nuclei (the wait time), and the relatively
low signal-to-noise ratio. The formation
rock and fluid determine the wait time and
the time to acquire each sample. The downhole temperature determines the stacking, or
averaging, which, together with the sample
interval, determine the vertical resolution. All
these factors may influence the maximum
speed at which the log can be run.

Figure 4.42
CMR job plannerinput

window. The Save button
saves a set of inputs, and the
Load button allows them to
be loaded in another run.
Since there are many variables, a simple

expert system was developed that codifies the
rules developed through modeling and field
experiences into an easy-to-use job planner.
The input window is shown in Fig. 4.42.
Under log parameters, the log type and
desired resolution are entered. In this case,
the standard porosity and permeability
measurements are required at the standard
resolution that is achieved by acquiring data
Figure 4.43
every 6 in. Depending on the remaining

environmental variables, this resolution may
need to be changed to arrive at the most
efficient plan. Another option may be a
Bound Fluid log, in which only part of the
information is recorded, but at much higher
logging speeds (see box page 4-29). The mud
type and borehole characteristics are then
entered, along with the lithology, average
porosity and expected hydrocarbon type. Oil,
and oil-based mud (OBM) filtrate, can have a
long relaxation time, which requires a long
wait time. This time can be calculated from
the downhole oil viscosity. It can be entered
directly, if known, or estimated from the API
gravity and GOR. With all the well information and environmental variables entered, the
program can then compute the best tool
setup to achieve the desired objectives.
The recommended tool mode and acquisition setup are shown in Fig. 4.43. The main
log is designed to be the most efficient setup
to meet the design goals. However, in regions
where a CMR tool has not been run before,
we recommend acquiring a repeat section
with a more conservative additional pass
and then comparing the results before continuing with the complete logging program.
For this well, the vertical resolution of 18 in.
is the result of stacking three data values
acquired at 6-in. spacing. Stacking improves
the signal-to-noise ratio of the measurement.
The wait time and acquisition time (number
of echoes) are chosen to sufficiently polarize
and measure the longest relaxation components in the formation while maintaining a
reasonable logging speed. The recommended
logging speed is based on the required
vertical resolution and the acquisition setup,
and for this plan is 302 ft/hr. If desired, higher
resolution or higher signal-to-noise ratio
could be achieved by lowering the logging
speed, while higher logging speed would
lower the resolution and signal-to-noise ratio.
Finally, a permeability model and a bound
fluid cutoff (T2, cutoff) are recommended.
CMR job plannerAcquisition Recommendations.

4 28
Bound Fluid Logging
Standard borehole NMR logging

requires low logging speeds, as much as
10 times lower than traditional neutrondensity logs. This time is dictated by the
physics of the measurement. However,
the same physics shows that the slow
speed is only needed in order to measure
the long components of the relaxation (or
T2 distribution). If we only measure properly the shorter components below the
bound fluid cutoff (T2, Cut), then we can
log much faster and yet can provide three
of the most common applications of borehole NMR measurements in Venezuela:
bound fluid volume (BFV), permeability
and heavy oil evaluation.
Figure 4.44
CMRP and BFV
CALI
6 (in.)16
Depth
(ft)
K (CMR) (Main log)

(md)
1000
0.1
K (CMR) (Fast pass)
1000
(md)
0.1
13400
0.25
(Main Log)
(V / V)
T2 Distribution
0
CMRP and BFV

0.25
(Fast Pass)
(V / V)
T2 Distribution
The speed of NMR logging is

governed by three factors: the initial
polarization time and the wait time
between measurements must be long
enough to ensure that the nuclei are
sufficiently polarized; the time for the
acquisition sequence must be long
enough that the longest T2 is properly
characterized; and the antenna must not
move too far during each acquisition
sequence. There are no hard and fast
limits for logging speed because all of
these factors can be corrected by making
reasonable assumptions, such as about
the T1/T2 ratio (see Chapter 5 for a fuller
description of NMR physics). However,
since the corrections should not be too
large, there are recommended acquisition
parameters and maximum logging speeds
for different formations, as shown below:
(Fast Pass)
4000
T2 Cutoff
(ms) 4000
1
1
(Main Log)
4000
T2 Cutoff
(ms) 4000
1
1
Mineralogy
T 2, Cut
(msec)
Wait time Echoes

(sec)
Speed
(ft/hr)
Sandstones
33
0.2
200
3600
Carbonates
100
0.6
600
1200
Recommended acquisition parameters and

logging speed for Bound Fluid Logging. Based
on T1/T2 = 2 and an echo spacing of 0.25 msec.
If T1/T2 or T2,
13500
Cut
are larger in a particular for-
mation, then logging speed should be lower.

Similarly, smaller values will allow faster logging.
Figure 4.44 is an example of a bound

fluid pass and a normal pass from the
same interval in a Barua well. The bound
fluid pass was recorded with a wait time
of 0.31 sec and 600 echoes and was
logged at 1800 ft/hr, while the main log
was recorded with wait time of 4.0 sec
and 1200 echoes, and logged at 200 ft/hr.
13600
Comparison of a normal
and a bound fluid pass
over the same interval.
4 29

BOUND FLUID LOGGING
Bound Fluid Logging
In this well there are rather few long T2s,

so that the distributions and the CMR
porosity from the two passes are very
similar. Normally, the porosity from the
fast pass would read too low because the
late T2s are not properly measured.
Figure 4.45
Fluids
CALI
Water Saturation
Oil
(in.)
16
BS
Sxo
(V / V)
Moved oil
Sandstone
Water
Bound water
(in.)
6
16
Depth
(ft)
1
K (CMR)
1000 (md)
0.1 1
Sw
(V / V)
Sw (CMR)
(V / V)
Limestone
0
0
Irreducible water
CMRP
0 0.25 (V / V)
Shale
T2 Distribution
3
(ms) 3000
Volume Analysis
(V / V)
0 3
0 1
T2 CutOff
(ms) 3000
13400
The evaluation, made with the main

CMR pass, is shown in Fig. 4.45. Since the
oil is not expected to be heavy, the
measured BFV is the irreducible water
volume. This volume is essentially the
same as the volume of water seen by the
resistivity/porosity interpretation (see
track 3) so we conclude that the well will
produce clean oil. Permeability showed
considerable variation and was important
in deciding which intervals to perforate.
The cleaner upper part of each sand has
no calcite cement, and is interpreted as a
sand bar from the borehole images. As
expected, permeabilities are high.
Immediately below the lower sand bar is
a finer grained sand body with increased
clay content. Permeabilities are predicted
to be more than one order of magnitude
lower, even though porosities are only
about 4 p.u. less.
To summarize, in normal NMR logging we
13500
wish to measure T2s of 1 sec or more. If we

only measure T2s of 33 msec or less, then we
can use shorter wait times with fewer echoes
and log much faster. In this example, the key
information needed from CMR logging was
also obtained from a Bound Fluid pass with
13600
the same accuracy, but with 9 times the

speed of a normal pass. If the CMR is required
for gas or light oil detection, for a full T2
Evaluation of the same well

as Fig.4.44. The CMR bound
fluid predicts the well will
produce clean oil.
The BFV and permeability from the

two passes also agree well. The main
differences, e.g., at 13,425 ft, are because
induced fractures are affecting one pass
more than the other. This also happened
on the repeat pass at normal speed.
Permeability was calculated from the
Timur/Coates equation (Chapter 54),
since the T2, log equation depends on a full
T2 distribution. Porosity is taken from
other logs, either density porosity or, in
this case, effective porosity from ELAN.
distribution, or where the applications are

uncertain, then a normal log should be
recorded. However, if the applications are
known to be BFV, permeability or heavy
hydrocarbon evaluation, then a CMR Bound
Fluid pass can give the same information at
the same logging speed as standard PEX logs.

4 30
Figure 4.46
DSI job planner

input window.
Other features available include a small

Logging Speed calculator that computes the
logging speed from a user-input wait time,
number of echoes and sample interval; a
Remarks facility for entering any additional
remarks; and a Print button that prints out a
summary of the inputs and recommendations
as a record for discussion between the logging
engineer and client. Finally, the Next button
brings up a window with the calculated hydrogen index and relaxation times of each fluid.
These help later when interpreting the log.
Figure 4.47
DSI job plannerClient Objectives Editor.
4 31
DSI job plan

The DSI can also be run in several operating modes (see box page 4-33). In this example, compressional and shear velocities are
required for formation evaluation. Referring to
the DSI job planner input window (Fig. 4.46),
this information can be entered directly into the
required measurements section. However, it is
not always clear what measurements are needed for a particular application. If there is some
uncertainty, the Client Objective Editor can be
used to evaluate the clients needs and recommend the necessary measurements (Fig. 4.47).
Tool centering depends on other tool combinations and measurement requirements. At this
time, the centering is left blank and will be
recommended to optimize the measurement.
The borehole, mud and formation characteristics are then entered. Both hole size and expected shear slowness have a major impact on
processing parameters, source type and frequency. The hole size is usually estimated using
the bit size and the normal washout expected in
the region. In the example well, the borehole is
considered to be in good condition, so the hole
size is set to bit size plus 1 in., or 9.5 in. The
shear slowness (1/shear velocity) can be entered directly, if known, or estimated from the
compressional slowness (1/compressional
velocity) and either Vp/Vs ratio or formation
type (shales, carbonates, sandstones or gas
sandstones). The Formation Type Advisor (Fig.
4.48) is a visual display of how this information
is used. In this case, sandstone lithology and a
maximum compressional slowness of 100
sec/ft lead to an estimated maximum shear
slowness of 201 sec/ft.
The Recommended Tool Mode and Centering are shown in Fig. 4.49. In this
example, the monopole source mode (SAM
4) with a 3- to 20-kHz filter is used to
acquire the compressional. Because the
estimated shear is slower than the mud
slowness, the dipole source mode (SAM 1 or
2) is used to obtain the shear. The DSI has
two dipole transmitters and either one can be

ent source parameters, and that the inputs

must be checked to verify that they represent
the worst case expected, rather than the
average case. The Source Zone Advisor,
shown in Fig. 4.55, is a graphic display that
helps decide the sensitivity to the input
parameters. For this example, increasing the
hole size or shear slowness slightly will not
change the job plan.
Figure 4.48
DSI job plannerFormation

Type Advisor.
used for this application. A centered tool is

recommended for optimum data quality,
although this can be changed depending on
the final tool combinations. The processing
parameters are given in separate windows,
triggered by the STC and Labeling buttons.
The Warnings box displays information
that should be checked before running the
job. In this case, a warning indicates that the
job plan is close to a boundary between differ-
Figure 4.49
Well Evaluation Plan

The job planning process for the
individual measurements systems is completed, and now these plans need to be integrated into a complete well evaluation plan.
Several factors must be considered in developing the operational plan. Combinability
and recording/telemetry systems are not
factors, so the most efficient operation will
depend on the logging speed, measurement
interval, surface preparation time, rat hole
and additional well depth past the objective
to accommodate the tool length. In the example well, the CMR must be logged at a maximum of 300 ft/hr only over the deepest 2000ft zone of interest, while the PEX must be
acquired over the entire 7000 ft of open hole
with a maximum logging speed of 3600 ft/hr.
The DSI should be logged at 900 ft/hr for
both compressional and shear velocity over
the 2000-ft zone of interest, and then the
logging speed can be increased to 1800 ft/hr
to acquire the compressional data to the
surface casing.
Table 4.4 (page 435) shows four
possible scenarios for evaluating this
example well using the information from the
individual job plans. The first scenario uses
three separate descents with a total time of
21.7 hours, and is obviously the least efficient. The second scenario combines the PEX
and CMR and is not much more efficient.
DSI job plannerAcquisition Recommendations

4 32
Dipole shear imager
4.50
Cartridge
Receiver
section
6 in.
9 ft
Isolation
joint
Monopole
2 ft
Upper dipole
Tool description
The transmitter section contains three
elements: one omnidirectional (monopole)
ceramic transducer, and two unidirectional
wide-band electrodynamic dipole transducers oriented perpendicular to each
other. The transducers can be driven at
different frequencies as required for different applications.
The isolation joint is a mechanical
filter that prevents transmitter signals from
traveling up the tool.
The receiver section consists of eight
receiver stations spaced 6 in. apart and
spanning 3.5 ft. Each station contains two
hydrophone pairs: one oriented in line
with the upper dipole transmitter, and the
other in line with the lower dipole transmitter. The outputs from each pair are
differenced for dipole reception and
summed for monopole reception.
The acquisition cartridge performs
automatic gain control, digitizes eight
waveforms simultaneously with a 12-bit
dynamic range, stacks waveforms from
more than one firing, detects crossing
times above an amplitude threshold, and
transmits signals uphole.
Lower dipole0.5 ft
Transmitter
section
DSI tool
4 33
Tool operating modes

The operating mode configures the
transmitters, receivers and electronics for the
application required. Five standard modes
are provided. However, other configurations
can be set up at the wellsite using an expert
mode. The standard modes are as follows:
Modes 1 and 2: Upper and Lower
Dipoleeight dipole waveforms from
firings of one of the dipole transmitters.
Dipole sources generate flexural waves
that travel with a slowness closely related
to the shear slowness. Dipole propagation
and typical dipole waveforms in soft rock
are shown in Fig. 4.51.
Mode 3: Crossed Dipolestandard acquisition of 32 total waveforms, in-line and

cross-line from both dipole transmitters.
Mode
4:
Stoneley
Modeeight
monopole waveforms from firings of the
monopole transmitter driven with a lowfrequency pulse (around 1 kHz). At low
frequencies the Stoneley signal is
stronger and also more sensitive to
fractures and permeability.
Mode 5: P and S Modeeight monopole
waveforms from firings of the monopole
transmitter driven with a high frequency
pulse (around 14 kHz). Monopole propagation is used to measure the compressional slowness, and also shear slowness in
hard rocks. Monopole propagation and
typical monopole waveforms in hard rock
are shown in Fig. 4.52. In soft rocks where
shear slowness is greater than borehole
fluid slowness, no shear head wave is
generated.
Mode 6: First Motion Modethe time at
which the signal crossing an amplitude
threshold is measured for each receiver
using the monopole source at high frequency. These times are used primarily to compute compressional first-arrival slowness.
Modes can be combined, so that in the
same logging pass many different types of
waveforms can be recorded. A Job Planner is
available to help plan the optimum modes,
acquisition and processing parameters for a
particular application.

DIPOLE SHEAR IMAGER
Dipole shear imager
4.51
Wellbore
Formation
Compressional
wave
Flexural
wave
Directional
source
Shear
wave
Compressional
wave
Shear
wave
Flexural
wave
Dipole propagation and typical

waveforms in a soft rock.
4.52
Compressional
wave
Wellbore
Head
waves
Formation
Fluid
wave
Omnidirectional
soul
Compressional
wave
Shear
wave
Shear
wave
Slowness Time Coherence (STC)

processing is a semblance algorithm that
aims to find all propagating waves in a
composite waveform (Fig. 4.53). It is
used to process the dipole, Stoneley, and
P and S modes. A fixed-length time
window is advanced across the waveforms in small, overlapping steps through
a range of potential arrival times.
For each time position, the window position is moved out linearly in time across
the array of receiver waveforms. For each
of these moveouts, a coherence function
is computed to measure the similarity of
the waves in the window. When the
window time and moveout correspond to
the arrival time and slowness of a particular component (e.g., a compressional
wave), the waveforms within the window
are almost identical, yielding a high value
of coherence.
STC processing produces coherence
contour plots at each sample interval of
the log, as shown in Fig. 4.54, middle.
Stoneley
wave
The peaks of coherence correspond to

particular arrivals. These are labeled as
compressional, shear or Stoneley according to their slowness and arrival time (Fig.
4.54, right). The value of the peak coherence and the projection of the maximum
value of the coherence on the slowness
axis are used as quality indicators.
In dipole processing, one of the
coherence peaks will correspond to the
dispersive flexural wave. The slowness of
this peak is always greater (slower)
than the true shear slowness by a
small amount, which depends on borehole size, formation slowness and frequency. This bias has been modeled and
is corrected for in the processing.
Monopole P and S results are boreholecompensated by averaging the results
from the receiver array and a pseudotransmitter array.
The standard measurement aperture
is the length of the receiver array3.5 ft.
However, by using a subset of the array,
and special multishot STC processing, it is
possible to reduce this to 2 ft.
ST Plane
projection
STC dot log

Shear
Compressional
Slowness
ST Plane
(Semblance contour plot)
Depth Z
Varying moveout
Depth
Slowness
Depth
Monopole propagation and typical waveforms in a hard rock.
4.53
Arrival time
Maximum coherences projected on slowness axis
4.54
Slowness
STC Contour plot, ST plane projection and labeling.
Varying time
STC computation principle.

4 34
The most efficient scenario, in terms of the

direct operating time of 12.7 hours, is
Number 4, which combines all three tools in
one descent. However, this requires the
largest rat hole and, depending on the
drilling conditions, may use more total time
than the other scenarios. Scenario Number 3
uses two runs: the PEX is run first, and then
the CMR is combined with the DSI.
The direct time is increased by three hours,
but the required rat hole is reduced by half.
Using the information from the individual job
plans, either scenario Number 3 or 4 is
acceptable and will produce optimal data
quality in an efficient manner.
Figure 4.55
DSI job plannerSource Zone Advisor with data from this example marked in red.
Table 4.4
Measurement
System
Interval
Logging Logging
Rig
speed
time
up/down
PEX
CMR
DSI Comp/Shear
SDI Comp
Sub
7000
2000
2000
5000
3600
300
900
1800
1.94
6.67
2.22
2.78
PEX CMR
PEX CMR
DSI Comp/Shear
SDI Comp
Sub
2000
5000
2000
5000
300
3600
900
1800
6.67
1.39
2.22
2.78
PEX
CMR-DSI
CMR-DSI
Sub
7000
2000
5000
3600
300
1800
PEX CMR-DSI
PEX CMR-DSI
Sub
2000
5000
300
1800
1
1
1.5
RIH
ROH
Total
time
1
1
1
0.3
1
0.3
4.24
9.67
5.02
2.78
21.71
0.3
1.5
0.3
1.94
6.67
2.78
1
1
1
1
0.3
0.3
4.24
8.97
2.78
15.99
6.67
2.78
0.3
9.97
2.78
12.74
1.39
5.02
2.78
18.16
Summary
Two main factors have contributed to the
increased need for comprehensive job planning. First is the much greater complexity and
higher number of options in modern logging
tools. Second is the focus on improving
wellsite efficiency and reducing costs. The
important role of pre-job planning is optimizing efficiency while assuring high data
quality. The CMR, DSI and Well Evaluation
plans discussed above illustrate these tradeoffs
and show how simple, portable software can
be used by logging engineers and oil
company personnel to ease the task.
Spreadsheet for comparing efficiency of different tool combinations.
CONCLUSION
New technology has led to improvements in the quality of borehole data as well
as the efficiency with which it is recorded.
Several of the major advances have been
described: the rapid development of LWD; a
new standard in wireline triple-combo
logging (PEX); the importance of pressure
gauge metrology.
The modern flexibility in data acquisition
is considerable, whether it is in conveyance
type, tool response, vertical resolution or type
4 35
of sensor. Therefore, to obtain the best quality (fit for the purpose) and the best acquisition efficiency, good job planning is essential, and should be a concern of the data user
as well as the data recorder. The following
chapters show how this good-quality data can
be applied to solving problems of formation
evaluation, production enhancement and
reservoir description in Venezuela.

This chapter was written by C.Kruger, B.Heiam, A.Douglas, and S.Johnston

with contributions from A. Simone and M.Begeer (Shell Venezuela),
J.Husband, J.Donoso and V.Boll.
and with the permission of Corpoven, Lagoven, Shell Venezuela, Maraven
and Maxus Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Platform Express
Tabanou, J.R., Bruce, S., Bonner, S., Wu, P., 1997, Time lapse opens new
opportunities in interpreting 2-MHz multispacing resistivity logs under difficult
drilling conditions and in complex reservoirs, paper II, Transactions of the
Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium,
Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Barber, T., Orban, A., Hazen, G., Long, T., Schlein, R., Alderman, S., Tabanou,
J., and Seydoux, J., 1995, A multiarray induction tool optimized for efficient
wellsite operation, SPE Paper 30583, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A., October
22-25.
Bonner, S.D., Tabanou, J.R., Wu, P., Seydoux, J.P., Moriaty, K.A., Kwok, B.K.,
Kuchenbecker, M.W., 1995, New 2 MHz multiarray borehole compensated
resistivity tool developed for MWD in slim holes, SPE 30547, presented at
the Society of Petroleum Engineers 76th Annual Tecnical Conference and
Exhibition held in Dallas, U.S.A., October 22-25.
Eisenmann, P., Gounot, M-T., Juchereau, B., Trouiller, J-C., and Whittaker, S.
J., 1994, Improved Rxo measurements through semi-active focusing, SPE
Paper 28437, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference
and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A., September.
Prilliman, J., Bean, C.L., Hashem, M., Bratton, T., Fredette, M.A., Lovell, J.R.,
1997, A comparison of wireline and LWD resistivity images in the Gulf of
Mexico, paper DDD, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Carpenter, W.W., Best, D., Evans, M., 1997, Applications and Interpretation
of azimuthally sensitive density measurements acquired while drilling, paper
EE, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log Analysts 38th
Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Aron, J., Chang, S.K., Codazzi, D., Dworak, R., Hsu, K., Lau, T., Minerbo, G.,
Yogeswaren, E., 1997, Real-time sonic logging while drilling in hard and soft
rocks, paper HH, Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts 38th Annual Logging Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Eyl, K. A., Chapellat, H., Chevalier, P., Flaum, C., Whittaker, S. J., Jammes, L.,
Becker, A. J., and Groves, J., 1994, High resolution density logging using a
three detector device, SPE Paper 28407, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in New Orleans, Louisiana,
U.S.A., September.
Smits, J. W., Benimeli, D., Dubourg, I., Faivre, O., Hoyle, D., Tourillon, V.,
Trouiller, J-C., and Anderson, B. I., 1995, High resolution from a new laterolog
with azimuthal imaging, SPE Paper 30584, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Dallas, Texas, U.S.A.,
October 22-25.
Pressure gauge performance

Gringarten, A.C., Bourdet, D.P., landel, P.A., Kniazeff, V.J., 1979, A comparison between different skin and wellbore storage type curves for early time
transient analysis, SPE Paper 8205, Society of Petroleum Engineers Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Las Vegas, Nevada, September
23-26.
Bourdet, D., Whittle, T.M., Douglas, A.A., and Pirard, Y.M., 1983, A new set
of type curves simplifies well test analysis, World Oil 196 no. 6, May.
Veneruso, A. F., Erlig-Economides, C., and Petitjean, L., 1991, Pressure gauge
specification considerations in practical well testing, SPE Paper 22752,
held in Dallas October 6-9..

4 36
Chapter 5
Evaluation of New Wells
Chapter overview
NMR: principles and petrophysics
Tar detection and permeability evaluation
in North Monagas
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools
Reservoir fluid sampling
Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt
Carbonates: lithology-independent porosity
Prediction of water-cut in a sand with low
resistivity contrast
Identifying producible zones in OBM wells
Continuous wireline fluorescence logging
E VA L U AT I O N O F N E W W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Venezuela produces a wide range of

hydrocarbon types, all the way from the very
heavy oils in the Orinoco Belt, through the
shallow heavy oils in Maracaibo Basin, to the
volatile oils and gas condensates in North
Monagas. As a result, formation evaluation in
Venezuela is frequently focused on the characteristics of the fluids rather than the rock. The
knowledge of hydrocarbon properties and
their effect on downhole measurements are
important issues.
At the same time, the introduction of true
NMR logging tools has significantly improved
our ability to characterize the fluids and the
pore space. Earlier NMR logging tools required
doping of the mud to remove the borehole
signal, and relied on the weak earths magnetic
field. Modern tools essentially duplicate
laboratory NMR instruments and provide a
similar wealth of information. Therefore, this
chapter starts with a summary of the principle
of measurement and the petrophysics of NMR
response, emphasizing those aspects that are
of particular interest in Venezuela.
The following section shows the use of
the Stoneley wave generated by a borehole
acoustic tool to identify zones of immobile
fluid, usually tar. An alternative method of
identifying tar zones is with NMR. The second
article shows how NMR can distinguish both
tar and gas from mobile oil.
Good pressure-volume-temperature (PVT)
data are essential for reservoir studies and the
proper planning of reservoir development.
However, it is difficult to obtain PVT-quality
samples in some hydrocarbonsnotably fluids
near the critical point, and heavy oils with high
asphaltene content. Many of the difficulties
have been overcome by recent improvements
in sampling techniquesmainly the ability to
obtain PVT samples with wireline formation
testers, and the introduction of single-phase
downhole sampling tools.
In the Orinoco Belt it is easy to identify
hydrocarbon-bearing zones, but it is difficult to
predict how they will produce. This section
shows how a range of different measurements

standard logs, NMR and acoustic logs,
imaging tools, wireline formation testers and
corescan differentiate zones by telling more
about the geological setting and the mobility of
the fluids.
Carbonate reservoirs also contribute to
Venezuelan oil production, although in much
smaller quantities than sandstones. In carbonates, determining porosity by standard measurements is dependent on an accurate knowledge of the lithology. On the other hand, NMR
porosity has the great, and unique, advantage
of being independent of lithology, as is shown
in an example from the Barinas-Apure Basin.
While in the major reservoirs of Venezuela
it is not difficult to identify zones with producible hydrocarbons, there are formations and
intervals where this is not so easy. The next
section shows a typical example of a lowresistivity pay in which standard log
interpretation gave water saturations above
50%. The NMR log showed this water to be
irreducible water, thereby predicting that the
zone would produce clean oil, as indeed it did
on testing. The log interpretation was subsequently backed-up and fine-tuned by a
thorough core analysis, including Fourier
Transform Infrared (FT-IR) analysis of mineralogy, NMR and electrical measurements.
Another example from Lake Maracaibo shows
how NMR can help identify the producible
fluids in OBM. In marginal zones, the
interpretation of standard logs can be difficult
due to complicated invasion effects.
Fluorescence has been measured for
many years on surface samples, but has never
before been available as a continuous downhole log. The final section introduces this new
technique with examples that demonstrate the
validity of the measurement. In the future, this
technique offers the hope of solving some of
the remaining evaluation problems, such as
differentiating oil from fresh water, and
identifying oil in low-resistivity zones.

NMR: PRINCIPLES AND PETROPHYSICS
Principle of measurement
Since NMR is involved in many of the
recent improvements in formation evaluation, a short summary of the principles and
petrophysics are given in this section.
Many nuclei have a magnetic moment
and behave like spinning bar magnets
(Fig. 5.1). These spinning magnets interact
with external magnetic fields, producing
measurable signals that can be maximized if
the field oscillates at the resonant frequency
of a particular nucleus. NMR logging uses
this signal to measure the amount and
distribution of hydrogen. Hydrogen has a
relatively large magnetic moment and is a
direct indication of pore fluids.
Figure 5.1
Precessional
motion
Spinning
motion
Magnetic field
Precessing protons behave like

spinning bar magnets. Once
disturbed from equilibrium,
they precess about the static
magnetic field like a toy top.
Figure 5.2
z
z
Precessing
magnetic
moments
B0 field
b
B0 field
Net magnetization
along z-axis
B1 field
y
x
(a) Proton aligment

about B0
(b) Spin tipping by the

oscillating B1 field
z
B0 field
Different stages in the
manipulation of the protons

to create the NMR signal.
x
(c) Precession and de-synchronization

in the x-y plane
Signal
Re-focusing signals
90
1
Decay due to
B0 variations
600
Decay due to
molecular interactions
Antenna pulse
Amplitude
NMR measurements consist of a series of

manipulations of hydrogen nuclei (protons).
A measurement sequence starts with proton
alignment, followed by spin tipping,
precession and repeated dephasing and
refocusing (Fig. 5.2). Proton alignment (a) is
achieved by applying a large static magnetic
field, B0, and takes a finite time characterized
by a time constant, T1. The spins are tipped
(b) by transmitting an oscillating magnetic
field, B1, perpendicular to the direction of B0.
The angle through which the spins are
tipped is controlled by the strength of B1 and
the time it is switched on. The frequency of
oscillation is chosen to be the resonant
frequency of hydrogen in the field B0.
After the protons have been tipped, they
precess in the plane perpendicular to B0 (c).
This generates a small magnetic field that is
detected by the same antenna that transmits
the field B1. This signal decays as the protons
lose synchronization because of local
variations in the B0 field and molecular
interactions (d). The desynchronization
caused by B0 variations can be restored
temporarily by repeated refocusing signals
from the antenna. After each resynchronization, or echo, the signal will have decayed
because of molecular interactions with a time
constant known as T2. T1 and T2 are different
but closely related, the ratio T1 /T2 being
between 1.5 and 2.5 for most water-filled
rocks. T2 is by far the most common logging
measurement as it is faster to measure and
more suitable for continuous logging.
Relaxation mechanisms
in water-saturated rocks
The basic NMR result is the T2 decay, or
relaxation, of the NMR signal. The initial
signal amplitude can be directly calibrated in
terms of the total proton population, or
porosity. The relaxation depends on the
strength of different molecular interactions
and is the sum of many relaxations, fast and
slow, from different parts of the sample.
Time (msec)
Spin echoes

Figure 5.3
Carbonates
30
60
25
NMR porosity (p.u.)
NMR porosity (p.u.)
Sandstones
70
50
40
30
20
20
15
10
10
0
0
20
40
60
10
20
30
Buoyancy porosity (p.u.)
Buoyancy porosity (p.u.)
Comparison of NMR and buoyancy porosity on a large number of cores from

sandstones and carbonates (Straley et al).
Figure 5.4
1
Signal amplitude
T2 decay
0
0
100
200
300
400
Time (msec)
8
Signal distribution
T2 distribution
Large pores
Small pores
There are three types of

relaxation, one due to
interactions with the pore
surface, T2S, one due to
bulk relaxation within the
pore fluid, T2B, and one
due to diffusion of protons
in a magnetic field gradient, T2D. T2S depends on
the pore size: the smaller
the pore size, the larger the
number of protons close to
the pore walls and
the faster they will
relax. The measured T2 can then
be written:
1/ T2 = 1/ T2S + 1/ T2B + 1/ T2D
10
T2 (msec)
100
f CMR
f Free-fluid
Claybound
water
Capillarybound
water
Producible
fluids
The measured T2 decay is mathematically inverted to obtain a T2 distribution that can be related
to pore size and bound or producible fluids.
where 1/ T2S = r S/ V
1000
CMR derived
0
0.1
(1)
where T2S is given as

shown by r, the surface
relaxivity; S, the surface
area of the pore; and V, its
volume. This relationship
for T2S is only strictly valid
if the decay in each pore
is independent of other
pores, and if the protons
diffuse fast enough that
magnetization is uniform across the pore (the

fast diffusion limit). These conditions are
normally valid, with some exceptions with
microporosity, when pores may not be
independent, and large pores, when diffusion
may not be fast enough. T2D is negligible
except in gas because low magnetic fields,
and hence low field gradients, are used. For
pure water T2B is several seconds and,
because the total T2 is an inverse sum of the
components, has a negligible influence.
However, T2B may be significant in the case
of large pores (long T2S), or in mud filtrates
where T2B is short because of paramagnetic
ions. In general, the T2 relaxation in waterfilled rocks is a direct indicator of pore size
and is highly correlated with other
measurements of pore size or pore throat,
such as mercury injection pressure.
Petrophysics of NMR
in water-filled rocks
Porosity: Numerous laboratory studies
have shown that NMR porosity is very close
to core porosity derived from buoyancy
methods (Fig. 5.3).
Free fluid: The measured T2 decay is
usually transformed into a T2 distribution by
mathematical inversion (Fig. 5.4). After this
transform, the total area under the curve
represents porosity, and the signal at each
decay time is the volume for that T2. It is
possible to define a value for T2, T2,cut, which
divides the porosity into fluid from larger
pores above the cut-off that is free to move,
and fluid from smaller pores below the cutoff that is bound by capillary or clay forces.
It has been found that in many sandstones
T2,cut is approximately 33 msec and in
carbonates 100 msec. Once determined, this
cut-off may be applied to CMR logs to obtain
a continuous log of free and bound fluid. In
some cases clay-bound water can be
separated from capillary-bound water by
applying a cut-off between about 1 and 3
msec (Fig. 5.4).

Figure 5.5
0.049
1.0
Normalized amplitude
Sample 02-16
Cumulative
brine saturated
T2 distribution
Derived T2 cut off
Irreducible
water
volume
0.000
0.01
0.5
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
0.0
10000
2MHz T2(TE = 350 msec) relaxation time (ms)

0.049
1.0
Normalized amplitude
Sample 02-16
Brine saturated
T2 distribution
Desaturated
T2 distribution
0.000
0.01
0.1
1.0
10
100
1000
0.5
0.0
10000
2MHz T2(TE = 350 msec) relaxation time (ms)
Top: Example of determination of T2,cut by the intersection of the irreducible water

volume with the cumulative brine-saturated T2 distribution. Bottom: The desaturated
T2 distribution confirms the cut-off by showing essentially no volume above T2,cut
(and can also give irreducible water volume).
Figure 5.6
However, T2,cut does vary with

formation, and should be refined by
laboratory experiments on core plugs. In
these experiments the water-filled NMR
signal is measured and converted into a
cumulative T2 distribution starting from the
smallest pores or shortest T2 (Fig. 5.5). The
sample is then desaturated, usually by
spinning in a centrifuge, and the remaining
irreducible volume of water is calculated
either by direct weighing methods or from
an NMR measurement on the desaturated
sample. The intersection of this irreducible
water volume with the cumulative T2
distribution defines the cut-off (Fig. 5.5, top).
As expected, the NMR signal of the
desaturated sample shows minimum signal
above the cut-off (Fig. 5.5, bottom). Figure
5.6 shows the good agreement between
NMR free-fluid and water removed by
centrifuging.
Permeability: Most transforms for
estimating permeability involve combinations
of porosity and some estimate of pore throat
size. NMR relaxation times depend on pore
size, but often these are related to throat size.
Two transforms are commonly used. The first
uses the logarithmic mean value of T2,T2,log,
as the indicator of throat size:
k=af 4 (T 2,log ) 2
20
(SDR)
(2)
Well A
Free-fluid porosity at 33 msec (p.u.)
Well B
15
10
0
0
10
15
20
where f is the porosity expressed as a

fraction, and a is a formation-dependent
constant that is typically 4 md/(msec)2 for
sandstones and 0.4 md/(msec)2 for carbonates. This correlation was developed for the
brine permeability of water-saturated clastic
rocks, for which the T2 distribution is a good
representation of the pore size distribution.
A typical example of the good results that can
be obtained is shown in Fig. 5.7.
The other common transform uses the
ratio of free fluid, FFI, and bound fluid, BFV,
as the indicator of pore throat size:
Free-fluid measured by centrifuge (p.u.)
Comparison of the free fluid measured by centrifuge with the free fluid
( )
k=a'f 4 FFI
BFV
(Timur/Coates)
(3)
above T2,cut=33 msec for samples from two wells (Straley et al).

Figure 5.7
100
Well A, a = 2.8
Permeability to brine (md)
Well B, a = 3.4
10
0.1
KNMR = a(fNMR)4(T2,log)2
0.01
0.01
0.1
10
100
Permeability from NMR (md)
Comparison of permeability
to brine and permeability
predicted by NMR using
equation (2) for two wells.
where a' is a formation-dependent constant

4
that is normally 1x10 md for sandstones.
In the above equations, f in the laboratory
is either core porosity (as determined by buoyancy methods) or NMR porosity. In log interpretation, f is usually taken to be NMR porosity,
which closely approximates the laboratory porosity. As with free fluid, it is often advisable to
refine the coefficients in the permeability transforms for a particular reservoir through laboratory
measurements on core
plugs. Carbonates, in particular, need special studies.

,,,

,,,

,,,

Figure 5.8
Protons in water
relax at grain surface
Protons in gas
or oil relax by
bulk + diffusion
mechanisms
Water
In water-wet rock, hydro-
carbons relax by bulk and
diffusion mechanisms. The
water-hydrocarbon interface
is not a relaxing surface,
except at high oil viscosity.
Pores containing
oil and water
Bulk relaxation: When
pores contain more than
one fluid, the relationships
are more complex. In a
water-wet rock, the oil is
not in contact with the
pore surface. Since for light and medium oils
the oil-water interface is a non-relaxing
surface, the oil decays at the T2 of the bulk oil
independent of pore size (Fig. 5.8). Very
viscous oils start to behave more like a solid
and there can be relaxation at the surface.
The experimental data (Fig. 5.9) show a

close relationship between the logarithmic
mean T2 of the oil (T2,log) and its viscosity.
The more viscous the hydrocarbon, the closer
the interaction of the hydrogen nuclei with
each other and the faster they relax. In
practice oils have a wide range of T2S, often
spreading over more than one decade (see
Fig. 5.10). Tars, with viscosities over 100,000
cp and T2,log below 0.3 msec, have a
significant signal that is too fast to be
recorded. Thus, in a tar-filled rock the NMR
porosity will be small and significantly less
than the true porosity. Heavy oils will appear
as bound fluid, while light oils and OBM filtrates will normally appear as free fluid. Medium oils may appear as either one, depending
on the viscosity at downhole conditions.
Wettability: Some rocks are oil-wet, or
contain a percentage of oil-wet pores. Some
filtrates, particularly OBM filtrates, are
considered to change the wettability of a rock
when invading. In an oil-wet pore, the oil
undergoes surface relaxation with a relaxivity
about a quarter that of water. Light oils will
therefore relax much faster in oil-wet pores
than in water-wet pores. However, heavy oils
may not be much affected, since the total
relaxation will depend essentially on T2B. In
oil-wet pores, the permeability equation must
be established empirically by adapting the
coefficients in equation (2) or (3) to match
core and test data for that formation.
Hydrogen Index (HI): The HI of a fluid is
the amount of hydrogen relative to water. For
most medium oils it is equal to 1, but in heavy
oils it is usually less than 1 (Fig. 5.11). In light
oils it may also be less than 1 if there is a large
amount of dissolved gas.
Permeability: Because the oil relaxes at
its bulk rate independent of pore size,
the T2 distribution is no longer solely
representative of the hydraulic radius.

In these circumstances, equation (2) is

not strictly valid and must be verified
empirically for different formations.
Equation (3) is still useful, but an allowance
must be made for the oil relaxation time,
T2,oil. If T2,oil > T2,cut, then the oil signal
appears as free fluid. Since oil in water-wet
rock normally displaces producible water,
equation (3) needs no modification.
However, if T2,oil < T2,cut, the oil signal
appears as bound fluid. In this case in
equation (3), BFV should be decreased and
FFI increased by the volume of oil detected
by the measurement.
When considering the effect of oil, it
must be remembered that the volume
investigated by the CMR has usually been
invaded by mud filtrate, especially for light
and medium oils.
Figure 5.9
10,000
= Lab A
T1
= Lab B
T2 (TE = 0.32 msec)
1000
T2 (TE = 1 msec)
T, or T2 (msec)
Crudes
100
10
1 T2 = 1 T 1 + (1 T2)D
1
0.1
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Viscosity (cp)
Logarithmic mean T2 versus viscosity for bulk oil samples from the Belridge Field
(triangles), international oil field samples and oil viscosity standards (plus symbols)
(Morriss, 1994).

T2: 45 msec
Grav: 27API
Visc: 20 cp
Sample 1
T2: 8.3 msec

Grav: 16.2API
Visc: 300 cp
0.1
1.0
Sample 2
10.0
100.0
Hydrogen index
0.5
0.2
0.1
1000.0
0.05
T2 (msec)
10
20
30
40
50
60
API gravity
T2 distributions for two oil

samples pressed from sidewall
HI as a function of API gravity for a suite of
core plugs. Viscosity is estimated
dead oils from 4 to 60API at 77F. Note that
from the API gravity using
in downhole conditions, the light oils may
published tables (Morriss, 1994).
contain a large amount of dissolved gas,

thereby reducing the HI (adapted from
Vinegar, 1991).
70
Pores with gas

Gas has long T1 values, ranging from
3 to 7 sec, depending on formation
temperature and pressure. Therefore, in
normal logging conditions only part of the
gas is polarized and the signal measured is
too low. Gas also has a very low HI, further
lowering the signal relative to a water-filled
rock. In addition, gas diffuses within the
pore space during the course of the
measurement. Due to the gradient in the
magnetic field B0, there is an additional
relaxation, T2D, which will shorten the
measured T2 while keeping it in the freefluid range (see equation (1)).
These features can be used to detect
gas, for example, by comparing the CMR
signal with other porosity measurements, or
by comparing two runs recorded with
different acquisition parameters that were
chosen to cause a different response in gas.
Permeability can still be obtained from
equation (3), taking the porosity from
another source, such as the density log in
shaly sandstones or the density-neutron log
combination.

CMR Tool
The principle of the CMR is the same

as a laboratory NMR instrument. The two
powerful permanent magnets provide the
static magnetic field, B0. The transmitter
and receiver are provided by an antenna
that is skid-mounted to cut through mud
cake and has good contact with the
formation. By design, the tool
measurement volume is a region from
about 0.5 in. to 1.25 in. into the formation
and stretches the length of the antenna,
about 6 in. The volume in front of the
antenna up to 0.5 in. does not contribute
to the signal, which allows the tool to
ignore a certain amount of rugosity, similar
to a density tool.
The CMR is only 14 ft long and is
combinable with many other logging tools.
The bowspring eccentralizer, or external
powered calipers, ensure good contact
over most hole sizes. Calibration is simple
and consists of placing a bottle of water
against the skid to simulate 100% porosity.
The standard outputs are CMR

porosity (CMRP), free fluid and bound
fluid volume (CMFF and BFV), permeability, and the T2 distribution. Other
outputs include the analysis of the T2
distribution in terms of pore size, the
detection of hydrocarbons and the viscosity of oil. Polarization or wait time,
number of echoes, echo spacing and other
parameters can be selected according to
the needs of the job (Chapter 429). With
echo spacings being reduced to 0.2 msec,
and with processing that takes advantage
of the early echoes, the CMR is able to
measure T2s down to 0.3 msec.
Permanent magnet
Bowspring
eccentralizer
Borehole wall
Electronic
cartridge
14 ft
Antenna
Tool Specifications
Wear plate
CMR skid
Length
14 ft
Weight
300 lbm
Minimum hole
6.5 in.
Special cases
6.0 in.
Measurement aperture
6.0 in.
Mud resistivity
No limits
Max. temperature
350F
Sensitive zone
Permanent magnet

TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
Figure 5.12
Velocity change (%)
2
0
2
4
(a)
6
High
Medium
Low
8
10
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
Frequency (kHz)
Attenuation (1 q)
0.25
High
Medium
Low
0.20
(b)
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
Frequency (kHz)
Theoretical predictions for

(a) velocity difference
(relative to impermeable
rock) and (b) attenuation
for three rock mobilities:
(adapted from Winkler
et al., 1989).
10.0
The Oligocene and Cretaceous sandstone reservoirs in North Monagas are a

sequence of up to 30 distinct oil-bearing
sandstones separated by shales. These
sandstones contain oil that varies in gravity
between 5 and 36API. It is common to find
the unproductive heavy-oil zones sandwiched between zones of light oil, and viceversa. Ever since the discovery of these
deep-seated reservoirs, a few intervals have
yielded noncommercial production for one
of the following reasons:
1. low-permeability, very tight reservoirs
2. high-permeability formations containing
heavy to extra-heavy oil deep along the
flanks of the folds
3. reservoirs that have undergone a high
degree of tectonism, so that the lighter
hydrocarbon fractions have migrated
through nonsealing faults, leaving behind
the heavier asphaltenes and resins.
Because it is uneconomical to test each
zone, it is important to use logs to
distinguish unproductive intervals. However,
the majority of the wells are drilled with
OBM, so that many conventional techniques
are limited or not applicable. In this
situation, two measurements have been used
to indicate fluid mobilitythe Stoneley wave
and NMR. In combination with standard
logs, these can clearly separate zones of low
mobility with extra-heavy oil. In addition,
they can be used to estimate permeability.
The example below illustrates the use of the
Stoneley wave measurement in this situation.
Stoneley mobility
Correlations of permeability with
Stoneley wave slowness or attenuation have
been reported by many authors over the
years (e.g., Winkler et al., 1989). In a
cylindrical borehole with a rigid formation,
the Stoneley propagation would be both
nondispersive and nonattenuative. With an
elastic formation the Stoneley becomes
dispersive; in other words, it changes with
frequency, because the borehole wall yields
to the pressure in the fluid column. When
the formation fluid is mobile, the Stoneley
induces fluid flow in the formation, which
causes it to lose energy and slow down. This
happens even in the presence of a mudcake,
although the latter can have an important
effect. Theoretical and experimental results
have shown that the Stoneley is dependent
on the mobility of the fluid, k/m. Figure 5.12
shows the typical effect on Stoneley velocity
and attenuation in sandstones with permeabilities of 1.0, 0.1 and 0.01 darcy with a
fluid viscosity of 1.0 cp. Similar effects will
be observed if the permeability is held
constant and the viscosity varied. It can be
seen that at low frequency, the Stoneley is a
sensitive measure of mobility, providing the
latter is reasonably high.
The Stoneley was used successfully in
the late 1980s as an indicator of which zones
to test. A quick but reliable result was
important, so the efforts focused on use of
the Stoneley energy. The total amplitude
between 0.5 and 5.0 kHz at one receiver was
summed, inverted and then normalized
between 0 and 1 using the lowest and
highest values found in the well.

Figure 5.13
Oil
Water
. . . . . . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. ...
. . . . . . . .Quartz
. . . . . .
Clay
Time
DCAL
Volume Analysis
VV
Stoneley Index
0 1 (in.) 9 0
13,960.0
1000
(msec)
5000
(a)
13,980.0
13,650.0
(b)
13,670.0
13,690.0
Examples of the effect of

fluid mobility on the Stoneley
waveform. In (a) the Stoneley
is strongly attenuated and
the zone produced well; in
(b) the Stoneley is not
attenuated and the zone
did not produce.
Unfortunately, shales have the same effect as

fluid mobility in attenuating the signal.
Therefore, it was necessary to multiply the
result by (1Vsh) to obtain a shale-corrected
Stoneley Index. Figure 5.13a shows the result
in a zone of good mobility. The Stoneley
waveforms on the right are clearly
attenuated, causing a high Stoneley Index.
This zone produced 5579 BOPD with a GOR
of 2468. On the other hand, Figure 5.13b
shows a strong Stoneley waveform in the
sandstones and a correspondingly low
Stoneley Index, even though the volumetric
analysis shows the sandstones to be very
similar to those in Fig. 5.13a. The production

from this zone was zero, and thin sections
showed the pore space occluded with dead
oil. A study of 18 zones from six wells
successfully predicted which zones would
produce and which would not. It was also
shown that the higher the Index, the higher
the productivity.
The need for normalization and shale
correction made this technique quite
empirical. However, the advent of the DSI
tool (Chapter 433) has made it possible to
use Stoneley velocity, rather than Stoneley
energy, for mobility determination. This
avoids the need for normalization and
empirical shale correction, and improves the
robustness of the result. It has been shown
that, to the first order, and in the absence of
mudcake, the fluid mobility is a complicated
function of Stoneley slowness as follows:
k/m = C Se2 (Sst - Se)2
(4)
where C=f (borehole radius, porosity,

frequency, mud density, the general elastic
coefficients and k/m). Sst is the measured
Stoneley slowness, and Se is the theoretical
Stoneley slowness for an equivalent zero
permeability rock. Se can be determined
from other measurements as follows:
(Se / Ss)2 = (Sf / Ss)2 + rm/ rb
(5)
where Ss is formation shear slowness, rb is

bulk density and rm mud density. Sf is the
mud slowness and can be determined by
analyzing the DSI waveforms in washed-out
holes or opposite impermeable zones, as
described below. Thus, it is possible to
calculate k/m from logging measurements.

TA R D E T E C T I O N A N D P E R M E A B I L I T Y E VA L U AT I O N I N N O RT H M O N A G A S
Figure 5.14
1
6
CALI
(in.)
GR
(gAPI)
16
150
Depth
(ft)
LLD
(ohm-m)
LLS
(ohm-m)
MSFL
(ohm-m)
1000
1000
1000
1.9
RHOB
(g / cm3 )
0.45
NPHI
(V V)
14,800
14,900
15,000
15,100
15,500
C
15,800
A
15,900
2.9
0.15
Figure 5.14 shows standard logs from a

North Monagas well. In this rare case, WBM
was used so that the resistivity profile
derived
from
LLD-LLS-MIFL
easily
distinguishes which zones have immobile
fluids. For example, the resistivity curves at
B (15,860 ft) shows large separation, and
hence invasion, whereas the sandstone at A
(15,890 ft) shows no invasion even though
porosity and shaliness are similar. The
pressure profile from the RFT* Repeat
Formation Tester shows this zone to be oilbearing. The logs were interpreted with
ELAN* Elemental Log Analysis to give the
formation evaluation shown in track 4, Fig.
5.15 and the fluid analysis in track 3. The
difference between yellow mobile hydrocarbons and green immobile hydrocarbons
is clearly seen.
A DSI was also run in this well and
processed to give compressional, shear and
Stoneley slownesses. Track 2 shows the
measured Stoneley slowness and the zeromobility Stoneley slowness, Se. The latter
was calculated from equation (5), ignoring
dispersion, which is small and constant at
the frequency of measurement. Sf was
picked so that Sst and Se overlay on average
in the shales. Sst and Se show no separation
opposite zones with immobile oil, such as A,
but separate very clearly opposite the zones
with moveable hydrocarbons, such as B. The
excellent agreement between the Stoneley
and the resistivity indication of mobile fluids
is confirmed at C (15,500 ft) and in other
zones not shown. This demonstrates that in
an OBM well, where the resistivity profile
is not available, the comparison of Se and
Sst can be used as a reliable indicator of
mobile fluids.
Standard openhole logs over the Oligocene and Cretaceous in MUC-20.

5 10
Figure 5.15
Hydrocarbon
Moved hydrocarbon
Mud cake
Water
Mobility effect
2
St Permeability
10,000
0.1
Core Permeability
Depth
(ft)
10,000
(md)
0.1 280
DCAL
(in.)
Vxw
8
Elastic t Stoneley
Vw
Fluid analysis
t Stoneley
Core porosity
(ms / ft)
(V V)
230 0.25
14,800
14,900
15,000
15,100
15,500
Shale
Sandstone
Porosity
Volumetric analysis
(V V)
0 1
0
Cores were taken from 15,500 ft and

above, and standard analysis was made on
more than 600 core plugs. The porosities and
permeabilities are shown in Fig.5.15. Several
attempts were made to calculate permeability
from the Stoneley using the full theoretical
relationship summarized in equation (4).
However, the results were unstable and not
entirely satisfactory. The mudcake is largely
responsible. Being a strongly elastic material,
it adds to the measured slowness, but at the
same time it introduces an impedance
between borehole and formation, which
reduces it. At the time of processing, there
was no way to estimate these parameters
independently and they had to be input
empirically. In the end the Stoneley mobility
was calculated using equation (4) and using a
constant factor of C=2 by calibrating to the
cores. The results (track 1, Fig. 5.15) are
remarkably good, particularly considering the
different scale of the two measurements (a
few feet for the Stoneley versus 1 in. for the
plug). The agreement is generally within a
factor of 3, and the trends, such as the finingup in sandstones D and E, are well reflected.
In the small zone of immobile oil at C, the
Stoneley reflects the lack of mobility (m is
high), whereas the core shows some
permeability because it has been cleaned. The
core description shows organic matter
throughout this zone.
15,800
A
15,900
Core analysis and log interpretation results from MUC-20.
5 11
Conclusion
In the Oligocene and Cretaceous sandstones of North Monagas, acoustic logs can
clearly distinguish between mobile and
immobile fluids. Unlike resistivity, this distinction works in OBMs as well as WBMs.
Acoustic logs can also be used to estimate
permeability. However, in the current state of
the art, this needs calibrating against another
source of permeability.
An alternative method of estimating
permeability and detecting tar in OBM wells
is with NMR. An example is shown in the
following pages.

I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F G A S A N D T A R L AY E R S W I T H N M R T O O L S
The Santa Brbara Field, located in the

area known as North Monagas, is geologically
very complex, both in the structural and
stratigraphic sense. It is characterized by a
very unique and complex distribution of
medium to light hydrocarbons that are of
considerable economic interest.
With more than 2500 ft of reservoir
deposition, gravitational segregation has produced a fluid column exhibiting considerable
variations, from light crude at the bottom of
the structure, to gas condensate near the top.
In addition, a region of critical fluid has been
identified at the gas-oil interface. Additional
complexities are associated with the presence
of asphaltenes and discrete tar levels that may
have a significant impact on field management
during production.
In such an environment, fluid characterization becomes a very important log
interpretation issue. Traditionally, this implies
estimating formation hydrocarbon density
based on invaded zone saturation and
assumed hydrocarbons, filtrate, matrix density
and neutron responses. In many cases, results
become ambiguous because of deep invasion
or lithology changes masking changes in
formation fluid density. In the case of the
Santa Brbara Field, the interpreters task is
made more complex by variable invasion of
OBM filtrate that cannot be characterized by
resistivity logs. In other words, a small
density-neutron separation can be attributed
either to a mixture of gas and invading OBM,
or to a light oil, with shallow invasion. In
addition, tar levels are not seen by
conventional logs.
The following interpretation examples
demonstrate how NMR in combination with
conventional porosity logs can provide the
additional information required to reliably
distinguish between gas, liquid and tar in the
Santa Brbara Field.
Effect of gas on CMR porosity

NMR tools measure a signal proportional to the volume of hydrogen in the
pore fluids and are, therefore, a measurement of the formations hydrogen index
(HI), which is significantly less in the case of
gas. In this simple manner, NMR tools
provide a gas detection indicator analogous
to the conventional neutron porosity
measurement. However, unlike the latter, the
NMR does not respond to changes in
lithology nor to neutron absorbers, nor does
it suffer any excavation effect. The
difference between the HI of oil and gas is
significant.
Published charts allow us to estimate
the importance of the variation in HI
between an oil and a gas. For an example,
with pure methane, at the downhole
conditions corresponding to these wells, the
gas HI would be 0.5, while that of a 30API
oil would remain 1, close to water.
Therefore, based on hydrogen effect alone,
CMR porosity in a 100% gas zone would be
halved.
However, CMR porosity is reduced even
further in gas because of its long polarization time, or T1 (see above, page 56). The
long T1 means that in standard logging
conditions the hydrogen in the gas is
uncompletely polarized and does not
contribute to the signal.
An empirical polarization correction
based on an estimated T1/T2 ratio is
routinely applied to compensate for this
incomplete polarization. While this
polarization correction is adequate for
liquid-filled rocks, it is normally insufficient
in gas zones. and does not fully compensate
the reduction in CMR porosity.

5 12
Figure 5.16
fe
DensityNeutron
Depth of investigation
CMR
Depth of investigation
VIW
VXWA
VXOI
VIW
VXWA
VXOI
VXGA
VMF_CMR
VGAS_CMR
HI*CTOE*VGAS_CMR
fCMR
The CMRs shallow depth of

investigation may cause it to
see more filtrate than the
density-neutron tools. Gas
volume is quantified using
the gas HI and CMR
polarization time correction.
In the Santa Brbara Field, all wells are

drilled with OBM. Since OBM filtrate has a
relatively long polarization time, CMR logs
are routinely acquired with deliberately long
wait times, 5 secs in the current example.
While still insufficiently long for complete
gas polarization, simple NMR theory allows
us to estimate the level of polarization of the
gas protons under these conditions, as is
now shown.
Assuming that formation gas is pure
methane, at downhole conditions of 140C
and 10,000 psi, charts give us an estimated
gas T1 around 5 sec, identical to the applied
wait time. The signal is then given by:
CTOE = 1- e- WT/T1
(6)
and corresponds to an effective polarization

of only 63% of the gas protons. Therefore in
spite of the long wait time and slow logging
speed, an additional reduction in CMR
porosity is caused by incomplete
polarization of the gas protons.
NMR tools are also shallow reading
tools, with a depth of investigation of 1 in.
for the CMR, and their sensitivity to gas will
be reduced by mud filtrate invasion. In some
cases, invasion may even mask the presence
of gas altogether. However, because of its
high mobility, gas often will return to the
flushed zone through gravity segregation.
This mechanism is time-dependent and most
effective in high vertical permeability
formations.
5 13
Given the conditions prevalent in the

Santa Brbara Field, and the occasional deep
invasion, it is important to calculate the
actual volume of gas seen by the CMR in the
invaded zone to verify the fluid distribution
inferred from the density-neutron separation
and assumed fluid densities. In this manner,
the nature of the fluid present in the virgin
zone can be ascertained.
Given the conditions prevalent in the
Santa Brbara Field, and the occasional deep
invasion, it is important to calculate the
actual volume of gas seen by the CMR in the
OBM filtrate invaded zone to verify the fluid
distribution inferred from the densityneutron separation and assumed fluid
densities. In this manner, the nature of the
fluid present in the virgin zone can be
ascertained.
Estimating the volume
of gas in the invaded zone
Figure 5.16 shows how effective
porosity, as calculated by ELAN using
conventional density and neutron logs after
clay and hydrocarbon corrections, can be
expressed in the following manner:
fE = VIW + VXGA + VXOI + VXWA
(7)
In this expression, the X subscript

denotes flushed volumes at the densityneutron depth of investigation, IW indicates
irreducible water, GA indicates gas, OI
indicates oil and WA indicates free water.
At the shallower CMR depth of
investigation, some additional gas may have
been displaced by mud filtrate, therefore:
VXGA = VMF(CMR)+ VGAS(CMR)
(8)
The CMR porosity itself, seeing invaded

zone fluids, and before polarization
correction, will be equal to:
fCMR=
VIW + VXWA + VXOI + VMF(CMR)

+ HI*CTOE*VGAS(CMR)

(9)
Figure 5.17
Fluids
MDT Pressure
Water
Quartz
10250 (psi) 10750

MDT Dry test
Gas
Coal
1000 (md cp)

.1
MDT Mobility
CMR Porosity
deficit
Bound
water
Oil
Clay
1000 (md cp)
.1
Depth CMR Permeability Gas Fluid analysis

(ft) 1000
0
(md)
.1 flag .25 V V
Volume analysis
1
0
VV
T2 Cutoff
3
(ms)
3000
T2 Distribution
3
(ms)
3000
16,200
16,250
16,300
D
16,350
E
F
16,400
H
16,450
Santa Brbara reservoir

showing alternating oil,
tar and gas-bearing zones.
This set of equations can be solved for

VGAScmr, the gas volume seen by the CMR,
to obtain:
VGAS(CMR) = (fE- fCMR) / (1-HI*CTOE)
(10)
With the values of HI and CTOE

estimated in equation (10), a difference
between fE and fCMR of three p.u. will
correspond to 4.5 p.u. of gas present in the
formation at the CMR depth of investigation.
These equations also allow us to calculate a
liquid-only CMR porosity (CMRL), by
subtracting VGAS(CMR) from fCMR.
This simple computation allows for
direct comparison of gas volumes seen by
the CMR and gas volumes estimated from
the density-neutron response. If our
assumptions of a mixture of gas and OBM
filtrate in the invaded zone are correct, these

volumes should essentially be the same,
with only minor differences related to depth
of invasion. If the assumptions are incorrect,
these volumes will differ significantly,
indicating that it is not gas.
Such a comparison is presented in track
2 of Fig. 5.17, where we have defined a gas
indicator as the ratio of apparent gas volume
calculated from the density-neutron,
(assuming a gas density of 0.4 g/cm3) to the
gas volume seen by the CMR. Where gas is
truly present in the formation, this ratio will
be close to unity. Where no gas is present,
this ratio will be close to zero.
In this manner, the CMR confirms that
the intervals A, C, H (16,210 to 16,230 ft,
16,305 to 16,315 ft and 16,410 to 16,445 ft)
are gas-bearing, and separated by oilbearing intervals. In these intervals, the
estimated gas volume from the densityneutron (shown as the red gas volume in
track 3) agrees with the CMR gas volume,
and the hydrocarbon correction applied to
the standard porosity logs yields the true
effective porosity.
The CMR also identifies layers of
considerably reduced CMR porosity that are
not associated with any reduction in porosity
on the density-neutron. In Fig. 5.17, the
separation between fE and CMRL, coded in
blue, becomes very large and the gas flag
remains close to zero, showing no gas. We
attribute this response to the presence of tar,
since these zones (e.g. B, D, E, F, I ) also
correspond to regions of much shorter T2
distribution. As discussed above (page 55),
tars, with very high viscosities, have short
T2s and a significant signal which is too fast
to be recorded by NMR instruments.
The characteristic response of the CMR
to tar makes it one of the few tools able
to conclusively identify tar in a
hydrocarbon-bearing zone drilled with
OBM, where no resistivity contrast exists
between tar and non-tar intervals.

5 14
Figure 5.18
Water
Oil mud
filtrate
Filtrate volume
from CMR
.25
MDT Pressure
9950
1000
Depth
(ft)
1000
(psi)
MDT Mobility
10150
(md cp)
.1
CMR Permeability
(md)
.1
VV
Gas
Quartz
Water
Coal
Oil mud
filtrate
Bound
water
Gas
Clay
T2 Cutoff
1
(ms) 3000
T2 Distribution
Fluid analysis Volume analysis

.25 V V
0 1
0 1
VV
(ms) 3000
14,500
14,550
Gas reservoir after partial

dissipation of invasion.
5 15
Independent confirmation of tar presence is provided by the MDT results. Four

pressure points were attempted in front of
layers interpreted as tar. All four of them
turned out to be dry tests. Conversely, all
pressure points attempted in zones diagnosed
as oil or gas were successful. Furthermore,
the pressure distribution seen in this interval
does not fall on a simple straightforward
gradient. Considering that the field is in
production, this indicates a zone of reduced
vertical permeability, where fluid redistribution is slow, compatible with the existence
of a tar mat of some lateral extent.
In this case, the CMR allows the
petrophysicist to conclusively characterize a
complex gas-oil distribution within relatively
thin layers, where based on density-neutron
alone one would challenge an interpretation
showing an oil above gas profile
accompanied by insignificant changes in
formation pressure. At the same time it is
able to detect and quantify the distribution
of tar versus depth, tar being the probable
cause of this unusual fluid distribution.
Invasion effects
Another well from the same field
illustrates how OBM filtrate invasion can be
quite deep, contrary to what is normally
assumed, and that it can severely reduce the
gas effect on all shallow reading tools,
making gas detection considerably more
difficult. The intervals under study are
located in the known gas leg, and the
presence of gas in the formation is
unambiguously confirmed by MDT pressure
gradients. Our purpose here is again to
quantify the respective volumes of formation
gas and OBM filtrate seen by the porosity
tools and the CMR in the invaded zone.
Figure 5.18 is from an interval located in
the upper part of the well and presents a
direct comparison of gas volumes estimated
from density-neutron, red in track 3, and
CMR. The volume of liquid seen by CMR
(CMRL) is calculated by the method
described above so that the CMR gas volume
is the difference between CMRL and the
effective porosity. Even though the pressure
potential is low, the gas has had time to
return to the immediate borehole vicinity.
This is undoubtedly related to the high
permeability (track 1) predicted by the CMR,
and confirmed by the significant MDT
mobilities. As a consequence, the logs
exhibit a very strong gas effect, amounting
to nearly 50% of the total pore volume.
Furthermore, gas volumes calculated from
CMR and density-neutron values are virtually
identical, suggesting a homogeneous
distribution of gas at their respective depths
of investigation.
Figure 5.19, over an interval close to the
bottom of the well, shows a much reduced
hydrocarbon effect. Based on densityneutron interpretation alone, and the fact
that this interval is deeper and at higher
pressures, this interval could have been
interpreted either as a mixture of gas and
invading oil filtrate, as shown in Fig. 5.19,

Figure 5.19
Water
Oil mud
filtrate
Filtrate volume
from CMR
.25
MDT Pressure
9950
1000
Depth
(ft)
1000
(psi)
MDT Mobility
(md cp)
CMR Permeability
(md)
10150
.1
.1
VV
Gas
Quartz
Water
Coal
Oil mud
filtrate
Bound
water
Gas
Clay
T2 Cutoff
1
Fluid analysis Volume analysis

.25 V V
0 1
0 1
VV
(ms) 3000
T2 Distribution
(ms) 3000
15,100
15,150
C
15,200
Deeply invaded gas-bearing section of the same well.
or as light oil. The interpretation of gas is

supported by the liquid filled porosity from
CMR, CMRL, which generally agrees with the
oil filtrate volume from density-neutron. In
the intervals where it does not, such as B
and C, it is assumed that the gas has not yet
migrated back to the borehole wall. This is
more likely than in the upper interval (Fig.
5.18), given the shorter time since drilling,
the lower permeability (track 1) and the
lower MDT mobility. Some zones show the
amount of gas decreasing with depth below
a shalier streak, e.g. at A and D, indicating
that gravity segregation is at work.
In a qualitative manner, the CMR T2

distribution in both intervals confirms this interpretation. In the lower interval (Fig. 5.19),
the T2 distribution is remarkably uniform, and
largely contained between 100 and 1000
msec. This is consistent with the OBM filtrate
signal of 300 msec, as measured on the
surface at room temperature by the CMR tool.
When allowing for changes of viscosity due
to temperature that will raise the bulk oil
filtrate T2, this response qualitatively confirms
that most of the porosity is invaded by filtrate.
Any diffusion occurring in the gas fraction of
the pore fluids is too small to be noticed.
In the upper interval, the T2 distribution
is much broader, extending from less than 10
msec to about 800 msec, and has a tendency
to flatten out and evolve into two separate
peaks. This is most probably due to
significant diffusion effects taking place in
the large amount of gas in the pore space,
and shortening the T2 distribution times in
the gas phase.
This example shows that although both
zones are gas-bearing, the reduction in gas
effect caused by deeper and more complete
OBM invasion can easily be mistaken for
light oil, based on density-neutron information alone. Independent calculation of gas
volume from the CMR confirms that the zone
is in fact gas-bearing.
Diffusion effects
Molecular diffusion is much faster in gas
than in liquid. This effect can be observed
in the NMR response.
Diffusion has a significant effect on
pulsed NMR measurements, since a diffusing
molecule with a polarized proton can travel
a significant distance between successive
manipulations. As the static magnetic field of
a logging tool is not uniform, this
displacement will cause a dephasing of the
proton magnetization, and a shift in the
T2 distribution toward shorter times.

5 16
Figure 5.20
.03
T2 Amplitude
Echo spacing 1 msec

Echo spacing .32 msec
Difference spectrum
.03
.1
Diffusion effects on CMR:

Shifted Spectrum Method.
5 17
10
100
1000
T2 Distribution (msec)
Clearly, the effect of diffusion on an NMR

logging tool will depend on the echo spacing
(page 52), since echo trains with a short
spacing will allow far less time for diffusion
than echo trains with long echo spacing.
Akkurt et al. (1995) have taken
advantage of this phenomenon to propose a
qualitative gas detection method known as
the Shifted Spectrum Method. Two separate
measurements are taken at widely differing
echo spacings, and one distribution is
subtracted from the other, eliminating the
contribution of non-diffusive fluids.
Figure 5.20 shows T2 distributions from
a CMR station in a known gas zone with a
porosity of 12 p.u. from a nearby well. Both
T2 distributions were acquired using the
same wait time of 6 sec, but with different
echo spacings of: 0.32 and 1 msec, respectively. The difference between the short and
long echo spacing measurements have been
calculated and displayed.
Both stations show a bimodal
distribution, but the relative size of each
peak changes with the echo spacing. The
area under each curve remains the same,
and so does the porosity, but at longer echo
spacing, the shorter T2 peak becomes the
larger one, as expected due to the much
greater diffusion in the gas at this spacing.
By taking the difference between the

two distributions the liquid signal is
subtracted out, leaving only the gas. The
positive lobe corresponds to the gas signal
present in the short echo station, and the
negative lobe to the gas signal present in the
long echo station. The areas under each lobe
are almost equal, and correspond to the
volume of gas in the formation, before
correction for HI and CTOE.
While these CMR spectra were acquired
during a station, the same operation could
be performed during depth logging, using a
standard main pass with a 0.32-msec echo
spacing, and a repeat pass with a 1-msec
echo spacing. Combining these two passes
would provide an independent qualitative
confirmation of the presence of gas, based
on gas diffusion effect on the CMR alone.
Another technique for gas detection is
based on the difference in polarization
between a long wait time and a short one
(Akkurt, 1995, Flaum, 1996). However in all
these difference techniques, the relative
change in signal, and hence the robustness
of the indicator, is much less than the
difference between CMR posoity and
density.
Conclusion
Identifying gas and tar in a formation is
one of the most important issues in log
interpretation. The examples presented
show that the unique properties of NMR
allow for unambiguous identification and
quantification of the volume of both gas and
tar present in the invaded zone, removing
uncertainties inherent to traditional densityneutron interpretation, even in complex
cases such as OBM and deep invasion.

RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING
Types of hydrocarbons
Reservoir engineers often describe
reservoir fluids using classical, but rather
unscientific, terms that are widely understood
in the industry. These are: tar, heavy oil, black
oil, volatile oil, gas condensates, wet gases
and dry gases. These definitions do not have
distinct boundaries of application and so they
become difficult to employ in the transition
areas between volatile oil and gas
condensate, and volatile oil and black oil.
The general description of each classification

and the approximate range of some
properties that are encompassed are given in
Table 5.1.
Venezuela has one of the most
comprehensive ranges of hydrocarbon
deposits in the world, covering the complete
spectrum of fluids from the extra-heavy
crudes of the Orinoco Belt through the
complex volatile oils and retrograde gas
condensates in North Monagas, to reservoirs
that produce virtually dry gas. The fluids
from the North Monagas fields are very
challenging from a sampling point of view as
they are near-critical in behavior.
Volatile or near-critical oils are very light
fluids that are liquid at reservoir conditions.
The reservoir temperature is very close to the
critical temperature of the fluid. These oils
exhibit a bubble point saturation pressure
and have a very high shrinkage that is
typically 40% of the hydrocarbon pore space
for as little as 10 psi reduction in pressure.
This phenomenon can be easily understood
from the phase diagram shown in Fig. 5.21.
The quality lines near the critical point and
reservoir temperature are extremely close
together and almost parallel to the bubble
point line. Any reduction in pressure below
the bubble point will very quickly intersect
the 60% quality line, indicating the typical
high shrinkage of these oils.
Similarly, for fluids that exist as gas at
reservoir conditions with a reservoir temperature very close to the critical temperature, a
very small reduction of pressure below the
dew point results in a high percentage of
liquid formation. This liquid or retrograde
condensate is relatively immobile when
compared to the gas phase; therefore,
production will preferentially be gas, and the
valuable liquid will not be produced.
Table 5.1
Fluid type
Color of stock
tank liquid
API
gravity
GOR (1)
Phase in
Bo
reservoir (2) (3)
Mole%
heptanes plus
Tar
Black Dark
Visc >10,000 cp
<10
no gas
Liquid -
<1.05
>45
Heavy Oil
Black Dark
1025
<100
Liquid - pb
<1.2
>35
Black Oil
Black Dark
3040
1002500
Liquid - pb
<2.0
>20
Volatile Oil
Various colors
4050
>3000
Liquid - pb
>2.0
2012.5
Gas Condensate
Pale
5070
3000100,000
Gas - pd
n/a
<12.5
Wet Gas
Colorless
6070
>100,000
Gas -
n/a
<4
Dry Gas
No Liquid
No liquid 100,000
Gas -
n/a
<0.7
(1)
(2)
(3)
GOR is initial producing gas oil ratio expressed in scf STB

Phase in reservoir - liquid with no bubble point
liquid exhibiting bubble point (pb).
gas with dew point at phase change (pd).
gas no phase change at reservoir temperature.
dry gas-no phase change at reservoir or surface temperature.
Bo is oil formation volume factor at bubble point.
A typical classification of hydrocarbon type.
Figure 5.21
2700
Liquid
2600
2500
2300
100 %
90 %
80 %
70 %
2200
60 %
2400
Pressure (psia)
ui
Liq
db
y vo
Bubble point
lume
Dew point
Gas
0%
2100
2000
50 %
1900
1800
40 %
1700
1600
1500
30 %
1400
1300
60
20 %
10 %
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
Temperature (F)
Typical phase diagram for a volatile or near-critical oil.

5 18
The physical characteristics of the

volatile oils and retrograde condensates
recovered in the stock tank may be very
similar and do not allow accurate classification of reservoir fluid type. Many cases
exist in Venezuela where gas condensate
reservoir fluid produces dark stock tank
liquid of 33 to 35API, while some volatile oil
reservoir fluids produce lighter-colored stock
tank liquids of higher gravity.
At the opposite end of the spectrum,
heavy oils present a challenge in that their
physical properties must be well defined to
design appropriate artificial lift systems, surface production facilities and export facilities.
Small amounts of dissolved gas can
significantly alter properties such as viscosity,
which is central to reservoir modeling and
production flow calculations.
The importance of high-quality
reservoir fluid samples
In studying the economics of a hydrocarbon reserve, the predicted production
capacity needs to be evaluated against the
capital investment and the operating costs.
The most accurate estimate of recoverable
reserves is, therefore, critical in determining
the economic viability of a potential
reservoir. The calculation of total reserves in
place and the projected recoverable reserves
depend on the reliability of the data
employed. A reliable reserves calculation is
most needed during the early stages of a
project when often only a minimum amount
of information is available. Electric logs, core
analysis, PVT studies and production well
tests are central to initial economic models.
5 19
Furthermore, the design of surface production facilities is usually totally dependent

on fluid properties determined from samples
obtained from exploratory and appraisal
wells. If this sampling provides unrepresentative fluids, the cost implication can be high.
In the Beryl Field of the North Sea, the
surface production facilities had to be
modified at considerable additional cost, as
later evidence revealed the oil to be more
volatile than originally thought.
When dealing with light hydrocarbons,
and particularly when the reservoir temperature is very close to the critical temperature,
the accuracy of such mundane parameters as
reservoir temperature and initial pressure
must be viewed in a completely different light.
As discussed above, a relatively small change
in temperature or pressure will result in drastic
changes in the expected PVT behavior of the
fluid. Sampling techniques are, therefore, of
the utmost importance in such cases to obtain
high-quality PVT samples.
In many near-critical fluids studied in
Venezuela, the type of fluid present in the
reservoir could not be defined until the
results of laboratory studies were available.
It has been found in some cases that two
different zones in the same well contain
different types of critical fluid at initial
reservoir conditions, one in the gas phase
and one in the liquid phase. The correct
classification of a hydrocarbon can have a
significant economic impact on a project
from the aspect of OPEC quota, fiscal
regime, production sharing agreements, etc.
Sampling methods to capture
representative samples
Because of advances in sampling
technology, operators can now choose to
obtain PVT-quality samples in openhole or
cased hole. This offers considerable flexibility from both an operational point of view
and in terms of improving the quality and
quantity of samples.

Figure 5.22
Electric power
module
Hydraulic power
module
Probe module
OFA
module
Multisample
module
Pump-out
module
A typical configuration of the

MDT for openhole sampling.
In the openhole environment, a new

generation wireline formation tester known
as the MDT has been developed specifically
to obtain high-quality samples at multiple
depths in the well. A modification to this
tool is being developed that allows it to be
run in a cased hole, drill a hole in the casing,
take a fluid sample, and then re-plug the
hole with a special steel plug. For sampling
during a well test or at any time during production of a well, a new bottomhole sampler
has been developed that allows a sample to
be captured downhole and brought to
surface under monophasic conditions.
Preservation of the monophasic state of the
sample means that PVT laboratory results
more faithfully represent the true fluid
properties.
Surface sampling of liquid and gas in a
surface separator for recombination in the
laboratory in the ratio of the field measured
GOR usually complements other sampling
methods. However, it has drawbacks if it is
used as the only sampling procedure.
Sampling in openhole
Sampling technology has evolved
significantly in recent years. Until recently, it
was not generally considered feasible to
obtain PVT-quality samples from an
openhole wireline formation tester such as
the RFT. During the drilling process, the
formation is always invaded to a greater or
lesser extent by mud filtrate. Samples taken
by the RFT were usually contaminated with
mud filtrate. An attempt to overcome this was
to take segregated samples where flow was
initially directed to one sample chamber to
clean-up the zone around the RFT probe,
and then to a second chamber to capture
what was hoped to be uncontaminated
reservoir fluid. In highly invaded zones this
method still resulted in contaminated
samples. The situation has been further
complicated by the widespread use of OBM.
OBM filtrate is miscible with reservoir

hydrocarbon fluid, which not only makes
contamination more difficult to detect, but
also the consequences of the contamination
are much more serious, since the mud filtrate
can significantly change the PVT properties
of the reservoir fluid.
The MDT wireline formation tester has
overcome the limitations of the RFT by being
designed specifically with reservoir fluid
sampling in mind. The tool incorporates a
pump that enables pumping of the formation fluid into the wellbore to clean up the
formation fluid to condition it for sampling.
Only when the fluid being pumped is pure,
a representative reservoir fluid sample is
captured into a sample chamber. The tool is
able to identify the fluid flowing through it
by use of a resistivity measurement and from
an analysis of the absorption of light in the
visible and near-infrared region. Resistivity
distinguishes hydrocarbon from WBM
filtrate, while optical analysis discriminates
gas from liquid and formation hydrocarbon
from OBM filtrate.
The MDT can be configured in many
ways because of its modular construction.
The selection of modules and their position in
the tool string are decided by the objectives
of the operation and the well characteristics
and conditions. A typical MDT configuration
for sampling is shown in Fig. 5.22. The tool is
set at the desired depth by hydraulically
forcing the probe against the formation wall.
The probe cuts through the mudcake to make
communication with the formation, while the
surrounding rubber packer isolates the probe
from the hydrostatic borehole pressure.

5 20
A schematic of the
single-probe architecture is shown in
CQG
Crystal Quartz Gauge
Fig. 5.23. Once set, a
pre-test can be performed that involves
Isolation
withdrawing up to
valve
20 cm3 of fluid by
Equalizing
the displacement of
valve
a small piston. The
Wellbore
pressure
resulting perturbation of the formation
Strain
pressure is used to
gauge
estimate the permeability of the formaBlock diagram
tion surrounding the
of the singleprobe. The subseprobe module.
quent buildup deterPretest
mines the formation
pressure. The permeability
helps
Resistivity
decide the feasibility
cell
of attempting a sample at that depth,
Packer
while the pressure
profile versus depth
Probe
helps identify the
nature of the formation fluid. If it is
Flowline bus
decided to take a
sample, then the
pump-out is used to pump fluid from the
formation through the flowline bus and into
the borehole. The resistivity cell adjacent to
the probe helps discriminate between saline
water and hydrocarbon. The resistivity of the
fluid being pumped will initially be characteristic of the mud filtrate. As the fluid cleans
up, the resistivity will trend to a constant
value characteristic of the formation fluid.
Figure 5.23
5 21
If the formation is hydrocarbon-bearing, the

resistivity cell measurement will saturate at a
high value, while if the formation is waterbearing, the resistivity cell measurement will
stabilize at a value characteristic of the
formation water resistivity. When the fluid is
considered to be representative of formation
fluid, the pumping may be halted and the
fluid diverted to a sample chamber.
In wells where the drilling fluid is OBM
or where the fluid is close to its saturation
pressure, then the OFA* Optical Fluid
Analyzer module can be extremely valuable.
The principle of operation of the OFA is
shown in Fig. 5.24. If the mud filtrate is oilbased, then resistivity is unable to discriminate
between the filtrate and the formation fluid. In
this case the OFA can be used to discriminate
the fluids by analyzing the way visible and
near-infrared light is absorbed by the flowline
fluid. The flowline passes through two
independent optical sensors. In one sensor
absorption spectroscopy is used to detect and
analyze liquid. In the other sensor a light
reflection measurement detects gas.
These measurements allow distinction
between OBM filtrate and formation oil and
help determine when to divert the flow to a
sample chamber. When sampling fluids are
close to their saturation pressure, the sampling pressure can be raised if gas is detected
in the flowline so as to ensure the sample is
taken under monophasic flow conditions.

Figure 5.24
Gas detector
Lamp
@P,Q
Q,P@
@@@@
PPPP
,,,,
QQQQ
Q,P@
@@@@
PPPP
,,,,
QQQQ
Fluid flow
Flowline
Liquid detector
Water
Oil
Gas
The OFA module with its two sensor systems: one for liquid detection and analysis
and the other for gas detection.
Figure 5.25
Sample point
Single-shot
control valves
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
Water
cushion
line
Manual
shut-in
valves
An important consideration in sampling

is having a suitable receptacle in which to
capture and preserve the sample. The MDT
has a multisample module (see Fig. 5.25)
that contains six separate cylinders each
capable of holding 450-cm3 of sample. A
motor-driven, surface computer-controlled
throttle valve provides inlet choking to
control the pressure in the flowline so that
the fluid can be maintained in a monophasic
condition. In addition, a water cushion is
used behind the sample chamber piston to
further regulate the sample collection. The
cylinders once filled are sealed by a control
valve. At the surface, the cylinders can be
detached from the module and shipped
directly to a PVT laboratory without the
need for sample transfer. This feature
eliminates the possibility of mishandling the
sample at the well site.
The MDT single probe has a diameter
of just less than one inch. If the formation has
low permeability, then the pressure drop due
to fluid withdrawal can be considerable and
may cause formation fluid to become diphasic, leading to unrepresentative samples.
Flowline bus
Water
cushion
choke
Motor-driven
throttle seal
valve
Water cushion relief
Water
receiver
Left: block diagram of the multisample module.

Right: the 450-cm3 multisample bottles are certified for air transportation.

5 22
Figure 5.26
To overcome this, a dual packer module (see

Fig. 5.26) has been developed that is inflated
and deflated using the pump-out module.
When inflated, the dual packer isolates 1 m of
formation between the packers that
represents a large surface area for flow. Fluid
sampling can be achieved in lowpermeability formations with very little
drawdown. Although the dual packer module
was developed primarily for fluid sampling, it
is also finding applications in rock mechanics
evaluation. The pump-out module is used for
in-situ rock stress tests to pump between the
dual packers to perform a mini-frac of the
formation. This determines the magnitude of
stresses in the formation.
Dual-packer
module with
its basic
components
and a singleprobe module.
5 23
The advantages of sampling

in openhole are:
samples can be taken at many different
depths. This is important if different
layers contain different fluids or if the
fluid properties in a thick, single
reservoir vary significantly with depth.
fluids can be sampled with very small
drawdown. Openhole sampling is
arguably the most effective method for
sampling critical fluids for this reason.
water samples can be taken while the
well is uncased, whereas water production is usually avoided in choosing
perforations for a cased hole test.
there is no production at the surface,
which has benefits in environmentally
sensitive areas.
a reservoir fluid sample can be taken
even if the formation pressure is not
sufficient to allow natural production
to surface.
MDT run with OFA in Venezuela

Figure 5.27 shows a log run in a well in
Venezuela that was acquired while pumping
out before sampling with an MDT. The tool
string included an OFA and the mud system
was water-based. In the right track of the
station log, the fraction of oil and water
flowing through the OFA are represented
graphically along with a coloration indicator. Resistivity of the fluid is shown in the
left track. It can be seen that the coloration
indicator and the oil/water content analysis
clearly indicate an increasing oil content in
the pumped-out fluid before the resistivity
measurement shows any significant change.
This is because while the continuous phase
is water, the resistivity is not very sensitive to
the amount of the oil fraction. With
resistivity alone, a sampling attempt could
be abandoned prematurely. By the same
token, when the continuous phase is oil, the
resistivity measurement is not sensitive to
small droplets of water. The optical analysis,
however, gives a fine-scale level of fluid
purity that allows the right sampling time to
be determined to ensure that an uncontaminated sample is captured. This example
demonstrates the value of having an optical
analysis of the fluid content so that in real
time the appropriate information is available
to optimize the sampling operation.
Sampling in cased hole
The most common method of sampling
when a well is cased is by simultaneously
taking samples of separator gas and
separator liquid during either a test on the
well or during routine production. The
drawbacks of this method are that the gas
usually contains droplets of liquid that may
not be sampled in the correct proportion,
thus distorting the gas composition. The gas
and liquid must be recombined in the ratio
of the GOR measured in the separator.

Figure 5.27
Example of an
Oil
Resistivity
(ohm-m)
Fluid coloration
Water
Elapsed
Highly
(FCOL)
time absorbing
2 (sec)
0.0001
fluid
1620
MDT station log,

acquired while
0.01
pumping out
before sampling.
1530
1440
1350
1260
1170
1080
990
900
810
720
630
540
450
360
Any error in the GOR measurement could

have serious consequences on the accuracy
of the PVT properties, particularly for
volatile oils, gas condensates and critical or
near-critical fluids.
To avoid the problems associated with

recombined surface samples, a monophasic
sample of the produced fluid can be
captured at the bottom of the well with a
bottomhole sampler. Earlier types of
bottomhole samplers were circulation-type,
which were run open in the well. The
sample chamber was flushed with fluid by
slowly moving the wireline up and down
just before sampling. A mechanical
triggering device closed the sampler at the
required time, trapping a sample of fluid in
the pressure chamber. The advantage of this
type of sampler was that no differential
pressure existed during sampling. A
disadvantage was the risk of not completely
flushing the tool with fluid at the sampling
depth. A later design of the production
sampler was the admission type. These tools
were run closed in the well and then opened
at the required depth. As the wellbore fluid
entered, it forced hydraulic oil through a
choke into an air chamber. When the sample
chamber was full, it was closed and brought
back to surface.
In any bottomhole sampling operation,
the temperature decreases when the
sampling tool is brought back to the surface.
By the time the sample is recovered, it has
cooled sufficiently to reduce the pressure
below the bubble point of the sample,
causing the sample to become diphasic.
Before transferring the fluid to a shipping
bottle, it must be returned to a monophasic
and homogeneous state. This process is,
especially for heavy oils, time-consuming
and often impossible to achieve. In addition,
when sampling fluids for asphaltene or wax
deposition studies, the pressure reduction to
two-phase conditions can result in solids
precipitation. This can be irreversible, thus
rendering the sample unrepresentative.

5 24
Reservoir
fluid
Pressure compensating fluid
Buffer
fluid
Nitrogen
Clock
Regulator
valve
Hydraulic
oil
Floating
piston
Nitrogen charge
maintains sample
pressure above
reservoir pressure
Sampling
ports
Nitrogen
charge
The single-phase reservoir
The single-phase sampler ready to
sampler ready to be run in
pull out of the hole, with nitrogen
the hole.
charge activated.
A recent development in sampling technology has overcome these problems. The

sampler is called the SRS* Single Phase
Reservoir Sampler. The SRS is unique in that
the sample taken in the reservoir is
maintained in single-phase condition,
including during retrieval from the reservoir
and transport to the laboratory. Figure 5.28
shows the single-phase reservoir sampler
ready to be run in the hole. A nitrogen charge
is set at the surface in the tool. The sampling
ports are closed and the mechanical clock is
set to open the regulating valve at the
required time. The air chamber above the
regulating valve is at atmospheric pressure
and the buffer fluid maintains the floating
piston at the lower end of its travel.
5 25
When the sampler is activated, the

wellbore fluid enters the tool and displaces
the floating piston, driving the hydraulic
fluid into the air chamber. When the sample
chamber is full, the floating piston acts on
the closure device to move the fixed piston
that isolates the sampling ports, thereby
sealing the sample inside the tool. At the
same time the spool valve is opened, which
allows communication between the nitrogen
charge and the top of the floating piston,
thereby applying additional pressure to the
sample (Fig. 5.29). When the sampler is
brought to the surface, although the
temperature decreases, the nitrogen charge
is sufficient to ensure that the sample always
remains above reservoir pressure. The
pressure evolution with time in the sampling
process is shown in Fig. 5.30.
A specially designed shipping bottle
allows the sample to be transferred under
monophasic conditions. The shipping bottle
also has a nitrogen buffer that is isolated
from the sample by a floating piston. This
allows the sample to be maintained in
monophasic condition in the bottle.
The system has now been used to
sample a wide range of reservoir fluids, from
gas condensate in the North Sea to 8API
very heavy viscous crude in Venezuela.
These heavy crudes are notoriously difficult
to sample both downhole and at the surface.
Heavy oils tend to foam in the separator,
making separation of oil, gas and water
difficult. The fluid flow rates tend to be
erratic and unstable; consequently, the GOR
varies with time and is not sufficiently
accurate or representative to give PVTquality samples by recombination. In
addition, the physical recombination of
heavy oils, even in the laboratory, is a
laborious and difficult process.

Figure 5.30
Hydraulic fluid pressure

Reservoir fluid sample pressure
Reservoir pressure
Tool fires
10,000
Pressure (psi)
8,000
Sample is pressure-compensated
Relief valve ensures

tool working pressure
is not exceeded
Pressure test in
W.L. lubricator
6,000
Start pulling out of hole
Running in hole, hydraulic

pressure maintains sample
chamber in closed position
4,000
Complete
sampling
Start running in hole
2,000
Sample is recovered
above reservoir
pressure
Start
sampling
0
0
10
Elapsed time (hr)
Pressures in the hydraulic

fluid and reservoir fluid
during a typical single-phase
sampling operation.
Single-phase sampling is also appropriate for the sampling of fluids containing

asphaltenes and wax. Production problems
caused by asphaltene deposition are well
known worldwide, but the complex
mechanisms are not fully understood. This is
mainly because of the difficulty of obtaining
representative samples for study. The
precipitation of asphaltene and wax deposits
is, in many cases, irreversible. Deposition
often occurs in production tubing as the
pressure of the fluid decreases. Therefore, to
obtain a representative sample of the
reservoir fluid, it must be maintained at
reservoir pressure until the study in the
laboratory is performed. In Venezuela the
SRS has been used successfully to obtain
representative samples for both normal PVT
and asphaltene deposition studies in the
fields of North Monagas and Lake Maracaibo.
For studies of trace compounds in the
reservoir fluid, it has been shown that
surface adsorption of the trace compounds
on the sampler wall can significantly change
the laboratory analysis. As a result, a
variation of the SRS has been introduced
called the NRS* Non-Reactive Reservoir
Sampler, which is identical to the SRS except
that the wall of the sampler is coated with an
inert polymer that prevents adsorption of the
trace elements.
A newly developed version of the MDT

multisample module now incorporates the
single-phase sampling technique by allowing
a nitrogen charge to be applied to the
captured sample, via a floating piston, to
maintain it in monophasic conditions as it is
brought back to surface.
In some cases sampling is required in
zones that are behind unperforated casing.
This can be performed by a Cased Hole RFT.
The tool is a modified RFT and uses shaped
charges to create a hole in the casing. Only
two shots per run in the well can be made.
The drawback is that the holes made in the
casing have to be squeezed off afterward,
except in the unusual case where
recompletion of the well is not compromised
by leaving the holes open.
A new development of the MDT
overcomes the limitations of the Cased Hole
RFT. A module with a hydraulically powered
drill makes a hole in the casing. After use, the
hole is plugged off with a special steel plug.
In this way many samples and pressure
measurements can be made in a cased hole
without compromising the recompletion of
the well. This method of cased hole wireline
formation testing will have particular applications in new wells that are unstable while
open, wells that are sticky in openhole, and
high-pressure wells. The ability to perform
pressure profiling and sampling in the cased
hole will dramatically reduce the risk of such
operations in these types of wells. It also has
applications in old wells.
The challenges presented by some of
the sampling conditions and fluid properties
in Venezuelan wells are demonstrated by the
following examples. These examples serve
to illustrate how volatile oils and near-critical
fluids need to be sampled with extreme care
and proper techniques to correctly define
the PVT characteristics.

5 26
Figure 5.31
8900.0
pb
Dew Point
7240.0
pd
55 %
60 %
62 %
Pressure (psia)
5580.0
24 %
23 %
3930.0
21 %
2280.0
1000.0
100
200
400
300
Temperature (F)
Phase diagram for the fluid from Well C, Jabillos Formation, showing that it is very
close to the critical point.
Table 5.2
Well
STO API
Color
GOR
(scf STB)
pb
(psia)
pd
(psia)
A - NI
33
Dark
2577
7265
(302F)
A - NM
35
Dark
8270
10,724
(281F)
33
Dark
5662
9968
(301F)
33
Dark
2842
7850
(288F)
Properties of four North Monagas fluids.
5 27
Sample analyses in
North Monagas,
There are some striking examples of
critical fluids from North Monagas. For example, in Well A the two major sandstones are
the Naricual Media (NM) and Naricual
Inferior (NI) from 16,430 to 16,678 ft and
17,230 to 17,400 ft, respectively. The former
contains rich gas condensate with a dew
point pressure of 10,724 psia at 281 F, while
the latter produces a classical example of
volatile oil very close to the critical temperature. The bubble point of the fluid is 7265
psia at a reservoir temperature of 302F.
However, at only 500 psia below this pressure, the fluid is 43% gas. Identifying this
behavior without the availability of laboratory studies would be virtually impossible.
The stock tank fluid of Well A-NI is dark in
color with a gravity of approximately 33API,
very similar to the tank fluid from Well A-NM.
However, the latter fluid is gas condensate
but that in Well A-NI is volatile oil.
An additional parameter that is often
given too little attention is the producing
GOR. The GORs of the fluids in the example
wells range from 2577 scf/bbl for Well A-NI
to 5662 for Well B and 2842 for Well C (Table
5.2). The phase diagram of the fluid from
Well C, shown in Fig. 5.31, clearly
demonstrates that the fluid is very close to the
critical point. For the cases of Wells A and C,
it can be seen that the difference in the GORs
is very little, approximately 10%. The
reservoir temperatures are within 5%, the
tank liquid densities within 3% and colors are
almost identical. However, when the reservoir
fluids are examined in the laboratory, Well ANI exhibits a bubble point pressure and Well
C a dew point pressure, demonstrating that
these fluids are on opposite sides of their
respective critical points. An error of only
270 scf/bbl and a 4% change in temperature
could result in an incorrect identification of
either fluid, with potentially serious implications on the final recoveries and hence
economics of the field development project.

Table 5.3
MDT OH
MDT CH
SRS NRS
Surface
sample
Near critical fluids * * * *

Oils with pb = pi
Dry gas
Gas condensates (diphasic)
Oils with asphaltic content
Trace analysis required
Large volume samples
Samples at many depths
Viscous oils
Overview of optimum
sampling techniques
for different fluids.
Highly recommended
Recommended with some limitations
Not recommended
The Well C fluid changes from 100% gas to

48% liquid and 52% gas at only 144 psia
below the dew point; fortunately, the initial
pressure of the reservoir is 3400 psia above
the dew point.
Conclusions
The technology to acquire PVT-quality
samples has undergone rapid development
in recent years and is still evolving. The
discussion above shows that the flexibility
now exists to be able to sample either in
openhole or cased hole conditions. In some
cases there is a preferred method of sampling
because of the requirements of obtaining the
best PVT-quality sample; in other cases the
method chosen may be driven by operational
limitations or preferences. The choice of
sampling methods available are shown in
Table 5.3, with an indication of the suitability
of each method.
Accurate PVT properties are essential
for optimal, cost-effective reservoir management and field development. The ability to
capture representative samples of reservoir
fluids that have been difficult to sample in
the past is a major advancement for the
benefit of the industry.
E VA L U AT I O N I N T H E O R I N O C O B E LT
Figure 5.32
The enormous reserves of heavy and

extra-heavy oil in the Orinoco Belt are
generating ever-increasing interest in the oil
industry. These shallow reservoirs are rather
special from the point of view of formation
evaluation. The
producing sandstones are from
the Oficina Formation that unconformably overlies
Precambrian
crystalline rocks.
They are essentially meandering river channel

fills and crevasse splays that vary considerably
in quality, thickness and extent. The oil gravity,
while always characterized as heavy, from
about 6 to 12API, also varies according to the
area being drilled, and becomes heavier as one
nears the Orinoco River.
The Oficina sands are high-porosity,
unconsolidated sands held together by tar. A
Scanning Electron Microscope photograph
(Fig. 5.32) reveals that the sand grains are
spaced quite far apart and are not cemented.
The pore system is very well preserved with
large, well interconnected pores. However,
sand bodies may be no more than a few
centimeters thick and are separated by thin
shale layers.
Scanning Electron Microscope photograph of a clean, mediumgrained, loosely packed Oficina sand sample. Magnification 80x.

5 28
Figure 5.33
Fluids
Estimated
Permeability
(Herron)
Water
Coal
Moved oil from MCFL
Orthoclase
Moved oil from CMR
Quartz
T2 P2
Core
Permeability
Oil
Bound water
MDT
Mobility
Tar
Shale
Depth
(ft) 1000
(md)
T2 P1
T2 Distribution
.01 0.5
CMRP
VV
0.0 1.0
Volume analysis
VV
0.0 0.3
0.3
T2 Cut-off
(ms)
3000 0
VV
Amplitude
3000
Stoneley
permeability
indicator
50
MDT pressure
700
850
(psia)
1900
2000
2100
2200
Composite display of the

interpretation of a well in
the Zuata area of the Orinoco
Belt, incorporating ELAN,
CMR and MDT information.
5 29
In such an environment, log analysis

must go beyond the simple differentiation
between an oil- and a water-bearing zone,
and must attempt to characterize both oil
gravity and reservoir quality, in terms of
depositional trends and relative ease of
heavy crude displacement. In this way, logs

will contribute to the identification of the
better sandstones for horizontal drainhole
placement. The example that follows is taken
from a well drilled in the Zuata area of the
Orinoco Belt.

Figure 5.34
1100
1000
Overshoot
Pressure (psia)
900
800
Reservoir
pressure
700
600
Drawdown
500
400
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
Time (sec)
Representative MDT pressure response in the heavy

oil reservoirs of the Orinoco
Belt, showing rapid pressure
recovery to reservoir pressure, with a 5-cm3 pretest.
Determining oil gravity and viscosity:

Volumetric analysis
Conventional logs in the Orinoco belt do
not provide the analyst with a reliable
estimate of downhole oil density. Oficina
sandstones contain appreciable amounts of
feldspars, such as microcline, which have a
grain density of about 2.53 g/cm3 versus 2.65
g/cm3 for quartz. This light mineral lowers the
formation
density
and
induces
a
densityneutron separation that can easily be
mistaken for a light hydrocarbon effect. To
estimate an accurate effective porosity from
conventional nuclear logs, it is necessary to
account for this amount of feldspar within the
ELAN petrophysical analysis, as presented in
Fig 5.33. Feldspar density and other
parameters were taken from published values,
and clay parameters were selected from
crossplot. The dual-water saturation equation
was used with a=1, m=1.85 and n=1.85, as
recommended in the 1983 MFM-7S case study
of the Orinoco Belt performed by the
Schlumberger Doll Research Center with
Intevep.
The resulting effective porosity compares

very well with porosities obtained from core
under a 2100 psi overburden pressure. Core
porosities tend to be slightly lower, probably
because it is difficult to clean the samples
fully, in spite of applying an extraction
process with toluene and methanol.
The MDT tool offers a promising
approach for oil typing, due to the very high
accuracy of the CQG quartz gauge. Contrary
to expectations, downhole fluid mobility is
sufficient to obtain reliable pressure points. In
fact, even though oil viscosity is high,
pressure recovery is surprisingly rapid. A
typical pressure point taken in the Oficina
Formation is shown in Fig. 5.34. Note the
slight pressure overshoot seen at the end of
the drawdown period. This feature has been
seen on several tests and is thought to
correspond to sand collapse in front of the
packer and a subsequent squeezing resulting
in transient compaction by the setting shoe.
Still, complete pressure recovery to formation
pressure was reached in a matter of seconds,
opening the possibility to record detailed
pressure gradients.
In doing so, care should be exercised to
obtain a minimum of three pressure points in
each sandstone body to estimate a reliable
fluid gradient. This may require several probe
settings, as the probability of probe plugging
in these unconsolidated sandstones remains
high, and is normally encountered in
sandstones where invaded zone flushing by
mud filtrate is deeper, indicating lesser
consolidation. Various probe configurations
are available to mitigate this problem.
Figure 5.33, track 7, shows the heavy oil
gradient obtained on the Zuata well.
Although this gradient is obtained over
several sandstones, in contradiction with the
above recommendation, these sandstones
appear to be in hydraulic equilibrium, and
yield a downhole oil density of 0.94 g/cm3, an
acceptable value for a produced oil of about
10 API and a 80 scf/STB GOR.

5 30
Figure 5.35
10,000
= Lab A
T1
= Lab B
1000
T, or T2 (msec)
Crudes
100
10
Orinoco Belt
sample
1 T2 = 1 T 1 + (1 T2)D
1
0.1
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
Viscosity (cp)
Logarithmic mean T2 versus

viscosity for bulk oil samples of
various international oil fields.
The Orinoco Belt sample
follows the curving trend of the
more viscous oils.
Gradient information should be completed by sample analysis, either from a

single-phase sample taken in the production
column or from a wireline formation tester.
(Partially filled standard sample chambers
were recovered some years ago with the RFT
tool in the Orinoco Belt, confirming the
feasibility of this technique).
Amplitude
Figure 5.36
0.1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (msecs)
T2 distribution measured by the CMR tool on an oil sample from the Orinoco Belt
heated to downhole temperature. The oil signal corresponds to the short T2 peak. The
In addition, NMR measurements are

sensitive to the bulk properties of heavy oil,
and are strongly dependent on the viscosity
(page 56). For the heavy oils of the Orinoco
Belt, the bulk T2 of the oil is expected to be
less than 10 msec. In these conditions, it is
important to retrieve as much early-time CMR
signal as possible. Short echo spacing and
total CMR porosity processing are essential.
A representative sample of Faja stock
tank oil from the area of the well was tested
in the laboratory and had a viscosity 2656 cp
at surface conditions, versus 1257 cp at downhole temperature. The NMR response of the
sample was also measured, using the CMR
tool itself. Figure 5.36 shows the response at
downhole temperature. The T2 distribution
exhibits a clear peak at 5 msec and fits the
general trend of T2 versus viscosity shown in
Fig. 5.35
Surprisingly, a second T2 peak is seen at
about 500 msec. This suggests that there is
water in the sample, approximately 10% in volume. As no water could be detected by visual
inspection, a sample of this oil was submitted
to Dean Stark analysis, yielding a 7% water
content, and confirming that the water is in fact
emulsified within the heavy oil sample.
Downhole T2s measured by the CMR
over the Oficina sandstones of the same well
also show a clear bimodal distribution, as
shown in Fig. 5.33, presented in wiggle form
in track 4 and in variable density display in
track 5. As in the surface oil sample, the
heavy oil peak, labeled T2P1, is found in the
shorter T2 region. The second peak at higher
times corresponds to water, in this case most
probably WBM filtrate. Occurrences of water
production from zones at very low water
saturation have been mentioned in the Faja
MFM 7-S case study, suggesting the possibility
of in-situ emulsified water. Unfortunately, this
formation water, if it exists, cannot be
differentiated from filtrate invasion based on
CMR information alone.
long T2 peak is associated with water contamination of the sample.
5 31

Figure 5.37
440
Rt
400
Mid-point reading
Rt
Rxo
360
RB0
RB1
RB2
Resistivity (ohm-m)
320
280
B2
CMR region of sensitivity
B0
B1
present in the pore space, while the light

green coding corresponds to the oil that has
been displaced by mud filtrate invasion, at
the depth of investigation of the CMR of 1 in.
from the borehole wall. In this sense, this
light green coded volume corresponds to an
estimate of movable oil.
240
200
160
120
80
Rxo
40
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Distance from the borehole wall (in.)
Computer simulation of the

response to a step profile of
invasion of the B0, B1 and B2
buttons of the Platform
Express MCFL sensor for
typical resistivity values
encountered in the Orinoco
Belt.
Peak times of the downhole in-situ oil

signal also lie in the range of 3 to 6 msec,
comparable to the measured surface sample.
This confirms that in heavy oils, the CMR
does indeed measure the bulk T2 time of the
in-situ oil, from which a viscosity of about
1000 cp can be predicted using the chart on
Fig. 5.35. The irreducible water T2 signal lies
in the same region as the heavy oil signal and
cannot be distinguished from it based on
cutoffs. For this reason, we have assumed
that the sandstones are actually at irreducible
water saturation and have taken Swirr=Sw.
A T2 cut-off of 20 msec was selected to
clearly separate the heavy oil signal from the
mud filtrate signal. This choice was based on
the observation that the surface sample does
not give us any oil signal above 20 msec, and
that the T2 distribution exhibits a clear valley
at 20 msec in the oil sandstones.
Comparison between effective porosity
from ELAN and CMR porosity shows a
general porosity deficit in the heavy oil leg,
coded in black. This is to be expected, and
corresponds to the shorter T2 components of
the heavy oil. The remainder of the oil signal,
between 0.3 and 20 msec, coded in dark
green, corresponds to the heavy oil still
Characterizing invasion
This volume of movable oil seen by the
CMR is always greater than or equal to the
flushed oil volume estimated from the MCFL
(Chapter 413) Rxo reading, even in the upper
part of the reservoir where MCFL displacement is maximum. To clarify this apparent
contradiction, it is necessary to go back to the
physics of the MCFL tool. The MCFL is
designed to estimate three parameters: Rxo,
mudcake resistivity and mudcake thickness.
To achieve this objective, three measurement
buttons, B0, B1 and B2, located within the
main electrode, provide resistivities at three
different depths of investigation. The central
button B0 reads primarily the flushed zone
resistivity, while B1 and B2, located
progressively closer to the edge of the pad,
are predominantly sensitive to mudcake
properties. An inversion algorithm provides
real-time estimates of Rxo, mudcake resistivity
and thickness.
In this heavy oil environment, the mudcake thickness, if any, is negligible, and the
invasion is very shallow. B0, B1 and B2 will
therefore respond primarily to the invaded
zone, and their individual responses will depend on their respective depths of investigation. To clarify this, their responses were
simulated with Rxo=40 ohm-m, Rt=400 ohmm, similar to resistivities encountered in this
well, and for a varying step profile of
invasion from zero to 1.5 in. As shown in
Fig. 5.37, the midpoint reading of B2 is
approximately 0.28 in., B1 is 0.52 in. and
B0 is 0.62 in., all lower than the median
depth of investigation of the CMR of 1 in.

5 32
Figure 5.38
Synthetic resistivity
from CMR free-fluid
LLD
B2 resistivity
B1 resistivity
Depth
(ft)
B0 resistivity
1
(ohm-m)
1000
1900
2000
2100
2200
Comparison between actual resistivity curves from the MCFL and

Laterolog sensors and theoretical
Rxo corresponding to the actual
filtrate volume seen by the CMR.
The discontinuous invasion profile
causes B0 and B1 to miss much of
the invading filtrate, even though
they investigate a similar volume.
Only the very shallow B2 reading
approaches the true value.
5 33
For example, at 1 in., all three curves

read higher than the theoretical Rxo,
with RB2=60 ohm-m, RB1=90 ohm-m
and RB0=117 ohm-m. As expected,
B2 yields the lowest Rxo estimate, with
B1 and B0 progressively more
influenced by the virgin zone resistivity.
However, even B2 overestimates Rxo by
50%. Conversely, for an invasion
diameter exceeding 1.5 in., differences
between the three resistivities are
greatly reduced.
To compare the shallow radial information provided by the MCFL to the CMR
information, we have calculated a synthetic resistivity curve from the volume
of filtrate seen by the CMR. This
synthetic resistivity curve is plotted on
Fig. 5.38, along with the three MCFL raw
resistivities and the deep laterolog
resistivity. All four shallow curves agree
very well in regions of deep invasion,
such as the upper three sandstones or
the very flushed zone between 1980 ft
and 1968 ft. However, in the less invaded
sandstones, large discrepancies exist
between the synthetic curve and Bo or
B1, even though their midpoint is close
to the CMR depth of investigation, while
the agreement with B2, a much shallower measurement, remains reasonable.
This is because the invasion pattern is far
from piston-like. Resistivity tool
measurements react to the continuous
water phase, while the CMR sees the
total water volume. In heavy oil, as
invasion progresses away from the
borehole wall, it loses its continuity
around the grains, and stops contributing
to the resistivity signal. For this reason in
heavy oil with shallow invasion, only the
shallowest resistivity curve can be
expected to read a representative filtrate
volume. It may still underestimate the
true movability, as seen at 2180 ft. The
CMR, by contrast, sees the total amount
of filtrate that has penetrated the
formation, from 0.75 to 1.25 in. away from the

borehole, in a bulk manner, and provides a
more reliable estimate of movability.
Borehole images from the FMI give
additional information regarding this complex
invasion process. Figure 5.39 shows an FMI
image with static normalization recorded in a
cored section of this well. The oil-bearing
sandstones appear lighter in color, while the
more conductive shales appear darker. In the
sandstones, changes in resistivity near the
wellbore create an image with a patchy
aspect, indicating a very heterogeneous
invasion pattern in three dimensions, at a
scale of a few centimeters within the same
sandstone body, the darker zones corresponding to deeper invasion. These heterogeneities cannot be detected easily on the
core photograph.
Figure 5.40 provides at least a partial
explanation for the varying depth of invasion
observed in the Oficina sandstones. Both the
static and dynamically normalized images are
displayed side by side, along with the
corresponding stratigraphic dips. The three
resistivity curves from the MCFL, along with
the apparent filtrate volume corresponding to
each resistivity curve, are shown for
reference. The static image clearly shows a
region of higher resistivity, or shallower
invasion, in layers where the sedimentary
dips are higher, whereas sandstones showing
low dips (i.e., perpendicular to the vertical
hole) are more completely flushed.
This implies that lower dipping beds,
which previous studies on the Orinoco Belt
have associated with crevasse splays, may be
drained more efficiently by a vertical well than
higher dipping beds, associated with river
channel fill deposits. Unfortunately, typical
crevasse splays have limited lateral extent,
contrary to river channel fill deposits. In a
horizontal well, the lateral extension and
frequency of the thin interbedded shales seen
on the FMI images will be the key to recovery.

Figure 5.39
N
1981.5 ft
FMI image showing

the patchy nature of
invasion in very heavy
oils. Accurate depth
matching with core
confirms a missing
core section (between
1989.5 ft
1983 and 1985).
Mobility indicator from

Stoneley wave analysis
The task of estimating permeability from
logs in the Orinoco Belt is a challenging one,
because of the oil-wet nature of the formation. Traditional Wyllie-type equations for
water-wet reservoirs do not apply and tend
toward infinite permeability as Swirr estimated
from the resistivity equation approaches zero.
As discussed above (page 56), the standard
NMR estimates need to be considerably
modified due to the wettability and the
viscous oil, which appears as bound fluid.
Surprisingly good results are obtained

when comparing a modified Kozeny-Carman
equation (Herron, 1987) taking into account a
simple sand-feldspar-shale-clay mineralogy.
As shown in Fig. 5.33, track 1, a reasonable
correlation is observed between core and
estimated permeability for the few core
points available. However, one must bear in
mind that these core permeabilities were
obtained after considerable cleaning of the
samples. In downhole conditions, it is the
mobility of the fluid (k/m) that matters. A
good downhole mobility indicator is the lowfrequency Stoneley available with the DSI.
As discussed above (page 59), the
difference between the measured Stoneley
slowness and the theoretical elastic slowness
is a function of the mobility. This difference is
plotted in Fig. 5.33, track 6.
Qualitative correlation with invasion as
evidenced by the CMR T2 distribution is, in
general, excellent. It is also striking to notice
that in the lower sandstone at 2200 ft, the
general trend shown by the mobility indicator
closely tracks the increase in irreducible
water saturation seen from the resistivity logs.
The highest mobility values are seen where
the MCFL detected the deepest invasion,
probably because of the lower viscosity
values of the mud filtrate, but maybe partly
because these zones have the highest
mobility in situ. Finally, the lowermost waterbearing sandstone shows higher mobility
because of the lower viscosity of the water.

5 34
Figure 5.40
FMI
dynamic
image
PHIE
Vw from B2
Bed boundary
True dip
FMI
static
image
Inter-cross bed
True dip
N
NN
N0
(deg)
90 1
B2 resistivity
Vw from B1
B1 resistivity
Vw from B0
B0 resistivity
Vwirr
(ohm-m) 1000 0.5
VV
Depth
0.0 (ft)
2185
2190
Efficient oil displacement by

mud filtrate is closely related
to stratigraphic dips.
5 35
Evaluation of reservoir sandstone

quality through images
Because of the unconsolidated nature
of the Oficina Formation, coring is a
very difficult operation. Cores have a
tendency to disaggregate, and core recovery
can be very poor. Particular attention must be
paid to the mud composition, and special
core takers are recommended to maximize
core recovery.
Visual inspection of a reservoir section
reveals a medium-grained sandstone strongly
impregnated with very heavy oil, and
interbedded with thin laminated shales. The
abundant heavy oil completely masks the
bedding within the sandstone, making
sedimentary features unidentifiable directly
from core. Previous studies on Oficina cores
have identified this problem, and sometimes
have relied on X-ray radiography for
sedimentary bedding information.
These techniques involve a lot of care in

the preparation and handling of the core. In
such conditions, the high-quality electrical
images recorded by the FMI tool provide the
analyst with excellent high-resolution
sedimentary information in a timely and costeffective manner. They also provide the
analyst with an efficient means of correlation
from log to core, through the identification of
thin shales, as shown in Fig. 5.39, where a
missing core section can be identified.
Figure 5.41 displays the FMI image and
associated sedimentary dips recorded over
one of the main sandstone bodies of the
Zuata well. Visual inspection of the image
confirms that this sandstone, appearing quite
massive in a standard petrophysical
evaluation, is in fact interbedded with thin
shale layers, darker in color, and very
heterogeneous. Stratigraphic dips confirm
that this sandstone can be subdivided in
several distinct units with changing bedding
orientation, corresponding to distinct
depositional events and changing directions
of sediment transport.
For example, the main sandstone body
located between 1950 and 2055 ft can be
interpreted as a series of 15- to 30-ft thick,
fining-upward, stacked point bar deposits
within a distributary channel oriented
southwest-northeast. Intercalations of shales
are interpreted as delta plain deposits.
Stratigraphic interpretation of the FMI image
and dips indicates cross-bedding dipping
toward the northeast, in a blue pattern (dip
decreasing with depth) seen between 2000
1995 ft, representing the paleocurrent
transport direction. The sequences of blue
and red patterns (dip increasing with depth)
seen between 2020 and 2005 ft or 1995 and
1980 ft correspond to lateral accretion
surfaces of channels oriented northeast
southwest. The red pattern seen between
1975 and 1970 ft corresponds to a higher
energy environment, possibly tidal, dipping at
180 from the main direction of transport.

Figure 5.41
Borehole
drift
FMI image
S
True dip
True dip
(deg)
N
Depth
(ft)
10
10
(deg)
90
1950
2000
2050
Conclusion
In a complex environment such as the
heavy oil reservoirs of the Orinoco Belt, the
availability of a very complete, high-quality
logging suite, including PLATFORM EXPRESS,
MDT, DSI, FMI and CMR, allows the log
analyst to go beyond the traditional volumetric interpretation to characterize reservoir
quality and oil type, and estimate oil recovery.
The CMR allowed us to estimate the
viscosity of the oil and to quantify the pore
fluids, separating displaced oil from the
remaining oil in the pore space and estimating
the fraction of this oil directly coating the
grains. Because of the irregular nature of
invasion in heavy oil, the estimate of producible oil from CMR was considered more
reliable than the one obtained from conventional microresistivity curves. The DSI allowed
us to independently corroborate indications of
fluid displacement from MDT and other logs
and to derive a stand-alone mobility indicator.
The FMI, beyond information on rock texture
and invasion patterns, also supplied an easy
way to delineate sandstone units, determine
stratigraphic dips and infer the direction of
sediment transport, an important factor in
planning reservoir development.
FMI image and dips reveal a strongly heterogeneous sandstone. From the dip
orientation, the paleocurrent direction can be inferred.
C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
The large majority of Venezuelan fields

produce from sandstones. Nevertheless, a few
produce from carbonates, and present different petrophysical challenges. For example, in
complex carbonates, it is difficult to obtain an
accurate estimate of porosity from conventional logs without combining many measurements or resorting to costly calibration against
core. However, NMR porosity is derived
independently from formation lithology,
eliminating errors associated with the unknown matrix effects on other measurements.
Only in very shaly carbonates is there some

uncertainty as to how much of the very short
T2s are associated with microporosity in the
shales rather than the carbonates.
Carbonates also can have a very
broad pore size distribution, from microcrystalline to vuggy, which greatly affects
estimates of producibility, permeability and
hydrocarbon saturation from resistivity logs.
NMR T2 distributions provide useful
information on the pore size distribution.

5 36
Figure 5.42
Bound fluid
volume
Oil
Dolomite
Porosity difference
GR
(gAPI)
0
RHOB
(g cm3)
NPHi
300 1.95
CALI
in.
.45
Depth
BS
(ft) 6 in. 16 .45
Calcite
CMR-FF f ELAN
CMRP
.15 0.2
(V V)
.15 0.2
Bound water
(V V)
0.3
3000
T2 Distribution
Shale
0.0
CMR-FF
T2 Cut-off
Quartz
2.95 0.2
0.0
ELAN Porosity
(V V)
CMRP
Water
Volume analysis
0.0 1.0
(V V)
0.0 0.3
3000
12050
B
12100
12150
12200
CMR porosity is independent from matrix

and shale effects.
4 37
Determining an appropriate cut-off that

separates bound fluid from producible fluid is
a more challenging task in a carbonate than in
a sandstone, and is best performed on whole
core samples analyzed in the laboratory.
Published values range from as little as 30
msec to as much as 100 msec or more.
Nevertheless, in favorable cases, a reasonable
guess can be made based on log data alone.
Traditional permeability transforms, established on sandstones, are not necessarily valid in
carbonates. Again, core measurements should
be made on representative plugs to estimate a
rock types specific permeability transform.
The example shown in Fig. 5.42 is
located in the Borburata Field in the Barinas
area. While the main producing zone is
a sandstone, it is overlain by a carbonate
known as Caliza O, which has variable
thickness and production potential. In this
well, it extends over the interval from 12,060
to 12,140 ft. This carbonate is very complex
and has undergone considerable diagenesis. It

is a mixture of limestone, dolomite and silty
clastic material, as indicated in track 4. Track
2 is a display of the density porosity on a
limestone matrix, neutron porosity on a
limestone scale, and CMR porosity.
Comparison of the raw data curves
allows us to illustrate two features of the
CMR porosity: insensitivity to matrix type
and, in this case, insensitivity to clay content.
The agreement between the CMR porosity
and the density porosity is good over the
lowermost 20 ft (interval A), where little
dolomitization has occurred. Differences
between neutron and CMR porosity are large
because of the presence of shale and boundwater porosity, which are not seen by the
CMR tool. Above 12,110 ft, density porosity
and CMR begin to separate because of the
increasing amount of dolomitization, which
affects the density porosity. Neutron porosity
and CMR porosity are almost equal in the
clean intervals, where both measure the pore
fluid HI, and separate as before in the
presence of shale.
Track 4 shows a traditional interpretation made with ELAN. The lithology is
more complex than shown, but the
interpretation is limited by the number of
available lithoporosity logs. Over interval A,
ELAN and CMR porosity agree quite well. In
what is predominantly a limestone, the ELAN
shale corrections performed well. In
addition, the CMR T2 distribution shows that
almost all the pores are small. In the absence
of core data, the T2 cut-off was selected at 80
msec in the carbonate based on the average
troughs in the distributions. With this cut-off,
most of the porosity in this interval is at
irreducible saturation.
Both curves correctly show the large
porosity peak at 12,110 ft. The CMR also
shows a longer T2 distribution, indicating an
increase in pore size that parallels the
increase in dolomitization.

C A R B O N AT E S : L I T H O L O G Y- I N D E P E N D E N T P O R O S I T Y
In interval B (12,100 to 12,060 ft), the

neutron-density separation and the GR
response are high. This can be caused by
shale or dolomite with high uranium
content, or both. Normally, this would be
interpreted as shale, as was done in this
case. However, the CMR shows significant
porosity throughout the interval, with a peak
at 12,075 ft. There is no reason to doubt the
CMR porositythe hole is in gauge, and
there is no indication of a mud signal
(typically a strong and constant signal
around 10 msec). Consequently, we should
reinterpret this zone with the porosity from
the CMR which, as a result, will show more

dolomite in place of shale. The T2
distribution in this horizon becomes
bimodal, and suggests the presence of
vugular porosity, within a dolomitized
matrix of some effective porosity.
Based on these observations, we see
that the bottom 20 ft of this carbonate
(interval A) has no reservoir potential, and
that useful porosity is to be found in the
upper 60 ft. Of these 60 ft, the upper 40 ft
(interval B) are missed by traditional
petrophysical analysis, and are correctly
seen only by the CMR.
P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
One of the major problems of log

interpretation is the identification and
evaluation of low-resistivity and low-contrast
pays. These are zones that produce clean oil,
but in which there is little contrast in
resistivity between a water and an oil zone,
and usually also the surrounding shales.
There are three main causesa thinly
laminated sand-shale sequence in which the
shale dominates the resistivity response; high
irreducible water trapped usually in fine
pores and which gives a high water saturation
but is not producible; and a high content of
dispersed clay. Often the last two causes
occur together. The following section shows
an example of this from Eastern Venezuela.
In Fig. 5.43 two sandstones can be
seenone at 6100 ft with resistivities around
30 ohm-m, and one at 5900 ft with
resistivities around 7 ohm-m. Both have
approximately the same porosity (27 p.u.)
and are expected to have the same formation
water resistivity of Rw=0.14 @ BHT (160F).
While the lower sandstone, with Rwa=2.5,
should clearly produce oil, the top sandstone, with Rwa=0.5 and hence a quicklook
water saturation above 50%, is doubtful.
A simple interpretation of the top zone,

including clay correction, gives a water
saturation of 42%, or a water volume of 11
p.u. In many rocks this would imply water
production, or at least the production of oil
with a large water cut. However, the CMR
tool shows that there is an average of 10 p.u.
of bound fluid throughout the zone.
Therefore, this zone should produce clean
oil with a small water cut. In fact, the top
zone was tested and produced clean oil with
a productivity index of 0.974 bbl/day/psi.
To better understand and quantify this
result, a series of measurements were made
on plugs taken from the core over the
interval 5945 ft to 5974 ft. These included
mineralogy (Dual Range Fourier Transform
Infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy), chemical
analysis, NMR and electrical measurements.

5 38
Figure 5.43
LLS
130
SP
(mV)
6.0
CALI
(in.)
GR
(gAPI)
BFV
1000 0.5
0.1
30
0.0
1000 1.825
RHOB
(g cm3)
2.65
10 0.5
TNPH
(V V)
1000 0.5
0.1
16
0.1
MSFL
(ohm-m)
Depth
RWA
(ft)
200
0.001 (ohm-m)
0.0
CMRP
(V V)
LLD
T2 Distribution
T2 Cut-off
0.0 0.5
(ms)
3000
5900
6000
6100
Openhole logs with tests and

core zones marked.
5 39
Mineralogy and chemistry

The goal is to identify the major
minerals and then to determine the optimum
parameters to use for log interpretation.
Mineralogy was determined using a
unique FT-IR technique developed by
Schlumberger Doll Research Center (SDRC).
It has been shown that this technique gives
better quantitative results than the more commonly used X-ray diffraction (Matteson,
1995). The FT-IR technique is based on the
response of molecular bonds to infrared
light. Among other properties, minerals have
chemical bond vibrational energies that lead
to characteristic IR absorbance spectra for
each mineral. Then, by measuring the composite spectra of a combination of minerals,
and knowing the standard spectrum of

each mineral, it is possible to solve quantitatively for the composition of the mixture.
Fourier transforms of the spectra are
smoother, have reduced noise content, and
therefore are more suitable for full spectrum
analysis. The procedure combines the mid-IR
spectrum with the far-IR spectrum before
data processing, resulting in a dual range FTIR with even greater accuracy. Detection
limits are approximately 1 wt%.
However, the properties of individual
minerals can vary. To account for this natural
variability, the SDRC FT-IR procedure
includes 50 mineral standards representing 28
minerals. Multiple standards are included for
quartz, calcite, dolomite, kaolinite, illite,
smectite and chlorite. The use of multiple
species mineral standards is an important
reason why this procedure has attained a
high degree of accuracy. In the case of
feldspars, spectral standards have been found
for the Na-, K-, and Ca-feldspar end
members. The procedure then solves for the
fractions of the end members in the mixture.
The fractions found for each mineral in
six samples from this well are shown in Fig.
5.44. Specific carbonate and evaporite
minerals have been shown separately, as the
quantities are very small. The top four
samples are typical of the main body of the
shaly sandstone, while the bottom two are
essentially shale. As can be seen, the shaly
sandstones contain an average of 14 wt%
clay, which is predominantly illite with some
smectite and kaolinite. They also contain 20%
feldspars, with a ratio of approximately 4:1
plagioclase to orthoclase.

P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W - R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.44
Quartz
Carbonate
Chert
Illite
Qtz+ Chert
Smectite
K-Feld
Kaolinite
Na-Feld
Chlorite
Ca-Feld
Glauconite
Feldspar
Clay
40
20
60
80
_ _
Evaporite
Mineralogy of the six samples, as determined by FT-IR. The top four samples
40
20
60
80
are typical of the shaly sandstone facies, while the bottom two are essentially shale.
Figure 5.45
Silicon
Core (wt %)
40
Core (wt %)
Calcium
40
30
20
10
Iron
15
30
Core (wt %)
50
20
10
10
Chemical analysis is used to independently monitor the quality of the FT-IR

mineralogy, and to determine logging tool
response parameters. The analysis includes 23
elements using a variety of methods: X-ray
Fluorescence, Prompt Neutron Activation,
Coulometry, and Induction Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometry. The volume of each
element in each sample is compared with the
volume reconstructed from the mineralogy.
The latter is obtained from the mineral volume
found by FT-IR and the elemental
composition of each mineral standard.
The results for this well are shown in Fig.
5.45. The major elements compare very well,
while the trace elements Th and U do not.
This is probably because of trace minerals
such as rutile, zircon and monazite, which are
not measured by the FT-IR. Otherwise, the
results confirm the FT-IR mineralogy.
The accurate FT-IR mineralogy combined
with the array of elemental concentrations
measured on the same samples enables us to
calculate logging tool response. For example,
the matrix GR is calculated from the Th, U and
K concentrations according to the formula
(Ellis, 1987):
GR = 4 Th + 8 U + 16 K
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Reconstructed (wt %)
10
20
30
40
Potassium
Core (ppm)
10
15
10
5
15
10
15
Comparison of
volumes of elements
7.5
measured directly
versus reconstructed
2.5
20
Uranium
10
20
10
Thorium
30
15
Core (ppm)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
Core (wt %)
10
10
Sulfur
20
Aluminum
15
(11)
from mineralogy.
The matrix density is computed from

grain density values for each mineral and the
mineral concentrations determined by FT-IR
analysis. The cation exchange capacity (CEC)
is computed in the same way. The chemical
concentrations and the matrix density values
are entered into the SNUPAR computer
program, which calculates a wide variety of
nuclear properties and logging tool response
parameters (McKeon and Scott, 1988). The
parameters computed in this study included
the zero porosity formation response to
thermal neutron (NPHIMAT), zero porosity
formation hydrogen index (HIMAT), formation photoelectric factor (PEF), and sigma
matrix (SIGMAT).
0
0
10
20
30
2.5
7.5
10
Reconstructed (ppm)

5 40
Figure 5.46
Total clay (wt %)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
50
100
150
Gamma ray (API)
Total clay (wt %)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0
20
40
N-D (sandstone separation p.u.)
Total clay (wt %)
100
80
60
These results can also be used to check

the usefulness of different logs in estimating
clay and other volumes. For example, Fig.
5.46 compares the (GR), neutron-density, and
SpectroLith estimates of clay weight percent
with the FT-IR values. The GR is quite good
but shows a spread of about 10 API units for
the same clay volume in the sandstones.
There is also some non-linearity. The neutrondensity correlation is good. The SpectroLith
technique estimates the volumes of the major
lithologies (sandstone, clay, carbonate,
evaporite) from measurements of elemental
concentrations, mainly Si, Ca, Fe, Su, Ti, Gd.
As is shown in Chapter 617, this technique
generally gives more reliable estimates of clay
volume than the GR. In this case the results
are similar to the neutron-density results.
However, SpectroLith may be used through
casing in old wells where a good set of
openhole logs is not available.
40
20
0
50
100
Spectrolith
Clay volume as predicted

by GR, Neutron-Density
and SpectroLith versus
actual volume measured
on six samples.
Log interpretation model

and end-point calculation
The accurate FT-IR mineralogy helps us
decide what minerals to put in our log
interpretation model. The main clay is illite
with small, and approximately equal amounts
of smectite and kaolinite. The two latter clays
both have low Th/K ratio, so together they
may be distinguished from illite with the help
of Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy (NGS).
However, to distinguish between them will

be difficult, so we will solve for an
appropriate mixture of the two. We can also
estimate the amount of orthoclase (Kfeldspar) with the help of the NGS, but we
cannot measure the plagioclases directly. (We
could estimate them using the ratio of
plagioclase to orthoclase of approximately 4:1
from the mineralogy.) There are no significant
carbonates or evaporites.
The minerals and the tool response
parameters to be used in log evaluation are
shown in Table 5.4. Also shown are the
response parameters for the two main
lithologies present, sandstone and clay. The
latter are calculated from the response
parameters for each mineral and the mineral
concentrations determined by FT-IR. In this
case, the sandstone group contains all
minerals except clays.
Electrical parameters
Porosity exponent (m), saturation
exponent (n) and CEC were measured on
three samples. The results are shown in
Table 5.5 and Fig. 5.47. The exponents m, n
and the resistivity index I are shown after
correcting for the effect of clay conductivity
using the Dual Water model. Because of the
friable nature of the rock, the number of
samples analyzed is small. However, the
results are consistent, and will be used for
the log interpretation, with a=1, m*=1.84,
n*=1.90.
Table 5.4
Sand
Clay
Quartz
Illite
Smectite/ Orthoclase
Kaolinite
Density, g/cm3
2.64
Neutron porosity, V/V 0.0016
PEF
2.43
Gamma ray, API
56.5
Sigma, c.u.
11.35
CEC, meq/g
0.0
Wet clay porosity, V/V 0.0
2.782
0.309
3.71
161
31.47
0.264
0.16
2.65
0.002
2.50
0.47
2.28
0.73
2.52
0.00
45
180
100
100
0.0
0.0
0.25
0.156
0.45
0.24
0.0
0.0
WSi, p.u.
WCa, p.u.
WFe, p.u.
WAI, p.u.
WK, p.u.
WTh, p.u.
WU, p.u.
22.3
0.6
7.3
13.6
2.6
21.9
4.0
41.8
1.0
0.7
2.3
1.4
5.3
1.6
End-point parameters used for major minerals, total clay,
NMR parameters
The laboratory NMR measurements
were used to determine the bound fluid cutoff, T2,cut, and also to examine how much of
the bound fluid was attributable to clay and
how
much
to
irreducible
water.
Measurements were made with watersaturated and desaturated samples, as
explained above page (54). The results are
given in Table 5.6, and show that the
optimum value of T2,cut, is 21 msec.
and sandstone (including feldspars).
5 41

P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
Figure 5.47
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
10
1
0.01
0.1
Brine saturation
Brine saturation versus

Resistivity Index corrected
for clay effects on plugs 1,
12, and 20. The slope gives
n*=1.96.
Figure 5.48
0.15
0.15
1:1 line
Clay-bound
fluid
0.10
(a)
Capillary-bound
fluid
0.05
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Clay-bound fluid from

mineralogy
Clay-bound fluid from

mineralogy
Resistivity index, I* = Rt/Ro,

corrected for clay
100
The volume of clay-bound water is often

taken to be the fraction below 3 msec
(Straley, 1994). In practice, capillary-bound
water may also be found either below this
value, while clay-bound water may be found
above it, or may decay too fast to measure.
The T2 of clays has been related to clay type
(Prammer, 1996), but there is also evidence
that it depends more on clay distribution and
history. Figure 5.48a shows the volume below
3 msec (BFV3) plotted against the volume of
clay-bound water (CBWm), calculated from
the mineralogical analysis, using the Dual
Water model with CEC and rdcl values from
Table 5.4. The separation between the 1:1
line and the actual trend shows that there is a
large proportion of capillary-bound water
below 3 msec. In addition, BFV3 is generally
lower than CBWm in the sandstones by about
1 p.u., suggesting that some clay-bound water
is not measured by NMR. The intercept with
the X-axis suggests that up to 3 p.u. is
missing. The same trends are seen if we plot
the porosity below 1 msec (Figure 5.48b).
Clay-bound
fluid
0.10
(b)
Capillary-bound
fluid
0.05
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
NMR porosity < 1 msec
NMR bound fluid < 3 msec
Clay-bound fluid from mineralogy versus NMR signal below (a) 3 msec, and (b) 1
msec.The black line is the 1:1 clay-bound fluid line.
Table 5.5
Sample
N
Porosity
V/V
Grain density CEC

g/cm3
meq/100 g
Formation
factor, F
Porosity
m
Exponent
m*
0.290
2.66
1.19
9.39
1.81
1.830
12
0.302
2.66
0.82
8.45
1.78
1.795
20
0.253
2.67
2.54
10.6
1.72
1.760
Electrical and other properties measured on three samples. The CEC was measured
Note also (Table 5.5) that NMR porosities are

on average 2.3 p.u. less than buoyancy
porosities in the sandstones.
Therefore, even after allowing for
inaccuracies in the measurements, there is
good evidence that a significant amount of
capillary-bound water occurs below 1 msec,
and that some porosity is missing from the
NMR signal due to the clays.
Log processing
The log interpretation model and
parameters are based on the mineralogical
and electrical parameters described above.
The CMR was recorded with an echo
spacing of 0.32 msec, and is processed to
give a T2 distribution between 0.3 msec and
3 sec. To obtain the fastest components, we
must use the signal from the first few echoes
with little or no averaging between echoes.
This lowers the signal-to-noise ratio for these
components, and is compensated for by
increasing the averaging over depth levels.
In this case, a five-level average was used.
Note the good agreement between CMR
porosity and density (Fig. 5.43).
The clay-bound water is calculated from
the mineralogy. The capillary-bound water is
calculated by subtracting half the clay-bound
water from the CMR bound fluid between 0.5
and 21 msec. (By subtracting only half,
we allow for the missing porosity noted
above.) The results are shown in Fig. 5.49.
The effective water saturation in zone 1 is
found to be close to 30%, all of which is
capillary-bound water. This zone will
produce clean oil.
Permeabilities measured on the core
plugs would normally have been used to
calibrate the NMR permeability. However,
the permeabilities were measured with
air and after cleaning, which effectively
removed all capillary-and clay-bound water.
This can be seen from the high buoyancy
porosity values in Table 5.6.
on wet chemistry. The resistivity of the brine was 0.273 ohm-m at 25C. The
effective confining stress was 2000 psi.

5 42
Figure 5.49
X Zone Oil
VXBW
Moved Hydrocarbon
VMON+VKAO
Irreducible Water
VILL
BFV .CMR
VMON
VUWA
VCL
VXWA
Depth
(ft)
10000
KCMR
(md)
1 0.5
PIGN
(V V)
T2 Distribution
VILL
0 1
PIGN
(V V)
T2 Cut-off
0 0.3
(ms)
3000
5850
5900
Even at 2000 psi overburden, the

permeabilities are very high (see Table 5.6).
They are also at conditions that are very
different from the reservoir, in which oil flows
in the presence of a large volume of bound
water. Therefore, the permeability has been
calculated from the CMR using the
Timur/Coates equation ((3), page 5-4) with
the default parameters. This equation was
found to be more representative than
equation (2) in this case, possibly because of
the high amount of microporosity. The
arithmetic average of the permeability in the
top zone 1 is 70 md. A buildup from the test
of this zone gave k=146 md. The log estimate
is reasonable, considering that core calibration
was not possible.
5950
Conclusion
The combination of CMR and other
openhole logs correctly predicted water-free
production from a zone of low resistivity that
gave a quicklook water saturation above 50%.
This gave confidence in the test planned for
this zone and established guidelines for the
interpretation of similar zones in other wells.
CMR-based permeability gave a reasonable
prediction of well test permeability.
6000
6050
6100
Log interpretation results using ELAN and parameters from log-core integration.
Table 5.6
Sample
No.
Porosity,
(Buoyancy)
V/V
Porosity,
(NMR)
V/V
Permeability
(air, 2000psi)
md
BFV, after
desaturation
V/V
T2 Cut-off
msec
BFV, with
21 msec cut-off
V/V
BFV
<3 msec
V/V
BFV
<1 msec
V/V
Clay-Bound Water
(Mineralogy)
V/V
0.323
0.302
344
0.075
18
0.092
0.033
0.011
0.018
0.326
0.308
508
0.054
17
0.062
0.010
0.002
0.016
0.206
0.326
1.14
0.25
0.279
0.205
0.104
11
0.319
0.304
661
0.055
27
0.048
0.009
0.008
0.017
14
0.299
0.261
240
0.07
21
0.070
0.011
0.003
0.018
24
0.176
0.240
1.54
0.19
0.189
0.128
0.066
NMR properties measured on six samples using low field NMR with echo spacings of 0.16 and 0.4 msec.
5 43

P R E D I C T I O N O F WAT E R C U T I N A S A N D W I T H L O W R E S I S T I V I T Y C O N T R A S T
The predictions were confirmed and explained by core analysis. FT-IR spectroscopy
and chemical analysis determined the mineralogy, and hence the optimum log interpretation model and tool response parameters to be used. Electrical measurements
determined the correct porosity and saturation exponents. NMR analysis determined the
cut-offs to be used for capillary- and claybound fluid volumes. These parameters can
now be applied with confidence to other

wells in the areaboth openhole evaluation
of new wells and through-casing spectroscopy evaluation of old wells.
The combination of core and log data,
and the interpretation methodology used
in this example, serves as a model for
the interpretation of other low resistivity
pays caused by high irreducible water and
clay content.
IDENTIFYING PRODUCIBLE ZONES IN OBM WELLS
In principle, identifying producible

zones in wells drilled with OBM is
straightforward. In hydrocarbon zones, the
OBM filtrate replaces the formation oil, and
the resistivity of the invaded zone (Rxo)
equals the non-invaded zone resistivity (Rt).
Figure 5.50
Hydrocarbon Zone
(at irreducible water)
Water zone
a) Incomplete flushing
Rxo > Rt
c) Normal flushing
Sw > Sxo > Swirr
b) Complete flushing
Rxo > Rt
Sw = Sxo = Swirr
d) Partial flushing of irreducible water
Sw > Sxo = Swirr
Irreducible water
Free water
Rxo = Rt
OBM filtrate
Formation oil
Rxo > Rt
Sw > Sxo
Sw = Swirr
Sxo = Swirr (CMR)
In water zones, the filtrate displaces water

and Rxo > Rt. In practice, it is often not so
easy. OBM mud can invade deeply, and the
invading fluid may involve the water phase,
the oil phase, or both, depending on the
specific formulation of this complex mixture
of oil, salt water and solids. In addition,
OBM often contains surfactants that modify
the water surface tension in the invaded
zone, and affect residual water content near
the borehole. However, a combination of the
CMR tool and the AIT tool can solve the
problem. Conventional shallow resistivity
tools rely on laterolog devices that do not
operate in resistive boreholes. However, the
AIT 10-in. curve reads close to the borehole
and provides an estimate of invaded zone
saturation. The CMR measures irreducible
water in the invaded zone.
In zones where water is the movable
fluid, OBM filtrate will replace water, and the
invaded zone saturation (Sxo) will be lower
than the virgin zone saturation (Sw), but may
still be higher than the irreducible water
saturation (Swirr) (Fig. 5.50a). In other cases,
there may be complete flushing of formation
water in the near wellbore and the calculated
Sxo may actually be equal to Swirr (Fig. 5.50b).
Different invasion profiles for a water zone and a hydrocarbon zone

at irreducible water saturation.

5 44
Figure 5.51 and 5.52
BFV
Shale
Moved water
Shale
Oil
Bound water
Oil
Bound water
KCMR
Depth
(ft)
1000 (md)
0.1 0.25
MDT Mobility
1000 (md cp) 0.1 10900
BFV
Moved water
CMRP
(V V)
0.0
MDT Pressure
(psi)
Quartz
T2 Distribution
Volume analysis
T2 Cut-off
11400 1.0 (V V) 0.0 1.0
6000
KCMR
Depth
(ft)
1000 (md)
0.1 0.25
MDT Mobility
1000 (md cp) 0.1 10900
CMRP
(V V)
MDT Pressure
(psi)
0.0
Quartz
T2 Distribution
Volume analysis
T2 Cut-off
6000
11400 1.0 (V V) 0.0 1.0
B
18600
18000
18700
18100
A
18800
OBM filtrate invasion in an oil zone, confirming that the zone is at

OBM filtrate invasion in a water zone showing both complete and
irreducible water saturation.
incomplete flushing of the free water.
Both cases are seen on the logs in Fig.

5.51. The lowest zone (A) shows some
movable water (white) between the water
flushed by the mud filtrate (dark blue) and the
irreducible water (light blue). Therefore, this
sandstone has not been completely flushed by
filtrate, at least at the depth of the AIT 10-in.
tool. On the other hand, sandstone B at 18,600
ft shows no remaining movable water and has
been flushed. The MDT pressures fall on a
water gradient, confirming that these are, in
fact, water-bearing sandstones.
In hydrocarbon zones at irreducible
water saturation, oil is displaced by oil
and generally Sw=Sxo=Swirr (Fig. 5.50c).
However, in some cases, one may paradoxically still observe Rxo > Rt and therefore Sw
>Sxo. This anomaly occurs when surfactant
invades the formation, changing the wettability of the sand grains (Lavigne, 1997).
5 45
Fortunately in this case, differences between

Sw and Sxo remain small and, more
important, the same change in wettability
affects the CMR-derived Swirr. Therefore, if
Sxo equals the CMR-derived Swirr but is a little
less than Sw, the zone can still be at
irreducible water saturation and produce
clean oil.
An example of this is shown in Fig.
5.52, where moved water at several levels
reflects slight differences between Sw and
Sxo. However, Sxo remains almost identical to
Swirr, indicating a zone at irreducible water
saturation. This interval was perforated and
produced 400 bbl per day of clean oil.

CONTINUOUS WIRELINE FLUORESCENCE LOGGING
Fluorescence detection of crude oil on

drill cuttings and cores has been employed in
the oil field for more than 50 years;
fluorescence continues to be used today, in
part, because it provides the direct detection
of hydrocarbons. The aromatic components
of crude oils, such as benzene, give rise to
fluorescence (Ralston et al., 1996). The
fluorescence properties of intensity and color
provide information about the distribution
and type of hydrocarbons within formations.
However, a significant limitation of the
fluorescence logging of drill cuttings is the
poor vertical resolution associated with these
cuttings. Depending on depth and drilling
conditions, the vertical resolution might be 5
m, and contributions to cuttings from
previously penetrated sections only degrades
the resolution. At present, this poor vertical
resolution hinders the use of fluorescence in
its natural applications.
Figure 5.53
The fluorescence logging tool prototype emerging from a well in Patagonia.

The optical heads, which contact the formation, can be seen to protrude from
the lower end of the pads. Blue light emanates from the window of the optical
For wireline fluorescence logging, the

natural size of optical elements gives very
high vertical resolution, about one cm. This
resolution is a vast improvement over cuttings
analysis, and should allow accurate detection
of producing formations. In addition, detailed
analysis of the changes of the fluorescence
signal with depth can provide more
information about the nature of the hydrocarbons and formations. However, the
fluorescence techniques are qualitative in that
crude oils of different API gravity fluoresce
with different intensities and at different
frequencies (Downare and Mullins, 1995).
Also, variable amplitude of the fluorescence
signal can result from variable oil flushing in
the invaded zone and from variable window
contact resulting from rugosity, differing mud
cake removal, etc. Nevertheless, the
measurement of the fluorescence spectrum
helps to identify characteristics of the
fluorescing hydrocarbons.
The primary application of fluorescence
logging is to help resolve cases where
electrical logging yields ambiguous results.
For instance, in problematic cases of lowresistivity pays or fresh-water pays,
fluorescence can discriminate water from oil.
Highly laminated zones can yield averaged,
thus ambiguous electrical parameters,
whereas high-resolution wireline fluorescence logging can detect the oil. Furthermore,
the introduction of a totally new physics
measurement in the borehole will undoubtedly generate specific applications within
individual fields. Experience will be required
to exploit this expectation.
To determine the feasibility of fluorescence logging, we have built a prototype for
field testing. We anticipate that the experience
gained with this prototype in generating the
first-ever wireline fluorescence logs will help
us in designing more effective and robust
fluorescence logging tools in the future.
head facing the observer.

5 46
Figure 5.54
AHO60
AHO30
AHO20
SP
80
AHO10
(V V)
BFV
RXOI
NPOR
GR
AHORT
CMRP
(gAPI)
300 1.0 (ohm-m) 100 0.45
(V V)
20
(mV)
16
0.0
2.9
T2 Distribution
HCAL
6
Depth
(ft)
RHOZ
1.9
Blue
Red
induced induced
fluores. fluores.
.15 1.5
0.0 0.0
T2 Cut-off
1.5 1.0 (msec) 3000
1150
1160
1170
Fluorescence log along with

the Platform Express and
CMR logs from a well in
Patagonia. In both the red
and blue fluorescence
channels, there is a large and
variable fluorescence (oil)
signal in low-permeability
zones and an intermediate
magnitude signal, constant
with depth, in the highpermeability zones.
5 47
Two principal design areas must be considered: optical and mechanical. Schlumberger is the leader in delivering optical
technology to the borehole. The first commercial, optical wireline service is the OFA,
which analyzes the contents of the MDT
flowline. The quantity of oil, water, and to
some extent, gas are determined (Smits et al.,
1993). In addition, OBM filtrate can be
distinguished from crude oil by colorimetry.
The optical components employed in the
OFA are similar to those required in the FLT*
Fluorescence Logging Tool. The windows of
the FLT are subject to greater abrasion than
those of the OFA, yet they have been shown
to survive intact.
For the optical design of the FLT, we have
used two light sources of different wavelength,
one light source measuring the amount of
blue-induced fluorescence, the other measuring the amount of red-induced fluorescence. The spectral information obtained by
measuring the blue and red fluorescence
allows characterization of the fluorescing

hydrocarbon. For instance, very light oils
produce strong blue fluorescence but little red
fluorescence. We do not list optical design constraints except to say that very high performance optical systems must be built in
order to reject scattered source light in the fluorescence detection channel. Our downhole
optical train provides optical blocking that
rivals research-grade laboratory spectrometers.
In addition to fluorescence detection, we also
record for each light source the scattered light
returned from the borehole wall as a log
quality indicator. If the optical head is in
contact with only mud or mudcake, the
scattered light signal will exhibit very little
variability, whereas if the optical head contacts
the borehole wall, variation in scattered light is
expected. For instance, limestones tend to
scatter light more effectively than shales.
The feasibility of establishing optical contact with the borehole wall involves the mechanical design and requires overcoming mudcake and rugosity problems. Key features of
the mechanical layout can be gleaned from
Fig. 5.53, which shows a picture of the FLT
prototype emerging from a well at sunrise
after a logging job in Patagonia. Four pads
deliver the fluorescence measurement, two
pads for blue fluorescence and two for red
fluorescence, providing redundancy and
allowing for comparative testing of different
optical heads. With careful inspection, the
optical heads can be seen protruding from the
lower section of the pads in Fig. 5.53; the window of the pad facing the viewer is emitting
blue light in Fig. 5.53. The contact area of the
tool with the borehole wall is not the pad
area, but only the face of the optical head,
which is quite small. This small contact area
coupled with normal pad forces produces
high applied pressures, which are required to
cut though mudcake, and in favorable cases,
into the rock. Future fluorescence logging
prototypes may employ significantly different
mechanical designs; nevertheless, this first
prototype is a very good test platform.

CONTINUOUS WIRELINE FLUORESCENCE LOGGING
Figure 5.55
Moved water
Moved hydrocarbon
Water
Gas
Oil
B2
B1
HCAL
Depth
(ft) 6.0
B0
BS
(in.)
16 1
Quartz
Blue induced
fluorescence
2.0
2.0
Red induced
fluorescence
(ohm-m) 100 2.0
Bound water
T2 Distribution
Illite
T2 Cut-off
Volume analysis
2.0 0.0
(V V)
1.0
0.3
(msec) 3000
2500
2600
Fluorescence log along with

CMR and ELAN results from
a well in the Lagunillas Field.
Reservoir sandstones are
characterized by large blue
and red fluorescence. Shales
rich in organic matter also
emit considerable red
fluorescence.
Figure 5.54 shows an FLT log example

obtained from field testing in Patagonia. In
addition to the FLT, the Platform Express and
the CMR were run, providing very good standards for comparison. The SP in track 1, and
the induction and MCFL resistivity curves in
track 2 clearly distinguish permeable zones.
track 3 presents the porosity data from
Platform Express and CMR, the CMR free-fluid
porosity being shaded in yellow. The FLT
curves are presented in track 4, and show the
power level of blue fluorescence (blue curve)
and red fluorescence (red curve).
The substantial variation in fluorescence

signal indicates that optical contact is established with the borehole wall. The fluorescing
hydrocarbons exhibit both red and blue
fluorescence, indicating that these hydrocarbons are somewhat heavy. In other wells (in
West Texas), we have seen crude oils that
exhibit much larger blue than red fluorescence;
these are light oils.
In both the red and blue channels the
fluorescence signal occurs in two distinct
forms; at certain depths, the fluorescence signal is very large and shows substantial variation signal magnitude with depth. These zones
show low permeability in the CMR and
Platform Express logs. At other depths, the
fluorescence signal is somewhat smaller and
nearly constant with depth. In these latter
zones, both the CMR and Platform Express
indicate high permeability. An explanation
consistent with these results is that the permeable zones are invaded, flushing the crude oil
and reducing the fluorescence signal; however,
the sandstones are relatively uniform, giving a
nearly constant fluorescence signal with depth.
The low-permeability zones may consist of
finely laminated shale-sandstone sequences.
The hydrocarbons in these low-permeability
sandstones are not swept away, and our measurement is not impeded by any mudcake, so
the fluorescence signal is large. However, the
shale laminations do not fluoresce much,
giving highly variable fluorescence signal with
depth. This log example illustrates not only the
detection and some characterization of
hydrocarbons in continuous wireline fluorescence, but also indicates that information
about the formations can be gleaned from the
fluorescence log.
Figure 5.55 shows another FLT log
example, this time recorded in the
Lagunillas Formation in Lake Maracaibo.
Along with the blue and red fluorescence,
shown in track 3, a caliper log is displayed
in track 1, showing a rather rugose hole
with no significant mudcake buildup.

5 48
The high-resolution resistivity curves B0, B1

and B2 provided by the MCFL sensor of the
Platform Express confirm the densely laminated nature of the formation sandstones
and the flushing of the near wellbore volume by mud filtrate, as shown in the ELAN
evaluation presented in track 4. The CMR T2
distribution shown in track 5 shows very
short T2 times, confirming that we are in the
presence of heavy oil reservoirs.
Comparison between the MCFL response
and the FLT fluorescence curves confirms the
very high resolution of the optical measurement. Interestingly, the mechanical design of
the optical windows proves to be relatively
immune to the borehole rugosity seen in this
well. Even in the more rugose sections, the
small FLT optical windows maintain contact
with the formation and provide us with a
continuous reading of fluorescence.
Fluorescence in the reservoir sections is
very high. The lower reservoir gives out a
very strong red signal, and a somewhat lower
blue fluorescence, consistent with what is
expected in the heavy Lagunillas oils. In
comparison, the upper sandstone shows a
reduced fluorescence level. This is probably
because this sandstone is shalier, has a higher
irreducible water saturation as shown by the
ELAN, and by and large has been more
deeply invaded than the lower sandstone.
Interestingly, the reduction in fluorescence appears to be higher for red than for
blue. Perhaps this is due to the different oils
contained in the two sandstones. Perhaps this
phenomena is related to the increased shale
content in the upper sandstone. There are

several types of shale layers in this well. Lowresistivity shales are seen at 2665 and 2600 ft.
They exhibit almost no red or blue fluorescence. (The fluorescence signals in these zones
are baseline.) Likewise, in the low-resistivity
shales at 2490 and 2520 ft, there is very little
signal. In contrast, the high-resistivity shaly
sandstone section between 2590 and 2530 ft
exhibits a high level of red fluorescence
broadly correlating with resistivity variations.
However, the blue fluorescence remains nonzero and relatively invariant in this section.
Perhaps the upper sandstone and to some
degree the high-resistivity shale contain some
blue fluorescing crude oil.
In this Venezuelan example, fluorescence has provided additional information
on the formations beyond the detection of
hydrocarbon-bearing intervals.
Conclusion
The application of fluorescence in the oil
patch has had a long and continuing life.
Many have dreamt of a continuous wireline
fluorescence log; this is the first attempt to
make this a reality. The feasibility and the
potential of fluorescence logging are evident
in our field examples. Fluorescence logging is
at a very early stage of development; the exact
utility of fluorescence logging for particular
fields will have to be established and may
depend on local field and wellbore conditions. This effort in fluorescence logging will
be continued with the intention of increasing
measurement robustness and expanding the
utility of the fluorescence log.
This chapter was written by V.Patel (BP de Venezuela), E.Decoster, A.Douglas, R.Chambers,
O.Mullins, Xu Wu, M.Kane, P.Rabbito, T.Terabayashi, N.Itagaki and J.Singer.
with contributions from D.Flores, J.C.Porras and A.di Massimo (Corpoven), A.Lamus,
C.Curtis and T.Clancy (Petrozuata), O.Ortiz, A.Khayan and R.Sanseviero.
and with the permission of Corpoven, Maraven, Petrozuata, BP de Venezuela
and YPF to publish data from their wells.
5 49

REFERENCES
General
Evaluation in the Orinoco Belt
The Log Analyst, 1996, volume 37, No. 6 (NovemberDecember):
Everett, R. V., Herron, M., Pirie, G., Schweitzer, J., and

Edmundson, H., 1985, Orinoco Belt case study results
on a single wellMFM-75, SPE Paper 14176, Society of
Petroleum Engineers Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition held in Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.A., September.
Kleinberg, R.L., and Vinegar, H.J., NMR properties of

reservoir fluids, pp 20-32.
Akkurt, R., Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.N., Guillory, A.J.,
NMR logging of natural gas reservoirs, pp 33-42.
Akkurt, R., Prammer, M.G., Moore, M.A., Selection of
optimal acquisition parameters for MRIL logs, pp 43-52.
Morriss, C.E., Deutch, P., Freedman, R., McKeon, D.,
Kleinberg, R.L., Operating guide for the combinable
magnetic resonance log, pp 53-60.
Prammer, M.G., Drack, E.D., Bouton, J.C., Gardner,
J.S., Measurements of clay-bound water and total
porosity by magnetic resonance, pp 61-69.
The Log Analyst, 1997, volume 38, No. 2 (March-April):
Kenyon, W.E., Petrophysical principles of applications
of NMR logging, pp 21-43.
Morriss, C.E., Freedman, R., Straley, C., Johnston, M.,
Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.N., Hydrocarbon saturation
and viscosity estimation from NMT logging in the
Belridge diatomite., pp 44-59.
Chang, D., Vinegar, H.J., Morriss, C.E., Straley, C.,
Effective porosity, producible fluid, and permeability in
carbonates from NMR logging, pp 60-72.
Horkowitz, J.P., Clerke, E.A., Hartman, D.E., Vinegar,
H.J., Coates, G.R., Residual oil saturation measurements in carbonates with pulsed NMR logs, pp 73-83.
Straley, C., Rossini, D., Vinegar, H.J., Tutunjian, P.,
Morriss, C.E. Core analysis by low-field NMR, pp 84-94.
Oilfield review, Summer 1997, p. 34-57.
Tar detection and Permeability Evaluation

in North Monagas
Winkler, K.W., Liu, H.L., and Johnson, D.L., 1989,
Permeability and borehole Stoneley waves: Comparison
between experiment and theory, Geophysics, p. 66-75.
Martinez, O., Flores, D., and Singer, J., 1990, Prediction
of fluid mobility from Stoneley energy in Eastern
Venezuela, Schlumberger Doll Research Centre
Symposium.
Identification of gas and tar layers with NMR tools

Herron, M. M., 1987, Estimating the intrinsic permeability of clastic sediments from geochemical data,
Transactions of the Society of Professional Well Log
Analysts Conference, London, 29 June - 2 July.
Sampling
Morris, C. W. and Sonnier, B., 1991, Evaluation of
reseroir fluids using formation tester tool samples,
SPE Paper 22129, Society of Petroleum Engineers
Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in
Anchorage, Alaska.
Schlumberger Oilfield Services 1996, Wireline Formation
Testing and Sampling.
Felling, M.M., Morris, C.W., 1997, Characterization of
in-situ fluid responses using optical fluid analysis,
SPE 38649, presented at the 1997 SPE Annual
Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas,
October 5-8.
Prediction of Water Cut in a Sand

with Low Resistivity Contrast.
McKeon, D.C. and Scott, H.D. (1988) "SNUPARA
nuclear parameter code for nuclear geophysics applications," Nuclear Geophysics, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 215-230.
Matteson,A. and Herron, M.M. (1993), Quantitative
mineral analysis by Fourier Transform infrared spectroscopy, presented at the 1993 Society of Core
Anlaysts Conference, Houston, paper 9308.
Ellis, D.V., (1987) Well logging for earth scientists,
Elsevier, New York, p 532.
Identifying Producible Zones in Oil-Base Mud Wells

LaVigne, J., Barber, T., Bratton, T., 1997, Strange invasion
profiles: what multiarray induction logs can tell us about
how oil-based mud affects the invasion process and wellbore stability, Paper B, Transactions of the Society of
Professional Well Log Analysts 38th Annual Logging
Symposium, Houston, Texas, June 15-18.
Continuous Wireline Fluorescence Logging

Ralston, C.Y., Wu, X., and Mullins, O.C., 1996, Quantum
yields of crude oils, Applied Spectroscopy 50, p. 1563.
Downare, T.D. and Mullins, O.C., 1995, Visible and nearinfrared fluorescence of crude oils, Applied Spectroscopy
49, p. 754.
Smits, A.R., Fincher, D.V., Nishida, K., Mullins, O.C.,
Schroeder, R.J., and Yamate T., 1993, In-situ optical fluid
analysis as an aid to wireline formation sampling, Society
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Jimnez, F., Di Massimo, A., and Peretti, F., 1997,

Resonancia magntica, la introspeccin futurista de la
petrofsica en el Norte de Monagas, paper EF-12,
Sociedad Venezolana de Ingenieros de Petrleo, XI
Jornadas Tcnicas de Petrleo en Maturn, Monagas,
Feb 19-22.

5 50
Chapter 6
Evaluation and Monitoring of Existing Wells
Chapter overview
Saturation through casing
Porosity through casing
Lithology through casing
Permeability and pressure
Advances in production logging
Hydraulic integrity
Permanent monitoring systems:
Extending the life of a reservoir
E VA L U AT I O N A N D M O N I T O R I N G O F E X I S T I N G W E L L S
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
A key factor in improving production

from old wells is a proper evaluation of its
current condition. Although much can be
inferred from surface measurements, a study
of production history, and general knowledge of the field, there are many ambiguities
that can only be resolved by examining the
in-situ state of the well downhole. This is
particularly true for the large number of
wells that are producing from different
layers, horizontal wells with long sections
open to the formation, or wells that
penetrate multiple reservoirs. This chapter
discusses the techniques for in-situ
evaluation in old wells, and shows how
advances in technology have led to
considerable improvements in this area.
The first key is to understand the state of
the reservoir around the well. The main
concern is the fluids, but in old wells there
are often limited data, so that it is also
necessary to determine the lithology and
porosity. Although all this has been possible
for several years using nuclear spectroscopy
and other techniques, there have been two
recent improvements. The first is a significant
increase in accuracy because of better hardware and vastly improved characterization in
laboratory formations. The second is the
development of slim tools that can log the
reservoir without pulling the tubing.
The evaluation of water saturation,
lithology and porosity is discussed with
examples in the first three sections. Two
important dynamic properties are also
needed: the permeability and pressure of
each layer. These can be obtained directly
by special tests, or indirectly from logs and
correlation with new wells.
Since its invention, production logging

relied heavily on the spinner for fluid
velocity and the gradiomanometer for
holdup. The difficulties are well known,
particularly in two- or three-phase flow and
deviated wells. They become insurmountable in horizontal wells. The large increase
in the number of horizontal wells, together
with laboratory studies and advances in
technology, have led to a whole new range
of production logging sensors that can today
provide three-phase holdup and two-phase
flow at any deviation, and will soon provide
quantitative three-phase flow. Section 5
describes these new techniques and shows
how they can be used alone or together to
evaluate flow at any deviation.
Good hydraulic integrity is important,
and so is knowing whether or not it exists.
In old wells it is particularly important, since
cement and casing can deteriorate and the
original completion practices are not always
well known. Section 6 shows how modern
acoustic techniques can give detailed
information on both cement and casing
quality in a wide range of conditions.
The future lies with permanent sensors,
and the ability to continuously monitor the
in-situ state of the well and the reservoir
beyond it. At present, pressure inside the
well is the only routine permanent
measurement made. Examples from many
parts of the world show the advantages of
permanent sensors, not only for reasons of
logistics, but also for improved reservoir
management. A conceptual view of future
developments is also presented.

S AT U R AT I O N T H R O U G H C A S I N G
Production in old wells is affected by

natural depletion and, when reservoirs are
under waterflooding, by the progression of
the front of injected water. A major concern
in these wells is the increased water cut that
may quickly become uncontrollable.
Production logs such as Flowmeter and
Gradiomanometer logs help to diagnose
existing problems. These logs describe the
fluid flow behavior (rate and type) for each
open interval. However, well repairs that use
only this information often turn out to be
short-lived solutions. The reason is a lack of
knowledge of what is occurring in the
reservoir. Is the water produced from
coning, breakthrough, or encroachment? For
instance, plugging off perforations at the
levels where water is produced with a
cement squeeze may reduce the water cut
only temporarily. If the water finds a
preferential path, it can rapidly reach other
perforations. A thorough diagnosis of the
problem requires additional information on
the current water saturation within the
reservoir. This information, therefore, needs
to be acquired through the casing.
Today, multidisciplinary teams are
focused on enhancing production in existing
wells (Chapter 72). One obvious way to
achieve this objective is to look for zones with
bypassed oil, for which saturation through the
cased hole is a key piece of information.
The first section will describe nuclear
techniques used in wireline logging to
derive water saturation through the cased
hole. We will then illustrate this technique
by two examples from Ta Juana district and
El Furrial Field.
Capture and Inelastic

Scattering logging
Two nuclear reaction mechanisms are
currently used to obtain water saturation
through casing: Pulsed Neutron Capture
(PNC) and Inelastic Scattering (IS). In the
future it may also be possible to make continuous through-casing resistivity measurements,
but at present these are experimental and stationary. The RST* Reservoir Saturation Tool is
designed for both PNC and IS logging techniques (see RST box, page 610). The pulsed
neutron generator, or minitron, operates in
dual neutron burst mode for PNC logging
(referred to as sigma mode) and in single
neutron burst mode for IS logging (referred to
as inelastic or carbon/oxygen mode).
In sigma mode, high-energy neutrons
from the minitron are captured after they are
slowed to thermal energy level by the nuclei
present in the formation rock or fluid. The
rate of decay of the thermal neutron population is characterized by its decay time, t.
Because chlorine is a very efficient neutron
absorber, the decay time in a formation is a
function of the volume and salinity of the
water it contains.
The quantity actually used in petrophysics is not the decay time of the
formation but its capture cross section, S.
It is related to decay time by:
(1)
The expression of S for a composite
formation is a linear function of the
contribution of each solid and fluid component. In the general case of a shaly, porous
formation containing hydrocarbon and
water, it is:
Sf=(1-Vclf)Sma+VclScl+fSwSw+f(1-Sw)Sh (2)
where f is the formation porosity, Vcl is the
volume of clay, Sw is the water saturation,
and Sma, Scl, Sw, and Sh are the capture cross
sections of rock matrix, clay, water, and
hydrocarbon, respectively.

Scl is obtained from crossplot techniques. Determining Sma requires knowledge

of the lithology which, in addition to
porosity and clay volume, is usually derived
from an openhole log evaluation. However,
often the data are not sufficient, especially in
old wells. Because the RST can identify most
important rock constituents, it can be used
in such conditions to provide clay volume
and lithology (page 617). It can also
provide a hydrogen index, or neutron
porosity, measurement (page 612).
Because of the presence of the borehole, the rate of decay measured by a PNC
device is a combination of formation sigma
(Sf)and borehole sigma (Sbh). The RST can
separate both components of the decay and
provide Sf and Sbh because of its dual
neutron burst capabilities.
From equation (2), the expression for Sw
can be written as:
IS logging is the alternative technique in

such complex environments. It measures
gamma rays resulting from the interaction of
inelastic (high-energy) neutrons with the
nuclei present in the formation. Spectral
processing is used to extract gamma ray
yields from the inelastic spectrum. The relative contributions of carbon (C) and oxygen
(O) nuclei relate to the volumes of oil and
water in the formation, and the observed C
and O yields are used to determine Sw.
Because the carbon concentration in gas is
extremely low, IS logging is not suitable for
obtaining Sw in gas reservoirs.
The ratio of the carbon and oxygen
(COR) yields is used rather than the
independent C and O yields, because it
reduces the effects of varying borehole size,
casing size, porosity, and other environmental effects.
The equation to convert COR to Sw is
(Scott et al., 1991):
(3)
Charts (Schlumberger Log Interpretation
Charts, 1997) are available to determine Sw
and Sh. Sw is directly related to the salinity
of the water, its value ranging from 20 capture units (c.u.) for fresh water to more
than 120 c.u. for salt-saturated water. Sh
typically varies between 18 c.u. and 22 c.u.
for oil and remains below 17 c.u. for gas.
The quantity f(Sw-Sh) in the denominator
of equation (3) shows that PNC logging
requires a contrast between Sw and Sh. Hence,
the water must be salty and the salinity must
be known to evaluate Sw. There are no hard
limits, but it is generally considered that when
f is less than 10 p.u. and water salinity less
than 30,000 ppm, the contrast is insufficient.
These conditions are usually not met in
reservoirs where production is maintained by
water injection programs. The resulting formation water, a mixture of injection water and
connate water, has a variable and often low
salinity. Also, most Venezuelan reservoirs have
connate water salinities outside this range.
6 3
Matrix Formation Borehole

+Cement
Fluid
Fluid
COR =
YC
K + K f(1-Sw) + KC3(1-yw)
= C1 C2
KOX1 + KOX2fSw + KOX3yw
YOX
(4)
The K coefficients represent the sensitivities to C and O, respectively. The matrix

plus cement term expresses the contribution
from the matrix and cement around the
casing, the formation fluid term from the oil or
water in the formation, and the borehole fluid
term from the borehole oil or water. The
variable yw represents the borehole water
fraction (holdup). Values for the K coefficients
come from an extensive database constructed
with laboratory measurements made from
different borehole environments, formation
lithologies, and porosities. Lithology, porosity,
caliper, casing size and casing ID information
must be known to calculate these values.

The detectors of the 1 1116-in. RST are

sensitive to both borehole and formation
fluids, and so the borehole fluid composition
must be known or measured independently.
Once yw is inserted, equation (3) can be
solved for the volume of water (fSw) and the
volume of oil (f[1-Sw]), independently using
the near or far detector, or a combination of
the two.
Because of the detector shielding in the
1
2 2-in. RST, there is a strong signal contrast
between near and far detector signals.
Equation (4) can then be written for both
detectors and the two-equation system can
solve for Sw and yw.
Figure 6.1
Counts
Hydrogen
Oil
Carbon
Oxygen
Water
Energy (Me V)
RST spectra obtained in an oil tank and a water tank. The broad energy windows
used across the region of the predominant C and O peaks are indicated.
Figure 6.2
VUOI-COR
ELAN effective porosity
Depth 10
(ft)
(p.u.)
VUOI-WIN
40
20
VUOI-ALFA
(p.u.)
70
3650
3675
3700
3725
Alpha processing results in an accurate volume of oil with low statistical variations.
Alpha processing
Spectral processing is hampered by
large statistical uncertainties and requires
very low logging speeds to ensure that
enough gamma rays are measured.
Another approach uses broad energy
windows in the gamma ray spectrum across
the region of the predominant C or O peaks
(Fig. 6.1). This method gives better statistical
precision but the interpretation is prone to
bias. The windows do not only represent C
and O, but are strongly influenced by other
elements present in the formation and by the
gamma radiation induced by the tool itself.
Consequently, the ratio from the C and O
windows is very dependent on environmental
effects, especially borehole effects such as
washouts and cement integrity.
To improve the statistical precision without losing accuracy, a method called Alpha
Processing combines the windows and spectral processing to obtain an accuracy comparable to the C/O yields ratio and a precision comparable to the C/O windows ratio.
Figure 6.2 shows for one well the
formation porosity with the volume of oil
computed from the yields (VUOI-COR) and
windows (VUOI-WIN) ratios, and the same
volume resulting from alpha processing
(VUOI-ALFA). VUOI-WIN exhibits substantially fewer statistical variations than

RST Job Planner, input window.
RST Job Planner,

output window.
VUOI-COR and both quantities correlate.

However, VUOI-WIN is not accurateits
value is as much as 30 p.u. above the porosity
value. VUOI-COR, on the other hand, agrees
with the porosity when it is oil-filled.
The result of the Alpha Processing is an
accurate volume (VUOI-ALFA has the same
average value as VUOI-COR) with improved
statistical precision (the statistics on VUOIALFA are equivalent to the statistics on
VUOI-WIN).
Precision and job planning

Unlike most logging tools, there is no
standard logging speed at which to run the
RST in C/O mode. The speed is determined
by the client objective and especially the
statistical precision that is required for the
water saturation, Sw. To improve the statistical precision requires an increased counting
rate at the detector, hence a slower logging
speed. This counting rate also depends on
the tool environment, such as borehole and
casing geometry and formation porosity.
To help the logging engineer plan the
data acquisition, an RST Job Planner routine
has been developed that determines, for all
well conditions, the logging speed needed
to produce an Sw answer that meets the
client objective.
The environmental parameters are entered in the input window (Fig. 6.3a): lithology,
hole and casing sizes, casing weight, formation oil carbon density value, average formation porosity and downhole temperature. Also
required are processing parameters such as
alpha processing window length and vertical
averaging filter length. Finally, the desired
precision on the water saturation is entered.
The output window (Fig. 6.3b), repeats
all the input parameters on the left and shows
the calculated logging speed on the right. The
logging speeds are indicated for both waterfilled and oil-filled hole. Note the speed
improvement when using alpha-processing.
Station logging is usually not used with the
RST since alpha-processing cannot be done
with stationary data. Using alpha-processing
on continuous logs gives the same quality
answer in less time than performing stations.
The logging speeds are computed for two
degrees of confidence on the statistical precision of Sw. In this example, where the required
precision is 10 saturation units. (s.u.), the logging speed needed to return Sw within 10 s.u.
at one standard deviation is given in the first
column and at two standard deviations in the
second column. Ten s.u. at one standard deviation implies that 68% of the measured values

Oil in borehole
rh = 0.74 g cm3
Gravel pack f = 35%
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (for
.7
Near detector C O ratio
Figure 6.3a & 6.3b
.6
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.0
0
.1
Porosity
(a)
Figure 6.4
Oil in borehole
rh = 0.74 g cm3
Gravel pack f = 35%
Sw (gravel pack) = Sw (formation)
Bit size = 8.5 in.

7-in. csg. 23 lbs ft
4.5-in. liner 11.6 Ibs ft
.7
.7
.6
Far detector C O ratio
Near detector C O ratio
Red = Without gravel pack

Green = With gravel pack
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.6
Sw = 0 %
.5
.4
.3
Sw = 100 %
.2
.1
.0
.0
0
.1
.2
Porosity
(a)
Response of the near (a) and

far (b) RST detectors as a
function of porosity and
saturation, with and without
gravel pack and liner.
.3
.1
.2
.3
Porosity
(b)
will be within 10 s.u., while 10 s.u. at two

standard deviations implies that 95% will be
within 10 s.u.
Recording speed with RST ranges from
100 ft/hr to 200 ft/hr. Hence, an effective logging speed of 20 ft/hr will require five passes
at 100 ft/hr or 10 passes at 100 ft/hr. For
practical purposes, the number of passes is
often limited at 10, which implies a minimum
effective logging speed of 10 ft/hr. If the RST
planner returns a lower logging speed, then
the precision requested cannot be met in this
environment. Such environments are reservoirs with porosities below 15 p.u. For lower
porosities, less and less precision must be
accepted. In addition, small errors in the
interpretation parameters in equation (4)
become increasingly important.
Inelastic scattering in gravel pack
The original database from which the
C/O interpretation coefficients were determined (equation (4)) did not include gravel
pack completions. Internal gravel packs are
quite common in Venezuela, particularly in
the Miocene sandstones of the Maracaibo
Basin. The internal gravel pack not only puts
more distance between the RST and the
formation, but also introduces an additional
material (the gravel pack) with C and O.
Several extra variables are introduced in the

response: the size of the liner; and the
porosity, density and water saturation in the
gravel pack. Recently, however, many
common gravel pack situations have been
modeled using a Monte Carlo simulation.
Typical results are shown in Fig. 6.4. It can be
seen that the far detector is relatively
unaffected while, as expected, the near is
affected. In either case, the proper response is
now available. The similarity in response
shows that even when conditions such as
gravel pack density are not known precisely,
we can use the far detector with confidence
and the near detector as a check. More gravel
pack and dual pipe completions are being
modeled and measured in the laboratory.
Example 1: Looking for the oil-water contact
and bypassed oil in Ta Juana District
Some reservoirs in the Ta Juana District

in western Venezuela, operated by Lagoven,
are currently under waterflooding. The
Lagunillas Inferior (LGNF-5) is one of the
most complex reservoirs because of its
geology and lithology. It is an undersaturated
reservoir flowing from unconsolidated
sandstones. To further complicate matters,
this reservoir was first developed almost 60
years ago and the wells have old and limited
sets of openhole logs.
One of the most complicated areas of
the reservoir is the east-central region of
LGNF-5. It contains several sandstone layers
open to flow, all of which have different
petrophysical properties.
Using the Production Enhancement
Group (PEG) approach (Chapter 72), the
well LL-1841 was chosen as the best candidate
to run an RST log to monitor the current oil
saturation and identify bypassed oil zones.
This well is injecting water into a lower
horizon, so that the fluid in the borehole is
constant and well known, and the reservoir
is undisturbed by production at the well.

Figure 6.5
Sigma borehole
Depth
(ft)
250
(c.u.)
GR
(gAPI)
Sigma formation
0
100 .2
Deep induction
(ohm-m) 2000
Near COR
60
(c.u.)
.1
60
RST porosity
(p.u.)
.1
.4
Far COR
.4
3500
3600
3700
Openhole and RST logs in

well LL-1841. The RST logs
complement the limited
openhole data set.
Being old, any invasion fluids should have

been displaced long ago. Therefore,
information obtained from this well could be
a good indicator of the state of the reservoir,
and could be used to design workovers in
neighboring wells.
The RST was logged inside the 3 12-in.
tubing and 7-in. casing from 3300 to 3800 ft,
corresponding to the LGNF-5 reservoir.
Because of fresh water, the tool was run in
inelastic mode to derive water saturation.
It was also run in capture mode to obtain
a porosity log that would complement
the limited information available from openhole logs.
Figure 6.5 shows the RST measurements

(near detector and far detector CORs,
borehole and formation sigmas, and
porosity) together with the openhole logs.
The increase of COR within the sandstone
from 3692 to 3715 ft indicates an increase of
formation oil saturation. Sigma does not
respond to this change because the formation oil and water have a similar capture
cross section caused by very low water
salinity. As expected with fresh injection
water filling the tubing, borehole sigma
remains low and changes very little.
With only GR and deep induction
resistivity measurements, there was not
enough information to do a volumetric
evaluation of the openhole logs. However,
with the additional measurements from
the RST, such as neutron porosity and formation sigma, it was possible to perform
the evaluation.
The interpretation of openhole and RST
logs is shown on Fig. 6.6. Clear oil-water
contacts occur at 3703 ft and 3504 ft.
Injection water has completely swept the oil
in sandstones 3 and 4. There is remaining oil
at the top of sandstones 1 and 5, while
sandstones 2, 6, 7 and 8 do not show any
depletion. This confirms that the sandstones
are not always in communication throughout
the reservoir.
These results were correlated to
equivalent sandstones in neighboring wells.
LL-408, which had been shut in because of
excessive water production, was selected as
an excellent candidate for workover. The
well is located only 100 ft east of LL-1841
and has a sandstone that is correlated with
sandstone 8 in LL-1841. A NODAL*
(production system analysis) showed a
potential of 230 BOPD assuming a water cut
of 30% (Fig. 6.7).

Figure 6.6
Water
Moved oil
Sw RST
100 (p.u.)
Sw OH
RST porosity
50 (p.u.)
0 100 (p.u.)
Depth
(ft)
Oil
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
0 Fluid analysis
from RST
0 50 (p.u.)
Sand
Bound water
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
0 50
(p.u.)
Clay
0 0
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
8
7
6
3500
After fishing the slotted liner and

squeezing cement into existing perforations,
the interval corresponding to sandstone 8
was perforated with 4-in. (tubing-conveyed
perforating system) guns loaded with
51Jultra penetrating charges. Finally, a gas
lift was installed. After the workover, the
well is producing 250 BOPD, close to the
NODAL analysis prediction, and the water
cut is only 6%.
Example 2: Monitoring
water front and looking for bypassed oil in

El Furrial Field.
The El Furrial Field started producing in

1986 from the Naricual Formation, which is
divided into three members: Superior,
Medium, and Inferior (Chapter 237).
Producing wells are often completed with
two strings: the Naricual Inferior produces
through the long string and the Naricual
Medium and Superior through the short
string. Because of a rapid pressure drop in
the reservoir, a water injection program was
initiated in 1991. Results from this flood
scheme were very satisfactory until recently,
when some wells started producing water.
Within a few months the water cut reached
levels as high as 80%, and even new wells
had to be shut in early.
When well FUL-29 started producing
water from the long string, it was thought
that the Naricual Inferior would have to be
shut in. Before doing so, an RST was logged
in inelastic mode to monitor the water front
at this well.
3600
3700
RST log interpretation in well LL-1841.
Figure 6.7
1400
Fluid conduit
Theoretical performance
Predicted performance
assuming 30% water cut
Pressure (psig)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
100
200
300
400
Liquid rate (BOPD)
The NODAL analysis predicts a production of 230 BOPD in well LL-1841.


,
,,

@@
A
PP
Q
B

R
C
S
B
R

,

,
,,

@

A
P
C
BB
Q
S
RR
@
P

,

,

A
Q
,,
@@
PP

,

,

BB
C
RR
S

A
Q
,,
@@
PP

,

BB
C
RR
S

A
Q
,,
@@
PP

,

,

,

,

,,

@

A
BB
P
C
Q
RR
S
@
P

,

,
Figure 6.8
Water
Moved oil
Water
Perfs.
Depth
(ft)
Sw RST
100 (p.u.)
Sw OH
Permeability
0
(md) 200 100 (p.u.)
Oil
0
0 25
(p.u.)
2
15,300
15,500
9
15,600
10
11
12
13
15,700
RST log interpretation in well FUL-29.
Sand
Oil
Fluid analysis
from RST
15,400
Oil
Water
Bound water
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
0 25
(p.u.)
0 0
Clay
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
The interpretation of the RST survey

performed over the Naricual Inferior (Fig.
6.8) shows a waterflood profile very
different from the previous example. The
water front does not uniformly progress in
the reservoir. Some sandstones are almost
completely invaded with injection water (7
and 8), others are partially flooded (4, 6, and
10), and sandstones of lower porosity
exhibit the original reservoir oil saturation
(2, 3, 4, 12, and 13).
In track 1 of Fig. 6.8 is the average
permeability, computed from openhole logs,
for each perforated sandstone. It is clear that
the injected water has flushed the oil in
high-permeability sandstones (7 and 8)
without reaching those that were less
permeable.
These results led Lagoven to plan a workover on the well instead of simply shutting in
the long string. The workover consisted of
injecting a polymer in the flooded sandstones
to block the water migration.
Based on the findings in well FUL-29,
the perforation strategy was revised in both
new injector and producer wells. In the
injectors, the high-permeability sandstones
are now perforated with a lower shot density
to reduce the injection rate. In the producers,
these sandstones are not perforated at all.
Conclusion
A crucial piece of information for
reservoir monitoring is water saturation.
By combining and improving two techniques
to obtain this information, the RST is a breakthrough in cased-hole logging. Sigma logging
can quickly provide Sw in formations
with known and high water salinity.
C/O logging is the alternative in reservoirs
with low formation water salinity or under
water injection.
RPB@
QRPAB@,,
SRR

CBB

RST
RST
Figure 6.9
Figure
6.10a
Inelastic scattering
Nucleus
Fast
neutron
C, O, Si, Ca, Fe, ...
6.10b
Principles of measurement: The

measurement section of the RST, (Fig. 6.9),
consists of a pulsed generator of highenergy neutrons, a near and a far GR
detector each with cerium-doped
gadolinium oxy-ortho silicate crystals.
There are two sizes, 11116-in. and 212-in. In
the 212-in. size the near detector is
shielded from the formation and the far
detector from the borehole. For throughcasing formation evaluation, two modes
are usedInelastic Capture Mode and
Sigma Mode. For production logging,
Activation is used for Water Flow Logging,
and a special form of Sigma
Excited
nucleus
Mode for measuring marker
arrival times in Phase
Velocity Logs.
g-ray
Thermalization
Nucleus
Fast
neutron
Primarily H (mass close to neutron mass)
6.10c
Neutron capture
Excited
nucleus
Nucleus
Slow
neutron
H, Cl, Si, Ca, S, Fe, Gd, Ti ...
6.10d
Inelastic Capture Mode:

Fast neutrons from the
pulsed neutron generator
collide inelastically with
formation nuclei, losing
some of their energy and
emitting gamma rays of
characteristic energy (6.10a).
The spectrum, or number
and energy of these gamma
rays, is measured by the
detectors during the neutron
burst, gate A (Fig. 6.11).
Time (msec)
Fig. 6.11
100
80
C
60
Net inelastic =
A bB
40
Net inelastic
B
20
A
Counts
21/2 -in. RST tool
Counts
Neutron
generator
Counts
Far
Near
detector detector
Counts
Acquisition
cartridge
Neutron
burst
Telemetry,
casing collar
locator
(CCL)
Gamma ray
(optional)
After slowing down to thermal

energy, mainly by interaction with
hydrogen (Fig. 6.10b), the neutrons are
captured by formation nuclei, emitting
other characteristic gamma rays (Fig.
6.10c). The spectra of these capture
gamma rays are recorded in timing gates
B and C. A fraction of gate B is used to
remove the capture background present
in gate A. The measured spectra are
compared with the standards for each
element (Fig. 6.12) to determine the
relative contribution, or yield, of each
element to the spectrum. The Inelastic
Spectrum is used to determine the COR.
The COR is also determined by
comparing the counts in windows C and
O of the Inelastic Spectrum. The Capture
Spectrum is used to determine the relative
yields of Si, Ca, Fe, S, Ti and Gd.
Neutron
burst
111/16 -in. RST tool
Energy
0
Energy
g-ray
Activation
n + 16O 16N + p 16O* + b 16O + g with half life = 7.1s

6 10
RST
Fig.
6.12
Counts
Oxygen
Silicon
Tool background
Calcium
Iron
Carbon
counts in the near and far detectors. The

background counts are measured
periodically between bursts. In the Phase
Velocity Log, another timing sequence is
used with rapid, short bursts so that the
precise time of arrival of a high S marker
can be measured.
Activation Mode: A short burst of
neutrons from a stationary tool activates
atoms which, after a certain time delay,
decay back to normal with the emission of
a gamma ray (Fig. 6.10d). Most decays are
very short. However, the half-life of the
oxygen decay is 7.1 sec. This is sufficiently
long that at normal flow rates the activated
oxygen in moving water is decaying and
emitting gamma rays as it passes one of
the detectors a few seconds later. This
signal is distinct from the background
radiation and from the signal created by
stationary oxygen, which decays
exponentially (Fig. 6.14)
Energy (MeV)
Flowing
signal
Stationary
signal
Slow flowing signal
Background
signal
Fast flowing signal
Count rate
Sigma Mode: Fast neutrons from the

pulsed neutron generator are slowed
down and captured as they diffuse away
from the source (Figs. 6.10a & 6.10b). A
capture cross section (S) is inferred from
the decline in total gamma ray counts at
the detectors. A Dual Burst technique
(Fig. 6.13) is used, in which the count-rate
decay is measured after both a short burst
and a long burst. Data from both
detectors and both bursts are used, with
Sformation being obtained principally from the long burst of
Neutrons
on
the far detector, and Sborehole
No flowing signal
from the short burst of the near
detector. Porosity is estimated
from a ratio of the late time
Time
Long burst
Fig. 6.14
Counts
Short burst
500
1000
1500
Time (msec)
Fig. 6.13
6 11

POROSITY THROUGH CASING
Various methods are used to obtain porosity in old wells. If an adequate modern openhole logging suite is available, it is usually
sufficient to rely on the openhole porosity.
However, in many cases the openhole logging
suite is insufficient or non-existent. In other
cases, the openhole porosity is no longer accurate; for example, carbonates that have been
acidized. Nuclear and acoustic measurements
must then be used to determine the porosity.
The most commonly used technique is a
neutron-type porosity measurement. Such
measurements are relatively insensitive to the
casing and the cement, and can be characterized so as to remove these effects. The
most convenient is a through-tubing measurement, such as from the 11116-in. or 212-in. RST .
The
next
section
describes
the
characterization and processing of this
measurement and shows an example in a
complicated completion. Density tools are
also used. However, in general, the effects of
casing and cement are significant, and unless
the cement bond is excellent, the results are
considered unreliable.
Compressional and shear slownesses (Dtc

and Dts) can also be measured through casing
and transformed into porosity. When cementation is very good or when the formation is
faster than the casing, the first arrival can be
used to determine Dtc. However, this is not
generally reliable and it is recommended to
record full waveforms and process accordingly (see the DSI box, page 433). The last
section describes how the DSI can be tuned
and processed to give optimum results in
these conditions, and shows one example.
Porosity from RST
In the sigma mode, the RST makes a
pulsed neutron capture measurement that
can be used to determine porosity. As
described in the RST box (page 6.10), the
neutron generator emits a short and a long
burst that are recorded at each detector.
Figure 6.15a shows typical time decay spectra
for the short burst at the near detector, while
Fig. 6.15b shows spectra for the long burst at
the far detector. It is clear that the slope of
the short burst/near detector decay is strongly
dependent on borehole salinity, whereas the
long burst/far detector is not.
Figure 6.15
Borehole
salinity
0 kppm
Count rate
Count rate
Borehole
salinity
0 kppm
200 kppm
200 kppm
Long
burst
Short
burst
50
100
150
200
600
1000
1400
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
a.) Typical signal decay from the short burst of the RST near
b.) Typical signal decay from the long burst of the RST far
detector for different borehole salinities.
detector for different borehole salinities. Note the time scale.

The short burst decay is already completed before the start of
this figure.

6 12
Figure 6.16
Input
Time decay spectra
Correction to spectra
Counting loss corrections
Background adaptive filtering
Background subtraction
Compute apparent quantities

Near apparent borehole sigma
Far apparent formation sigma
Near far capture count rate ratio
SBNA
SFFA
TRAT
etc.
Environmental
parameters
Database
Borehole size
Casing size weight
Lithology
Transform from apparent to

corrected quantities
Outputs
Borehole salinity Cross section
Porosity
Corrected near and far sigma
Sigma formation
BSAL SIBF
TPHI
SFNC SFFC
SIGM
Block diagram showing

Sigma/Porosity
processing of RST data.
Table 6.1
Hole size
Casing
Lithology1
Size
Weight
(in.)
(in.)
(lbm/ft)
4.125
4.12
4.125
Openhole
6.4
2.8755
3.5
12.7
Porosity2
Formation
flush3
(kppm NaCl)
Borehole
fluid4
(kppm NaCl)
LS
LS
LS
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 25 50 100 200 Air

0 25 50 100 200 Air
0 25 50 100 200 Air
6
6
6
4.5
5.0
Openhole
10.5
18
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 25 50 100 200 Air

0 25 50 100 200 Air
0 25 50 100 200 Air
8
8
8
5.5
7.0
Openhole
15.5
32
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 25 50 100 200 Air

0 25 50 100 200 Air
0 25 50 100 200 Air
10
10
10
5.5
7.0
7.625
15.5
32
26.4
LSD
LSD
LSD
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 25 50 100 200 Air

0 25 50 100 200 Air
0 25 50 100 200 Air
11
12
12
7.625
9.625
9.625
26.4
32.3
53.5
LS
LS
LS
Z*M H
Z*M H
Z*M H
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 70 140 210
0 25 50 100 200 Air

0 25 50 100 200 Air
0 25 50 100 200 Air
1) L=Limestone S=Sandstone D= Dolomite

2) Z=zero (0 p.u.) M=medium (15-20 p.u.) H=high (33 p.u. for sand, 38-43 p.u. in lime and dolomite)
3) For sand the 70 and 210 kppm points are modeled, for dolomite 70 and 210 kppm are omitted.
4) For sand the 25 and 100 kppm points are modeled, for dolomite 25 and 100 kppm are omitted.
5) RST-A only since RST-B will not fit inside this completion.
*) These 0 p.u. points are modeled for sand.
Current Sigma/Porosity database.
6 13
On the other hand, the slope of the long

burst/far detector is strongly dependent on formation capture cross section (S), whereas the
short detector/near decay is not. Borehole
salinity is one of many factors that influence
the decays. The goal of sigma processing is to
extract three parameters from the data-formation sigma, borehole salinity and porosity.
The processing steps are summarized in
Fig. 6.16. The first step is to correct the spectra
for background counts and loss in counts at
very high counting rates. The second step is to
compute apparent decay times and count rates
from the spectra, mainly far formation sigma
(SFFA), near borehole sigma (SBNA) and nearto-far capture ratio (TRAT). TRAT is obtained
in the late time region by dividing the corrected counting rate of the near detector by
that of the far detector. These are apparent
quantities in the sense that they are still
dependent on the environment (e.g., casing
size, casing weight, borehole size). Corrections for all these factors are made in step 3.
The heart of step 3 is the database of
more than 1000 measurements taken with the
RST in different borehole and formation conditions. Table 6.1 lists the database as of 1996,
but it is being added to regularly. The
measurements are made with the tool flush
against the casing/borehole wall. All casings
are steel and are centered in the borehole. All
cement sheaths are class H cement mixed
with fresh water. The porosity of the formation is determined by measuring the weight
and volume of the rocks, and is accurate to
approximately 0.1 p.u.
The desired outputsFormation S
(SFFC), Porosity (TPHI), and Borehole Salinity
(BSAL)are found to be functions of the
environment and of each other, as follows:
BSAL = f (SBNA, TRAT2, SFFA,
CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)
TPHI = f (TRAT, TRAT2, BSAL,
SFFA, CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)
SFFC = f (SFFA, TPHI, BSAL,
CID, Tcsg, Tcem, Lith)

Figure 6.17
Measured sigma (c.u.)
60
50
40
30
20
10
-1.5 -0.5 0.5 1.5
Deviation from assigned sigma (c.u.)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Assigned sigma (c.u.)
Measured Sigma versus

assigned sigma for 900
points where Sf < Sb.
where CID is the casing inside diameter, Tcsg

is the casing thickness, Tcem is the cement
thickness, and Lith is the lithology. In the past,
specific equations were developed with static
coefficients that were direct functions of the
above quantities. This leads to equations that
are very cumbersome and possibly unstable
when extrapolating outside the range of the
database. In the new technique, the coefficients are determined at each depth level
through a weighted multiple linear regression
technique that weights heavily those points in
the database that are closest to the measured
data. This dynamic technique is found to be
stable and robust, as confirmed in the example below. The final sigma (SIGM) is alpha-
Figure 6.18
Water
Gas effect (RST)
Gas
Gas effect (OH logs)
Depth
(ft)
CALI
30 (in.)
CALI
0 (in.) 30
50
TPHI
(p.u.)
50
NPHI
(p.u.)
1.85
RHOB
(g / cm3)
2.65
50
Moved Oil
Oil
Water
Sand
Gas
Bound water
Oil
Clay
Fluid analysis
(p.u.)
Volumetric analysis
0
(p.u.)
100
5800
B
C
5900
E
6400
Example of porosity and C/O measurements from an RST run inside a 3 1/2-in.
processed (see page 64) to improve precision, using SFFC as the accurate measurement and SFFA as the more precise one.
The accuracy of the processing has been
checked against the database itself. Figure
6.17 shows the measured sigma versus. the
assigned sigma for 900 points where Sf < Sb,
which is the normal situation. The average
absolute errors for the RST-A tool are 0.22 c.u.
for SIGM, 0.9 p.u. for TPHI, and 5.5 kppm for
BSAL. For the RST-B tool the corresponding
errors are 0.2 for SIGM, 1.7 p.u. for TPHI and
6.9 kppm for BSAL. The overall accuracy of
the measurement has also been checked
against the industry standard calibration
pits in Houston and in the EUROPA facility
in Aberdeen.
Figure 6.18 shows an example of a well
logged from inside a 312-in. tubing lying within a 958-in. casing. The well produces from a
lower formation and has a packer set at
6963 ft, approximately 500 ft below the
interval logged. Since the well is deviated 20,
the tubing is expected to lie against the side
of the casing. There is a gas lift mandrel in the
interval logged at 5933 ft, which could
possibly cause some stand-off. However, this
is opposite a shale and the effects on the RST
outputs are not significant. There was water
in the tubing and the tubing-casing annulus at
the time of logging.
Such a dual-string completion had not
been included in the database at the time of
logging. However, it could be approximated
by taking the total thickness of both casings
as the casing thickness. The results show
that this is a good approximation, with good
agreement between the openhole neutron
(NPHI) and the RST porosity (TPHI).
Track 4 shows the evaluation of the openhole logs. Track 3 shows the openhole fluid
analysis compared to the fluid analysis from
the RST C/O measurement. As in Figs. 6.6 and
6.8, moved oil is the difference between the oil
seen by the RST and the openhole logs. Track
2 shows NPHI, density and TPHI.
tubing lying inside a 9 5/8-in. casing.

6 14
Figure 6.19
GR
0
(gAPI)
S / T Projection
Depth
150
(ft)
40
(ms / ft)
Sonic Waveform
240
500
(ms )
1700
S / T line
150
S / T Plane : P & S (Rec.)
3660
(Depth = 15,048.8 ft)

225
Slowness (ms / ft)
200
15,000
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
S / T line
150
3660
(Depth = 15,109.8 ft)

225
200
Slowness (ms / ft)
15,100
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
S / T line
150
3660
(Depth = 15,204.8 ft)
15,200
225
Slowness (ms / ft)
200
175
150
125
100
75
50
500
1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Time (ms )
15,300
Data from the P and S mode

of a DSI recorded through
casing. Waveform 1 is
shown in track 3. The S/T
plane projection is in track 2.
Three typical STC contour
plots are shown on the right.
6 15
The comparison of NPHI and TPHI shows

some interesting features. In the shales at the
top (e.g., between 5800 ft and 5850 ft) there
is very good agreement. In the gas zone, A, at
5775 ft, they also agree, indicating that the gas
has not moved since the well was drilled. The
apparent moved oil in track 3 should be
ignored. In a gas zone, the COR is only a
qualitative measure of saturation.
Zone B at 5870 ft was found to contain oil

with a thin gas cap when the well was drilled,
as shown in track 4. Zone C at 5880 ft also
contained gas. However, both are now found
to be water-filled by the C/O measurement
(track 3). Unlike in zone A, TPHI shows no
gas effect in either zone, confirming that they
have been flushed.

only shows the current state of the reservoir

but also indicates some interesting features of
fluid movement.
Figure 6.20
CALI
(in)
Vp Vs
SP
20
(mV)
GR
(gAPI)
0.1
120
150
16
Depth
(ft)
LLS
(ohm-m)
1000
1.825
LLD
0.1
(ohm-m)
1000
113
RHOB
(g / cm3)
DTCO
(ms / ft)
2.65
55
15,000
15,100
15,200
15,300
Openhole logs and DSI

results through casing.
The compressional slowness
(DTCO) is on a compatible
scale with the density
(RHOB). (50 p.u. to 0.0 p.u.
for a sandstone matrix
and for the Raymer-HuntGradner transform in this
porosity range).
Zone D (5900 ft) was found to be gasfilled when the well was drilled. However,
TPHI shows no gas effect, and the COR
indicates oil. This is an interesting indication
of the movement of fluids in the reservoir.
Zone E (6375 ft) shows no change in
fluid content between the openhole logs
and the RST log. NPHI and TPHI overlay
almost exactly, as they do in the water zone
below, except opposite the shalier intervals
where NPHI reads higher.
Overall, this example confirms that the
RST porosity gives good results through two
strings in 1214-in. hole in these conditions of
25 p.u. sands and eccentered tubing. It also
shows the benefit of monitoring old wells.
The comparison of RST porosity and saturation with the original openhole results not
Acoustic measurements
through casing
First arrivals have been used for many
years to determine compressional slowness
through casing. However, success depends
on the cementation being good enough to
allow the generation and transmission of
strong formation signals. Also, unless there is
a near-perfect cement bond, the formation
slowness and casing slowness must be
significantly different.
These limitations can be overcome by
recording and processing full waveforms.
Two special techniques are recommended to
improve the results. First, the data should be
acquired at a lower transmitter frequency
than in openhole. Second, the processing
should include a wave separation technique
to remove the casing signal.
The amplitude of the compressional signal
increases with frequency because of the effects
of borehole resonance. However, in cased
holes more casing propagation modes are
excited at higher frequency, especially when
the cement bond is poor. Therefore, the frequency must be lowered, but without reducing
the amplitude of the compressional signal below measurable limits. This limit depends on
formation slowness, since the compressional
amplitude also increases with formation
slowness because of lower contrast (better
coupling) between borehole and formation.
Therefore, the recommended transmitter frequency is 7.5 kHz in a hard formation, which
is reduced to 5 kHz in medium and soft formations, and 3 kHz in very soft formations
(Dtc > 130 msec/ft). Other parameters, such as
filter range, sampling interval and length
must be chosen accordingly.

6 16
A DSI was run in a 7-in. casing lying

within an 812-in. hole with washouts up to 15
in. The shear was obtained from the upper
dipole mode, and the compressional from the P
and S mode, which was run using a 5-kHz
doublet. The data shown in Fig. 6.19 is from the
P and S mode. The waveform in track 3 shows
a strong constant arrival above 15,080 ft. This is
the casing signal. Below 15,080 ft. the casing
signal is barely visible, while the formation
compressional and sometimes the shear are
clearly seen. These results are also seen in the
S/T planes in track 4 and the S/T projection in
track 2. In the middle S/T plane at 15,109.8 ft.
peaks can be seen for all four arrivals. The shear
is missing from the top S/T plane and the casing
from the bottom one.
The waveforms were first processed
through a waveform separation module
(WAVSEP), using a median filter to detect and
then remove the casing signal. Standard STC
processing was then applied to find Dtc and Dts.
The results of processing are shown in Fig. 6.20

alongside the openhole data recorded some
years earlier. The compressional slowness
(DTCO)isdisplayedonascalethatiscompatible
with the density. The openhole density and the
cased hole compressional overlay very well in
the cleanest sand around 15,230 ft, and also
follow each other opposite the zone of strong
casing signal above 15,080 ft. The Vp/Vs ratio
(=Dts /Dtc) is in the range expected throughout
the log. These results confirm the quality of the
compressional and shear measurements. With
this data the operator was able to evaluate the
mechanical properties of his reservoir and the
surrounding formations.
LITHOLOGY THROUGH CASING
Lithology is an important component of

formation evaluation. It is needed not only
for its geological significance, but also as an
input in the determination of petrophysical
parameters such as porosity, permeability
and saturation. In old wells the formation
lithology is often uncertain because of the
limited amount of data gathered at the time
of drilling.
6 17
The examples discussed below are from

shaly sandstones, where it is important to
determine the percentage of clay. Knowing the
clay percentage is essential for interpreting the
other through-casing logs, such as COR and
capture cross section. In old wells with shaly
sandstone intervals, the GR is often the only
measurement available to determine clay percentage and to distinguish sandstones from
shales. However, the GR has many limitations
as a quantitative measurement of clay, and
alternative solutions must be examined.

Figure 6.21
Clay wt%
100
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
Well 5
Well 6
Well 7
Well 8
Well 9
Well 10
Well 11
Well 12
50
Clay wt%
100
50
Clay wt%
100
50
0
0
100
200
Gamma ray
Synthetic GR (computed
from Th, U and K concentrations) plotted against total
clay (kaolinite, illite, smectite,
chlorite and glauconite)
measured on the same
sample for 12 data sets.
Wells 3 and 7 are from
Lake Maracaibo.
100
200
Gamma ray
100
200
Gamma ray
100
200
Gamma ray
The first two sections will review the

limitations of the GR and the advantages of
capture GR spectroscopy for clay determination. The following sections will show how
elemental yields from a through-tubing
pulsed neutron tool are corrected for casing
effects and converted into elemental and
mineral concentrations. Capture GR spectroscopy can be used to give more reliable
estimates of clay percentage even through
casing. The whole procedure, known as
SpectroLith, is illustrated with an example
from Lake Maracaibo and supported with
another from the Orinoco Belt.
Limitations of the GR
Figure 6.21 shows the relationship
between GR and clay weight percentage
(wt%) from core data in 12 wells. The
GR was synthesized from laboratory
measurements of thorium, potassium and
uranium, while the clay percentage was
measured by Fourier Transform Infrared
(FT-IR) techniques (see Chapter 539).
As expected, there is a general correlation.

However, the slopes and offsets vary widely
and there is often considerable scatter.
The wide range in slope can be seen by
comparing Wells 1 and 2. An extrapolation
to pure clay would give a GR reading of
about 100 API units in Well 1, while it would
read about 500 API units in Well 2. The
range in offsets, or zero clay readings, can
be seen by comparing Well 4 and Well 12.
The offset is 30 API units in Well 4, whereas
in Well 12 an extrapolation gives 70 API
untis. Such variations are well known and
are partially circumvented in practice by
using local knowledge and calibrating the
GR to core data in a particular reservoir.
In the examples of Fig. 6.21, this
calibration would give good clay predictions
in Wells 2, 11 and 12. However, the results are
still not satisfactory. After calibration the
reliability must be judged in terms of the
scatter and dynamic range of the data. Several
wells show a large scatter, especially in lowclay, reservoir-type rocks where small changes
can lead to large relative errors. For example,
in Wells 3, 5, 7 or 9 the scatter at about 20 wt%
clay is such that even a calibrated GR would
indicate clay percentages varying from 0% to
40%. This can make the difference between
reservoir and non-reservoir rock, and relatively clean zones may be wrongly condemned as
too shaly to be considered. Wells 11 and 12 are
examples of small dynamic range.
Although the GR is an essential qualitative
indicator of clay percentage, it should be used
with caution in quantitative evaluation. This is
particularly true in old wells where core data
may not be available for calibration.

6 18
Figure 6.22
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
10
20
Thorium (ppm)
10
Uranium (ppm)
2.5
Potassium (wt%)
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
10
20
Aluminum (wt%)
Titanium (wt%)
10
Gadolinium (ppm)
Clay (wt%)
100
50
0
0
25
50
Silicon (wt%)
15
30
Iron (wt%)
20
40
Calcium (wt%)
Comparison of individual chemical elements that can be measured by logging

against total clay for Well 3.
Figure 6.23
100
Clay wt%
Well 1
Well 2
Well 3
Well 4
50
Clay=1.67(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -MgCO3 -1.99Fe) (5)

0
Clay wt%
100
Well 5
Well 6
Well 7
Well 8
Well 9
Well 10
Well 11
Well 12
50
Clay wt%
100
50
0
0
50
100 0
Estimated clay
50
100 0
Estimated clay
50
total clay for all 12 wells.
100 0
Estimated clay
Clay estimated from Si, Ca, Mg and Fe in wt% plotted against
6 19
GR spectroscopy
The same database was used to examine
other estimators of clay. Figure 6.22 shows
the relationship of various elements to clay
in Well 3. Of the three elements thorium,
uranium and potassium (Th, U and K) that
make up the natural GR signal, only K shows
a better correlation than the total GR.
Aluminum (Al) correlates well, and silica (Si)
anti-correlates well except for a few points
that have a high iron (Fe) percentage.
In general, the most reliable estimator
is found to be Al. However, it is a complicated
measurement to make in a borehole, currently
requiring a chemical source, two spectrometers and a measurement of formation capture cross section. K is not generally as
reliable as in the example in Fig. 6.22.
Therefore, an alternative estimator is used
which is based on the observation that as the
clay percentage increases, the amounts of
several elements decreases. This was already
noted for Si in Fig. 6.22. Similar anticorrelations can be observed with calcium
(Ca) in carbonate intervals, and with Fe where
siderite or pyrite are present. After converting
from elemental to oxide concentrations and
optimizing the coefficients for the data from
Wells 1-10, the following algorithm has been
found:
50
100
Estimated clay
The result is shown in Fig. 6.23, where

the estimated clay from equation (5) is plotted
against the measured clay. The estimate has a
correlation coefficient of 0.94 and a standard
error of 6.9 wt%, and is an improvement over
the GR estimate shown in Fig. 6.21. The
scatter is drastically reduced, particularly at
low clay concentrations where clay estimation
is most critical. Even in Well 8, where the
overall change is smaller, there is an
improvement in the cleanest sandstones.
Wells 11 and 12 are drilled in feldspar-rich
sandstones and are best treated by using an
alternative
algorithm
with
different
coefficients.

The remainder of the rock is divided into

carbonate (calcite + dolomite) and quartzfeldspar-mica. For the carbonate fraction, the
sum (Ca + 1.455Mg) represents 40 wt%
carbonate regardless of the mixture of calcite
and dolomite. Then, after optimizing the
coefficients with the database, the carbonate
fraction is determined as follows:
Figure 6.24
Calcite + dolomite wt%
100
50
0
0
50
100
Estimated calcite + dolomite wt%
Calcite + dolomite estimated

from equation (6) plotted
against measured calcite +
dolomite for all 12 wells.
Carbonate = -7.5 + 2.69 (Ca + 1.455Mg)
(6)
The non-zero offset of 7.5 and the

slightly higher coefficient account for a small
Ca contribution from plagioclase feldspars.
The result is shown in Fig. 6.24, where the
estimated carbonate from equation (6) is
plotted against the measured carbonate. The
correlation coefficient is 0.98.
The quartz-feldspar-mica fraction is then
simply (1 - clay - carbonate). Note that these
are weight rather than volume fractions, and
that, unlike the GR, they are independent
of porosity.
Figure 6.25
10,000
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
10,800
0.1 0 0.1
Silicon
0.1 0 0.1
Calcium
0.2 0.4
Iron + .14Al
0.1
Sulfur
0.1 0.1
0.1
0.2 0.4
Titanium Gadolinium
Capture yields from the RST far detector in a Lake Maracaibo well, unsmoothed
and not corrected for casing or cement.
These observations provide the basis for

a practical, convenient through-casing lithology measurement. Spectroscopy has been
used for many years to provide detailed
mineralogical information. However, it has
generally been based on the measurement of
at least nine elements, including Al, and the
measurement taken in openhole conditions.
The equations above depend on a much
simpler set of measurements, although some
modifications are needed before applying
them to log data. These will be discussed
later, after describing how accurate elemental
concentrations are measured through casing.
Elemental measurements
through casing
The RST measures the yields of Si, Ca, Fe,
sulfur (S), titanium (Ti), and gadolinium (Gd).
Figure 6.25 shows the yields obtained in the
Inelastic Capture mode in a Lake Maracaibo
well. This is the same as Well 3, for which the
detailed core data was shown in Fig. 6.22.
From the raw yields, we can see evidence
of a shaly sandstone sequence; the silica yield
alone suggests the location of sandstone and
shale beds. The high Fe is predominantly from
the casing, as expected in this environment. In
addition, the Inelastic Capture spectrum of Fe
contains GRs from both Fe and Al, such that
the measured yield should be considered as
the sum (Fe + 0.14 * Al).
The first step in the processing chain
is removing the casing signal from the
Fe yield. This is accomplished by a background subtraction that is based on a histogram of the Fe yields, shown in Fig. 6.26. The
casing Fe correction is generally taken close
to the leading edge of the histogram
in order to zero-out the lowest values. Using
this histogram, a value of 0.35 was selected
for the Fe correction in this data set. Typical
values are in the range of 0.2 to 0.4.

6 20
Figure 6.26
350
300
Frequency
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fe yield
Histogram of the far detector

capture Fe yield.
Figure 6.27
300
250
Frequency
200
150
100
50
0
0.1 0.05
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
Ca yield
Histogram of the far detector
The other elemental yield that normally

needs a casing or cement correction is Ca.
The size of this signal is more variable, but
an estimate can be made with knowledge of
the borehole and casing size. The correction
ranges from 0 to about 0.10. This well has a
5.5-in. casing in an 8.5-in. hole, for which
the laboratory data indicates a cement
contribution to the Ca of about 0.05.
The histogram correction technique is
also used to make the Ca cement correction,
but the correction is taken near the peak
instead of at the leading edge of the data
distribution. If significant formation Ca exists,
it would show up as either an asymmetrical
tail or a second peak in the histogram.
The histogram of the Ca yields is shown in
Fig. 6.27, from which a value of 0.045 was
selected. Note that these corrections are
about an order of magnitude smaller than the
Fe casing corrections.
The corrected yields, after truncating at
zero, are shown in Fig. 6.28. Note that the Ca
yields have dropped to nearly zero, but most
of the well still has significant Fe.
capture Ca yield.
Wi = F Yi /Si
10,000
10,100
10,200
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
10,800
0.1 0 0.1
Silicon
0.1 0 0.1
Calcium
0.2
0.4
Iron + .14Al
0.1
Sulfur
0.1 0.1
0.1
Titanium
0.2 0.4
Gadolinium
(8)
where X i is the oxide association factor to

convert element i to its common oxide.
Several oxides are not accounted for in this
model, mainly Al and K. However, it has been
observed that the weight percentage of these
oxides is strongly related to the amount of
clay and hence to the amount of Fe.
Therefore, XFe is chosen to compensate for
these missing oxides such that the left-hand
side of the equation does sum to 1.
The value used is based on empirical
observation from a very large range of core
samples from different environments. XFe
also takes into account the contamination of
the Fe yield by Al mentioned above.
Capture yields from the far detector, after casing and cement correction.
6 21
(7)
where Wi is the absolute weight fraction of

element i, Yi is the relative yield for element i
as measured by the tool, Si is the relative
sensitivity of the measurement to element i,
and F is a normalization factor. The relative
sensitivities, Si, are tool constants that can be
measured in the laboratory. The normalization
factor, F, is a complex function of nearly every
physical parameter of the borehole/formation
environment, and has to be derived at each
level. As in earlier techniques, F is determined
by an oxide closure model. This is based on
the principle that the sum of the weight
percent of all oxides must be 1. The weight
percentage of an oxide can be determined
from that of its element using an oxide
association factor. Then, using equation (7),
the oxide closure model can be written as:
F (XSiYSi/SSi + XCaYCa /SCa + XsYs /Ss
+ XTiYTi /STi + XGdYGd /SGd + XFeYFe /SFe ) = 1
Figure 6.28
Depth (ft)
Yields to elemental concentrations

Unfortunately, because the total signal
depends on the environment, the yields are
not measurements of the absolute concentrations of each element, but indicators of the
relative concentrations. However, the two are
related by the equation:

Figure 6.29
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
10,500
10,600
10,700
0
50 0
Silicon
(wt%)
20
Calcium
(wt%)
40
10
20
Iron + .14Al
(wt%)
10
Sulfur
(wt%)
20
Titanium
(wt%)
20
40
Gadolinium
(ppm)
Elemental Concentration Logs computed with SpectroLith are compared with cores.
Thus, while the normal oxide association

factor for Fe is 2.075, the one used in the
above model is typically close to 6.
The model as described is suitable for shaly
sandstone intervals. In carbonates and
evaporites, further refinements are made to
account properly for dolomite and anhydrite.
The elemental concentration logs
computed using this processing are presented
in Fig. 6.29 as solid blue curves. Core data are
presented as red dots for comparison. In
general, the correlation between core and log
data is quite good. It is particularly good
considering that the data were obtained
through casing with a 11116-in. tool. Both the
core and log data distinguish the silica-rich
sandstones (Si > 40 wt%) from the shales.
Both data sets show the near-absence of Ca.
The Ca peak at 10,650 ft actually represents a
cement-filled washout that can be identified
on the openhole caliper. The Fe, Ti and Gd
logs all agree reasonably well with core.
Elements to minerals
Equations (5) and (6) provided a means
for obtaining minerals from elements, based
on core data. There are two complications
using log data. First, magnesium (Mg) is not
normally measured by spectroscopy logging
tools, although recent work shows this can be
done. However, as discussed above, the sum
(Ca + 1.455Mg) is independent of whether
there is calcite or dolomite, which is the same
as saying that this sum equals the Ca
measured by logs. Therefore, the log Ca can
be used to estimate the total carbonate.
Second, the optimization for clay percentage
needs to allow for the fact that the
Fe measurement is contaminated by Al.
Equations (5) and (6) are therefore modified
as follows:
Clay (log) =1.91 ( 100 - SiO2
- CaCO3 - 1.99Fe)
(9)
Carbonate (log) = -7.5 + 2.69Ca
(10)
Quartz - Feldspar - Mica = 1 - Clay

- Carbonate
(11)
In the case of sandstones rich in feldspar or mica, such as Wells 11 and 12, the
alternative clay computation is as follows:
Clay2(log)=
-18.5+3.34(100-SiO2 -CaCO3 -1.99Fe)
(12)
The results for Well 3 are shown in Fig.

6.30, and are compared with core data
acquired with FT-IR measurements. For the
sandstones and shaly sandstones, where the
quartz-feldspar-mica component is greater
than 70 wt%, the core and log data agree
very well. The absence of calcite and
dolomite is clear in both the core and log
data. The SpectroLith interpretation correctly
quantifies the clay content in the sandstones
and shaly sandstones where accurate
quantification is most critical. In the shales,
the SpectroLith clay quantity is somewhat
lower than the core data.

6 22
core measurements permit a very thorough

comparison. The GR has been scaled to give
a clay wt%, using GRmin=11 API units to
match the minimum reading at X890 ft, and a
GRmax=80 API units. Then, following the
work of Bhuyan and Passey, a scaling factor
has been used because many shales have a
clay percentage around 0.6. Hence:
Figure 6.30
10,100
10,200
Depth (ft)
10,300
10,400
ClayGR = 0.6 * (GR - 11)/69
10,500
10,600
10,700
0
50
Clay (wt%)
Mineral weight percentage

computed with SpectroLith,
and compared with cores.
100
50
100
Carbonate (wt%)
50
100
Quartz-Feld-Mica (wt%)
The response of the GR log can be

judged from the core measurements, shown
as Well 3 in Fig. 6.21. It can be seen both
from Fig. 6.21 and the SpectroLith results in
Fig. 6.30 that there are no entirely clean
zones. This will make an empirical pick of
GRmin very difficult without core data. Even
with core data, it can be seen from Fig. 6.21
that the GR regularly overestimates the clay
in the sandstones (clay wt% < 30%).
Another example comparing the two
techniques is shown in Fig. 6.31. In this well,
from the Orinoco Belt, the large number of
Figure 6.31
100
90
GR
Spectrolith
80
Clay (wt%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
X650
X700
X750
X800
X850
Depth (ft)
Clay weight percentage in a Orinoco Belt well from SpectroLith, GR and cores.
X900
The SpectroLith processing was automatic. As can be seen, the two log estimates
agree well between X855 ft and X885 ft.
Elsewhere, and in spite of the scaling factor,
the GR gives too high a clay percentage by
about 10 to 20 wt%. Furthermore, it shows
excursions, such as at X760 ft and X815 ft,
which would be interpreted as sealing shales,
but which are not shales at all. SpectroLith
gives a better picture of the reservoir.
Summary
In shaly sandstone intervals, it is important to know the percentage of clay to estimate
porosity, saturation and permeability. Very
often the clay percentage is estimated from the
GR. However, it has been shown that the GR
is unreliable as a quantitative estimator of clay.
This is especially true in old wells where core
and other logs are not often available to
calibrate and help interpret the response.
An alternative technique is to use
capture GR spectroscopy yields from an RST
tool. Using the SpectroLith procedure, these
yields can be turned into elemental and
mineralogical concentrations. Based on
examples from Lake Maracaibo and the
Orinoco Belt, it has been shown that more
accurate clay percentages can be obtained by
this technique. This improvement was
significant in enhancing the reservoir
evaluation, so that potentially good zones
were not falsely judged to be poor quality
reservoir, and so that facies with high GR
were not treated as reservoir barriers.
The SpectroLith value clearly agrees more closely with the cores.
6 23
(13)

PERMEABILITY AND PRESSURE
In the last three sections we have seen

how to obtain water saturation, porosity and
lithology in old wells. Two important
components of the formation evaluation are
missingthe permeability and pressure.
These are also some of the hardest data to
obtain. Both can be derived from a build-up
test. This is straightforward in a single-layer
reservoir (e.g., Permanent Monitoring, page
641). However, in a multilayer reservoir,
several different layers are usually open to
flow. Isolating and testing each zone is
difficult and expensive. Special tests may be
made. In the Selective Inflow Performance
(SIP) test, production logs measure the
contribution of each layer at different
surface flow rates. From this data, the inflow performance relationship and the
formation pressure of each layer can be
derived. In a Layered Reservoir Test (LRT)
the pressure and flow rate of a layer are
recorded versus time while a step change in
the flow rate is induced at the surface by
changing choke size. After this is repeated
for each layer, the permeability, skin and
reservoir pressure of each layer can be
estimated. The interpretation is complex.
The zones must be isolated, and flow rates
must be reasonably high to get sufficient
accuracy. Clearly these types of tests cannot
give information about zones not open to
flow. However, many successful examples of
both SIP and LRT have been published.
A cased-hole wireline formation test is a
possible solution for unperforated zones.
The tool is set opposite the zone to be tested
and a hydraulically operated drill bit is used
to drill a hole through the casing to the zone
to be tested. After the test, the hole is
plugged with a Lee plug. As in the openhole,
such tests can measure formation pressure
and a permeability close to the borehole
wall. However, the zone tested must still
be well isolated from other zones behind
the casing.
After the direct methods described

above, the next-best solution is to use
indirect methods; for example, estimating
permeability from logs and pressure from a
nearby new well. In new wells there are
several ways of estimating permeability from
logsfrom the CMR tool and from the
Stoneley wave (Chapter 4) or from porosity
and mineralogy. Unfortunately, in many old
wells adequate openhole logs are not
available. However, with the methods
described above of determining porosity and
lithology through casing, it is now possible
to estimate permeability in old wells. These
methods of estimating pressure and permeability are discussed with an example below.
Permeability
The link between porosity, mineralogy
and permeability is provided by the socalled L parameter, which relates permeability to L and Archies formation factor F
as follows (Johnson et al., 1986):
KL = L2 / 8F and 1/L = S / Vp
(14)
where S is the surface area and Vp the

volume of the pores. The ratio S/Vp is
related to the total porosity, grain density
and specific surface area of the rock (in units
of m2/g) as:
S/Vp = S0 rg f / (1-f)
(15)
Furthermore, minerals have fairly

unique and constant specific surface areas,
S0i, which may be determined by laboratory
analysis. Thus, the total specific surface area
S0 can be computed from the mineral
abundances Mi, as:
S0 = S Mi S0i
(16)
The above equations can be combined

to give a direct expression for permeability:
KL = A f (m+2) / (rg2 (1-f) 2 S Mi ni S0i )

(17)
6 24
Pressure
One of the simplest and best established
methods of obtaining layer pressure is to
make openhole wireline formation tests in a
nearby new well. The key to success is a
good correlation between the old and new
well, and a good knowledge of sealing faults
and other factors that might cause a
discontinuity in pressure. Typically in old
wells the correlation is based on a good
geological model, and on GR and resistivity
logs. Here again the SpectroLith lithology
can improve results. Chemostratigraphy,
which is based on the elemental volumes
from SpectroLith, can help make correlations
that are better than those from GR and
resistivities alone (Herron, 1988).
Figure 6.32
10,500
10,600
10,700
Depth (ft)
10,800
10,900
11,000
11,100
Shell
core data
Maraven
core data
11,200
0
50
Clay (wt %)
Comparison of core and

K-L permeability for a
Lower Lagunillas well
(Herron, 1995).
6 25
100
0.1
10
100
1000
10,000
Permeability (md)
The factor n was introduced to account

for low predictions in shalier sandstones. It
has been suggested that in these sandstones
not all the specific area participates in the
flow. Much better fits to core data are
achieved if the specific area is reduced by
n, which is between 0.1 and 0.2 for clays
and 1 for non-clays. Figure 6.32 shows a
comparison of the K-L prediction and core
for a Lower Lagunillas well.
Example
The example shown in Fig. 6.33 is from
Bloque IV in the Maracaibo Basin. VLD-1112
is a new well and VLD-775 is an old well in
the same block. An extensive study of cores
and logs in this area led to a new definition
of layers for the reservoir, shown as layers I
to XII on the left. This layering was strongly
confirmed by the MDT* Modular Formation
Dynamics Tester pressures recorded in VLD1112. Some layers are clearly much more
depleted than others. The permeabilities
were estimated with the K-L method using
the openhole mineral volumes.
The old well, VLD-775, is about 1 km
SE of VLD-1112 and was drilled in 1978.
After producing about 5 MMBbl of oil it
recently showed a large increase in gas cut.
The fluids in the different layers at the time of
the original openhole and a recent RST are
summarized on the right of Fig 6.33. In this
case, the openhole logging suite was
sufficient to make a reasonable estimate of
porosity and lithology. The permeability in
track 2 was derived from the mineralogy and
the K-L model. The correlation between the
two wells is based on the new layer model,

PERMEABILITY AND PRESSURE
Laguna
(gAPI)
-20
GR
120
f =19%
k =31 md
XI
f =18%
k = 4 md
f =19%
k =152 md
10,500
IX
10700
f =16%
k= 3 md
f= 16%
k = 2 md
VI
10,600
VII
VI
V
f= 22%
k =1498 md
IV
IV
10800
III
II

,
XI
VIII
VII
10000
XII
VIII
KINT (md)
1
10600
f =23%
k = 306 md
IX
md
ft
2 79
-80
10,400
XII
Lagunillas I nferior
SP
Hist + RST 4 94
GR
0
Layer
MDT Pressure (psig)
Average
1300
1050
Porosity and
K (md)
120 Depth
Permeability
(ft) 1.00
10000.
Layer
Sand
Layer
Member
2 79
6 94
12 91
VLD 775
VLD 1112
Openhole 12 78
Figure 6.33
f 24%
k 1585 md
10,700
III
II
Open perforations
Oil
Sequence boundary
Flooding surface
Other marker
Gas
Closed perforations
Water
Indirect estimates of dynamic properties in an old well (VLD-775). Permeability is from openhole measurements and pressure by correlation
with the new well VLD-1112, (after Bryant, et al, 1996).
using the layer VIII shale as a datum horizon.

The tops were refined and made consistent
with flow units using the permeability.
Note that if the correlation had been based
on GR alone, layers II to VI would have
been harder to define. With this correlation
we can take the layer pressures from VLD1112 as our best estimate of the layer
pressures in VLD-775.
All the formation characteristics needed

to make a sound decision about VLD-775
are now known: porosity, lithology,
permeability, current fluid saturations and
layer pressures.

6 26
ADVANCES IN PRODUCTION LOGGING
Production logging tools were first

introduced more than 30 years ago. Even
with the fairly simple technology that existed
at that time, a monophasic flow profile in a
well could be quantitatively defined. The
key sensor for determining flow rate was the
same as is used today, namely the spinner.
The spinner can be calibrated in-situ so that
its rotational speed can be directly related to
fluid velocity. The major challenge for
production logging over the years has been
achieving quantitative flow profiling in diphasic and tri-phasic flow. This challenge
has only increased with the greater number
of highly deviated and horizontal wells now
being drilled.
The most common di-phasic flow
condition encountered is that of water and
oil flowing together. We can write the
general equations for two-phase flow as
follows:
qhp = qt yhp - qs
qlp = qt ylp + qs
(18)
(19)
where:
q = flow rate, hp = heavy phase
lp = light phase, y = phase hold-up,
vs = slippage velocity,
qs = slippage flow rate defined as
yhp ylp A Vs
In a bubble flow regime; i.e., when one
phase is continuous while the other is
distributed as bubbles within it, then it is
assumed that the spinner can determine the
total flow rate qt. The hold-up of the phases
has to be determined from measurements,
while the slippage velocity is found from
laboratory-established correlations.
6 27
Phase hold-up measurement

The measurement of phase hold-up has
never been a direct measurement. It has
usually been derived from fluid density. The
fluid density is typically determined from the
difference in pressure between two vertically
displaced points, and the sensor is known as
a gradiomanometer. If the densities of the
pure phases are known, then the density of
the fluid mixture can be expressed as a simple linear combination of each phase present.
Thus, in two-phase flow, the following
equation can be used to find hold-up:
Fluid density = rf = yhp rhp + ylp rlp
also yhp + ylp = 1
(20)
(21)
rearranging and substituting for ylp from (21)

yhp = (rf - rlp) / (rhp - rlp)
(22)
The method of using differential

pressure to calculate fluid density is subject
to many drawbacks:
The measurement includes the frictional
pressure losses of flow and requires correction at high flow rates to avoid calculating an erroneously high fluid density.
The measurement must be corrected in
deviated wells because the pressure
difference depends on the true vertical
depth between the ports. It becomes
less sensitive for the same reason. In a
horizontal well, a differential pressure
measurement of fluid density will not
work at all as there is no difference in
elevation between the measuring ports.
The use of density to determine phase
hold-up is an indirect method. If a well
has entries of different salinity water, and
entries of different density oil, then in
equation (22) no unique values of rhp or
rlp can be found. This problem leads to
inaccurate estimation of hold-up and may
incorrectly cause an interpreter to diagnose a fresh-water entry as an oil entry if
the wellbore contains saline water.

Figure 6.34
Probe
Probe
Flow
Digital Entry and Fluid Imaging

Tool (DEFT). The local impedance around the probe
changes as bubbles of the
dispersed phase pass the
probe tip. The signal level indicates which phase is observed,
leading to a direct measure-
The recognition of the shortcomings of

gradiomanometry has led to attempts to determine hold-up by other methods, such as:
Measuring the capacitance of a twophase wellbore fluid. This capacitance
can be related to hold-up if the capacitance of each pure phase is known.
Measuring electron density by determining the ability of the fluid mixture to
absorb gamma rays emitted by a Cesium
source. In this case, the density can be
used to determine hold-up in the same
way as the density from gradiomanometry is used. The density measured in
this way, however, is not affected by frictional pressure losses.
The first of the above techniques suffers
because the change in capacitance is not
linear with hold-up, and the
response exhibits a discontinuity when the continuous
phase changes from water to
Probe output
oil. The response also deNot conducting
pends on the flow regime as
Conducting
the electrical properties are
affected by the spatial dispersion of the phases. The
electron density from nuclear
measurements is strongly
affected by the casing,
cement and formation.
These drawbacks have motivated research into a technique for directly measuring
Oil
water hold-up. The result is
Gas
the Digital Entry and Fluid
Imaging Tool (DEFT), also
known as the FloView,
which is the only tool in the industry that
directly measures water hold-up.
The tool consists of four probes (Fig.
6.34) that are protected from damage by
being placed inside a protective cage. Each
probe is, in essence, a small coaxial antenna.
A high-frequency alternating current is

emitted from the probe into the surrounding
fluid. The current returns to the body of the
tool. The amplitude of the signal depends on
the impedance of the fluid around the probe.
Because there is a large contrast between the
impedance of oil and that of water, the tool is
self-calibrating. It sets a high-voltage threshold above which the probe is in oil, and a
low-voltage threshold below which it is in
water. The hold-up of water is calculated
directly as the ratio of the time the signal is
low to the total time. This digital hold-up
measurement is a significant breakthrough
because no input of fluid properties is
required and the measurement is unaffected
by friction effects, deviation, differing water
or oil densities, etc. The measurement is
unaffected by water salinity, providing it is
above 2000 ppm, which covers the large
majority of cases. With four probes distributed across the borehole, the results can be
displayed as an image of the hold-up across
the borehole.
In a bubble flow regime, the changes in
impedance seen by the probes can be
considered as bubbles impinging on the
probe. By counting the changes from the
low-voltage threshold to the high-voltage
threshold, the number of bubbles passing
the probe can be found. The bubble count is
extremely sensitive and can be used to
detect small entries of oil or water.
Example of improved hold-up measurements from FloView
This example from Western Venezuela is
a vertical well completed in selected intervals within the reservoir. It has a 5-in., 18lb/ft casing, with a 312-in. production tubing
set at 4981 ft and equipped with three gaslift valves. At the time of logging seven
intervals were open, giving an average production of 133 bbl/day of oil, 530 bbl/day of
water and 737 Mscf/D of gas.
ment of phase hold-up.

6 28
Figure 6.35
Water
Moved oil
Average BUB count
(cps)
0
Depth
(ft)
Fluid density
.5
(g / cm3)
(%)
Sand
Spinner velocity
(rps)
1.5 0
Average holdup
Hold up
image 0
Oil
Perforated
zones
500
20
Fluid temperature
1 177
(oF)
183 0
Water phase
Clay
Oil phase
Bound water
Flow rate
(B / D)
Combined model
750
(V / V)
B
C
An example of a DEFT log

run in a well in western
Venezuela.
6 29
Before planning how to enhance production, it was decided to determine the

remaining oil saturation in the different
sandstones and the source of the high water
cut (80%). Therefore, the well was shut in
and a combined production logging string
(Manometer-Thermometer-Gradiomanometer-Spinner) and RST were run over the
perforated interval. The well was then put
back on production and a production logging
string with FloView was run in the well.
The tools could not descend below 5423 ft,

probably because of sand or an obstruction.
Thus, the lowest perforated interval could not
be logged. After the well had stabilized,
several passes and stations were recorded.
Figure 6.35, track 5 shows the interpreted results based on the RST and the
original openhole logs (Induction, Density,
Neutron and GR). They show partial drainage of oil in most sandstones, with somewhat less in the upper sandstones and in the
upper part of the sandstone from 5292 ft to
5346 ft. No gas was detected. However, on
the basis of the RST alone, it is difficult to
decide what action to take.
Figure 6.35 also shows the production
logs while the well was flowing. Track 1
contains the FloView hold-up image and
track 2 contains the average hold-up and
bubble count from the FloView, together with
the fluid density from the gradiomanometer.
Track 3 contains the spinner, the temperature
and the perforated intervals. Track 4 shows
the oil and water flow rates based principally
on the FloView hold-up and the spinner. The
FloView hold-up in track 2 reads slightly less
than 1 from the bottom, suggesting an influx
of water with a small amount of oil from the
lower, obstructed interval. The bubble count
curve and image also show that there is a
small flow of oil, while the gradiomanometer
shows no variation. The perforated interval
labeled E contributes some water, as does
most of interval D. At the very top of this
interval, the FloView clearly identifies the first
major entry of oil that is also detected by the
gradiomanometer. Interval C produces mainly
water. The interval B produces some water
and oil. This oil influx is not detected by the
gradiomanometer, as the density shows
no significant reduction. The oil entry at A
also has no perceivable effect on the
measured density.

Figure 6.36
Signal if there is no flow

Signal with water flow
Water flow signal with
static subtracted
Counts sec
600
400
200
10
20
30
40
50
Time (sec)
Water Flow Logging
The advantage of the accurate FloView

hold-up measurement and bubble count is
clearly demonstrated in this case. Without the
FloView, we would have concluded that the
main oil producer was D. Similarly, the small
Neutron influx of oil from below the obstruction
GR
generator
detector
would not have been detected. With this
Near
detector information, suitable actions can be taken to
Far
enhance production. In this case, a gel
Far
detector
detector
injection job was designed to shut off the
Near
main water producing intervals without
detector
GR
significantly affecting oil production. At the
Neutron
detector
generator
same time, the injection profile of nearby
injectors was re-evaluated. Using only conConfiguration
Configuration
for up-flow
for down-flow
ventional measurements an erroneous profile
The pulsed neutron tool is
would have been determined, which could
configured appropriately to
have led to incorrect remedial action.
detect up or down flow of
water. Above, a typical
signal at the far GR detector
is shown with and without
water flow.
Water flow logging

As stated above, in a bubble flow regime
it is reasonable to assume that a spinner
responds to the average flow of the mixture.
However, in other regimes this is not a good
assumption, and in all cases it is beneficial to
measure the individual phase velocities.
An independent measurement of water flow

velocity is possible by a technique known as
Water Flow Logging (WFL). In this technique
a pulsed neutron tool, such as an RST (see
box, page 610), is used to irradiate the
environment around the tool with highenergy neutrons. Atomic nuclei absorb these
neutrons and become unstable atoms that
then decay and emit gamma rays. Most of
these decays have very short half-lives
except for activated oxygen, which has a
half-life of 7.1 sec. Consider a well that has a
flow stream consisting of water and
hydrocarbon. It is only the water that
contains oxygen atoms. So after emitting a
pulse of neutrons, a small slug of activated
water is created that is measured by the
detectors as it flows past them. As shown in
Fig. 6.36, this slug can be clearly
distinguished from the signal due to static
oxygen, which has an exponential decay.
The water flow velocity can then be
calculated from the distance between the
generator and the detector and the time of
flight of the activated water slug. The tool
string has to be configured in the appropriate
configuration to detect either down-flow or
up-flow (Fig. 6.36).
The irradiation of water is not restricted
to water that is inside the wellbore; if there is
water moving behind the casing, through
cement channels, for example, then the WFL
technique can determine the velocity at which
it is moving. This ability to reliably detect
and quantify the movement of water outside
the production casing or tubing makes
the WFL an extremely powerful technique.

6 30
Figure 6.37
LL3
ILM
Water flow log

up flow
ILD
0.02
200
( ohm-m )
Water flow log

down flow
GR
(gAPI)
200
Depth
(ft)
Perforations
11,800
Water velocity up
(ft min)
20
Water velocity down

(ft min)
20
CPS cycle
Time (sec)
11,900
12,000
12,200
CPS cycle
12,100
Time (sec)
12,300
An example of a WFL
showing water flowing down
from an upper zone, and not
up from a lower zone.
6 31
Figure 6.37 shows an example of a WFL

acquired in a well in Western Venezuela. The
well was producing 258 B/D of water and 172
B/D of oil from an interval that was not
expected to have such a large water cut.
The WFL was run in up-flow mode to check

if there was water channeling upward behind
the casing from a lower sandstone. The three
stations below the perforations clearly show
no flow (track 3, Fig. 6.37). The WFL was then
run in down-flow mode to check for channeling downward from the upper sandstone.
The five stations clearly show downward flow
originating from between 11,739 and 11,824 ft,
presumably from the sandstone at 11,770 ft. or
at 11,790 ft (track 4, Fig 6.37). Only the WFL
technique could have determined the source
of water in such a case.
Horizontal well production logging
In recent years there has been a
growing trend in the industry to drill
horizontal wells. They present a significant
challenge from a well servicing point of
view, in particular the acquisition of
production profiles. The environment for
production logging is very complex: a
horizontal well is seldom truly horizontal but
instead has a trajectory that rises and falls
over its length. These minor variations in the
well trajectory create traps at the low points
for water, mud, stimulation fluids, etc., and
traps at the high points for gas. These traps
of stagnant fluid have a dramatic influence
on the measurements made by many
production logging sensors. The type of
completion may also add complexity. For
example, uncemented slotted liners will
allow flow both inside and outside the liner
and flow may enter and leave the liner as a
function of the openhole geometry, which
may easily be confused with production or
cross-flow. Furthermore, as discussed above,
the traditional gradiomanometer cannot be
used to measure hold-up.
Therefore, a new production logging
tool string was designed specifically for
horizontal well logging. First, the mechanics
of fluid flow in a horizontal well were
studied. This involved making experiments
with oil and water mixtures in a flow-loop.

Figure 6.38
Oil
6000
Total flow rate (B/D)
Water
Oil
1500
Water
Oil
600
Water
80
89
90
91
Deviation from vertical
Three different total flow

rates are shown for
experiments in a 5-in. OD
flow-loop. In all cases the
water cut is 50%. The
variation in hold-up can be
observed at four different
pipe angles.
The study revealed some very interesting

phenomena that indicated the type of
measurements that must be made to
successfully understand and quantify the
flow profile in a horizontal well. Two major
conclusions were reached:
1. Oil and water are always flowing in a
stratified flow regime. That is to say that
the oil and water segregate into two
distinct layers, and remain so up to high
flow rates of 30,000 BPD in a 7-in. liner.
2. At low flow rates, typically less than
3,000 B/D in a 5-in. liner, the phase
hold-up is significantly affected by even
small changes in pipe deviation. Figure
Figure 6.39
Combinable Production
Reservoir Saturation Tool
Logging Tool
Oil hold-up
Pressure & temperature Gas indicator
Gamma Ray
Detector
Digital Entry Fluid

Imaging Tool
Flow regime
Water hold-up
Phase Velocity Sonde
Dual DEFT
Spinner
Water velocity
Water hold-up index
Water flow-rate index
Marker injection for oil

and or water velocity
6.38 shows results from the flow-loop

experiments where four different pipe
positions are considered at three
different total flow conditions with a
50% oil/water mixture. If the flow is
going uphill then because the water is
heavier than oil, the velocity of the
water reduces, but to maintain the same
mass flow rate, the hold-up must
increase. Conversely, the light oil phase
velocity increases while going uphill
and so its hold-up decreases. When the
pipe is tipped downhill, then the
water velocity increases with a
corresponding decrease in hold-up,
while the oil velocity decreases with a
corresponding increase in hold-up. At
high flow rates the hold-up is less
dependent on pipe deviation because
the frictional effects become much more
important than the gravitational effects.
From the above observations, it is clear
that a change in hold-up in a horizontal well
could be mistakenly identified as an entry of
fluid, when actually it is only induced by a
change in well deviation. Therefore, to
accurately quantify the production profile in
a horizontal well, the hold-up and velocity
of each phase must be measured along the
wellbore trajectory. Once the flow-loop
experiments defined the parameters that
needed to be measured, then a production
logging suite could be designed to meet the
objectives. The tool-string that emerged as a
result of this development work is known as
the Flagship Integrated Production Logging
String, and is shown in Fig. 6.39.
The Flagship string is designed to
simultaneously measure the phase hold-up
and phase velocity of both oil and water.
However, because of the complexity of the
flow conditions, the philosophy is to make
many redundant measurements to gain high
confidence in the results.
A schematic representation of the Flagship Integrated Production Logging String.

6 32
Figure 6.40
0.5
Flow rate (B D)
6000
0.57
0.52
0.51
0.49
0.74
0.63
0.48
0.40
0.87
0.68
0.34
0.21
1500
0.5
600
1
80
89
90
91
Deviation from vertical (deg)
The cross-sectional hold-up image maps are shown that were acquired with the
Dual-DEFT of the Flagship string during the same flow-loop experiment that is
shown in Fig. 6.38.
Figure 6.41
Marker signal
10
Near detector borehole sigma indicator
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Time (sec)
Oil-miscible marker
Casing
Oil
Water
PVS Phase Velocity Sonde
RST
An oil-soluble gadolinium-based marker is injected into the oil phase. The arrival of
the marker at the RST is detected by a perturbation of the capture cross section of
the borehole fluid. Time of flight is used to compute phase velocity. A water-soluble
marker can be ejected downward for water velocity.
6 33
Flagship hold-up measurements are made in

the following ways:
Dual FloView tools are arranged at 45
to each other so that the eight probes
can measure hold-up all around the
borehole. The measurements are
processed into an image that leads to a
direct measurement of phase hold-up.
The FloView measurements corresponding to the flow-loop conditions of
Fig. 6.38 are shown in Fig. 6.40. It can
be seen that the percentage of the pipe
cross-section occupied by the segregated oil and water phases agrees well
with the visual estimation of Fig. 6.38.
The RST measures the neutron capture
cross section of the borehole fluid (page
613). This cross section is a linear
combination of each phase hold-up and
capture cross section. Thus, in a twophase mixture, provided that there is
enough contrast between the fluids
capture cross sections, then the hold-ups
can be calculated knowing the capture
cross section of the oil and the water
The RST also determines the COR of the
borehole fluid (page 64), and the ratio
of total inelastic counts from the near
and far detectors. The former is sensitive
to the relative volumes of water and oil,
while the latter is sensitive to the volume
of gas, so that by combining both it is
possible to measure a three-phase holdup (oil, water and gas).
Flagship phase velocity measurements are
made as follows:
The WFL for the water, as described
above.
Phase Velocity Log (PVL). A tracer ejector
tool (PVS) uses two miscible markers
to independently measure the oil and
water velocities. The tool contains
two chambers, one that carries an
oil-soluble gadolinium-based compound, and the other that carries a watersoluble gadolinium-based compound.

Spinner measurement
Figure 6.42
500
Velocity set in flow loop (fpm)
400
300
200
100
14,000 B D
(5-in. liner)
Oil
Water
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
The Flagship string also incorporates an

in-line spinner (CFS) and a fullbore spinner
(FBS). When two phases are moving in a
stratified flow regime at different velocities,
a spinner cannot be considered as
measuring the average total velocity.
However, because of hold-up variations due
to changes in well deviation and/or fluid
entry, the spinners may at certain points be
immersed in one of the phases, at which
time the spinner will give a representative
measurement of the velocity of that phase.
Taken in isolation it can not be determined
when the spinner is representative.
However, when independent, stationary
measurements are available from the WFL
and PVL, the spinner can be validated in
certain sections and then extrapolated to
give a continuous profile.
PVL velocity (fpm)
Auxiliary measurements
The PVL accuracy was

verified by making measurements in an oil-water mixture
in a flow-loop. The measurements compared well with
the reference flow rates.
The tool has two diametrically opposed

ports that are oriented such that ejection of the
oil-soluble marker is made toward the top of
the hole, while ejection of the water-soluble
marker is made toward the bottom of the hole.
This ensures that the marker is ejected into the
appropriate phase. The arrival of the slug of
marker is detected by the RST in its Sigma mode
because the gadolinium has an extremely high
neutron capture cross section that momentarily
perturbs the borehole capture cross section as
it passes the tool. Similar to the WFL, a time of
flight is used to calculate the oil or water
velocity. Figure 6.41 indicates the measurement principle. Figure 6.42 shows the results of
the PVL measurement in a flow-loop and
demonstrates the accuracy of the technique. It
also shows that the technique is capable of
measuring extremely low velocities. This is
because the marker is not radioactive and is
stable at downhole conditions, and so it will
eventually be detected even if it is traveling
very slowly.
The Flagship also includes pressure,

temperature and deviation measurements,
all of which can help in the interpretation.
Despite the fact that the Flagship tool
string is approximately 110 ft long, it can be
conveyed into a horizontal well in a single
trip on coiled tubing.
The Flagship string can reliably quantify
oil and water flow profiles in a horizontal or
highly deviated well. It has been shown that
the stratified flow model is also applicable in
well deviations of 80 to 100. As discussed
above, the RST is capable of a three-phase
hold-up measurement. In addition, a
measurement of gas velocity is being
developed. With this the Flagship will
measure the velocity of all three phases and
be able to quantify three-phase flow profiles.
These developments will be extended to
vertical and slightly deviated wells so that
three-phase production logging can be
reliably made at all deviations.

6 34
The study of fluid mechanics in a flowloop also enabled a two-phase model to be

constructed for horizontal wells. This model,
called Strat-Flow, enables the flow of one of
the phases to be estimated if the flow of the
other phase, the fluid properties and holdup of both phases, and the well trajectory
are known.
Example of a horizontal well
production log
The following example is from a well in
Trinidad. The well is a horizontal producer that
is completed with 614-in. prepacked screens. A
Flagship string was run in the well without a
PVL measurement, as a tool was not available
at the time of the operation. This well presented
a real challenge for production flow profile
determination as the well was producing oil,
water and gas. Figure 6.43 shows the shut-in
and flowing hold-up images from the DualDEFT tools. The presence of gas is indicated by
the flag that is turned on when the ratio of
inelastic counts from the near and far detectors
of the RST is above a certain threshold. The
RST-WFL was used to determine the water
velocity which, when combined with the water
hold-up from the Dual-DEFT, gave the water
flow rate. As the PVL was not available, an
independent oil velocity was not possible. The
spinners were erratic, probably because of gas,
but in places agreed with the WFL velocity.
Therefore, the spinners were of little help in
determining the oil velocity. As the gas
production was small, it was safe to ignore the
gas and use the Strat-Flow model to determine
the oil flow rate. The total oil rate calculated
from the model agreed very well with the oil
rate measured on the surface when converted
to downhole conditions. This gave confidence
in the assumption that the gas hold-up was
small and could be ignored in the modeling.
6 35
(This assumption can be verified by using the

RST C/O measurement to determine the holdup of the three phases, but software was not
yet available at the time of processing.) Figure
6.43 shows the calculated oil and water flow
rate profiles. It can be seen that most of the
water enters the well between 9500 and 9950 ft.
The oil enters between 10,000 and 10,250 ft and
9500 to 9700 ft.
The gas hold-up changes quite significantly from flowing to shut-in. When shut-in,
the gas accumulates in the high points of the
trajectory. During flow, the gas is distributed
along the wellbore as an equilibrium is set up
between the frictional forces and the gravity
forces. Figure 6.43 also shows the crosssectional hold-up image maps at 9200 ft and
9000 ft. There is no change in the oil and water
flow rates between these two stations, but it can
be seen that the water hold-up is 0.37 at 9200
ft where the well trajectory is going downhill
and 0.65 at 9000 ft where the well is going
uphill. The water velocity increases in the
downhill section and decreases in the uphill
section, and vice-versa for the oil velocity. The
phase flow rate, being the product of the holdup, the velocity and the pipe cross-sectional
area, remains unchanged at these two stations.
These hold-up changes are exactly what has
been observed in the flow-loop experiments
discussed above. Without Flagship measurements, where hold-up and velocity of each
phase are measured, the changes in hold-up
would have led to the erroneous interpretation
of fluid influx.
This example demonstrates that flow
profiles of oil and water can be obtained with
the Flagship string even in a complex threephase environment. A standard production
logging string with only conventional sensors
would have been uninterpretable. When the
model for interpreting RST C/O measurements
for three-phase hold-up and the gas velocity
measurement are available, wells such as this
one can be logged for full quantitative
evaluation of the oil, water and gas flow profile.

Figure 6.43
Oil
Water
Normalized flow rate
Flow profile
2000
(B D)
Q T ratio
Computed oil flow rate
(B D)
WFL station water
flow rate
(B D)
0
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well flowing)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Below 0.06
10400
10300
10200
10000
9900
9800
9700
9600
9500
9400
9300
9200
9100
9000
8900
8800
8700
7383.0ft
Borehole gas
7378.0ft
Phase hold-up (well shut-in)
Hold-up image
(DFH)
Borehole gas
7383.0ft
Above 0.94
0.88 - 0.94
0.82 - 0.88
0.76 - 0.82
0.71 - 0.76
0.65 - 0.71
0.59 - 0.65
0.53 - 0.59
0.47 - 0.53
0.41 - 0.47
0.35 - 0.41
0.29 - 0.35
0.24 - 0.29
0.18 - 0.24
0.12 - 0.18
0.06 - 0.12
Below 0.06
A Flagship log run in a horizontal well in Trinidad. The hold-up images of water and oil for flow and shut-in conditions are shown
together with gas hold-up indication. The interpreted flow profile of water and oil is shown. The cross-sectional hold-up images at
9200 ft and 9000 ft indicate a difference in oil and water hold-up due to deviation changes only.

6 36
HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
The evaluation of an old well is not

complete without a check of hydraulic
integrity. For example, measurements of
saturation behind casing and flow within the
well may tell us exactly which zones have
been charged by injection water and which
still have producible oil. However, if there is
communication behind the pipe or a leak in
SSS

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QQQ
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PPP
,,,

CCC
SSS

BBB
RRR

AAA
QQQ
,,,
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PPP
,,,

CCC
SSS

BBB
RRR

AAA
QQQ
,,,
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PPP
,,,

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,,

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A
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PP
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S
Figure 6.44
Formation
Cement
Casing
The principle of the

USIT: a) a rotating
Acoustic
beam
transducer,
b) casing resonance
Transducer
and reflections,
Rotation
a)
Metal
plate
c) received signal
with large first
echo and cement-
dependent signals.
b)
Transducer
Zmud
Vmud
Zsteel
Vsteel
a
Mud
Casing

Zcem
Cement
Formation
Cement
Water
tc
Amplitude
c)
50
60
70
80
the casing, we still may not be able to shut off

the water production. It then becomes
important to evaluate the quality of the
cement and the casing before designing a
workover program.
Cement evaluation logs are often run
after the primary cement job to check that it
was successful and to provide an input into
the better design of future jobs. It is
generally accepted that a good primary
cement job is the single most important
factor in ensuring hydraulic integrity, since
remedial cement jobs are difficult, expensive
and not always successful. However, cement
can deteriorate, particularly when it was not
well set in the first place, and when it
contains channels or microfractures that
allow acids and damaging fluids to act on it.
Regular mud acid has been used in many
Venezuelan sandstone reservoirs to remove
drilling mud residues and formation fines
(Chapter 731). Alternatively, pressure
cycles during injectivity tests and stimulation
can break down a cement bond.
In old wells there is very often no
information on the quality of the original
cement. Even if there is, it is not safe to
assume that the quality is still good. In
addition, the casing can be corroded and
have holes. Corrosive formation fluids are
not common in Venezuela, but the arrival of
injection water or the use of a well for
injection can cause problems. Cement
quality can be checked by the traditional
sonic technique and by the more recent
ultrasonic methods. Ultrasonics can also be
used to check casing quality, as can a variety
of other techniques. The following sections
describe sonic and ultrasonic techniques
with examples.
90
Time (sec)
6 37

HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.45
4
Setting slurry
cement + mud
t
gh
tc
em
en
Slurr
Li
Impedance (MRAY)
Default
threshold
WBM
max
Fluids
Diesel
Gas 200 bar

0
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
Slurry density (g cm3)
Acoustic impedance versus

density for typical materials
found in the casing-formation
annulus.
Cement and corrosion

evaluation techniques
Two main techniques are used for
evaluating the casing-cement bond: the
Cement Bond Log (CBL), which measures the
attenuation of sonic waves along the casing
and is sensitive to shear coupling between
casing and cement; and pulse echo ultrasonic
tools that measure the damping of a thickness
mode resonance and hence the acoustic
impedance of the casing-cement bond
(Hayman et al., 1991). In addition, it is
common to look at the amplitude of the
formation arrival in the sonic wave train as an
indicator of the cement-formation bond.
The traditional sonic CBL is all-directional
and so cannot detect a cement channel, which
may appear as a relatively good bond. A more
recent directional tool is described in the next
section. The CBL is sensitive to the properties
of the fluid in the well, but this can be
corrected by using the difference of amplitude
between two receivers. Other factors that can
make the measurement misleading are fast
formation signals, poor centralization and a
microannulus.
The USIT* Ultrasonic Imaging Tool

measures the acoustic impedance of the
material behind the casing, Zcemf, at all
azimuths. The main advantage is the high
azimuthal and vertical resolution, the
measurement of a physical quantity (Zcemf),
and less sensitivity to environmental effects. It
uses a rotating transducer that fires an
ultrasonic pulse at the casing, causing it to
resonate at a frequency between 200 and 700
kHz (Fig. 6.44a). The main echo is from the
inner casing wall (Fig. 6.44b and c). The time
of arrival, tc, is used to measure the internal
casing radius. It is also used to normalize the
signal for environmental effects such as
temperature, pressure and mud attenuation.
The shape of the resonance depends mainly
on the acoustic impedances and velocities of
the mud (Zmud and Vmud), the casing (Zsteel
and Vsteel), and Zcemf. The mud properties are
measured while running in the hole by turning the transducer to face a metal plate and
analyzing the reflection. Then, knowing the
steel properties, a model of the resonance is
built with casing thickness (d) and Zcemf, and
iterated on with d and Zcemf as variables until
a good fit to the data is established. Finally,
Zcemf is corrected for non-planar effects.
Figure 6.45 shows the impedance of
materials likely to be encountered behind the
casing. Thresholds are used to distinguish
different materials, which are then displayed
in different colors on the USIT imageusually
red for gas, blue for liquid, and yellow to
black for solids in 0.5 MRayl increments. The
interpretation can never be entirely unambiguous, since mud/cement mixtures (i.e.,
contaminated cements) can be solid but have
lower impedance than cement slurries. A
microannulus also reduces the impedance. If
it is liquid-filled, the effect is less than with a
CBL, and it is possible to distinguish solid from
liquid with a microannulus up to 100 mm.

6 38
Figure 6.46
Fluid compensated
CBL amplitude
(mv)
Acoustic
impedance
Max
50
Transit time
400
(ms)
Gamma ray
(gAPI)
100
Acoustic
impedance
Min
200
Liquid
Depth
(ft)
Avg
Gas
(MRAY)
Cement 0
10
Min
10
200
VDL variable
density Max
(ms)
1200
17,650
17,700
17,750
Example of a USIT showing a

clear cement channel.
6 39
However, with gas the effect is generally

stronger. In these cases, as with lowimpedance solids, it is important to compare
USIT and CBL results. Microannuli can usually
be removed by running the log under
pressure. A rough inner casing surface can
cause problems, but this is identified by the
amplitude of the first reflection (Fig. 6.44b)
and displayed on the amplitude image. Good
centralization is also important.
A typical USIT log is shown in Fig. 6.46.
The channel can be seen at the bottom, and
is clearly distinguished from the isolated
patches of bad cement further up. On the
CBL alone this distinction could not be made.
Further examples of USITs run before and
after a squeeze job in an old well are shown
in Chapter 79.
The spatial resolution of the USIT

images is determined by the size of the
ultrasonic beamabout 1.2 in. 0.08 in.
Good resonant signals depend on having the
acoustic standoff between transducer and
casing in the right range. As this depends on
casing size and mud weight, various sizes of
ultrasonic transducer are available. However,
if the attenuation in the mud is greater than
12 dB/cm/MHz, the signal is too weak
to analyze. This is discussed further in the
next section.
Corrosion can be detected by many techniques. These include multifinger calipers,
and electromagnetic methods such as the
METT* Multifrequency Electromagnetic
Thickness Tool and the PAL* Pipe Analysis
Log. The METT measures a phase shift of a
signal transmitted through the casing, which
is sensitive to the casing thickness. The PAL
measures the flux leakage and eddy current
loss from 12 pads pressed against the casing.
The USIT, through its measurement of
internal radius and casing thickness, is a good
detector of corrosion, either internal or
external. Holes can be identified down to 1.2
in. diameter.
For more detailed corrosion evaluation,
the UCI* Ultrasonic Corrosion Imager is
used. The UCI uses a high-frequency 2-MHz
transducer to give much higher spatial
resolution than the USIT. The beam is
focused to a width of 0.11 in. at 2 in. from
its front face to further improve the spatial
resolution, and to reduce eccentering effects
and sensitivity to rugosity compared to a flat
transducer. At this frequency the casing does
not resonate but it is possible to clearly
measure the time of arrival of the echoes
from the inside and outside of the casing. As
with the USIT, the fluid velocity is measured
running in the hole and used to calculate
inner and outer casing radii with a resolution
of 0.004 in. and an accuracy of 0.04 in.

HYDRAULIC INTEGRITY
Figure 6.47
-500.0000
Depth
(ft)
Gamma ray (GR)

0
(gAPI)
150
0.0760
Internal radii
minus average
(IRBK)
External
radius
average
(ERAV)
0
(in.)
External
radius
average
(ERAV)
150 0
(in.)
150
7553
7560.5
Example of USIT clearly showing the perforation holes.
The high-resolution, focused beam can

detect either external or internal pits as small
as 0.3 in. in diameter, according to specifications, and 0.16 in. in some experiments
(Hayman et al., 1995). However, because of
the high frequency, the maximum mud
attenuation acceptable is 2 dB/cm/MHz,
which in practice means water, brine or a
light mud.
The resolution of the USIT can be

judged from Fig. 6.47. The well was
perforated at 12 shots per ft using perforating
charges with a nominal entrance hole of 0.91
in. The holes can be seen very clearly. The
USIT was run in this well to evaluate the
cement over a higher section. It was lowered
to check the perforations, which it did with
success. The advantage of USIT in the
evaluation of old wells is that both corrosion
and cement quality can be assessed on the
same trip in the well. The combined evaluation of cement and corrosion integrity
allows effective workover decisions to be
made.
Cement evaluation in attenuative
muds and small holes
Ultrasonic imaging tools do not work
when the mud attenuation passes a certain
limit. These muds contain a large amount of
solid particles and are usually associated
with high densities. However, although
limits are sometimes quoted in terms of mud
density, this is not generally sufficient. In
one study in the Barinas area, OBMs were
analyzed in the laboratory. Although the
mud weights were moderate12.5 lb/gal
the total solid content was very high at 40%.
Of this, 15% was due to high-gravity solids
such as barite, which had been added
intentionally, while the remaining 25% was
due to light solids picked up while drilling.
Wellsite solids control systems do not always
eliminate these light solids, and wellsite
measurements of solids content do not
always include them. Thus, as in this case, it
is possible to find a medium-weight mud
where the cement quality cannot be
evaluated with ultrasonic measurements.
The converse is also truesome very heavy
muds can give good images because of
moderate solids content. In cases in Eastern
Venezuela, good USIT results were obtained
in 16.3 lb/gal mud.

6 40
Figure 6.48
200
Depth
(ft)
Travel time
(Ms)
1000
GR
(gAPI)
CBL amplitude
100
(mv)
Average map
0
100
(mv)
Casing attenuation
150 40
0
(mv)
0
20
Cement map
VDL variable density

200
(Ms)
1200
17,700
17,750
It is still possible to obtain directional

cement evaluation data in the case of high
solids mud, using the Cement Mapping Tool
(CMT). This tool makes 10 CBL measurements from 10 evenly spaced radial segments. It also provides standard CBL and
Variable Density Log (VDL) data from omnidirectional 3-ft and 5-ft receivers and a 1-ft
receiver for fast formations. In addition, this
tool is only 278 in. in diameter and can thus
be run in small casings and liners, and
through large tubings. (A future 11116-in.
version with eight measurements will soon
be available.)
The ability of the CMT to identify a
channel can be seen in Fig. 6.48. On the
standard CBL, it is difficult to distinguish the
channel at 17,780 ft. zone from the well
cemented zones above and below.
17,800
Example of a CMT showing a clear cement channel.
PERMANENT MONITORING SYSTEMS: EXTENDING THE LIFE OF A RESERVOIR
If the opportunity occurs to work over

an existing well or new wells are drilled,
then the installation of permanent downhole
sensors can aid in extending the life of a
reservoir by providing information that helps
to improve reservoir management and
optimize production.
Many operators in recent years have
turned their focus from exploring for new
reserves to finding ways to increase the
recovery of existing reserves. The recovery of
6 41
hydrocarbons can be increased, in most

cases, if the reservoir structure and production dynamics can be well defined at an
early stage in the reservoir drainage. This
allows an appropriate development strategy
to be implemented, which optimizes the
recovery from the field. To be successful in
improving the management of a reservoir in
this way, adequate and timely data must be
acquired. To this end operators are performing more and more 3-D seismic surveys,

Extended Well Testing, borehole imaging,

horizontal well drilling and logging, etc., in
an effort to understand the reservoir characteristics early in the exploitation cycle. Once
the reservoir is put on production, it is necessary to monitor the reservoir performance so
that additional information can be obtained
about the reservoir dynamics, and changes to
the exploitation strategy can be made in a
timely fashion, if required.
In the past, monitoring of producing
wells has been limited mainly to periodic
pressure gauge surveys. Permanently installed monitoring systems have been available for more than 25 years, but the lack of
reliability and high system cost have limited
their widespread application. Recent developments in technology have improved the
reliability to the point where a system can be
expected to last as long as the completion,
while its cost has been reduced.
The industrys desire to achieve optimal

reservoir management can be aided by the
real-time monitoring of downhole data, as
opposed to periodic acquisition. This desire,
coupled with improvements in reliability and
cost, have led to a rapid increase in the installation of permanent monitoring systems in
recent years.
The new Well Watcher* concept (Fig. 6.49)
integrates surface and downhole measurements and gives the operator immediate access
to key production parameters of the well.
These systems can play a major role in
reaching the goal of real-time monitoring and
control of reservoir processes.
Current permanent sensors can deliver
measurements of pressure, temperature,
flow rate and fluid density, while other
sensors are under active development.
Figure 6.49
Surface sensors
and controls
Single-phase flow rate
Valve and chok e control
Pressure measurements
Sand detection
Field office
Production reports
Alarms
Problem identification
Integrated
applications
Data retrieval and

communications
software
Downhole sensors
FloWatcher* monitors (flow
rate and density)
PumpWatcher* gauges
(ESP control)
PressureWatch* gauges
(pressure and
temperature)
The Well Watcher concept.
Host server
and database
District office
Production engineering
Head office
Field performance

6 42
Table 6.2
Main Applications
Description
Difficult field or well conditions
Restricted access
Highly deviated wells
Pumping wells
Reservoir management
Production optimization
Well performance monitoring
Figure 6.50
Section A
Cable
protector
Cable
Gauge
mandrel
Section A
Pressure and
temperature
gauge
Exploded view of
metal-to-metal seal
Wellhead
Wellhead
outlet
outlet
Interference testing
Reservoir pressure control
Transient well testing
History matching
As the technology evolves further, monitoring will be combined with downhole control
(intelligent completions), allowing even
greater control of production, which will find
particular applications in the new generation
of multilateral wells.
Several reservoirs in Venezuela already
benefit from permanent monitoring installations, and there are many more that could do
so. As seen in Chapter 2, Venezuela is distinguished worldwide by the large variety of its
reservoirs in terms of rock and fluid properties, drive mechanisms, depth, well
completions and production practices. There
are two broad groups of applications for
permanent monitoring systems (Table 6.2):
improved reservoir management and production optimization due to the availability
of continuous, real-time downhole data; and
difficult field or well conditions, in which the
problems of well intervention prevent the
recording of downhole data at all. The
following sections describe briefly the
technique, and show examples of applications in Venezuela and elsewhere.
Permanent gauge history

and development
Although Permanent Monitoring Systems
have been around for a number of years, the
technology has evolved fairly slowly, with
reliability being a major issue in the early
days. The first permanent installation was run
Cable
Cable
penetrato
penetrator by Schlumberger for Elf Gabon (Africa) in
1972, followed one year later by the first
Components of current
North Sea installation on Shell's Auk platform.
permanent monitoring
These early systems were essentially

adaptations of electric wireline technology.
Since then, detailed research and
development have resulted in a new
generation of permanent gauges and
associated components that have much
greater reliability.
Current systems routinely capture pressure and temperature data (Fig. 6.50). Some
also capture flow rate and density. These systems are engineered specifically for the permanent monitoring market and are designed
for longevity. The gauges have digital electronics designed for extended exposure to
high temperature and undergo extensive
design qualification tests. They are designed
for maintenance-free operation and are subject to strict quality checks during manufacture before being hermetically sealed. The
sensor element is selected according to the
application. The most common is the PQG
quartz sensor, which exhibits excellent transient response and resolution (0.01 psi), longterm stability (2 psi drift per year), and long
lifetime. Sapphire sensors are also used. (See
Chapter 419 for a discussion of downhole
gauges.)
Cables for permanent installations are
encased in stainless steel or nickel alloy
pressure-tight tubing. Polymer-encapsulation
may be added for extra protection. All connections are verified by pressure testing
during installation. Connections through tubing hanger and wellhead vary, depending on
the type of completion subsea, platform or
land. Components are standard, using tried
and tested designs made in conjunction with
the tubing hanger and wellhead manufacturers (Fig. 6.50). Data transmission and
recording are tailored to oil company needs,
and wherever possible industry standards
such as Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) are used so that signals
may be integrated with other existing
systems.
systems: a) downhole and

b) surface.
6 43

Figure 6.51
Wellhead
outlet
Cable
pentrator
Control
line
Electrical
cable
Upper
Filter
Flapper
valve
Digital
permanent
gauge
Packer
Lower
The permanent gauge and

the flapper valve allow the
IPRs of the two reservoirs to
be measured independently
and regularly.
Of equal importance is the

planning and project management
for each installation. Although
most permanent monitoring hardware is considered off the shelf,
several parts may have to be customized for special types of wellheads. Longer lead times may be
needed if the project requires
custom-built equipment.
Gauges are usually connected to
the cable at the workshop where
pressure or welded seals can
easily be made and pressuretested. At the wellsite, the gauge
is mounted onto a mandrel, which
is connected to the tubing. The
cable is supplied on a reel and is
run in the hole with the tubing.
Cable protectors placed on every
tubing joint help prevent damage
as the system is run in the well.
During the entire procedure, both
pressure integrity and gauge
operation are checked to ensure a
working system. Once connected
and running, permanent monitoring systems begin paying back
their cost in many different ways,
as the following examples show.
Difficult field or well conditions

There are many cases in Venezuela
where it is difficult or expensive to obtain
downhole data in producing wells. These
include highly deviated wells such as in the
Bolivar District Coast; locations with difficult
access such as in the south of Lake
Maracaibo, the south Apure area, or
Pedernales; and horizontal wells and
pumping wells.
In highly deviated and horizontal wells,
the alternative is to convey wireline or slickline
gauges using coiled tubing. The relative costs
of the two alternatives must be considered.
In wells equipped with electrical submersible
pumps it is impractical to log by wireline

methods. However, a permanent pressure
gauge can provide useful information about
well and reservoir performance by recording
formation pressure when the pumps are
switched off. In addition, pump efficiency can
be improved by monitoring pressure at the
pump inlet and outlet during pumping. Pump
efficiency has an impact not only on
production, but also on pump life and
workover schedules.
A special application of permanent
gauges in sucker rod pumping wells is used
in Argentina (Fig. 6.51). The completion has
been modified to include a permanent gauge
and a flapper valve that can be controlled
from the surface. In this case, the gauge
reads the pressure in the tubing-casing
annulus, rather than inside the tubing. When
the valve is closed, the gauge is only in
contact with the upper reservoir. By varying
the pump rate and measuring the surface
flow rate and downhole pressure, it is
possible to establish the Inflow Production
Rate (IPR) for the upper reservoir. When the
flapper valve is open, it is in contact with
both reservoirs and the composite IPR can be
measured. In both cases, a long time
(approximately 20 hr) is needed at each
pump rate to achieve stabilized flow.
These reservoirs are under independent
water injection, so it is important to measure
the IPR at regular intervals. It is also
important to measure pressure downhole so
as to separate the effect of the two reservoirs
and to avoid uncertainties in the tubing
pressure drop (e.g., due to foam). The
permanent monitoring system solves this
problem by providing a non-intrusive datagathering system that is continuously
available. In Venezuela, most of the extraheavy, heavy and medium oil producers
have mechanical pumps.

6 44
Figure 6.52
Well A
4900
Pressure pulses
4800
Pressure (psi)
4700
4600
4500
4400
4300
4200
4100
4000
Well B
Pressure (psi)
5060
5040
5020
Effect of
short pulses
5000
Effect of
long pulses
4980
4960
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
June
Interference test. Pressure

pulses recorded in well A
(top) are seen as small
changes in pressure
recorded by the permanent
gauge in well B (bottom).
6 45
Reservoir management
Complex fields require careful reservoir
management. Two North Sea fields, Gullfaks
and Veslefrikk, illustrate how permanent
monitoring can help.
In Veslefrikk, commingled production
and injection was planned from the Brent and
Intra Dunlin Sand reservoirs to reduce total
investment. Here gauges are used in dedicated wells to monitor the two reservoirs
independently. Control is obtained by selective perforation in producers and downhole
chokes in injectors. A carefully planned data
acquisition program during the initial
production phase provided information about
reservoir properties, production potential and
well behavior. In addition, two of the largest
uncertainties were partially resolved: the
degree of communication across the main
arcuate fault, and the vertical transmissibility
between the Lower and Middle Brent through
the low-quality Rannoch sandstone.
Gullfaks is heavily faulted with a number

of sealing or partially sealing faults. One
important reservoir monitoring objective is to
measure the degree of communication between the fault blocks. Data are used in both
fields to ensure single-phase oil flow in each
fault block, to monitor and optimize well performance with time, to conduct transient well
test analyses, and to match numerical models.
Interference testing is recognized as
a very useful reservoir management tool
for determining reservoir compartments.
However, it is not often carried out because
of the difficulty and total cost of devoting two
or more wells to the experiment for many
days. Permanent systems solve much of this
problem. The data in Fig. 6.52 is from a North
Sea field. Pressure changes of less than 5 psi
are detected in a well approximately 600 m
(2000 ft) away from one being pulsed. These
data show that although the reservoir is
mapped as being compartmentalized, there is
generally pressure communication between
compartments.
Permanent pressure data have been
used to model the interaction between the
three oil accumulations of the Scapa Field
directly through extensive interference
testing, and indirectly through use of the data
in material balance and simulation studies.
This has resulted in a more thorough
understanding of field behavior, leading to
optimized recovery of reserves and continued development drilling.
Venezuela has its fair share of complex
fields. In addition, apparently simple fields
can become complex once secondary
recovery projects are started. Well locations
and injection strategy can all be improved
with the understanding gained from
continuous downhole data.

Gullfaks field development is based on

single-phase oil flow without free gas in the
reservoir. In wells with permanent monitoring
systems, bottomhole flowing pressure (BHFP)
is maintained slightly above saturation
pressure by adjusting the flow rate (Fig. 6.53).
This results in a potential increase in the
individual well production rate of 630 to 3150
BOPD. In wells without permanent monitoring, calibrated curves based on empirical
multiphase equations and permanent pressure data from nearby wells are used.
Pressure (kPa)
Figure 6.53
28,000
27,000
Flow rate (m3 d)
3000
2500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
Time (hr)
Adjusting bottomhole flowing

pressure (BHFP) to maximize
oil production. As BHFP is
decreased to slightly above
saturation pressure (top),
daily oil production rate
increases (bottom).
Production optimization
Careful optimization of the producing
conditions is essential in reservoirs with oil
near the bubble point, and with near-critical
fluids. More generally in high producing
wells, small improvements in the operating
point can significantly increase the production rate. These conditions exist in the
deep Oligocene fields of North Monagas, and
in the Center Lake area. Permanent pressure
data makes it easier to regularly monitor and
adjust the producing conditions. For example,
in the reservoir shown in Fig. 6.52, the bubble
point of the oil in one of the zones is 3700 psi
and the initial formation pressure is 4600 psi.
So drawdown had to be less than 900 psi to
sustain gas-free production. High skin factor
in the first well meant that as large a drawdown as possible would be needed for adequate production, introducing a further complication. However, the pressure could be
carefully monitored and production optimized to maintain reservoir pressure at
around 40 psi above bubble point.
The state-of-the-art
Permanent monitoring systems are an
important factor in a long-term effort to
improve recovery factors by continuous
monitoring and control of the key processes
in the reservoir. At the present time, most
systems allow continuous real-time measurements of pressure and temperature at the
bottom of the tubing. These measurements
alone offer significant advantages in three
areas: reservoir management, production
optimization, and where well conditions or
logistics make normal wireline interventions
too difficult or expensive.
Future directions
Current research is directed at extending
permanent in-situ installations to include
arrays with a large number of diverse
sensors (Fig. 6.54). Arrays of sensors
distributed at many points in the reservoir
will allow time-varying distributions of
reservoir properties, such as saturation and
pressure, to be continuously monitored.
These measurements can eventually be used
to continuously update the reservoir model
for optimum reservoir management. Figure
6.54 is a conceptual idea of how this might
eventually be done.
One direction is the development of
sensors in direct contact with the formation.

6 46
For the traditional permanent measurement of

pressure, this would allow the placement of
arrays of pressure gauges in direct contact
with the formation pore pressure. This could
lead to a number of benefits, as such gauges
would experience no wellbore storage effects
or perforation skin losses. As important, placement outside the casing would allow arrays of
gauges to be installed without complications
related to, for example, multiple completion
packers and cabling inside the casing. Finally,
an array of gauges would allow continuous
monitoring of pressure transients and pressure
depletion in multiple reservoir zones.

Implanted pressure gauges will need to
meet competing requirements. On the one
hand, these gauges will measure long-term
pressure depletion trends in the reservoir.
This requires the use of pressure gauges with
excellent long-term stability and accuracy.
On the other hand, in-situ pressure gauges
directly indicate reservoir pressure communication as surrounding producer or injector
wells are shut in or the rates adjusted. This
involves measuring short-time pressure transients, which requires gauges with good
transient response and pressure resolution.
One other direction of development is
the measurement of water saturation variations with time using electrical resistivity data
acquired with implanted electrode arrays.
Such arrays can sense saturation variations
both locally around the array (e.g.,
monitoring a water contact intersecting the
array), as well as deeper in the reservoir (e.g.,
the pattern of water moving away from an
injector or toward a producer). Eventually,
acoustic sensors could be used to detect the
advance of a gas cap, and chemical sensors
to detect tracers emitted into injection water.
Figure 6.54 also shows the abandoned
branch of a multi-lateral shut-off by an
intelligent completion.
Improvements in the understanding and

characterization of nuclear measurements
have led to greatly improved formation
evaluation in old wells, particularly where
openhole data are limited. It is now possible
to determine porosity, lithology and water
saturation through casing with confidence in
a large percentage of wells in Venezuela.
These improvements lead to realistic estimates of permeability. Layer pressure can be
obtained directly from special tests and
cased-hole wireline formation testers, or
indirectly by correlation with new wells.
Improvements in sensor design and

laboratory measurements have led to significantly better characterization of flow within,
and even without, the pipe. In particular, twoand three-phase flow in horizontal wells can
now be quantified.
Thus, current technology allows a full
evaluation of the formation, hydraulic integrity
and downhole flow in old wells, in most cases
without pulling the tubing. In the future,
permanent downhole sensors will allow the
continuous monitoring of many different well
and reservoir properties.
Figure 6.54
I
A1
A2
Q1
P5
A3
P6
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
Q3
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
A4
P7
Q4
P1
Q2
P2
C1
C2
C3
P3
P4
T1
T2
T3
T4
Looking ahead. In-situ

installations including arrays
with a large number of
diverse sensors in direct
contact with the formation.
CONCLUSION
6 47

This chapter was written by P.Laurent, J.Singer, A.Dueso and A.Douglas

with contributions from F.Gonzlez (Lagoven), E.Solorzano (Lagoven), M.Herron,
S.Herron, O.Ortiz, T.Baumbach, D.Murray, J.J.Gutierrez, and J.C.Burgoa.
and with the permission of Maraven, Lagoven, Amoco Trinidad,
and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.
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Oilfield Review, Winter 1995, p. 32-47.
The Search for Oil and Gas in Latin America & the Caribbean, No. 5, 1997,
p. 28-41.

6 48
Chapter 7
Production Enhancement
Chapter overview
Production Enhancement Groups:
Methodology and practices
Identification of bypassed zones
Controlling water production
Maximizing fracture conductivity
Fracture optimization
Controlling fines migration
Customized perforating
PRODUCTION ENHANCEMENT
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Production from an oil field can be

enhanced by many different actions involving
technologies from reservoir management
through well completion to surface facilities.
This chapter focuses on single-well production
enhancement, and will show a variety of
techniques that have been successful in
Venezuela. Single-well production enhancement is concerned with improving the production of individual wells, although the effect of
or on neighboring wells must always be considered. However, surface facilities and overall
reservoir management are not discussed.
Figure 7.1
4500
Reservoir
completion
Pressure (psia)
4000
3500
Fluid conduit
artificial lift
3000
2500
Performance
gap
Potential
Existing performance
2000
20
40
60
80
100
Flow rate (B D)
The well performance

gap, as illustrated by
a NODAL* plot.
The main objective for single-well production enhancement is to identify wells exhibiting a production gap between current and
potential performance (Fig. 7.1), and to design
production enhancement solutions using
appropriate technologies. Different approaches are suitable for different problems. One of
the more recent initiatives has been the creation
of Production Enhancement Groups or PEGs.
The PEG is an integrated and multidisciplinary
team that is proactive in looking for opportunities and is focused on rapidly finding
the most appropriate economic solutions.
The first section describes the methodology

and practices of a PEG.
Subsequent sections discuss specific
techniques that have proved particularly successful in improving production in Venezuela.
The first is a classic case of reviving a well by
opening up zones that still contained oil, and
closing zones that were producing water.
While the basic techniques were described in
Chapter 6, here we concentrate on how they
were used together in a PEG approach.
Excess water production is a major
source of poor well performance. However,
some water is often needed to sweep the
reservoir. Water control diagnostic plots can
make a quick initial distinction between good
water and bad water. Two examples show
the diagnosis of bad water and its reduction
by gel treatments.
Two cases of fracture optimization are
shown. The first is in high-permeability, relatively unconsolidated rock where carefully
designed tip screenouts led to wider, more conductive fractures and significantly improved
production. The second shows how acoustic
log data, pseudo-3D fracture models and associated software helps improve fracture designs
in consolidated sandstones. This improved understanding has explained why some previous
fracture treatments did not perform well, and
can lead to better results in future treatments.
The movement of fines can dramatically
reduce the production from good reservoirs.
Clay Acid*, although not a new technique,
has proved particularly successful in maintaining performance in some areas of Lake
Maracaibo. An analysis of the problem and the
results of several treatments are presented.
The main concern in perforating used to
be the penetration and entrance hole of the
shaped charge. Recently, the focus has been
on designing customized solutions for the total
perforating job so as to optimize efficiency as
well as production. This has led to a whole
range of new techniques in deployment systems, guns and charges, some of which are
shown here.

PEG METHODOLOGY AND PRACTICES
A multidisciplinary team organized to

proactively find candidate wells is called a
PEG. Typically, a PEG approaches an
operator with a proposal to examine well
files for a particular field and report
opportunities for production enhancement,
to be followed by execution of appropriate
services. The proactive nature of the
exercise and the emphasis on an optimal
solution (considering economics and risk)
often results in value pricing of the services.
The focus is on results; that is, on enhancing
well production in an economically
attractive fashion. Treatment effectiveness is
evaluated and used to improve services in
subsequent wells.
Figure 7.2
Flowline
Flow conduit
Completion
Reservoir
Surface
facilities
At the heart of the PEG approach is the

identification of candidate wells for improved performance. Well performance, and
some of the commonly encountered opportunities for improving performance, are
reviewed first. The process of candidate
selection and the procedures used are
described afterwards.
Well performance
The well production system may be
viewed as a chain of elements allowing flow
from the reservoir to surface-handling
capabilities (Fig. 7.2). The components
include the reservoir, the completion, the
tubulars, artificial lift, and surface facilities.
The surface facilities generally must be taken
as a given in single-well production
enhancement studies and are not considered
here. So also is the overall development plan
for the reservoir. However, the reservoir in
the drainage area of the wellbore and the
effect of or on nearby producers and
injectors are of paramount importance. The
NODAL* analysis plot shown in Fig. 7.1
illustrates the most effective way to quantify
the gap between the current well performance and what could be achieved by
adjustments in tubing/artificial lift or in the
reservoir inflow performance.
Reaching the optimum production (or a
maximum return on investment) is a
complex engineering task. All the elements
of the system are coupled, and often the
performance of the whole system is
conditioned by its weakest links. However,
to enhance production it is helpful to
consider which of the different components
contribute to the production gap.
The well production system.

Artificial lift
performance
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Figure 7.3
Actual
Gas lift design/
pump operating
conditions
Potential
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Flow conduit
performance
Actual
Potential
Scale removal with coil

tubing/acidizing
Coil tubing completion
Clean out fill
Flow rate
Completion
performance
Pressure drop
through perforations
Production gap
Flow rate
2 spf
Actual
12 spf
Reperforate
Gravel pack
Squeeze cementing
Acidizing
Potential
Flow rate
Reservoir
performance
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
Potential
Actual
Stimulation - frac acid

Perforate other zones
Drill laterals
Water control
Fines control
Flow rate
The production gaps for

different components of the
system, and typical solutions.
Figure 7.3 graphically illustrates the

production gaps for the different well
performance components and lists some of
the solutions. For example, a production gap
exists if the reservoir deliverability can be
increased. The result is less than optimal
flow rates even with high drawdowns.
Deliverability can be improved by increasing
the effective radius of the borehole through
hydraulic fracturing, acidizing or highperformance perforators, or by damage
removal. Identifying and opening up new
zones, and drilling laterals are other ways to
achieve significant production enhancement.
Fluids flow from the reservoir into
the borehole through the completion. It
includes the perforations or liner slots,
the cement/borehole annulus, gravel packs
and any zone of formation damage.
The drawdown through the completion can

be reduced by reperforating and/or
acidizing existing intervals, or by opening up
a larger interval to reduce partial penetration
skin. A gravel pack may be needed to
prevent sanding. A cement squeeze or gel
treatment may be needed if some zones are
producing unwanted water or gas, or taking
fluid. For the same reasons, poor cementation may be enabling communication
behind the casing.
The flow conduit may limit flow
because of scale inside the tubing, excess fill
or an unnecessary restriction. Scale may be
removed by acid or coiled tubing. Artificial
lift efficiency affects the flowing well
pressure and well performance. Gas lift
systems and pumps may need to be replaced
or their operation optimized.
NODAL techniques are used to analyze
and optimize the production system. NODAL
analysis couples the reservoirs capability to
produce fluids into the wellbore with the
capacity of tubulars to conduct fluids to the
surface, including surface piping if
applicable. The name reflects the discrete
locations, or nodes, at which independent
equations can be used to describe fluid
inflow and outflow. This procedure helps
determine the rate that the system is capable
of delivering, and shows the effect on
production of changing parameters such as
wellhead or separator pressure, tubing and
choke sizes, perforation shot density and
stimulation. Production can also be
estimated based on future reservoir conditions. NODAL analysis is often used as a
diagnostic tool to identify system
bottleneckse.g., formation damage or
completion limitationsthat cause productivity or injectivity losses and to quantify the
expected production increase if the
restrictions are removed.

PEG METHODOLOGY AND PRACTICES
Figure 7.4
Analysis process
Catalog multiwell info
Identify production anomalies
Choose first well
Analyze current producing zone
Move to next zone
Current performance analysis

Production history analysis
Enhancement studies
Check production potential

(WellLog, BU, RST, PLT)
Candidate selection
The overall PEG candidate
selection process is shown in
Prioritize candidates (Risk vs. NPV)
Fig. 7.4. First, a field for
Present proposal
enhancement is identified. The
(FracCADE, StimCADE, PacCADE, CoilCADE)
well files are scanned and a set
Execute
of possible candidates are
Post-job evaluation
identified based on anomalies in
The overall PEG
production, estimates of remaining oil in
analysis process.
place and other factors. Each well is
analyzed
for
current
performance,
production history and sensitivity to different
enhancement actions. At this stage logs and
tests may be recommended to quantify the
reservoir parameters needed to estimate the
production potential, calculate the net
present value (NPV) of various options and
assess associated risks. Appropriate
intervention plans are designed for the
selected candidates. After execution, the
results are analyzed and the experience used
in subsequent wells.
Risk analysis
The procedures used in the analysis of

each zone are shown in more detail in (Fig.
7.5, following page). Ideally, the well file
contains formation evaluation logs, buildup
tests and production data. If no formation
evaluation data are available, then field
maps of porosity and net hydrocarbon
thickness must be consulted. If there are no
production or buildup data, then it is usually
recommended to perform a buildup test.
With partial data it is often possible to iterate
through the NODAL analysis until a good fit
is obtained. In any case, a NODAL analysis
is necessary, first to confirm the accuracy of
the input parameters and then to evaluate
different production enhancement options
through sensitivity studies. Based on these
studies, it is possible to forecast production,
estimate costs, compute economics, and
assess risk for each viable production
enhancement option. Once completed, we
move to another zone or well as already
shown in the analysis process.
The keys to success
At the heart of the PEG is the ability to
analyze a large amount of data efficiently
and reliably. Candidate selection and
recommendations are a matter of hours or
days, not weeks or months. Good software
tools are important. These include software
to analyze input data such as build-up tests
and logs; the analysis of production history
and material balance calculations; NODAL
analysis of production performance; design
of the production enhancement options such
as fracturing, acidizing, cementing, gel
treatment, gravel packing, and perforating;
and economics analysis.

Figure 7.5
Select well file
File includes FE log ?
Consult field map for estimates of porosity

thickness and net hydrocarbon thickness
Estimate porosity thickness and net

hydrocarbon thickness from well log interpretation
File includes buildup test ?
Determine p,k,s and drainage area

from test interpretation
File includes production data ?
If no production data and no buildup test,

recomended buildup test designed to determine
p,k,s and drainage area
Verify or determine p,k,s and drainage area

with production history match
Perform NODAL analysis
Confirm accuracy of p,k,s and drainage area

Perform sensitivity study to evaluate PE option
Forecast production, estimate cost, compute

economics, and assess risk for each viable PE option
Present designs for viable options
Typical PEG process for

identifying candidates and
designing solutions.
Execute best option
Evaluate job success
Another key is the right mixture of

knowledge in the group. It helps to have
people looking at the problems from
different perspectives. This requires involving people not only from different disciplines but also from both operating and
service companies. Service company personnel are most familiar with the techniques
and services, while operating company
personnel are most familiar with their application and the overall reservoir view.
It is important to realize that not all

production gaps can be closed with the PEG
approach. Some problems do take weeks or
months to solve. The PEG must recognize
such problems and pass them on to reservoir
studies or other groups for solution.
New techniques may even need to be
developedsome good examples of customized solutions are given in the perforating section below.
Finally, the PEG approach is not only
applicable to old, poorly performing wells.
Some of the biggest production gains can be
achieved with relatively new wells that are
performing well but still not at their
optimum. All these factors, combined with a
skill for recognizing production gaps and
analyzing causes and solutions, allows a PEG
to achieve its goal of enhancing production
in an economically attractive fashion.
The PEG initiative first started in North
America in early 1993. The first PEG team in
Venezuela was set up in the East in late 1993
to solve problems of inefficient production
from a number of wells in North Monagas.
Corpoven, Intevep, Schlumberger Dowell
and Wireline & Testing teamed up to solve
sand production and asphaltene flocculation
problems. The group examined all the
potential well candidates and identified those
wells whose NPV could give the maximum
return from a remedial treatment. As a result,
Corpoven increased the field production by
250% at a cost of 5% of a new well (SEARCH
3, 1996). Today there are more than six PEG
groups operating in Venezuela. These teams
are continuing to identify enhancement
opportunities with successful results.

I D E N T I F I C AT I O N O F B Y PA S S E D Z O N E S
A good example of a production enhancement alliance is the one started in mid1996 between Lagoven and Schlumberger
Oilfield Services, with the charter to maintain
and repair wells for Ta Juana District on Lake
Maracaibo. The objective of the alliance is to
recognize candidates for workover using
PEG methodology and software, and to
enhance well productivity through the
optimum use of technology.
Figure 7.6
Sedco Forex
Rig operations,
Operational engineers
Dowell
Stimulating,
Cementing,
Sand control,
Coil tubing,
Reservoir
engineering
Lagoven
Reservoir Engineering
and Completion departments
Workover
alliance
Barge
LGV - 406
W&T
Perforating,
Production logging,
Reservoir engineering
The workover alliance with

its multidisciplinary team for
candidate recognition and
workover operations.
A team of reservoir engineers from

Dowell and Wireline & Testing, and
operating engineers from Sedco-Forex, work
closely with Lagoven engineers in their
offices to identify underperforming wells
and estimate the type of repair and expected
productivity after the workover. In addition,
all the operations executed on the Lagovenowned barge are managed by Sedco-Forex
personnel, and all the auxiliary services such
as Coiled Tubing, Cementing, Stimulating,
Fracturing, Gravel Packing, Perforating and
Logging are provided by Dowell and
Wireline & Testing (Fig. 7.6).
Reservoir characterization
The Ta Juana District controls several
large reservoirs located near the eastern
coast of Lake Maracaibo (Fig. 7.7, following
page). Many of the reservoirs are shallow
and
produce
from
unconsolidated
sandstones. They require sand control
completions, the internal gravel pack being
the most common. Most are undergoing
secondary recovery with active water and
gas injection projects. In such large
reservoirs, characterized by heterogeneities,
faulting, and poor lateral sand body
continuity, some major concerns are water
or gas break-through and bypassed oil
zones.
The Lagunillas Inferior 4 reservoir
(LGINF-04) is an old and shallow reservoir
producing heavy oil (18API). The reservoir
consists of three main unconsolidated and
high-porosity (30 p.u.) Miocene sandstone
formations known as the Laguna, Lagunillas
Inferior, and La Rosa (Chapter 212). These
three members are subdivided into 11
different sandstone lenses, all of them with
limited lateral extent and complex facies
distribution. The formation tops vary from
2300 to 2500 ft. The thickness varies from 10
to 100 ft for each unit, the La Rosa being the
most well developed and continuous sandstone. Formation water salinity is approximately 6000 ppm. The structure is a monoclinal plane dipping 4 to the southwest.

Figure 7.7
47A
101
556
709 1146
69
910
48
883
886
53
46
1144 805
61
100
909
1091
62
1093
794
Cabimas
932
731
931
Ta Juana
LGINF - 04
Lagunillas
= Injectors
Lake
Maracaibo
Bachaquero
Location map showing
The initial reservoir pressure was 1150

psi, but declined over the years to 900 psi,
below the bubble point of 1050 psi. In 1976
a secondary recovery project was started
using edge-water injection. Five injector
wells were drilled for pressure maintenance
in the Lagunillas Inferior and La Rosa.
the reservoir and the

surrounding wells.
Figure 7.8
800
700
Oil
Water
Pressure in the LGINF-04 recovered to

920 psi and oil production benefited from
the water injection. However, optimizing
the water injection was complicated by
several factors:
The lack of new drilling in the field
makes it difficult to acquire new pressure data for each layer and limits the
utilization of wireline formation testers.
The field was developed more than 15
years ago, and as such the openhole
information is old and too basic for a
full petrophysical analysis.
The physical and chemical properties of
the injected water are nearly the same
as the formation water, making the
characterization of the produced water
very difficult.
Traditionally, all prospective sandstones
were open to production simultaneously, making it impossible to identify
the fluids produced for each layer.
The internal gravel pack completions
have prevented conventional production logging from quantifying production in each layer.
The complex geology and discontinuous facies make well-to-well correlation difficult and unreliable.
However, if bypassed oil zones could
be identified in spite of these complications,
then the ultimate oil recovery would
be increased and the workover success
ratio improved.
Production (bbl / D)
600
shut - in
(high water cut)
500
sanded up
400
300
200
100
0
'81
'82
'83
'84
'85
'86
'87
'88
'89
'90
'91
'92
'93
Year
Production history of well TJ-886.

Figure 7.9
Water
Moved oil
CRRA
1.6 2.6
Depth
(ft)
Oil
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
Fluid analysis
from RST
Fluid analysis
from OH logs
Sand
Bound water
Sw RST
100 (p.u.) 0
Perfs
after
Perfs
before
Sw OH
100 (p.u.)
0 50
(p.u.)
0 50
(p.u.)
0 0
Clay
Volume analysis
(p.u.)
100
2400
J
2500
I
H
G
2600
F
E
D
C
B
A
2700
Interpretation of the RST and

openhole logs in TJ-886. The
perforated intervals before
and after workover are
shown in track 2.
Measuring oil saturation

behind casing
As was shown in Chapter 66, it is
possible to make quantitative measurements
of the formation oil volume with the RST in
a gravel pack completion. The issue then is
to find suitable candidates in which to look
for bypassed oil.
The team started to study carefully any
wells with production anomalies, especially
those that were near injectors. One such
well was TJ-886, close to the injectors TJ1144 and TJ-794 (Fig. 7.7). This producer
was shut down in 1993 because of excessive
water production350 BOPD with 98%
water cut (Fig. 7.8). The sudden jump in
water cut is typical behavior for a thief zone
(see Diagnosis of water problems, page
712). Although the upper reservoir zones

(Lagunillas Inferior) were not producing,
opening them to production represented a
major risk because neighboring wells TJ-883,
TJ-909 and TJ-805 produced with high water
cut from the same zones. Well TJ-886 was
chosen to run the first-ever RST in gravel
pack completion in Venezuela.
The well completion consisted of 278-in.
production tubing, with a packer set at 2500
ft in a 512-in. casing. The gravel pack hanger
was set at 2550 ft with 278-in. slotted liner
down to the end of the gravel at 2744 ft. Five
intervals were open to flow (see perforations
A-E in Fig. 7.9). It was decided to monitor
the entire LGINF-04 reservoir from 2330 to
2710 ft. The annulus was filled with water to
minimize the change in logging environment
across the reservoir. The RST Planner was
used to determine logging speed (number of
passes) and station times for specific well
conditions. In this case, five inelastic passes
at 100 ft/hr were needed to obtain a 95%
confidence in the oil saturation measurement. In addition, two passes in the
Sigma mode were proposed to cross-check
the porosity and lithology, as well as to
identify any gas zones in the reservoir
(Chapter 612).
The RST was run in November 1996. The
interpretation of the RST and the openhole
logs (Induction and Gamma Ray) is shown in
Fig. 7.9. The two bottom perforated intervals
are watered-out (A, B), and the overlying
intervals (C, D) have high water saturation
(50%). However, the top of the lens from
2575 to 2620 ft, including the perforated
interval E, was still close to the original oil
saturation and represented an attractive
zone to be recompleted. The intermediate
zone (2474 to 2560 ft) had not been
produced in this well but shows a clear oilwater contact at 2532 ft, and original oil
saturations at the top. The small sand
body K also shows original oil saturation.

500
Contaminated
Liquid
Gaseous
Gas
Bonded
Acoustic impedance
with thresholds (AIKB)
10,000
Depth
(ft)
Before cement squeeze
After cement squeeze
2450
2500
2550
USIT log before the cement squeeze,
USIT log after the cement squeeze,
showing poor cementation throughout
showing good cementation except for a
the interval.
small zone at 2450 ft.
These intervals with near-initial oil saturations are clear examples of bypassed oil
caused by an irregular water front.
The Sigma passes found the sandstone
body at 2400 to 2430 ft to be invaded with gas
(see the count rate indicator, CRRA, in the
depth track). This is not surprising considering the pressure history of the reservoir,
and that this lens is not influenced by water
injection. The original perforated intervals
were in the middle or bottom of the
sandstone for this reason.
Well repair
These excellent results enabled the
team to quickly establish a procedure to
reactivate the well. The integrity of the
cement sheath is crucial when producing
zones close to an active aquifer, especially in
older wells (TJ-886 was drilled in 1981).
Therefore, the first priority after recovering
the completion and gravel pack was to
monitor the cement integrity, and squeeze
more cement if necessary. Following this,
new intervals would be perforated and the
completion reinstalled.
The USIT/CBL Ultra Sonic Imaging
Tool/Cement Bond Log showed poor
cement quality in the entire interval to be
completed (Fig. 7.10). Squeeze perforations
were opened from 2520 to 2525 ft and a
packer set at 2600 ft. 12 bbl of cement were
forced into the old open perforations and
circulated up to the squeeze perforations. A
second USIT-CBL was run 18 hours after the
cement squeeze. It showed a successful
cement repair (Fig. 7.11) with a bond index
of almost 1.
Experience shows that these formations
need stimulation to produce properly.
In this case, the team decided to avoid
hydraulic stimulation to avoid the risk of
opening communication between the
aquifers and the open perforating intervals.
Instead, it was decided to use deep penetrating guns to go beyond the damaged zone.

SPAN* Schlumberger Perforation Analysis software

Cross section showing charge penetration depth
showed that the best option
28
was a 312-in. tubing-con21
veyed deep penetrator gun,
using 37J charges at 4 shots
14
per ft and 60 phasing.
7
Simulation showed that in
this case formation pene28
28
21
14
14
21
7
7
tration would be 21.4 in.,
7
which is normally enough to
14
get past the damaged zone
(see Fig. 7.12).
21
Underbalance is essential
28
Formation
to clean up perforations,
Cement
Perforator characteristics
particularly in this case, so a
Gun/Charge type
: 3.5 HPG 4spf 37JUJ HMX
pressure differential of
Gun position
: Centralized
Shot phasing
DEG :
60
450 psi from formation to
Gun offset
DEG :
0
wellbore was applied while
Perforation characteristics (at all orientations)
shooting. Afterward, the
Total penetration
IN
: 23.227
Formation penetration
IN
: 21.423
guns were left on the tubing
Entrance hole dia. 1st csg IN
: 0.4319
(for alternative methods of
perforating underbalanced, page 741).
The results of SPAN showing
The minimum expected production from
the penetration of the 312-in.
the workover was simulated with a NODAL
tubing-conveyed perforator.
analysis prior to the work approval, using an
estimated (not measured) permeability of 100
md and a skin of 10. (This is an average value
measured by well tests in non-stimulated
wells with similar formation and completion
Figure 7.12
Figure 7.13
1000
inflow as modeled
ideal inflow (e.g., no skin)
outflow (tubing intake)
900
Pressure (psia)
800
conditions.) The Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and outflow curves indicated a
minimum of 190 BOPD of oil (Fig. 7.13).
However, after the well was put back on
production, productivity tests showed a total
production of 530 BOPD with 7% water cut
without choke.
The pay-out time of the RST log and
workover is estimated to be 35 days. The
cumulative recovery, taking into account
reservoir decline, is predicted as 500,000 bbl
over three years.
Conclusions
TJ-886 was rejuvenated by applying new
technology for reservoir monitoring in the difficult environment of a gravel pack completion, and by taking a new, integrated approach to customizing solutions for workover.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
1. The RST is a reliable tool to be used in
gravel pack completions at least in
formations with porosities greater than
20%, as was the case with the LGINF-04
reservoir.
2. There are still significant recoverable
reserves that have been bypassed in
secondary recovery schemes such as
water or gas injection. These need to be
addressed in the near future.
3. An integrated, multidisciplinary team,
such as Lagoven and Schlumberger
Oilfield Services, makes use of bestvalue technology and gives the best
chance of success in procedures such as
workover.
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Oil rate (BOPD)
NODAL analysis of TJ-886 showing an expected production rate of 190 BOPD.

7 10
C O N T R O L L I N G WAT E R P R O D U C T I O N
Figure 7.14
Oil
Oil
Oil
Oil
Water
High-permeability layer
(No crossflow)
Water coning
Fissures to a water zone
Injector
Injector
Producer
Injector
Producer
Producer
High-permeability layer thief zone
Gravity-segregated layer
Fissures to an injector
The control of water production is a

major challenge to reservoir and workover
engineers. Various techniques are used to
reduce the water cut and increase the life of
the well. The key to a successful solution
lies in defining the origin of the water and
determining whether it is necessary to the
associated oil production. Produced water
can be considered either good or bad. Good
water sweeps an oil bank and carries with it
a significant amount of oil. The amount of
good water that is acceptable is determined
by the cost of water disposal. Bad water
inhibits oil production, but can often be
reduced if properly identified. Bad water is
sometimes misinterpreted as a rise in the
water-oil contact, causing premature
abandonment of the reservoir.
Bad water can be caused by conditions
in the reservoir or near the wellbore.
Typical reservoir conditions are illustrated in
Fig. 7.14. They include coning, fissures and
high-permeability layers, all of which
bring water to the well without sweeping
a significant volume of oil with them.
Not all high-permeability layers are bad.
Some can help sweep nearby layers,
particularly when the permeability contrast
is moderate. Water injection wells create
more potential sources of bad water, also
shown in Fig. 7.14.
Near-wellbore flow is often the most
critical, but since it is linked to the
completion, it also offers more opportunity
for treatment. It may be caused by a wide
variety of factors; for example (Fig. 7.15):
poor cement bond, caverns formed by sand
production, reduced oil flow due to
formation damage, and frequent stimulation.
Some observations can be made about these
different factors:

,,

,,

,,

Six typical reservoir conditions leading to bad water production.
Figure 7.15
Poor cement bond
Formation damage
Cavern
Previously
sealed
fracture
Poor cement bond
Typical causes of bad water production from near the wellbore.
7 11
There are several reasons for the deterioration of the cement bond, such as exposure
to adverse conditions of temperature,
pressure, and perhaps sulfate waters.

This is more likely to

happen if, during the
primary cementing job,
problems such as lowpressure zones, gas migration, and poor design of
washers and spacers were
encountered.
Figure 7.16a
100
WOR
Coning
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
10
0.1
Reduced oil flow due

to formation damage
The higher pressure drop caused by

formation damage can cause water to be
drawn into the producing interval from
another zone. Hence, water production may
be reduced by stimulating the producing
interval and reducing the pressure differential
at the perforations. Clearly, the stimulation
must be successfully diverted from the water
zone, or else the result will be unfavorable.
WOR'
0.01
Caverns formed by sand

0.001
1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
Poorly consolidated, friable

sandstones may collapse,
producing
sand
and
creating caverns behind
the casing. These caverns
may eventually communicate with a water zone.
100
Thief layer
WOR
WOR'
WOR
WOR or WOR'
10
production
0.1
WOR'
Diagnosis of water problems

Various techniques may be used to
diagnose the origin of produced water. Plots
of production history are very useful in
making a quick initial analysis of many wells.
It has been shown by reservoir simulation of
different conditions that plots of the (WOR)
and its derivative (WOR) versus production
time on a log-log plot are particularly helpful
in determining the cause of water production
(Chan, 1995). Figure 7.16a shows the modeled
response of three common cases of bad water
and how they can be distinguished. A
decrease in WOR with time suggests coning;
a sudden increase followed by a flattening out
is typical of a high-permeability thief zone
from an injector; and a sharp increase in WOR
and WOR indicates near-wellbore flow. Figure
7.16b shows two cases that are often typical of
good water. The first is the normal sweeping
of a reservoir by water, albeit at high water
volume (water cut is always > 60%). The
second is multilayer channeling, with each
layer being successively swept.
0.01
Frequent stimulation in
0.001
1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
Near wellbore
WOR
WOR'
10
1
WOR
0.1
WOR'
0.01
0.001
1
10
100
1000
10000
Time (days)
Schematic of water diagnostic plots showing the

response of the water-oil ratio (WOR) and its
derivative (WOR) as a function of time in (a) for
three typical cases of bad water, and (b) for two
Frequent matrix stimulation of carbonates can

create caverns in the formation and establish communication with a water
zone. Frequent stimulation
of either sandstones or carbonates can also dissolve
the cementing material in
fractures or affect the
cement bond, and likewise
establish communication
with water.
typical cases of good water.
Figure 7.16b
100
100
Normal displacement
with high water cut
WOR
WOR'
Multilayer channeling
WOR
WOR'
WOR
10
0.1
WOR'
WOR or WOR'
10
WOR or WOR'
WOR or WOR'
the vicinity of
the well
100
WOR
1
0.1
WOR'
0.01
0.01
0.001
0.001
1
10
100
Time (days)
1000
10000
10
100
1000
1000
Time (days)

7 12
When several zones are open, or the

diagnostic plots are not clear, borehole
measurements are necessary. Conventional
production logs (e.g., flowmeters, temperature
logs, noise logs and gradiomanometers) can
identify the fluids being produced from
different zones. The Digital Entry Flow tool
(Chapter 628) can identify the first entry of
water in low WOR wells, and the first entry of
oil in high WOR wells at any deviation. The
Water Flow Log (Chapter 630) can measure
not only the flow of water in the casing, but
also the flow behind casing. This can be
particularly useful for identifying the source of
near-wellbore flow. Pressure measurements
and pressure history can indicate injection
water breakthrough. Through-casing saturation measurements with the RST can measure
the remaining oil and water in different zones.
After diagnosis comes the search for a
suitable treatment. Many sources of bad
water can be controlled. Near-wellbore
water, in particular, can be reduced by
improving the completion or by sealing off
the source with polymer gel. High-permeability streaks carrying bad water can also
be sealed with polymer gel. Selective
stimulation can reduce the pressure drawdown at the wellbore and encourage oil
production. Bad water can also be reduced
by a careful selection of which zones to
open and which not to open, in both
producers and injectors. Other techniques
include limiting production and injection
rates, and careful placement of wells.
Two examples of water control by gel
placement are discussed below. In the
previous section (Identification of bypassed
zones) water is controlled by recompletion
of the well.
Figure 7.17
VLE-1156
Depth
(ft)
VLE-1119
La Rosa
La Rosa
11,500
WOC @ 11,630 ft
B-6 9
C-1
12,000
C-1
Misoa
C-2
C-2
12,500
C-24
13,000
C-3
C-4
TD @ 12,900 ft
WOC (VLE-1119) @ 13,328 ft
13,500
13,408 ft
C-5
13,589 ft
Guasare
Cross section through VLE-1156 and VLE-1119. VLE-1156 is completed

in the C-5 reservoir.
Figure 7.18
10
WOR
Derivative
WOR and its derivative
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
0.00001
1
10
100
1000
Cumulative production time (days)
Water-control diagnostic plot for VLE-1156.
7 13

Example 1: Water control
Figure 7.19
with polymer gel in VLE-1156

LLS
1
(ohm-m)
(ohm-m)
LLD
GR
0
(gAPI)
150
SP
80
(mv)
1000
20
Depth
(ft)
1000
Perforations
13,200
13,250
13,300
13,350
13,400
Interval
Qo
Qw
(ft)
BOPD BWPD
13,262-13,268 0.0
203.5
13,281-13,286 0.0
0.0
13,296-1,3310 18.0
95.1
13,318-13,326 7.0
25.1
13,353-13,358 13.2
47.4
13,364-13,376 262.9 195.3
Total
301.1 566.4
Logs and perforated intervals for VLE-1156. The
Well VLE-1156 has been completed with

a single selective completion in the C-5
reservoir, Lagocinco area (Fig. 7.17). The
nearest well, VLE-1119, is located to the
north on the other side of a normal fault and
has a fairly good production rate (1600
BOPD) and low water cut (20%). However,
in VLE-1156 the water cut had risen to 75%.
The diagnostic plot (Fig. 7.18) shows a jump
at 100 days within a general upward trend
on both WOR and WOR. This was
interpreted as channeling through a
formation layer. To determine the source of
the water, a Production Log was run in
November 1995. This showed that the
uppermost perforated interval was contributing the most water (36%, see Fig. 7.19).
Even though this interval (13,262 to 13,268 ft)
showed an average porosity of 16%, and a
hydrocarbon saturation of 70% at the time of
drilling, it was now producing only water.
Based on this information, it was
decided to inject sealing gel in the uppermost interval to isolate it and allow
production to come from the lower intervals.
The well was first filled with sand up to
13,293 ft to cover the lower intervals. The
treatment was performed on August 20, 1996,
injecting 100 bbl of Maraseal in the interval
from 13,262 to 13,268 ft, using diesel for the
displacement. No operational problems
relative to the treatment were experienced.
table shows the relative contribution of each

interval as indicated by a production logging tool.

7 14
Figure 7.20
1200
Oil
Water
Gel
lnjection
Flow rate (bbl/D)
1000
800
600
Choke change
400
200
0
0
12
15
18
21
Elapsed time (months)
Production history of VLE-1156. The effect of gel injection is clearly seen.
Figure 7.21
VLA-36
VLA-12
6364'-70'
6388'-00'
6424'-30'
BLR
Merging
C-5
Cross section through VLA-36 and VLA-12, showing the merging

of the reservoirs C-5 and BLR.
7 15
Before the treatment, the well was

producing 257 bbl of net oil and 770 bbl of
water on average. The water and sediment
rate (W & S) was 75% and WOR was 3. In
addition, 35.9% of the water was coming
from the interval 13,262 to 13,268 ft (Fig.
7.19, previous page) with zero oil
production. After the treatment, water
production declined by 76% (186 bbl) and oil
production increased by 374% (787 BOPD).
Figure 7.20 shows clearly the inversion of the
production curves after gel injection. A
decline in oil production is observed in
October (month 17), when the choke was
changed from 12 to 34 in. Later on, production
recovers and continues to increase until
November, when it starts declining again. Oil
production, however, continues to be
satisfactory. The water production curve
shows a constant drop until November, when
it starts to increase again. This can be
attributed to the gradual deterioration of the
gel by temperature, chemicals, friction, and
other factors. It has been shown elsewhere
that gels are effective for up to two years
(Paz and Anez, 1996).
Although oil production is now declining and water production is increasing, the
treatment has still been a success. From the
date of the treatment until December 1996,
the accumulated additional production has
been 79,560 STB and the reduction in water
production has been 87,610 STBW.
If the trends in oil and water production
shown in Fig. 7.20 continue, the well will
eventually return to the pretreatment WOR
of 3. At this point the treatment will have lost
its effectiveness. However, until this
happens, and assuming the total flow rate
remains constant, the reduced WOR due to
the treatment will lead to an additional oil
production of 150,000 bbl.

Example #2: Water control
Figure 7.22
with polymer gel in VLA-36

Water/oil ratio and derivative
100
Water/oil ratio
Derivative
10
0.1
0.01
0.001
10
100
1000
Cumulative production time (days)
Water-control diagnostic plot for VLA-36.
Figure 7.23
Perforations
GR
(gAPI)
150
Depth
(ft)
6350
6400
A
6450
6500
Logs and perforated intervals for VLA-36.
ILD
(ohm-m)
1000
SN
(ohm-m)
1000
Well VLA-36 is completed in the Basal La

Rosa reservoir (BLR). In this area the BLR
merges with the C-5 reservoir (Fig. 7.21). The
nearby well VLA-12 is injecting water into C5. This water may be entering the BLR reservoir, and hence VLA-36, through a nearwellbore connection with C-5. Production
logs were not available to verify this interpretation. The sharp rise in the diagnostic
curves after 400 days (Fig. 7.22) also suggests
a near-wellbore connection is likely. Whatever
the cause, it was decided to inject sealing gel
in the interval from 6424 to 6430 ft (Fig. 7.23,
A) to prevent entry of water from below.
The target interval was isolated by a
Coiled Tubing packer. Before the treatment,
an injectivity test was performed using
diesel, which indicated 0.23 BPM injectivity
with 1800 psi pressure. A gel system
injection was performed on September 19,
1996. One hundred barrels of Maraseal gel
system were injected in the 6424 to 6430 ft
interval, using diesel for the displacement.
No operational problems were experienced
during the treatment.
Before the treatment, the well was
producing 25 BOPD and 596 BWPD (96%
W & S and WOR 23.89). After the treatment,
oil production increased to 229 BOPD while
water production decreased to 417 BWPD.
The W & S percentage dropped to 24% and
WOR to 0.43. Figure 7.24 (next page) shows
the well production before and after
treatment. Following the treatment, the well
was opened with a 12-in. choke. Oil
production increased while water production
declined significantly. When the choke was
changed to 1 in., both oil and water
production started a zigzag behavior until
stabilizing in December (month 18). In spite
of the behavior during this period, the well
produced a total of 19,980 bbl more oil and
17,518 bbl less water than at the rates before
treatment.

7 16
Rigless Workover
Figure 7.24
700
Oil
Water
Gel
injection
600
Choke change
Flow rate (bbl/D)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
12
15
18
21
Elapsed time (months)
Production history of VLA-36.

The effect of gel injection is
clearly seen after production
has stabilized.
In January, the well production became

steady, oil production was higher than water
production, and both continue to increase
and decline, respectively. The destabilization
observed during the first production period
may be because the sandstones were still
water-saturated, whereas in January the well
had a uniform sweep, thus increasing oil
production.
Conclusions
The production of unwanted water can
be controlled. However, we first must
recognize whether the water is good water,
which helps to drain the oil, or bad water,
which inhibits the oil production. The
source of the water must also be known.
Diagnostic plots of the production history
can be of great use in scanning a large
number of wells. Production logs can then
confirm or clarify different hypotheses.
Once diagnosed, various actions can be
taken. Two examples showed the successful
use of polymer gel in controlling the water.
In one example, the estimated gain from the
treatment is 150,000 bbl of oil.
7 17
The ability to enhance production

without a workover rig is very attractive,
both economically and logistically. Snubbing units, coiled tubing, wireline and slickline all offer rigless solutions, in approximately that order of logistical complexity.
One interesting possibility is the throughtubing bridge plug, or PosiSet plug. This
plug can be set in casings from 412-in. to 958in. well without pulling the tubing and
without shutting in the well.
The principle is shown in Fig. 7.25.
After reaching the setting depth the tool is
fired, causing the seal elements to be
squeezed and expanded until they seal
against the casing wall. At the same time
anchors are set above and below to hold
the seal in position. This plug can hold 500
psi of differential pressure, which is
normally sufficient to plug the well while
cement is dumped above it. In a 7-in.
casing it is normal to dump a minimum 10
ft of cement. This can withstand 400 psi of
differential pressure. The plug itself is only
21 in. long when set, so that, if necessary,
very short intervals can be plugged, but
with lower pressure rating.
The well shown in Fig. 7.26 was producing 505 B/D at 86% water cut from the
perforations in the Eocene C-6 reservoir
shown on the right of track 1. An RST was
run using a mast unit to identify the depleted
zone. From the interpretation of the RST and
of the openhole logs in track 2, depletion
can be clearly seen opposite the
perforations and above. It was decided that
in order to achieve a production of at least
400 BOPD of oil, it was necessary to open
up the top intervals in the C-4 and C-5, and
shut off the existing perforations. These
reservoirs were known to be at nearly the
same pressure potential and hence could be
opened together.

Monocable
7.25
Head
Displaced oil
Water
Upper
anchor
Sandstone
Cartridge
Buttress
backup
Seal
elements
Before
Petal
backups
Bound water
Shale
Perfs.
Depth
(ft)
After
Setting
tool
11116 in.
25 ft
7.26
Oil
Combined model
100
(p.u.)
12,400
12,500
12,600
7 ft
12,700
Lower
anchor
12,800
Cement
21 8 in.
The most efficient method to repair the

well was to shut off the bottom zone with a
PosiSet plug and perforate the top intervals
through tubing. This could be done quickly,
without the need for a workover rig, because no other operations were needed on
the well. For example, it was considered
unlikely that there were any cement
channels that needed to be squeezed off
because the original cement bond was
good. Experience also showed that throughtubing charges, shot underbalanced, gave
good productivity. Therefore, with the well
shut-in, but with a tubing head pressure of
100 psi, the PosiSet was run in the hole and
set at 12,850 ft. A 15-ft long cement plug
was set on top of it. The upper intervals
shown in Fig. 7.26 were perforated with
218-in. enerjet EJ III at 4 shots per ft.
12,900
PosiSet
plug
13,000
13,100
The well came in at 600 BOPD with only 1%

water and sediments.
Thus, in this example a rigless workover, using a PosiSet bridge plug and
through-tubing perforation guns, was able
to enhance production by 450 BOPD within 15 days of diagnosing the problem.
Using a workover rig would have taken
longer, leading to more lost production and
greater expense.

7 18
MAXIMIZING FRACTURE CONDUCTIVITY
Since the early 1950s, the Miocene oilbearing formations of Lake Maracaibo have
been stimulated using a technique developed
by Exxon called Sand Oil Squeeze (SOS).
This technology proved fairly successful in
the past when reservoirs had their original
pressures, but now that pressures are low, it
has been unsuccessful in providing good
productivity from the wells.
What is needed to improve the productivity is a high-conductivity path from the
undamaged formation to the wellbore. This
article describes how the introduction of a
new high-permeability stimulation technique, HyPerSTIM*, has solved this problem,
leading to significantly improved production
performance and revised expectations from
the reservoir. We first describe the previous
technology, then the HyPerSTIM technique,
its introduction and case histories.
Figure 7.27
Sand oil slurry

Frac width
Effective fracture length

Schematic of a TSO fracture.
7 19
Previous technology
The SOS technique was developed by
Exxon as a low-cost, quick stimulation for
damaged high-permeability formations
(2001000 md) by creating high-conductivity
channels driven from each perforation
through the damaged zone and into the
undamaged formation. These treatments are
usually followed by the conventional
gravel packing of a slotted liner, essential
in containing the sand production from
these highly unconsolidated sandstones.
The production increase after an SOS is not

substantial and very often declines to nothing
in the span of a few months. The SOS is normally performed over several perforated
intervals, each of which range from 20 to 100
ft, but can span several hundred feet between
upper and lower perforations. In the standard
treatment, large volumes of crude oil (100 to
300 bbl) are pumped (sometimes with ball
sealers to ensure every perforation is opened), followed by a sand-oil slurry up to 5 PPA
(pound proppant added) in concentration, for
a total of 15,000 to 30,000 lb of proppant. The
first weak point of such treatments is that the
large volumes of oil preflush, or pad, give the
slurry a high penetration into the formation,
but the low sand concentrations do not allow
any significant fracture thickness to develop.
Since embedment will absorb a good 2 lb/ft
in this type of soft, unconsolidated formation, propped fractures disappear in a short
amount of time (hence the quick decline of
production after a few months). The second
weak point is the choice of proppant. In the
past this consisted of 16/25 local sand,
whose sphericity is very poor compared to
API standards. The lack of sphericity
facilitates crushing and causes deterioration
into a very low-permeability proppant pack.
Coupled with the poor fracture width
achieved by SOS (0.10.2 in.), this contributes
to a very low conductivity in the propped
channel and hence poor production
performance. More recently, this practice has
been eliminated as it became evident that
productivity was being sacrificed for a small
additional cost.
After understanding the weaknesses of
SOS, we can make appropriate modifications:
using the same crude oil as a base fluid and
the same amount of proppant, we can try to
shorten the fracture (the damaged matrix is
only a few feet in radius), increase the
fracture width and maximize the fracture
conductivity, which is, in effect, a HyPerSTIM.

Figure 7.28
6000
12
Pressure
10
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
14
21
28
35
42
Rate (BPM)
Pressure (psia)
Rate
5000
0
56
49
Elapsed time (min)
Step-Rate and Calibration

tests prior to treatment in
well LL-1671.
Tip screen-out fracturing

HyPerSTIM uses the methodology developed for tip screen-out (TSO) fracturing
where, once the fracture has reached its
designed length, we create an artificial barrier
close to the tip and along the entire perimeter
(Fig. 7.27). At the moment of screen-out the
fracture stops growing, leading to an increase
in pressure within the fracture that translates
automatically into a greater hydraulic width.
This greater hydraulic width allows us to
achieve much higher proppant concentrations within the fracture and hence counterbalances the effect of proppant embedment in soft unconsolidated formations.
The final result is a greater propped width

after closure, and an enhanced fracture
conductivity.
Tip screen-out fracturing can be divided
into three stages:
1. PadClean pumped fluid to create the
desired fracture geometry.
2. Low Concentration StageA low concentration of proppant is necessary to
create the tip screen-out and stop the
growth of the frac.
3. Main StageRamp proppant to the
point of packing the frac.
In order for the TSO to occur when the
design length has been reached, it is necessary to have a very well defined value for the
fluid leak-off. The only possible way to get an
adequate value for the fluid leak-off
coefficient is by doing a DataFRAC* Fracture
Data Determination Service. A DataFRAC is a
calibration treatment done prior to the main
treatment, similar to a dress rehearsal, to
determine various factors that are used to
fine-tune the final design and to ensure that
the objectives of the treatment are met.
The DataFRAC uses the same fluid base
(crude oil) for the main treatment and it is
pumped at the same rate as planned for the
main treatment. It consists of an initial step
rate and a main pumping period (Fig. 7.28).
Figure 7.29a and 7.29b

3200
3200
600
Pressure
Pressure
Derivative
Max
Instantaneous shut-in pressure
2800
500
Closure pressure
Min
Pressure (psia)
2800
2400
2000
2400
400
2000
200
1600
0
Shutintime (t (min))
100
0
Derivative (psi)
Bottom hole pressure (psia)
Straight line
approximation
Gfunction (1 / sec)
Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fracture
Interpreting the DataFRAC in LL-1671: determining fluid
closure pressure.
efficiency and leak-off coefficient.

7 20
To complement and improve the analysis, radioactive tracers are run with the fluid
during the pumping period, and both
Temperature and Radioactive logs are run
prior and after the treatment to determine the
actual fracture height. However, in this case,
logs were omitted to keep costs at the same
level as for SOS.
Figure 7.30
1600
Expected production
Total production
Net oil production
1400
Production (bbl D)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
LL-2558
TJ-855
LL-484
results after HyPerSTIM

treatments in LGINF-04
and LGINF-05 wells.
Figure 7.31
Production (BOPD)
400
Expected (BOPD)
Actual (BOPD)
200
100
390
170
133
107
SOS'95
HPS'96
Comparison of average
production results for SOS
and HyPerSTIM.
7 21
LL-3094
LL-686
TJ-1110
LL-3422
LL-1671
Well name
Summary of production
300
TJ-254
The latter is as long as is necessary to ensure

that the length of the fracture is sufficient to
give a fracture area that is representative for
fluid loss.
Analysis of the step rate portion helps to
determine the closure pressure of the formation. Analysis of the main pumping period is
similar to a flow test in a well. During the
pumping period, there are diagnostic plots
that enable the growth pattern of the fracture
to be recognized. Then after pumping is
stopped the pressure falloff is used to
determine the fluid efficiency and fluid leakoff coefficient. For this, specialized plots of
pressure and a function of time are used (Figs.
7.29a and 7.29b, previous page). In Fig. 7.29a,
the change in slope identifies the closure
pressure as 2800 psi. This can also be seen in
Fig. 7.28at the fifth step, the sharp rise to a
flat pressure at 2800 psi indicates flow into a
fracture.
In Fig. 7.29b, the time to reach the closure pressure yields a value of fluid efficiency
that in turn is used to determine the size of the
pad for the main treatment. The slope of the
pressure plot prior to closure yields an in-situ
value of leak-off coefficient that is used in the
fracture simulator to fine-tune the final design.
The introduction of HyPerSTIM

on Lake Maracaibo
On the first three wells, a partial
HyPerSTIM treatment was performed, with
no DataFRAC or ball sealers, but with the
maximum proppant concentration taken to 8
PPA. Some evidence of TSO was observed.
While the maximum expected production
rates ranged from 120 to 150 B/D, one well
stabilized after a few days at 700 B/D, and
the other two at 164 and 300 B/D. The
results were sufficiently good, showing
considerable improvement over the SOS
technique, so that full HyPerSTIM treatments
were started in other Miocene wells.
Ideally, the treatment terminates with a
total screen-out at the wellbore. This signifies
that the fracture has been completely packed
from the tip to the perforations, ensuring
maximum propped width and hence
maximum conductivity. The first treatments
had not achieved total screen-out, and a
few more were needed to improve our
knowledge of the reservoir properties and
fine-tune through each jobs DataFRAC.

Table 7.1
Treatment
type
Reservoir
No. of
wells
Expected
increase
(BOPD)
Actual
increase
(BOPD)
Actual /
expected
(%)
SOS
LGINF-04
145
(95-250)
99
(0-201)
68
SOS
LGINF-05
25
121
(60-240)
114
(0-473)
94
SOS
LGINF-04/05
34
133
(60-250)
107
(0-473)
80
HyPerSTIM
LGINF-04
LGINF-05
1
8
170
(110-250)
390
(195-993)
229
Comparison of SOS and

HyPerSTIM results in
LGINF-04 and LGINF-05
from 199597. Numbers in
brackets indicate the range
of production increase.
Figure 7.32
250
$ bbl
200
205 $ bbl
150
100
81 $ bbl
50
0
SOS
HyPerSTIM
Treatment cost per barrel of

increased daily oil production,
SOS versus HyPerSTIM.
Three of the jobs were pumped using

the 16/25 local sand to try to directly
compare the performance of this proppant
to HyPerSTIMs with imported sand. These
three wells performed very poorly.
However, in none of them did we observe a
TSO with certainty, so the comparison is not
fully valid. Given the success of wells with
imported sand, it was decided to use this
proppant in subsequent jobs. On the tenth
HyPerSTIM, the first total screen-out was
achieved, the well producing 1430 BPD (993
BOPD). This excellent production finally
validates the theory.
Summary of results
The overall performance for the 32
HyPerSTIM jobs performed between August
1996 and February 1997 has been very good.
Some wells produced above expectation,
but with a high percentage of water, hence
responding successfully to the TSO
technique but contributing poorly to the net
oil production figures.
A direct comparison can be made by
only considering wells in the same reservoir
and with similar completions. Table 7.1 and
Fig. 7.31 summarize the results of SOS and
HyPerSTIM treatments in the LGINF-04 and
LGINF-05 reservoirs between 1995 and 1997.
It can be seen that on average the SOS treatments only gave 80% of the expected production, whereas the HyPerSTIM treatments
gave 229%. Figure 7.30 shows the expected,
actual and net oil production for the nine
HyPerSTIM wells.
We can also analyze the results in terms

of the cost of treatment per barrel of daily oil
production. Figure 7.32 shows such a cost
analysis, calculated using average production
rates and treatment costs associated with all
SOS treatments performed in 1995 and all oilbased HyPerSTIMs performed in 1996 and
1997. The cost of a HyPerSTIM with crude oil
as the carrier fluid is, on average, no more
than that of an SOS, as the total volumes of
crude oil and proppant are roughly the same,
and all that is required is slightly more horsepower to achieve the desired rates. On the
other hand, as already seen, the production
improvements are much higher.
The reason for the improvements can be
appreciated from the DataFRAC results in
Table 7.2 and the pump schedules in Table
7.3 (both in next page). The SOS treatments
use, on average, 200 to 300 bbl Pad, 600 lb of
16/25 local sand per ft of perforations,
proppant concentrations from 1 to 4.5 PPA,
and a number of ball-sealers released during
the oil-sand slurry equalling 120% of the
number of perforations. The pump schedules
for the eight of the HyPerSTIMs in LGINF-04
and LGINF-05 are shown in Table 7.3. As
mentioned above, the first three treatments
were simply designed with a more aggressive
proppant concentration and without ball
sealers. DataFRACs were performed for TJ254 onward. In most cases, the leak-off
coefficient is lower than expected, so that the
volumes of pad traditionally pumped in an
SOS are too large. Smaller volumes are
necessary to induce a TSO at around 40 to 80
ft of fracture half-length. This was implemented in LL3094 and later wells.

7 22
Table 7.2
Well
name
Frac. grad.
psi ft
Closure pres.
psi
Leak-off
ft (min)0.5
Fluid
efficiency
TJ-254
0.54
1370
0.0160
0.03
LL3094
0.63
2500
0.0045
0.37
LL-686
0.67
2596
0.0190
0.05
LL3422
0.64
2580
0.0210
0.06
LL1671
0.65
2801
0.0035
0.27
Well
name
Pad
bbl
Conc.
PPA
Proppant
type
Quantity
lbm
LL2588
200
2-7
16/30 Brady
45,000
TJ-855
170
2-7
16/30 Brady
35,000
LL-484
200
2-8
16/30 Brady
40,000
TJ-254
300
2-8
16/30 Brady
60,000
LL3094
35
2-8
16/30 Jordan
45,000
LL-686
40
2-8
16/30 Brady
32,000
TJ1110
55
2-5
16/30 Jordan
53,700
LL3422
80
2-5.5
16/30 Jordan
30,600
DataFRAC results.
Table 7.3
Pump schedules for HyPerSTIM wells.
Following these good results, other

operating districts became interested in
stimulating their Miocene wells using the
HyPerSTIM technique, and treatments were
performed in formations such as BACH-02,
LGINF-07, LAGNA-05, B-6-X and B-2-X.
However, in several of these cases the use of
crude oil as carrier fluid is limited because of
the high friction pressures it generates at high
rates, and also because of the higher closure
stress of the deeper Miocene formations. In
these cases it is more appropriate to use a
cross-linked fracturing fluid with low polymer
loading (to reduce damage). Because of the
ability of these fluids to carry higher proppant
concentrations, a better packing of the fracture is achieved.
7 23
Conclusions and recommendations

1. HyPerSTIMs have proved to be an
excellent improvement over the SOS
technique.
2. Crude oil can be used as a low-cost
carrier fluid for fracturing depleted
reservoirs, provided an adequate
technique is used to achieve a packed
fracture.
3. The incremental cost of HyPerSTIM over
SOS is small, so that in terms of
treatment cost per barrel of extra oil
production, HyPerSTIM is much more
effective.
4. The crude oil viscosity is a limiting
factor for the maximum proppant
concentration that can be mixed during
the treatments (typical maximum
concentration is 7 to 8 PPA), which is
also a function of pump rate and BHT.
This can be a limitation in the creation
and packing of large fractures (fracture
height greater than 80 ft).
5. The high friction loss of crude oil limits
its use as a fracturing fluid to shallow
wells less than 5000 ft deep, otherwise
surface pressures exceed the wellhead
and casing limits.
6. Long-term follow-up of some of these
wells is necessary to evaluate whether
the concentration of proppant in the
fracture should be increased to achieve
long-term production stability.

FRACTURE OPTIMIZATION
DSI log data have been used successfully

to characterize the mechanical properties of
the formations penetrated by wells in the giant
fields of North Monagas. This information was
used in Pseudo 3-Dimensional (P3D) fracture
stimulation model studies to determine why
some propped fracture treatments were more
successful than others in achieving increased
productivity and reduced asphaltine flocculation, and eliminating formation sand production. The results of this investigation indicate
that the surface pressure predictions of these
P3D simulations more closely match those
recorded during the course of the pumping
operations than those generally predicted by
two-dimensional (2-D) modeling.
Fracture Stimulation Design models
2-D models have been used to help
design fracture stimulation treatments for
many years. The 2-D models most frequently
used are those of Khristianovic and Zeltov,
with later contributions by Geertsma and de
Klerk (1969) (KGD model) and Perkins and
Kern (1961), and later Nordgren (1972)
(PKN). These models are satisfactory for
many applications, but sometimes do not
adequately predict the surface pressure
response observed during the course of the
fracturing treatment. When this occurs, it is
usually inferred that the fracture geometry
generated was not as planned. This may be
the reason that some stimulation treatments
do not perform as we had hoped.
2-D models differ somewhat in how the
fracture growth and volume are calculated. In
the KGD model, the geometry has a constant
and uniform height and a rectangular cross
section. This model is generally used when
the length-to-height ratio is less than 1.5.
Generally, this model predicts shorter fracture
lengths and greater wellbore widths than the
PKN model. These and similar 2-D models do
not require a rigorous definition of the formations mechanical properties.
Three-dimensional (3-D) or P3D models

have been available for use by the industry
for some time. These models are generally
considered to be more accurate since they
more rigorously model the fractures growth.
They require accurate mechanical property
data (Poissons ratio and Youngs Modulus of
Elasticity) as input. The contrast in Poissons
ratio among the various zones (segments of
the formation) influences the height growth
of the fracture. The value of Youngs
Modulus of Elasticity influences the width
growth of the fracture.
Until recently, the industry experienced
some difficulty in using the mechanical
property information derived from DSI log
data for use in its fracture simulation
programs. Because of this the industry has
generally relied upon mechanical properties
data obtained from the analysis of whole
core data in the same or offset well(s) (e.g.,
Roegiers and Neda, 1993). Obtaining
mechanical properties from core data is
expensive and requires a great deal of time.
DSI log data, on the other hand, are
relatively inexpensive to acquire and are
applicable to the specific well. Generally,
DSI log data are processed to compute
dynamic values of Poissons ratio and
Youngs Modulus of elasticity. The dynamic
values can be converted to static ones using
the transform suggested by Morales (1993).
The P3D model used in this study
allows height growth through multiple layers
or zones. In this P3D model, the fracture
height depends on the position along the
fracture and time. This model is generally
considered applicable when the fracture
length is greater than the height.

7 24
Figure 7.33
Depth
(ft)
14,000
Well
4
8
= No improvement
13A
15
16
22E
26
27
28
30
31
32
33
37E
49
50
= Loss of production
= Prop flowback
NAR-3
= Propnet
14,500
14,800
K-B
15,200
K-C
KP
1) = 0.19 psi ft
high gas
KP
NAR-3
K-D
2) = 0.22 psi ft
medium gas
K-E
KP
K-D
15,600
K-B, C
K-E
GOC
K-B
K-D
K-D
NAR-3
3) = 0.24 psi ft
low gas
K-C
GOC
4) = 0.25 psi ft
high oil
16,000
5) = 0.30 psi ft
medium oil
16,200
NAR-5
6) = 0.34 psi ft
low oil
16,400
KP
KP
NAR-3
17000
NAR-3
Summary of the 22 stimulation treatments studied.
A variant of the P3D model is the P3D

Lateral Coupling (P3D_LAT) model. It is
similar to the P3D model but it is generally
used when the length is less than the height.
The P3D_LAT variant accounts for the fact
that the pressure at any cross section
depends on the pressure everywhere in the
fracture, not just at that section. This
correction term is small for long fractures but
significant for short ones. The P3D_LAT
variant model is generally considered more
accurate than the uncoupled models.
Fracture stimulation in
North Monagas
Fifty-one fracture stimulation treatments
were performed in North Monagas in 1996.
Twenty-five of these fracture jobs were performed in the Santa Brbara Field. Nine of
these fracture treatments did not achieve the
desired increase in productivity or eliminate
7 25
formation sand production, even though

they were successfully executed without any
apparent operational issues. Twenty-two
completions, some of which did and others
that did not respond favorably to fracture
stimulation, were reviewed in an attempt to
establish some pattern that might account for
the success or lack of success (Fig. 7.33). The
fracture stimulation treatments had been
designed using 2-D fracturing models.
The giant North Monagas Fields constitute an area of more than 400 km2. The structure is an asymmetric anticline, with the Naricual and Cretaceous formations being the
most important feature. It is more than 1500 ft
thick in places with depths ranging between
12,000 ft and 20,000 ft (e.g. Chapter 138 and
Chapter 235). The Santa Brbara Field (a section of the giant North Monagas area) has
been subdivided into six zones, each having
different fluid and producing characteristics.

The subsea position of the 22 completions

reviewed in these zones are shown in Fig.
7.33. Above 15,800 ft ss, production is
considered to be wet gas and gas condensate; below that depth, the production is
considered to be volatile oil and black oil.
From the 22 completions reviewed, the
following observations were made:
Seventeen completions are identified as
gas condensate completions.
Twelve completions have recorded a
total sustained production increase of
15,400 BOPD and 112 MMscf/D. Ten of
these are above 15,800 ft ss.
Six of the completions were new and
did not produce at the anticipated rates.
Four of these completions are above
15,800 ft ss.
Three completions recorded a total sustained decrease of 1800 BOPD and 500
MMscf/D. Three of these are above
15,800 ft ss.
The nine disappointing production
results which were less than expected
occurred in these formations:
N
Formation Remarks
of wells
3
K-C, D, E
avg. ss depth less than 15,330 ft
KP
NAR-3
NAR-3
avg. ss depth greater than 16,800 ft
These observations indicate no pattern

that would suggest that one formation or
15,000
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
Pressure psia
Mechanical properties
from DSI log analysis
Seven completions that also had DSI logs
over the producing interval were selected for
further review. The DSI logs had been processed to provide dynamic values for Poissons
ratio (n) and Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (E).
The logs were reviewed, zones selected, and
average values of porosity, n and E estimated
per zone. These dynamic values were
converted to static values using the transform
suggested by Morales (1993). Static values
were then used along with other log and
completion data to calculate the minimum insitu stress of the formation. The contrast in
minimum in-situ stress is an important input in
designing a fracture stimulation treatment that
will remain within the zone of interest and
obtain the desired fracture height, width and
length for optimum production response from
the well completion. The actual fracture
simulation was done with the FracCADE
program using the P3D and P3D_LAT models.
Three of the well completions reviewed
will be discussed in detail:
SBC 27 SC NAR-3
New Completion
No Improvement
gas well
(zone 1)
SBC 50 SL KP
Increase only
3.5 MMscf/D
oil well
(zone 6+)
SBC 27 SL K-D
2500 BOPD and

19 MMscf/D increase
gas well
(zone 2)
Well SBC 27 SC NAR-3.
Figure 7.34
Treating pressure (job data)
12,000
9000
6000
3000
0
0
zone is more successful than another.

Therefore, it was decided to review some
completions in more detail, using 3-D fracture
design models and DSI data.
10
20
30
40
50
Time (min)
Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 27 SC.
60
The surface pressure measured during

the pumping operation is in close agreement
with the surface pressure simulated using the
P3D model, as seen in Fig. 7.34. The pressure
values track until the last three minutes of the
pumping operation. At that time, the model
predicts that the fracture half-length growth
has ceased, while the measured pressure
indicates that it continued to grow.

7 26
The P3Dmodel (Fig. 7.35) predicts that the

propped hydraulic fracture only propagated
in the perforated interval circa 15,175 ft MD.
The other perforated intervals in this well did
not appear to be stimulated according to the
P3D model. Furthermore, the model indicates
that the width of the fracture, after closure,
would be on the order of 0.2 in. There was a
minimal (5%) production increase after the
fracture stimulation treatment. A greater than
normal amount of proppant was reported as
being returned to the surface after the stimulation treatment. The production response
can be modeled using NODAL analysis with
the fracture characteristics reported by
FracCADE, a frac half-length of 350 ft, a
height of 60 ft, and an average width of 0.07
in. (adjusted to compensate for proppant
flow-back). This yields an incremental
production of 100 BOPD and 1000 Mscf/D,
which corresponds favorably to that
measured after the stimulation treatment (63
BOPD and 915 Mscf/D). No proppant flowback control agent was used in this
stimulation treatment.
Figure 7.35
14,900
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
Depth (ft)
14,950
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
15,000
15,050
15,100
15,150
15,200
14,0000.1
0.0
0.1
100
200
ACL width
at wellbore (in.)
Stress
(psi)
300
400
500
Fracture halflength (ft)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SC as predicted by the P3D
model and the stress profile on the left. Perforated intervals are shown in blue.
Figure 7.36
12,000
Treating pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating pressure (job data)
11,000
Pressure (psia)
10,000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
0
10
20
30
40
50
Elapsed time (min)
Well SBC 50 SL KP
Surface pressures from P3D simulation and actual job data on SBC 50 SL.
Figure 7.37
17,650
Prop. conc. (lb ft3)
Depth (ft)
17,700
17,750
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
17,800
17,850
17,900
17,950
12,000 14,000 -0.4
0.0
0.4 0
25
50
75
Fracture half-length
ACL width
(ft)
at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 50 SL as predicted by the P3D
Stress
(psi)
100
The surface pressure measured during

the pumping operation agrees with the
surface pressure simulated using the P3D
model, as seen in Fig. 7.36. The P3D model
(Fig. 7.37) predicts that the propped
hydraulic fracture only propagated in the
perforated interval circa 17,925 to 17,950 ft
MD, while the total fracture grew upward
(out of the zone of interest) to a height of
approximately 17,800 ft MD. The model
predicts that the lower perforated interval in
this well was not stimulated. Furthermore,
the average width of the fracture after
closure is predicted to be rather large. The
increase in production after the stimulation
treatment was 3500 Mscf/D.
7 27

tubing pressure of 2800 psi. Nine months after

the stimulation treatment, the increase was
2500 BOPD, 19.4 MMscf and 3600 psi flowing
tubing pressure.
Figure 7.38
12,000
Pressure (psia)
10,000
8000
6000
4000
Treating Pressure (P3D simulation)
Treating Pressure (Job data)
2000
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time (min)
Surface pressures from P3D
Well SBC 27 SL K-D.
simulation and actual job
The surface pressure measured during the

pumping operation closely agrees with the surface pressure simulated using the P3D model,
as seen in Fig. 7.38. The P3D model (Fig. 7.39)
predicts that the hydraulic fracture also grew
above the perforated interval circa 16,495 to
16,540 ft MD. As might be expected, there was
a significant increase in production after
stimulation of 2200 BOPD and 8.7 MMscf/D,
with an accompanying increase in flowing
data on SBC 27 SL.
Application to a newly designed well.

These and other analyses indicated that
there may have been a significant difference
between the desired (2-D modeled) and
actual fracture geometry as indicated by the
P3D model. It was therefore decided to
compare the results of a 2-D and a P3D
model fracture geometry on a well requiring
stimulation with a large producing interval
(greater than 150 feet) with multiple sets of
perforations, and which also had an open
hole DSI log available. The well selected
(MUC 34 KP) was drilled and completed in
1993. The archived DSI and triple combo log
data were obtained and re-processed using
software (FracCADE Advisor) to calculate
automatically the requisite mechanical
properties. These properties must be
averaged over zones before inputting to
FracCADE. The selection and manipulation of
zones is usually done by the fracture design
engineer with the ZoneAid software after a
preliminary pass in the processing center.
Figure 7.39
16,480
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
16,500
Depth (ft)
16,520
16,540
-0.5 0.0
16,560
16,580
16,600
16,620
12,000
15,000
-0.2 -0.1 0.1
Stress
(psia)
0
0.2
100
200
Fracture half-length (ft)
ACL width
at wellbore
(in.)
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for SBC 27 SL as predicted by the P3D

7 28
Sandstone
2.0 1.0
3.0
(psi / ft)
YME Static
PR Dynamic
RHOB
Volumetric analysis
0.0
1.0 0.0
0.5 1.9
2.9
5.0 0.0
(Mpsi)
(g / cm3)
(V / V)
Clay
Depth
(ft)
Volume clay
Vp/Vs
Min. horizontal stress
Bound water
L 0
0.0
I
Zoning: stress gradient
0.5
100
Bulk modulus
(psi)
Stress gradient
(psi / ft)
Poisson's ratio Perm

0
Toughness
(psi)
1.0 H 0.E+00 0.0E+12 3.8E+0 4.5E+05
Effective porosity
1.0 16
0.5
0.5 0.01
100
Young's modulus
(psi)
2.9E+08
Water saturation
(p.u.)
4.3E+08 100
15,900
16,000
16,100
FracCADE advisor results for MUC 34.
Results of zoning with ZoneAid in MUC 34.
Figure 7.42
15,850
15,900
Depth (ft)
15,950
16,000
Prop. conc.
(Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
16,050
16,100
-0.5 0.0
16,150
10,000
14,000
-0.3 -0.1 0.1
Stress
(psia)
0
0.3
25
50
75
Fracture half-length (ft)
ACL width
at wellbore
(in.)
100
125
The number of zones for use in the fracture simulation model and the in-situ stress
contrast were altered from the preliminary (2D) fracture stimulation treatment design. A
Datafrac was run (page 720) to validate the
minimum in-situ stress and to calculate the
fluid efficiency from an analysis of the fall off
data. With this data, and after refining the
zoned inputs, the stimulation treatment
design was finalized on location. Figure 7.40
shows the FracCADE Advisor log, with a
formation evaluation and the various
mechanical properties needed for stimulation
design. Figure 7.41 shows the ZoneAid log
with the zones selected.
Fracture profile and proppant concentration for MUC 34

as predicted by the PKN model and the zones shown on the left..
7 29

Table 7.4
Name
Top
height
Class
Gross
height
Net
height
Leak
Off
Frac
gradient
YME
static
Poissons
Ratio
SHALE
15,828
SHALE
30
0.8180
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,858
ss
0.6530
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,863
SHALE
12
0.7600
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,875
ss
20
20
20
0.6530
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,895
SHALE
0.8160
1.32E+06
0.30
KP
15,901
ss
73
73
73
0.6510
5.92E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,974
SHALE
11
0.8150
1.22E+06
0.30
KP
15,985
ss
103
103
103
0.6490
5.62E+06
0.20
SHALE
16,088
SHALE
24
0.8120
1.32E+06
0.30
Figure 7.43
12000
Treating pressure (Final design)
Treating pressure (Real data)
Treating pressure (P3D data)
Treating pressure (PKN design)
Pressure (psia)
11000
10000
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
0
10
20
30
40
Elapsed time (min)
Surface pressures from actual job data on MUC 34, compared to pressures
predicted by the PKN model, the P3D model and the P3D_LAT model.
Table 7.5
Name
Top
height
Class
Gross
height
Net
height
Leak
Off
Frac
gradient
YME
static
Poissons
ratio
KP
15,805
ss
25
25
25
0.7270
3.65E+06
0.22
SHALE
15,830
SHALE
15
15
15
0.8400
3.65E+06
0.27
SHALE
15,845
SHALE
12.5
12.5
12.5
0.7200
3.97E+06
0.20
SHALE
15,857.5
SHALE
14.5
14.5
14.5
0.7190
3.56E+06
0.21
KP
15,872
ss
22
22
22
0.6930
3.38E+06
0.20
KP
15,894
shaly sand
4.5
4.5
4.5
0.8000
3.30E+06
0.24
KP
15,898.5
ss
48
48
48
0.7205
3.33E+06
0.20
KP
15,946.5
ss
28.5
28.5
28.5
0.7203
3.51E+06
0.18
SHALE
15,975
SHALE
0.7510
3.75E+06
0.23
KP
15,984
ss
14
14
14
0.7201
3.20E+06
0.21
KP
15,998
ss
88
88
88
0.7201
3.38E+06
0.19
SHALE
16,086
SHALE
0.7770
3.64E+06
0.24
KP
16,095
ss
61
61
61
0.5980
3.68E+06
0.14
SHALE
16,156
SHALE
9.5
9.5
9.5
0.6820
3.51E+06
0.22
SHALE
16,165.5
SHALE
11.5
11.5
11.5
0.7150
3.19E+06
0.24
KP
16,177
ss
100
100
100
0.6220
3.58E+06
0.16
A conventional 2-D treatment was

designed first. Table 7.4 shows the zones
used and their mechanical properties. Figure
7.43 compares the predicted 2-D PKN Model
Surface Pressure values with the Measured
Surface pressure, using the treatment design
pumped into this completion. Note the PKN
model surface pressures are significantly
lower than those actually recorded.
Figure 7.42 shows the predicted fracture
profile. Note that the 2-D predicted fracture
half length is about 50 feet.
The design was then re-run using the
P3D model and mechanical properties and
zones from ZoneAid. Figure 7.43 shows the
comparison, again using the treatment
design ultimately injected. Note that there is
good agreement between the predicted
surface pressure of the P3D model and the
Job Data recorded surface pressure.
A further design was made with the
P3D_LAT model and the zoned properties
shown in Table 7.5. Figure 7.43 shows the
comparison, again using the treatment
design ultimately injected. The surface
pressure recorded during the treatment
compares very closely with that of the
P3D_LAT model, better than the other two
models. The P3D_LAT model predicts that
the propped hydraulic fracture remains
within the perforated interval (about 15900 ft
to 15984 ft MD at the extremity) and
possesses a half length of approximately 100
feet (Fig. 7.44).
The stimulation was very successful,
increasing the production from 2016 BOPD
and 3539 Mscf/D to 3054 BOPD and 3400
Mscf/D. At the same time the tubing head
pressure increased by 700 psi.
ss = sandstone

7 30
Figure 7.44
15,850
Depth (ft)
15,900
15,950
Prop. conc. (Ib ft3)
3.0 3.5
2.5 3.0
2.0 2.5
1.5 2.0
1.0 1.5
0.5 1.0
0.0 0.5
-0.5 0.0
100
16,000
16,050
16,100
10,000
13,000 0.2
0.0
0.2
ACL width
Stress
(psi) at wellbore (in.)
Fracture profile and proppant

concentration for MUC 34 as
predicted by the P3D_LAT
model and the stress profile
on the left. Perforated
intervals are shown in blue.
50
Fracture halflength (ft)
Conclusions
1. Useful and accurate formation mechanical properties data can be obtained
from analysis of DSI log data.
2. When accurate formation mechanical
property data are used in a P3D fracture
treatment design, the surface pressures
recorded during the treatment are
accurately matched by the simulation.
3. The FracCADE ADVISOR and Zone Aid
logs provide convenient and accurate
values for input into Dowells FracCADE

fracture simulation program.
4. Post-stimulation production response
appears to be easier to match with
NODAL analysis when using the predicted after-closure fracture geometry of
P3D modeling.
5. Thick intervals can be evaluated for unrestricted fracture growth or possible sections that will remain unstimulated by
using DSI log-derived mechanical properties in a P3D model fracture simulator.
6. The methodology presented here presents a better method of designing fracturing treatment pumping schedules by:
providing a more precise prediction
of pad requirement
providing a better indication of undesired screen-outs due to increased
surface pressure
providing an improved fracture geometry definition.
CONTROLLING FINES MIGRATION
The Ceuta Field is located in the southeastern part of Lake Maracaibo (Chapter 220).
The field has a large production potential from
reservoirs belonging to the Misoa Formation,
Upper and Lower Eocene B and C. This
Table 7.6
Fluids
Additives
Concentration
Solvent
Kerosene
Xylene
Butyl
Demulsifier
60%
30%
10%
0.5%
HCL - 15%
HCL
Water
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
RMA (12% HCL - 3% HF)
HCL
Water
Ammonium bifloride
Demulsifier
Inhibitor
EDTA
Diverter
Benzoic acid
potential has been affected by formation

damage associated with deposition of sand,
scales and asphaltenes, which were detected
after noticing a production decline in wells
and subsequently analyzing a number of
bottomhole samples. Consequently, to solve
the existing formation damage, matrix
treatments with solvents and acids were
designed (Table 7.6). After applying these
treatments, the production potential was
restored. However, after some time the
production rate declined again. This decline is
caused by fines migration, as discussed below.
Figures 7.45 to 7.47 illustrate the production
performance on some wells in the field.
Typical design of an RMA treatment.
7 31

Figure 7.45
Oil rate (bbl/D)
6000
4000
2000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
Production decline caused by fines migration in well VLG-3718.

Figure 7.46
4000
Oil rate (bbl/D)
3000
2000
1000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
Figure 7.47
Oil rate (bbl/D)
6000
Coiled tubing
clean
4000
Matrix
RMA
2000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
Flow tests and mineralogical analyses of

cores from the area have shown that there is
a relatively high clay particle content, such as
kaolinite and mixed-layer illite/smectite, both
of which have the ability to move through
pores. When this material reaches a small
pore throat, it accumulates and plugs the
conduit, resulting in reduced permeability.
To control this problem and restore the
permeability of the damaged formation, matrix
treatments with Clay Acid (fluoboric acid) have
been applied in several wells located in the
Ceuta Field. These treatments have made it
possible to stabilize these migratory clays, and
production has remained stable for much
longer periods of time, as compared with the
results obtained when the traditional formulation was applied (12% HCl + 3% HF).
Formation fines and fines migration
Fines are solid mineral particles that cling
to pore walls in rocks. These particles are produced in situ or are introduced by field operations. Fines migration takes place when these
particles are detached from the grain surface
and dispersed, flowing through the porous
medium toward very small pore spaces,
where they collect. This results in severe
plugging and, consequently, reduction of
permeability in the porous medium.
Examples of fines include authigenic
clays, such as kaolinite, illite, smectite and
chlorite; the silicates, such as quartz, silica
and feldspar; and carbonates, such as calcite,
dolomite and siderite.
Authigenic clays, which form in pore
spaces, are the most common clays in reservoirs. These minerals are extremely small,
have a layer microstructure, and large surface
areas. Therefore, they tend to react very quickly with the fluid entering the porous medium.
If the fluid is not compatible with the type of
clay in the reservoir, a 2% clay content will be
enough to plug or damage the formation.
94
Year

7 32
Figure 7.48a and 7.48b
SEM photograph of kaolinite plugging a pore space.
SEM photograph of mixed-layer illite/smectite

plugging a pore space.
Therefore, injected fluids should have the

same concentration and composition as the
original formation water or, if this is not
possible, they should contain cations that will
stabilize the fines.
Generally, fines migration takes place in
two consecutive stages (Thomas and Crowe,
1978). During the first stage, particles become
detached because of their sensitivity to fluids
(chemical effect) and, during the second
stage, they are carried away by the fluid
(physical effect).
The chemical effect takes place when an
incompatible fluid enters the formation,
usually introduced during drilling operations.
The loose particles are set into motion and/or
clays swell. Swelling occurs when water is
absorbed between the clay layers due to the
cation exchange capability, and the swollen
Table 7.7
Average (%) Range (%)
7 33
Mineralogical analysis
Quartz
86
65100
of 10 samples from
Feldspar
0.7
05
Ceuta Field.
Calcite
0.4
02
Kaolinite
6.25
225
Illite
0.8
05
Mixed-Layer
1.7
05
HCl Solubility
0.4
01.45
clays fill part of the porous volume. The result

is reduced permeability.
The physical effect takes place when the
loosened particles are carried away by the
dragging force of flowing fluids. In this situation, the most significant influence is exerted
by hydrodynamic forces, which become
increasingly stronger as particle size increases.
The physical effect is influenced by flow rate
and the viscosity of the flowing fluid. Regardless of the type of mechanism taking place,
the result is the reduction of formation permeability caused by plugging of pore throats.
Flow testing and core analysis
To examine the production decline mentioned above, mineralogical analyses and flow
tests were performed on cores taken from
three Ceuta wells (VLG-3727, VLG-3730, and
VLG-3716). X-ray diffraction results (Table
7.7) and SEM photographs clearly identify
kaolinite (Fig. 7.48a) and illite with smectite
layersa mixed-layer illite (Fig. 7.48b)
blocking the pore space.

Figure 7.49
140
120
Pure
water
Permeability (md)
100
6 % NaCI brine
80
60
40
20
0
0
200
100
300
400
500
600
700
Produced volume (cm3)
Changes in permeability
Figure 7.49 shows the result of a flow

test performed with brine (6% NaCl) on the
surface of a core. The purpose of this test is
to study the effects of migration and/or clay
swelling on core permeability. To this end,
brine is initially injected to convert clay-interchangeable cations to sodium, so that they
will be more sensitive to fresh water.
We can see a slight decrease in permeability
as the core is saturated with brine, and then
a stabilization with a slight increase of permeability as the sodium cations are interchanged.
When flowing back with distilled water,
permeability is abruptly reduced by 58%,
while flowing a solution

of 6% NaCl brine and pure
water through a core plug
at 180F.
Figure 7.50
300
B
r
i
n
e
Permeability (md)
250
200
F
i
l
t
e
r
e
d
B
r
i
n
e
HCl
RMA
1.5% HF
HCl
C
l
a
y
Distilled
water
A
c
i
d
m
u
d
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
Produced volume (cm3)
Simulation of the damage and treatment processes on Ceuta cores.
1000
1200
which is an indication of damaged caused by

clay swelling. The effect of a flow rate
increase on the decline in permeability was
also studied. This decline was evident for
fluid injection rates above a critical value
between 5 and 8 cm3/min.
These same lab observations on cores
taken from the Ceuta Field were demonstrated
by Krueger et al., 1967. They also showed that
the reduced permeability of treated cores was
caused by the migration of clay particles when
a certain critical flow rate was exceeded.
These results led to the conclusion that
production decline in the Ceuta Field wells
was primarily caused by fines migration near
the wellbore, which reduced permeability in
this region. This formation damage is in
addition to the damage caused by the
deposition of scales and asphaltenes.
Fines migration control
Earlier studies (Thomas and Crowe, 1978)
showed that one of the most effective matrix
treatments to permanently control migratory
clays was a system of retarded acid based on
fluoboric acid (HBF4) known as Clay Acid.
When this acid reacts with formation water, it
produces fluoboric acid, which reacts with the
alumina layers of clays. The result is a
borosilicate film, which is capable of
permanently stabilizing the clays.
Clay Acid reacts deep into the formation.
It tends to hydrolyze first, producing 4 moles
of HF per mole of the HBF that was initially
present. This HF is capable of reacting with
silicates. However, the first reaction is generally slow, which results in a large penetration
radius. Borate (H3BO3) results from the final
reaction and it bonds and stabilizes clays in
the formation.
To prove the effectiveness of this treatment
in the Ceuta Field, flow tests were performed on
some cores from the area. Figure 7.50 shows a
plot of permeability versus injected volume,
where we can see how the core permeability
decreases because of the damage induced
when brine is injected at high flow rates.

7 34
When the HCl injection starts, there is a slight

recovery that increases with the HCl-HF flow,
and then increases again because of the HBF4
injection. We can see the effectiveness of this
Clay Acid, which restores 95% of the original
sample permeability. When distilled water is
displaced, there is an almost linear increase in
permeability, due to the effect of the Clay Acid.
The acid prevents dispersion of clay particles
because a product of the secondary reaction
(borate) acts as a medium that helps adhere the
clays to the rock framework and prevent their
destabilization and migration.
Design of the matrix
treatment for fines control
A typical treatment applied by Maraven,
S.A. for matrix acidizing with Clay Acid is
described below. This treatment was
designed taking into account the different
types of formation damage detected in the
Ceuta Field, such as deposition of scales and
asphaltenes, as well as fines migration.
1. Solvent. Injected at a volume of 25 to 30
gal/ft of treated sand to dissolve any organic
residue, such as paraffins and asphaltenes.
This solvent prepares the formation for contact
with the acid, since it can change the
wettability to water wet, and it also helps to
break down emulsions.
2.Preflush. 10% HCl injected at a volume of 25
to 30 gal/ft of treated sand. HCl dissolves any
calcareous material in the formation and prevents precipitation of calcium fluoride (CaF2).
Furthermore, it separates the hydrofluoric acid
from salt water in the reservoir, thus
preventing the formation of harmful precipitates, such as sodium or potassium fluosilicates (H2SiF6).
3. Half Strength Mud Acid. (6% HCl +
1.5% HF) injected at a volume of 100
to 150 gal/ft of treated sand. The Regular Mud
Acid (RMA) dissolves the aluminum silicates
near the wellbore, thus decreasing the
damage caused by drilling mud residues or
formation clays.
7 35
4. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl) Spacer.

It displaces the residue from the RMA reaction
out of the 3- to 5-ft critical zone near the wellbore. It prevents the precipitation of dissolved
compounds and also prevents contact of the
RMA with the Clay Acid.
5. Main fluid. Clay Acid: Normally, 100 to 150
gal/ft of treated sand is used. This provides a
3- to 5-ft penetration radius.
To ensure that the necessary chemical
reactions will take place in the formation,
two other factors are taken into account: 1)
the residence time of Clay Acid in the
formation. This time is calculated taking into
account the lower temperatures resulting
from the injection of solvent preflush, HCl
and 12 RMA, and 2) well opening. Chokes
are used to control the movement of treatment fluids, so that there will be enough
time for the necessary chemical reactions to
take place and ensure the stability of
migratory clays.
Case history: VLG-3715 well
The matrix treatment described above
has yielded good results in several
stimulated wells in the Ceuta Field. These
results are evident from the small decline in
the months following stimulation.
The first well where this treatment was
applied was VLG-3715 in 1988. This well produces from the Lower Eocene B reservoir,
B-6.0/B-6.3 sands. Figure 7.51 shows that,
prior to the matrix treatment with Clay Acid,
well production was around 2500 BOPD of
net oil. This potential was maintained by
means of two matrix treatments with the 12%
HCl3% HF (RMA) formulation, performed in
June 1987 and November 1987. The
application of this treatment was not
effective, since production declined to 200
BOPD in six months. Subsequently, in
November 1988, after a workover, a matrix
treatment with Clay Acid was scheduled.

Figure 7.51
3000
Clay Acid
Oil rate (bbl/D)
Matrix
RMA
2000
Matrix
RMA
W-O
1000
0
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
Year
Case history of VLG-3715 showing the short-lived improvements after RMA

treatment versus a smooth production decline after Clay Acid treatment.
The well production potential was restored to

more than 2500 BOPD, with a natural decline
to 1000 BOPD, and then it has remained
stable for more than four years. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the treatment.
Figure 7.52
4000
Oil rate (bbl/D)
3000
Clean-up
2000
Matrix
clay acid
Matrix
RMA
1000
0
80
82
84
88
86
90
Year
Production decline caused by fines migration and subsequent

control by Clay Acid in VLG-3693.
92
94

The second well is VLG-3693, which
penetrated the Lower Eocene B reservoir (B6.0/B-6.3 sands) in 1981. Initial production
was between 2000 to 3000 BOPD, but it
started to decline and, in January 1986, it
was producing 400 BOPD, as shown in Fig.
7.52. Cleanup was performed with a
snubbing unit and HCl, increasing production to 2000 BOPD. Then, production started
to decline and stabilized at 300 BOPD in
September 1987. During that month, a matrix
stimulation with RMA was performed (12%
HCl3% HF) and production increased to
700 BOPD. However, one year later,
production declined again to 300 BOPD. An
additional stimulation with RMA was
performed in late 1988, and the same results
were obtained.
This problem was thought to be related
to formation damage caused by fines migration. In early 1990, a matrix treatment with
Clay Acid was performed, and production
was restored to 1000 BOPD. This level
remained stable for more than four years,
suggesting that this type of treatment permanently stabilizes migratory clays.
This well produces oil from the Lower
Eocene B reservoir. Its production performance record shows that production was
stable from 1984 to 1986, and its average
production rate was 1000 BOPD. From that
year forward, production started to decline
and, in early 1989, it stabilized at 250 BOPD,
as shown in Fig. 7.53 (following page). A
pressure build-up test performed in May 1989
indicated that the well had 76% formation
damage. This damage was thought to be
related to fines migration. A matrix treatment
with Clay Acid was scheduled in July 1990,
after which production potential was restored
to 800 BOPD, and it has remained stable since
then.

7 36
Figure 7.53
Oil rate (bbl / D)
2000
1500
Matrix
Clay Acid
1000
500
'74
'76
'78
'80
'82
'84
'86
'88
'90
'92
'94
(Year)
Production decline caused by fines migration and subsequent
Conclusions
1. The use of Clay Acid in the design of
matrix treatments for the Ceuta Field has
made it possible to minimize formation
damage problems resulting from fines
migration, and it has been possible to
attain stabilized well production rates for
more than four years.
2. The residence time of Clay Acid in the
formation, as well as the controlled
opening of the well, have a very
important role in the chemical reactions
taking place in the formation as far as
stabilization of clays is concerned.
control by Clay Acid in VLG-3639.
CUSTOMIZED PERFORATING
Before the oil price crash of 1986, the

main focus of perforating technology was to
develop perforating charges with superior
penetration and entrance hole size, as
determined by the American Petroleum
Institute (API) Section I specifications. While
this undoubtedly enhanced well productivity, it failed to recognize the significant
improvements in well performance and cost
effectiveness that can be achieved by
looking at the overall design of the perforating system (for example, the way it is
conveyed and the operational constraints).
A very different approach to perforating
technology has been adopted in recent
years. This approach focuses on developing
customized solutions to address specific
problems by working with customers.
Table 7.8
Formation-related
Perforator-related
Completion-related
Compressive strength
Stress distribution
Presence of fractures
Heterogeneity
Anisotropy
Tendency to sand
Penetration
Entrance hole
Shot density
Shot phasing
Borehole fluid
Casing wt. and grade
Cement properties
Cement thickness
pbpf while perforating
pbpf after perforating
Factors affecting well productivity in perforated completions,
7 37
As a result, the variety of perforating charges

and systems is very large. This chapter will
look at some of the customized solutions
that have been developed and the benefits
that they have yielded.
Customized solutions
In a cased and cemented well, holes
must penetrate the formation beyond the
damaged zone. Many factors affect the well
productivity, and are related to the formation, the perforator and the completion (see
Table 7.8). The pressure differential between
the borehole and the formation during and
after perforating is considered part of the
completion. It is an important consideration
in deciding how the guns are deployed.
All reservoirs and even individual wells
present a unique set of conditions that, if
taken into consideration when engineering a
gun system, can make a difference in the well
productivity or generate significant savings
from operational efficiency. A special department at the Schlumberger Perforating Centre
is dedicated to engineering customized solutions to improve performance or efficiency.

Figure 7.54
Mono adapter
Upper wireline head
HSD gun
HSD SAFE gun adapter

Safety pin
EFI
ESIC
Short lower head
The SAFE as deployed

in a gun.
This customization has been greatly aided by

information technology. ClientLink is a database of customer problems into which a customers specific problems can be entered
from anywhere in the world. With the help of
this database, development projects can be
properly focused and prioritized.
Perforating safely in the
presence of stray voltages
One of the operational requirements of
standard perforating systems has been that
radio silence is maintained during perforating. The voltages generated by radio transmissions could trigger standard detonation
devices. This standard practice creates a
severe operational disruption to the rig or
platform because any operation that requires
radio communication and is being performed while perforating is in progress must be
shut down. This was a case where clients
were clearly inconvenienced by the necessary safety requirements, and were also
incurring additional costs in their operations.
A project was initiated to address this problem. The result was the Slapper Actuated
Firing Equipment (SAFE) perforating system.
The SAFE System is designed to be
immune from the sources of stray voltage
that prevent the use of conventional electric
detonators. Therefore, SAFE eliminates the
need for radio silence and shut-down of
other vital rig equipment during perforating
operations. SAFE has been used successfully
to perforate a well in the Orinoco Straits.
It was necessary to use SAFE because this
strait is used by commercial shipping traffic
whose ships have high-power radio transmitters. Eleven runs of 212-in. High Shot
Density (HSD) guns were run without any
problems. SAFE has also been used in
perforating jobs in Lake Maracaibo, again
because of the danger of having stray radio
frequency (RF) radiation. In 1996, 13 jobs
were run with 212-in. HSD hardware and six
jobs were run with 218-in. guns in Venezuela.

Phased Retrievable Enerjets have also been
run with SAFE.
The detonator of a conventional gun
system is replaced by two main components
in the SAFE system. They are the Electronic
Secondary Initiating Cartridge (ESIC) and the
Exploding Foil Initiator (EFI) (Fig. 7.55, next
page). The ESIC performs three functions
through a series of filters, transformers and
capacitors. It filters RF signals, blocks voltages
less than 160 volts, and transforms voltages
greater than 160 VDC to approximately 3000
volts, leading into the EFI.
The EFI is a sophisticated electronic
detonator. A chain reaction must occur for the
EFI to properly detonate and to fire the
booster of the gun. The ESIC must deliver a
precise burst of power to vaporize the bridge
element. The time period over which this
energy is sent is measured in fractions of one
second. If the time is too long, only a slow
burn will occur and detonation of the guns
will not be initiated. Because the bridge has a
geometry that restricts the current flowing
through it, the bridge vaporizes, creating a
plasma beneath a polyamide foil.
The vaporizing bridge causes the foil to
expand extremely fast and, after traveling
through the barrel of the spacer, slaps a
secondary explosive pellet (HNS explosive)
with sufficient energy to initiate detonation.
The pressure wave from the detonating pellet
impacts an aluminum disk adjacent to a
sharp-edged hole and shears a small flyer out
of the disk. The aluminum flyer must then
traverse an air gap and impact the closed end
of a special secondary-explosive booster. The
secondary explosive booster then initiates the
conventional detonating cord and the normal
detonation train through the gun commences.

7 38
Figure 7.55
EFI
HNS Pellet
Spacer
Aluminum disk
Foil
Air gap
Bridge
Booster
ESIC
Spacer
Plasma bubble
Aluminum disk
Flyer
Operation of the SAFE.
7 39
Booster
Booster
The air gap serves two very important

mechanical functions: as the location for a
detonation train interrupt and for fluid desensitization. A safety barrier, in the form of a steel
pin, can be installed in the air gap. With the
safety barrier in place, it is impossible for the
flyer or any reaction from the HNS pellet
detonation to affect the booster and detonating
cord. In fact, guns can be transported from the
gun shop (local conditions permitting) with the
EFI installed, reducing wellsite arming time
when compared to conventional detonators.
Fluid desensitization is an important
feature. In the event that the hollow carrier or
any assembly around the initiator develops a
leak and fills with wellbore fluid, the flyer
cannot travel through the fluid-filled gap and
initiate the booster, thus preventing further
detonation and the possibility of splitting the
guns and thereby damaging the well itself.
SAFE also offers the option of running

multiple guns on a single descent. Selectivity
is accomplished by alternating the current
polarity and the input to the ESIC. SAFE/EFI
hardware is available for all gun sizes. It has
been tested and certified by two third-party
testing agencies.
Explosion-initiated TCP ancillary
devices improve system reliability
When running Tubing Conveyed
Perforating (TCP) systems, there are quite
often ancillary tools such as production
valves or gun release subs that are run
in conjunction with the TCP. If these ancillary
tools malfunction, then the efficiency
of the operation can be compromised.
For example, if TCP is to be shot in a zone
that is highly prone to sanding, it is common
practice to include a gun release sub to drop
the guns and prevent them from being stuck
with sand opposite the perforations.
Previously such release tools were either
slickline-operated or pressure-operated. The
disadvantage was that by the time the release
device was operated, significant amounts of
sand could prevent successful operation.
Even after a successful operation, there was a
possibility that the guns did not drop because
they were already stuck with produced sand
or because the well was highly deviated.
A project was initiated to improve the
reliability of such TCP ancillary devices. The
result was the X-Tools series. These tools
generally incorporate an activation section
that is installed below the firing head. The
mechanism is prevented from activating by a
frangible ceramic sleeve through which the
primacord passes from the firing head to the
guns. Shortly after the firing head triggers the
detonation train, the exploding primacord
shatters the ceramic sleeve, allowing the
activation mechanism to operate the X-Tools.
In the case of the Schlumberger Explosionactivated Automatic Release (SXAR), the
mechanism is an automatic gun release sub.

Figure 7.56
Release
housing
Release
pin
Support
sleeve
Release
mandrel
Release
piston
Break
plug
As assembled
The SXAR as
assembled (left)
and ready to drop
off (right).
This releases the guns as soon as they

are fired (Fig. 7.56), and, by
eliminating any time delay, prevents
them from getting stuck.
X-Tools ensure efficient operation
because activation can only be initiated once the guns have started to fire.
Another device is the Schlumberger
Explosion-activated Production Valve
(SXPV). This tool is a production valve
that allows underbalanced perforating
in wells that have existing open
perforations. To do so, the TCP guns
are run on a temporary completion
string that is kept closed by a
production valve below the packer.
The string contains a cushion of fluid
that has a hydrostatic pressure that is
less than formation pressure. Once
the string is in place, with the packer
set, the production valve must be
opened at the same time as the guns
fire. If the production valve is opened
too soon, the existing perforations will
surge and reduce the underbalance,
thereby diminishing the productivity
of the new perforations. The previous
Drop off
technique was to open the production
valve with the drop-bar that was dropped to
activate the firing head. The disadvantage was
that there was always a short time (a fraction
of a second) in which the production valve
was open before the guns were fired that
would effectively reduce the underbalance.
This time depended on the distance between
the valve and the firing head. On the other
hand, if the valve did not open, the guns
would be fired overbalanced and impair the
perforation performance.
The SXPV is activated by the explosion
of the primacord breaking a frangible ceramic
sleeve that holds the production valves
locking mechanism in place. Once the sleeve
is shattered, the valve can open (Fig. 7.57,
next page). The advantage of this system is
that the valve opens at exactly the right time

to have the optimum underbalance and,
furthermore, the valve will only open if the
gun detonation has been initiated. The SXPV
has an important role to play in the new
technique of Extreme Over-balanced
Perforating (EOP). In this technique, a well is
perforated with a small fluid column in the
tubing string above which is a nitrogen
cushion at high pressure. Before perforating,
the average effective pressure gradient of the
column will be more than 1.2 to 1.4 psi/ft.
This high pressure column must be contained
in the tubing until the guns are fired. This is
very effectively achieved by the SXPV, which
only opens as the guns fire. At this point the
nitrogen expands rapidly, forcing the fluid
column into the perforations at such high
instantaneous rates that microfractures are
generated in the formation. This treatment is
being used to stimulate low-productivity
wells or as a prefrac treatment to reduce the
treating pressures required in the fracing
operation. The SXPV and the SXAR have both
been used in Venezuela.
Perforating in high compressive
strength formations
The standard procedures developed for
evaluating the performance of perforating
charges are those defined by the API in the
RP-43 specifications, now in their fifth
edition. These procedures involve shooting
charges into a concrete target of defined
characteristics. As a result, the industry has
developed charges that are optimized when
fired into concrete. In terms of penetration,
concrete is comparable to weak rocks, but
penetration in hard rocks is significantly less.
In rocks having a compressive strength of
25,000 psi, the total penetration of a shaped
charged can be up to 75% less than the API
RP-43 Section I performance (Blosser, 1995).

7 40
Figure 7.57
Flow
ports
closed
Flow
ports
open
Pup joint
Firing
head
Upper
adapter
Detonating
cord tube
adapter
Piston
housing
Operating
piston
Shifting
piston
Cushion
Release
housing
Release
pins
Support
sleeve
Break plug
support
Mandrel
release
Break
plug
The SXPV as assembled (left)

and open to flow (right).
7 41
Hard sandstone reservoirs are common in

South America. The quartzarenite sandstones
can exhibit compressive strengths of around
25,000 psi. In addition, they can have high
permeability and good porosity that allows
fairly deep drilling fluid invasion. Unless the
perforation penetrates beyond this damaged
zone, well productivity is severely compromised. One operator in South America was
experiencing disappointing well productivity
in a hard sandstone reservoir, and asked if the
performance of shaped charges could be optimized for rocks with high compressive
strength. The first task was to identify a convenient test target that could simulate, as
closely as possible, the actual reservoir rock
properties. After trying different materials,
including solid steel, it was decided that the
most appropriate material was Nugget
sandstone, which has an unconfined

compressive strength of around 16,000 to
18,000 psi. It was decided to optimize a 34g
explosive load shaped charge in this target.
The initial tests of the standard shaped charge,
before any optimization, gave an average
penetration of 12.6 in. compared with an API
Section I performance of 34.0 in. Optimization
involved changing various design parameters
and evaluating the changes using numerical
and analytical models that had been calibrated
and refined with actual test target shots. The
design changes can be implemented in the
charge construction and real tests performed
on the specially built Nugget sandstone
targets. After final optimization, the average
penetration was increased to 15.9 in., which
represents a 26% improvement over the standard charge, despite the explosive load being
reduced to 30 g in the optimization. These
optimized charges were used to perforate a
gas injector well at 4 shots per foot (SPF). The
well is out-performing the majority of gas
injectors in the field that were shot at higher
shot densities (up to 12 SPF). Quantitative
data in the field has yet to be collected to
verify that the superior well injectivity is attributable to perforation performance, but the
qualitative results certainly seem to indicate
this. This project serves as a very good example of the type of development work that is
being undertaken in an effort to bring customized solutions to perforating problems
(Smith, 1997).
Special gun deployment techniques
to prevent formation damage
Even if charge performance is optimized
so that the shaped charge can shoot beyond
the damage created by drilling and completion, it is important that no further
damage is made after the well has been
perforated. For example, if the well is
perforated before the final well completion is
put in place, then it must be controlled by a
potentially damaging kill fluid while the guns
are retrieved and the completion is installed.

Figure 7.58
Lower end of gun

or firing head
Stinger adapter
Sealed ballistic
transfer donor
Breech
lock sleeve
Sealed ballistic
transfer receptor
No-go ram lock

groove
Slick joint
Upper end of
next gun down
The CIRP snaplock connector

disconnected (left) and
connected (right).
One way to avoid this damage

is to perforate after the final
completion is installed with
wireline-conveyed, throughtubing perforating guns. The
well pressure is controlled by
the pressure integrity of the
completion, which eliminates
the need for a kill fluid. The
disadvantage is that the guns
must pass through the
production tubing, which generally limits the size of the gun
and shaped charges such
that the achievable penetration is severely compromised.
Furthermore, if long intervals
must be perforated, then multiple gun runs will have to be
made due to operational limitations. This can be very time
consuming and, in addition,
only the first run can be shot
under optimum underbalanced conditions. In view of
these limitations, some operators have preferred to use
larger-diameter guns with
bigger charges before running
the completion, thereby
trading off the advantage of
superior penetration from
larger guns against the risk of
formation damage from the
well kill fluid. Other operators
have chosen to run TCP guns
on the completion tubing.
This allows the use of optimal gun size and
avoids having to kill the well after perforating,
but has the disadvantage that the gun system
must remain in the well after firing. This incurs
extra cost, either because the TCP equipment
left in the well must be purchased, or if the
guns are released after firing to allow future
access for logging and maintenance, then extra
rat hole must be drilled to accommodate them.
The development of monobore completions has presented new opportunities to

solve these problems. Monobore completions
are designed to have a uniform internal
diameter such that the tubing is no longer a
restriction to running tools into the well.
While the choice of gun size no longer has to
be compromised, the problem still remains of
how to perforate long intervals without
multiple runs and without killing the well to
retrieve the guns. The trend toward highly
deviated and horizontal wells with monobore
completions has made this problem
particularly important. The solution lies in
new deployment techniques, of which two
have been developed to date. The first is the
Completion Insertion and Retrieval under
Pressure (CIRP) system and the second is the
use of a Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or
Liner Top Isolation Valve (LTIV) in the
completion itself.
The CIRP deployment system enables
long gun strings to be run on wireline or
coiled tubing under pressure. Individual gun
lengths are limited to the available lubricator
length; however, an unlimited number of
guns can be connected together under pressure. Connections or disconnections are
made using specially designed snap-lock
connectors and a locking mechanism and
actuator arm built into a BOP-like deployment stack. Figure 7.58 shows the snap-lock
connector in its connected and disconnected
state. A sealed ballistic transfer is used on
both sides of the connection to prevent fluid
entering the guns during assembly under
pressure. The lower half of the snap-lock
connector has a breach lock sleeve that has
circumferential grooves machined into it
with vertical slots cut through the grooves.
The upper half of the snap-lock connector
also has circumferential grooves, but vertical
milling of 50% of the grooved surface leaves
vertical grooved fingers. The upper half,
when properly aligned vertically and
rotationally, will slot into the lower half.

7 42
Figure 7.59
Cable
Stuffing box
Pick-up and
lay-down
assembly
Snaplock
connector
Guns
first lift
Snaplock
connector
upper half
Lubricator
Master
valves
open
Master
valves
Master
valves
closed
Robot ram
unlocks
snaplock
connector
BOP stackcombi style

(shown)
Snaplock
connector
lower half
locked in
no-go ram
Wellhead
Nine steps in running

the CIRP system
5
in the hole. Steps 4

to 7 are repeated
until the entire
Snaplock
connector
upper half
string is deployed.
Master
valves
opens
Robot ram unlocks
snaplocks
Connectors breech
lock sleeve
Coiled tubing
Firing head
Snaplock
connector
upper half
Master
valves
closed
Master valves
open
After opening the robot

ram and the no-go rams the
string can be run in the well.
7 43
A 15 rotation will then lock the two halves

together. The locking mechanism is very
similar to a key being fitted into a door lock.
If the key is properly aligned, it slides into the
lock. Once inserted, if the key is rotated it
cannot be removed from the lock. The
rotation of the breach lock sleeve is achieved
by a robotic arm that is incorporated in the
BOP stack. A No-Go profile on the snap-lock
body allows positive positioning of the
connector in the BOP so that the robotic arm
mates correctly with the connector.
To deploy a complete gun string, each
gun is connected, in turn, under pressure. The
initial step is to install the special CIRP BOP
stack on the well with a master valve above it.
Even if the guns are to be run in the well on
coiled tubing, it is preferable to deploy the
guns into the wellhead on wireline as this is
much quicker, but if necessary it can be done
with coiled tubing. The first gun is placed in a
lubricator and connected above the master
valve (see Fig. 7.59 for the following
explanation). The lubricator pressure is raised
to the same pressure as the well and then the
master valve is opened and the gun lowered
until the snap-lock is in the BOP. The BOP is
closed and the robotic arm in the BOP is used
to rotate the snap-lock connector to release
the cable head. The cable head is pulled into
the lubricator, the master valve closed, and the
pressure bled down. The next gun section is
then introduced into the lubricator and the
pressure raised to the wellhead pressure. The
master valve is then opened and the gun
lowered to connect into the snap-lock connector of the previous gun. The robotic arm
again makes the appropriate rotation to
ensure the locking of the connector. The BOP
is then opened and the gun lowered to the
top snap-lock connector. The BOP is closed to
support the gun-string weight and the robotic
arm disconnects the snap-lock to release the
cable head. The process continues in this way
until all the guns have been deployed and the
firing head has been connected. Then, either
the guns are run in hole on wireline or the

Figure 7.60
Nitrogen
spring
Counter
Detent
Latch
profile
Ball
valve
Closed
position
Shifting
tool
The FIV is run in the closed

position and can be opened
with a special shifting tool.
wireline is rigged down and

replaced by coiled tubing.
An entire gun string can be
deployed in this way and run in
hole and fired underbalanced. The
gun string can then be retrieved
from the well under pressure, in the
reverse of the operation required to
deploy it, without killing the well. If
the well has not been previously
perforated, then the guns can be
Centralizer
deployed without pressure control,
using the CIRP technique only to
retrieve them under pressure.
The CIRP system can be run in
any well. An alternative system, the
Knuckle
joint
Formation Isolation Valve (FIV) or
Liner-Top Isolation Valve (LTIV),
requires installation in the comShifting
collet
pletion, so it can only be run in new
wells or at the time of workover.
The FIV is a monobore multicycle
Centralizer
completion valve normally run
below a permanent packer (Fig.
7.60). The LTIV is the liner-top
version. Both valves operate in the same way
and act as a downhole lubricator valve that
can be closed or opened by a shifting tool run
below long gun strings or on slick-line.
Long gun strings can be run in the hole
on wireline or coiled tubing and fired underbalanced. The gun string can then be pulled
back through the Isolation Valve that is closed
by a special shifting tool run on the bottom of
the guns. This isolates the newly perforated
formation and allows the tubing to be bled
down to retrieve the guns. For extra safety, kill

fluid can be circulated above the valve. After
the guns have been retrieved, coiled tubing
can be used to circulate the tubing to a lighter
fluid, such as water or diesel, before opening
the Isolation Valve for production. The valve
is reopened by applying cycles of tubing
pressure that reciprocrate an indexed sleeve
against a nitrogen cushion. The valve opens
after a preset number of pressure and bleedoff cycles. The valve is a multicycling valve
that can be opened or closed at any time by a
shifting tool run on slickline or coiled tubing.
Conclusions
Recent developments in perforating have
focused on customized solutions for the full
range of factors that affect well productivity
from perforations. This includes much more
than the shaped charge penetration and entrance hole, which were the main focus in the
past. We have shown examples of solutions
for a variety of customer problems, such as
perforating without shutting down radios and
other electrical devices; how to release gun
strings or activate production valves at the
instant of firing; designing shaped charges for
particularly high compressive strength rocks;
and designing deployment systems that allow
very long gun strings to be run in and
retrieved under pressure.
The focus on customized solutions has
resulted in many new and innovative
techniques being developed to greatly
improve the performance and efficiency of
perforating systems.
This chapter was written by F.Paz (Intevep), S.Lpez, F.Portillo, M.Martnez, J.Mayol, A.
Snchez (Maraven), L.Ortega, (Corpoven), F.J.Colmenares (Maraven), T. Ceccarelli,
E.Nordmeyer, J.Haskell, K.Bennaceur, J.J.Gutirrez, F.Montoya.
with contributions from F.Gonzlez (Lagoven), C.Economides, and M.Ardila,
and the permission of Lagoven, Maraven and Corpoven to publish data from their wells.

7 44
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PEG Methodology and practices

Bennaceur, K. et al, 1996, Boosting hydrocarbon production from existing
fields. The SEARCH for Oil and Gas in Latin America, Volume 3, pp 29-45.
Identification of bypassed zones

Roscoe, B.A., Stoller, C., Adolph, R.A., Boutemy, Y., Cheeseborough, J.C.,
Hall, J.S., McKeon, D.C., Pittman, D., Seeman, B., and Thomas, S.R., 1991,
A new through-tubing oil-saturation measurement system. SPE 21413.
Newey, J.J., Meadows, D., and Baumbach, T., 1996, Applications of the
Reservoir Saturation Tool in the Poui Field, Offshore Trinidad. SPE 36152.
Latin American Petroleum Engineering Conference, Port of Spain, Trinidad,
April.
Schlumberger Log Interpretation Charts, 1995, pp 7-1 to 7-3.
Controlling water production

F. Paz, E. Anez, 1996, Evaluacin de Sistemas Gelificantes para Control de
Agua en Maraven, S.A. Enero.
Chan, K.S., 1995, Water control diagnostic plots, SPE 30775 presented at the
70th Annual Technical Conference.
Perez, O., Fragachan, F.E., Ramirez, A., Feraud, J.P., 1997, Applications of
polymer gel for establishment of zonal isolations and water shut-off in carbonate formations, SPE/IADC 37622, presented at the SPE/IADC drilling conference, March.
Perkins, T.K. and Kern, L.R., 1961, Widths of hydraulic fractures, Journal of
Petroleum Technology, pp 937-949.
Roegiers, J.C. and Neda, J., 1993, Summary of Joint Geomechanical Study
North of Monagas Field, U. Oklahoma-Intevep Report.
Controlling fines migration

Gabriel, G.A. and Inamdar, G.R., 1983, An experimental investigation of fines
migration in porous media. Paper SPE 12168, 58th Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition of the Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Krueger , R.F., Vogel, L.C., and Fischer, P.W., 1967, Effect of pressure drawdown on clean-up clay or silt blocked sandstone. Journal of Petroleum
Technology, pp 397-403.
Muecke, T.W., 1979, Formation fines and factors controlling their movement
in porous media. Journal of Petroleum Technology 31, pp 114-150.
Neasham, J.W., 1977, The morphology of dispersed clay in sandstone reservoirs and its effect on sandstone shaliness, pore space and fluid flow properties. Paper SPE 6858, 52th Annual Fall Technical Conference and Exhibition
of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, CO.
Maximizing fracture conductivity
Olivares, M., Chang, E., Alvarez, G., 1988, Modelo geolgico y de yacimiento del Campo Ceuta, Lago de Maracaibo.
Martins, J.P. et al, 1989, Tip Screen-Out fracturing applied to the Ravenspurn
South Gas Field Development, SPE 19766, San Antonio, TX.
Laboratorios Dowell, Estudio de Acidificacin Matricial. Pozo VLG-3727,

Campo Ceuta, Maraven, S.A.
Morales, R.H., Norman, W.D. and Park, E.I., 1996, Why fracture unconsolidated high permeability formations, SPE 35031, Lafayette, LA.
Sharma, M.M., Yortsos, Y.C. and Handy, L.L., 1985, Release and deposition
of clays in sandstone. Paper SPE 13562, International Symposium on Oilfield
and Geothermal Chemistry, Phoenix, Arizona. April 9-11.
Nolte, K.G., 1986, Determination of proppant and fluid schedules from fracturing pressure declines, SPE Production Engineering, pp 255-265.
Boggio, C. E., Montoya, F.F., 1996, Tcnica de arenamiento controlado, INGP2-22, Ingepet, Per.
Mathur, A.K., Ning, X., Marcinew, R.B., Economides, C.E., and Economides,
M.J., 1995, Hydraulic fracture stimulation of highly permeable formations:
the effect of critical fracture parameters on oilwell production and pressure,
SPE 30652, Dallas, TX.
Economides, M.J. and Nolte, K.G., 1987, Post-treatment evaluation and fractured well performance, Reservoir Stimulation, Schlumberger Educational
Services, p 1101.
Cinco Ley, H. and Samaniego, F., 1981, Transient pressure analysis, Finite
conductivity fracture case versus damaged fracture case, SPE 10179, San
Antonio, TX.
Fracture optimization
Geertsma, J. and de Klerk, F., 1969, A rapid method of predicting width and
extent of hydraulically induced fractures, Journal of Petroleum Technology,
December, pp 1571-1581.
Morales, R.H. and Marcinew, R.P., 1993, Fracturing of high-permeability formations: Mechanical properties correlations, SPE Paper 26561, Presented at
the 68th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers, Houston, Texas, 3-6 October.
Nordgren, R.P., 1972, Propagation of a vertical hydraulic fracture, Journal of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, August, p. 306.
7 45
Ortega, L., Brito, L. and Ben-Naceur, K., 1996, Hydraulic fracturing for control
of sand production and asphaltine deposition in deep hot wells, SPE Paper
36461, Presented at the 71st Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition of
the Society of Petroleum Engineers, Denver, Colorado, 6-9 October.
Thomas, R.L. and Crowe C.W., 1978, Matrix Treatment Employs New Acid
System for Stimulation and Control of Fines Migration in Sandstone
Formations, Dowell Division, Journal of Petroleum Technology, August, pp
1491-1500.
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Customized perforating
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stressed rock, Rock Mechanics Contributions and Challenges, p.629-636,
Proceedings of the 31st U. S. Symposium held in Rotterdam, The
Netherlands,
Blosser, W.R., 1995, An assessment of perforating performance of high compressive strength non-homogeneous sandstones, SPE 30082, presented at
the European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, May 15-16.
Smith, P.S., Behrmann, L.A., Wenbo Yang, 1997, Improvements in perforating performance in high compressive strength rocks, SPE 38141, presented
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Schlumberger Oilfield Services, 1995, Perforating Services.


Chapter 8
Reservoir Description around the Well
Chapter overview
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs
Evaluation of fractured carbonates
A multioffset seismic profile in an old well
Complementing a poor surface seismic
A multiazimuth walkaway seismic profile
Reservoir description around a horizontal well
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND THE WELL
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Characterizing a reservoir requires a

description of the reservoir structure and
geometry, and a definition of its static and
dynamic properties. The principal source of
information on the static and dynamic
properties is well data, while the reservoir
structure and geometry are usually defined
by surface seismic data, geological studies
and the correlation of features between
wells. Another important factor is the link
between the fine scale reservoir properties
available from the well and the large scale
information used to define reservoir
structure and geometry. This book is
concerned essentially with well data, so
reservoir structure and geometry are
generally beyond its scope. However, the
link can be provided by certain types of well
data, in particular borehole seismic and
geological studies. This chapter discusses a
variety of ways in which this link can be
made.
The first two sections are based on
borehole imagery, one in clastics and the
other in carbonates. Previously the shapes of
log curves, in particular GR and SP, were
used to help define sedimentary environments in clastics. Today, borehole images
are a key factor in improving this definition.
The four cases shown are all examples from
a fluvial coastal marine setting. The direction
of sedimentation and the position in the
channel are deduced mainly from the
images. In thick fractured carbonates,
borehole images are ideal for detecting and
characterizing the attributes of fractures.
With a good characterization it is possible to
define much about the reservoir in between
the wells.
The three subsequent sections describe

applications of borehole seismic. In the first
one, a multioffset seismic profile (OSP) in an
old well was the key to deciding whether to
drill a horizontal kick-off, or whether to drill
a new vertical well. As it happened, the
vertical well was preferred since the OSP
detected a fault near the well while also
showing deeper seismic events, which could
be interesting to explore. In the second
example, a multioffset seismic profile
provided structural information in an area
where the surface seismic was uninterpretable because of the surface terrain. At
the same time the vertical seismic profile
(VSP) gave information ahead of the bit,
which helped overcome major drilling
problems in an overpressured zone. The
third example is of a very large multiazimuth
walkaway survey that was recorded even
though a good-quality, modern, 3-D surface
seismic was available. The VSP provided
higher-frequency, multiple-free data for
reservoir definition.
Finally, the advent of horizontal wells
has opened up new opportunities for
detailed reservoir description. Different
measurements, in particular resistivity, have
been used to determine the proximity of
overlying or underlying beds and to draw an
improved cross section of the geology near
the well.

S E D I M E N TA R Y A N A LY S I S O F S A N D S T O N E R E S E R V O I R S
Many different techniques have been

introduced to extract, synthesize and analyze
the various subsurface sedimentologic data
that are needed for constructing depositional
models. Oriented cores are the best source
of accurate sedimentological information,
but they are expensive and sometimes
unobtainable.
The concept of interpreting facies from
openhole log curve motifs was introduced
by Shell in 1956, and has been used by the
industry ever since. Three principal GR and
SP log shapes frequently serve as a basis for
identifying depositional facies, especially for
sandstones. They are:
the bell shape or fining upward
the funnel shape or coarsening upward
the cylindrical or blocky shape.
This technique is largely restricted to siliciclastic sediments, and must be applied
cautiously because similar motifs can be produced by different environments of deposition.
The presence or absence of glauconite
and carbonaceous detritus was found to be
useful in limiting log motifs to marine or
non-marine depositional settings. For
example, glauconite reflects normal marine
salinity and reducing conditions. Authigenic
clays may reflect the salinity at the time of
deposition. Typically, illite is associated with
marine sediments, and kaolinite with nonmarine sediments. The carbonate minerals
found in sandstones can be both detrital and
authigenic (chemically precipitated), the
latter being far more predominant (Pettijohn
et al., 1990).
Minerals such as siderite, pyrite, magnetite and chlorite reflect the stagnant, reducing
conditions of swamps, restricted bays, and
overbank environments (Visher, 1990). The
large amount of organic material in tidal
flats/coastal plains and swamps is often
preserved in these reducing environments.
Subtle differences in the resistivity and
velocity of shales give excellent clues for
recognizing subdelta facies. Crevasse
sandstones resemble distributary mouth bars
in their overall coarsening-upward pattern

on the GR curve, but they are generally
thinner. The nature of the overlying and
underlying sediments often helps distinguish
between these two facies. Mouth bars are
usually underlain by prodelta shales, which
characteristically show a strong resistivity
drop. This drop in resistivity is not often
seen below crevasse sandstones (Saxena,
1976).
Recently, Borehole Electrical Imagery
has been used in subsurface facies studies.
High-resolution electrical borehole images
are obtained from the FMI by scanning the
borehole wall with arrays of small electrodes
(192) pressed against the borehole surface.
These buttons examine successive, small
vertical increments of the formation (every
0.1 in.). The FMI provides better borehole
coverage (e.g., 80% in a 8.5-in. borehole
diameter) than the Formation MicroScanner*
(40% in 8.5-in. borehole) or the SHDT*
Stratigraphic High Resolution Dipmeter Tool
(3% in 8.5-in. borehole) tools. A triaxial
accelerometer helps determine tool position
and three magnetometers help determine
tool orientation. The current intensity
measurements, which reflect microresistivity
variations, are converted to variable-intensity
color images. Black indicates the lowest
microresistivity and white the highest
microresistivity. Other microresistivity values
are presented using various color coding.
The images provide detailed sedimentological information for clastic rocks, which is
of great value for geological and reservoir
modeling. Interactive analysis of the images
on the Image Examiner workstation further
enhances the information we can extract.
The interactive dips we pick have the
highest possible accuracy, since they are
manually selected from the images and can
be verified and categorized by bedding type.
They are color-coded as follows: erosional
surfaces (cyan), faults (blue), fractures
(yellow), cross-bedding (red), bedding
(green), and others (magenta). This is a

significant conceptual step forward from the

machine-processed conventional dipmeter
processing, where some of the dips may be
spurious or of unknown origin. The data
ensemble has been a great help in
recognizing the various types of depositional
environments.
The coastal marine setting:
An overview
After a delta is abandoned, the seaward
edge of the delta is subjected to marine
processes that result in reworking and
redepositing the sediments landward at a
relatively slow rate. Sands are normally
deposited within the coastal area and finegrained sediments are dispersed further
offshore. This area contains numerous,
related sandstones that were deposited by
a complex interplay of tides, waves, longshore currents and wind-driven currents.
Beach ridge, barrier island, tidal inlet, and
tidal delta sandstones are the main reservoirs
within this setting (see Fig. 8.1).
Beach ridges are composed mainly of

sandstones, gravels and shell debris and
form parallel to coastlines. Beach ridges that
are deposited under storm influences
contain the coarsest sands on the beach
(Reineck and Singh, 1980). Sediments near
the base of beach ridges are mainly
laminated and separated from the
underlying tidal flats by an erosional surface
(Psuty, 1966). The subsequent section
contains cross-laminations of moderate to
high dipping magnitude in a landward
direction. The width of beach ridges is
determined by the duration of flood seasons
and the magnitude of marine processes.
Cheniers may form over prograding
shores. These are sandy, linear ridges that
stand above high-water line and are
separated from the shore by mud flats that
accumulated on their seaward side. These
sands are rich in fossil shells and may form
distinct layers.
Barrier islands are elongated sand
bodies parallel to the shoreline. Conditions

,,,,,

,,,,,,,

,,,,,,

,,,,,

,,,,,,,

,

,,,,,,

,,,,,,,

Figure 8.1
Mainland
Marsh
Marsh
Washover fan
Lagoon
Flood-tidal
delta
ne
et
Inl
n
ha
Grassflat and
marsh
Beach-dunes
ridges
Shoreface
Storm
channel
Beach
Ebb-tidal
delta
Offshore
or shelf
Textbook example of coastal marine setting (from McCubbin, 1982).

that favor the development of these

sediment bodies include a: 1) steady supply
of sands to the shoreline, 2) hydrodynamic
setting that is dominated by wave energy, 3)
limited tidal range, and 4) low-gradient
coastal plain (Reinson, 1984).
Theories regarding the origin of barrier
islands are numerous. However, they are
normally formed by: 1) the building-up of
submarine bars, 2) spit progradation parallel
to the coast and segmentation by inlets, and
3) submergence of coastal beach ridges
(Reinson, 1984).
Barrier islands that were deposited
under a microtidal range are long and linear.
Tidal inlets and deltas are of minor
importance. Mesotidal barriers are short and
characterized by large tidal inlets and deltas
(Elliott, 1978). Barrier islands are normally
subdivided into lower, middle and upper
shoreface. Boundaries between these units
are not often sharply defined. From the
bottom upward, the lower shoreface consists
mainly of highly bioturbated fine sandstones
and siltstones. The middle shoreface sandstones contain different cross-lamination
sets, including hummocky cross-laminations.
The upper shoreface sandstones are composed of several units of multidirectional
cross-laminations. They produce a typical
coarsening-upward pattern on GR and SP
logs. A barrier grows seaward by a beachshoreface accretion process to produce a
typical coarsening-upward sequence.
The foreshore is the zone of the wave
swash and backswash mechanism that
generates the distinct subparallel to lowangle, seaward-dipping cross-lamination
sets. The backshore area is characterized by
subaerial wind processes. The sediments
encompass subhorizontal to landwarddipping beds.
Tidal inlets cut the barrier and act as a
passageway for tidal waters in and out of the
lagoon. They are asymmetrical in cross
section as they migrate laterally in the
direction of lateral drift (Elliott, 1978). The

upstream side of the inlet relative to the
longshore current acts as depositional bank
and merges with the tidal flats and spits,
whereas the opposite side of the inlet
develops an erosive margin against the
barrier. In a mesotidal setting, tidal inlets are
numerous and repeatedly cut the barrier
islands into small segments in which the
thicker portion is composed of beach spits.
Tidal channel sand bodies are elongated
perpendicular to the barrier complex and
their thickness is mainly related to the depth
of the channel.
The deepest parts of most inlets are
dominated by ebb currents that flowed over
deeply eroded channel floors where
relatively coarser sands, patches of gravel
and shell debris accumulated. Seawardoriented, large-scale cross-laminations are
commonly produced by the migration of
sand waves (transitional bed forms between
ripples and dunes). Some inlets are
completely characterized by ebb-dominated
unimodal cross-laminations (Oomkens,
1974). At slackwater phase, suspension silts
and clays settle out and drape the crosslamination sets. During the following current
stage, clay drapes may be partly eroded to
produce gently erosive reactivation surfaces
(Reading and Collinson, 1996). These lowangle erosion surfaces provide internal
evidence of water stage fluctuation and are
common in tidal settings.
Because they migrate laterally, tidal
inlets fill by complex lateral accretion. The
sediments dip toward the channel thalweg
and reflect the former position of the
depositional bank. Smaller, flood-oriented
bed forms are present over the shallower
margins of the inlet. Bidirectional flow
orientations may exist at intermediate depths
(Galloway and Hobday, 1996).


,,,,,
,,,,,

,,,,,

Figure 8.2
Dips toward channel
Lateral accretion bedding, showing dips towards channel (from Elliot, 1987).
Figure 8.3
RXOZ
AHF90
SP
100
0
CALI
AHF60
6 (in.)10
BS
AHF30
AHF20
0 6 (in.)10
(mV)
GR
Depth
(ft)
200
(gAPI)
AHF10
0.2
Sand 1
X200
X250
Sand 2
Openhole logs over Sands 1 and 2.
RHOZ
1.95
(ohm-m)
2000 0.45
(g / cm3)
NPHI
(V V)
2.95
0.15
The lagoon is a low-energy zone that is

located behind the barrier on the landward
side. The silty shale sediments of the lagoon
are highly bioturbated and rich in organic content. However, the lagoon may contain highly
laminated sandstones deposited by washover
fans. Dominant sedimentary structures are
subhorizontal stratification and small-scale
foresets where the fan enters the lagoon
(McCubbin, 1982). Tidal flood deltas are developed in the lagoon as the tidal flow loses its
velocity. On the seaward side of the barrier
another tidal-related delta is developed by ebb
processes.
In addition to lagoons, tides move great
volumes of sea water landward through
rivers, estuaries and delta distributary
channels. Tidal currents dominate the lower
reach of channels and estuaries and form
tidal flats within interdistributary areas.
Ebb currents, when associated with fluvial discharge, develop unidirectional crosslaminations dipping seaward. Sedimentary
sequences that were deposited under these
conditions might only be distinguished from
fluvial deposits by the associated facies and
the presence of marine fauna and fossil shells
(Van Beek and Koster, 1972).
In mesotidal coasts, tidally influenced fluvial channels are sinuous and their point bars
are characterized by lateral accretion surfaces
that dip steeply toward the channel thalweg
(Smith, 1987; Woodroffe et al., 1989), (Fig 8.2).
Bidirectional cross-lamination sets or herringbone stratification reflect the complex interplay
of tidal and fluvial processes. The thickness of
a point bar is related to the channel scour, and
stacked sand bodies are common. Sedimentary
sequences consist of coarse- to mediumgrained sandstones at the base that grade
upward to finer-grained, horizontally
laminated sandstones at the top (Pettijohn et
al., 1990). The migratory nature of the channel
produces numerous erosional and truncation
surfaces and increases the magnitude of the
heterogeneity within sandstone units. These
depositional processes produce a fining-

Well A, Gurico sub-basin
Figure 8.4
Sand 1 (X158 to X182 ft)
Azimuth of cross-bedding
and accretion surfaces
(X158 to X182 ft)
0 40
X155.0 ft
Tidal flat deposits
Top Sand 1
330
0
20%
30
15%
300
60
10%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the WSW
5%
270
5%
10% 20% 90
15%
Erosional surfaces (blue)

Current beds are dipping 240
to the NW and reflect the ebb
processes
120
150
210
180
Ebb cross-laminations
dipping to the NNW
Azimuth of bedding planes

(X158 to X182 ft)
330
0
60%
30
40%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the SW
60
300
20%
20%
270
Erosional base of a tidal

channel
Resistive lag
40%
60% 90
120
240
150
210
180
Rich in carbonaceous
X187.0 ft
FMI image over Sand 1 with

azimuth rosettes of crossbedding accretion surfaces
and bed boundaries (in the
depth track of this and
subsequent images, small
tick marks represent 1-ft
increments and large tick
marks 5-ft increments).
upward pattern on the GR and SP curves.

Soft-sediment deformation and clay
clasts are also present in these channels. The
sediments are calcareous because of the
high fossil shell content that is brought in by
tidal currents. In high concentration, shell
debris may form thin resistive layers.
The channels are normally subjected to
extensive overbank crevassing. Seaward, the
channel mouth is modified into a funnel
shape where sandy tidal ridges are
developed perpendicular to the shoreline
(Coleman and Wright, 1975). Flood tides
transport fine-grained sediments into the
floodplain areas where silty and highly
carbonaceous sediments are accumulated.
The following examples will discuss
reservoirs deposited under coastal marine
influence. Many of the foregoing features are
recognized in these reservoir sandstones, as
well as the non-reservoir bounding facies.
Sidewall cores and ditch cuttings show

the sandstone in this interval to be light to
medium brown, very fine- to mediumgrained, subangular to subrounded grains,
poorly sorted, friable, moderately argillaceous, and slightly to non-calcareous.
The GR over the interval illustrates stacked, fining-upward sequences with a sharp,
erosional base and gradational top (Fig. 8.3).
Over the interval X158 to X160 ft, the GR
shows a minor coarsening upward pattern.
The underlying sediments, in the interval
X184-X186 ft, are very rich in carbonaceous
detritus and are possibly back-barrier flats
(Fig. 8.3). The tidal flat sediments that overlie
and underlie this interval dip to the N
(i.e., seaward).
The Borehole Electrical Imagery over the
sandstones (Fig. 8.4) shows a basal erosional
surface floored by a resistive lag due to a
high content of shell debris. It also shows
that the sediments contain several sets of
cross-laminations dipping to the NNW. Such
sedimentary structures were possibly caused
by migrating asymmetrical sandwaves under
a dominating ebb process. Fluctuations in
flow directions cause truncation and reactivation surfaces to develop. Severe drops in
the velocity of the tidal current and/or
sudden changes in flow directions have
allowed fine-grained sediments to settle over
cross-lamination sets and develop clay
drapes. The numerous erosional surfaces are
interpreted as scours that reflect exceptional
discharge conditions.
The data indicate lateral accretion
surfaces dipping to the WSW and SW, which
reflect the former position of the depositional
flank as well as the thalweg of the channel.
This also suggests that the tidal channel is
striking NNW-SSE, since accretion surfaces
dip perpendicular to the channel orientation.

Figure 8.5
Tide - dominated
estuary
Tidal
flat
Tidal
flat
Barrier
Lagoon
Bayhead Well A
delta
Barrier
Drowned
river
valley
Sand # 2 (X250 to X275 ft)
Tidal power
VLC-1184
Wave power
Tidal power
Wave power
The interval from 6158 to 6160 ft shows

depositional changes due to the
sandstones with low-dipping, wavy laminarelative variation of wave and tidal tions. This section was possibly deposited as
processes. The probable locations interlaminated sands and clays within a tidal
of Well A and VLC-1184 are
flat setting.
Coastal marine environment and
indicated.
Figure 8.6
0 40
X246.0 ft
Azimuth of cross-bedding
and accretion surfaces
(X250 to X275 ft)
Top Sand 2
330
0
20%
30
15%
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the S
300
60
10%
5%
10%
20% 90
5%
15%
270
Cross-laminations
dipping NW. They
are formed by
sandwaves migrating
to the NW by ebb
processes
240
120
180
Azimuth of bed boundaries

(X250 to X275 ft)
Possible accretion surfaces

dipping to the W
330
0
30%
30
20%
300
Accretion surfaces
dipping to the NE
150
210
60
10%
270
10%
20%
30%
Accretion surfaces 240

dipping to the WSW
Erosional surface
90
120
210
Based on these observations, the facies

has been interpreted as deposited by a mesotidal channel with a NNW-SSE orientation
(Fig. 8.5). The channel possibly dissects a
NE-SW-oriented barrier bar.
Sidewall cores and cuttings indicate that

the sandstone in this interval is light gray,
very fine- to fine-grained, locally of medium
grained, subangular grains, moderately
sorted, friable, slightly argillaceous, and
calcareous.
The GR over this interval indicates a
fining-upward sequence with a sharp erosional base and gradational top (Fig. 8.3). The
shales below the facies are carbonaceous and
pyritic. The overlying sediments are composed of interlaminated sandstones and shales
with a thin coal streak at X238 ft (Fig. 8.3).
Throughout the facies, the image data
shows the presence of numerous lateral accretion surfaces that dip from the NE to the W
(Fig. 8.6). The variability in these dip directions indicates the sinuosity of the channel
and the lateral migration processes. The
reduction in energy following channel
migration has caused clays to be draped over
the accretion surfaces (X262 ft and X256.3 ft).
Fluctuations in the discharge rates have
caused reactivation and truncation surfaces to
develop (e.g., X264.6 ft).
The depositional system in the channel
was dominated by ebb processes that resulted in the seaward migration of sand waves.
The process generated several cross-lamination sets dipping to the NW, as evidenced by
the image data. These sediments are amalgamated with point bar deposits (e.g., X266
ft) and stacked vertically to form a highly
compartmentalized reservoir sequence.
150
180
X279.0 ft
FMI image over Sand 2 with azimuth rosettes.

VLC-1184 Well, VLC-948-100 Area,

Block III, Maracaibo Basin, Venezuela
Figure 8.7
LLHR
(gAPI)
(in.)
18
NPHI
LLS
150
CALI
8
B-52 sandstones (9479.5 to 9502.8 ft)
LLD
GR
Depth
(ft)
.45
(V V)
1.95
g cm3
MSFL
.2
(ohm-m)
.15
RHOB
2000
2.95
B52
9500
9600
B6
Openhole logs over the

B-52 and B-6 sands.
The dip directions of the cross-lamination

sets and lateral accretion surfaces suggest that
the tidal channel was trending in a NNW-SSE
orientation. At X251 ft., cross-laminations are
dipping to the S (i.e., landward) and reflect
the tidal-flood influence.
The Borehole Electrical Imagery also
illustrates the presence of high-resistivity
shell debris within the sandstones along
certain intervals (e.g., X267.1 ft). Clay clasts
are locally present at the base of the facies.
The channel contains numerous resistive lag
deposits (e.g., X275.2 ft), due to the high
content of fossil shells, which create
permeability barriers and add to the
heterogeneity of the reservoir.
The GR over the interval shows an

erosional base and sharp top, and indicates
that the sandstone is made up of a series of
stacked, fining-upward sediments (Fig. 8.7).
The image data from 9500 to 9502.8 ft (Fig.
8.8) show that chaotic sediments occur just
above the erosional base and channel lag.
Internally, the sandstones contain numerous
erosional and truncation surfaces that
possibly relate to channel migration; e.g.,
9488.5, 9489.2 and 9497.2 ft. These surfaces
divide the sandstones into several depositional units and reservoir compartments.
The image data also display several
accretion surfaces dipping toward the E and
SE (9487 to 9489 ft). The variability of these
dip directions emphasizes the sinuous
nature of the channel, since accretion surfaces normally dip perpendicular to the
channel orientation.
Cross-lamination sets dip mainly to the
NE and have been confirmed on the core
(9495 to 9497 ft). They may reflect the
orientation of the channel and may be
generated by the migration of sand waves.
Conversely, cross-laminations dipping to the
SW reflect minor tidal influences during the
deposition of this unit.
Patchy calcite cementation occurs at
9491 ft and 9494 ft, as indicated by the
density log (tight streaks) and image data
(lenticular red-yellow patches). This
cementation may be present as a result of
dissolution of shell debris and subsequent
reprecipitation of calcium carbonate into
open pore spaces.

Figure 8.8
9486.0 ft
This interval is interpreted to be deposited by a NNE-SSW-oriented channel that has

been influenced by a complex interplay of
fluvial and tidal systems (Fig. 8.5). The
provenance of these sandstones was possibly
located to the SSW of this well. The top part
of the facies consists of laminated sediments.
B-6 sandstones (9567.8 to 9610.5 ft)
9504.0 ft
FMI image over the B-52

sand showing:
A= Chaotic sediments
B= Truncation surfaces
C= Accretion surfaces
D= Cross-lamination sets on
image and core
E= Patchy cementation.
The GR over this interval shows several

stacked, fining-upward units with a sharp
erosional base and gradational top. The
individual units are separated by levee and
floodplain/tidal flat deposits.
The facies contains lateral accretion
surfaces that dip to the SE
and NW, which reflect
the sinuosity of the
channel (Fig.8.9d). The
dip directions of these
accretion surfaces suggest
that the channel has a NESW orientation (i.e., they
are oriented perpendicular to the channel
orientation).
Large-scale cross-lamination sets mainly dip to
the SSW, which reflect
the migration of sand waves under tidal
influences (Fig. 8.9a). However, minor
cross-lamination sets at 9600 ft dip to the
NE, which is related to limited fluvial
influence (Fig. 8.9c). Possible compactional
effects have oversteepened the dipping
magnitude of a cross-lamination set at 9603
ft (Fig. 8.9c). These units are bounded by
truncation surfaces and clay drapes (e.g.,
9605, 9599.2, 9584, 9581 ft). Soft-sediment
deformation and clay clasts are locally
present within channel lag deposits (e.g.,
9592.5 ft), (Fig.8.9b).
This facies appears to be deposited as
stacked point bars within a NE-SW-oriented
channel under a dominating tidal influence
and a minor fluvial influence (Fig. 8.5).
The underlying sediments from 9610.5

to 9630 ft are highly laminated tidal flats that
were subjected to only limited biogenic
activity, which has been confirmed on the
core (Fig. 8.9e).
B-6 sandstones (9630-9680 ft)
The GR over the interval displays

stacked, fining-upward sediments. The interval has a highly dipping erosional base and
an associated cemented lag. At the base of
the channel, sediments are rich in clay clasts.
The facies contains accretion surfaces
and cross-lamination sets that indicate the
complex interplay of fluvial and tidal
systems. Point bars contain accretion surfaces
that dip toward the NW and SE. The
variability in the dip directions reflects the
migratory nature of the channel. This
meandering channel is trending in a NE-SW
orientation, as suggested by the dip direction
of the accretion surfaces.
Cross-laminations dip to the NE and
SSE. The dominant NE-dipping crosslaminations at 9649 ft possibly reflect the
migration of sand waves under fluvial
influences (Fig. 8.9f). The sets that dip to the
SW at 9631 ft (Fig. 8.9e) and SSE at 9658 ft
(Fig. 8.9f) reflects a limited tidal influence.
The sandstone can be subdivided into
several stacked depositional and flow units
that are separated by channel levee and tidal
flat deposits. These units are bounded by
erosional and truncation surfaces. The image
data show clay clasts within the sediments
(e.g., Fig 8.9f). These sandstones are
interpreted to be deposited by a fluvial
channel with a NE-SW orientation that was
locally subjected to limited tidal influence
(Fig. 8.5).

Figure 8.9a-f
N
9581.0 ft
FMI images over
N
9625.0 ft
the B-6 sand.
A= Truncation surfaces
B= Large scale crosslamination sets.
A
B
9586.0 ft
9590.5 ft
Soft sediment
deformation and
clay drapes.
9632.0 ft
FMI image and core photograph of the sediments underlying the B-6
9593.0 ft
sand showing dense laminations. A=cross-laminations.
9598.5 ft
f
C
A= Truncation surfaces
A
and clay drapes

C= Minor crosslamination sets
D= Oversteeped crosslaminations.
FMI image of the

sediments underlying
the B-6 sand.
9604.0 ft
9605.0 ft
A=cross-laminations
B=truncation surfaces
Lateral accretion
C=clay clasts.
surfaces dipping to
the SE (above) and
9648.0ft
NW (below).
9611.0 ft

10
E VA L U AT I O N O F F R A C T U R E D C A R B O N AT E S
Borehole electrical images can provide

essential data for the description of fractured
reservoirs. These data include the detection
of fractures, their frequency, orientation,
morphology, origin and attributes. These
results can then be used to understand the
fracture processes in the field and help predict the optimum locations and orientations
for new wells.
The examples below show the interpretation of a fractured carbonate in two
deviated wells from the West Mara Field.
Borehole electrical images were recorded by
an FMI tool over several thousand feet of
reservoir, containing a wide sampling of the
fracture type and characteristics. The FMI
images were analyzed on a workstation
using Geoframe Image Examiner software to
give interpreted images, fracture and
bedding orientations and various fracture
attribute plots. Different features of the
fracture processes in the field are deduced
from these results.
The following sections include an
overview of fracturing and fractured reservoirs, an evaluation of fractured reservoirs in
the West Mara Field, and a discussion of the
response of the FMI to fractures. A general
summary of the West Mara Field was given
in Chapter 222.
Fractured reservoirs: An overview
Fractured reservoirs are a special type of
hydrocarbon reservoir. They are commonly
thick, porosity is mainly secondary, the
distribution of porosity and permeability is
irregular, production varies greatly, and they
may or may not have a common
hydrocarbon content. Fractured reservoirs
show a great deal of difference in terms of:
1) the pores of the host rock may or may not
contain hydrocarbons, and 2) reservoir
potential may or may not be evaluated by
conventional openhole logs. It appears that
the complex interaction of fracture, matrix,
and fluids is sufficiently variable to render
each fractured reservoir unique (Watts, 1983).
8 11
Evaluating fractured reservoirs requires

a lot of data in order to properly develop
and optimally drain them. The data provided
by cores, Borehole Electrical Imagery, openhole logs, and well testing must be integrated to better understand and model the
fracture system.
Other than oriented cores and Borehole
Electrical Imagery, most other logging
approaches are only fracture indicators with
no capability for any geometrical analysis.
Even then, the detection of fractures depends
on the vertical resolution of the logging tool.
The technique of measuring the gain or loss
of mud depends on a difference between
mud hydrostatic pressure and formation
pressure.
Among such a variety of tools, the FMI
can detect fractures of a wide range of width,
from hairline to large open fractures. In the
FMI processing and display scheme, the most
resistive features are plotted as white, and the
most conductive are plotted as black. All
other resistivity values are scaled and plotted
using various color codings. Open fractures
that have been invaded by mud will appear
as black, highly dipping planes. Cemented
fractures cutting across the rock fabric are
normally seen as white dipping planes,
because fracture-filling minerals are generally
more resistive than the surrounding matrix.
In certain cases, fracture traces can only
be seen on the two images from opposing
pads or appear wider along that direction
because of drilling enhancement of natural
fractures within the principal stress orientation. These fractures may also be connected
by drilling-induced fractures and appear as a
series of zigzag fractures on the Borehole
Electrical Imagery.

Figure 8.10
Borehole
90
180
270
360
S
W
N
W
E
For straight hole:

TD: 53 / 270
Dip magnitude proportional
Dip azimuth
to amplitude of sine wave
Dip magnitude
Dip azimuth located at
True dip
minimum of sine wave
Planar features, which are

not vertical or horizontal, and
which are intersected by boreholes, are expressed by ellipses on the borehole walls.
Figure 8.11
s1
Conjugated shear
fracture planes
30
q q
s3
s3
s2
3-D View
(Planes of rupture)
For triaxial stress in which s1

> s2 > s3, two shear fractures and one extensional
fracture (// to s1 and perp. to
s3) tend to develop.
Brittle rocks contain more fractures than

ductile rocks. There are a number of properties that may affect rock brittleness, which
include rock type, grain size, type of
cementing mineral, porosity, temperature,
clay percentage, effective confining pressure,
and strain rate (Stearns and Friedman, 1972).
Increasing effective confining pressure and
temperature or reducing strain rate tend to
increase rock ductility. Ductile and thicker
layers have relatively larger and wider
fractures with greater spacing under the same
structural situation.
The proper study of fractured reservoirs
begins with a thorough analysis of the fractures in terms of geometry, origin, morphology, density, width, and porosity. The Image
Examiner has enhanced our capability of
tackling these areas.
Geometrical analysis
Sedimentary and structural features that
are not strictly vertical or horizontal, when
are intersected by the borehole, appear as an
ellipse on the borehole walls (Fig. 8.10). The
steepness of ellipses in vertical wells reflect
the dip magnitude and orientation of these
features. When the images are presented in
two dimensions or plan view, the ellipses

will turn into sine waves. The Image
Examiner Workstation is a new technique
that can interactively measure the dip and
orientation of these sine waves to the highest
degree of accuracy.
Defining the dip and orientation of fractures is of prime importance in recognizing
the stress regime of the fracture systems.
Knowing the dip direction of fractures is very
valuable when setting the well trajectory in
order to intersect the maximum number of
fractures and increase the productivity of
wells. Moreover, studies evidence that well
performance is highly affected by the dip
magnitude of fractures, especially near the
hydrocarbon/water contact.
Fracturing processes
Different sources of stress often create
different types and distributions of fractures.
Fold-related fractures are different from faultrelated fractures regarding their relation to the
original structural setting, orientation, and distribution. Fault and wrench-fault relatedfractures are discussed in more detail below,
since they are of concern in the West Mara
Field.
Fractures have been classified into several
genetic types (Stearns, 1967; Stearns and
Friedman, 1972; and Nelson, 1985). These
classifications are based on two main
assumptions: 1) natural fracture patterns faithfully reflect the local state of stress at the time
of fracturing, and 2) subsurface rocks fracture
in a manner qualitatively similar to equivalent
rocks in the lab under analogous conditions.
Generally, for any triaxial stress state in
which s1>s2>s3, there are two shear-fracture
orientations and one extensional-fracture
orientation (Fig. 8.11). The two shear fractures
form a dihedral angle of about 60. The axis
of s1 is the bisector of the acute angle, while
s3 bisects the obtuse angle. s2 acts in a plane
perpendicular to the plane that contains s1
and s3. The extension fracture orientation is
parallel to s1 and perpendicular to s3.

8 12
Figure 8.12
Q1
Q2
Q3
Normal
fault
Extensional
basin (divergent)
Q3
Q1
Q1
Q2
Thrust fault
Compressional basin (convergent)

Q2
Fault-related fractures in porous or

plastic rocks are impermeable as a result of
crushing and smearing of rocks along the
fracture planes. It is very difficult to predict
the number of fractures that will be
generated by a specific fault. Some major
faults may generate a narrow zone of
fractured reservoirs. Some minor faults,
however, may develop an extended area of
small-scale fractures (Sterns and Friedman,
1972).
Q1
Q3
Wrench
fault
Pullapart
basin (shearing)
Fault-related fractures form

by the same state of stress
as the fault.
Figure 8.13
Extension
or
al
si
Re
on
ve
r
se
fa
ul
ts
Compression
fa
es
ul
Co
m
pr
ts
Strike-7
ts
60
Th
Fo
ld
ru
ax
st
f
es
au
lts
slip faul
N
al
m
or
ts
ul
fa
Wrench fault model (after Harding, 1974)
The strain ellipsoid of a

convergent wrench fault,
showing the strike of
different fault fracture types.
8 13
However, for extension fractures to form, s3

must be reduced to the tensile strength of the
rock (Nelson, 1985).
Determining the regional stress regime
can be complicated by the local variation in
stress, and the reactivation of older structural
elements (Willis, 1994).
Fault-related fractures
Fault planes are, by definition, planes of
shear. Fault-related fractures are created by
the same stress regime that originated the
fault. Therefore, their orientation can be
predicted by knowing the fault strike (Fig.
8.12). The converse is also true: fracture
orientation reveals the strike of a fault and its
sense of shear (Stearns and Friedman, 1972).
Normally, these fractures cover small
areas along the fault plane but significantly
increase the productivity of wells that are
drilled in these areas. The proper deflection
of a hole to intersect the greater number of
fractures depends on the behavior and types
of faults (Stearns and Friedman, 1972). For
low-dipping fault planes (30) no deviation
would theoretically increase the number of
intersected fractures.
Wrench fault-related fractures

Shortening (folds and thrust faults),
extension (normal faults and dikes) structural
elements, and horizontal shear on nearly
vertical surfaces are normally developed
within wrench fault domains. Prominent
wrench faults have a long history and
encompass basement rocks as well as the
overlying sedimentary cover (Sylvester, 1988).
In 1974, Harding introduced a general
model incorporating the structural elements
associated with wrench faulting (Fig. 8.13).
A classic case involves blocks moving sideby-side, parallel to their mutual boundaries,
and in-line with the regional movement
vector.
Harding indicated that an expected
angle between the conjugate fractures is
between 60 and 70. The main fracture
population is normally developed within the
synthetic orientation of the fault and form, in
a simple wrench fault model, a small acute
angle with the main wrench fault. The other
orientation is the antithetical orientation
where the fracture population is minor.
Folds and thrust faults initially form
perpendicular to the maximum stress component. Folds, however, are typically
arranged in en-echelon pattern, oblique (10
to 35) to the principal displacement zone.
The direction of horizontal movement of the
wrench fault can be revealed by the stepping
direction of the folds; that is, right-stepping
folds form by right-lateral movement.

Figure 8.15
Figure 8.14
N
E
W
S
Open
Partially
mineralfilled
Mineralfilled
Vuggy
Vuggy
Mineralfilled
Partially
mineralfilled
Open
Normal faults and extensional fractures

develop parallel to the main compressional
forces and at about 45 to the principal displacement zone. The style of structural assembly varies between convergent and divergent
types of wrench faults (Wilcox et al., 1973).
In general, the intensity and morphology
of fault-related fractures appear to be related
to lithology, distance from fault planes, types
of faults, amount of displacement along
shear planes, depth of burial, and rock strain.
(Nelson, 1985).
The different types of

fracture morphology.
D
U
'
70
0'
70
0'
70
0'
'
'
0'
0'
0'
50
U 6
730
50
0
0'
30
0
50
0'
50
0'
90
0'
10
0'
90
Structural
90
0'
0'
41
00'
49
'
0
30
116
'
00
0'
156
'
00
0'
D
U
0'
0
37
4
90
'
2900
770
6
10
0
'
'
'
00
930
8900
D U
7300
0
10
U
D
Number, width and

porosity of fractures
Fracture density, length and width are
the main inputs for computing the porosity
and/or the storage capacity of fracture
systems. Fracture density is the number of
fractures per foot or meter computed perpendicular to the fracture planes. It is
controlled by the thickness of bedding,
ductility, grain size and the porosity of
the formation.
The segment of a fracture displayed on
a borehole image is the trace length of the
fracture. Long fractures appear to have a
wider aperture at the borehole wall and are
normally spaced far apart. The numerous
smaller fractures that exhibit the same
orientation as the large ones are generally
narrow, shorter, and more closely spaced
(Nelson, 1985).
890
'
8
90
0'
90
0'
U D
6
N
8
10
0'
10
0'
Figure 8.15
Fracture morphology
The morphology of fracture planes can
be defined by core or Borehole Electrical
Imagery data. Four types of morphology are
recognized (Fig. 8.14). They are: 1) open
fractures, 2) deformed fractures, 3)
cemented fractures, and 4) vuggy fractures.
Deformed fractures may form during
the fracturing process or slightly after. The
movement along fracture planes may
increase or decrease the fracture attributes,
depending on the ductility of the rocks.
Vuggy fractures develop when circulating underground fluids cause dissolution
on the fracture walls. They are normally
associated with unconformities and karst
topography in carbonates (Nelson, 1985).
Fault
Well
0.5
1.0 km
Location map of the West Mara Field.

8 14
Fracture porosity is computed from the

mean aperture of each fracture in an average
window (usually 1 ft) taking into consideration the well diameter and borehole
coverage of the FMI.
Top : 5540.0 ft
Top : 5540.0 ft
Bottom : 9240.0 ft
Bottom : 9240.0 ft
Strike Histogram
: A Fracture (opened)
: B Fracture (partially opened)
: C Fracture (cemented)
Dip magnitude and azimuth of the

various sets of fractures.
Figure 8.18
Depth
(ft)
Tadpole
90
DEG.
6000
7000
8000
9000
Fault zone
Dip magnitude and azimuth

of bed boundaries in DM-116.
8 15
Fracture aperture is the fracture width

measured perpendicular to the fracture
plane. It tends to decrease with depth
because the fractures are either further away
from continental enhancement processes or
nearer to slow circulation of underground
fluids that are rich in secondary filling
material. Overburden pressure also has an
effect on the fracture aperture.
The fracture aperture seen by a
Borehole Electrical Image is proportional to
the conductivity of the mud inside the
fracture and is slightly influenced by the
resistivity of the surrounding rocks. The
Fracview (Luthi and Souhaite, 1990)
computation accounts for this effect and
allows for an accurate determination of the
fracture aperture. Two calculations of
fracture aperture are available in Fracview.
The mean aperture is simply the average
width of the fracture along its length. The
hydraulic aperture is the cubic mean of the
fracture width.
Fractured reservoirs in DM-116

This well was drilled on the hanging wall
of the West Mara Field, and has been deviated
about 60 through the reservoir to test the
footwall of the field (Figs. 8.15, previous page
and 8.19). The well was drilled underbalanced and numerous oil shows were
reported while drilling. The Borehole
Electrical Imagery over the fractured
carbonates was interpreted on the Image
Examiner using Fracview. The results indicate
three major groups of fractures, classified as
open, partially open, and cemented fractures
(Fig. 8.16). Induced fractures were identified
and excluded from the computation. The
latter are generally vertical and strike NE-SW,
indicating this to be the direction of minimum
stress.
The main population of open and
partially open fractures dip to the NE. A
minor population of partially open fractures
dips to the SW. Cemented fractures, however, mainly dip to the ENE and strike in a
NNW-SSE orientation. Generally, the fractures strike N20W and N80W, and form a
dihedral angle of 60 between them (Fig.
8.17).
The well crossed several faults as shown
by the drastic changes of structural dip which
were extracted from the image data (Fig.
8.18). This is consistent with the structural
setting of the well, as shown in the NW-SE
geologic cross-section (Fig. 8.19). In addition,
the fault zone through the 6175 to 6940 ft
interval shows a high GR reading, that is
possibly related to the high content of
uranium within residual hydrocarbons over
fault planes. This may also suggest that the
faults were not originally sealed and allowed
hydrocarbon migration to occur before they
were clogged by heavy oil and tar.

Figure 8.19
DM - 116
NW
1000
SE
2000
3000
Post-Eocene
Depth (ft)
4000
Mito Juan/Coln
5000
Mito Juan/Coln
6000
7000
Marac
a
Socuy
Maraca
Ro Negro
8000
9000
Lisure
La Luna
Lisure
S.T P.T-8200
0.5
1 km
Apn
TD=8506 ft
Basement
Basement
Scale
Socuy
La Luna
NW-SE geological crosssection through DM-116.
N
5932.0 ft
5766.0 ft
5772.0 ft
Stylolites with tension gashes (A)

Fractures enhanced by dissolution effect (A). (In
the depth track of these and subsequent images,
small tick marks represent 1-ft increments and
5940.0 ft
large tick marks 5-ft increments).
The study illustrates that fracture aperture

tends to decrease with depth, possibly
because the fractures are further away from
continental enhancement processes, or because they are nearer to slower-circulating
underground fluids where secondary minerals
tend to readily precipitate into the fractures.
The sediments within the foot wall of the
fault are of poor reservoir potential and contain few minor fractures. The high overburden pressure related to the thrusting of the
hanging wall possibly inhibited the development of fractures. With depth, rock temperature increases as well as the rock ductility,
which results in reducing the number of
fractures and limiting their potential.
Wrench fault-related fractures
Fracture trends and structural elements
of the West Mara Field are best explained by
convergent wrench fault tectonics (see above
and Fig. 8.13, page 813). The angle between
the conjugate sets is about 60. The main
fracture populations are striking within the
synthetic orientation; i.e., NW-SE. In a simple
wrench fault model, this orientation should
be at small acute angle (15-20) with the main
wrench fault. Lesser fracture populations are
striking in a NNW-SSE direction and parallel
to the antithetical orientation (Fig. 8.17).
It appears that these fractures were
originated by the same convergent wrench
tectonics that shaped the structural configuration of the West Mara Field, which is located
perpendicular to the main compressional
stress of NW-SE orientation. The field is
bisected by several normal faults that are
trending in NW-SE orientation and parallel to
the main compressional forces. West Mara Field
is bounded on the west by a major NE-SW
thrust fault (Fig. 8.15, previous page).
Fracture attributes
Over the upper section of the Cretaceous carbonates, the image data illustrates
dissolution effects (Fig. 8.20). Open fractures
exhibit high dipping angles (78 to 82)

8 16
Figure 8.22
10
Fracture density
(# ft)
Depth
(ft)
0.0010
Mean aperture
(mm)
10
Fracture aperture
0.30
(mm)
6050
6100
Fracture aperture and density in DM-116.
mainly to the NE. Apparent fracture aperture

within this interval averages 0.01 mm. The
fracture density ranges from 2 to 3 F/ft.
Vuggy morphology can be observed in
places along the fracture walls, indicating
that the width of some of these fractures has
been enhanced by dissolution processes.
The fracture porosity averages 0.05%.
Dolomitization processes and moldic
8 17
porosity are evident and have enhanced the

reservoir characteristics along certain parts of
this section.
Over the interval from 5768 to 5772 ft,
stylolites with tensional gashes were developed (Fig. 8.21, previous page). Fractures
within the interval from 5772 to 6160 ft have
fracture apertures that range between 0.015
and 0.03 mm (Fig. 8.22). The fracture
porosity within this zone varies from 0.01 to
0.05%.
Within the interval from 6110 to 6120 ft,
Fracview detects porosity values as high as
0.2%. The fracture density varies from 1 to 3
F/ft, the fracture dips are high, and the
fractures exhibit long traces and large
apertures. The presence of such fractures just
above the main bounding thrust fault may
explain the gradual increase in water cut
within this well. Water may migrate along the
fault plane from deeper water-bearing
horizons such as the Ro Negro Formation
(see Fig. 8.19, previous page) through the
high-dipping fractures into the hydrocarbonbearing zones. The interval from 6058 to
8470 ft (MD) was tested barefoot and the
well recovered 115 BOPD of 15API with
12% water cut.
Fractured reservoirs in DM-156
This well was drilled near a NW-SEtrending normal fault (Fig. 8.15, page 814).
Several oil shows were encountered during
the drilling of the well, which was drilled
underbalanced.
The upper sedimentary section is highly
laminated and exhibits a dipping magnitude
of 10 to the SSE (Fig. 8.23). The carbonate
rocks are highly fossiliferous, and developed
vuggy and moldic porosity by dissolution
processes. Dissolution processes have
further enhanced reservoir quality by
opening the communication between several zones. Secondary porosity created by
dolomitization has also enhanced the reservoir quality in this well (Fig. 8.24). A minor
fault is clearly seen at 6075 ft (Fig. 8.25).

Figures 8.23, 8.24 and 8.25
N
N
5889.0 ft
6064.0 ft
5988.0 ft
5997.0 ft
Dolomitization in DM-156 (shown by

white nodules).
B
5901.0 ft
Induced fractures (A)
Laminated sequence dipping to the SE.
and a minor fault (B).
6928.5 ft
6562.5 ft
6572.0 ft
Possible syneresis fractures that

6940.0 ft
were developed by body forces,
Open fractures (A) and fractures
and formed by compaction and
enhanced by dissolution( B).
de-watering.
6077.0 ft
The image data illustrates the different

types of fractures. Cemented and open
fractures were recognized throughout the
reservoir section. Fractures were enhanced
by dissolution and drilling effects over
several zones (Fig. 8.26). The well recovered
2850 BOPD of 14.4API with 0.5% water
from the 6195 to 7150 ft interval (MD),
which was tested barefoot.
Induced fractures were identified in the
intervals from 6064 to 6072 ft and 6665 to
6667 ft, and have been excluded from the
computation (Fig. 8.25). Syneresis fractures
and stylolites were observed in several
zones (Fig. 8.27).
The fractures strike to the NW-SE and
NE-SW (Fig. 8.28, next page), and they form
an acute angle of 70 between them. Natural
fractures are controlled by thin shale streaks
(Fig. 8.29, next page). The results illustrate
that the cemented fractures are striking
within open-fracture orientations.

8 18
Figure 8.28
0
10%
330
30
8%
6%
300
60
4%
2%
270
2%
2%
4%
6%
240
8%
10%
90
120
210
150
180
Fracture orientation
in DM-156.
Figure 8.29
6433.0 ft
A
6447.5 ft
Highly fractured zone where

fracture extensions were controlled by thin shale beds (A).
8 19
Conclusions
Two dominating fracture orientations
were defined within the Cretaceous carbonates in DM-116 and DM-156 wells. They strike
in NW-SE and ENE-WSW orientations and
form a 60 to 70 dihedral angle between
them. The fracture orientation in these wells
suggests that convergent wrench fault-related
stresses initiated the development of these
fractures. The wrench fault is possibly
trending in a WNW-ESE orientation.
The maximum stress component has a
NW-SE orientation. The least stress component
is located in the NE-SW orientation and parallel to the elongation of the West Mara anticline.
M-116 crossed the bounding thrust zone
that is located to the NW of the well. The fault
zone consisting of several fault slivers has
been demonstrated by high values on the GR
curve.
The wells closest to major faults encountered a higher number of fractures with better
attributes. However, open, partially open, and
cemented fractures within the studied wells
exhibit no preferential orientation. Apparent
fracture aperture within these wells ranges
between 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm. The fractured
rocks have an average porosity of 0.1%.
Formation damage that occurred during
drilling and testing operations is most likely
affecting the reservoir quality in these wells.
Induced fractures are present within the
main stress orientation. They may connect the
natural fractures and enhance the fracture
network over borehole walls.
The image data show several zones of
intergranular and vuggy porosity within these
wells. Dissolution processes enhanced the
effective porosity in these zones and occasionally created a permeability network.
Dolomitization processes played an
additional role in enhancing the porosity and
permeability of certain zones. These processes
and the detrimental distribution of fractures
created numerous compartments within the
reservoir section, which has variable net pay
zone thicknesses.
Wellsite fracture imaging
Fracture images can also be

obtained while drilling with the RAB
tool in the drill string (Chapter 44). The
RAB makes an azimuthal resistivity measurement, so that when the drillstring is
rotated it can record an image of the
resistivity around the well. The image
below shows fractures detected by the
RAB in well DM-157. The fracture dip
and inclination are shown on the right.
The dip has been computed
interactively on a workstation. Wellsite
computations and display are also
possible. The green stripe indicates the
direction of the top of the well as
measured by the inclinometer tool in the
drill string.
N
90

A M U LT I O F F S E T S E I S M I C P R O F I L E I N A N O L D W E L L
Four offset VSPs were acquired in an

old producing well in a complex geologic
area. Surface seismic data were not
available, so the geological interpretation
was only based on previously existing well
log information. The purpose of this
borehole seismic acquisition was to: a)
provide a final VSP image with enough
vertical and lateral resolution to identify any
NE-oriented faults, b) determine the NE
continuation of the objective, and c) identify
further sandstone development below the
known area of investigation.
The resulting analysis of the final
migrated VSP image provides information
about a reverse fault approximately 300 ft
from the wellbore. This fault shows that the
area is divided in two main blocks that are
most probably disconnected at the reservoir
level. Moreover, deeper reflections are too
weak to delineate sandstone bodies with
enough porosity to qualify as additional oil
reserves.
Figure 8.30
100 m
39
97
09
18
22
Faulted out
'
'
25
8
57 28
7
75
12
'
50
0'
10
"Some sands faulted out"
'
75
'
100
50'
0'
10
75'
25'
Well
Geological setting
The reservoir is located at an average
depth of 1300 ft, is Pliocene in age, and has
already produced oil extensively from wells
drilled to the SW. The sedimentary environment is a deltaic channel fan, trending SW to
NE, with the source of the sediments from
the SW (Fig. 8.30). This trend is expected to
continue to the NE, and the operator will
explore the reservoir until the sandstone
either shales-out or becomes totally wet.
The reservoir is faulted, and each fault
has a different oil-water contact. Shallower
sandstones are also oil-bearing but are not
as productive as the objective sandstone.
Deeper sandstones are also present but may
be wet.
VSP ray-trace modeling
To determine the proper number of
source locations and receiver depth stations,
ray-trace modeling is performed. Prior to
any modeling attempt, a structural model is
extracted using the existing structural interpretation. Interpretation shows a large
anticlinal structure oriented NE to SW. The
VSP profiles should be oriented NE (the
direction of investigation) to study the
presence of faults and the lateral continuity
of the sandstone-shale sequence in the
interval of interest.
Ray-trace modeling tells us that the best
lateral coverage is obtained if four singlesource offset locations are selected. Basically,
a single zero-offset VSP is needed for velocity
and correlation studies at the well site (200 ft
of offset), and a non-zero-offset (2000 ft of
offset) is needed to study the lateral continuity of the sandstone/shale sequence.
50
'
N
t
en ion
im ect
d
r
Se di
w
flo
Gross sand thickness

Net oil thickness
Fault
Oil
Water
Well locations, gross sand and net oil thicknesses, as mapped

before running the multioffset VSP.

8 20
The sensor module consists of a triaxial

mutually orthogonal array in a gimbals
mounted system. A fourth geophone and a
shaker, also available in the sensor module,
allow extensive in-situ data quality control
during the acquisition.
Figure 8.31
Well
NE
Source-1
Source-2
Source-3
Source-4
Depth (ft)
500
1000
1500
2000
1
2500
500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Offset (ft)
Results of ray-trace
modeling, showing the
coverage from each offset
at different levels.
However, at this last offset the subsurface

fold at each reflector is poor in areas near the
wellsite because of refraction; therefore, two
more intermediate-offset VSPs are recommended to improve the subsurface fold, such
as at 750 ft and 1500 ft. The final lateral
coverage and subsurface fold provided by
the recommended acquisition geometry is
displayed in Fig. 8.31.
Figure 8.32
SEG-Y
tape
Field
tape
Field
tape
Demultiplex
and editing
Sonic log
Stack
Signal based
polarization
True amplitude
recovery and
bandpass filter
Median velocity
filter
Predictive and
waveshape
deconvolution
SEG-Y
tape
Kirchoff
migration
Standard processing chain for

non-zero-offset VSP.
8 21
Velocity
Model
Downhole tool
The downhole seismic tool
used in this acquisition is the
CSAT* Combinable Seismic
Acquisition Tool that digitally transmits the signal
recorded at the geophone to
the surface. This tool has a
modular architecture, which
allows the use of a small,
light-weight sensor that
makes the tool (seismically
speaking) more sensitive to
the wanted signal and less
sensitive to unwanted signals, such as the tube wave.
This sensor module is
decoupled from the tool
body and strongly coupled
against the wellbore.
VSP data acquisition

Dynamite was chosen as the source.
This type of source allows the highestfrequency content with the highest signal-tonoise ratio possible. Also, this source is
easily operated in adverse or irregular
surface conditions (marsh and lagoon
topography). However, for each VSP offset,
a proper cluster source array has to be
designed. One dynamite charge (1 Kg each)
is located 18 ft deep in each shot hole. There
are 30 holes, 3 m apart, in a regular 5 x 6
grid, allowing 30 shots for each offset.
The well conditions did not allow the
downhole seismic tool go deeper than 1010
ft, so the actual VSP stations range from 1010
ft up to 200 ft at 40-ft sampling intervals.
Processing
A standard VSP processing chain for
non-zero offset VSP geometry was applied
to each source offset location VSP data. (Fig.
8.32). During data acquisition, the downhole
tool rotates and, therefore, randomly orients
the horizontal components at each station.
Because of this and for further processing,
the first step after data loading should be to
properly orient these horizontal components
to a fixed reference coordinate system by
using a signal-based polarization method.
The coordinate system of the vertical and
horizontal planes is shown in Fig. 8.33. After
reorienting to the reference coordinate
system, the data from source position 2 are
shown in Fig. 8.34.
Compressional P waves are the
dominant seismic events in the VSP total
wavefield. The first 500 msec after the first
compressional arrival are not contaminated
by mode conversion. This allows at least 1.0

Figure 8.33
Vertical plane
Plane: well-source-sensor
Horizontal plane
Y
account the source offset distance. A ninetrace coherence window is used to help the
program differentiate between upgoing
energy and downgoing energy. VSP data
after velocity separation in the case of
source position 2 are shown in Fig. 8.35,
next page.
HMN
HMX
a
a
Sensor
Reorientation of the
measured signals (X and Y)
to the reference coordinate
system (HMX and HMN).
sec of data (two-way time index) free of any

mode conversion. This means at least 3000 ft
of VSP data that are free from any modeconverted event. Therefore, P to S wave
separation, which might distort the data, is
not needed.
Velocity filtering, the next step in the
VSP processing chain, is dedicated to
separating the upgoing waves from the
downgoing waves. This separation is
performed in the time domain, taking into
Figure 8.34
Horizontal projection
Measured depth (ft)

Vertical axis
260.0
Predictive and waveshape

deconvolutions
It is assumed that the downgoing
wavetrain recorded at the geophone, at a
certain depth in the well, is the seismic
source that generates the upgoing wavetrain.
Once the upgoing energy is separated from
the downgoing energy, a Wiener-Levinson
deconvolution filter can be designed to
remove any multiples generated between
the seismic source and the geophone
located in the well. Thus, the deconvolution
filter is designed trace by trace from the
downgoing wavetrain and is later applied to
both the traces containing the upgoing and
the downgoing wavetrain. In the same way,
a Wiener-Levinson deconvolution filter is
designed to reshape the remaining trace into
a symmetric zero phase wavelet.
After the deconvolution processing, the
upgoing wavetrain contains the effective
reflections caused by a deconvolved signal
propagating down through the formation
(Fig. 8.36, next page).
650.5
970.5
260.0
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
Time (sec)
Data from source location 2 in the vertical axis, and the horizontal projection.
1.000
Migration
The Kirchoff integral is used to get a
simultaneous migrated picture of all the VSP
traces for each source offset location.
According to the Kirchoff integral, for a given
geometry (the relative position of the sources
and receivers for all the source offset locations) and for a given velocity model (simple
structure is taken into account inside the
velocity model), each point of the subsurface
is imaged by sending a ray from a particular
source point (X, Y) and receiving it back later
(reflected) at a particular receiver point (X',
Y') that corresponds to the well location.

8 22
For each dip angle, if the actual migrated

point corresponds to a real reflector (i.e., the
imaged point describes a hyperbola), then
the sum of the amplitudes will give a
significant coherent energy. If there was no
reflector at the imaged point, the sum should
be zero. The migrated image in real
amplitude and referred to the seismic datum
(mean sea level), is displayed in Fig. 8.37
with SEG normal polarity.
Figure 8.35
Measured depth (ft)

Vertical axis
260.0
650.5
970.5
260.0
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
1.000
Time (sec)
Data from source location 2 after velocity separation.
This ray propagates down through the

velocity model, applying Snells law and
Huygens principle. The trajectory of the
actual ray, going from the source point to
the receiver point, besides being computed
for the actual velocity model, is also
computed for a wide range of dip values.
Figure 8.36
Measured depth (ft)

Vertical axis
260.0
650.5
970.5
260.0
Results
Each offset VSP data set shows good
frequency content and signal-to-noise ratio.
These two factors are a result of the high
quality of the seismic source used in data acquisition and the relatively shallow depth of
the sandstone-shale sequence being studied.
Compared to the ray-trace modeling,
refraction from the far source offset location
was not as large as expected, because of a
high velocity layer found near the surface.
The first 1500 ft of formation (Fig. 8.37)
can be characterized as a relatively parallel
stratigraphic sequence, divided into two
blocks by a reverse fault (almost vertical)
located approximately 300 ft away from the
well. The fault throw is relatively small, so at
the reservoir level (1300 ft) this fault might not
interrupt the lateral continuity of the
sandstone body.
The relatively small amplitude values
below 1500 ft suggest that this stratigraphic
sequence does not go deeper. The log data
also show little character and confirm this
result. However, further away from the
borehole we start to see reflectors, suggesting there may be more sandstone-shale
sequences in this direction.
650.5
970.5
0.000
0.500
1.000
Time (sec)
Data from source location 2 after velocity separation and deconvolution.
8 23

Figure 8.37
Migrated image of data from all offsets,

alongside the well logs.
GR
ILD
1500 ft
0
500
1000
1500
Conclusions
A multioffset VSP was successfully
recorded in an old producing well. The
good quality of the depth-indexed migrated
version of the VSP results allows us to
conclude that:
the vertical and horizontal resolutions of
the migrated image are sufficient to
clearly identify the top and bottom of
the sandstone objective. This sandstone
body can also be correlated laterally on
both sides of the fault plane.
a reverse fault can be defined following
lateral body changes. This fault plane
may or may not be causing abrupt
lateral permeability changes, as a small
throw is observed.
the sandstone objective continues on
the other side of the fault plane and
shows important amplitude variations.
A horizontal reentry was considered
risky because of the fault being so close to
the well. A vertical well penetrating the
block to the right of the fault was considered
a safer way to look for additional oil
reserves. This well could also investigate the
deeper seismic events (below 1500 ft).
2000
(ft)
COMPLEMENTING A POOR SURFACE SEISMIC
An important application of multioffset

VSPs is the acquisition of data in areas where
surface seismic has not given good results.
One such case is the Orocual Field in
Maturn Basin. The main reservoir is the
Pliocene Las Piedras Formation, which
produces oil (12 to 29API) from sandstones
that lie between 2000 and 8000 ft.
The surface topography above the
Orocual Field is very rough. In the
Quaternary, laterite-rich soils developed in
this area as a result of intensive weathering
in the warm climate. This mineral is easily
eroded during the rainy season, leaving

enormous holes several kilometers in
diameter and as much as 200 m deep. These
depressions are generally covered by wild
forest which, in combination with the
topography, makes surface seismic acquisition extremely difficult (Fig. 8.38, next
page). The surface seismic line shown in Fig.
8.39, also in next page, illustrates the
problem. For example, the coverage between
shot points 300 and 600 is particularly poor
and reflectors cannot be picked with any
certainty.

8 24
Figure 8.38
Typical terrain in the Orocual area, showing a 35-m depression with difficult access.
(Note small white-roofed house in the left-center).
Planning and acquisition

The well ORS-65 was planned as a deep
wildcat to explore the sandstones of the
Cretaceous San Juan Formation (see Fig. 8.40
and Chapter 138). The location was carefully
selected so as to encounter a high in the San
Juan, to avoid faults that were obvious on the
surface seismic, and also to avoid the
uncertain structures in the center of the
collapsed zone. It was also necessary to
minimize the interval over the Carapita
Formation and avoid the surface troughs. The
Carapita is known to be difficult to drill
because of the presence of strongly
overpressured zones.
This well presented a good opportunity
for recording a VSP to help clarify interpretation in the collapsed zone. However,
because of the surface topography, careful
planning was required. First, the area was
thoroughly scouted to find accessible locations for a vibrator of 25 tons. Then, for each
possible source location and downhole
geophone station, the target illumination was
Figure 8.39
792
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
Time (msec)
At the same time, there is a large collapsed zone within the surface formations. It
has been suggested that the Carapita collapsed
as the result of a deep strike-slip fault that left
a large valley in the Carapita, but not in the
basement, after the blocks were pulled apart.
The valley was subsequently filled with
sediments from the north.
A multioffset VSP recorded in a suitably
chosen well offered the best chance of
overcoming the uncertainties in the surface
seismic. It was hoped that it would show
reflectors in the area around the well, verify
the existence and extension of the faults,
and detect the presence of certain sandstones of interest in the Las Piedras
Formation.
2250
2500
2750
3000
3250
3500
3750
4000
23 50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
Trace number
Surface seismic line through the well location.
8 25

Figure 8.40
Las Piedras
Carapita superior
Carapita inferior
Areo
San Juan
Ray trace modeling showing

the target illumination with
four offset source locations.
checked using ray-trace modeling (Fig. 8.40).

The parabolic shape of the Las Piedras and
Mesa Formations helps give a wider image of
the target. After many tries, it was found that
the optimum coverage from feasible locations
was with four offsets on a single NE-SW line at
+1000 m, +2000 m, -2000 m and -800 m.
Figure 8.41
Processing and interpretation

The data were processed using the
standard BORSEIS offset VSP chain (page
821). The direction of polarization of the
refracted signals was reconstructed from the
three components, and the refracted signals
minimized by taking signals perpendicular
to this direction. The residuals were
eliminated by median filtering. P and S
separation was obtained by parametric
inversion of the wave fields. The data from
all five source positions (four offsets and one
vertical) were migrated simultaneously using
a Kirchoff migration algorithm that preserves
enough frequency content to give the
direction and continuity of the fault planes.
Time (sec)
1.0
Refractions
1.2
1.4
1.6
20
40
These offsets and a zero-offset VSP

were recorded after the 1338-in. casing was
set at 5260 ft. The best equipment available
was used for the operation:
a MERTZ M18/616, 46,000-lb peak force
vibrator monitored by a Pelton
Advance2 software programmed system
a five-level downhole array of three-axis
geophones, spaced 15 m apart (ASI)
with downhole digitization of 16 bits
dynamic range, in situ calibration, and
102 dB downhole amplification
a Maxis surface acquisition unit with a
preprogrammed well seismic acquisition
module supporting a surface amplification of 60 dB.
Because of the careful pre-job planning,
the data were acquired in 28 hr, very fast
considering the terrain. The quality of the
data can be seen in Fig. 8.41, which shows
the vertical data for offset C. The frequency
content of the data is between 10 and 80 Hz.
Note the refraction signals observed within
the first arrivals at certain offsets (these had
already been noted on the ray tracing).
These signals are caused by vertical fault
planes passing close to the well.
60
80
Trace number
Vertical data for offset C showing effects of refraction at wide angle.

8 26
Mesa
Figure 8.42
Time
sec
4000
1.0
2000 ft and 5000 ft (0.9 to 1.5 secs) and shows

their lateral extent. Therefore, the objectives
of the VSP were
achieved.
This
Time
Acoustic impedance
(ft/ secg/ cm ) 9000 (secs)
extra information
13 / "
will help plan
11 / "
further wells in the
1.2
Las Piedras and
will help select the
1.4
location of any
5260 ft
future deep explo1.6
5349 ft
ration well.
3
Las Piedras
1.5
5700 ft
1.8
2.0
Carapita
Overpressured zones
2.5
Ca
ra
ta
s
3.0
Fault plane
200
500
400
500
Trace number
Processed and migrated

results from all four offsets
and vertical VSP (center);
acoustic impedance from
VSP inversion (right); the
surface seismic line along
the same trajectory as the
VSP (background). The San
Juan Formation is below the
Caratas.
8 27
Fig. 8.42 shows the final migrated VSP,

the surface seismic section, and the acoustic
impedance from VSP (see below). Below the
collapsed zone, in the lower Carapita, VSP
and surface seismic data correspond closely,
giving confidence in both. Within the
collapsed zone, reflectors can now be
mappedsee, for example, the reflectors in
the Las Piedras and Carapita Formations.
Numerous vertical faults can be observed
within 100 ft of the well, which was more
than were expected. Finally, the VSP detects
the Las Piedras reservoir sandstones between
Determining the
overpressured zones
As an added and unexpected bonus, the
VSP helped determine the extent of a highly
overpressured zone. Before setting the
1338-in. casing, the well had been drilled
through the Carapita to 5301 ft with a 812-in.
pilot hole. Drilling was very difficult over the
last 20 ft because of a high-pressure zone that
produced asphalt. The asphalt acted similarly
to salt, closing in each time a few hours after
it had been drilled. This shallow, highpressure asphalt zone is believed to be
created by communication through the
vertical fault planes (already seen on the VSP
migrated image) of a deeper high-pressure
reservoir.
The hole was eventually reamed out to
5260 ft and casing set at this depth. The
Integrated Project Management Team (who
were responsible for drilling the well)
decided to place a cement plug in openhole
over the highly overpressured zone, and if
this did not solve the problem, to run an
1134-in. liner. However, it was not clear how
far this zone extended or how far to go
before setting the plug. The VSP could solve
this problem by providing a log of
impedance below the casing shoe.

The zero-offset VSP data were inverted

using the Grivelet method of iterative modeling. This method detects the major events in
the corridor stack of the zero-offset VSP, and
makes a first estimate of the time and amplitude of reflections. The reflection series is
convolved with the downgoing wavelet to
give a modeled trace that is compared with
the actual trace. From the difference, a
gradient method is used to refine the reflection series in successive iterations until there
is a satisfactory match with the actual trace.
To avoid instabilities, it is important to limit
the number of reflections and to use reasonable geophysical constraints.
The result (Fig. 8.42, right) is a log of
acoustic impedance versus time from the top
of the VSP to approximately 0.4 sec below the
well at the time of recording (5260 ft). There
is a strong drop in impedance between 1.53
sec (estimated to be at 5200 ft) and 1.59 sec
(5340 ft) with another drop until 1.75 sec (5700
ft). These are interpreted as overpressured
zones. A further drop is observed at 1.90 sec.
This could indicate another high-pressure zone
(very common within the Carapita). However,
it could also be because the limit of reliable
inversion of the VSP has been reached.
With the confidence given by these predictions, drilling continued, with difficulty, to
5623 ft and the entire openhole section
cemented. Since problems continued, a liner

was run to 5349 ft. Note that the interval
covered by the liner corresponds to the first
overpressured zone, and that the bottom of
the cemented zone corresponds approximately to the bottom of the second overpressured zone. Having closed these off, the
well was drilled through the rest of the
Carapita without much difficulty. Thus, knowledge of the pressure zone length and the fault
plane geometry from the VSP helped prepare
a good plan for setting the liner and covering
the high-pressure, asphalt-producing interval.
Conclusions
A multioffset VSP showed reflectors,
faults and sandstone bodies in an area where
the surface seismic was very unclear because
of surface topography and a large, faulted,
collapsed zone at the reservoir level and
above. The results will help determine
locations for further development wells, and
also help plan future deep exploration wells.
As an added bonus, the extent of an
overpressured asphalt zone was predicted by
calculating the acoustic impedance below the
well from the zero-offset VSP. This information
was essential in deciding the proper intervals
over which to place a cement plug and an
intermediate liner. Once this was done, the
well was drilled without major difficulty.
A M U LT I A Z I M U T H W A L K A W AY S E I S M I C P R O F I L E

was acquired in the Urdaneta West area in an
attempt to resolve remaining subsurface
uncertainties in the Icotea Formation. The
proposed expenditure was justified by the
intensive Icotea development program
planned by Shell Venezuela. The primary
technical objective of the walkaway VSP was
to improve the understanding of the internal
stratigraphic structure of the Icotea Formation
and thus to eventually improve prediction of
good reservoir locations. Other objectives

included:
calibrating the existing 3-D seismic data
gaining information on the stratigraphy
of the Misoa Formation, an additional
objective below the Icotea Formation
calibrating expected amplitude variation
with offset (AVO) behavior within the
Icotea and Cogollo Formations

8 28
Figure 8.43
Results of 3-D ray tracing,

showing that the locus of
reflection lines are beneath
the shooting lines.
improving local structural control

providing further information on the La
Rosa/Icotea Formation contact
evaluating the applicability of the walkaway VSP technique to development of
the Icotea Formation reservoir.
The resolution of the existing surface 3-D
seismic data in the northeast of the Urdaneta
West area is insufficient to resolve much of the
intra-Icotea stratigraphic detail. The walkaway
VSP was intended to increase the vertical and
lateral resolution along selected azimuths,
chosen so as to tie the central well to other
development wells.
Pre-job modeling
The objective of a walkaway VSP is to
image the area in the vicinity of the borehole
using a receiver that is placed in a well and a
source that is shot at several offsets from the
well (the source walks away from the well).
In this case, several walkaways were planned
in different directions, but centered around
well A, in which the receiver was to be placed.
The 2-D and 3-D raypaths resulting from this
configuration were modeled using data from
well A, other wells intersected by the lines and
the Urdaneta structural maps at the top Icotea
and Cogollo levels. The acoustic effect of Lake
8 29
Maracaibo was simulated by a 33-ft thick

horizontal layer at the top.
The synthetic VSP created by the 2-D
model was migrated to evaluate the migration
stretch and its influence on the preservation of
the signal frequency content. After migrating
the ray paths with the synthetic, it was found
that the Icotea and Misoa events would not be
separated for source offsets bigger than 16,000
ft. It was also seen that for the long offset lines,
designed to image the Cogollo Group, some
refractions would be created at the top of the
Laguna, Icotea and Cogollo Formations. Some
shear conversions were predicted from the
bottom of Lake Maracaibo and at 2800 ft
where there is a significant increase in
formation velocity. However, the water depth
of 33 ft was too small to create guide waves or
surface reverberations.
The 3-D modeling shows that the locus
of reflection lines are in a vertical plane
beneath the shooting lines to within a few
degrees (Fig. 8.43).
Data acquisition
The lines were acquired in a rosetteshaped pattern centered on well A and
along tie lines to facilitate correlation with
the 3-D surface seismic. The data was
acquired with an Array Seismic Imager (ASI)
that has five three-component downhole
geophones spaced 45 ft apart. The bottom of
the ASI was set near 4500 ft in intervals
where the hole was most closely in gauge,
so as to have the optimum coupling with the
formation. Coupling with the formation was
tested by analysis of the frequency spectra of
test shots acquired with two Sodera type G
air guns in cluster array.
The source was a Compact Sleeve Source
(CSS) composed of two arrays of eight air
guns, supplied by Western Geophysical and
mounted on the Western Shore vessel. The
source has a frequency band of 5 to 198 Hz at
72 dB. The acquisition was controlled by a
Macha master/slave system specially modified
for the survey and executing in External Fire

Figure 8.44
20
Trace number
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
of 5 to 250 Hz at 72 dB. The data were

acquired with the geophone set at 4500 ft, and
have a frequency band of 5 to 120 Hz at 6 dB
for a peak/bubble amplitude ratio of 18.
The signal-to-noise ratio was excellent
(Fig. 8.44), and only two shots were lost in
2450. However, there was a loss of high
frequency in some places. This effect has
been related to obstacles (well locations,
boats) located on the walkaway lines. The
change in boat trajectory changed the air gun
array lobe directivity and the global
interaction of the air guns. All the lines were
affected by this phenomenon. A late
conversion shear arrival can also be seen on
the raw stack data of all the lines.
Time (sec)
Typical stack of raw data (vertical component, line 1).
mode, the airguns being shot by the vessel

and the Schlumberger Maxis unit acting in
Slave mode. The navigation system was a DGPS Sercel system. The source was fired every
50 m along each line out to a maximum offset
of 6502 m on lines 6 and 8.
Five lines, numbers 1, 3, 4, 7 and 8, were
acquired four times. Lines 2 and 5 were
discarded due to lack of time. The source was
shifted 25 m between runs so as to obtain a
final spacing of 25 m on each line. Each line
was acquired twice with the ASI set at two
depths 22.5 ft apart so as to have a final
geophone interval of 22.5 ft. This geophone
interval was designed to prevent aliasing at
high frequencies during the downgoing and
upgoing wavefield separation. Line 6 was
acquired four times at the same ASI depths as
the other lines, and in addition, two times
with the source shifted 25 m and with the ASI
at 12,500 ft. These last two settings were
intended to provide a deconvolution operator
for the shallower lines.
A total of 2450 shots were acquired along
a combined total of 125 km of walkaway
lines. A vertical VSP was also acquired with
two Sodera air guns in a parallel cluster array,
shot at 3000 psi, which has a frequency band
Processing
The processing of this very large VSP
data set was executed on a Ultra Sparc II Sun
station, using the latest GeoFrame VSP
processing software. The following steps
were involved:
a) Data editing. An inventory of bad shots
was made and, as noted above, only two were
discarded. In line 6 at 12,500 ft, the vertical
axis data were sometimes affected by power
supply multiples (120 Hz and 180 Hz). The
low-frequency shots mentioned above were
not discarded as they had good coherency.
b) Navigation data. The UTM navigation
data were recorded using the WSG-84 coordinate protocol, and subsequently shifted to
be in agreement with the La Canoa reference.
Various shot line discontinuities were
observed, especially in line 1 (due to the
obstacles as noted above).
c) Sorting. The data were preprocessed to
obtain a walkaway configuration; i.e., they
were sorted using first the trace header with
geophone depth and then with shot offset.
Shots located within 1 m of each other are
stacked together. The Sercel Telemetry allowed
a maximum error of 5 m in the in-line direction
and 20 m perpendicular to the line, far above
the precision required for the sorting.

8 30
Figure 8.45
Frequency (Hz)
40
40
40
Amplitude
40
40
40
80
120
160
200
240
Trace number
d) Signal preprocessing. As suggested by

Kramer (1994), the ringing in the first 200
msec, caused by the shallow formations, has
been controlled by a short predictive operator
(200 msec window on the second zero
crossing that produced a working window of
approximately 18 msec). As a bonus, the frequency content has been enhanced and there
is now significant 10 to 80 Hz at 6 dB out to
trace number 200. Figures 8.45 and 8.46 show
the frequency spectrum before and after this
deconvolution. The results were evaluated to
make sure there was no amplitude distortion
by examining the main reflections after
applying an AGC with a 500-msec window.
Frequency spectrum
before predictive
deconvolution.
Figure 8.46
Frequency (Hz)
20
40
60
Amplitude
80
100
40
80
120
160
200
Trace number
Frequency spectrum after predictive deconvolution.
8 31
240
e) Data polarization. The horizontal data

were reoriented in the direction of the source
by measuring the direction of the maximum
horizontal amplitude. Quality control was
based on the continuity and coherence of the
required vertical and horizontal rotation
angle. The polarity of the vertical and HMX
data has been compared and matched
manually. A change of polarity was observed
on lines 6 and 8 at large offsets. This effect is
believed to be caused by refraction within the
shallow formations.
f) P and S decomposition. The P/S parameter decomposition was executed in VSP
configuration, offset by offset, using a sixparameter model fitting the acquisition geometry and the local geology. In this method,
the P and S wave fields are separated by looking for coherent amplitude trends and their
angles of propagation down and up (Leaney
and Esmersoy, 1989). To take care of large
offsets, the data have been split into two
windows of 2 seconds each, vertically and
horizontally. The results were considered successful in spite of large refraction effects at
large offsets.
g) Signal shaping. The resulting compressional downgoing and upgoing wave fields
have been zero phase wave-shaped by a short
deconvolution operator (200 msec window on
a second zero crossing that produced a working window of approximately 18 msec, starting 10 msec before the first arrival). This procedure is intended to overcome the changing
signal shape versus offset. Then, the data
acquired in line 6 at 12,500 ft were used to
build a convolution operator that was applied
to the shallower (4500 ft) walkaway line
(Meiners, 1993). This procedure provides a
better control of the signal shape for the large
offset and is the best way to eliminate the pegleg multiples from deeper horizons.
h) Migration. A Kirchoff model was run in
walkaway mode at the depth in the center of
the ASI array. The 2-D model was generated
from the log data in well A and nearby wells.
Layer dips were obtained from the Urdaneta

structural map at Icotea and Cogollo Formation

tops. Several adjustments were needed to
improve the continuity and frequency band
of events.
The log data show large velocity
inversions at the Misoa and Coln tops. These
inversions produced large refractions (blind
zones) for the large offset migration. This
effect was partially controlled by a velocity
model with a horizontal velocity gradient of
0.05 percent. Misoa and Colon velocities had
to be increased by 5% relative to sonic log
velocity. The layer dip was adjusted by small
amounts of 1 to 2 according to the depth.
Spectral whitening was tried, but created
discontinuity in the migrated events. The
frequency content was improved more
effectively by the predictive operator during
preprocessing.
Finally, static shifts between the lines
were controlled by a velocity model
inversion on transit time, using the shallow
walkaway from 0 to 4500 ft and the vertical
VSP from 4500 to 13,200 ft.
Figure 8.47
Comparison of the walkaway line 3 and the corresponding 3-D seismic

tie line (both after migration).
Results
The comparison between the walkaway
lines 3 and 4 and the corresponding line in
the 3-D surface seismic data (Figs. 8.47, and
8.48, next page) can be summarized as
follows:
enhanced frequency content in the VSP
for shorter offsets, with bandwidth
decreasing with offset
good correspondence of events at
Cogollo, Coln, and Misoa levels
confirmation of the known fault planes.
A pseudo 3-D image was built with the
Charisma seismic interpretation software to
help visualize the results (Fig. 8.49, page
834). A good correlation in time is observed
between the three lines in the foreground.
Some tectonic events such as faults are easily
seen on line 3 (in front) and on line 4 (on
the right).

8 32
Figure 8.48
Comparison of the walkaway line 4 and the corresponding
Summary
A large multiazimuth walkaway with
2450 shots was acquired in the Urdaneta
Field. Six lines were recorded out to 6500 m
offset, each four times at two adjacent
source positions and two adjacent geophone
positions to minimize aliasing. One line was
also recorded at a deeper horizon to provide
a convolution operator for the shallower
lines. A VSP was also recorded to enable the
walkaway events to be correlated with the
well data. The following aspects of the
processing were noted:
refractions due to the large offsets and
formation velocity inversions in the La
Rosa, Misoa and Coln Formations.
These were seen by a change in the
polarity of the first arrival
excellent performance of the short
predictive deconvolution operator,
reducing ringing on each component
and flattening the spectrum
excellent performance of the P/S
parametric inversion on all the lines in
spite of the large offset
preservation of the continuity of events
by carefully optimizing the migration
model
decontamination of shallow multiples
and residual ringings by using the deep
walkaway convolution operator
only average behavior of the spectral
whitening on the migrated data.
Interpretation and data analysis is in the
initial stages at the time of going to press.
However the following conclusions can be
drawn:
the bandwidth of the walkaway VSP data
is superior to that of the 3-D surface seismic data at near offsets, thus achieving
the primary objective of the survey. Bandwidth degrades at higher offsets to become the same as, and eventually poorer
than the 3-D surface seismic data due to
migration stretch and refraction effects
3-D seismic tie line (both after migration).
8 33

Figure 8.49
Pseudo-3-D walkaway image (after migration).
lithological boundaries and faults are

properly imaged and show good overall
correlation to 3-D surface seismic data,
increasing confidence in the quality of
the latter.
Further use of the multiazimuth walkaway VSP technique as a development tool
for the Urdaneta West area is dependent on a
thorough interpretation of the current data
set. Further interpretation work will focus on
inversion of the VSP lines, utilization of the
three component data to generate S-wave
sections and to quantify azimuthal anisotropy,
and the calibration of the AVO effects seen on
3-D surface seismic data at both Icotea and
Cogollo Formation levels. It is expected that
significant further additions will be made to
the understanding of the subsurface in the
Urdaneta West area by this analysis.
RESERVOIR DESCRIPTION AROUND A HORIZONTAL WELL
When the first horizontal wells were

drilled, there was a general expectation that
the logs would be quite featureless and
would look like railroad tracks. Most of the
early horizontal wells were drilled in thick,
vertically fractured carbonates far from any
fluid contact, so that away from the
fractures, the logs were indeed quite flat.
However, in sandstone channels and other
reservoirs, many unexpected variations can
be observed. The wireline logs in Fig. 8.50,
next page, are from the first horizontal well
drilled in the Maracaibo Basin in 1989, and
look very similar to logs in a vertical well.
These logs illustrate many of the features
seen when a horizontal well moves in and
out of a sandstone-shale sequence, and
show how these features can be used to
describe the reservoir around the well. For
example, the crossover from sandstone to
shale at A allows us to calculate the angle at
which the well is entering the shale, while

the sharp changes in gamma ray (GR) and
neutron porosity (NPHI) at B suggest the
well is crossing a fault. The separation in
resistivity from different measurements in
the shale at C indicates the presence of an
underlying or overlying sandstone and/or
anisotropy. At the time, all these factors
were combined with resistivity modeling to
produce one of the first cross sections
around a horizontal well (Fig. 8.51, page
836).
Today, these procedures are significantly refined. Resistivity measurements still
provide most of the information. Their
response has been analyzed extensively and
is modeled routinely with the INFORM
software (Chapter 323). Currently only 2-D
models are supported, but 3-D models

8 34
Figure 8.50
Resistivity
2
(ohm-m)
CALI
4
in.
14
GR
0
(gAPI)
20000
Density
150
g cm3
1.65
Depth
(ft)
2.65
Neutron porosity
60
p.u.. (ss)
7100
the description. Acoustic techniques, using

borehole seismic tools or sonic logging
techniques, can provide information much
further away from the borehole, but so far
have not been used extensively. Nuclear
measurements necessarily read close to the
borehole, but their proper understanding
can help distinguish thin reservoir zones.
The example below illustrates the application of resistivity modeling to describe the
reservoir around the well.
7200
ILM
ILD
SFL
NPHI
RHOB
7300
A
7400
C
7500
7600
7700
7800
7900
8000
Example of the logs recorded

in the first horizontal well
that was drilled in the
Maracaibo Basin in1989.
8 35
are starting to be applied (Anderson, 1996).

Most horizontal wells are logged with LWD
tools (Chapter 42), which generally do not
see as far from the borehole as the induction
tools shown in Fig. 8.50. However, the
multiple depths of investigation available
with the ARC5 and RAB tool help improve
Post-job modeling
Post-modeling evaluation can help
define the final placement of the well within
a sequence of beds. It can also answer
questions about actual petrophysical properties of beds and anisotropy effects. This, in
turn, can give a better understanding of log
responses seen in future wells and allow for
clearer geosteering decisions. The example
discussed is the same well that was used to
illustrate pre-planning and geosteering in
Chapter 322. One of the main features
noticed on the logs in this well was a significantly higher resistivity in the sandstones as
compared to the pre-well models (800 versus
100 ohm-m). These models were created by
INFORM for geosteering, and were based on
logs from a nearby vertical well. Such differences could be caused by four factors: anisotropy, invasion, the effect of surrounding
beds, or an R t that is actually much higher in
the horizontal well.
Anisotropy is observed in shales and
laminated sandstones, causing resistivity
perpendicular to the bedding (Rv) to be
higher, in general, than parallel to it (Rh).
Large values of Rv/Rh (> 10) have been
observed, such as in clean sandstones with
layers of rapidly changing grain size. These
changes cause strong contrasts in water
saturation and hence resistivity, and give
very different results when averaged
vertically or horizontally (Klein et al., 1995).
In the traditional case of vertical wells with


,,,,

,,,

Figure 8.51
6200
Computed distance from borehole to boundary.

Presumed extensions of other boundaries.
7060
7110
6210
Sand 1 25
Shale 1 10
Vertical depth (ft)
7160
6220
Shale 2 5
7260
6230
6240
Sand 2 40
7210
True vertical
depth logs (ft)
Sand 3 25
Shale 3
6250
Measured depth (ft)
6260
7200
1200
1300
7300
1400
1500
7400
1600
7500
1700
7600
1800
7700
1900
7800
7900
2000
2100
8000
8100
2200
2300
Horizontal displacement from wellhead (ft)
The cross section interpreted from the logs shown in Fig. 8.50.
Figure 8.52
ILD Modeled
GR Measured
0.0
NPHI Measured
ILD Measured
150
(gAPI)
SP Measured
100
0
(mv)
Depth
(ft)
0.45
RT (Horizontal)
0.2
2000 1.9
(ohm-m)
0.15
(V / V)
RHOB Measured
(g / cm3)
3450
3500
Measured logs and modeled resistivity log from the nearby vertical well.
2.9
horizontal bedding, the induction-type

logsLWD phase shift and attenuation
resistivity, wireline inductionread Rh,
while the resistivity logsLWD RAB and
wireline laterologrespond principally to
Rh, but with a component of up to 20% from
Rv. In horizontal wells with horizontal
bedding, they are all more sensitive to Rv,
but in widely varying amounts. In particular,
the LWD phase shift reads much higher than
the attenuation, so that if all other effects are
ignored the two can be inverted to give Rh
and Rv.
In this well the resistivity of 1000 ohm-m
in the sandstone is beyond the limits of
accuracy for the attenuation curves, so we
must rely solely on the phase shift. Invasion
is ruled out because both wells were drilled
with normal, moderately salty muds and
should not show any strange invasion effects.
In the horizontal well the surrounding beds
are shales with lower resistivity, so this
cannot be the cause of the higher resistivity.
However, the pre-well model was based on
a dual induction log recorded in the early
1980s. By using the deep induction curve for
the model, the authors were making the
assumption that this was a fairly good
approximation of R t. The fact is, however,
that a shoulder bed effect on a 6FF40-type
coil arrangement can be quite significant
when dealing with the levels of resistivity
contrast apparent in this field. Figure 8.52
shows the U1 sandstone as logged in the
nearby vertical well. Modeling the dual
induction response shows that a good match
between ILD modeled and ILD measured is
obtained when R t approaches 800 ohmm in
the target zone. Using this R t curve as input
to the post-modeling horizontal well
evaluation shows a much better match in the
level of resistivity, and suggests that the U1
sandstone does not have a significant
anisotropy or change in resistivity.
The measured log is strongly affected by shoulder effect. To explain this effect,
the true resistivity must be much higher.

8 36
Figure 8.53
Measured
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)
Section Xsect-1: N 36 E - Rh formation property

1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
900.00
Trajectory
Modeled
PS 10"
PS 22"
PS 16"
Measured
PS 16"
PS 22"
PS 10"
100
10
1
1000
100
10
1
3575
TVD (ft)
3579
3583
Sand
3587
3591
Shale
3595
1700
1640
1580
1520
1460
1400
Measured logs (top), modeled logs (middle) and model (bottom) from the horizontal well.
The measured logs are best explained if the borehole approaches within 6 in. of the
boundary. In the model at the bottom, the resistivity scale is indicated by the color code.
Figure 8.54
Section Xsect-1: N 36 E - GR formation property
150
PS28
GR
PS10
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m) (gAPI)
120
90
60
30
0
1000
100
10
1
Polarization horns
1000
GR
100
PS-28
10
PS-10
15.00
45.00
50.00
62.00
67.00
75.00
94.00
120.00
135.00
Trajectory
Modeled
Measured
Modeled
Measured
Modeled
Measured
1
3500
TVD (ft)
3530
U1 top
3560
U1
objective
3590
3620
3650
3250
2850
2450
2050
1650
The next step in the post-modeling

exercise is to determine the placement of the
well within the geologic sequence. The well
trajectory itself is quite precise, so INFORM
can be used to iteratively manipulate the
geologic layers until a good match is
obtained between modeled and measured
logs. Figures 8.53, 8.54 and 8.55 show
modeled log responses compared to actual
logs. A good fit is a good indication that the
geological model is accurate.
The polarization horn at -1600 ft drift is
best explained by the well approaching to
within 6 in. of the boundary between the U1
sandstone and the underlying shale but not
actually crossing it (Fig. 8.53). This precise
distance was established after examining the
effect of different standoffs on the modeled
response (see Boundary Modeling box, page
8-39). As the BHA crossed into the U1
sandstone, it was difficult to build angle
because of the softness of the sandstone.
This post-modeling has shown that the BHA
practically scraped the surface of the shale
before building angle and coming back up
into the sandstone.
A similar polarization effect is seen on
the measured logs at -3000 ft drift. The
modeled logs in Fig. 8.54 show that these
horns would not occur if we were actually
passing through the top of the objective,
assuming the geological model is consistent.
The best explanation for the horns is that we
are again scraping along the lower
sandstone-shale boundary, which is
continuing to rise at about 10 dip in the
direction of the well (Fig. 8.55). This is
consistent with regional trends and with the
pre-well modeling (Chapter 322), which
also showed that significant polarization
effects would only be produced by the lower
sandstone-shale boundary.
1250
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with GR assuming the well leaves the
sandstone by the top at -3000 ft drift. The GR scale is indicated by the color code.
8 37

Figure 8.55
150
GR
(gAPI)
120
90
60
30
Modeled
Measured
resistivity (ohm-m) resistivity (ohm-m)
0
1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
774.99
2000
Trajectory
Modeled
GR
PS 10"
PS 22"
PS 34"
Measured
GR
PS 34"
PS 22"
PS 10"
100
10
1
1000
100
10
1
3500
As with most model-based inversion

techniques, the answers may not be unique.
However, when combined with the many
other sources of information about the local
geology, they can be very useful in
eliminating some possibilities and reinforcing others. In this case, resistivity
modeling has helped reconcile the measurements recorded in the horizontal and nearby
vertical wells, and allowed a reasonable
cross section to be drawn around the
horizontal well.
TVD (ft)
3530
3560
U1 top
3590
U1
objective
3620
3650
3250
2860
2470
2080
1690
1300
Measured logs, modeled logs and model with resistivity (scale in color) assuming
the well approaches the bottom of the sandstone at -3000 ft drift.
CONCLUSIONS
Modern high-resolution borehole imagery

not only detects fractures, but also defines
fracture characteristics such as dip, strike and
width, from which the fracture regime can be
deduced. This has been demonstrated with
two wells from a carbonate field in Western
Venezuela. Likewise, imagery can help identify sedimentary features in clastic reservoirs,
and hence be a key factor in defining the sedimentary environment. Cross-laminations and
accretion surfaces could be identified on the
images, and used to define the direction of
channels. Cores from one of the wells confirmed these results and helped to build
confidence in the images.
VSPs have been used for many years to
calibrate and improve surface seismic interpretation. The examples shown demonstrate
how multioffset and walkaway VSPs can be a
valuable help in the development phase of a

reservoir, by providing information not available from surface seismic or by correlating
well data. Recent improvements that have
significantly improved VSP quality include the
use of 2-D and 3-D models for pre-job
planning; the use of downhole arrays with
three component geophones; and improved
processing techniques, especially for deconvolution and migration.
Logs in horizontal wells often show many
more features and changes than are expected.
These features can be explained by different
effects such as invasion and anisotropy but, in
many cases, they are simply the effect of surrounding beds. They can then be interpreted
in terms of the reservoir geometry and used to
give an improved cross section of the reservoir
around the borehole.

8 38
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
BOUNDARY MODELING
1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
3588
2 ft
U1 Sand
3594
3600
1800
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
These diagrams show the effects on ARC5 phase measurements of varying depths of investigation, as a boundary
of high resistivity is approached by a curving well
trajectory. The 34-in. ARC5 curve is the first to react to the
boundary. At a distance of 2 ft (left) the shallower 10-in.
and 22-in. curves are dropping in resistivity because of the
approach of the conductive shale, but the 34-in. curve is
already starting to show some polarization effects.
1300
At 1 ft from the boundary,

the polarization effect on
the 34-in. and 22-in.
curves is quite pronounced (right).
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)

1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
1 ft
3588
U1 Sand
3594
3600
1800
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)

1000
1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
100
10
1
3570
TVD (ft)
3576
3582
U1 Sand
3588
3594
3600
1800
The polarization effect on

the 10-in. curve is apparent
when the borehole is at the
boundary (left).
Shale
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300

1000
100
10
1
3570
3576
TVD (ft)
More detailed modeling

shows the effect only
appears once the borehole
is within 6 in. of the
boundary. If the boundary
is crossed, split polarization horns are observed
(right).
Modeled
resistivity (ohm-m)
3582
3588
U1 Sand
3594
Shale
3600
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
8 39

1.67
2.20
2.22
2.89
2.99
3.33
10.20
17.01
19.29
118.79
122.91
800.00
Well
Trajectory
Modeled
PS-10"
Modeled
PS-22"
Modeled
PS-34"
The authors of this chapter are H.Acuna (Lagoven), J. Gil, D. Riegstra (Shell Venezuela), M.Taha,
C.Barrientos, M.Menier, S.Low and J.Singer
with contributions from T.Takimoto (Teikoku), J.Garca (Maraven), M.Bhimull (Premier Consolidated
Oilfield), V.Carneiro (Lagoven), L.Gaetano (Corpoven), C.Contreras, H.Gamero, E.Rodrguez and
A.Snchez
and the permission of Teikoku Oil de Venezuela, Corpoven, Maraven, Lagoven, Premier
Consolidated and Shell Venezuela to publish data from their wells.
REFERENCES
Sedimentary analysis of sandstone reservoirs

Coleman, J.M., and Wright, L.D., 1975, Modern river deltas: Variability of
process and sand bodies, in Broussard, M.l. (ed.), Deltas, Houston Geological
Society, Houston, Texas, pp. 99-150.
Elliott, T., 1978, Clastic shorelines, in Reading, H.G. (ed.), Sedimentary environments and facies, Blackwell Scientific Publications, New York, pp. 147-160.
Galloway, W.E, and Hobday, D.K., 1996, Terrigenous clastic depositional systems, Springer, New York, p. 500.
Oomkens, E., 1974, Lithofacies relations in the Late Quaternary Niger Delta
complex, Sedimentology 21, pp. 195-222.
Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P.E., and Siever, R., Sand and sandstone, SpringerVerlag, New York, p. 618.
Psuty, N.P., 1966, The geomorphology of beach ridges in Tabasco, Mxico.
Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State Univ. Technical Report 30.
Sylvester, A.G., 1988, Strike-slip faults, Geological Society of America Bulletin,

v. 100, pp. 1666-1703.
Watts, N.L., 1983, Microfractures in chalks of Albuskell field, Norweigan sector, North Sea, possible origin and distribution, AAPG bulletin, v.67, No. 2, p
201-234.
Wilcox, R.E., Harding, T.P., and Seely, D.R., 1973, Basic wrench tectonics,
AAPG Bulletin, v. 57, p. 74-96.
Willis, J.J., 1994, laramide basement deformation in an evolving stress field,
Bighorn Mountain front, Five springs area.
Complementing a surface seismic and general VSP

Acunia, Henry, and Viaje, Ezequiel, 1997 Application de la tecnica Perfil
Sismico Vertical Multioffset en el yacimento Las Piedras campo Orocual,
monagas, Venezuela, Lagoven S.A.
Esmersoy, C., 1988, Velocity estimation from offsest VSPs using direct P and
converted SV waves, SEG expanded abstracts, Anaheim meeting, Vol. I, p. 538.
Reading, H.G., and Collinson, J.D., 1996, Clastic coasts, in Reading, H.G. (ed.),
Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, Blackwell
Science Ltd, pp. 154-231.
Esmersoy, C. 1990: Inversion of P+SV waves from multi-component offset

vertical seismic profiles, Geophysics, vol. 55, p. 39.
Reineck, H.E., and Singh, I.B., 1980, Depositional sedimentary environments,

Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 551
Leaney, S. and Esmersoy, C., 1989, Parametric decomposition of offset VSP

wave fields, SEG expanded abstracts, Dallas meeting, Vol, I, p. 26.
Reinson, G.E., 1984, Barrier-Island and Associated Strand-Plain Systems, in

Walker, R. (ed.) Facies Models, Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 1, p. 317.
Leaney, S., 1990: Parametric wavefield decomposition and applications, SEG

expanded abstracts, San Francisco meeting, SE2.4.
Saxena, R.S., 1976, Modern Mississippi delta depositional environments and

process, AAPG-SEPM, field trip guidebook, New Orleans, May 23-26, p. 125.
Reust, D. K., 1995, Vibrator force control: how simple can it get, The Leading
Edge, Ponca City, Oklahoma, November, pp 1129-1133.
Smith, D.G., 1987, Meandering river point bar lithofacies models: Modern and
ancient examples compared, in Ethridge et al., Recent developments in fluvial sedimentology, SEPM Special Publication 39, pp. 83-91.
Van Beek, J.L., and Koster, E.A., 1972, Fluvial and estuarine sediments
exposed along the Oude Maastrichtian., Sedimentology 19: pp. 237-256.
Visher, G.S., 1990. Exploration stratigraphy, Pennwell Publishing Co., Tulsa,
Okalhoma, p. 433.
Woodroffe, C.D., Chappell, J., Thom, B.G., and Wallensky, E., 1989,
Depositional model of a macrotidal estuary and flood plain, South Alligator
River, Northern Australia, Sedimentology 36: pp. 737-756.
Evaluation of fractured carbonates

Harding, T.P, 1974, Major hydrocarbon plays resulting from wrench deformation, AAPG Bulletin, v. 58, pp. 1290-1304.
Luthi, S.M., and Souhaite, P., 1990, Fracture aperture from electrical borehole
scans, Geophysics, v. 55, no. 7, pp.1-13.
Nelson, R.A., 1985, Geologic analysis of naturally fractured reservoirs,
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, p. 320.
Stearns, D.W., 1967, Certain aspects of fracture in naturally deformed rocks,
in NSF Advanced Science Seminar in Rock Mechanics, pp. 97-118.
Stearns, D.W., and Friedman, M., 1972, Reservoirs in fractured rocks, in Robert
King, ed., Stratiraphic Oil and Gas fields, AAPG Memoir 16, Tulsa, pp. 82-118.
Molyneux, J., 1996, Identification of multiples contaminating surface seismic

data using a VSP analysis technique, SEG expanded abstract, Houston meeting, BG 4.7.
Doll, W. E., 1996, Spectral whitening of impulsive and swept-source shallows
seismic data, SEG expanded abstract, NS2.2.
Kramer, D., 1996, Multicomponent multioffset VSP processing, SEG expanded abstract, Houston meeting, BG2.2.
Meiners C., and Barrientos, C., 1992, Delineacion de estructuras mediante perfil seismico walkaway - dual, VI Congreso Venezolano de geofisica, pp 395-402.
Reservoir description around a horizontal well

Anderson, B., Barber, T., Druskin, V., Lee, P., Dussan, V.E., Knizhnerman, L.,
and Davydycheva, S., 1996, The response of multiarray induction tools in highly dipping formations with invasion and in arbitrary 3-D geometries, paper A,
Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting, New Orleans, June.
Klein, J.D., Martin, P.R., and Allen, D.F., 1995, The petrophysics of electrically
anisotropic reservoirs, paper HH, Transactions of the SPWLA annual meeting,
June.
Singer, J.M., 1992, An example of log interpretation in horizontal wells,
The Log Analyst, March-April 1992.

8 40
U N I T S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
API
degrees American Petroleum Institute
C (crude)
condensates
degrees Centigrade
c.u.
capture units
degrees Fahrenheit
Ca
calcium
micron
CBL
Cement Bond Log
percent
CCL
casing collar locator
porosity
CDR*
Compensated Dual Resistivity tool
2-D
two-dimensional
CEC
cation exchange capacity
3-D
three-dimensional
CFS
in-line spinner
A10H
Attenuation Resistivity, 10 in.
CHRT*
Cased Hole Resistivity Tool
A16H
CIRP
A22H
Completion Insertion and Retrieval under

Pressure system
A28H
cm3
cubic centimeter
A34H
CMFF
CMR Free-Fluid Volume
AAA
Acoustic Anisotropy Analysis
CMR*
Combinable Magnetic Resonance tool
ADN*
Azimuthal Density Neutron
CMRP
CMR Porosity
AIT*
Array Induction Imager Tool
CMT
Cement Mapping Tool
Al
aluminum
CNL
Compensated Neutron Log
ARC5*
Array Resistivity Compensated, 5 depths of

investigation
COR
carbon-oxygen ratio
cp
centipoise
ASI
Array Seismic Imager
CQG
Crystal Quartz Gauge
ASR
Anelastic Strain Recovery
CSAT*
Combinable Seismic Acquisition Tool
ATR
Attenuation Resistivity
CSI
cyclic steam injection
AVO
amplitude variation with offset
CSS
Compact Sleeve Source
billion
day
bitumen
DataFRAC*
Fracture Data Determination Service
B, S, & W
Basic sediment, and water
DEFT
Digital Entry and Fluid Imaging Tool
bbl
barrel
DSA
Differential Stress Analysis
BCF
Bolvar Coastal Fields
DSI*
Dipole Shear Sonic Imager
BCR
Both Cross Dipole (or Receiver) Mode
DST
drill stem test
BFV
bound fluid volume
DTCO
compressional slowness
BHA
bottomhole apparatus
ECGR
Environmentally Corrected Gamma Ray
BHFP
bottomhole flowing pressure
EFI
Exploding Foil Initiator
BHT
bottomhole temperature
ELAN
Elemental Log Analysis
BLR
Basal La Rosa reservoir
EOP
extreme overbalanced perforating
BOL
Break-out Orientation Log
ESIC
Electronic Secondary Initiating Cartridge
BOPD
barrels of oil per day
FBS
fullbore spinner
BPM
barrels per minute
Fe
iron
BS
Back Scatter Detector
FFI
free fluid
BTN RA
button resistivity
FIV
formation isolation valve
BWPD
barrels of water per day
FLT*
Fluorescence Logging Tool
carbon
FMI*
Fullbore Formation MicroImager

UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ft
foot, feet
meter
FT-IR
Fourier Transform Infrared
thousand
FVF
formation volume factor
Ma
million years before present
gram
MCFL
Micro-Cylindrical Focused Log
G/O
gas-oil contact
MD
measured depth
gal
gallon
md
millidarcy
GBR
gas-bitumen ratio
MDT*
Modular Formation Dynamics Tester tool
Gd
gadolinium
METT*
Multifrequency Electromagnetic Thickness Tool
GOR
gas-oil ratio
Mg
magnesium
GR
gamma ray
ML
Microlog
GRazi
Azimuthal GR
MM
million
GST*
GeoSteering Tool
MMH
mixed-metal hydroxide
H (crude)
heavy
msec
millisecond
HALS*
High-Resolution Azimuthal Laterolog Sonde
MSFL
Micro-Spherical Focused Log
HCl
hydrochloric acid
MWD
Measurement While Drilling
HF
hydrofluoric acid
NaCl
sodium chloride
HGNS
Highly Integrated Gamma Ray Neutron Sonde
NBS
near-bit sub
HI
hydrogen index
NCS
net condensate sand
HIMAT
zero porosity formation hydrogen index
NGS
Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy
HORD
Horizontal hole diameter
NMR
nuclear magnetic resonance
hr
hour
NODAL*
production system analysis
HSD
high shot density
NOL
net oil limestone
HSE
health, safety and environment
NOS
net oil sand
HyPerSTIM* high-permeability stimulation technique
NPHI
neutron porosity
in.
inch
NPHIMAT
Inc.
Inclination at the Bit
zero porosity formation response to thermal

neutron
INFORM
Integrated Forward Modeling
NPV
net present value
IOBM
Invert Oil Emulsion OBM
NRS
Non-Reactive Reservoir Sampler
IPR
Inflow Performance Relationship
oxygen
IS
Inelastic Scattering
O/W
oil/water [contact]
potassium
OBIP
original bitumen in place
KCl
potassium chloride
OBM
oil-based mud
kHz
kiloHertz
OFA*
Optical Fluid Analyzer
lb
pound
ohm-m
ohm-meter
LDT*
LithoDensity Tool
OOIP
original oil in place
LLS
Laterolog Shallow
p.u.
porosity units
LQC
Log Quality Control
P10H
Phase Shift Resistivity, 10 in.
LRT
Layered Reservoir Test
P16H
LS
long spacing detector
P22H
LTIV
liner top isolation valve
P28H
LWD
P34H

APPENDIX
P3D
Pseudo 3-Dimensional
Rmf
mud filtrate resistivity
P3D_LAT
P3D Lateral Coupling Model
ROBB
Bulk density of the formation, Bottom quadrant
PAL*
Pipe Analysis Log
ROBL
Bulk density of the formation, Left quadrant
Pb
bubble point pressure
ROBR
Bulk density of the formation, Right quadrant
PCAL
Phase Caliper
ROBU
Bulk density of the formation, Upper quadrant
PEB
Photoelectric factor of the formation, Bottom

quadrant
Rps
Resistivity Phase Shallow
RST*
Reservoir Saturation Tool
PEF
formation photoelectric factor
Rt
true resistivity
PEG
Production Enhancement Group
Rw
resistivity of the water
PEL
Photoelectric factor of the formation, Left quadrant
Rwa
apparent resistivity of the water
PER
Photoelectric factor of the formation, Right

quadrant
Rxo
flushed zone resistivity
sulfur
PEU
Photoelectric factor of the formation, Upper

quadrant
s.u.
saturation units
SAFE
Slapper Actuated Firing Equipment
PEX*
Platform Express
SBNA
near borehole sigma
PI
productivity index
Sc
compressional slowness
PNC
Pulsed Neutron Capture
SCADA
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
PPA
pound proppant added
scf
standard cubic feet
ppm
parts per million
SCR
Schlumberger Cambridge Research
psi
pounds per square inch
SDI
steam drive injection
psia
pounds per square inch absolute
SDRC
Schlumberger Doll Research Center
psig
pounds per square inch gauge
sec
second
PSR
Phase Shift Resistivity
SFFA
far formation sigma
PVL
Phase Velocity Log
Si
silica, silicon
PVS
tracer ejector tool
SIGMAT
sigma matrix
PVT
pressure-volume-temperature
SIP
Selective Inflow Performance test
RAB*
Resistivity-at-the-Bit Tool
SLIM1
Rad
Resistivity Attenuation Deep
Slim and Retrievable MWD

system
RANGDB
Relative Angle Table
SLSR
UNIGAGE-Sapphire pressure gauge
RAZI
Azimuthal resistivity
SNUPAR
Schlumberger Nuclear Parameter program
RB
reservoir barrel
SOS
Sand Oil Squeeze
RBD
Resistivity from the Button, Deep
SP
spontaneous potential
RBit
Resistivity from the Bit
SPAN
Schlumberger Perforation Analysis software
RBM
Resistivity from the Button, Medium
SPF
shots per foot
RBS
Resistivity from the Button, Shallow
SRS*
Single Phase Reservoir Sampler
RF
radio frequency
Ss
shear slowness
RFT*
Repeat Formation Tester
SS
short spacing detector
RHOB
Bulk density of the formation
ss
subsea
RRing
Resistivity from the Ring
STB
stock-tank barrels
Rm
mud resistivity
STC
Slowness Time Coherence
RMA
regular mud acid
Sw
water saturation

UNITS AND ABBREVIATIONS
SWAA
Shear Wave Amplitude Anisotropy
Swi
irreducible water saturation
SXAR
Schlumberger Explosionactivated Automatic Release
SXPV
Schlumberger Explosionactivated Production Valve
TCP
tubing-conveyed perforating system
Th
thorium
Ti
titanium
TLC*
Tough Logging Conditions System
TLD*
Three-Detector Lithology Density tool
TNPH
Borehole corrected Thermal Neutron Porosity

of the
formation
TOC
total organic content
TRAT
near-to-far capture ratio
TSO
tip screen-out
TVD
true vertical depth
uranium
UCI*
Ultrasonic Corrosion Imager
USIT*
Ultrasonic Imaging Tool
VDL
Variable Density Log
VERD
Vertical hole diameter
Vsh
shale volume
VSP
vertical seismic profile
W&S
water and sediment
WBM
water-based mud
WCQR
UNIGAGE-CQG pressure gauge
WFL
Water Flow Logging
WOR
water-oil ratio
WTQR
UNIGAGE-Quartz pressure gauge
WTSR
UNIGAGE-HSapphire pressure gauge
XH (crude)
extra-heavy

INDEX
A
AAA, 3.17
Accretion surface, 8.88.10
Activation mode, 6.11
ADN, 4.3, 4.6, 4.8
AIT, 4.12, 4.15, 5.44
Alpha processing, 4.13, 6.4, 6.5, 6.14
Alpuf Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Ambrosio Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
API gravity, classification, 2.1
Apure, 2.3, 6.44
ARC5, 3.20, 3.27, 4.3, 4.6, 4.7, 8.35, 8.39
ASI, 8.26, 8.29
ASR, 3.17
AVO, 8.28, 8.34
Azimuthal resistivity, 3.20, 4.5
B
B-6 reservoir, 3.13

B-6-X.03 reservoir, 2.14
Bachaquero, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Barinas, 2.3, 5.37, 6.40
Barinas-Apure Basin, 1.28, 1.29, 2.3
Bara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 4.29
BCF, 2.1, see Eastern Coast
BFV, 5.4, 5.6, 5.43
BHA, 3.22, 3.24, 8.37
Bit resistivity, 4.4, 4.5
Bitor Area, 2.43
BOL, 3.16
Bolvar District Coast, 2.1, see Eastern Coast
Borburata Field, 5.37
Borehole Electric Imaging, 8.2, 8.8, 8.11, 8.15
Boscn Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Bound Fluid Logging, 4.29
Bubble count, 6.28, 6.38
Budare Field, 1.1, 2.3, 4.10
Bypassed zone, 6.2, 6,66.8, 7.67.10, 7.13
C
Cabimas Field, 1.1, 2.2

Capture cross section, 6.17, 6.33
Carbonates, 5.36, 5.38, 6.19, 6.22, 7.32, 8.2
Carito Central Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.33
Caverns, 7.12
CBL, 7.38
CDR, 4.3, 4.9
CEC, 5.405.42
Cement
bond, 6.16, 6.38, 7.11, 7.17
squeeze, 7.3
Cenozoic, 1.10
Center Lake, 2.2, 4.17, 6.46
Centro field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Cerro Negro, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
Ceuta Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.18, 7.317.34
CFS, 6.34
Chemical elements, 5.40, 5.41, 6.19
Chemostratigraphy, 6.25
CIRP, 7.427.44
Clay
% vs. chemical elements, 6.19
acid, 7.1, 7.32, 7.347.37
determination algorithm, 6,19, 6.22, 6.23
authigenic, 7.32, 8.2
volume prediction, 5.41
ClientLink, 7.87.38
CMR (see also NMR)
bound fluid, 4.29, 5.38, 5.42
carbonates, 5.36
gas response, 5.125.17
heavy oils, 5.14, 5.295.34, 5.48
Job Planning, 4.27
OBM, 5.44
CMT, 6.41
Compaction, 2.10, 2.46
Compressional slowness, 6.16
Condensate
gas cap, 2.30, 2.33
retrograde, 5.18, 5.19
COR, 6.2, 6.46.10, 6.146.17, 6.33, 6.35
Corrosion, 6.39
CQG quartz gauge, 5.30
Cretaceous DM-115 reservoir, 2.22
Cretaceous, 1.71.10, Chapter 2, 5.8, 7.25, 8.25
Cross-lamination sets, 8.88.10
Crossed Dipole, 4.33
CSAT, 8.21
CSS, 8.29
Cumarebo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
D
Dacin Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3

Data FRAC, 7.20, 7.22, 7.29
Decision tree analysis, 3.23.6
Deconvolution, 8.22
DEFT, 6.286.30, 6.35, 7.13
Depositional environment, see Sedimentary
analysis
by typical reservoir, see Reservoir
Diffusion effects, 5.16
Dip magnitude, 8.12, 8.15, 8.17, 8.19 (fracture)
Dolomitization, 8.19
Drilling fluids, 3.73.13
Drilling optimization, 4.10
Drive mechanism, 2.2
DSI
anisotropy, 3.15
Job Planning, 4.31
mechanical properties, 7.247.31
porosity through casing, 6.156.17
principle, 4.33
Stoneley mobility, 5.8, 5.34
Eocene C/VLG-3676 reservoir, 2.18

Eocene B and C, Ceuta, 7.31, 7.35, 7.36
Eocene, 1.101.12, Chapter 2
Exploration, 1.181.22
drilling, 1.19
history, 1.181.22
Exploratory
activity, 1.18
success, 1.22
EOP, 7.40
F
Falcn Basin, 1.31, 2.3

FBS, 6.34
FFI, 5.3, 5.4, 5.6
Fines
content, 7.35
formation of, 6.37, 7.37
migration of, 7.1, 7.327.37
FIV, 7.42, 7.44
Flagship, Integrated Production Logging String,
6.32, 6.346.36
FloView, see DEFT
Flow Watcher, 6.42
FLT, 5.475.49
Fluid density, 6.25, 6.29
Fluid mobility, 5.8
Fluid properties
variation with depth, 2.36, 2.38
Fluorescence, 5.465.49
FMI, 3.15, 5.345.36, 8.2, 8.98.11
Formation damage
by drilling fluids, 3.73.13, 8.19
by perforating, 7.417.43
flow reduction due to, 7.12
FracCADE, 7.267.29, 7.31
Fracture (induced)
conductivity, 7.19, 7.23
models, 7.247.31
optimization, 7.247.31
stimulation, 7.247.26
TSO, 7.207.22
Fracture (natural)
carbonates, 8.118.19, 8.34
density, width and porosity, 8.14
geometry, 8.12
images, 8.168.19
morphology, 8.14
processes, 8.128.14
wrench-fault-related, 8.13, 8.16
FracView, 8.15
FT-IR, 5.385.41, 6.22
G
Eastern Basin, 1.32

Eastern Coast, 2.2
EFI, 7.38
El Furrial Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.37, 6.2, 6.8
El Mene Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
El Roble Field, 1.1, 2.1
ELAN, 3.14, 3.17, 4.30, 5.10, 5.295.32,
5.37, 5.48
End-point parameters, 5.41
Gel injection, 6.30

Geochronological unit, 1.42
GeoFrame (see also ELAN, Fracview)
VSP processing, 8.21, 8.26, 8.30
Geological glossary, 1.41, 1.42
Geology by reservoir, see Reservoir
Geosteering, 3.193.28, 4.10, 8.35
GR
limitations of, 6.18
spectroscopy, 6.19, 6.20

INDEX
Gravel pack, 6.6, 7.3, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8

Greater Anaco Area, 1.1, 2.4
Greater Las Mercedes Area, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5
Greater Oficina Area, 1.1, 2.3
GST, 3.20, 4.5, 4.10
Guafita Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Gurico Sub-Basin, 1.1, 1.32, 2.5
Low-resistivity sand, 5.385.44

Lower Lagunillas-04, 7.6, 7.7, 7.10, 7.21, 7.22
Lower Lagunillas-05, 6.6, 7.21, 7.22
Lower Lagunillas-07 reservoir, 2.11
LQC, 4.14
LRT, 6.24
LTIV, 7.42, 7.44
LWD, 3.20, 3.22, 4.14.10, 4.15, 8.35, 8.36
HALS, 4.12, 4.14

Hamaca , 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
HGNS, 4.13
HI, 5.5, 5.6, 5.12, 5.17
HNS pellet, 7.38, 7.39
Hold-up, 6.27, 6.28, 6.30, 6.32, 6.34, 6.35
Hombre Pintado Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Horizontal well (see also Geosteering)
production logging of, 6.326.36
reservoir description around, 8.348.40
target selection of, 3.14
HSD, 7.38
Hydrocarbon classification, 5.8
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs in Venezuela, Chapter 2
HyPerSTIM, 7.197.23
Image Examiner Workstation technique, 8.12

IMPACT, 3.17, 3.18
Inelastic Capture Mode, 6.10, 6.20
INFORM, 3.20, 3.23, 3.24, 3.25, 4.10, 8.34,
8.35, 8.38
Injection
gas, 2.5, 2.16, 2.29, 2.32, 2.36, 7.6, 7.10
polymer gel, 6.9, 6.30, 7.13, 7.14, 7.16, 7.17
steam, 2.9
water, 2.5, 2.16, 2.39, 6.6, 6.8, 6.37, 7.6,
7.10, 7.11
water effluent, 2.13
IPR, 6.44
IS, 6.2, 6.3, 6.10
J
J-3 (OM-100) reservoir, 2.28

Jobo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.45
Jurassic, 1.6
Jusepn Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
K
Kaki Field, 1.1, 2.3

Kirchoff integral, 8.22, 8.26, 8.31
L
La Concepcin Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2

La Ensenada Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
La Paz Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
La Vela Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
La Victoria Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Lagunillas Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.11
Lama Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Lamar Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
Lithology
independent porosity, 5.365.38
through casing, 6.176.23
Machete, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43

Mara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.22
Maracaibo Basin, 1.23, 1.24, 2.1, 6.5, 8.8, 8.34,
8.35
Center Lake, 2.2
Eastern Coast, 2.2
Western Coast, 2.2
Mata Field, 1.1, 2.1
Maturn Sub-Basin, 1.37, 1.38, 2.3, 8.24
Greater Anaco Area , 2.4
Greater Oficina Area, 2.3
North Monagas, 2.4
Orinoco Belt, 2.5
South Monagas, 2.5
MCFL, 4.13, 4.14, 5.325.34, 5.48, 5.49
MDT
pressure profile, 3.15, 5.15, 5.30, 5.36, 6.25
sampling, 5.205.24
Melones Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 4.13
Mesozoic, 1.6, 1.42
METT, 6.39
Mineralogy, 5.39, 6.24, 6.25,
Miocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 7.4, 7.21, 7.23
Monitoring
existing wells, Chapter 6
permanent, 6.41
Morichal Member reservoir, 2.43
Mud weight prediction, 3.17, 3.18
MWD/LWD, 3.23, 3.25, 4.5
N
Naricual Sands reservoir, 2.33,

see Carito Central
Naricual Sands reservoir, 2.37,
see El Furrial, 6.8
NBS, 4.5
Neogene, 1.42, 2.14
NGS, 5.41
NMR (see also CMR)
laboratory measurements, 5.35.6, 5.41
principles and petrophysics, 5.25.6
NODAL, 6.7, 6.8, 7.17.4, 7.10, 7.27, 7.31
North Monagas, 2.4, 5.8, 5.12, 5.18, 5.26, 5.27,
6.46, 7.5, 7.25
NRS, 5.26
O
OBM, 3.11, 3.12, 4.28, 5.5, 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.20,

5.44, 6.40
OFA, 5.21, 5.22, 5.23, 5.47
Oficina Central Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Oil field
geographical location, 2.1
map of, 1.2
Oil saturation behind casing, 7.87.10
Oil/water contact, 6.66.8

Oligocene, 1.13, 1.14, Chapter 2, 5.8, 6.46
Orimulsin, 2.5, 2.43
Orinoco Belt, 2.5, 2.43, 5.18, 6.19
Orinoco Belt evaluation, 5.285.36
Oritupano Field, 1.1, 2.1
Orocual Field, 8.24
Orthoclase, 5.41
Oveja Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.28
Overpressured zone, 8.27, 8.28
P
P & S mode, 4.33, 6.15

P1/2 sand reservoir, 2.25, see Silvestre
P2 sand reservoir, 2.40, see Pedernales
Paez-Mingo Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
PAL, 6.39
Paleocene, 1.101.12, Chapter 2
Paleogene, 1.10, 1.42
Paleozoic, 1.5, 1.42
Pedernales Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 2.40, 6.44
PEF, 4.7, 4.13, 4.14, 5.48
PEG, 6.6, 7.1, 7.6
Perforating, 7.1, 7.377.44
standard procedures, 7.40, 7.41
Permeability
build-up, 4.204.22
evaluation, Chapter 6
K-L method, 6.24, 6.25
NMR, 5.4, 5.5, 5.42
SDR, 5.4
Timur/Coates, 5.4, 5.13
with gas, 5.6
with oil and water, 5.5
Petroleum Geology, Chapter 1
Petrophysical properties by reservoir, see
Reservoir
Piln Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2.43
Plagioclase, 5.41
Planning
CMR job, 4.27
DSI job, 4.314.32
geosteering, 3.22
RST job, 6.5
VSP job, 8.26
well, Chapter 3
well evaluation, 4.32, 4.34
wireline job, 4.284.35
with INFORM, 3.24
PLATFORM EXPRESS, 4.1, 4.114.18, 4.27, 4.30,
4.32, 5.36, 5.47, 5.48
Pleistocene, Chapter 1 and 2
Pliocene, Chapter 1 and 2, 8.20, 8.24
PNC, 6.2, 6.3, 6.12
Polarization horn, 3.26
Porosity
buoyancy, 5.3, 5.43
CMR, 5.125.14, 5.32, 5.37, 5.42, 5.48
Neutron, 4.2, 4.7, 4.13, 5.41, 6.12
NMR, 5.3, 5.36, 5.42, 5.43
through casing, 6.12, 6.17
PosiSet plug, 7.17, 7.18
Precambrian, 1.4, 1.42, 5.28

INDEX
Pressure evaluation, Chapter 6

Pressure gauge
metrology, 4.19
performance, 4.194.26
PressureWatcher, 6.42
Production
Venezuela, 2.6
Production
enhancement, Chapter 7
gap, 7.3
logging, 6.276.36
optimization, 6.46
Proppant, 7.21, 7.23
PumpWatcher, 6.42
PVL, 6.33, 6.35
PVT, 4.1, 5.19, 5.20, 5.22, 5.24, 5.26, 5.28
Q
Quartz-feldspar-mica, 6.20, 6.22

Quiriquire Field, 1.1, 2.1
R
RAB, 4.4, 4.6, 4.7, 8.19, 8.35, 8.36

Relaxation, 5.2, 5.3, 5.5
Reserves
history, 1.20
recoverable, 5.19
Venezuela, 2.6
Reservoir
B-6-X.03, Ta Juana, 2.14
C-5, Lagocinco, 7.14, 7.15
Cretaceous, DM-115, West Mara, 2.22
description around the well, Chapter 8
Eocene C/VLG-3676, Ceuta, 2.18
fluid sampling, 5.185.28
fractured, 8.118.19
J-03 (OM-100), Oveja, 2.28
LL-07, Lagunillas, 2.11
management, 6.42, 6.45
Morichal Member, Bitor Area, 2.43
Naricual Sands, Carito Central, 2.33
Naricual Sands, El Furrial, 2.37
P1/2, Silvestre, 2.25
P2, Pedernales, 2.40
permanent monitoring, 6.416.47
R-14-COEF, Santa Rosa, 2.30
Ta Juana, 2.8
typical, map, 2.7
Resistivity modeling (see INFORM)
Rigless workover, 7.17
Risk analysis, 3.33.6
RMA, 7.35, 7.36
RST
flow measurements,
gas, 6.33, 6.35
Job Planning, 6.5
lithology, 6.176.23
porosity, 6.126.17
principle, 6.10
saturation, 6.26.9, 7.87.10
water flow, 6.30, 6.35
SAFE, 7.38
Sampling
North Monagas, 5.27
reservoir fluid, 5.185.28
San Joaqun Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Sand production, 7.5, 7.12
Santa Ana Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Santa Brbara Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4, 5.12, 7.25
Santa Rosa Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.4
Saturation through casing, 6.26.11,
7.87.10, 7.13
Sedimentary analysis, 8.28.10
Seismic profile
multiazimuth walkaway, 8.288.34
multioffset, 8.208.33
vertical, see VSP
Sensors, permanent downhole, 6.47
Shoulder effect, 8.36
Sigma/porosity database, 6.13
Sigma, 5.41, 6.2, 6.96.13, 6.34
Silvestre Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3, 2.25
SIP, 6.24
SLIM1, 3.27
SNUPAR, 5.40
SOS, 7.19, 7.217.23
South Monagas, 2.5
SPAN, 7.10
Spectrolith, 5.41, 6.196.25
Spinner measurements, 6.34
SRS, 5.25
STC, 4.34, 6.15
Stimulation (see Fracture, Induced)
Stoneley (see DSI)
Stratigraphic column
Barinas-Apure, 1.28,
Lake Maracaibo, 1.23
Maracaibo Basin, 1.23
Maturn, 1.38
Stratigraphic nomenclature
Greater Oficina Area, 2.3
Miocene, 2.2
Stress direction, 3.153.17
Subsidence, 2.10
SWAA, 3.17
Swelling effect, 7.33
SXAR, 7.39
SXPV, 7.39
Tar, 5.28, 5.105.17

Tarra Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2
TCP, 7.39, 7.42
Ta Juana (lake) reservoir, 2.14
Ta Juana (onshore) reservoir, 2.8
Ta Juana Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.2, 2.7, 6.2, 6.6, 7.6
TLC, 4.5, 4.6, 4.15
TLD, 4.13
Transient pressure, gauge metrology effect on,
4.204.22
Triassic, 1.6
Truncation surface, 8.88.10
TSO fracturing, 7.20, 7.21
U
UCI, 6.39
UNIGAGE, 4.23- 4.26
Universal Pressure Platform, 4.214.26
Urdaneta Field, 1.1, 2.2, 8.28 (West)
USIT, 6.38, 6.39, 6.40, 7.9
V
Viscosity determination, 5.305.32

VDL, 6.41
VSP
data acquisition, 8.21, 8.25, 8.29
GeoFrame software, 8.30
interpretation, 8.23, 8.27
overpressured zone, 8.27
processing, 8.21, 8.26, 8.30
ray-trace modeling, 8.20, 8.26, 8.29
W
Water cut prediction, 5.385.44

Water front monitoring, 6.8
Water production, 7.1, 7.117.18
problems, 7.12
Water saturation, 5.30, 5.38, 5.43, 5.44, 6.26.9,
7.87.10
WBM, 3.11, 5.10, 5.20
Well construction, 3.2, 3.4
Well performance, 7.2, 7.3
repair, 7.9, 7.10
Well planning, Chapter 3
Wellbore geometry, 3.5
Wellbore stability, 3.153.18
WellWatcher, 6.42
West Mara Field, 2.2, 2.22, 8.12, 8.148.16
Western Coast, 2.2
Wettability, 5.5
WFL, 6.30, 6.316.34, 7.13
WOR, 7.12, 7.14
Y
Yield to element, 6.21

Yopales Field, 1.1, 2.1, 2.3
Z
Zone Aid, 7.287.31

Zuata, 1.1, 2.1, 2.5, 2,43, 5.29, 5.35



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2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

CARACAS, DECEMBER 1997

2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

Vice-President and General Manager,

Latin America and the Caribbean, Dowell

Manager, Latin America

Vice-President, Latin America,

Integrated Project Management

Schlumberger Oilfield Services

2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

The preparation of this book

2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

Oil + Condensate field

Location map of oil fields in Venezuela.

2010 COPYRIGHT MERCADO NEGRO, LAS PLAYITAS. MARACAIBO-EDO. ZULIA, VENEZUELA.

Greater Anaco area

Greater Oficina area

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The Venezuelan physiographic provinces are:

250 to > 5000 m

the chapter, and also a time chart with the

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Paleozoic and Cenozoic

Cenozoic Orogenic Belt

Late Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Early Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Paleozoic and Cenozoic Basins

Eastern Basin of the Precambrian Basement,

Northern South Americas

The coastal plains (117,220 km2) are

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Cenozoic Orogenic Belt

Lower Paleozoic Basin

Upper Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Lower Paleozoic Orogenic Belt

Northern South Americas

Figure 1.3 shows the distribution of

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Perij and Guajira

Gurico and Cojedes

Correlation chart of the most

The Triassic is not present in Venezuela

In Venezuela, the Pangean continent

Distribution of Jurassic rocks: 1) in Perij Range; 2) as part of the economic

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Early Cretaceous. The major sedimentary facies distribution and stratigraphy

Exposed Igneous and Metamorphic

Coastal and Transitional Environment

Distribution of dominant sedimentary facies during the Neocomian-Albian (Early

Andes and Barinas-Apure

Sand / Seal Pairs

Sand / Sandstone Reservoir

The Querecual Formation

See Yoris, 1985, 1988, 1992, on Sucre Group.

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(also Early Cretaceous) carbonate shelf,

Bathyal (Pelagic) and Shelf Shaly

Coastal and Transitional Sandy

Bathyal and Abyssal Hemipelagic/

Dominant sedimentary facies

In Eastern Venezuela, the sedimentary