UT Testing-Section 2

Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound
Content: Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound

2.1: Wave Propagation
2.2: Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
2.3: Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave
2.4: Wavelength and Defect Detection
2.5: Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials
2.6: Attenuation of Sound Waves
2.7: Acoustic Impedance
2.8: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
2.9: Refraction and Snell's Law
2.10: Mode Conversion
2.11: Signal-to-Noise Ratio
2.12: Wave Interaction or Interference
2.13: Inverse Square Rule/ Inverse Rule
2.14: Resonance
2.15 Measurement of Sound
2.16 Practice Makes Perfect
Ultrasonic Formula
http://www.ndt-ed.org/GeneralResources/Calculator/calculator.htm
Ultrasonic Formula
Ultrasonic Formula
2.1: Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on time-varying deformations or vibrations in
materials, which is generally referred to as acoustics. All material substances
are comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibration motion about their
equilibrium positions. Many different patterns of vibration motion exist at the
atomic level, however, most are irrelevant to acoustics and ultrasonic testing.
Acoustics is focused on particles that contain many atoms that move in
unison to produce a mechanical wave. When a material is not stressed in
tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual particles perform
elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced from their
equilibrium positions, internal (electrostatic) restoration forces arise. It is these
elastic restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the
particles, that leads to the oscillatory motions of the medium.
Keywords:
internal (electrostatic) restoration forces
inertia of the particles
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Spectrum
Acoustic Wave Node and Anti-Node
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/u10l4c.cfm
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/waves/h4.gif
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/standw.html
Q151 A point, line or surface of a vibration body marked by absolute or
relative freedom from vibratory motion (momentarily?) is referred to as:
a) a node
b) an antinode
c) rarefaction
d) compression
In solids, sound waves can propagate in four principle modes that are based
on the way the particles oscillate. Sound can propagate as;
longitudinal waves,
shear waves,
surface waves,
and in thin materials as plate waves.
Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely
used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for the
propagation of longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated below.
Longitudinal and shear waves
In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction or the
direction of wave propagation. Since compressional and dilational forces are
active in these waves, they are also called pressure or compressional waves.
They are also sometimes called density waves because their particle density
fluctuates as they move. Compression waves can be generated in liquids, as
well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a
series of compressions and expansion (rarefaction) movements.
Longitudinal wave: longitudinal and shear. Longitudinal waves (L-Waves)
compress and decompress the material in the direction of motion, much like
sound waves in air.
Also Knows as:
longitudinal waves,
pressure wave
compressional waves.
density waves
can be generated in (1) liquids, as well as (2) solids
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/longitudinal.swf
Shear waves (S-Waves) vibrate particles at right angles compared to the
motion of the ultrasonic wave. The velocity of shear waves through a material
is approximately half that of the longitudinal waves. The angle in which the
ultrasonic wave enters the material determines whether longitudinal, shear, or
both waves are produced.
In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or
transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear waves require an
acoustically solid material for effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves
are relatively weak when compared to longitudinal waves. In fact, shear
waves are usually generated in materials using some of the energy from
longitudinal waves.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/transverse.swf
10. For a shear wave travelling from steel to water incident on the boundary
at 10 degrees will give a refracted shear wave in water with an angle of:
a) 0 degrees
b) 5 degrees
c) 20 degrees
d) none of the above
2.2: Modes of Sound Wave Propagation
In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in
the direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in
other directions, hence, a number of different types of sound waves are
possible. Waves can be characterized in space by oscillatory patterns that
are capable of maintaining their shape and propagating in a stable
manner. The propagation of waves is often described in terms of what are
called wave modes.
As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most
often used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces,
various types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other
waves possible. Some of these wave modes such as (1) Rayleigh and (2)
Lamb waves are also useful for ultrasonic inspection.
Keywords:
Compression
Rarefaction
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface acoustic wave that travel on solids.
They can be produced in materials in many ways, such as by a localized
impact or by piezo-electric transduction, and are frequently used in non-
destructive testing for detecting defects. They are part of the seismic waves
that are produced on the Earth by earthquakes. When guided in layers they
are referred to as Lamb waves, RayleighLamb waves, or generalized
Rayleigh waves.
Rayleigh Characteristics
Rayleigh waves are a type of surface wave that travel near the surface of
solids. Rayleigh waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions that
decrease exponentially in amplitude as distance from the surface increases.
There is a phase difference between these component motions. In isotropic
solids these waves cause the surface particles to move in ellipses in planes
normal to the surface and parallel to the direction of propagation the major
axis of the ellipse is vertical. At the surface and at shallow depths this motion
is retrograde , that is the in-plane motion of a particle is counterclockwise
when the wave travels from left to right.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rayleigh_wave
29. The longitudinal wave incident angle which results in formation of a
Rayleigh wave is called:
(a) Normal incidence
(b) The first critical angle
(c) The second critical angle
(d) Any angle above the first critical angle
Lamb Wave:
When guided in layers they are referred to as Lamb waves, RayleighLamb
waves, or generalized Rayleigh waves.
Lamb waves 2 modes
Lamb waves propagate in solid plates. They are elastic waves whose particle
motion lies in the plane that contains the direction of wave propagation and
the plate normal (the direction perpendicular to the plate). In 1917, the english
mathematician horace lamb published his classic analysis and description of
acoustic waves of this type. Their properties turned out to be quite complex.
An infinite medium supports just two wave modes traveling at unique
velocities; but plates support two infinite sets of lamb wave modes, whose
velocities depend on the relationship between wavelength and plate thickness.
Since the 1990s, the understanding and utilization of lamb waves has
advanced greatly, thanks to the rapid increase in the availability of computing
power. Lamb's theoretical formulations have found substantial practical
application, especially in the field of nondestructive testing.
The term rayleighlamb waves embraces the rayleigh wave, a type of wave
that propagates along a single surface.
Both rayleigh and lamb waves are constrained by the elastic properties of the
surface(s) that guide them.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamb_wave
http://pediaview.com/openpedia/Lamb_waves
Waves
New!
Plate wave- Love
Stoneley wave
Sezawa
Longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed on the previous page, so
let's touch on surface and plate waves here.
Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel the surface of a relatively thick solid
material penetrating to a depth of one wavelength.
Surface waves combine both (1) a longitudinal and (2) transverse motion to
create an elliptic orbit motion as shown in the image and animation below.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/rayleigh.swf
The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the solid. As
the depth of an individual atom from the surface increases the width of its
elliptical motion decreases. Surface waves are generated when a
longitudinal wave intersects a surface near the second critical angle and
they travel at a velocity between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. Rayleigh
waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects (and
other surface features) and they follow the surface around curves.
Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to inspect areas that other
waves might have difficulty reaching.
Wave velocity:
Longitudinal wave velocity =1v,
The velocity of shear waves through a material is approximately half that
of the longitudinal waves, (0.5v)
Surface waves are generated when a longitudinal wave intersects a
surface near the second critical angle and they travel at a velocity
between .87 and .95 of a shear wave. (0.87~0.95)x0.5v
The major axis of the ellipse is perpendicular to the surface of the solid.
Surface wave
Surface wave or Rayleigh wave are formed when shear waves refract to 90.
The whip-like particle vibration of the shear wave is converted into elliptical
motion by the particle changing direction at the interface with the surface. The
wave are not often used in industrial NDT although they do have some
application in aerospace industry. Their mode of propagation is elliptical along
the surface of material, penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. They will
follow the contour of the surface and they travel at approximately 90% of the
velocity of the shear waves.
Depth of penetration of
about one wavelength
Direction of wave propagation
Surface wave has the ability to follow surface contour, until it meet a sharp
change i.e. a surface crack/seam/lap. However the surface waves could be
easily completely absorbed by excess couplant of simply touching the part
ahead of the waves.
Transducer
Wedge
Surface discontinuity
Specimen
Surface wave One wavelength deep
Rayleigh Wave
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Rwave_files/image001.gif
Love Wave
http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Lwave_files/image001.gif
Q110: What kind of wave mode travel at a velocity slightly belowthe shear
wave and their modes of propagation are both longitudinal and transverse
with respect to the surface?
a) Rayleigh wave
b) Transverse wave
c) L-wave
d) Longitudinal wave
Q: Which of the following modes of vibration exhibits the shortest wavelength
at a given frequency and in a given material?
A. longitudinal wave
B. compression wave
C. shear wave
D. surface wave
Plate waves
Plate or Lamb waves are the most commonly used plate waves in
NDT. Lamb waves are complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to
the test surface throughout the thickness of the material. Propagation of Lamb
waves depends on the density and the elastic material properties of a
component. They are also influenced a great deal by the test frequency and
material thickness. Lamb waves are generated at an incident angle in which
the parallel component of the velocity of the wave in the source is equal to the
velocity of the wave in the test material. Lamb waves will travel several
meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate, wire, and tubes.
Lamb wave influenced by: (Dispersive Wave)
Density
Elastic material properties
Frequencies
Material thickness
Plate or Lamb waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be
generated in materials a few wavelengths thick.
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/files/lamb_a.gif
Plate wave or Lamb wave are formed by the introduction of surface wave
into a thin material. They are a combination of (1) compression and surface or
(2) shear and surface waves causing the plate material to flex by totally
saturating the material. The two types of plate waves:
Plate or Lamb waves are generated at an incident angle in which the parallel
component of the velocity of the wave in the source is equal to the velocity of
the wave in the test material.
Q1: The wave mode that has multiple or varying wave velocities is:
A. Longitudinal waves
B. Shear waves
C. Transverse waves
D. Lamb waves
With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration are possible, but
the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical. The complex
motion of the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for surface
waves. Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a symmetrical fashion about the
median plane of the plate. This is sometimes called the extensional mode
because the wave is stretching and compressingthe plate in the wave
motion direction. Wave motion in the symmetrical mode is most efficiently
produced when the exciting force is parallel to the plate. The asymmetrical
Lamb wave mode is often called the flexural modebecause a large portion
of the motion moves in a normal direction to the plate, and a little motion
occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In this mode, the body of the plate
bends as the two surfaces move in the same direction.
The generation of waves using both piezoelectric transducers and
electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) are discussed in later sections.
Keywords:
Symmetrical = extensional mode
Asymmetrical = flexural mode
Dispersive Wave:
Wave modes such as those found in Lamb wave have a velocity of
propagation dependent upon the operating frequency, sample thickness and
elastic moduli. They are dispersive (velocity change with frequency) in that
pulses transmitted in these mode tend to become stretched or dispersed.
Dispersion refers to the fact that in a real medium such as water, air, or glass,
a wave traveling through that medium will have a velocity that depends upon
its frequency. Dispersion occurs for any form of wave, acoustic,
electromagnetic, electronic, even quantum mechanical. Dispersion is
responsible for a prism being able to resolve light into colors and defines the
maximum frequency of broadband pulses one can send down an optical fiber
or through a copper wire. Dispersion affects wave and swell forecasts at
sea and influences the design of sound equipment. Dispersion is a physical
property of the medium and can combine with other properties to yield very
strange results. For example, in the propagation of light in an optical fiber, the
glass introduces dispersion and separates the wavelengths of light according
to frequency, however if the light is intense enough, it can interact with the
electrons in the material changing its refractive index. The combination of
dispersion and index change can cancel each other leading to a wave that
can propagate indefinitely maintaining a constant shape. Such a wave has
been termed a soliton.
http://www.rpi.edu/dept/chem-eng/WWW/faculty/plawsky/Comsol%20Modules/DispersiveWave/DispersiveWave.html
Thickness Limitation:
One can not generate shear / surface (or Lamb?) wave on a plate that is
thinner than the wavelength.
2.3: Properties of Acoustic Plane Wave
Wavelength, Frequency and Velocity
Among the properties of waves propagating in isotropic solid materials are
wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional
to the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the
wave. This relationship is shown by the following equation.
The applet below shows a longitudinal and transverse wave. The direction of
wave propagation is from left to right and the movement of the lines indicate
the direction of particle oscillation. The equation relating ultrasonic
wavelength, frequency, and propagation velocity is included at the bottom of
the applet in a reorganized form. The values for the wavelength, frequency,
and wave velocity can be adjusted in the dialog boxes to see their effects on
the wave. Note that the frequency value must be kept between 0.1 to 1 MHz
(one million cycles per second) and the wave velocity must be between 0.1
and 0.7 cm/us.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Physics/applet_2_4/applet_2_4.htm
J ava dont work? Uninstalled Reinstalled Then
http://jingyan.baidu.com/article/9f63fb91d0eab8c8400f0e08.html
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
J ava dont work?
As can be noted by the equation, a change in frequency will result in a
change in wavelength. Change the frequency in the applet and view the
resultant wavelength. At a frequency of .2 and a material velocity of 0.585
(longitudinal wave in steel) note the resulting wavelength. Adjust the material
velocity to 0.480 (longitudinal wave in cast iron) and note the resulting
wavelength. Increase the frequency to 0.8 and note the shortened wavelength
in each material.
In ultrasonic testing, the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in
frequency will usually provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities. This
will be discussed more in following sections.
Keywords:
the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will usually
provide for the detection of smaller discontinuities
2.4: Wavelength and Defect Detection
In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency
of the transducer that will be used. As we learned on the previous page,
changing the frequency when the sound velocity is fixed will result in a
change in the wavelength of the sound.
The wavelength of the ultrasound used has a significant effect on the
probability of detecting a discontinuity. A general rule of thumb is that a
discontinuity must be larger than one-half the wavelength to stand a
reasonable chance of being detected.
Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic
inspection to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the
ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with
higher frequency (shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system
to locate discontinuities that are close together within the material or located
near the part surface. Resolution also generally increases as the frequency
increases.
The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse
ways. Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves
maintaining a balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the
selection. Before selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain
structure and thickness, and the discontinuity's type, size, and probable
location should be considered.
As frequency increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain
structure and from small imperfections within a material. Cast materials often
have coarse grains and other sound scatters that require lower frequencies to
be used for evaluations of these products.
(1) Wrought and (2) forged products with directional and refined grain
structure can usually be inspected with higher frequency transducers.
Keywords:
Coarse grains Lower frequency to avoid scattering and noise,
Fine grains Higher frequency to increase sensitivity & resolution.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound
energy at higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth
in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has
an effect on the shape of the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the
divergence of the beam from the center axis of the transducer, and how it is
affected by frequency will be discussed later.
It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other
variables will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These
include the pulse length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of
the crystal, backing material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of
the instrument. These are discussed in more detail in the material on signal-
to-noise ratio.
Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound
energy at higher frequencies, the penetrating power (or the maximum depth
in a material that flaws can be located) is also reduced.
Coarse grains Lower frequency to avoid scattering and noise,
Fine grains Higher frequency to increase sensitivity & resolution.
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/ultrasonics/grain-noise
Higher the frequency, greater the scattering, thus less penetrating.
Detectability variable:
pulse length,
type and voltage applied to the crystal,
properties of the crystal,
backing material,
transducer diameter, and
the receiver circuitry of the instrument.
Investigating further on:
Detectability variable:
pulse length,
type and voltage applied to the crystal,
properties of the crystal,
backing material,
transducer diameter (focal length Cross sectional area), and
the receiver circuitry of the instrument.
Investigating on: Sonic pulse volume pulse length, transducer
Pulse Length:
A sound pulse traveling through a
metal occupies a physical
volume. This volume changes
with depth, being smallest in the
focal zone. The pulse volume, a
product of a pulse length L and a
cross-sectional area A, can be
fairly easily measured by
combining ultrasonic A-scans and
C-scans, as will be seen shortly.
For many cases of practical interest, the inspection simulation models predict
that S/N (signal to noise ratio) is inversely proportional to the square root of the
pulse volume at the depth of the defect. This is known as the pulse volume
rule-of-thumband has become a guiding principle for designing
inspections. Generally speaking, it applies when both the grain size and the
lateral size of the defect are smaller than the sound pulse diameter.
http://www.cnde.iastate.edu/ultrasonics/grain-noise
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- A Scan (6db drop)
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- C Scan
Sonic pulse volumeand S/N (defect resolution)
Pulse volume rule-of-thumb:
Competing grain noise (pulse volume)
2.5: Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials
In the previous pages, it was pointed out that sound waves propagate due to
the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles within a material. An
ultrasonic wave may be visualized as an infinite number of oscillating masses
or particles connected by means of elastic springs. Each individual particle is
influenced by the motion of its nearest neighbor and both (1) inertial and (2)
elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.
A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency determined by its spring
constant k and its mass m. The spring constant is the restoring force of a
spring per unit of length. Within the elastic limit of any material, there is a
linear relationship between the displacement of a particle and the force
attempting to restore the particle to its equilibrium position. This linear
dependency is described by Hooke's Law.
Spring model- A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency
determined by its spring constant k and its mass m.
Spring model- A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency
determined by its spring constant k and its mass m.
In terms of the spring model, Hooke's Law says that the restoring force due to
a spring is proportional to the length that the spring is stretched, and acts in
the opposite direction. Mathematically, Hooke's Lawis written as F =-kx,
where F is the force, k is the spring constant, and x is the amount of particle
displacement. Hooke's law is represented graphically it the bottom. Please
note that the spring is applying a force to the particle that is equal and
opposite to the force pulling down on the particle.
Elastic Model / Longitudinal Wave
Shear Wave
The Speed of Sound
Hooke's Law, when used along with Newton's Second Law, can explain a few
things about the speed of sound. The speed of sound within a material is a
function of the properties of the material and is independent of the amplitude
of the sound wave. Newton's Second Law says that the force applied to a
particle will be balanced by the particle's mass and the acceleration of the
particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second Law is written as F = ma. Hooke's
Law then says that this force will be balanced by a force in the opposite
direction that is dependent on the amount of displacement and the spring
constant (F = -kx). Therefore, since the applied force and the restoring force
are equal, ma = -kx can be written. The negative sign indicates that the force
is in the opposite direction.
F= ma = -kx
Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given
material, it can be seen that the acceleration a and the displacement x are the
only variables. It can also be seen that they are directly proportional. For
instance, if the displacement of the particle increases, so does its acceleration.
It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and return to its
equilibrium position is independent of the force applied. So, within a given
material, sound always travels at the same speed no matter how much force
is applied when other variables, such as temperature, are held constant.
a x
What properties of material affect its speed of sound?
Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is
because the (1) mass of the atomic particles and the (2) spring constants are
different for different materials. The mass of the particles is related to the
density of the material, and the spring constant is related to the elastic
constants of a material. The general relationship between the speed of sound
in a solid and its density and elastic constants is given by the following
equation:
Density
mass of the atomic particles
Elastic constant
spring constants
Where V is the speed of sound, C is the elastic constant, and p is the material
density. This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the
type of wave (longitudinal or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are
used. The typical elastic constants of a materials include:
Young's Modulus, E: a proportionality constant between uniaxial stress
and strain.
Poisson's Ratio, n: the ratio of radial strain to axial strain
Bulk modulus, K: a measure of the incompressibility of a body subjected to
hydrostatic pressure.
Shear Modulus, G: also called rigidity, a measure of a substance's
resistance to shear.
Lame's Constants, l and m: material constants that are derived from
Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio.
Q163 Acoustic velocity of materials are primary due to the material's:
a) density
b) elasticity
c) both a and b
d) acoustic impedance
When calculating the velocity of a longitudinal wave, Young's Modulus and
Poisson's Ratio are commonly used.
When calculating the velocity of a shear wave, the shear modulus is used. It
is often most convenient to make the calculations using
Lame's Constants, which are derived from Young's Modulus and Poisson's
Ratio.
E/N/G
It must also be mentioned that the subscript ij attached to C (C
ij
) in the above
equation is used to indicate the directionality of the elastic constants with
respect to the wave type and direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials,
the elastic constants are the same for all directions within the material.
However, most materials are anisotropic and the elastic constants differ with
each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled aluminum plate, the grains
are elongated in one direction and compressed in the others and the elastic
constants for the longitudinal direction are different than those for the
transverse or short transverse directions.
V
longitudinal
V
transverse
Examples of approximate compressional sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.632 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.589 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.480 cm/microsecond.
Examples of approximate shear sound velocities in materials are:
Aluminum - 0.313 cm/microsecond
1020 steel - 0.324 cm/microsecond
Cast iron - 0.240 cm/microsecond.
When comparing compressional and shear velocities, it can be noted that
shear velocity is approximately one half that of compressional velocity. The
sound velocities for a variety of materials can be found in the ultrasonic
properties tables in the general resources section of this site.
Longitudinal Wave Velocity: V
L
The velocity of a longitudinal wave is described by the following equation:
V
L
= Longitudinal bulk wave velocity
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity
= Poisson ratio
P = Material density
Shear Wave Velocity: V
S
The velocity of a shear wave is described by the following equation:
V
s
= Shear wave velocity
E = Youngs modulus of elasticity
= Poisson ratio
P = Material density
G = Shear modulus
2.6: Attenuation of Sound Waves
When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance.
In idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is only reduced by
the (1) spreading of the wave. Natural materials, however, all produce an
effect which further weakens the sound. This further weakening results from
(2) scattering and (3) absorption. Scattering is the reflection of the sound in
directions other than its original direction of propagation. Absorption is the
conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The combined
effect of scattering and absorption (spreading?) is called attenuation.
Ultrasonic attenuation is the decay rate of the wave as it propagates through
material.
Attenuation of sound within a material itself is often not of intrinsic interest.
However, natural properties and loading conditions can be related to
attenuation. Attenuation often serves as a measurement tool that leads to the
formation of theories to explain physical or chemical phenomenon that
decreases the ultrasonic intensity.
Absorption:
Sound attenuations are affected by; (1) Geometric beam spread, (2) Absorption,
(3) Scattering.
Absorption processes
1. Mechanical hysteresis
2. Internal friction
3. Others (?)
For relatively non-elastic material, these soft and pliable material include lead,
plastid, rubbers and non-rigid coupling materials; much of the energy is loss as
heat during sound propagation and absorption is the main reason that the
testing of these material are limit to relatively thin section/
Scattering:
Grain Size and Wave Frequency
Sound attenuations are affected by; (1) Geometric beam spread, (2)
Absorption, (3) Scattering.
The relative impact of scattering source of a material depends upon their
grain sizes in comparison with the Ultrasonic sound wave length. As the
scattering size approaches that of a wavelength, scattering by the grain is a
concern. The effects from such scattering could be compensated with the use
of increasing wavelength ultrasound at the cost of decreasing sensitivity and
resolution to detection of discontinuities.
Other effect are anisotropic columnar grain with different elastic behavior at
different grain direction. In this case the internal incident wave front becomes
distorted and often appear to change direction (propagate better in certain
preferred direction) in respond to material anisotropy.
Anisotropic Columnar Grains
with different elastic behavior at different grain direction.
Spreading/ Scattering / adsorption (reflection is a form of scattering)
Scattering
Scatterbrain
Adsorption
Spreading
The amplitude change of a decaying plane wave can be expressed as:
In this expression A
o
is the unattenuated amplitude of the propagating wave
at some location. The amplitude A is the reduced amplitude after the wave
has traveled a distance z from that initial location. The quantity is the
attenuation coefficient of the wave traveling in the z-direction. The
dimensions of are nepers/length, where a neper is a dimensionless
quantity. The term e is the exponential (or Napier's constant) which is equal
to approximately 2.71828.
The units of the attenuation value in Nepers per meter (Np/m) can be
converted to decibels/length by dividing by 0.1151. Decibels is a more
common unit when relating the amplitudes of two signals.
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of sound frequency.
Quoted values of attenuation are often given for a single frequency, or an
attenuation value averaged over many frequencies may be given. Also, the
actual value of the attenuation coefficient for a given material is highly
dependent on the way in which the material was manufactured. Thus, quoted
values of attenuation only give a rough indication of the attenuation and
should not be automatically trusted. Generally, a reliable value of attenuation
can only be obtained by determining the attenuation experimentally for the
particular material being used.
Attenuation Frequency (f )
2
Attenuation can be determined by evaluating the multiple back wall reflections
seen in a typical A-scan display like the one shown in the image at the bottom.
The number of decibels between two adjacent signals is measured and this
value is divided by the time interval between them. This calculation produces
a attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit time Ut. This value can be
converted to nepers/length by the following equation.
Where v is the velocity of sound in meters per
second and Ut is in decibels per second.
Amplitude at distance Z
where:
Where v is the velocity of sound in meters per
second and Ut is in decibels per second.
Ut
A
o
A
Factors Affecting Attenuation:
1. Testing Factors
Testing frequency
Boundary conditions
Wave form geometry
2. Base Material Factors
Material type
Chemistry
Integral constituents (fiber, voids, water content, inclusion, anisotropy)
Forms (casting, wrought)
Heat treatment history
Mechanical processes(Hot or cold working; forging, rolling, extruding,
TMCP, directional working)
Frequency selection
There is no ideal frequency; therefore, frequency selection must be made with
consideration of several factors. Frequency determines the wavelength of the
sound energy traveling through the material. Low frequency has longer
wavelengths and will penetrate deeper than higher frequencies. To penetrate
a thick piece, low frequencies should be used. Another factor is the size of the
grain structure in the material. High frequencies with shorter wavelengths
tend to reflect off grain boundaries and become lost or result in ultrasonic
noise that can mask flaw signals. Low frequencies must be used with coarse
grain structures. However, test resolution decreases when frequency is
decreased. Small defects detectable at high frequencies may be missed at
lower frequencies. In addition, variations in instrument characteristics and
settings as well as material properties and coupling conditions play a major
role in system performance. It is critical that approved testing procedures be
followed.
Q94: In general, which of the following mode of vibration would have the
greatest penetrating power in a coarse grain material if the frequency of
the wave are the same?
a) Longitudinal wave
b) Shear wave
c) Transverse wave
d) All the above modes would have the same penetrating power
Q: The random distribution of crystallographic direction in alloys with large
crystalline structures is a factor in determining:
A. Acoustic noise levels
B. Selection of test frequency
C. Scattering of sound
D. All of the above
2.7: Acoustic Impedance
Acoustic impedance is a measured of resistance of sound propagation
through a part.
From the table air has lower acoustic impedance than steel and for a given
energy Aluminum would travel a longer distance than steel before the same
amount of energy is attenuated.
Transmission & Reflection Animation:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Partial_transmittance.gif
Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure.
Because molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another,
the excess pressure results in a wave propagating through the solid.
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined as the product of its
density (p) and acoustic velocity (V).
Z = pV
Acoustic impedance is important in:
1. the determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary
of two materials having different acoustic impedances.
2. the design of ultrasonic transducers.
3. assessing absorption of sound in a medium.
The following applet can be used to calculate the acoustic impedance for any
material, so long as its density (p) and acoustic velocity (V) are known. The
applet also shows how a change in the impedance affects the amount of
acoustic energy that is reflected and transmitted. The values of the reflected
and transmitted energy are the fractional amounts of the total energy incident
on the interface. Note that the fractional amount of transmitted sound energy
plus the fractional amount of reflected sound energy equals one. The
calculation used to arrive at these values will be discussed on the next page.
Reflection/Transmission Energy as a function of Z
Reflection/Transmission Energy as a function of Z
2.8: Reflection and Transmission Coefficients (Pressure)
Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in
acoustic impedances (Z) of the materials on each side of the boundary. (See
preceding page for more information on acoustic impedance.) This difference
in Z is commonly referred to as the impedance mismatch. The greater the
impedance mismatch, the greater the percentage of energy that will be
reflected at the interface or boundary between one medium and another.
The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be derived
because particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous
across the boundary.
When the acoustic impedances of the materials on both sides of the boundary
are known, the fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be
calculated with the equation below. The value produced is known as the
reflection coefficient. Multiplying the reflection coefficient by 100 yields the
amount of energy reflected as a percentage of the original energy.
Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal
the total amount of incident energy, the transmission coefficient is calculated
by simply subtracting the reflection coefficient from one.
Formulations for acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients (pressure)
are shown in the interactive applet below. Different materials may be
selected or the material velocity and density may be altered to change the
acoustic impedance of one or both materials. The red arrow represents
reflected sound and the blue arrow represents transmitted sound.
Reflection Coefficient:
Note that the reflection and transmission coefficients are often expressed in
decibels (dB) to allow for large changes in signal strength to be more easily
compared. To convert the intensity or power of the wave to dB units, take the
log of the reflection or transmission coefficient and multiply this value times
10. However, 20 is the multiplier used in the applet since the power of sound
is not measured directly in ultrasonic testing. The transducers produce a
voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure. The power
carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the pressure
amplitude. Therefore, to estimate the signal amplitude change, the log of the
reflection or transmission coefficient is multiplied by 20.
Using the above applet, note that the energy reflected at a water-stainless
steel interface is 0.88 or 88%. The amount of energy transmitted into the
second material is 0.12 or 12%. The amount of reflection and transmission
energy in dB terms are -1.1 dB and -18.2 dB respectively. The negative sign
indicates that individually, the amount of reflected and transmitted energy is
smaller than the incident energy.
If reflection and transmission at interfaces is
followed through the component, only a small
percentage of the original energy makes it back
to the transducer, even when loss by attenuation
is ignored. For example, consider an immersion
inspection of a steel block. The sound energy
leaves the transducer, travels through the water,
encounters the front surface of the steel,
encounters the back surface of the steel and
reflects back through the front surface on its way
back to the transducer. At the water steel
interface (front surface), 12% of the energy is
transmitted. At the back surface, 88% of the
12% that made it through the front surface is
reflected. This is 10.6% of the intensity of the
initial incident wave. As the wave exits the part
back through the front surface, only 12% of 10.6
or 1.3% of the original energy is transmitted back
to the transducer.
Incident Wave other than Normal?
Sample Question:
The figure above shown the partition of incident and reflected wave at water-
Aluminum interface at an incident angle of 20, the reflected and transmitted
wave are:
A. 60% and 40%
B. 40% and 60%
C. 1/3 and 2/3
D. 80% and 20%
Note: if normal incident the reflected 70% Transmitted 30%
Other Reading (Olympus Technical Note)
The boundary between two materials of different acoustic impedances is
called an acoustic interface. When sound strikes an acoustic interface at
normal incidence, some amount of sound energy is reflected and some
amount is transmitted across the boundary. The dB loss of energy on
transmitting a signal from medium 1 into medium 2 is given by:
dB loss of transmission = 10 log
10
[ 4Z
1
Z
2
/ (Z
1
+Z
2
)
2
]
The dB loss of energy of the echo signal in medium 1 reflecting from an
interface boundary with medium 2 is given by:
dB loss of Reflection = 10 log
10
[ (Z
1
-Z
2
)
2
/ (Z
1
+Z
2
)
2
]
For example: The dB loss on transmitting from water (Z = 1.48) into 1020
steel (Z = 45.41) is -9.13 dB; this also is the loss transmitting from 1020 steel
into water. The dB loss of the backwall echo in 1020 steel in water is -0.57
dB; this also is the dB loss of the echo off 1020 steel in water. The waveform
of the echo is inverted when Z2<Z1.
Finally, ultrasound attenuates as it progresses through a medium. Assuming
no major reflections, there are three causes of attenuation: diffraction,
scattering and absorption. The amount of attenuation through a material can
play an important role in the selection of a transducer for an application.
http://olympus-ims.com/data/File/panametrics/UT-technotes.en.pdf
6. For an ultrasonic beam with normal incidence the transmission coefficient
is given by:
http://webpages.ursinus.edu/lriley/courses/p212/lectures/node19.html#eq:acousticR
http://sepwww.stanford.edu/sep/prof/waves/fgdp8/paper_html/node2.html
2.9: Refraction and Snell's Law
Refraction and Snell's Law
When an ultrasonic wave passes through an
interface between two materials at an oblique
angle, and the materials have different indices
of refraction, both reflected and refracted waves
are produced. This also occurs with light, which
is why objects seen across an interface appear
to be shifted relative to where they really are.
For example, if you look straight down at an
object at the bottom of a glass of water, it looks
closer than it really is. A good way to visualize
how light and sound refract is to shine a
flashlight into a bowl of slightly cloudy water
noting the refraction angle with respect to the
incident angle.
V
s1
Only If this medium support shear wave i.e. Solid
V
L1
V
L1
V
L2 V
S2
Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the
acoustic waves within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each
material is determined by the material properties (elastic modulus and density)
for that material. In the animation below, a series of plane waves are shown
traveling in one material and entering a second material that has a higher
acoustic velocity. Therefore, when the wave encounters the interface between
these two materials, the portion of the wave in the second material is moving
faster than the portion of the wave in the first material. It can be seen that this
causes the wave to bend.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/waveRefraction.swf
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/3368/en/
Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles and the velocities
of the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities V1 and V2 to
the ratio of the sine's of incident (
1
) and refracted (
2
) angles, as shown in
the following equation.
Where:
V
L1
is the longitudinal wave velocity
in material 1.
V
L2
is the longitudinal wave velocity
in material 2.
Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (V
L1'
) shown.
This wave is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the
two waves are traveling in the same material, and hence have the same
velocities. This reflected wave is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law,
but it should be remembered that some of the wave energy is reflected at the
interface. In the applet below, only the incident and refracted longitudinal
waves are shown. The angle of either wave can be adjusted by clicking and
dragging the mouse in the region of the arrows. Values for the angles or
acoustic velocities can also be entered in the dialog boxes so the that applet
can be used as a Snell's Law calculator.
Snell Law
Snell Law
When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is
an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the wave 90
o
. This is
know as the first critical angle. The first critical angle can be found from
Snell's law by putting in an angle of 90 for the angle of the refracted ray. At
the critical angle of incidence, much of the acoustic energy is in the form of an
inhomogeneous compression wave, which travels along the interface and
decays exponentially with depth from the interface. This wave is sometimes
referred to as a "creep wave." Because of their inhomogeneous nature and
the fact that they decay rapidly, creep waves are not used as extensively as
Rayleigh surface waves in NDT. However, creep waves are sometimes more
useful than Rayleigh waves because they suffer less from surface
irregularities and coarse material microstructure due to their longer
wavelengths.
Snell Law
Refraction and mode conversion occur
because of the change in L-wave
velocity as it passes the boundary from
one medium to another. The higher the
difference in the velocity of sound
between two materials, the larger the
resulting angle of refraction. L-waves
and S-waves have different angles of
refraction because they have dissimilar
velocities within the same material.
s the angle of the ultrasonic transducer
continues to increase, L-waves move
closer to the surface of the UUT.
The angle at which the L-wave is parallel with the surface of the UUT is
referred to as the first critical angle. This angle is useful for two reasons. Only
one wave mode is echoed back to the transducer, making it easy to interpret
the data. Also, this angle gives the test system the ability to look at surfaces
that are not parallel to the front surface, such as welds.
Example: Snells Law
L-wave and S-wave refraction angles are calculated using Snells law. You
also can use this law to determine the first critical angle for any combination
of materials.
Where:
2
= angle of the refracted beam in the UUT
1
= incident angle from normal of beam in the wedge or liquid
V
1
= velocity of incident beam in the liquid or wedge
V
2
= velocity of refracted beam in the UUT
For example, calculate the first critical angle for a transducer on a plastic
wedge that is examining aluminum.
V
1
= 0.267 cm/s (for L-waves in plastic)
V
2
= 0.625 cm/s (for L-waves in aluminum)
2
= 90 degree (angle of L-wave for first critical angle)
1
= unknown
The plastic wedge must have a minimum angle of 25.29 to transmit only S-
waves into the UUT. When the S-wave angle of refraction is greater than 90,
all ultrasonic energy is reflected by the UUT.
Snell Law: First critical angle
Snell Law: 1
st
/ 2
nd
Critical Angles
Q155 Which of the following can occur when an ultrasound beam reaches the
interface of 2 dissimilar materials?
a) Reflection
b) refraction
c) mode conversion
d) all of the above
Q. Both longitudinal and shear waves may be simultaneously generated in a
second medium when the angle of incidence is:
a) between the normal and the 1st critical angle
b) between the 1st and 2nd critical angle
c) past the second critical angle
d) only at the second critical angle
Q: When angle beam contact testing a test piece, increasing the incident
angle until the second critical angle is reached results in:
A. Total reflection of a surface wave
B. 45 degree refraction of the shear wave
C. Production of a surface wave
D. None of the above
Typical angle beam assemblies make use of mode conversion and Snell's
Law to generate a shear wave at a selected angle (most commonly 30, 45,
60, or 70) in the test piece. As the angle of an incident longitudinal wave
with respect to a surface increases, an increasing portion of the sound energy
is converted to a shear wave in the second material, and if the angle is high
enough, all of the energy in the second material will be in the form of shear
waves. There are two advantages to designing common angle beams to take
advantage of this mode conversion phenomenon.
First, energy transfer is more efficient at the incident angles that generate
shear waves in steel and similar materials.
Second, minimum flaw size resolution is improved through the use of
shear waves, since at a given frequency, the wavelength of a shear wave
is approximately 60% the wavelength of a comparable longitudinal wave.
Snell Law:
http://techcorr.com/services/Inspection-and-Testing/Ultrasonic-Shear-Wave.cfm
Depth & Skip
More on Snell Law
Like light, when an incident ultrasonic wave encounters an interface to an
adjacent material of a different velocity, at an angle other than normal to the
surface, then both reflected and refracted waves are produced.
Understanding refraction and how ultrasonic energy is refracted is especially
important when using angle probes or the immersion technique. It is also the
foundation formula behind the calculations used to determine a materials first
and second critical angles.
First Critical Angle
Before the angle of incidence reaches the first critical angle, both longitudinal
and shear waves exist in the part being inspected. The first critical angle is
said to have been reached when the longitudinal wave no longer exists within
the part, that is, when the longitudinal wave is refracted to greater or equal
than 90, leaving only a shear wave remaining in the part.
Second Critical Angle
The second critical angle occurs when the angle of incidence is at such an
angle that the remaining shear wave within the part is refracted out of the part.
At this angle, when the refracted shear wave is at 90 a surface wave is
created on the part surface
Beam angles should always be plotted using the appropriate industry
standard, however, knowing the effect of velocity and angle on refraction will
always benefit an NDT technician when working with angle inspection or the
immersion technique.
The above calculator uses the following equation:
ultrasonic snells law formula
Where:
A1 = The angle of incidence.
V1 = The incident material velocity
A2 = The angle of refraction
V2 = The refracted material velocity
http://www.ndtcalc.com/calculators.html
2.10: Mode Conversion
When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another form. For example, when a longitudinal waves hits
an interface at an angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement in
the transverse direction to start a shear (transverse) wave. Mode conversion
occurs when a wave encounters an interface between materials of different
acoustic impedances and the incident angle is not normal to the interface.
From the ray tracing movie below, it can be seen that since mode conversion
occurs every time a wave encounters an interface at an angle, ultrasonic
signals can become confusing at times.
Mode Conversion
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Graphics/Flash/ModeConversion/ModeConv.swf
In the previous section, it was pointed out
that when sound waves pass through an
interface between materials having different
acoustic velocities, refraction takes place at
the interface. The larger the difference in
acoustic velocities between the two
materials, the more the sound is refracted.
Notice that the shear wave is not refracted
as much as the longitudinal wave. This
occurs because shear waves travel slower
than longitudinal waves. Therefore, the
velocity difference between the incident
longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not
as great as it is between the incident and
refracted longitudinal waves.
Also note that when a longitudinal wave is reflected inside the material, the
reflected shear wave is reflected at a smaller angle than the reflected
longitudinal wave. This is also due to the fact that the shear velocity is less
than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.
Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can
be written as follows
=
Where:
VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1.
VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.
VS1 is the shear wave velocity in material 1.
VS2 is the shear wave velocity in material 2.
Snell's Law
In the applet below, the shear (transverse) wave ray path has been added.
The ray paths of the waves can be adjusted by clicking and dragging in the
vicinity of the arrows. Values for the angles or the wave velocities can also be
entered into the dialog boxes. It can be seen from the applet that when a
wave moves from a slower to a faster material, there is an incident angle
which makes the angle of refraction for the longitudinal wave 90 degrees. As
mentioned on the previous page, this is known as the first critical angle and
all of the energy from the refracted longitudinal wave is now converted to a
surface following longitudinal wave. This surface following wave is sometime
referred to as a creep wave and it is not very useful in NDT because it
dampens out very rapidly.
Reflections
Creep wave
V
S1
V
S2
Beyond the first critical angle, only the shear wave propagates into the
material. For this reason, most angle beam transducers use a shear wave so
that the signal is not complicated by having two waves present. In many
cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction for the
shear wave 90 degrees. This is known as the second critical angle and at this
point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following
shear wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle,
surface waves will be generated.
Keywords:
Longitudinal creep wave
Shear creep wave
Snell Law- 1
st
& 2
nd
Critical Angles
Note that the applet defaults to compressional velocity in the second material.
The refracted compressional wave angle will be generated for given
materials and angles. To find the angle of incidence required to generate a
shear wave at a given angle complete the following:
1. Set V1 to the longitudinal wave velocity of material 1. This material could
be the transducer wedge or the immersion liquid.
2. Set V2 to the shear wave velocity (approximately one-half its
compressional velocity) of the material to be inspected.
3. Set Q2 to the desired shear wave angle.
4. Read Q1, the correct angle of incidence.
Transverse wave can be introduced into the test material by various methods:
1. Inclining the incident L-wave at an angle beyond the first critical angle, yet
short of second critical angle using a wedge.
2. In immersion method, changing the angle of the normal search unit
manipulator,
3. Off-setting the normal transducer from the center-line for round bar or pipe.
for 45 refracted transverse wave, the rule
of thumb is the offset d= 1/6 of rod diameter
Offset of Normal probe above circular object
1
R
Calculate the offset for following conditions:
Aluminum rod being examined is 6" diameter, what is the off set needed for (a)
45 refracted shear wave (b) Logitudinal wave to be generated?
(L-wave velocity for AL=6.3x10
5
cm/s, T-wave velocity for AL=3.1x10
5
cm/s,
Wave velocity in water=1.5X10
5
cm/s)
Question (a)
Refraction and mode conversion at non-perpendicular boundaries
http://static4.olympus-ims.com/data/Flash/HTML5/incident_angle/IncidentAngle.html?rev=5E62
Q1. From the above figures, if the incident angle is 50 Degree, what are the
sound wave in the steel?
Answer: 65 Degree Shear wave in steel.
Q2. If 50 Degree longitudinal wave in steel is used what is the possible
problem?
Answer: If 50 degree Longitudinal wave is generated in steel, shear wave at
28 degree is also generated and this may cause fault indications.
Calculation:
Incident angle= 7
Refracted longitudinal wave = 29.11
Refracted shear wave = 15.49
Q72. In a water immersion test, ultrasonic energy is transmitted into steel at
an incident angle of 14. What is the angle of refracted shear wave within
the material?
V
s
= 3.2 x 10
5
cm/s
V
w
= 1.5 x 10
5
cm/s
a) 45
b) 23
c) 31
d) 13
Q1. If you were requested to design a plastid shoe to generate Rayleigh wave
in aluminum, what would be the incident angle of the ultrasonic energy?
VA = 3.1 x 105 cm/s
Vp = 2.6 x 105 cm/s
a) 37
b) 57
c) 75
d) 48
2.11: Signal-to-Noise Ratio
In a previous page, the effect that frequency and wavelength have on flaw
detectability was discussed. However, the detection of a defect involves many
factors other than the relationship of wavelength and flaw size. For example,
the amount of sound that reflects from a defect is also dependent on the
acoustic impedance mismatch between the flaw and the surrounding material.
A void is generally a better reflector than a metallic inclusion because the
impedance mismatch is greater between air and metal than between two
metals.
Often, the surrounding material has competing reflections. Microstructure
grains in metals and the aggregate of concrete are a couple of examples. A
good measure of detectability of a flaw is its signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The
signal-to-noise ratio is a measure of how the signal from the defect compares
to other background reflections (categorized as "noise"). A signal-to-noise
ratio of 3 to 1 is often required as a minimum.
The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of an echo from a "small"
defect depends on a number of factors, which include:
1. The probe size and focal properties.
2. The probe frequency, bandwidth and efficiency.
3. The inspection path and distance (water and/or solid).
4. The interface (surface curvature and roughness).
5. The flaw location with respect to the incident beam.
6. The inherent noisiness of the metal microstructure.
7. The inherent reflectivity of the flaw, which is dependent on its acoustic
impedance, size, shape, and orientation.
8. Cracks and volumetric defects can reflect ultrasonic waves quite differently.
Many cracks are "invisible" from one direction and strong reflectors from
another.
9. Multifaceted flaws will tend to scatter sound away from the transducer.
The following formula relates some of the variables affecting the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N) of a defect:
Flaw geometry: Figure of merit
FOM and amplitudes responds
Sound Volume: Area x pulse length
Material properties
Rather than go into the details of this formulation, a few fundamental
relationships can be pointed out. The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N), and
therefore, the detectability of a defect:
1. Increases with increasing flaw size (scattering amplitude). The detectability
of a defect is directly proportional to its size.
2. Increases with a more focused beam. In other words, flaw detectability is
inversely proportional to the transducer beam width.
3. Increases with decreasing pulse width (delta-t). In other words, flaw
detectability is inversely proportional to the duration of the pulse (t)
produced by an ultrasonic transducer. The shorter the pulse (often higher
frequency), the better the detection of the defect. Shorter pulses
correspond to broader bandwidth frequency response. See the figure
below showing the waveform of a transducer and its corresponding
frequency spectrum.
Acoustic Volume: w
x
w
y
t
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- A Scan (6db drop)
Determining cross sectional area using reflector- C Scan
Sonic pulse volume and S/N (defect resolution)
4. Decreases in materials with high density and/or a high ultrasonic velocity.
The signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is inversely proportional to material density
and acoustic velocity.
5. Generally increases with frequency. However, in some materials, such as
titanium alloys, both the "A
flaw
" and the "Figure of Merit (FOM)" terms in the
equation change at about the same rate with changing frequency. So, in
some cases, the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) can be somewhat independent
of frequency.
Pulse Length
Pulse Length Affect Resolution
2.12: Wave Interaction or
Interference
Before we move into the next section, the
subject of wave interaction must be
covered since it is important when trying
to understand the performance of an
ultrasonic transducer. On the previous
pages, wave propagation was discussed
as if a single sinusoidal wave was
propagating through the material.
However, the sound that emanates from
an ultrasonic transducer does not
originate from a single point, but instead
originates from many points along the
surface of the piezoelectric element. This
results in a sound field with many waves
interacting or interfering with each other.
http://ichun-chen.com/ultrasonic-transducer
When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of
the sound pressure or particle displacement at any point of interaction is the
sum of the amplitudes of the two individual waves. First, let's consider two
identical waves that originate from the same point. When they are in phase
(so that the peaks and valleys of one are exactly aligned with those of the
other), they combine to double the displacement of either wave acting alone.
When they are completely out of phase (so that the peaks of one wave are
exactly aligned with the valleys of the other wave), they combine to cancel
each other out. When the two waves are not completely in phase or out of
phase, the resulting wave is the sum of the wave amplitudes for all points
along the wave.
UT Transducer
UT Transducer
http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/infrastructure/structures/04042/index.cfm#toc
UT Transducer- Surface creep wave transducer
UT Transducer
UT Transducer
Wave Interaction
Complete in-phase Complete out of-phase not in-phase
When the origins of the two interacting waves are not the same, it is a little
harder to picture the wave interaction, but the principles are the same. Up
until now, we have primarily looked at waves in the form of a 2Dplot of wave
amplitude versus wave position. However, anyone that has dropped
something in a pool of water can picture the waves radiating out from the
source with a circular wave front. If two objects are dropped a short distance
apart into the pool of water, their waves will radiate out from their sources and
interact with each other. At every point where the waves interact, the
amplitude of the particle displacement is the combined sum of the amplitudes
of the particle displacement of the individual waves.
With an ultrasonic transducer, the waves propagate out from the transducer
face with a circular wave front. If it were possible to get the waves to
propagate out from a single point on the transducer face, the sound field
would appear as shown in the upper image to the right. Consider the light
areas to be areas of rarefaction and the dark areas to be areas of
compression.
With an ultrasonic transducer, the waves propagate out from the transducer
face with a circular wave front. If it were possible to get the waves to
propagate out from a single point on the transducer face, the sound field
would appear as shown in the upper image to the right. Consider the light
areas to be areas of rarefaction and the dark areas to be areas of
compression.
However, as stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points
along the face of the transducer. The lower image to the right shows what the
sound field would look like if the waves originated from just two points. It can
be seen that where the waves interact, there are areas of constructive and
destructive interference. The points of constructive interference are often
referred to as nodes.
The points of constructive interference
are often referred to as nodes
Variations in sound intensity.
Distance
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
29. It is possible for a discontinuity smaller than the transducer to produce
indications of fluctuating amplitude as the search unit is moved laterally if
testing is being performed in the:
(a) Fraunhofer zone
(b) Near field
(c) Snell field
(d) Shadow zone
5. Acoustic pressure along the beam axis moving away from the probe has
various maxima and minima due to interference. At the end of the near field
pressure is:
a) a maximum
b) a minimum
c) the average of all maxima and minima
4. For a plane wave, sound pressure is reduced by attenuation in a _______
fashion.
a) linear
b) exponential
c) random
Of course, there are more than two points of origin along the face of a
transducer. The image below shows five points of sound origination. It can be
seen that near the face of the transducer, there are extensive fluctuations or
nodes and the sound field is very uneven. In ultrasonic testing, this in known
as the near field (near zone) or Fresnel zone. The sound field is more
uniform away from the transducer in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, where
the beam spreads out in a pattern originating from the center of the
transducer. It should be noted that even in the far field, it is not a uniform
wave front. However, at some distance from the face of the transducer and
central to the face of the transducer, a uniform and intense wave field
develops.
The sound wave exit from a transducer can be separated into 2 zones or
areas; The Near Field (Fresnel) and the Far Field (Fraunhofer).
Fresnel Field, the Near Field are region directly adjacent to the transducer
and characterized as a collection of symmetrical high and low pressure
regions cause by interference wave fronts emitting from the continuous or
near continuous sound sources.
http://blog.3bscientific.com/science_education_insight/2013/04/3b-scientific-makes-waves-with-new-physics-education-kit.html
The Near Field (Fresnel) and the Far Field (Fraunhofer).
The Near Field (Fresnel) Wave Interference (Maxima & Minima)
The sound field of a transducer is divided into two zones; the near field and
the far field. The near field is the region directly in front of the transducer
where the echo amplitude goes through a series of maxima and minima and
ends at the last maximum, at distance N from the transducer.
Near Field Effect: Because of the variations within the near field it can be
difficult to accurately evaluate flaws using amplitude based techniques.
Near Field Y
o
+
Far Field
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

Distance from Transducer face

Fresnel / Fraunhofer Zone
Near field (near zone)
or Fresnel zone
far field (far zone)
or Fraunhofer zone
Z
f
Near/ Far Fields
http://miac.unibas.ch/PMI/05-UltrasoundImaging.html
Near/ Far Fields
where is the radius of the
transducer and the wavelength.
where D is the diameter of the transducer
and the wavelength.
K= is the spread factor
K=1.22 for null edges
K=1.08 for 20dB down point (10% of peak)
Source for K, ASNT Study Guide UT by Matthew J Golis
The curvature and the area over which the sound is being generated, the
speed that the sound waves travel within a material and the frequency of the
sound all affect the sound field. Use the J ava applet below to experiment with
these variables and see how the sound field is affected.
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/Physics/appletUltrasoundPropagation/Applet.html
Fresnel & Fraunhofer Zone
10dB, K-0.88
6dB, K=0.7? Or 0.56?
Q: Where does beam divergence occur?
A. Near field
B. Far field
C. At the crystal
D. None of the above
4. A transducer has a near field in water of 35 mm. When used in contact on
steel the near zone will be about:
a) 47 mm
b) 35 mm
c) 18 mm
d) 9 mm
8. A rectangular probe, 4 mm X 8 mm, will have its maximum half angle of
divergence:
a) in the 4 mm direction
b) in the 8 mm direction
c) in no particular orientation
d) constant in all directions
Q160 Beam divergence is a function of the dimensions of the crystal and the
wavelength of the beam transmitted through a medium, and it:
a) increase if the frequency or the crystal diameter is decrease
b) Decrease if the frequency or the crystal diameter is decrease
c) increase if the frequency is increase and the diameter is decrease
d) decrease if the frequency is increase and the crustal diameter is decrease
Dead Zone - In ultrasonic testing, the interval following the initial pulse where
the transducer ring time of the crystal that prevents detection or interpretation
of reflected energy (echoes). In contact ultrasonic testing, the area just below
the surface of a test object that can not be inspected because of the
transducer is still ringing down and not yet ready to receive signals. The dead
is minimized by the damping medium behind the crystal. The dead zone
increase when the probe frequency decrease and it only found in single
crystal contact techniques.
Dead Zone - In ultrasonic testing, the interval following the initial pulse where
the transducer ring down prevents detection or interpretation of reflected
energy (echoes). In contact ultrasonic testing, the area just below the the
surface of a test object that can not be inspected because of the transducer is
still ringing down and not yet ready to receive signals
Dead Zone - The interval following the surface of a test object to the nearest
inspectable depth. Any interval following a reflected signal where no direct
echoes from discontinuities cannot be detected, due to characteristics of the
equipment.
dead zone after echo and dead zone after initial pulse, both are common
phenomena. Actually the dead zone cannot be determined as a single figure
without additional parameters, hence the echo can be recognized, however,
signal quality is important. Useful parameters are linearity or signal in a nice
ratio that can describe the echo amplitude quality within a dead zone. For this
reason standards such as GE specifications are needed to check equipment
capability. The appearance of inference effects, within the dead zone, has to
be considered as well.
Definition by: http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=103
Dead Zone Illustration
http://www.ndt.net/ndtaz/content.php?id=103
Dead Zone
http://www.ni.com/white-paper/5369/en/
Q: On an A-scan display, the dead zonerefers to:
A. The distance contained within the near field
B. The area outside the beam spread
C. The distance covered by the front surface pulse with and recovery
time
D. The area between the near field and the far field
2.13: Inverse Square Rule/ Inverse Rule
Large Reflector, a reflector larger than the extreme edge of beam / 3D away
from the Near Zone- Inverse Rule
Large Reflector Inverse Rule
Small Reflector, a reflector smaller than the extreme edge of beam / 3D away
from the Near Zone Inverse Square Rule
Small Reflector Inverse Square Rule
2.14: Resonance
Another form wave interference occurred when the normal incidence and
reflected plane wave interact within a narrow parallel interface. When the
phase of the reflected wave match that of incoming incident wave, the
amplitude of the superimposed wave doubling, creating a standing wave.
Resonance occurred when the thickness of the material is equal to half the
wave length or multiple of it. It also occur when longitudinal wave travel thru
a thin sheet of materials during immersion testing.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/waves/string.html#c3
Resonance
Q. The formula used to determine the fundamental resonance frequency is:
a) F= V/T
b) F= V/2T
c) F= T/V
d) F= VT
Transducers Piezoelectric Thickness:
The resonant phenomenon occurred when piezoelectric are electrically
excited at their characteristic (fundamental resonance) frequency.
http://bme240.eng.uci.edu/students/09s/patelnj/Ultrasound_for_Nerves/Ultrasound_Background.html
Resonance UT Testing- The diagram below shown how resonance is used
to measured thickness and detect defect. However pulse-echo methods have
been refined to perform most of function of flaw detections and resonant
instruments are rarely used.
2.15 Measurement of Sound
dB is a measures of ratio of 2 values in a logarithmic scale given by following
equation:
Unlike the SPL (standard pressure level) used in noise measurement, in UT testing,
we do not know the exactly ultrasonic sound level energy generated by the probe
(neither is it necessary). The used of the ratio of 2 values given by the above equation
is used .
Ultrasonic Formula - Signal Amplitude Gain/Loss Expressed in dB
The dB is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. The
equation used to describe the difference in intensity between two ultrasonic or
other sound measurements is:
where: I is the difference in sound intensity expressed in decibels (dB), P1
and P2 are two different sound pressure amplitude measurements, and the
log is to base 10.
The Decibel
The equation used to describe the difference in intensity between two
ultrasonic or other sound measurements is:
where: I is the difference in sound intensity expressed in decibels (dB), P1
and P2 are two different sound pressure measurements, and the log is to
base 10.
What exactly is a decibel?
The decibel (dB) is one tenth of a Bel, which is a unit of measure that was
developed by engineers at Bell Telephone Laboratories and named for
Alexander Graham Bell. The dB is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of
two measurements. The basic equation that describes the difference in
decibels between two measurements is:
where: delta X is the difference in some quantity expressed in decibels, X1
and X2 are two different measured values of X, and the log is to base 10.
(Note the factor of two difference between this basic equation for the dB and
the one used when making sound measurements. This difference will be
explained in the next section.)
Why is the dB unit used?
Use of dB units allows ratios of various sizes to be described using easy to
work with numbers. For example, consider the information in the table.
From this table it can be seen that ratios from one up to ten billion can be
represented with a single or double digit number. Ease to work with numbers
was particularly important in the days before the advent of the calculator or
computer. The focus of this discussion is on using the dB in measuring sound
levels, but it is also widely used when measuring power, pressure, voltage
and a number of other things.
Use of the dB in Sound Measurements
Sound intensity is defined as the sound power per unit area perpendicular to
the wave. Units are typically in watts/m2 or watts/cm2. For sound intensity,
the dB equation becomes:
However, the power or intensity of sound is generally not measured directly.
Since sound consists of pressure waves, one of the easiest ways to quantify
sound is to measure variations in pressure (i.e. the amplitude of the pressure
wave). When making ultrasound measurements, a transducer is used, which
is basically a small microphone. Transducers like most other microphones
produced a voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure
(P). The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude. Therefore, the equation used to quantify a difference in sound
intensity based on a measured difference in sound pressure becomes:
However, the power or intensity of sound is generally not measured directly.
Since sound consists of pressure waves, one of the easiest ways to quantify
sound is to measure variations in pressure (i.e. the amplitude of the pressure
wave). When making ultrasound measurements, a transducer is used, which
is basically a small microphone. Transducers like most other microphones
produced a voltage that is approximately proportionally to the sound pressure
(P). The power carried by a traveling wave is proportional to the square of the
amplitude.
I P
2
, I V
2
where I=intensity, P=amplitude, V=voltage
Therefore, the equation used to quantify a difference in sound intensity based
on a measured difference in sound pressure becomes:
(The factor of 2 is added to the equation because the logarithm of the square of a
quantity is equal to 2 times the logarithm of the quantity.)
Since transducers and microphones produce a voltage that is proportional to
the sound pressure, the equation could also be written as:
where: I is the change in sound intensity incident on the transducer and
V1 and V2 are two different transducer output voltages.
Revising the table to reflect the relationship between the ratio of the measured
sound pressure and the change in intensity expressed in dB produces
From the table it can be seen that 6 dB equates to
a doubling of the sound pressure. Alternately,
reducing the sound pressure by 2, results in a 6
dB change in intensity.
Sound Levels- Relative
Sound Levels- Relative dB
Practice:
Absolute" Sound Levels
Sound pressure level (SPL) or sound level is a logarithmic measure of the
effective sound pressure of a sound relative to a reference value. It is
measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference level. The standard
reference sound pressure in air or other gases is 20 Pa, which is usually
considered the threshold of human hearing (at 1 kHz).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DB_SPL#Sound_pressure_level
Absolute" Sound Levels
Whenever the decibel unit is used, it always represents the ratio of two values.
Therefore, in order to relate different sound intensities it is necessary to
choose a standard reference level. The reference sound pressure
(corresponding to a sound pressure level of 0 dB) commonly used is that at
the threshold of human hearing, which is conventionally taken to be 210
5
Newton per square meter, or 20 micropascals (20Pa). To avoid confusion
with other decibel measures, the term dB(SPL) is used.
dB meter
97.3dB against standards sound pressure level
20log(P/20X10
-6
)=97.3
Absolute level =10
97.3/20
x 20 X 10
-6
=1.46564 N/M
2
Actual Sound pressure
Standard reference pressure 20 Mpa
Absolute:
The standard reference sound pressure in air or other gases is 20 Pa, which
is usually considered the threshold of human hearing (at 1 kHz).
Sound pressure level in dB as a ratio to
standard reference in logarithmic scale.
Absolute:
76db= 20log(P/20 Pa)
Log(P/20 Pa)=3.8dB
P= 10
3.8
x 20 Pa
=126191 Pa
http://www.ncvs.org/ncvs/tutorials/voiceprod/equation/chapter9/index.html
Actual Sound pressure
Standard reference pressure 20 Mpa
Exercise:
Find the absolute sound level in Pa for the following measurement of air
traffic noise.
Exercise: ANSWER
Find the absolute sound level in Pa for the following measurement of air
traffic noise.
SPL= 95.8 dB= 20log(P/20x10
-6
)
log(P/20x10-6)= 95.8/20
P= 10
95.8/20
x 20x10
-6
P= 1.233 N/M
2
#
Practice:
dB
Relative dB: Example Calculation 1
Two sound pressure measurements are made using an ultrasonic
transducer. The output voltage from the transducer is 600 mv for the first
measurement and 100 mv for the second measurement. Calculate the
difference in the sound intensity, in dB, between the two measurements?
The sound intensity changed by -15.56dB. In other words, the sound
intensity decreased by 15.56 dB
Example Calculation 2
If the intensity between two ultrasonic measurements increases by 6 dB, and
the first measurement produces a transducer output voltage of 30 mv, what
was the transducer output voltage for the second measurement?
Example Calculation 3
Consider the sound pressure difference between the threshold of human
hearing, 0 dB, and the level of sound often produce at a rock concert, 120 dB.
How much is the rock concert sound greater than that of the threshold of
human hearing.
What is the absolute rock concert sound pressure?
2.16 Practice Makes Perfect
Practice Makes Perfect
28. An advantage of using lower frequencies during ultrasonic testing is that:
(a) Near surface resolution is improved
(b) Sensitivity to small discontinuities is improved
(c) Beam spread is reduced
(d) Sensitivity to unfavorable oriented flaws is improved
Q104: If an ultrasonic wave is transmitted through an interface of two
materials in which the first material has a higher acoustic impedance value
but the same velocity value as the secong material, the angle of refraction
will be:
a) A greater than the incidence
b) Less than the angle of incidence
c) The same as the angle of incidence
d) Beyond the critical angle.

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Section 2: Physics of Ultrasound

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Distance from Transducer face

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