Proceedings of the International Symposium on Weak Rock / Tokyo /21-24 September 1981

Engineering properties of some weak

Icelandic volcanic rocks
BJORN ODDSSON
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zrich
1 INTRODUCTION
In Iceland an increasing engineering activ-
ity, especially construction of hydroelec-
tric power plants at sites containing vol-
canic rocks in subaquatic facies, has
neccitated better understanding of their
geotechnical behavior. The subaquatic vol-
canics, which to a great extent most prob-
ably formed subglacially beneath Pleistocene
glaciers are very heterogeneous, grading
from highly jointed pillow-lavas and intru-
sions to much weaker pyroclastic rocks, the
hyaloclastites.
The lack of systematic geotechnical work
on these rocks stimulated the undertaking
of a research project dealing with their
geotechnical properties. In this rock group
one usually has several different rock types
forming a volcanic unit ( = eruption ) and
this project was aimed at evaluating how the
petrographic factors of these various compo-
nents control the mechanical properties. In
this paper we are concerned only with the
hyaloclastites the weakest of these rocks.
The experimental work which still is in
Progress was done at the Institutes for
Civil Engineering, the petrographical stud-
ies at the Geological Institute, both ETH
Zurich. Rock mechanic tests include uniaxial
compressive-, indirect tensile- (Brazilian-)
and triaxial compressive tests performed on
two series of hyaloclastites from different
localities. On the weakest varieties only
soil mechanic triaxial tests were possible.
2 GEOGRAPHICAL GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Iceland is almost entirely built up of vol-
canic rocks which constitute approximately
90 per cent of the surface of the island.
The exposed volcanic pile consists pre-
dominantly of basaltic material.
The rock sequence is traditionally divided
into four stratigraphic groups based on
age determinations and environmental changes
resulting in different facies of volcanism.
These are the following (Saemundsson 1980)
(see figure 1):
1. Tertiary (16-3.1 m.y.) consisting
mainly of lithologically monotonous sub-
aerial plateau basalt series and associated
dyke intrusions with minor intercalated
terrestrial sedimentary rocks.
2. Rocks of Plio-Pleistocene age (3.1-
0.7 m.y.) show more variety with a consider-
able amount of pillow-lava, hyaloclastite,
fluvioglacial and glacial deposits related
to the onset and development of a glacial
environment.
3. The Upper Pleistocene (0.7 m.y.-9000 y.)
consists of essentially the same rock types
as the Plio-Pleistocene but with a much
smaller proportion of subaerial lavas rela-
tive to the subglacially formed rocks. The
latter is often referred to collectively
as the "Palagonite Formation".
k. Postglacial deposites (younger than
9-13000 y.) consist of sediments and the
products of active volcanism, mainly in
the form of lavaflows which spread out over
the older rocks to partly bury them. Volcan-
ism also took place below sea level and be-
neath the glaciers which amount 1/9 of the
total area of the island.
Whereas the Upper Pleistocene series con-
sists to a great extent of subglacially
generated rocks the Plio-Pleistocene can
be estimated to consist of roughly equal
halves of subglacial and terrestrial volcan-
ics in accordance with equal lengths of
glacial and interglacial time periods
(Kjartansson 1943). The youngest two groups
197
Figure 1 : Geological map of Iceland showing distribution of four stratigraphic groups
(simplified from Saemundsson 1980). Locations of Sigalda hydroelectric project and Surtsey
volcanic island are indicated. Explanations: a: Fissures indicating active rifting and
volcanism. b: Upper Pleistocene and Postglacial groups. c: Plio-Pleistocene group.
d: Tertiary group.
are merely a continuation of these cycles,

An acceleration in the industrialization

the Postglacial being comparable to a start of Iceland has gone hand in hand with the
of an interglacial period.

development in use of local power resources

The rocks which form during a volcanic er- over the last decade. The total net energy
uption in a subaquatic environment accumu-

consumption has increased by about 23 per

late in restricted areas near the vents

cent from 1972 to 1976. This increase has

because water and ice act as barriers. This been met entirely by hydropower and geo-
gives rise to a rough topography of ridges

thermal energy (Fridleifsson 1978/79); a

and tablemountains. In contrast the terr-

development which is still in progress. Up

estrial lavas can flow considerable distanc- to now only some 10 per cent of the 25000
es from their source and more or less bury

GWh per year technically harnessable hydro-

the topography left at the end of each glaci- power has been utilized (Nordal & Kristinsson
al period.

(eds.) 1975).
The symmetric nature of the volcanic pile

The rivers with maximum water potential

produced by the deposition of these four

have their origin in the highland glaciers

groups is explained in the geographical

and flow through the rock groups containing

location of the island astride the Mid-

subglacially generated volcanic rocks. From

Atlandic Ridge: a large physiographic struc- this context and fom ecological consider-
ture with stationary magma generation be-

ations it can be expected that a major part

neath the fissure swarms and with successive of the feasible potential will be developed
lateral drifting of the older rocks away

from these rivers. Increasing construction

from the ridge axis (figure 1).

activities within these terrains is taking

198
As a result of sedimentation the rock usual-
ly posesses a macroscopically recognisible
but poorly developed bedding. Results of
grain size distribution analyses of some in-
coherent hyaloclastites are shown in figure 2.
co 002 06 1 2 ' 0
d ]mml
60
a
01 60 06 1 00+ 002
2 , 0
d lmm
b
SILT SAND
i
r
GRAV E L
Al
1 00
50
S I L T S A N D G R A V E L
!i i l s 2
/e
1 00
50
place and still more are planned. New de-
velopments of the geotechnical problems
associated with this environment are there-
for unavoidable.
Field studies of the rock stucture of the
tablemountains show a particular sequence
of rocks to be characteristic of each vol-
canic unit. This sequence often begins with
the development of pillow-lava, feederdykes
and breccias followed by the formation of
vast amounts of hyaloclastites. These litho-
logical variations have been interpreted as
being due to changes in waterdepth in a gla-
cial meltwater lake leading to changes of
the volcano eruption mode. The extrusion of
lavas changes from quiet to violent preatic
eruptions occures at a critical water depth
as the volcanic pile reaches shallower water
(Jones 1969). The complexity of the sub-
aquatic environment is further increased as
the glaciers themselves undergo melting, and
as the meltwater lakes are tapped off during
glacial bursts. The author has shown in an
earlier work how complex this geology can be
in a region where this change of eruption
mode takes place (Oddsson 1976). Geotechni-
cally the result is an extremely inhomo-
geneous foundation ground.
The following discussion will be restrict-
ed to the mechanically weakest of the sub-
aquatic rocks, namely the hyaloclastites.
In figure 1 the sites where two series of
hyaloclastites for the geotechnical investi-
gation were sampled are indicated (Sigalda,
Surtsey).
3 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soil and rockmechanical tests were accom-
panied by careful petrographic examination
of the studied rocks. This examination in-
cluded microscopic and X-ray investigation
as well as measurement of densities, porosi-
ties and grain size distributions.
3 .1 Petrology
A hyaloclastite consists of a mixture of
rock and glass fragments. Glass is generally
the main constituent, especially of the
finer grained rock varieties. Within one
volcanic unit all components are of the same
basaltic composition, differing only in the
degree of crystallisation. The fragments
commonly show irregular and angular shapes
as aresult of quenching. Rounded particle
forms are common probably as aresult of
erosion within a turbulent eruptioncloud.
Figure 2 : Grain-size distribution of hyalo-
clastites a) from Sigalda and b) from Surts-
ey. W: weight % smaller than grain diameter
d indicated.
The hyaloclastites are generally black or
dark grey in colour. They are initially in-
coherent but as a result of weathering and
diagenesis they usually become harder and
change their colour to shades of brown, grey
or even green as a result of alteration-
processes known as palagonitization.
Palagonitization can be termed a micro-
solution-precipitation mechanism whereby
the glass is hydrated and leaching of ions
out of the glass takes place (Jakobsson 1980).
The migrating ions are then free to form
authigenic minerals or be carried away with
circulating ground water. This process usual-
ly takes place under suberial and local
hydrothermal weathering conditions. The speed
depends mainly on temperature and access of
199
of water. It has been suggested the process
slows down to eventually come to a complete
stop as secondary minerals reduce porosity
and permeability of the rock mass (Furnes
1974).
Under the microscope the hyaloclastites
generally show an irregular mosaic structure
of basalt and sideromelane glass fragments
in a matrix of same components. In the ap-
parently harder varieties the sideromelane
shows alteration rims of hydrated glass
(palagonite) and secondary authigenic miner-
als partially fill the voids between the
fragments (figure 3).
As the formation of secondary minerals
seemed likely to be an important factor
contributing to rock strength, special ef-
fort was made to study them. Because of
small size of these minerals their compo-
sitions could not be determined under the
polarisation microscope and more advanced
petrographic methods were used. An X-ray
investigation (de Wolff camera) of the secon-
dary minerals of the Sigalda hyaloclastite
showed that calcite and zeolites (analcite
phillipsite, chabasite and probably epistil-
bite) together with clay minerals of the
montmorillonite group were present.
Both the nature of secondary minerals and
their amount varied through the collected
rock suite. The amount of calcite was measur-
ed with a great accuracy with a coulometric
method (Sixta 1977).
Methods to determine the amount of zeolite
failed to produce satisfactory answers and
only qualitative statements based on micro-
scopic examination could be made. The in-
vestigations show that the total amount of
secondary minerals in the Sigalda hyalo-
clastite ranges widely from practically 0
to probably over 20 per cent.
Although porosity depends on many factors
including shape and distribution of grains
and the degree of compaction the microscopic
examination showed that secondary minerals
contribute to reduction of porosity. Measure-
ment of porosity was therefor made on all
rock and soil samples tested. Values of
porosity were based on wight and volume
measurement of cylindrical specimens and
specific density of pulverised rock as spe-
cified in Din norm 52102 (Deutshe Normen
1965).
It should be emphasized that all porosities
mentioned here are total porosities, con-
taining both intergranular porosities and
vesicles within individual grains and no
attempt is made here to evaluate the pro-
portions.
Rock mechanical tests including uniaxial-,
Brazilian- and triaxial tests were performed
on two series of coherent hyaloclastites
from the localities indicated in figure 1.
Specimens were cored out of orientatated
blocks of Sigalda hyaloclastite in the labor -
atory whereas material from a recent core
drill hole was available from Surtsey (Ja-
kobsson & Moore 1980). For uniaxial and tri-
axial testing the lengths of rock cores were
twice the core diameter. Shorter core bits
with approximately equal length-diameter
dimensions were used for the Brazilian tests.
The endsurfaces were ground and the specimens
were stored until testing as suggested in
the ISRM documents (ISRM, Committee on La-
boratory Tests 1977).
Tests were conducted with stiff serwo-con-
trolled loading maschine. Load was applied
continously at an constant strain rate of
0.07 mm per minute in all tests. Further
details of the measuring set up in each of
the tests is given in the following : -
1. Uniaxial compressive tests. In these
tests axialload, axial and lateraldeformation
Figure 3 : Detailed microscopic view of
hyaloclastite showing intact sideromelane
glass (si) with palagonitized rims (pa) and
authigenic secondary minerals filling a void
between three glass fragments: zeolith (an
& ep), calcite (ca). Nicols open.
3.2 Rock mechanical testing
200
F (kN1
^
b
100
50
(measured with an electric strain gauge)
were registratedon two separate XY- plotters.
Usually one unloading-loading cycle was per-
formed below the yield point and another in
the post-failure section. The ultimate
strength was usually reached within 10
minutes. These mesurements allowed determi-
nation of the several elastic properties of
the rocks in addition to the uniaxial com-
pressive strength.
2. Brazilian tests. In these tests an ef-
fort was made to apply the diametrical load
uniformly. Load together with displacement
was recordered and failure occured usually
within two or three minutes. Tensile strength
was calculated as suggested in the ISRM
document no 8 (ISRM Committee on Laboratory
Tests 19 7 7 ).
3. Triaxial tests. In these tests use was
made of the socalled strain controlled test
procedure. By means of this technique sect-
ions of the Mohr strength envelope can be
determined with a single test specimen. A
detailed description of this method which
was developed at the ETH is given elsewhere
(Kovri & Tisa 19 7 5). In figure 4 typical
diagrams for a Sigalda hyaloclastite is
shown. The slope of the line AB is chosen
3.3 Soil mechanical testing.
At the two localities described previously
disturbed samples of practically incoherent,
un-palagonitized hyaloclastites were taken
and the density of each sample was measured
in situ by the sand cone method (ASTM stand-
ards 19 7 6). On each of these materials con-
ventional triaxial tests with at least three
different confining pressures were performed
at various densities, the compaction being
compared between the samples. All tests were
of the consolidated drained type and perform-
ed in dry condition as this provides the best
comparision with the rock mechanical re-
sults. The loading rate was 0.3 mm per min-
ute. During the tests axial load and dis-
placement was registered along with observ-
ation of volumetric changes. With this set
up equivalent parameters to those of the
other triaxial tests could be obtained but
over a range of much lower confining pres-
sures.
4 RESULTS
In figure 5 typical axial load and axial
F (kN)
1 00
a
50
p (bar(
4 5 6 50 100
F igure 4 : Strain controlled triaxial test. Sigalda hyaloclastite (same material as in
figure 5 b). a) Axial load (F ) - axial displacement (E_) diagram. b) Axial load - confin-
ing pressure (p) diagram. Points A B C correspond to A B C.
depending onthe "brittleness" of the mater-
ial. Successive failure states are measured
by varying the confining pressure. Where
Possible three strain controlled triaxial
tests with different but overlapping confin-
ing pressure sections were performed on ap-
parently identical specimens. This set up
allowes calculation of the internal friction
angle and cohesion for both strength limits
(Peak and residual) as defined by Coulomb's
failure theory.
deformation curves of four hyaloclastites
are shown. The results of thirty-nine tests
show the compressive strength to range be-
tween 0.9 - 4 0.1 and 4 .7 - 4 3.8 MPa for the
Sigalda and Surtsey hyaloclastites respec-
tively. F or comprision these values are
similiar to reported compressive strengths
for coal and weak sandstones(Lama & Vutukuri
19 7 8).
In figure 6 the compressive strengths are
plotted against the tangent Young's modulus
201
100
50
100
50
0. 5
E l m m l
05
E [mm)

F [kN)

d
100 50 -

50

25 -


1, 5 MPa




0. 5
E [ m m )
0. 5
E [ m m 1

Figure 5 : Com pl ete uniaxial axial l oad axial
specim ens of the Sigal da hyal ocl astite. a) b)
whereas d) is not. Notice other scal e in d) .
displ acem ent diagram s of four representative
and c) are al tered due to pal agonitization
defined at 50 per cent ul tim ate strength and
prim ary l oading. This shows both hyal ocl ast-
ite series to have approxim atel y the sam e
m odul us ratio. Deere and Mil l er have used
sim il iar diagram s as a basis for intact-rock
cl assification. According to their defini-
tion these rocks woul d be cl assified as
showing l ow and very l ow strength (Deere &
Mil l er 1966) . According to the Geol ogical
Society's definition the weakest woul d be
cal l ed a soil rather than a rock (Geol ogi-
cal Society 1970) .
In figure 6 al l resul ts are reported dis-
regarding differences in porosity and orien-
tation. The effect of porosity on the com -
pressive strength of the sam e rocks is shown
in figure 7. These pl ot as two separate but
anal og trends in agreem ent with the two dis-
tinct rock series. It shoul d be noted that
the orientation of bedding in respect to
specim en axis was not el im inated. This is
probabl y responsibl e for a part of the devi-
ation, the reproducabil ity of apparentl y
identical specim ens being within the l im its
of 10 per cent of ul tim ate strength.
The resul t of other rock m echanical tests,
for five Sigal da hyal ocl astites of different
al terationgrade are sum m erised in tabl e 1.
The tensil e strength shows trends quite sim i -
l iar to those discussed above for the com -
pressive strength al though these resul ts
showed deviations. Al though reproducabil ity
of the triaxial tests was good, when indi-
vidual resul ts are com pared to porosity data
no cl ear rel ationships are seen. In particu-
l ar no cl ear rel ationship between the fric-
tion angl es and porosity appeared from these
experim ents.
The behavior of both types of incoherent
hyal ocl astite rock is very sim il ar (see
tabl e 2) . In this tabl e som e typical resul ts
of the con-entional triaxial tests are pre-
sented. It shows that angl e of friction
increases with grain size and com paction,
whil e cohesion decreases with increasing
grain size and increases al ong with com pac-
tion. This behavior is anal og to what one
is used to deal ing with soil m aterial s.
Grain size distribution curves of these
sam pl es were given previousl y in figure 2.
202
No
d ^p
c
P
p d
o
1 0 20 30 40 50
Figure 6 : Tangent mod ulus at 50 % ultimate
strength , E
T
versus c omp ressive strength,
G
for two d istinc t hyaloc lastite series :
Surtsey (a) and Sigald a ; p alagonitized (o)
and not p alagonitized (4). The solid verti-
c al line ind ic ates roc k c lassific ation d i-
vision (after Deere & Miller 1 96 6 ); right:
low strength, left: very low strength
Table 1 (below) : Rep resentative mec hanic al
p arameters of five Sigald a hyaloc lastites
as measured in uniaxial c omp ressive, Brazil-
ian and strain c ontrolled triaxial tests.
* Measured in c onventional triaxial tests.
Exp lanation of symbols for both tables :
: Prac tic ally without sec ond ary minerals
: With small amounts of sec ond ary minerals
++ and +++ : Progressively greater amounts
of sec ond ary minerals
n : Total p orosity
Gc : Uniaxial c omp ressive strength
E
T 50 Tangent mod ulus at 50 % c
9 Poisson's ratio
Gt :
Tensile strength
10 20 30 40 S0
Figure 7 : Effec t of p orosity, n on c omp res-
sive strength, (j for Surtsey and two d if-
ferent Sigald a hyaloc lastites. Symbols as in
figure 6 .
Table 2 : Typ ic al p arameters of d isturbed
hyaloc lastite material as measured in soil
mec hanic triaxial tests.
g/c m3 bar bar mm
H-1 0 1 .1 1 .6 6 3 8.0 0 .7 2-6 80
H-1 0 1 .1 1 .7 4 41 .0 1 .0 2-6
55
H-1 0 2.1 1 .6 8 3 7 .0 0 .4 2-6 8o
H-1 0 2.1 1 .92 43 .5 0 .9
2-6 . 8 o
H-1 0 3 .1 1 .7 6 3 8.0 0 .6 2-6 8o
H - 1 0 3 .1 1 .95 44.o 0 .6 2-6 8o
SB-1 1 .6 2 41 .0 0 .2 2-6 80
SB-1 1 .7 9 43 .5 1 .9 2 - 6 8o
SB-2 1 .40 40 .0 0 .5
2 - 5 8o
SB-2 1 .59 44.5 1 .3 2-6 8o
0
: Angle of fric tion (p eak p & resid ual r)
c : Ap p arent c ohesion (p eak p & resid ual r)
P : Lateral p ressure interval for o and c
d : Dry unit weight
3 6 .5
1 .5
0 .4 - 0 .3
3 1 .5 9.4 1 .6 0 .1 7 0 .8
3 6 .5 8.6 1 .6 0 .27
0 .9
++
23 .5 25.4 5.3
0 .28 2.3
22.0 3 1 .8
6 .9
0 .1 3 2.7
50 .0 * 1 .7 * 3 9.0 * 0 .2 * 1 - 5 *
3 8.0 27 .o 44.5 1 2.5
25-3 5'
3 5.0 3 5.6 3 8.0 1 2.8 20 -40
3 7 .0 6 3 .6 3 7 .0 23 .5 20 -40
46 .0
95.9
48.5 1 5.0 20 -40
203
Sec ond ary n
minerals
%
Gc ET 50 Gt
MPa MPa 1 0 3 MPa
p
m r c r
o
c
P
bar
a
bar bar
o
0
0 0
0 oo
.10)
o

a
o
0
60
0
o
o

a
0
0
o
o
o
o


a#o
E T 50 [MPG x103 1
6
G
2
Gc IMPa1
40
20
n1%)
N
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
o
GO [MPG]
5 DISCUSSION
6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The effect of porosity on rock stength is I would like to express my gratitude to Pro -
often explained by stress concentrations and fessors H. Lang and K. Kovari for their per
-
reduction of the load bearing aerea in the mission to use the testing equipment and
rock (Lama & Vutukuri 1978),In the rocks from Prof. J.G. Ramsay for his critical reading
Sigalda investigated here, although the re- of the manuskript.
duction in porosity is accounted principally
by cementation of authigenic secondary miner- 7 REFERENCES
als (figure 7
open circles), porosity reduc- ASTM 1976, ASTM standards in building codes:
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in figure 7 demonstrates the effect of pala-
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Deutsche Normen 1965 , Din 5 2102. Prfung von
Although the angle of friction seems to
Naturstein. Bestimmung der Dichte, Rohdichte
decrease with the beginning of alteration
(probably due to the existence of clay miner-
Gesa tpor Rt 5 t. Beut VeApp
lie GmbH Berlin'
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a
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-
can be appreciated when it is realised that
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1
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Eng.Geol., vol.3, no.l.
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is the opposite effect that one normally ex-
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has to take into account these features.
Jones J.G. 1969, Interglacial volcanoes of
The geotechnical properties of this rocks
the Laugarvatn region SW- Iceland. Q.J.
are further complicated because strong rocks
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9
of low strength resulting in an extremly in-
yfirlit og jardsaga, Arnesingasaga I, Rek
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1975 , Multible failure
tinuing to complete the investigation on the ' state and strain contolled triaxial tests.
hyaloclastites and to test the geotechnical

. Rock Mechanics vol.7 no.l.

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-
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204