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CONTENTS

Preface to the 2002 Edition vii


Preface xvii
ONE: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 1
TWO: The Psychology of Everyday ctions !"
T#$EE: %no&ledge in the #ead and in the World '"
(O)$: %no&ing What to *o +1
(,-E: To Err ,s #./an 10'
six: The *esign Challenge 1"1
SE-EN: )ser0Centered *esign 1+1
Notes 212
S.ggested $eadings 2!1
$eferences 2"1
,ndex 2"2
P $E( CE TO T#E
2 0 0 2 E *, T , ON
"Norman Doors"
3, 4.st fo.nd a Nor/an door: ,t &as really diffic.lt to open53
, a/ fa/o.s for doors that are diffic.lt to open6 light s&itches that /a7e
no sense6 sho&er controls that are .nfatho/a8le5 l/ost anything that
creates .nnecessary pro8le/s6 /y correspondents report6 is a 3Nor/an
thing3: Nor/an doors6 Nor/an s&itches6 Nor/an sho&er controls5
That &asn9 t &hat , had in /ind &hen , &rote this 8oo75 , tho.ght /y
ideas &o.ld stand for good design6 for o84ects &e co.ld .se easily and effi0
ciently:&ith delight and f.n5 nd &itho.t having to read co/plex
instr.ctions or as7 for help5 Sigh5 ll those years spent st.dying f.nda0
/ental principles of the h./an /ind6 of /e/ory and attention6 learning6
/otor control:only to 8e re/e/8ered for 8ad doors5
;.t then again6 the interest sho&s that , /ade /y point5 (ar too /any
ite/s in the &orld are designed6 constr.cted6 and foisted .pon .s &ith no
.nderstanding:or even care:for ho& &e &ill .se the/5 Calling so/e0
thing a 3Nor/an door3 is recognition of the lac7 of attention paid 8y the
/a7er to the .ser6 &hich is precisely /y /essage5 , a/ delighted 8y the
letters , receive6 incl.ding yet /ore exa/ples5 , a/ delighted that /any
&onderf.l prod.cts no& do exist6 and that in n./ero.s cases designers
vii
have stated that The Design of Everyday Things &as re<.ired reading for
their staffs5 This 8oo7 has s.cceeded5
So sho& /e /ore of those Nor/an doors6 those fa.cets6 those plastic
8ags of food that can 8e opened only 8y ripping the/ &ith the teeth5 Sho&
/e /ore of those a.to/o8ile radios6 s.ch as the one in /y o&n car6 &ith
ro&s of tiny identical 8.ttons that can9t possi8ly 8e operated &hile driving5
The pro8le/s so.nd trivial6 8.t they can /ean the difference 8et&een
pleas.re and fr.stration5 The sa/e principles that /a7e these si/ple
things &or7 &ell or poorly apply to /ore co/plex operations6 incl.ding
ones in &hich h./an lives are at sta7e5 =ost accidents are attri8.ted to
h./an error6 8.t in al/ost all cases the h./an error &as the direct res.lt
of poor design5 The principles that g.ide a <.ality6 h./an0centered design
are not relevant 4.st to a /ore pleas.ra8le life:they can save lives5
The Hi dden Frustrations of Everyday Thi ngs
;efore , &rote this 8oo76 , &as a cognitive scientist6 interested in ho& the
/ind &or7s5 , st.died h./an perception6 /e/ory6 and attention5 , exa/0
ined ho& people learned6 ho& they perfor/ed s7illed activities5 long the
&ay6 , 8eca/e interested in h./an error6 hoping that /y .nderstanding of
error &o.ld provide &ays to teach people ho& to avoid /ista7es5 ;.t then
ca/e the n.clear po&er plant accident at Three =ile ,sland in the )nited
States6 and , &as a/ong a gro.p of social and 8ehavioral scientists &ho
&ere called in to deter/ine &hy the control0roo/ operators had /ade
s.ch terri8le /ista7es5 To /y s.rprise6 &e concl.ded that they &ere not to
8la/e: the fa.lt lay in the design of the control roo/5 ,ndeed6 the control
panels of /any po&er plants loo7ed as if they &ere deli8erately designed
to ca.se errors5
=y interest in accidents led /e to the st.dy of h./an0centered devel0
op/ent proced.res that /ight eli/inate those pro8le/s5 , spent a sa88at0
ical year in Ca/8ridge6 England6 at the =edical $esearch Co.ncil9s &orld0
fa/o.s pplied Psychology )nit and &as contin.ally a/.sed and fr.s0
trated 8y the &or7ings of the 8.ilding5 ,t &as diffic.lt to fig.re o.t &hich
light s&itch controlled &hat light5 *oors &ere another p.>>le: so/e had
to 8e p.shed6 so/e p.lled6 and at least one re<.ired sliding6 yet there &ere
no cl.es to the .n&itting person atte/pting to go thro.gh the door&ay5
Water taps:3fa.cets3 in the )nited States:&ere capricio.s? so/e sin7s
had the hot &ater on the left6 so/e on the right5 =oreover6 &henever peo0
ple /ade errors .sing these ill0constr.cted devices6 they 8la/ed the/0
viii Preface to the 2002 Edition
selves5 What &as going on@ Why did people 8la/e the/selves &hen a
device itself &as at fa.lt@
, started to o8serve ho& people coped &ith the n./ero.s devices that
pop.late o.r lives5 ,n /ore recent years6 /y st.dies have expanded to
incl.de aviation safety6 co/plex /an.fact.ring plants6 /edical error6 and
a &ide range of cons./er prod.cts s.ch as ho/e entertain/ent syste/s
and co/p.ters5 ,n all these sit.ations6 people often find the/selves fl.s0
tered and conf.sed5 Worse6 serio.s accidents are fre<.ently 8la/ed on
3h./an error53 Aet caref.l analysis of s.ch sit.ations sho&s that the
design or installation of the e<.ip/ent has contri8.ted significantly to the
pro8le/s5 The design tea/ or installers did not pay s.fficient attention to
the needs of those &ho &o.ld 8e .sing the e<.ip/ent6 so conf.sion or
error &as al/ost .navoida8le5 Whether 7itchen stove or n.clear po&er
plant6 a.to/o8ile or aircraft6 ther/ostat or co/p.ter6 the sa/e pro8le/s
&ere present5 ,n all cases6 design fa.lts led to h./an error5
=y fr.strations &hile in England ca.sed /e to &rite The Design of
Everyday Things, 8.t the pro8le/s , enco.ntered there are .niversal and
&orld&ide5 When , &rote the 8oo76 , &as a research scientist interested in
principles of cognition5 ;.t , fo.nd /yself /ore and /ore fascinated 8y
the &ay these principles co.ld 8e applied to i/prove everyday life6 to /in0
i/i>e error and accident5 , changed the direction of /y research to foc.s
on applications and design5 Event.ally , left /y .niversity so , co.ld
devote /yself to the develop/ent of prod.cts5 , 4oined pple Co/p.ter6
first as an 3pple (ello&63 then as vice president of the advanced technol0
ogy gro.p5 , served as an exec.tive at t&o other co/panies and then6 &ith
/y colleag.e Ba7o8 Nielsen6 cofo.nded a cons.lting co/pany Cthe Nielsen
Nor/an gro.pD to apply these ideas to a &ider variety of fir/s6 a &ider
variety of prod.cts5 ,t has 8een exciting to &itness the principles in
Everyday Things reali>ed in prod.cts5
The Book Title: A Lesson i n Des i gn
This 8oo7 has 8een p.8lished .nder t&o titles5 The first title6 The
Psychology of Everyday Things:POET:&as /.ch li7ed 8y /y acade/ic
friends5 The second title6 The Design of Everyday Things:DOET:&as /ore
/eaningf.l and 8etter conveyed the contents of the 8oo75 The editor of the
paper8ac7 edition explained to /e that in 8oo7stores6 titles are &hat read0
ers see as their eyes &ander the shelves6 s7i//ing the spines5 They rely
.pon the title to descri8e the 8oo75 , also learned that the &ord 3psychol0
ogy3 ca.sed the 8oo7 to 8e shelved in the psychology sections of the
stores6 &hich dre& readers &ho cared a8o.t people and h./an relation0
Preface to the 2002 Edition ix
ships rather than o84ects and o.r relationships to the/5 $eaders interested
in design &o.ld never thin7 of loo7ing in the psychology section5 , &ent
to 8oo7stores and &atched ho& people 8ro&sed5 , tal7ed &ith 8oo7 8.y0
ers and cler7s5 =y editor &as correct: , needed to change the &ord 3psy0
chology3 to 3design53 ,n titling /y 8oo76 , had 8een g.ilty of the sa/e
shortsightedness that leads to all those .n.sa8le everyday thingsE =y first
choice of title &as that of a self0centered designer6 choosing the sol.tion
that pleased /e &itho.t considering its i/pact .pon readers5 So *OET it
8eca/e6 and DOET it re/ains in this ne& edition5
Lessons from DOET
When yo. have tro.8le &ith things:&hether it9s fig.ring o.t &hether to
p.sh or p.ll a door or the ar8itrary vagaries of the /odern co/p.ter and
electronics ind.stry:it9 s not yo.r fa.lt5 *on9 t 8la/e yo.rself: 8la/e the
designer5 ,t9s the fa.lt of the technology6 or6 /ore precisely6 of the design5
When &e first see an o84ect &e have never seen 8efore6 ho& do &e
7no& ho& to .se it@ #o& do &e /anage tens of tho.sands of o84ects6
/any of &hich &e enco.nter only once@ This <.estion propelled the &rit0
ing of DOET. The ans&er6 , <.ic7ly deter/ined6 &as that the appearance
of the device /.st provide the critical cl.es re<.ired for its proper opera0
tion:7no&ledge has to 8e 8oth in the head and in the &orld5
t the ti/e , &rote DOET, this idea &as considered strange5 Today6
ho&ever6 the concept is /ore &idely accepted5 =any in the design co/0
/.nity .nderstand that design /.st convey the essence of a device9s oper0
ation? the &ay it &or7s? the possi8le actions that can 8e ta7en? and6 thro.gh
feed8ac76 4.st &hat it is doing at any partic.lar /o/ent5 *esign is really
an act of co//.nication6 &hich /eans having a deep .nderstanding of
the person &ith &ho/ the designer is co//.nicating5
ltho.gh DOET covers n./ero.s topics6 three have co/e to stand o.t
as critical:
15 It's not your fault: ,f there is anything that has ca.ght the pop.lar
fancy6 it is this si/ple idea: &hen people have tro.8le &ith so/ething6 it
isn9t their fa.lt:it9s the fa.lt of the design5 Every &ee7 8rings yet anoth0
er letter or e0/ail fro/ so/eone than7ing /e for delivering the/ fro/
their feeling of inco/petence5
2. Design principles: , /a7e it a r.le never to critici>e so/ething .nless ,
can offer a sol.tion5 DOET contains several i/portant design principles6
po&erf.l tools for designers to ens.re that their prod.cts are .nderstand0
x Preface to the 2002 Edition
a8le and .sa8le5 The principles6 of co.rse6 are explained &ithin the 8oo76
8.t to give yo. a hint of &hat yo. &ill enco.nter6 here is a short list of the
/ost i/portant5 Note that they are all easy to .nderstand6 yet po&erf.l5
F onceptual !odels. The h./an /ind is a &onderf.l organ of .nder0
standing:&e are al&ays trying to find /eaning in the events aro.nd .s5
One of the greatest fr.strations of all is trying to learn ho& to do so/e0
thing that see/s co/pletely ar8itrary and capricio.s5 Worse6 &hen &e lac7
.nderstanding6 &e are apt to err5
Consider the ther/ostat5 When so/e people enter a cold ho.se6 they
t.rn the ther/ostat to a very high te/perat.re in order to reach the
desired level /ore <.ic7ly5 They do this 8eca.se of their internal /ental
/odel of ho& the f.rnace &or7s5 The /odel is sensi8le and coherent6 even
if not &ell tho.ght o.t5 ,t is also &rong5 ;.t ho& &o.ld they 7no&@
ltho.gh this 8ehavior is &rong for the ho/e6 it &or7s for /ost a.to/o0
8iles:t.rn the heat or air conditioning .p all the &ay6 and &hen the inte0
rior is at the correct te/perat.re6 ad4.st the te/perat.re control again5
To .nderstand ho& to .se things6 &e need concept.al /odels of ho&
they &or75 #o/e f.rnaces6 air conditioners6 and even /ost ho.sehold
ovens have only t&o levels of operation: f.ll po&er or off5 Therefore6 they
are al&ays heating or cooling to the desired te/perat.re as rapidly as pos0
si8le5 ,n these cases6 setting the ther/ostat too high does nothing 8.t &aste
energy &hen the te/perat.re overshoots the target5
No& consider the a.to/o8ile5 The concept.al /odel is <.ite different5
Aes6 the heater and air conditioner also have only t&o settings6 f.ll po&er
or off6 8.t in /any a.tos6 the desired te/perat.re is achieved 8y /ixing
cold and hot air5 ,n this case6 faster res.lts co/e 8y t.rning off the /ixing
C8y setting the te/perat.re control to an extre/eD .ntil the desired te/0
perat.re is reached6 then ad4.sting the /ixt.re to /aintain the desired
te/perat.re5
The explanations of the ho/e and a.to/o8iles are exa/ples of si/ple
concept.al /odels5 They are highly oversi/plified 8.t <.ite ade<.ate for
.nderstanding ho& they &or75 They /a7e it easy for .s to .se very dif0
ferent 8ehavior &hen in the ho/e or in the a.to5 good concept.al /odel
can /a7e the difference 8et&een s.ccessf.l and erroneo.s operation of the
/any devices in o.r lives5
This short lesson on concept.al /odels points o.t that good design is
also an act of co//.nication 8et&een the designer and the .ser6 except
that all the co//.nication has to co/e a8o.t 8y the appearance of the
device itself5 The device /.st explain itself5 Even the location and opera0
tion of the controls re<.ire a concept.al /odel:an o8vio.s and nat.ral
Preface to the 2002 Edition xi
relationship 8et&een their location and the operation they control so yo.
al&ays 7no& &hich control does &hat Cin the 8oo76 , call this a 3nat.ral
/apping3D5 When the designers fail to provide a concept.al /odel6 &e
&ill 8e forced to /a7e .p o.r o&n6 and the ones &e /a7e .p are apt to 8e
&rong5 Concept.al /odels are critical to good design5
F "eed#ac$. ,n design6 it is i/portant to sho& the effect of an action5
Witho.t feed8ac76 one is al&ays &ondering &hether anything has hap0
pened5 =ay8e the 8.tton &asn9 t p.shed hard eno.gh? /ay8e the /achine
has stopped &or7ing? /ay8e it is doing the &rong thing5 Witho.t feed0
8ac76 &e t.rn e<.ip/ent off at i/proper ti/es or restart .nnecessarily6
losing all o.r recent &or75 Or &e repeat the co//and and end .p having
the operation done t&ice6 often to o.r detri/ent5 (eed8ac7 is critical5
F onstraints. The s.rest &ay to /a7e so/ething easy to .se6 &ith fe&
errors6 is to /a7e it i/possi8le to do other&ise:to constrain the choices5
Want to prevent people fro/ inserting 8atteries or /e/ory cards into their
ca/eras the &rong &ay6 th.s possi8ly har/ing the electronics@ *esign
the/ so that they fit only one &ay6 or /a7e it so they &or7 perfectly
regardless of ho& they &ere inserted5
(ail.re to design &ith constraints is one reason for all those &arnings
and atte/pts to give instr.ctions: all those tiny diagra/s on the ca/era6 in
o8sc.re locations6 often in the sa/e color as the case and .nreada8le5 , loo7
for instr.ctions posted on doors6 ca/eras6 and other e<.ip/ent5 $.le of
th./8: &hen instr.ctions have to 8e pasted on so/ething Cp.sh here6
insert this &ay6 t.rn off 8efore doing thisD6 it is 8adly designed5
F %ffordances. good designer /a7es s.re that appropriate actions are
percepti8le and inappropriate ones invisi8le5 DOET introd.ced the con0
cept of 3perceived affordances3 to the design co//.nity6 and to /y pleas0
.re6 the concept has 8eco/e i//ensely pop.lar5
!5 The po&er of o#servation: ,f , have 8een s.ccessf.l6 DOET &ill change
the &ay yo. see the &orld5 Ao. &ill never loo7 at a door or light s&itch the
sa/e &ay again5 Ao. &ill 8eco/e an ac.te o8server of people6 of o84ects6
and of the &ay they interact5 ,n fact6 if there is one single /ost i/portant
part of the 8oo7 it is this: learn to &atch6 learn to o8serve5 O8serve yo.r0
self5 O8serve others5 s the fa/o.s 8ase8all player Aogi ;erra said6 3Ao.
can o8serve a lot 8y &atching53 Pro8le/ is6 yo. have to 7no& ho& to
&atch5 ;efore DOET, had yo. seen a hapless .ser6 &hether an .n7no&n
person or even yo.rself6 yo. &o.ld have 8een apt to 8la/e the person5
No& yo. &ill find yo.rself criti<.ing the design5 ;etter yet6 yo. &ill find
yo.rself explaining ho& to fix the pro8le/5
xii Preface to the 2002 Edition
*esign Today
Since The Design of Everyday Things &as first p.8lished6 prod.cts have
8eco/e /.ch 8etter:and /.ch &orse5 So/e designs are &onderf.l6
so/e horri8le5 The n./8er of co/panies that are sensitive to the needs of
their c.sto/ers and e/ploy good designers increases yearly5 Prod.cts
have i/proved5 las6 at the sa/e ti/e6 the n./8er of co/panies that
ignore the needs of their .sers and there8y create ill0conceived6 .n.sa8le
prod.cts see/s to increase even /ore rapidly5
The conf.sions foisted .pon .s 8y technology are increasing at a faster
pace than ever 8efore5 Today9s heavy .sage of the ,nternet6 cell.lar tele0
phones6 porta8le /.sic players6 and the &ide variety of porta8le6 &ireless
/essage and e0/ail syste/s sho&s 4.st ho& i/portant these technologies
have 8eco/e to o.r lives5 Nonetheless6 &e8sites are often .n.sa8le6 cel0
l.lar telephones gro& ever /ore co/plex6 and a.to/o8ile dash8oards
loo7 li7e airplane coc7pits5 The ne& prod.cts i/pose the/selves .pon .s
in the 8edroo/6 in the a.to/o8ile6 &hile &al7ing do&n the street5 s
each ne& technology e/erges6 the co/panies forget the lessons of the
past and let engineers 8.ild their fancif.l creations6 driven 8y /ar7eting
insistence on a proliferation of feat.res5 s a res.lt6 conf.sion and dis0
tractions increase5
$e/ote control of the ho/e is a pop.lar fantasy a/ong technologists5
Why not6 they /.se6 call yo.r ho/e &hile yo. are driving and t.rn on the
heat or air conditioner6 start filling the 8atht.86 or /a7e a pot of coffee@
So/e co/panies offer prod.cts that /a7e it possi8le to do these things5
Why do &e need the/@ Thin7 of ho& /.ch diffic.lty the average a.to0
/o8ile radio presents to the driver5 No& i/agine trying to control the var0
io.s appliances in the ho/e &hile driving5 h6 the &onders yet 8efore .s5
, sh.dder in apprehension5
*esign is a co/plex endeavor6 covering /any disciplines5 Engineers
design 8ridges and da/s6 electronic circ.its6 and ne& for/s of /aterials5
The ter/ 3design3 is .sed to refer to fashion6 8.ildings6 interior decorat0
ing6 and landscaping5 =any designers are artists6 e/phasi>ing aesthetics
and pleas.re5 Others are concerned a8o.t cost5 ll in all6 /any different
disciplines are involved in developing the /any prod.cts &e .se5
ltho.gh this 8oo7 e/phasi>es one /a4or aspect:ho& &ell the design
fits the needs of the people &ho .se it:this is only one of a /.ltit.de of
di/ensions that /.st 8e considered5 ll are i/portant5 This is &hat /a7es
design s.ch a challenging and re&arding discipline: it grapples &ith the
need to acco//odate apparently conflicting re<.ire/ents5
Preface to the 2002 Edition xiii
ppropriate6 h./an0centered design re<.ires that all the considera0
tions 8e addressed fro/ the very 8eginning6 &ith each of the relevant
design disciplines &or7ing together as a tea/5 =ost design is intended to
8e .sed 8y people6 so the needs and re<.ire/ents of people o.ght to 8e
driving /.ch of the &or7 thro.gho.t the entire process5 ,n this 8oo76 ,
concentrate on one co/ponent: /a7ing things that are .nderstanda8le
and .sa8le5 , e/phasi>e this one di/ension 8eca.se it has 8een so long
neglected5 ,t is ti/e to 8ring it to its rightf.l place in the develop/ent
process5 This does not /ean that .sa8ility ta7es precedence over every0
thing else: all great designs have an appropriate 8alance and har/ony of
aesthetic 8ea.ty6 relia8ility and safety6 .sa8ility6 cost6 and f.nctionality5
There is no need to sacrifice 8ea.ty for .sa8ility or6 for that /atter6 .sa8il0
ity for 8ea.ty5 No need to sacrifice cost or f.nction6 ti/e to /an.fact.re6 or
sales5 ,t is possi8le to create things that are 8oth creative and .sa8le6 8oth
pleas.ra8le and co/pletely &or7a8le5 rt and 8ea.ty play essential roles in
o.r lives5 Good designs &ill have it all:aesthetic pleas.re6 art6 creativity:
and at the sa/e ti/e 8e .sa8le6 &or7a8le6 and en4oya8le5
Technol ogy hanges !a"i dl y# $eo"l e hange %l o&l y
ltho.gh significant ti/e has passed since the &riting of this 8oo76 s.r0
prisingly little needs to 8e changed5 Why@ ;eca.se the e/phasis is on peo0
ple6 on ho& &e6 as h./an 8eings6 interact &ith the physical o84ects in the
&orld5 This interaction is governed 8y o.r 8iology6 psychology6 society6
and c.lt.re5 #./an 8iology and psychology do not change /.ch &ith
ti/e: society and c.lt.re change very slo&ly5 =oreover6 in selecting exa/0
ples6 , deli8erately 7ept a&ay fro/ high technology6 loo7ing instead at
everyday things6 things that have 8een aro.nd a &hile5 #igh technology
changes rapidly6 8.t everyday life changes slo&ly5 s a res.lt6 DOET has
not 8eco/e dated: the pro8le/s &ith everyday things are still there6 and
the principles descri8ed in DOET apply to all design6 fro/ lo& to high
technology5
=any people &rite to as7 &hether the lessons of DOET also apply to
co/p.ters and other digital and &ireless devices5 t first , &as s.rprised
at these <.estions:of co.rse they do? &asn9 t the ans&er o8vio.s@
'uestion: In your #oo$ The *esign of Everyday Things6 you tal$ a#out the
design of everything fro! telephones to door$no#s consisting of essentially four
ele!ents: affordance, constraint, !apping, and feed#ac$. (ou &eren't tal$ing
a#out co!puters, #ut do you thin$ the #oo$ also applies to the!)
'iv Preface to the 2002 Edition
%ns&er: , &as a8sol.tely tal7ing a8o.t co/p.ters5 , deli8erately didn9 t .se
co/p.ters and other digital devices as exa/ples 8eca.se , &anted to sho&
that the very sa/e principles that applied to the design of door7no8s and
light s&itches also applied to co/p.ters6 digital ca/eras6 cell phones6
n.clear po&er control roo/s6 and aircraft:and6 of co.rse6 vice versa5
'uestion: Do you #elieve that designers of the latest technological devices address
those ele!ents)
%ns&er: Nope5 Each ti/e a ne& technology co/es along6 ne& designers
/a7e the sa/e horri8le /ista7es as their predecessors5 Technologists are
not noted for learning fro/ the errors of the past5 They loo7 for&ard6 not
8ehind6 so they repeat the sa/e pro8le/s over and over again5 Today9s
&ireless devices are appalling5 The principles in DOET are highly relevant5
We &ent thro.gh this &ith &e8sites:the early designs ignored all that
had 8een learned 8efore and set .s 8ac7 /any years in progress to&ard
.sa8ility and .nderstanding5 ;.t event.ally6 as people 8eca/e /ore expe0
rienced6 they started to de/and 8etter &e8sites6 so things i/proved5 s
each ne& technology /at.res6 c.sto/ers are no longer happy &ith the
flashy pro/ises of the technology 8.t instead de/and .nderstanda8le
and &or7a8le designs5 Slo&ly the /an.fact.rers relearn the sa/e 8asic
principles and apply the/ to their prod.cts5 The /ost egregio.s fail.res
al&ays co/e fro/ the developers of the /ost recent technologies5
One goal of DOET is to ill.strate the po&er of design5 ,f DOET does
nothing else6 it sho.ld sho& yo. ho& to ta7e delight in good designs and
to ta7e ./8rage at /ediocre6 tho.ghtless6 inappropriate ones5
Technology /ay change rapidly6 8.t people change slo&ly5 The princi0
ples6 the exa/ples6 and the lessons of The Design of Everyday Things co/e
fro/ an .nderstanding of people5 They re/ain tr.e forever5
*ON NO$=N
*orth#roo$, Illinois
&&&54nd5org
Preface to the 2002 Edition xv
P$E(CE
This is the 8oo7 , have al&ays &anted to &rite6 8.t , didn9t 7no& it5
Over the years , have f./8led /y &ay thro.gh life6 &al7ing into
doors6 failing to fig.re o.t &ater fa.cets6 inco/petent at &or7ing the
si/ple things of everyday life5 3B.st /e63 , &o.ld /./8le5 3B.st /y
/echanical ineptit.de53 ;.t as , st.died psychology and &atched the
8ehavior of other people6 , 8egan to reali>e that , &as not alone5 =y
diffic.lties &ere /irrored 8y the pro8le/s of others5 nd &e all see/ed
to 8la/e o.rselves5 Co.ld the &hole &orld 8e /echanically inco/pe0
tent@
The tr.th e/erged slo&ly5 =y research activities led /e to the st.dy
of h./an error and ind.strial accidents5 #./ans6 , discovered6 do not
al&ays 8ehave cl./sily5 #./ans do not al&ays err5 ;.t they do &hen
the things they .se are 8adly conceived and designed5 Nonetheless6 &e
still see h./an error 8la/ed for all that 8efalls society5 *oes a co//er0
cial airliner crash@ 3Pilot error63 say the reports5 *oes a Soviet n.clear
po&er plant have a serio.s pro8le/@ 3#./an error63 says the ne&spa0
per5 *o t&o ships at sea collide@ 3#./an error3 is the official ca.se5
;.t caref.l analysis of these 7inds of incidents .s.ally gives the lie to
s.ch a story5 t the fa/o.s /erican n.clear po&er plant disaster at
Three =ile ,sland6 the 8la/e &as placed on plant operators &ho /is0
diagnosed the pro8le/s5 ;.t &as it h./an error@ Consider the phrase
xvii
3operators &ho /isdiagnosed the pro8le/s53 The phrase reveals that
first there &ere pro8le/s:in fact6 a series of /echanical fail.res5 Then
&hy &asn9t e<.ip/ent fail.re the real ca.se@ What a8o.t the /isdiag0
noses@ Why didn9t the operators correctly deter/ine the ca.se@ Well6
ho& a8o.t the fact that the proper instr./ents &ere not availa8le6 that
the plant operators acted in &ays that in the past had al&ays 8een
reasona8le and proper@ #o& a8o.t the press.re relief valve that failed
to close6 even tho.gh the operator p.shed the proper 8.tton and even
tho.gh a light ca/e on stating it &as closed@ Why &as the operator
8la/ed for not chec7ing t&o /ore instr./ents Cone on the rear of the
control panelD and deter/ining that the light &as fa.lty@ Cct.ally6 the
operator did chec7 one of the/5D #./an error@ To /e it so.nds li7e
e<.ip/ent fail.re co.pled &ith serio.s design error5
nd6 yes6 &hat a8o.t /y ina8ility to .se the si/ple things of every0
day life@ , can .se co/plicated things5 , a/ <.ite expert at co/p.ters6
and electronics6 and co/plex la8oratory e<.ip/ent5 Why do , have
tro.8le &ith doors6 light s&itches6 and &ater fa.cets@ #o& co/e , can
&or7 a /.lti/illion0dollar co/p.ter installation6 8.t not /y ho/e
refrigerator@ While &e all 8la/e o.rselves6 the real c.lprit:fa.lty
design:goes .ndetected5 nd /illions of people feel the/selves to 8e
/echanically inept5 ,t is ti/e for a change5
#ence this 8oo7: POET6 The Psychology of Everyday Things. POET is an
o.tgro&th of /y repeated fr.strations &ith the operation of everyday
things and /y gro&ing 7no&ledge of ho& to apply experi/ental psy0
chology and cognitive science5 The co/8ination of experience and
7no&ledge has /ade POET necessary6 at least for /e and for /y o&n
feeling of ease5
So here it is: part pole/ic6 part science5 Part serio.s6 part f.n: POET5
c7no&ledg/ents
POET &as conceived and the first fe& drafts &ritten &hile , &as in
Ca/8ridge6 England6 on a sa88atical leave fro/ the )niversity of Cali0
fornia6 San *iego5 ,n Ca/8ridge6 , &or7ed at the pplied Psychology
)nit Cthe P)D6 a la8oratory of the ;ritish =edical $esearch Co.ncil5
Special than7s are d.e to the people at the P) for their hospitality5
They are a special gro.p of people6 &ith special expertise in applied and
theoretical psychology6 especially in the topics of this 8oo75 World0
fa/o.s experts in the design of instr.ction /an.als6 &arning signals6
co/p.ter syste/s6 &or7ing in an environ/ent filled &ith design
fla&s:doors that are diffic.lt to open Cor that 8ash the hands &hen they
xviii Preface
doD6 signs that are illegi8le Cand nonintelligi8leD6 stovetops that conf.se6
light s&itches that defy even the original installer to fig.re the/ o.t5
stri7ing exa/ple of all that is &rong &ith design6 lodged in the ho/e of
the /ost 7no&ledgea8le of .sers5 perfect co/8ination to set /e off5
Of co.rse6 /y o&n .niversity and /y o&n la8oratory have horrors of
their o&n6 as &ill 8eco/e all too apparent later in this 8oo75
/a4or arg./ent in POET is that /.ch of o.r everyday 7no&ledge
resides in the &orld6 not in the head5 This is an interesting arg./ent
and6 for cognitive psychologists6 a diffic.lt one5 What co.ld it possi8ly
/ean for 7no&ledge to 8e in the &orld@ %no&ledge is interpreted6 the
st.ff that can 8e only in /inds5 ,nfor/ation6 yes6 that co.ld 8e in the
&orld6 8.t 7no&ledge6 never5 Well6 yeah6 the distinction 8et&een
7no&ledge and infor/ation is not clear5 ,f &e are sloppy &ith ter/s6
then perhaps yo. can see the iss.es 8etter5 People certainly do rely
.pon the place/ent and location of o84ects6 .pon &ritten texts6 .pon
the infor/ation contained &ithin other people6 .pon the artifacts of
society6 and .pon the infor/ation trans/itted &ithin and 8y a c.lt.re5
There certainly is a lot of infor/ation o.t there in the &orld6 not in the
head5 =y .nderstanding of this point has 8een strengthened 8y years
of de8ate and interaction &ith a very po&erf.l tea/ of people at Ha
Bolla6 the Cognitive Social Science Gro.p at the )niversity of Califor0
nia6 San *iego5 This &as a s/all gro.p of fac.lty fro/ the depart/ents
of psychology6 anthropology6 and sociology6 organi>ed 8y =i7e Cole6
&ho /et infor/ally once a &ee7 for several years5 The pri/ary /e/0
8ers &ere $oy d9ndrade6 aron Cico.rel6 =i7e Cole6 ;.d =ehan6
George =andler6 4ean =andler6 *ave $./elhart6 and /e5 Given the
pec.liar Caltho.gh typically acade/icD nat.re of this gro.p9s interac0
tion6 they /ay not &ish to ac7no&ledge anything to do &ith the ideas
as they are presented in POET5
nd6 finally6 at the pplied Psychology )nit in England6 , /et
another visiting /erican professor6 *avid $.8in of *.7e )niversity6
&ho &as analy>ing the recall of epic poetry:those long6 h.ge feats of
prodigio.s /e/ory in &hich an itinerant poet sings fro/ /e/ory
ho.rs of /aterial5 $.8in sho&ed /e that it &asn9t all in /e/ory: /.ch
of the infor/ation &as in the &orld6 or at least in the str.ct.re of the
tale6 the poetics6 and the life styles of the people5
=y previo.s research pro4ect &as on the diffic.lties of .sing co/0
p.ters and the /ethods that /ight 8e .sed to /a7e things easier5 ;.t
the /ore , loo7ed at co/p.ters Cand other de/ons of o.r society6 s.ch
as aircraft syste/s and n.clear po&erD6 the /ore , reali>ed that there
&as nothing special a8o.t the/: they had the sa/e pro8le/s as did the
Preface xix
si/pler6 everyday things5 nd the everyday things &ere /ore perva0
sive6 /ore of a pro8le/5 Especially as people feel g.ilt &hen they are
.na8le to .se si/ple things6 g.ilt that sho.ld 8e not theirs 8.t rather
the designers and /an.fact.rers of the o84ects5
So it all ca/e together5 These ideas6 the respite of the sa88atical5 =y
experiences over the years fighting the diffic.lties of poor design6 of
e<.ip/ent that co.ld not 8e .sed6 of everyday things that see/ed
foreign to h./an f.nctioning5 The fact that , &as as7ed to give a tal7
on /y &or7 at the P)6 &hich ca.sed /e to start &riting do&n /y
ideas5 nd finally6 $oger Schan79s Paris 8irthday party6 &here , discov0
ered the &or7s of the artist Carel/an and decided it &as ti/e to &rite
the 8oo75
(or/al $esearch S.ppor
The act.al &riting &as done at three locations5 The &or7 8egan &hile
, &as on sa88atical leave fro/ San *iego5 , spent the first half of /y
sa88atical year at the pplied Psychology )nit in Ca/8ridge6 England6
and the last half at =CC Cthe =icroelectronics and Co/p.ter Technol0
ogy CorporationD in .stin6 Texas5 =CC is /erica9s research consor0
ti./ dedicated to the tas7 of developing co/p.ter syste/s of the
f.t.re5 Officially , &as 3visiting scientist3? .nofficially , &as a sort of
3/inister &itho.t portfolio63 free to &ander and interact &ith the
n./ero.s research progra/s .nder &ay6 especially those in the area
called 3h./an interface53 England is chilly in the &inter6 Texas hot in
the s.//er5 ;.t 8oth provided exactly the proper friendly6 s.pportive
environ/ents that , re<.ired to do the &or75 (inally6 &hen , ret.rned
to )CS*6 , revised the 8oo7 several /ore ti/es5 , .sed it in classes and
sent copies to a variety of colleag.es for s.ggestions5 The co//ents of
/y st.dents and readers &ere inval.a8le6 ca.sing radical revision fro/
the original str.ct.re5
The research &as partially s.pported 8y contract N0001"0+'0C0
01!! N$ II10'"1 &ith the Personnel and Training $esearch Progra/
of the Office of Naval $esearch and 8y a grant fro/ the Syste/ *evel0
op/ent (o.ndation5
People
There is a 8ig difference 8et&een early drafts of POET and the final
version5 =any of /y colleag.es too7 the ti/e to read vario.s drafts
and give /e critical revie&s5 ,n partic.lar6 , &ish to than7 B.dy Greiss0
xx Preface
/an of ;asic ;oo7s for her patient criti<.e thro.gh several revisions5
=y hosts at the P) in ;ritain &ere /ost gracio.s6 especially lan
;addeley6 Phil ;arnard6 Tho/as Green6 Phil Bohnson0Haird6 Tony =ar0
cel6 %aralyn and $oy Patterson6 Ti/ Shallice6 and $ichard Ao.ng5 The
scientific staff at =CC gave .sef.l s.ggestions6 especially Peter Coo76
Bonathan Gr.din6 and *ave Wro8le&s7i5 t )CS*6 , especially &ish
to than7 the st.dents in Psychology 1!' and 20': /y .ndergrad.ate
and grad.ate co.rses at )CS* entitled 3Cognitive Engineering53
=y colleag.es in the design co//.nity &ere /ost helpf.l &ith
their co//ents: =i7e %ing6 =ihai Nadin6 *an $osen8erg6 and ;ill
-erplan75 Special than7s /.st 8e given to Phil gre6 Sher/an *e(or0
est6 and Bef $as7in6 all of &ho/ read the /an.script &ith care and
provided n./ero.s and val.a8le s.ggestions5
Collecting the ill.strations 8eca/e part of the f.n as , traveled the
&orld &ith ca/era in hand5 Eileen Con&ay and =ichael Nor/an
helped collect and organi>e the fig.res and ill.strations5 B.lie Nor/an
helped as she does on all /y 8oo7s6 proofing6 editing6 co//enting6 and
enco.raging5 Eric Nor/an provided val.a8le advice6 s.pport6 and
photogenic feet and hands5
(inally6 /y colleag.es at the ,nstit.te for Cognitive Science at the
)niversity of California6 San *iego6 helped thro.gho.t:in part
thro.gh the &i>ardry of international co/p.ter /ail6 in part thro.gh
their personal assistance to the details of the process5 , single o.t ;ill
Gaver6 =i7e =o>er6 and *ave O&en for their detailed co//ents6 8.t
/any helped o.t at one ti/e or another d.ring the research that
preceded the 8oo7 and the several years of &riting5
Preface xxi
T#E
PSAC#OPT#OHOGA
O( E-E$A*A
T#, NGS
C # P T E $ ON E
+,enneth Olsen, the engineer &ho founded and
still runs Digital E-uip!ent orp., confessed at
the annual !eeting that he can't figure out ho& to
heat a cup of coffee in the co!pany's !icro&ave
oven.+
.
Ao. Wo.ld Need an Engineering *egree
to (ig.re This O.t
(
3Ao. &o.ld need an engineering degree fro/ =,T to &or7 this63
so/eone once told /e6 sha7ing his head in p.>>le/ent over his 8rand
ne& digital &atch5 Well6 , have an engineering degree fro/ =,T5
C%enneth Olsen has t&o of the/6 and he can9t fig.re o.t a /icro&ave
oven5D Give /e a fe& ho.rs and , can fig.re o.t the &atch5 ;.t &hy
sho.ld it ta7e ho.rs@ , have tal7ed &ith /any people &ho can9t .se all
the feat.res of their &ashing /achines or ca/eras6 &ho can9t fig.re o.t
ho& to &or7 a se&ing /achine or a video cassette recorder6 &ho
ha8it.ally t.rn on the &rong stove 8.rner5
Why do &e p.t .p &ith the fr.strations of everyday o84ects6 &ith
o84ects that &e can9t fig.re o.t ho& to .se6 &ith those neat plastic0
&rapped pac7ages that see/ i/possi8le to open6 &ith doors that trap
people6 &ith &ashing /achines and dryers that have 8eco/e too con0
()( arelman*s offee"ot for +aso,
chists) The (rench artist Bac<.es Carel0
/an in his series of 8oo7s atalogue
d 'o#/ets introuva#les 0atalog of unfinda#le o#1
/ects2 provides delightf.l exa/ples of
everyday things that are deli8erately
.n&or7a8le6 o.trageo.s6 or other&ise
ill0for/ed5 Bac<.es Carel/an: 3Cof0
feepot for =asochists53 Copyright J
10I001I0+0 8y Bac<.es Carel/an and
5 *5 5 G5 P5 Paris5 (ro/ Bac<.es Carel0
/an6 atalog of 3nfinda#le O#/ects, ;alland6
edite.r6 Paris0(rance5 )sed 8y per/is0
sion of the artist5
f.sing to .se6 &ith a.dio0stereo0television0video0cassette0recorders
that clai/ in their advertise/ents to do everything6 8.t that /a7e it
al/ost i/possi8le to do anything@
The h./an /ind is ex<.isitely tailored to /a7e sense of the &orld5
Give it the slightest cl.e and off it goes6 providing explanation6 ration0
ali>ation6 .nderstanding5 Consider the o84ects:8oo7s6 radios6 7itchen
appliances6 office /achines6 and light s&itches:that /a7e .p o.r ev0
eryday lives5 Well0designed o84ects are easy to interpret and .nder0
stand5 They contain visi8le cl.es to their operation5 Poorly designed
o84ects can 8e diffic.lt and fr.strating to .se5 They provide no cl.es:
or so/eti/es false cl.es5 They trap the .ser and th&art the nor/al
process of interpretation and .nderstanding5 las6 poor design
predo/inates5 The res.lt is a &orld filled &ith fr.stration6 &ith o84ects
that cannot 8e .nderstood6 &ith devices that lead to error5 This 8oo7
is an atte/pt to change things5
The (r.strations
of Everyday Hife
,f , &ere placed in the coc7pit of a /odern 4et airliner6 /y ina8ility to
perfor/ gracef.lly and s/oothly &o.ld neither s.rprise nor 8other /e5
;.t , sho.ldn9t have tro.8le &ith doors and s&itches6 &ater fa.cets
and stoves5 3*oors@3 , can hear the reader saying6 3yo. have tro.8le
2 The Design of Everyday Things
opening doors@3 Aes5 , p.sh doors that are /eant to 8e p.lled6 p.ll
doors that sho.ld 8e p.shed6 and &al7 into doors that sho.ld 8e slid5
=oreover6 , see others having the sa/e tro.8les:.nnecessary tro.0
8les5 There are psychological principles that can 8e follo&ed to /a7e
these things .nderstanda8le and .sa8le5
Consider the door5 There is not /.ch yo. can do to a door: yo. can
open it or sh.t it5 S.ppose yo. are in an office 8.ilding6 &al7ing do&n
a corridor5 Ao. co/e to a door5 ,n &hich direction does it open@ Sho.ld
yo. p.ll or p.sh6 on the left or the right@ =ay8e the door slides5 ,f so6
in &hich direction@ , have seen doors that slide .p into the ceiling5
door poses only t&o essential <.estions: ,n &hich direction does it
/ove@ On &hich side sho.ld one &or7 it@ The ans&ers sho.ld 8e given
8y the design6 &itho.t any need for &ords or sy/8ols6 certainly &ith0
o.t any need for trial and error5
% friend told !e of the ti!e he got trapped in the door&ay of a post
office in a European city. The entrance &as an i!posing ro& of perhaps
si4 glass s&inging doors, follo&ed i!!ediately #y a second, identical
ro&. That's a standard design: it helps reduce the airflo& and thus
!aintain the indoor te!perature of the #uilding.
5y friend pushed on the side of one of the left!ost pair of outer
doors. It s&ung in&ard, and he entered the #uilding. Then, #efore he
could get to the ne4t ro& of doors, he &as distracted and turned around
for an instant. 6e didn 't reali7e it at the ti!e, #ut he had !oved slightly
to the right. 8o &hen he ca!e to the ne4t door and pushed it, nothing
happened. +6!!,+he thought, +!ust #e loc$ed.+8o he pushed the
side of the ad/acent door. *othing. Pu77led, !y friend decided to go
outside again. 6e turned around and pushed against the side of a door.
*othing. 6e pushed the ad/acent door. *othing. The door he had /ust
entered no longer &or$ed. 6e turned around once !ore and tried the
inside doors again. *othing. oncern, then !ild panic. 6e &as trapped9
:ust then, a group of people on the other side of the entrance&ay 0to
!y friend's right2 passed easily through #oth sets of doors. 5y friend
hurried over to follo& their path.
6o& could such a thing happen) % s&inging door has t&o sides.
One contains the supporting pillar and the hinge, the other is unsup1
ported. To open the door, you !ust push on the unsupported edge. If
you push on the hinge side, nothing happens. In this case, the designer
ai!ed for #eauty, not utility. *o distracting lines, no visi#le pillars, no
visi#le hinges. 8o ho& can the ordinary user $no& &hich side to push
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things !
()- A !o& of %&inging .lass Doors in a Boston Hotel) si/ilar pro8le/ to
the doors fro/ that E.ropean post office5 On &hich side of the door sho.ld yo.
p.sh@ When , as7ed people &ho had 4.st .sed the doors6 /ost co.ldn9 t say5 Aet
only a fe& of the people , &atched had tro.8le &ith the doors5 The designers had
incorporated a s.8tle cl.e into the design5 Note that the hori>ontal 8ars are not
centered: they are a 8it closer together on the sides yo. sho.ld p.sh on5 The design
al/ost &or7s:8.t not entirely6 for not everyone .sed the doors right on the first
try5
on) ;hile distracted, !y friend had !oved to&ard the 0invisi#le2
supporting pillar, so he &as pushing the doors on the hinged side. *o
&onder nothing happened. Pretty doors. Elegant. Pro#a#ly &on a de1
sign pri7e.
The door story ill.strates one of the /ost i/portant principles of
design: visi#ility. The correct parts /.st 8e visi8le6 and they /.st con0
vey the correct /essage5 With doors that p.sh6 the designer /.st
provide signals that nat.rally indicate &here to p.sh5 These need not
destroy the aesthetics5 P.t a vertical plate on the side to 8e p.shed6
nothing on the other5 Or /a7e the s.pporting pillars visi8le5 The
vertical plate and s.pporting pillars are natural signals6 naturally inter0
preted6 &itho.t any need to 8e conscio.s of the/5 , call the .se of
nat.ral signals natural design and ela8orate on the approach thro.gho.t
this 8oo75
" The Design of Everyday Things
-isi8ility pro8le/s co/e i n /any for/s5 =y friend6 trapped 8e0
t &een t he glass doors6 s.ffered fro/ a lac7 of cl.es t hat &o.l d indicate
&hat part of a door sho.ld 8e operated5 Ot her pro8le/s concern the
!appings 8et &een &hat yo. &ant to do and &hat appears to 8e possi8le6
anot her topic t hat &ill 8e expanded .pon t hro.gho.t t he 8oo75 Con0
sider one t ype of slide pro4ector5 This pro4ector has a single 8.t t on to
control &het her t he slide tray /oves for&ard or 8ac7&ard5 One 8.t t on
to do t &o things@ What i s t he /apping@ #o& can yo. fig.re o.t ho&
to control t he slides@ Ao. can9 t5 Not hi ng is visi8le to give t he slightest
hint5 #ere is &hat happened to /e in one of t he /any .nfa/iliar places
,9ve lect.red in d.ring /y travels as a professor:
The <eit7 slide pro/ector illustrated in figure ..= has sho&n up sev1
eral ti!es in !y travels. The first ti!e, it led to a rather dra!atic
incident. % conscientious student &as in charge of sho&ing !y slides.
I started !y tal$ and sho&ed the first slide. ;hen I finished &ith the
first slide and as$ed for the ne4t, the student carefully pushed the
control #utton and &atched in dis!ay as the tray #ac$ed up, slid out
of the pro/ector and plopped off the ta#le onto the floor, spilling its
entire contents. ;e had to delay the lecture fifteen !inutes &hile I
struggled to reorgani7e the slides. It &asn't the student's fault. It &as
the fault of the elegant pro/ector. ;ith only one #utton to control the
slide advance, ho& could one s&itch fro! for&ard to reverse) *either
of us could figure out ho& to !a$e the control &or$.
%ll during the lecture the slides &ould so!eti!es go for&ard, so!e1
ti!es #ac$&ard. %fter&ard, &e found the local technician, &ho e41
plained it to us. % #rief push of the #utton and the slide &ould go
Taste /01 fur Dia&echsel am .erat
*ia&echsel vor&arts K 7.r> dr.c7en6
*ia&echsel r.c7&art> K langer dr.c7en5
Button /01 for changing the slides
Slide change for&ard K short press6
Slide change 8ac7&ard K longer press5
()2 Leit3 $ravodit %lide
$ro4ector) , finally trac7ed
do&n the instr.ction /an.al
for that pro4ector5 photo0
graph of the pro4ector has its
parts n./8ered5 The 8.tton
for changing slides is n./8er
15 The 8.tton itself has no la0
8els5 Who co.ld discover this
operation &itho.t the aid of
the /an.al@ #ere is the entire
text related to the 8.tton6 in
the original Ger/an and in /y
English translation:
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things '
for&ard, a long push and it &ould reverse. 0Pity the conscientious
student &ho $ept pushing it hard:and long:to !a$e sure that the
s&itch &as !a$ing contact.2 ;hat an elegant design. ;hy, it !anaged
to do t&o functions &ith only one #utton9 >ut ho& &as a first1ti!e
user of the pro/ector to $no& this)
%s another e4a!ple, consider the #eautiful %!phitheatre <ouis1
<aird in the Paris 8or#onne, &hich is filled &ith !agnificent paintings
of great figures in "rench intellectual history. 0The !ural on the ceiling
sho&s lots of na$ed &o!en floating a#out a !an &ho is valiantly
trying to read a #oo$. The painting is right side up only for the lec1
turer:it is upside do&n for all the people in the audience.2 The roo!
is a delight to lecture in, at least until you as$ for the pro/ection screen
to #e lo&ered. +%h,+ says the professor in charge, &ho gestures to the
technician, &ho runs out of the roo!, up a short flight of stairs, and
out of sight #ehind a solid &all. The screen co!es do&n and stops.
+*o, no,+ shouts the professor, +a little #it !ore.+ The screen co!es
do&n again, this ti!e too !uch. +*o, no, no9+ the professor /u!ps up
and do&n and gestures &ildly. It's a lovely roo!, &ith lovely paintings.
>ut &hy can't the person &ho is trying to lo&er or raise the screen see
&hat he is doing)
Ne& telephone syste/s have proven to 8e another excellent exa/0
ple of inco/prehensi8le design5 No /atter &here , travel6 , can co.nt
.pon finding a partic.larly 8ad exa/ple5
;hen I visited >asic >oo$s, the pu#lishers of this #oo$, I noticed a
ne& telephone syste!. I as$ed people ho& they li$ed it. The -uestion
unleashed a torrent of a#use. +It doesn't have a hold function,+ one
&o!an co!plained #itterly:the sa!e co!plaint people at !y univer1
sity !ade a#out their rather different syste!. In older days, #usiness
phones al&ays had a #utton la#eled +hold.+ (ou could push the #utton
and hang up the phone &ithout losing the call on your line. Then you
could tal$ to a colleague, or pic$ up another telephone call, or even pic$
up the call at another phone &ith the sa!e telephone nu!#er. % light
on the hold #utton indicated &hen the function &as in use. It &as an
in valua#le tool for #usiness. ;hy didn't the ne& phones at >asic >oo$s
or in !y university have a hold function, if it is so essential) ;ell, they
did, even the very instru!ent the &o!an &as co!plaining a#out. >ut
there &as no easy &ay to discover the fact, nor to learn ho& to use it.
I &as visiting the 3niversity of 5ichigan and I as$ed a#out the ne&
? The Design of Everyday Things
syste! there. +(ech9+ &as the response, +and it doesn't even have a
hold function9+ 6ere &e go again. ;hat is going on) The ans&er is
si!ple: first, loo$ at the instructions for hold. %t the 3niversity of
5ichigan the phone co!pany provided a little plate that fits over the
$eypad and re!inds users of the functions and ho& to use the!. I
carefully unhoo$ed one of the plates fro! the telephone and !ade a
photocopy 0figure ..@2. an you understand ho& to use it) I can't.
There is a +call hold+ operation, #ut it doesn't !a$e sense to !e, not
for the application that I /ust descri#ed.
The tel ephone hol d sit.ation ill.strates a n./8er of different pro80
le/s5 One of t he/ is si/ply poor instr.ctions6 especially a fail.re to
relate t he ne& f.nctions to t he si/ilarly na/ed f.nctions t hat people
already 7no& a8o.t 5 Second6 and /ore serio.s6 is t he lac7 of visi8ility of
t he operation of t he syste/5 The ne& t elephones6 for all their added
sophistication6 lac7 8ot h the hold 8.t t on and t he flashing light of t he old
ones5 The hold is signified 8y an ar8itrary action: dialing an ar8itrary
se<.ence of digits CL+6 or ABB, or &hat have yo.: it varies fro/ one
phone syste/ to anotherD5 Third6 there is no visi8le o.t co/e of t he
operation5
*evices in t he ho/e have developed so/e related pro8le/s: f.nc0
tions and /ore f.nctions6 controls and /ore controls5 , do not t hi n7
t hat si/ple ho/e appliances:stoves6 &ashi ng /achines6 a.dio and
television sets:sho.ld loo7 li7e #oll y&ood9 s idea of a spaceship con0
trol roo/5 They already do6 /.ch to t he consternation of t he cons./er
&ho6 often as not 6 has lost Cor cannot .nderst andD t he instr.ction
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things C
()5 $late +ounted 6ver the
Dial of the Tele"hones at
the 7niversity of +ichigan)
These inade<.ate instr.ctions
are all that /ost .sers see5
CThe 8.tton la8eled 3TP3 at
the lo&er right is .sed to
transfer or pic7 .p calls:it is
pressed &henever the instr.c0
tion plate says 3TP5 3 The
light on the lo&er left co/es
on &henever the telephone
rings5D
/an.al6 so:faced &ith the 8e&ildering array of controls and dis0
plays:si/ply /e/ori>es one or t&o fixed settings to approxi/ate
&hat is desired5 The &hole p.rpose of the design is lost5
In England I visited a ho!e &ith a fancy ne& Italian &asher1drier
co!#ination, &ith super1duper !ulti1sy!#ol controls, all to do every1
thing you ever &anted to do &ith the &ashing and drying of clothes.
The hus#and 0an engineering psychologist2 said he refused to go near
it. The &ife 0a physician2 said she had si!ply !e!ori7ed one setting
and tried to ignore the rest.
8o!eone &ent to a lot of trou#le to create that design. I read the
instruction !anual. That !achine too$ into account everything a#out
today's &ide variety of synthetic and natural fa#rics. The designers
&or$ed hardD they really cared. >ut o#viously they had never thought
of trying it out, or of &atching anyone use it.
If the design &as so #ad, if the controls &ere so unusa#le, &hy did
the couple purchase it) If people $eep #uying poorly designed pro1
ducts, !anufacturers and designers &ill thin$ they are doing the right
thing and continue as usual.
The .ser needs help5 B.st the right things have to 8e visi8le: to
indicate &hat parts operate and ho&6 to indicate ho& the .ser is to
interact &ith the device5 -isi8ility indicates the /apping 8et&een in0
tended actions and act.al operations5 -isi8ility indicates cr.cial dis0
tinctions:so that yo. can tell salt and pepper sha7ers apart6 for exa/0
ple5 nd visi8ility of the effects of the operations tells yo. if the lights
have t.rned on properly6 if the pro4ection screen has lo&ered to the
correct height6 or if the refrigerator te/perat.re is ad4.sted correctly5
,t is lac7 of visi8ility that /a7es so /any co/p.ter0controlled devices
so diffic.lt to operate5 nd it is an excess of visi8ility that /a7es the
gadget0ridden6 feat.re0laden /odern a.dio set or video cassette re0
corder C-C$D so inti/idating5
The Psychology
of Everyday Things
This 8oo7 is a8o.t the psychology of everyday things5 POET e/pha0
si>es the .nderstanding of everyday things6 things &ith 7no8s and
dials6 controls and s&itches6 lights and /eters5 The instances &e have
4.st exa/ined de/onstrate several principles6 incl.ding the i/portance
+ The Design of Everyday Things
of visi8ility6 appropriate cl.es6 and feed8ac7 of one9s actions5 These
principles constit.te a for/ of psychology:the psychology of ho&
people interact &ith things5 ;ritish designer once noted that the
7inds of /aterials .sed in the constr.ction of passenger shelters af0
fected the &ay vandals responded5 #e s.ggested that there /ight 8e
a psychology of /aterials5
((O$*NCES
+In one case, the reinforced glass used to panel shelters 0for railroad
passengers2 erected #y >ritish Eail &as s!ashed #y vandals as fast as
it &as rene&ed. ;hen the reinforced glass &as replaced #y ply&ood
#oarding, ho&ever, little further da!age occurred, although no e4tra
force &ould have #een re-uired to produce it. Thus >ritish Eail
!anaged to elevate the desire for deface!ent to those &ho could &rite,
al#eit in so!e&hat li!ited ter!s. *o#ody has, as yet, considered
&hether there is a $ind of psychology of !aterials. >ut on the evidence,
there could &ell #e9+ F2G
There already exists the start of a psychology of /aterials and of
things6 the st.dy of affordances of o84ects5 When .sed in this sense6
the ter/ affordance refers to the perceived and act.al properties of the
thing6 pri/arily those f.nda/ental properties that deter/ine 4.st ho&
the thing co.ld possi8ly 8e .sed Csee fig.res 15' and 15ID5 chair
affords C3is for3D s.pport and6 therefore6 affords sitting5 chair can also
8e carried5 Glass is for seeing thro.gh6 and for 8rea7ing5 Wood is
nor/ally .sed for solidity6 opacity6 s.pport6 or carving5 (lat6 poro.s6
s/ooth s.rfaces are for &riting on5 So &ood is also for &riting on5
#ence the pro8le/ for ;ritish $ail: &hen the shelters had glass6 van0
dals s/ashed it? &hen they had ply&ood6 vandals &rote on and carved
it5 The planners &ere trapped 8y the affordances of their /aterials5
!
ffordances provide strong cl.es to the operations of things5 Plates
are for p.shing5 %no8s are for t.rning5 Slots are for inserting things
into5 ;alls are for thro&ing or 8o.ncing5 When affordances are ta7en
advantage of6 the .ser 7no&s &hat to do 4.st 8y loo7ing: no pict.re6
la8el6 or instr.ction is re<.ired5 Co/plex things /ay re<.ire explana0
tion6 8.t si/ple things sho.ld not5 When si/ple things need pict.res6
la8els6 or instr.ctions6 the design has failed5
psychology of ca.sality is also at &or7 as &e .se everyday things5
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 2
()8 Affordances of Doors) *oor hard&are can signal &hether to p.sh or p.ll
&itho.t signs5 The flat hori>ontal 8ar of % Ca8ove leftD affords no operations except
p.shing: it is excellent hard&are for a door that /.st 8e p.shed to 8e opened5 The
door in > Ca8ove rightD has a different 7ind of 8ar on each side6 one relatively s/all
and vertical to signify a p.ll6 the other relatively large and hori>ontal to signify a
p.sh5 ;oth 8ars s.pport the affordance of grasping: si>e and position specify
&hether the grasp is .sed to p.sh or p.ll:tho.gh a/8ig.o.sly5
()9 :hen Affordances Fail) , had to tie a string aro.nd /y ca8inet door to afford
p.lling5
10 The Design of Everyday Things
So/ething that happens right after an action appears to 8e ca.sed 8y
that action5 To.ch a co/p.ter ter/inal 4.st &hen it fails6 and yo. are
apt to 8elieve that yo. ca.sed the fail.re6 even tho.gh the fail.re and
yo.r action &ere related only 8y coincidence5 S.ch false ca.sality is the
8asis for /.ch s.perstition5 =any of the pec.liar 8ehaviors of people
.sing co/p.ter syste/s or co/plex ho.sehold appliances res.lt fro/
s.ch false coincidences5 When an action has no apparent res.lt6 yo.
/ay concl.de that the action &as ineffective5 So yo. repeat it5 ,n earlier
days6 &hen co/p.ter &ord processors did not al&ays sho& the res.lts
of their operations6 people &o.ld so/eti/es atte/pt to change their
/an.script6 8.t the lac7 of visi8le effect fro/ each action &o.ld /a7e
the/ thin7 that their co//ands had not 8een exec.ted6 so they &o.ld
repeat the co//ands6 so/eti/es over and over6 to their later astonish0
/ent and regret5 ,t is a poor design that allo&s either 7ind of false
ca.sality to occ.r5
TWENTA T#O)SN* E-E$A*A T#,NGS
There are an a/a>ing n./8er of everyday things6 perhaps t&enty
tho.sand of the/5 re there really that /any@ Start 8y loo7ing a8o.t
yo.5 There are light fixt.res6 8.l8s6 and soc7ets? &all plates and scre&s?
cloc7s6 &atches6 and &atch8ands5 There are &riting devices C, co.nt
t&elve in front of /e6 each different in f.nction6 color6 or styleD5 There
are clothes6 &ith different f.nctions6 openings6 and flaps5 Notice the
variety of /aterials and pieces5 Notice the variety of fasteners:8.t0
tons6 >ippers6 snaps6 laces5 Hoo7 at all the f.rnit.re and food .tensils:
all those details6 each serving so/e f.nction for /an.fact.ra8ility6
.sage6 or appearance5 Consider the &or7 area: paper clips6 scissors6 pads
of paper6 /aga>ines6 8oo7s6 8oo7/ar7s5 ,n the roo/ ,9/ &or7ing in6
, co.nted /ore than a h.ndred speciali>ed o84ects 8efore , tired5 Each
is si/ple6 8.t each re<.ires its o&n /ethod of operation6 each has to
8e learned6 each does its o&n speciali>ed tas76 and each has to 8e
designed separately5 (.rther/ore6 /any of the o84ects are /ade of
/any parts5 des7 stapler has sixteen parts6 a ho.sehold iron fifteen6
the si/ple 8atht.80sho&er co/8ination t&enty0three5 Ao. can9t 8e0
lieve these si/ple o84ects have so /any parts@ #ere are the eleven 8asic
parts to a sin7: drain6 flange Caro.nd the drainD6 pop0.p stopper6 8asin6
soap dish6 overflo& vent6 spo.t6 lift rod6 fittings6 hot0&ater handle6 and
cold0&ater handle5 We can co.nt even /ore if &e start ta7ing the
fa.cets6 fittings6 and lift rods apart5
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 11
The 8oo7 ;hat's ;hat: % Hisual Ilossary of the Physical ;orld has /ore
than fifteen h.ndred dra&ings and pict.res and ill.strates t&enty0
three tho.sand ite/s or parts of ite/s5
"
,rving ;ieder/an6 a psycholo0
gist &ho st.dies vis.al perception6 esti/ates that there are pro8a8ly
3!06000 readily discri/ina8le o84ects for the ad.lt53
'
Whatever the
exact n./8er6 it is clear that the diffic.lties of everyday life are a/pli0
fied 8y the sheer prof.sion of ite/s5 S.ppose that each everyday thing
ta7es only one /in.te to learn? learning 206000 of the/ occ.pies
206000 /in.tes:!!! ho.rs or a8o.t + forty0ho.r &or7 &ee7s5 (.r0
ther/ore6 &e often enco.nter ne& o84ects .nexpectedly6 &hen &e are
really concerned &ith so/ething else5 We are conf.sed and distracted6
and &hat o.ght to 8e a si/ple6 effortless6 everyday thing interferes
&ith the i/portant tas7 of the /o/ent5
#o& do people cope@ Part of the ans&er lies in the &ay the /ind
&or7s:in the psychology of h./an tho.ght and cognition5 Part lies
in the infor/ation availa8le fro/ the appearance of the o84ects:the
psychology of everyday things5 nd part co/es fro/ the a8ility of the
designer to /a7e the operation clear6 to pro4ect a good i/age of the
operation6 and to ta7e advantage of other things people /ight 8e ex0
pected to 7no&5 #ere is &here the designer9s 7no&ledge of the psy0
chology of people co.pled &ith 7no&ledge of ho& things &or7
8eco/es cr.cial5
6NE$T7AL +6DEL%
Consider the rather strange 8icycle ill.strated in fig.re 1515 Ao. 7no&
it &on9t &or7 8eca.se yo. for/ a conceptual !odel of the device and
/entally si/.late its operation5 Ao. can do the si/.lation 8eca.se the
parts are visi8le and the i/plications clear5
Other cl.es to ho& things &or7 co/e fro/ their visi8le str.ct.re:
in partic.lar fro/ affordances, constraints, and !appings. Consider a pair of
scissors: even if yo. have never seen or .sed the/ 8efore6 yo. can see
that the n./8er of possi8le actions is li/ited5 The holes are clearly
there to p.t so/ething into6 and the only logical things that &ill fit are
fingers5 The holes are affordances: they allo& the the fingers to 8e
inserted5 The si>es of the holes provide constraints to li/it the possi8le
fingers: the 8ig hole s.ggests several fingers6 the s/all hole only one5
The /apping 8et&een holes and fingers:the set of possi8le opera0
tions:is s.ggested and constrained 8y the holes5 =oreover6 the opera0
tion is not sensitive to finger place/ent: if yo. .se the &rong fingers6
12 The Design of Everyday Things
151 Carel/an9s Tande/ 3Convergent ;icycle C=odel for (iancesD53 Bac<.es
Carel/an: 3Convergent ;icycle3 Copyright J 12I001I0+0 8y Bac<.es Carel/an
and 5 *5 5 G5 P5 Paris5 (ro/ Bac<.es Carel/an6 atalog of 3nfinda#le O#/ects, ;alland6
edite.r6 Paris0(rance5 )sed 8y per/ission of the artist5
the scissors still &or75 Ao. can fig.re o.t the scissors 8eca.se their
operating parts are visi8le and the i/plications clear5 The concept.al
/odel is /ade o8vio.s6 and there is effective .se of affordances and
constraints5
s a co.nterexa/ple6 consider the digital &atch6 one &i th t &o to
fo.r p.sh 8.t t ons on the front or side5 What are those p.sh 8.tt ons
for@ #o& &o.ld yo. set the ti/e@ There is no &ay to tell:no evident
relationship 8et&een t he operating controls and t he f.nctions6 no con0
straints6 no apparent /appings5 Wi t h the scissors6 /oving the handle
/a7es the 8lades /ove5 The &atch and t he Heit> slide pro4ector provide
no visi8le relationship 8et&een the 8.t tons and the possi8le actions6
no discerni8le relationship 8et &een the actions and t he end res.lt5
Principles of *esign
for )nderstanda8ility and )sa8ility
We have no& enco.ntered the f.nda/ental principles of designing
for people: C1D provide a good concept.al /odel and C2D /a7e things
visi8le5
P$O-,*E GOO* CONCEPT)H =O*EH
good concept.al /odel allo&s .s to predict the effects of o.r actions5
Wit ho.t a good /odel &e operate 8y rote6 8lindly? &e do operations
as &e &ere told to do the/? &e can9 t f.lly appreciate &hy6 &hat effects
to expect6 or &hat to do if things go &rong5 s long as things &or7
properly6 &e can /anage5 When things go &rong6 ho&ever6 or &hen
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 1!
&e co/e .pon a novel sit.ation6 t hen &e need a deeper .nderst andi ng6
a good /odel 5
(or everyday things6 concept.al /odels need not 8e very co/plex5
fter all6 scissors6 pens6 and light s&itches are pret t y si/ple devices5
There is no need to .nderst and t he .nderlyi ng physics or che/istry of
each device &e o&n6 si/ply t he relationship 8et&een t he controls and
t he o.tco/es5 When t he /odel presented t o .s i s i nade<.at e or &rong
Cor6 &orse6 nonexi stentD6 &e can have diffic.lties5 Het /e tell yo. a8o.t
/y refrigerator5
5y house has an ordinary, t&o1co!part!ent refrigerator:nothing
very fancy a#out it. The pro#le! is that I can't set the te!perature
properly. There are only t&o things to do: ad/ust the te!perature of the
free7er co!part!ent and ad/ust the te!perature of the fresh food
co!part!ent. %nd there are t&o controls, one la#eled +free7er,+ the
other +fresh food.+ ;hat's the pro#le!)
(ou try it. "igure ..J sho&s the instruction plate fro! inside the
refrigerator. *o&, suppose the free7er is too cold, the fresh food section
/ust right. (ou &ant to !a$e the free7er &ar!er, $eeping the fresh food
constant. Io on, read the instructions, figure the! out.
15+ =y $efrigerator5 T&o co/part/ents:fresh food and free>er:and t&o con0
trols Cin the fresh food .nitD5 The ill.stration sho&s the controls and instr.ctions5
Ao.r tas7: S.ppose the free>er is too cold6 the fresh food section 4.st right5 #o&
&o.ld yo. ad4.st the controls so as to /a7e the free>er &ar/er and 7eep the fresh
food the sa/e@ C(ro/ Nor/an6 12+I5D
1" The Design of Everyday Things
NORMAL SETTINGS
COLDER FRESH FOOD
COLDEST FRESH FOOD
COLDER FREEZER
WARMER FRESH FOOD
OFF (FRESH FD & FRZ)
1 SET BOTH CONTROLS
2 ALLOW 24 HOURS
TO STABILIZE
C AND 5
C AND 6-7
B AND 8-
D AND 7-8
C AND 4-1
!
FRESH FOOD FREEZER
(); T&o once"tual +odels for +y !efrigerator) The /odel % Ca8oveD is
provided 8y the syste/ i/age of the refrigerator as gleaned fro/ the controls and
instr.ctions? > C8elo&D is the correct concept.al /odel5 The pro8le/ is that it is
i/possi8le to tell in &hich co/part/ent the ther/ostat is located and &hether the
t&o controls are in the free>er and fresh food co/part/ent6 or vice versa5
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things (8
FREEZER
Thermostat
FREEZER CONTROL
COOLING UNIT
COLD AIR
COOLING UNIT
FRESH FOOD
CONTROL
COLD AIR
FRESH
FOOD
Thermostat
Thermostat
(location
not knon!
FREEZER
FRESH
FOOD
CONTROL "
#AL#E COLD AIR
COOLING UNIT
CONTROL A
Oh, perhaps I'd #etter &arn you. The t&o controls are not indepen1
dent. The free7er control affects the fresh food te!perature, and the
fresh food control affects the free7er. %nd don't forget to &ait t&enty1
four hours to chec$ on &hether you !ade the right ad/ust!ent, if you
can re!e!#er &hat you did.
Control of the refrigerator is /ade diffic.lt 8eca.se the /an.fac0
t.rer provides a false concept.al /odel5 There are t&o co/part/ents
and t&o controls5 The set.p clearly and .na/8ig.o.sly provides a
si/ple /odel for the .ser: each control is responsi8le for the te/pera0
t.re of the co/part/ent that carries its na/e5 Wrong5 ,n fact6 there is
only one ther/ostat and only one cooling /echanis/5 One control
ad4.sts the ther/ostat setting6 the other the relative proportion of cold
air sent to each of the t&o co/part/ents of the refrigerator5 This is
&hy the t&o controls interact5 With the concept.al /odel provided 8y
the /an.fact.rer6 ad4.sting the te/perat.res is al/ost i/possi8le and
al&ays fr.strating5 Given the correct /odel6 life &o.ld 8e /.ch easier
Cfig.re 152D5
Why did the /an.fact.rer present the &rong concept.al /odel@
()(< once"tual +odels) The design !odel is the designer9s concept.al /odel5 The
user's !odel is the /ental /odel developed thro.gh interaction &ith the syste/5 The
syste! i!age res.lts fro/ the physical str.ct.re that has 8een 8.ilt Cincl.ding doc.0
/entation6 instr.ctions6 and la8elsD5 The designer expects the .ser9s /odel to 8e
identical to the design /odel5 ;.t the designer doesn9t tal7 directly &ith the
.ser:all co//.nication ta7es place thro.gh the syste/ i/age5 ,f the syste/
i/age does not /a7e the design /odel clear and consistent6 then the .ser &ill end
.p &ith the &rong /ental /odel5 C(ro/ Nor/an6 10+I5D
1I The Design of Everyday Things
DESIGN
MODEL
DESIGNER USER
USER'S
MODEL
S$STE%
SYSTEM
IMAGE
perhaps the designers tho.ght the correct /odel &as too co/plex6 that
the /odel they &ere giving &as easier to .nderstand5 ;.t &ith the
&rong concept.al /odel6 it is i/possi8le to set the controls5 nd even
tho.gh , a/ convinced , no& 7no& the correct /odel6 , still cannot
acc.rately ad4.st the te/perat.res 8eca.se the refrigerator design
/a7es it i/possi8le for /e to discover &hich control is for the ther/o0
stat6 &hich control is for the relative proportion of cold air6 and in
&hich co/part/ent the ther/ostat is located5 The lac7 of i//ediate
feed8ac7 for the actions does not help: &ith a delay of t&enty0fo.r
ho.rs6 &ho can re/e/8er &hat &as tried@
The topic of concept.al /odels &ill reappear in the 8oo75 They are
part of an i/portant concept in design: !ental !odels, the /odels people
have of the/selves6 others6 the environ/ent6 and the things &ith
&hich they interact5 People for/ /ental /odels thro.gh experience6
training6 and instr.ction5 The /ental /odel of a device is for/ed
largely 8y interpreting its perceived actions and its visi8le str.ct.re5 ,
call the visi8le part of the device the syste! i!age Cfig.re 1510D5 When
the syste/ i/age is incoherent or inappropriate6 as in the case of the
refrigerator6 then the .ser cannot easily .se the device5 ,f it is inco/0
plete or contradictory6 there &ill 8e tro.8le5
=%E T#,NGS -,S,;HE
The pro8le/s ca.sed 8y inade<.ate attention to visi8ility are all neatly
de/onstrated &ith one si/ple appliance: the /odern telephone5
I stand at the #lac$#oard in !y office, tal$ing &ith a student, &hen
!y telephone rings. Once, t&ice it rings. I pause, trying to co!plete !y
sentence #efore ans&ering. The ringing stops. +I'! sorry,+ says the
student. +*ot your fault,+ I say. +>ut it's no pro#le!, the call no&
transfers to !y secretary's phone. 8he'll ans&er it.+ %s &e listen &e
hear her phone start to ring. Once, t&ice. I loo$ at !y &atch. 8i4
o'cloc$: it's late, the office staff has left for the day. I rush out of !y
office to !y secretary's phone, #ut as I get there, it stops ringing. +%h,+
I thin$, +it's #eing transferred to another phone.+ 8ure enough, the
phone in the ad/acent office no& starts ringing. I rush to that office, #ut
it is loc$ed. >ac$ to !y office to get the $ey, out to the loc$ed door,
fu!#le &ith the loc$, into the office, and to the no& -uiet phone. I hear
a telephone do&n the hall start to ring. ould that still #e !y call,
O*E: The Psychopathohgy of Everyday Things .1
!a$ing its &ay !ysteriously, &ith a predeter!ined lurching path,
through the phones of the #uilding) Or is it /ust another telephone call
coincidentally arriving at this ti!e)
,n fact6 , co.ld have retrieved the call fro/ /y office6 had , acted
<.ic7ly eno.gh5 The /an.al states: 3Within yo.r pre0progra//ed
pic70.p gro.p6 dial 1" to connect to inco/ing call5 Other&ise6 to an0
s&er any ringing extension6 dial ringing extension n./8er6 listen for
8.sy tone5 *ial + to connect to inco/ing call53 #.h@ What do those
instr.ctions /ean@ What is a 3pre0progra//ed pic70.p gro.p63 and
&hy do , even &ant to 7no&@ What is the extension n./8er of the
ringing phone@ Can , re/e/8er all those instr.ctions &hen , need
the/@ No5
Telephone chase is the ne& ga/e in the /odern office6 as the a.to0
/atic feat.res of telephones go a&ry:feat.res designed &itho.t
proper tho.ght6 and certainly &itho.t testing the/ &ith their intended
.sers5 There are several other ga/es6 too5 One ga/e is anno.nced 8y
the plea6 3#o& do , ans&er this call@3 The <.estion is properly &hined
in front of a ringing6 flashing telephone6 receiver in hand5 Then there
is the paradoxical ga/e entitled 3This telephone doesn9t have a hold
f.nction53 The acc.sation is directed at a telephone that act.ally does
have a hold f.nction5 nd6 finally6 there is 3What do yo. /ean , called
yo.6 yo. called /eE3
5any of the !odern telephone syste!s have a ne& feature that
auto!atically $eeps trying to dial a nu!#er for you. This feature re1
sides under na!es such as auto!atic redialing or auto!atic call#ac$.
I a! supposed to use this feature &henever I call so!eone &ho doesn't
ans&er or &hose line is #usy. ;hen the person ne4t hangs up the
phone, !y phone &ill dial it again. 8everal auto!atic call#ac$s can #e
active at a ti!e. 6ere's ho& it &or$s. I place a phone call. There's no
ans&er, so I activate the auto!atic call#ac$ feature. 8everal hours later
!y telephone rings. I pic$ it up and say +6ello, +only to hear a ringing
sound and then so!eone else saying +6ello.+
+6ello,+ . ans&er, +&ho is this)+
+;ho is this)+ . hear in reply, +you called !e.+
+*o,+ I say, +you called !e, !y phone /ust rang.+
8lo&ly . reali7e that perhaps this is !y delayed call. *o&, let !e see,
&ho &as I trying to call several hours ago) Did I have several call#ac$s
in place) ;hy &as I !a$ing the call)
1+ The Design of Everyday Things
The /odern telephone did not happen 8y accident: it &as caref.lly
designed5 So/eone:/ore li7ely a tea/ of people:invented a list of
feat.res tho.ght desira8le6 invented &hat see/ed to the/ to 8e pla.si0
8le &ays of controlling the feat.res6 and then p.t it all together5 =y
.niversity6 foc.sing on cost and perhaps da>>led 8y the feat.res6
8o.ght the syste/6 spending /illions of dollars on a telephone installa0
tion that has proved vastly .npop.lar and even .n&or7a8le5 Why did
the .niversity 8.y the syste/@ The p.rchase too7 several years of
co//ittee &or7 and st.dies and presentations 8y co/peting telephone
co/panies6 and piles of doc./entation and specification5 , /yself too7
part6 loo7ing at the interaction 8et&een the telephone syste/ and the
co/p.ter net&or7s6 ens.ring that the t&o &o.ld 8e co/pati8le and
reasona8le in price5 To /y 7no&ledge6 no8ody ever tho.ght of trying
o.t the telephones in advance5 No8ody s.ggested installing the/ in a
sa/ple office to see &hether .sers9 needs &o.ld 8e /et or &hether
.sers co.ld .nderstand ho& to operate the phone5 The res.lt: disaster5
The /ain c.lprit:lac7 of visi8ility:&as co.pled &ith a secondary
c.lprit:a poor concept.al /odel5 ny /oney saved on the installation
and p.rchase is <.ic7ly disappearing in training costs6 /issed calls6 and
fr.stration5 Aet fro/ &hat , have seen6 the co/peting phone syste/s
&o.ld not have 8een any 8etter5
, recently spent six /onths at the pplied Psychology )nit in Ca/0
8ridge6 England5 B.st 8efore , arrived the ;ritish Teleco/ Co/pany had
installed a ne& telephone syste/5 ,t had lots and lots of feat.res5 The
telephone instr./ent itself &as .nre/ar7a8le Cfig.re 1511D5 ,t &as the
standard t&elve08.tton6 p.sh08.tton phone6 except that it had an
extra 7ey la8eled 3$3 off on the side5 C, never did find o.t &hat that
7ey did5D
The telephone syste/ &as a standing 4o7e5 No8ody co.ld .se all the
feat.res5 One person even started a s/all research pro4ect to record
people9s conf.sions5 nother person &rote a s/all 3expert syste/s3
co/p.ter progra/6 one of the ne& toys of the field of artificial intelli0
gence? the progra/ can reason thro.gh co/plex sit.ations5 ,f yo.
&anted to .se the phone syste/6 perhaps to /a7e a conference call
a/ong three people6 yo. as7ed the expert syste/ and it &o.ld explain
ho& to do it5 So6 yo.9re on the line &ith so/eone and yo. need to add
a third person to the call5 (irst t.rn on yo.r co/p.ter5 Then load the
expert syste/5 fter three or fo.r /in.tes Cneeded for loading the
progra/D6 type in &hat yo. &ant to acco/plish5 Event.ally the co/0
p.ter &ill tell yo. &hat to do:if yo. can re/e/8er &hy yo. &ant to
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 12
()(( British Telecom Tele"hone) This &as in /y office at the pplied Psychol0
ogy )nit in Ca/8ridge6 England5 ,t certainly loo7s si/ple6 doesn9t it@
()(- T&o :ays to )se Hold on +odern Tele"hones) ,ll.stration % C8elo& leftD
is the instr.ction /an.al page for ;ritish Teleco/5 The proced.re see/s especially
co/plicated6 &ith three !0digit codes to 8e learned: I+16 I+26 and I+!5 ,ll.stration
> C8elo& rightD sho&s the e<.ivalent instr.ctions for the Ericsson Single Hine
nalog Telephone installed at the )niversity of California6 San *iego5 , find the
second set of instr.ctions easier to .nderstand6 8.t one /.st still dial an ar8itrary
digit: + in this case5
HOLD
This &eat're allos (o' to hol) an e*istin+ call, then to re-lace the
han)set o& to make another call. The hel) call ma( /e retrie0e) &rom
the hol)in+ e*tension or &rom an( other e*tension ithin the s(stem.
TO HOLD THE CALL
RECALL %A1E
ANOTHER CALL
$o' ma( 'se (o'r e*tension normall(
TO RETRIE#E THE CALL AT $OUR 2HONE
$OU ARE CONNECTED
TO THE HELDCALL
TO RETRIE"E THE CALL AT SOMEONE ELSE#S $HONE
$OU ARE CONNECTED
TO THE HELDCALL
CODE
68%
$OUR E3TENSION
NU%"ER
CALL HOLD&CALL $AR'
4ith -art( on line
5 2ress R ke(
5 Listen &or recall )ial tone 6three /ee-s an) )ial tone!
5 Han+ '- han)set
TO RETRIE#E FRO% SA%E 2HONE
5 Li&t han)set7 (o' are connecte) to the call
TO RETRIE#E FRO% ANOTHER 2HONE
5 Li&t han)set
5 Dial e*tension here call as -arke)7 listen &or /'s( tone
5 Dial 87 (o' are connecte) to the call
NOTE( Call ill remain -arke) &or 9 min'tes /e&ore re:rin+in+
LIFT
HANDSET
LIFT
HANDSET
CODE
682
RE$LACE
HANDSET
DIAL
TONE
CODE
;8<
OR
do it6 and if the person on the other end of the line is still aro.nd5 ;.t6
as it happens6 .sing the expert syste/ is a lot easier than reading and
.nderstanding the /an.al provided &ith the telephone Cfig.re 1512D5
Why is that telephone syste/ so hard to .nderstand@ Nothing in it
is concept.ally diffic.lt5 Each of the operations is act.ally <.ite si/ple5
fe& digits to dial6 that9s all5 The telephone doesn9t even loo7 co/pli0
cated5 There are only fifteen controls: the .s.al t&elve 8.ttons:ten
la8eled 0 thro.gh 26 M6 and L:pl.s the handset itself6 the handset
8.tton6 and the /ysterio.s 3$3 8.tton5 ll except the 3$3 are the
everyday parts of a nor/al /odern telephone5 Why &as the syste/ so
diffic.lt@
designer &ho &or7s for a telephone co/pany told /e the follo&0
ing story:
+. &as involved in designing the faceplate of so!e of those ne&
!ultifunction phones, so!e of &hich have #uttons la#eled +E.+ The
+E+ #utton is $ind of a vestigial feature. It is very hard to re!ove
features of a ne&ly designed product that had e4isted in an earlier
version. It's $ind of li$e physical evolution. If a feature is in the
geno!e, and if that feature is not associated &ith any negativity 0i.e.,
no custo!ers gripe a#out it2, then the feature hangs on for generations.
+It is interesting that things li$e the +E+ #utton are largely deter1
!ined through e4a!ples. 8o!e#ody as$s, ';hat is the +E+ #utton
used for9' and the ans&er is to give an e4a!ple: '(ou can push +E+ to
access loudspea$er paging.' If no#ody can thin$ of an e4a!ple, the
feature is dropped. Designers are pretty #right people, ho&ever. They
can co!e up &ith a plausi#le1sounding e4a!ple for al!ost anything.
6ence, you get features, !any !any features, and these features hang
on for a long ti!e. The end result is co!ple4 interfaces for essentially
si!ple things.+
?
s , pondered this pro8le/6 , decided it &o.ld /a7e sense to co/0
pare the phone syste/ &ith so/ething that &as of e<.al or greater
co/plexity 8.t easier to .se5 So let .s te/porarily leave the diffic.lt
telephone syste/ and ta7e a loo7 at /y a.to/o8ile5 , 8o.ght a car in
E.rope5 When , pic7ed .p the ne& car at the factory6 a /an fro/ the
co/pany sat in the car &ith /e and &ent over each control6 explaining
its f.nction5 When he had gone thro.gh the controls once6 , said fine6
than7ed hi/6 and drove a&ay5 That &as all the instr.ction it too75
There are 112 controls inside the car5 This isn9t <.ite as 8ad as it
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 21
so.nds5 T&enty0five of the/ are on the radio5 nother 1 are the te/0
perat.re control syste/6 and 11 &or7 the &indo&s and s.nroof5 The
trip co/p.ter has 1" 8.ttons6 each /atched &ith a specific f.nction5
So fo.r devices:the radio6 te/perat.re controls6 &indo&s6 and trip
co/p.ter:have together KC controls6 or 4.st over '0 percent of the
ones availa8le5
Why is the a.to/o8ile6 &ith all its varied f.nctions and n./ero.s
controls6 so /.ch easier to learn and to .se than the telephone syste/6
&ith its /.ch s/aller set of f.nctions and controls@ What is good
a8o.t the design of the car@ Things are visi8le5 There are good /ap0
pings6 nat.ral relationships6 8et&een the controls and the things con0
trolled5 Single controls often have single f.nctions5 There is good feed0
8ac75 The syste/ is .nderstanda8le5 ,n general6 the relationships
a/ong the .ser9s intentions6 the re<.ired actions6 and the res.lts are
sensi8le6 nonar8itrary6 and /eaningf.l5
What is 8ad a8o.t the design of the telephone@ There is no visi8le
str.ct.re5 =appings are ar8itrary: there is no rhy/e or reason to the
relationship 8et&een the actions the .ser /.st perfor/ and the res.lts
to 8e acco/plished5 The controls have /.ltiple f.nctions5 There isn9t
good feed8ac76 so the .ser is never s.re &hether the desired res.lt has
8een o8tained5 The syste/6 in general6 is not .nderstanda8le? its
capa8ilities aren9t apparent5 ,n general6 the relationships a/ong the
.ser9s intentions6 the re<.ired actions6 and the res.lts are co/pletely
ar8itrary5
Whenever the n./8er of possi8le actions exceeds the n./8er of
controls6 there is apt to 8e diffic.lty5 The telephone syste/ has t&enty0
fo.r f.nctions6 yet only fifteen controls:none of the/ la8eled for
specific action5 ,n contrast6 the trip co/p.ter for the car perfor/s
seventeen f.nctions &ith fo.rteen controls5 With /inor exceptions6
there is one control for each f.nction5 ,n fact6 the controls &ith /ore
than one f.nction are indeed harder to re/e/8er and .se5 When the
n./8er of controls e<.als the n./8er of f.nctions6 each control can
8e speciali>ed6 each can 8e la8eled5 The possi8le f.nctions are visi8le6
for each corresponds &ith a control5 ,f the .ser forgets the f.nctions6
the controls serve as re/inders5 When6 as on the telephone6 there are
/ore f.nctions than controls6 la8eling 8eco/es diffic.lt or i/possi8le5
There is nothing to re/ind the .ser5 (.nctions are invisi8le6 hidden
fro/ sight5 No &onder the operation 8eco/es /ysterio.s and diffic.lt5
The controls for the car are visi8le and6 thro.gh their location and
/ode of operation6 8ear an intelligent relationship to their action5 -isi0
22 The Design of Everyday Things
8ility acts as a good re/inder of &hat can 8e done and allo&s the
control to specify ho& the action is to 8e perfor/ed5 The good relation0
ship 8et&een the place/ent of the control and &hat it does /a7es it
easy to find the appropriate control for a tas75 s a res.lt6 there is little
to re/e/8er5
T#E P$,NC,PHE O( =PP,NG
5apping is a technical ter/ /eaning the relationship 8et&een t&o
things6 in this case 8et&een the controls and their /ove/ents and the
res.lts in the &orld5 Consider the /apping relationships involved in
steering a car5 To t.rn the car to the right6 one t.rns the steering &heel
cloc7&ise Cso that its top /oves to the rightD5 The .ser /.st identify
t&o /appings here: one of the 112 controls affects the steering6 and the
steering &heel /.st 8e t.rned in one of t&o directions5 ;oth are so/e0
&hat ar8itrary5 ;.t the &heel and the cloc7&ise direction are nat.ral
choices: visi8le6 closely related to the desired o.tco/e6 and providing
i//ediate feed8ac75 The /apping is easily learned and al&ays re/e/0
8ered5
Nat.ral /apping6 8y &hich , /ean ta7ing advantage of physical
analogies and c.lt.ral standards6 leads to i//ediate .nderstanding5
(or exa/ple6 a designer can .se spatial analogy: to /ove an o84ect .p6
/ove the control .p5 To control an array of lights6 arrange the controls
in the sa/e pattern as the lights5 So/e nat.ral /appings are c.lt.ral
or 8iological6 as in the .niversal standard that a rising level represents
/ore6 a di/inishing level6 less5 Si/ilarly6 a lo.der so.nd can /ean a
greater a/o.nt5 /o.nt and lo.dness Cand &eight6 line length6 and
8rightnessD are additive di/ensions: add /ore to sho& incre/ental
increases5 Note that the logically pla.si8le relationship 8et&een /.si0
cal pitch and a/o.nt does not &or7: Wo.ld a higher pitch /ean less
or /ore of so/ething@ Pitch Cand taste6 color6 and locationD are s.80
stit.tive di/ensions: s.8stit.te one val.e for another to /a7e a
change5 There is no nat.ral concept of /ore or less in the co/parison
of different pitches6 or h.es6 or taste <.alities5 Other nat.ral /appings
follo& fro/ the principles of perception and allo& for the nat.ral
gro.ping or patterning of controls and feed8ac7 Csee fig.re 151!D5
=apping pro8le/s are a8.ndant6 one of the f.nda/ental ca.ses of
diffic.lties5 Consider the telephone5 S.ppose yo. &ish to activate the
call8ac7 on 3no reply3 f.nction5 To initiate this feat.re on one tele0
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 2!
()(2 %eat Ad4ustment ontrol from a +ercedes,Ben3 Automo=ile) This is an
excellent exa/ple of nat.ral /apping5 The control is in the shape of the seat itself:
the /apping is straightfor&ard5 To /ove the front edge of the seat higher6 lift .p
on the front part of the 8.tton5 To /a7e the seat 8ac7 recline6 /ove the 8.tton
8ac75 =ercedes0;en> a.to/o8iles are o8vio.sly not everyday things for /ost
people6 8.t the principle doesn9t re<.ire great expense or &ealth5 The sa/e princi0
ple co.ld 8e applied to /.ch /ore co//on o84ects5
phone syste/6 press and release the 3recall3 8.tton Cthe 8.tton on the
handsetD6 then dial #o, then dial the n./8er yo. called5
There are several pro8le/s here5 (irst6 the description of the f.nc0
tion is relatively co/plex:yet inco/plete: What if t&o people set .p
call8ac7 at the sa/e ti/e@ What if the person does not co/e 8ac7 .ntil
a &ee7 later@ What if yo. have /ean&hile set .p three or fo.r other
f.nctions@ What if yo. &ant to cancel it@ Second6 the action to 8e
perfor/ed is ar8itrary5 C*ial I05 Why ?0) Why not 1! or 21@ #o& does
one re/e/8er an ar8itrary n./8er@D Third6 the se<.ence ends &ith
&hat appears to 8e a red.ndant6 .nnecessary action: dialing the n./0
8er of the person to 8e called5 ,f the phone syste/ is s/art eno.gh to
do all these other things6 &hy can9t it re/e/8er the n./8er that &as
4.st atte/pted? &hy /.st it 8e told all over again@ nd finally6 consider
the lac7 of feed8ac75 #o& do , 7no& , did the right action@ =ay8e ,
disconnected the phone5 =ay8e , set .p so/e other special feat.re5
There is no visi8le or a.di8le &ay to 7no& i//ediately5
2" The Design of Everyday Things
device is easy to .se &hen there is visi8ility to the set of possi8le
actions6 &here the controls and displays exploit nat.ral /appings5 The
principles are si/ple 8.t rarely incorporated into design5 Good design
ta7es care6 planning6 tho.ght5 ,t ta7es conscio.s attention to the needs
of the .ser5 nd so/eti/es the designer gets it right:
Once, &hen I &as at a conference at I!unden, %ustria, a group of
us &ent off to see the sights. I sat directly #ehind the driver of the #rand
ne&, slee$, high1technology Ier!an tour #us. I ga7ed in &onder at the
hundreds of controls scattered all over the front of the #us.
+6o& can you ever learn all those controls)+ I as$ed the driver 0&ith
the aid of a Ier!an1spea$ing colleague2. The driver &as clearly pu71
7led #y the -uestion.
+;hat do you !ean)+ he replied. +Each control is /ust &here it
ought to #e. There is no difficulty.+
% good principle, that. ontrols are &here they ought to #e. One
function, one control. 6arder to do, of course, than to say, #ut essen1
tially this is the principle of natural !appings: the relationship #et&een
controls and actions should #e apparent to the user. I return to this
topic later in the #oo$, for the pro#le! of deter!ining the +natural1
ness+ of !appings is difficult, #ut crucial.
,9ve already descri8ed ho& /y car9s controls are generally easy to
.se5 ct.ally6 the car has lots of pro8le/s5 The approach to .sa8ility
.sed in the car see/s to 8e to /a7e s.re that yo. can reach everything
and see everything5 That9s good6 8.t not nearly good eno.gh5
6ere is a si!ple e4a!ple: the controls for the loudspea$ers:a si!1
ple control that deter!ines &hether the sound co!es out of the front
spea$ers, the rear, or a co!#ination 0figure ...@2. Eotate the &heel
fro! left to right or right to left. 8i!ple, e4cept ho& do you $no&
&hich &ay to rotate the control) ;hich direction !oves the sound to
the rear, &hich to the front) If you &ant sound to co!e out of the front
spea$er, you should #e a#le to !ove the control to the front. To get
it out of the #ac$, !ove the control to the #ac$. Then the for! of the
!otion &ould !i!ic the function and !a$e a natural !apping. >ut the
&ay the control is actually !ounted in the car, for&ard and #ac$&ard
get translated into left and right. ;hich direction is &hich) There is
no natural relationship. ;hat's &orse, the control isn't even la#eled.
Even the instruction !anual does not say ho& to use it.
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 2'
()(5 The Front>!ear %"eaker %elector of an Automo=ile !adio) $otating the
7no8 &ith the pict.res of the spea7er at either side /a7es the so.nd co/e entirely
o.t of the front spea7ers C&hen the 7no8 is all the &ay over to one sideD6 entirely
o.t of the rear spea7ers C&hen the 7no8 is all the &ay the other &ayD6 or e<.ally
o.t of 8oth C&hen the 7no8 is /id&ayD5 Which &ay is front6 &hich rear@ Ao. can9t
tell 8y loo7ing5 While yo.9re at it6 i/agine trying to /anip.late the radio controls
&hile 7eeping yo.r eyes on the road5
The control should #e !ounted so that it !oves for&ard and #ac$1
&ard. If that can't #e done, rotate the control go+ on the panel so that
it !oves vertically. 5oving so!ething up to represent for&ard is not
as natural as !oving it for&ard, #ut at least it follo&s a standard
convention.
,n fact6 &e see that 8oth the car and the telephone have easy f.nc0
tions and diffic.lt ones5 The car see/s to have /ore of the easy ones6
the telephone /ore of the diffic.lt ones5 =oreover6 &ith the car6
eno.gh of the controls are easy that , can do al/ost everything , need
to5 Not so &ith the telephone: it is very diffic.lt to .se even a single
one of the special feat.res5
The easy things on 8oth telephone and car have a lot in co//on6
as do the diffic.lt things5 When things are visi8le6 they tend to 8e easier
The Design of Everyday Things
than &hen they are not5 ,n addition6 there /.st 8e a close6 natural
relationship 8et&een the control and its f.nction: a natural !apping.
T#E P$,NC,PHE O( (EE*;C%
(eed8ac7:sending 8ac7 to the .ser infor/ation a8o.t &hat action has
act.ally 8een done6 &hat res.lt has 8een acco/plished:is a &ell0
7no&n concept in the science of control and infor/ation theory5 ,/ag0
ine trying to tal7 to so/eone &hen yo. cannot even hear yo.r o&n
voice6 or trying to dra& a pict.re &ith a pencil that leaves no /ar7:
there &o.ld 8e no feed8ac75
,n the good old days of the telephone6 8efore the /erican tele0
phone syste/ &as divided a/ong co/peting co/panies6 8efore tele0
phones &ere fancy and had so /any feat.res6 telephones &ere de0
signed &ith /.ch /ore care and concern for the .ser5 *esigners at the
;ell Telephone Ha8oratories &orried a lot a8o.t feed8ac75 The p.sh
8.ttons &ere designed to give an appropriate feel:tactile feed8ac75
When a 8.tton &as p.shed6 a tone &as fed 8ac7 into the earpiece so
the .ser co.ld tell that the 8.tton had 8een properly p.shed5 When the
phone call &as 8eing connected6 clic7s6 tones6 and other noises gave the
.ser feed8ac7 a8o.t the progress of the call5 nd the spea7er9s voice
&as al&ays fed 8ac7 to the earpiece in a caref.lly controlled a/o.nt6
8eca.se the a.ditory feed8ac7 Ccalled 3sidetone3D helped the person
reg.late ho& lo.dly to tal75 ll this has changed5 We no& have tele0
phones that are /.ch /ore po&erf.l and often cheaper than those that
existed 4.st a fe& years ago:/ore f.nction for less /oney5 To 8e fair6
these ne& designs are p.shing hard on the paradox of technology:
added f.nctionality generally co/es along at the price of added co/0
plexity5 ;.t that does not 4.stify 8ac7&ard progress5
Why are the /odern telephone syste/s so diffic.lt to learn and to
.se@ ;asically6 the pro8le/ is that the syste/s have /ore feat.res and
less feed8ac75 S.ppose all telephones had a s/all display screen6 not
.nli7e the ones on s/all6 inexpensive calc.lators5 The display co.ld 8e
.sed to present6 .pon the p.sh of a 8.tton6 a 8rief /en. of all the
feat.res of the telephone6 one 8y one5 When the desired one &as
enco.ntered6 the .ser &o.ld p.sh another 8.tton to indicate that it
sho.ld 8e invo7ed5 ,f f.rther action &as re<.ired6 the display co.ld tell
the person &hat to do5 The display co.ld even 8e a.ditory6 &ith speech
instead of a vis.al display5 Only t&o 8.ttons need 8e added to the
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things
telephone: one to change the display6 one to accept the option on
display5 Of co.rse6 the telephone &o.ld 8e slightly /ore expensive5
The tradeoff is cost vers.s .sa8ility5
1
Pity the Poor
*esigner
*esigning &ell is not easy5 The /an.fact.rer &ants so/ething that can
8e prod.ced econo/ically5 The store &ants so/ething that &ill 8e
attractive to its c.sto/ers5 The p.rchaser has several de/ands5 ,n the
store6 the p.rchaser foc.ses on price and appearance6 and perhaps on
prestige val.e5 t ho/e6 the sa/e person &ill pay /ore attention to
f.nctionality and .sa8ility5 The repair service cares a8o.t /aintaina0
8ility: ho& easy is the device to ta7e apart6 diagnose6 and service@ The
needs of those concerned are different and often conflict5 Nonetheless6
the designer /ay 8e a8le to satisfy everyone5
% si!ple e4a!ple of good design is the = .L21inch !agnetic dis$ette
for co!puters, a s!all circle of +floppy+ !agnetic !aterial encased in
hard plastic. Earlier types of floppy dis$s did not have this plastic case,
&hich protects the !agnetic !aterial fro! a#use and da!age. % sliding
!etal cover protects the delicate !agnetic surface &hen the dis$ette is
not in use and auto!atically opens &hen the dis$ette is inserted into
the co!puter. The dis$ette has a s-uare shape: there are apparently
eight possi#le &ays to insert it into the !achine, only one of &hich is
correct. ;hat happens if I do it &rong) I try inserting the dis$ side1
&ays. %h, the designer thought of that. % little study sho&s that the
case really isn't s-uare: it's rectangular, so you can't insert a longer side.
I try #ac$&ard. The dis$ette goes in only part of the &ay. 8!all protru1
sions, indentations, and cutouts prevent the dis$ette fro! #eing in1
serted #ac$&ard or upside do&n: of the eight &ays one !ight try to
insert the dis$ette, only one is correct, and only that one &ill fit. %n
e4cellent design.
Ta$e another e4a!ple of good design. 5y felt1tipped !ar$ing pen
has ri#s along only one of its sidesD other&ise all sides loo$ identical.
areful e4a!ination sho&s that the tip of the !ar$er is angled and
!a$es the #est line if the !ar$er is held &ith the ri##ed side up, a
natural result if the forefinger rests upon the ri#s. *o har! results if
I hold the !ar$er another &ay, #ut the !ar$er &rites less &ell. The ri#s
are a su#tle design cue:functional, yet visi#ly and aesthetically uno#1
trusive.
2+ The Design of Everyday Things
The &orld is per/eated &ith s/all exa/ples of good design6 &ith
the a/a>ing details that /a7e i/portant differences in o.r lives5 Each
detail &as added 8y so/e person6 a designer6 caref.lly thin7ing
thro.gh the .ses of the device6 the &ays that people a8.se things6 the
7inds of errors that can get /ade6 and the f.nctions that people &ish
to have perfor/ed5
Then &hy is it that so /any good design ideas don9t find their &ay
into prod.cts in the /ar7etplace@ Or so/ething good sho&s .p for a
short ti/e6 only to fall into o8livion@ , once spo7e &ith a designer
a8o.t the fr.strations of trying to get the 8est prod.ct o.t:
It usually ta$es five or si4 atte!pts to get a product right. This !ay
#e accepta#le in an esta#lished product, #ut consider &hat it !eans in
a ne& one. 8uppose a co!pany &ants to !a$e a product that &ill
perhaps !a$e a real difference. The pro#le! is that if the product is
truly revolutionary, it is unli$ely that anyone &ill -uite $no& ho& to
design it right the first ti!eD it &ill ta$e several tries. >ut if a product
is introduced into the !ar$etplace and fails, &ell that is it. Perhaps it
could #e introduced a second ti!e, or !ay#e even a third ti!e, #ut
after that it is dead: everyone #elieves it to #e a failure.
I as$ed hi! to e4plain. +(ou !ean,+ I said, +that it ta$es five or si4
tries to get an idea right)+
+(es,+ he said, +at least that.+
+>ut,+ I replied, +you also said that if a ne&ly introduced product
doesn't catch on in the first t&o or three ti!es, then it is dead)+
+(up,+ he said.
+Then ne& products are al!ost guaranteed to fail, no !atter ho&
good the idea.+
+*o& you understand,+ said the designer. +onsider the use of
voice !essages on co!ple4 devices such as ca!eras, soft1drin$ !a1
chines, and copiers. % failure. *o longer even tried. Too #ad. It really
is a good idea, for it can #e very useful &hen the hands or eyes are #usy
else&here. >ut those first fe& atte!pts &ere very #adly done and the
pu#lic scoffed:properly. *o&, no#ody dares try it again, even in those
places &here it is needed.+
The Paradox
of Technology
Technology offers the potential to /a7e life easier and /ore en4oya8le?
each ne& technology provides increased 8enefits5 t the sa/e ti/e6
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things 22
added co/plexities arise to increase o.r diffic.lty and fr.stration5 The
develop/ent of a technology tends to follo& a )0shaped c.rve of
co/plexity: starting high? dropping to a lo&6 co/forta8le level? then
cli/8ing again5 Ne& 7inds of devices are co/plex and diffic.lt to .se5
s technicians 8eco/e /ore co/petent and an ind.stry /at.res6 de0
vices 8eco/e si/pler6 /ore relia8le6 and /ore po&erf.l5 ;.t then6 after
the ind.stry has sta8ili>ed6 ne&co/ers fig.re o.t ho& to add increased
po&er and capa8ility6 8.t al&ays at the expense of added co/plexity
and so/eti/es decreased relia8ility5 We can see the c.rve of co/plex0
ity in the history of the &atch6 radio6 telephone6 and television set5
Ta7e the radio5 ,n the early days6 radios &ere <.ite co/plex5 To t.ne
in a station re<.ired several ad4.st/ents6 incl.ding one for the an0
tenna6 one for the radio fre<.ency6 one for inter/ediate fre<.encies6
and controls for 8oth sensitivity and lo.dness5 Hater radios &ere si/0
pler and had controls only to t.rn it on6 t.ne the station6 and ad4.st
the lo.dness5 ;.t the latest radios are again very co/plex6 perhaps even
/ore so than early ones5 No& the radio is called a t.ner6 and it is
littered &ith n./ero.s controls6 s&itches6 slide 8ars6 lights6 displays6
and /eters5 The /odern sets are technologically s.perior6 offering
higher <.ality so.nd6 8etter reception6 and enhanced capa8ility5 ;.t
&hat good is the technology if it is too co/plex to .se@
The design pro8le/ posed 8y technological advances is enor/o.s5
Consider the &atch5 fe& decades ago6 &atches &ere si/ple5 ll yo.
had to do &as set the ti/e and 7eep the/ &o.nd5 The standard con0
trol &as the ste/: a 7no8 at the side of the &atch5 T.rning the 7no8
&o.nd the spring that &or7ed the &atch5 P.lling the 7no8 o.t and
t.rning it /ade the hands /ove5 The operations &ere easy to learn
and easy to do5 There &as a reasona8le relation 8et&een the t.rning
of the 7no8 and the res.lting t.rning of the hands5 The design even
too7 into acco.nt h./an error: the nor/al position of the ste/ &as
for &inding the spring6 so that an accidental t.rn &o.ld not reset the
ti/e5
,n the /odern digital &atch the spring is gone6 replaced 8y a /otor
r.n 8y long0lasting 8atteries5 ll that re/ains is the tas7 of setting the
&atch5 The ste/ is still a sensi8le sol.tion6 for yo. can go fast or slo&6
for&ard or 8ac7&ard6 .ntil the exact desired ti/e is reached5 ;.t the
ste/ is /ore co/plex Cand therefore /ore expensiveD than si/ple
p.sh08.tton s&itches5 ,f the only change in the transition fro/ the
spring0&o.nd analog &atch to the 8attery0r.n digital &atch &ere in
ho& the ti/e &as set6 there &o.ld 8e little diffic.lty5 The pro8le/ is
that ne& technology has allo&ed .s to add /ore f.nctions to the
!0 The Design of Everyday Things
&atch: t he &atch can give t he day of t he &ee76 the /ont h6 and t he year?
it can act as a stop &at ch C&hich itself has several f.nctionsD6 a co.nt 0
do&n ti/er6 and an alar/ cloc7 Cor t&oD? it has t he a8ility to sho& t he
ti/e for different ti/e >ones? it can act as a co.nter and even as a
calc.lator5 ;.t t he added f.nctions ca.se pro8le/s: #o& do yo. design
a &at ch t hat has so /any f.nctions &hil e trying to li/it t he si>e6 cost6
and co/plexity of t he device@ #o& /any 8.t t ons does it ta7e to /a7e
t he &at ch &or7a8l e and learna8le6 yet not t oo expensive@ There are no
easy ans&ers5 Whenever t he n./8er of f.nctions and re<.ired opera0
tions exceeds t he n./8er of controls6 the design 8eco/es ar8itrary6
.nnat .ral 6 and co/plicated5 The sa/e t echnology that si/plifies life 8y
providing /ore f.nctions in each device also co/plicates life 8y /a70
ing t he device harder to learn6 harder to .se5 This is t he paradox of
technology5
The paradox of technology sho.ld never 8e .sed as an exc.se for
poor design5 ,t is tr.e that as t he n./8er of options and capa8ilities of
any device increases6 so too /.st t he n./8er and co/plexity of t he
controls5 ;.t t he principles of good design can /a7e co/plexity /an0
agea8le5
,n one of /y co.rses , gave as ho/e&or7 t he assign/ent to design
a /.l tiple0f.nction cloc7 radio:
(ou have #een e!ployed #y a !anufacturing co!pany to design
their ne& product. The co!pany is considering co!#ining the follo&1
ing into one ite!:
M %51"5 radio
M assette player
M D player
M Telephone
M Telephone ans&ering !achine
M loc$
M %lar! cloc$ 0the alar! can turn on a tone, radio, cassette, or D2
M Des$ or #ed la!p
The co!pany is trying to decide &hether to include a s!all 0t&o1
inch screen2 TH set and a s&itched electric outlet that can turn on a
coffee !a$er or toaster.
(our /o# is 0%2 to reco!!end &hat to #uild, then 0>2 to design the
control panel, and finally 02 to certify that it is actually #oth &hat
custo!ers &ant and easy to use.
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things !1
8tate &hat you &ould do for the three parts of your /o#: %, >, and
. E4plain ho& you &ould go a#out validating and /ustifying your
reco!!endations.
Dra& a rough s$etch of a control panel for the ite!s in the indented
list, &ith a 8rief /ustification and analysis of the factors that &ent into
the choice of design.
There are several t hings , loo7ed for in t he ans&er5 C(ig.re l51' is
an .naccepta8le sol.tion5D (irst6 ho& &ell did t he ans&er address t he
151' Possi8le Sol.tion to =y #o/e&or7 ssign/ent5 Co/pletely .naccept0
a8le5 CThan7s to ;ill Gaver for devising and dra&ing this sa/ple5D
!2 The Design of Everyday Things
real needs of the .ser@ , expected /y st.dents to visit the ho/es of
potential .sers to see ho& their c.rrent devices &ere 8eing .sed and
to deter/ine ho& the co/8ined /.ltip.rpose device &o.ld 8e .sed5
Next6 , eval.ated &hether all the controls &ere .sa8le and .nderstand0
a8le6 allo&ing all the desired f.nctions to 8e operated &ith /ini/./
conf.sion or error5 Cloc7 radios are often .sed in the dar76 &ith the
.ser in 8ed and reaching overhead to grope for the desired control5
Therefore the .nit had to 8e .sa8le in the dar7 8y feel only5 ,t &as not
s.pposed to 8e possi8le to /a7e a serio.s /ista7e 8y accidentally
hitting the &rong control5 Clas6 /any existing cloc7 radios do not
tolerate serio.s errors:for exa/ple6 the .ser /ay reset the ti/e 8y
hitting the &rong 8.tton accidentally5D (inally6 the design &as ex0
pected to ta7e into acco.nt real iss.es in cost6 /an.fact.ra8ility6 and
aesthetics5 The finished design had to pass /.ster &ith .sers5 The point
of the exercise &as for the st.dent to reali>e the paradox of technology:
added co/plexity and diffic.lty cannot 8e avoided &hen f.nctions are
added6 8.t &ith clever design6 they can 8e /ini/i>ed5
O*E: The Psychopathology of Everyday Things !!
T#E PSAC#OHOGA
O( E-E$A*A
CT, ONS
C # P T E $ T WO
%4
During !y fa!ily's stay in England, &e rented a
furnished house &hile the o&ners &ere a&ay.
One day, our landlady returned to the house to
get so!e personal papers. 8he &al$ed over to her
filing ca#inet and atte!pted to open the top dra&er. It &ouldn't open.
8he pushed it for&ard and #ac$&ard, right and left, up and do&n,
&ithout success. I offered to help. I &iggled the dra&er. Then I t&isted
the front panel, pushed do&n hard, and #anged the front &ith the pal!
of one hand. The ca#inet dra&er slid open. +Oh,+ she said, +I'! sorry.
I a! so #ad at !echanical things.+
(alsely ;la/ing
Ao.rself
, have st.died people /a7ing errors:so/eti/es serio.s ones:&ith
/echanical devices6 light s&itches and f.ses6 co/p.ter operating sys0
te/s and &ord processors6 even airplanes and n.clear po&er plants5
,nvaria8ly people feel g.ilty and either try to hide the error or 8la/e
the/selves for 3st.pidity3 or 3cl./siness53 , often have diffic.lty get0
ting per/ission to &atch: no8ody li7es to 8e o8served perfor/ing
8adly5 , point o.t that the design is fa.lty and that others /a7e the
sa/e errors5 Still6 if the tas7 appears si/ple or trivial6 then people 8la/e
the/selves5
1
,t is as if they ta7e perverse pride in thin7ing of the/0
selves as /echanically inco/petent5
I once &as as$ed #y a large co!puter co!pany to evaluate a #rand
ne& product. I spent a day learning to use it and trying it out on various
pro#le!s. In using the $ey#oard to enter data, it &as necessary to
differentiate #et&een the the +return+ $ey and the +enter+ $ey. If the
&rong $ey &as typed, the last fe& !inutes' &or$ &as irrevoca#ly lost.
I pointed this pro#le! out to the designer, e4plaining that I !yself
had !ade the error fre-uently and that !y analyses indicated that this
&as very li$ely to #e a fre-uent error a!ong users. The designer's first
response &as: +;hy did you !a$e that error) Didn't you read the
!anual)+ 6e proceeded to e4plain the different functions of the t&o
$eys.
+(es, yes, +I e4plained, +I understand the t&o $eys, I si!ply confuse
the!. They have si!ilar functions, are located in si!ilar locations on
the $ey#oard, and as a s$illed typist, I often hit +return+ auto!atically,
&ithout thought. ertainly others have had si!ilar pro#le!s.+
+*ope,+ said the designer. 6e clai!ed that I &as the only person
&ho had ever co!plained, and the co!pany's secretaries had #een
using the syste! for !any !onths. I &as s$eptical, so &e &ent together
to so!e of the secretaries and as$ed the! &hether they had ever hit
the +return+ $ey &hen they should have hit +enter.+ %nd did they ever
lose their &or$ as a result)
+Oh, yes,+ said the secretaries, +&e do that a lot.+
+;ell, ho& co!e no#ody ever said anything a#out it)+ &e as$ed the
secretaries. %fter all, they &ere encouraged to report all pro#le!s &ith
the syste!.
The reason &as si!ple: &hen the syste! stopped &or$ing or did
so!ething strange, the secretaries dutifully reported it as a pro#le!.
>ut &hen they !ade the +return+ versus +enter+ error, they #la!ed
the!selves. %fter all, they had #een told &hat to do. They had si!ply
erred.
Of co.rse6 people do /a7e errors5 Co/plex devices &ill al&ays
re<.ire so/e instr.ction6 and so/eone .sing the/ &itho.t instr.ction
sho.ld expect to /a7e errors and to 8e conf.sed5 ;.t designers sho.ld
ta7e special pains to /a7e errors as cost0free as possi8le5 #ere is /y
credo a8o.t errors:
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions !'
,f an error is possi8le6 so/eone &ill /a7e it5 The designer /.st
ass./e that all possi8le errors &ill occ.r and design so as to /ini/i>e
the chance of the error in the first place6 or its effects once it gets
/ade5 Errors sho.ld 8e easy to detect6 they sho.ld have /ini/al
conse<.ences6 and6 if possi8le6 their effects sho.ld 8e reversi8le5
+isconce"tions
of Everyday Life
O.r lives are filled &ith /isconceptions5 This sho.ld not 8e s.rprising:
&e /.st fre<.ently deal &ith .nfa/iliar sit.ations5 Psychologists love
errors and /isconceptions6 for they give i/portant cl.es a8o.t the
organi>ation and operation of o.r /inds5 =any everyday /is.nder0
standings are classified as 3naive3 or 3fol73 .nderstandings5 nd not
4.st plain fol7 hold these /isconceptions: ristotle developed an entire
theory of physics that physicists find <.aint and a/.sing5 Aet ris0
totle9s theories correspond /.ch 8etter to co//on0sense6 everyday
o8servations than do the highly refined and a8stract theories &e are
ta.ght in school5 ristotle developed &hat &e /ight call naive physics5
,t is only &hen yo. st.dy the esoteric &orld of physics that yo. learn
&hat is 3correct3 and are a8le to .nderstand &hy the 3naive3 vie& is
&rong5
$,STOTHE9S N,-E P#AS,CS
(or exa/ple6 ristotle tho.ght that /oving o84ects 7ept /oving only
if so/ething 7ept p.shing the/5 Today9s physicist says nonsense: a
/oving o84ect contin.es to /ove .nless so/e force is exerted to stop
it5 This is Ne&ton9s first la& of /otion6 and it contri8.ted to the
develop/ent of /odern physics5 Aet anyone &ho has ever p.shed a
heavy 8ox along a street or6 for that /atter6 hi7ed for /iles into the
&ilderness6 7no&s that ristotle &as right: if yo. don9t 7eep on p.sh0
ing6 the /ove/ent stops5 Of co.rse6 Ne&ton and his s.ccessors ass./e
the a8sence of friction and air5 ristotle lived in a &orld &here there
&as al&ays friction and air resistance5 Once friction is involved6 then
o84ects in /otion tend to stop .nless yo. 7eep p.shing5 ristotle9s
theory /ay 8e 8ad physics6 8.t it descri8es reasona8ly &ell &hat &e
can see in the real &orld5 Thin7 a8o.t ho& yo. /ight ans&er the
follo&ing <.estions5
!I The Design of Everyday Things
.. I ta$e a pistol and, carefully ai!ing it on a level, hori7ontal line,
I fire a #ullet. ;ith !y other hand, I hold a #ullet so that the #ullet
in the pistol and the one in !y hand are e4actly the sa!e distance
fro! the ground. I drop the #ullet at the sa!e instant as I fire the
pistol. ;hich #ullet hits the ground first)
2. I!agine so!eone running across a field carrying a #all. %s you
&atch, the runner drops the #all. ;hich path 0a, #, or c in figure 2..2
does the #all ta$e as it falls to the ground)
2
The physicist says t he ans&er to t he 8.llet pro8le/ is trivial: 8ot h
8.llets hit t he gro.nd at the sa/e ti/e5 The fact that one 8.llet is
traveling hori>ontally very rapidly has a8sol.tely no effect on ho& fast
it falls do&n&ard5 Why sho.ld &e accept t hat ans&er@ Sho.l dn9 t t he
speeding 8.llet develop so/e lift:sort of li7e an airplane:so that it
&ill stay .p a 8it longer 8eca.se it is 7ept .p 8y t he air@ Who 7no&s@
The theory of physics is 8ased .pon a sit.ation &here there is no air5
The pop.l ar /isconception is that t he pistol 8.llet &ill hit t he gro.nd
long after the dropped 8.llet? yet this naive vie& doesn9 t see/ so
strange5
251 $.nning =an *rops a ;all5 Which path does the 8all ta7e as it falls to
the gro.nd6 path 6 ;6 or C@ When this <.estion &as as7ed of sixth0grade st.dents
in ;oston schools6 only ! percent ans&ered 6 the right ans&er? the others &ere
evenly divided 8et&een ; and C5 Even high school st.dents did not do &ell: of
forty0one st.dents &ho had 4.st st.died Ne&tonian /echanics for a /onth and
a half6 only 20 percent got the right ans&er? the others &ere al/ost e<.ally divided
8et&een ; and C5 CThe st.dy &as perfor/ed 8y White N #or&it>6 12+15 The fig.re
is reprinted fro/ Intuitive Physics 8y =cClos7ey5 Copyright J 10+! 8y 8cientific
%!erican, ,nc5 ll rights reserved5D
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions =C
,n the case of the falling 8all6 o.r prediction is that the 8all &ill drop
straight do&n5 ,n fact6 the falling 8all follo&s tra4ectory Cfig.re 251D5
s it is carried 8y the r.nner6 it is set into hori>ontal /otion5 ,t then
/aintains the sa/e for&ard speed .pon 8eing released6 even as it also
falls to the gro.nd5
!
Naive physics:and naive vie&s of psychology and other fields:are
often sensi8le6 even if &rong5 ;.t at ti/es they can get .s into tro.8le5
Aet &e /.st have a &ay to digest the .nfa/iliar6 for people are explan0
atory creat.res5
PEOPHE S EOPHNTO$A C$ET)$ES
=ental /odels6 o.r concept.al /odels of the &ay o84ects &or76 events
ta7e place6 or people 8ehave6 res.lt fro/ o.r tendency to for/ explana0
tions of things5 These /odels are essential in helping .s .nderstand o.r
experiences6 predict the o.tco/es of o.r actions6 and handle .nex0
pected occ.rrences5 We 8ase o.r /odels on &hatever 7no&ledge &e
have6 real or i/aginary6 naive or sophisticated5
=ental /odels are often constr.cted fro/ frag/entary evidence6
&ith 8.t a poor .nderstanding of &hat is happening6 and &ith a 7ind
of naive psychology that post.lates ca.ses6 /echanis/s6 and relation0
ships even &here there are none5 So/e fa.lty /odels lead to the fr.s0
trations of everyday life6 as in the case of /y .nsetta8le refrigerator6
&here /y /ental /odel of its operation Cfig.re 152 %2 did not corre0
spond to reality Cfig.re 152 >2. (ar /ore serio.s are fa.lty /odels of
s.ch co/plex syste/s as an ind.strial plant or passenger airplane5
=is.nderstanding there can lead to devastating accidents5
Consider the roo/ ther/ostat5 #o& does it &or7@ #ere is a device
that offers al/ost no evidence of its operation except in a highly ro.nd0
a8o.t /anner5 We &al7 into a roo/ and feel too cold: so &e &al7 over
to the ther/ostat and set it higher5 Event.ally &e feel &ar/er5 Note
that the sa/e thing applies to the te/perat.re control for a coo7ing
oven Cor a pottery 7iln6 or an air conditioner6 or al/ost any device
&hose te/perat.re is to 8e reg.latedD5 Want to 8a7e a ca7e6 8.t the
oven is off@ Set the oven ther/ostat and the oven gets to the desired
te/perat.re5 ,s the roo/ too hot@ Set the ther/ostat on the air condi0
tioner5 (ine6 8.t ho& does the ther/ostat &or7@
If you are in a cold roo!, in a hurry to get &ar!, &ill the roo! heat
!ore -uic$ly if you turn the ther!ostat all the &ay up) Or if you &ant
!+ The Design of Everyday Things
the oven to reach its &or$ing te!perature faster, should you turn the
te!perature dial all the &ay to !a4i!u!, then turn it do&n once the
desired te!perature is reached) Or to cool a roo! !ost -uic$ly, should
you set the air conditioner ther!ostat to its lo&est te!perature setting)
,f yo. thin7 that the roo/ or oven &ill heat Cor coolD faster if the
ther/ostat is t.rned all the &ay to the /axi/./ setting6 yo. are
&rong5 Ao. hold a fol7 theory of ther/ostats5 There are t&o co//only
held fol7 theories a8o.t ther/ostats: the ti/er theory and the valve
theory5 The ti/er theory proposes that the ther/ostat si/ply controls
the relative proportion of ti/e that the device stays on5 Set the ther/o0
stat /id&ay6 and the device is on a8o.t half the ti/e? set it all the &ay
.p and the device is on all the ti/e5 #ence6 to heat or cool so/ething
/ost <.ic7ly6 set the ther/ostat so that the device is on all the ti/e5
The valve theory proposes that the ther/ostat controls ho& /.ch heat
Cor coldD co/es o.t of the device5 T.rn the ther/ostat all the &ay .p6
and yo. get /axi/./ heating or cooling5
"
The correct story is that the ther/ostat is 4.st an on0off s&itch5 ,t
treats the heater6 oven6 and air conditioner as all0or0nothing devices
that can 8e either f.lly on or f.lly off6 &ith no in08et&een states5 The
ther/ostat t.rns the heater6 oven6 or air conditioner co/pletely on:at
f.ll po&er:.ntil the te/perat.re setting on the ther/ostat is reached5
Then it t.rns the .nit co/pletely off5 Setting the ther/ostat at one
extre/e cannot affect ho& long it ta7es to reach the desired te/pera0
t.re5
'
The real point of the exa/ple is not that so/e people have erroneo.s
theories? it is that everyone for/s theories C/ental /odelsD to explain
&hat they have o8served5 ,n the case of the ther/ostat6 the design gives
a8sol.tely no hint as to the correct ans&er5 ,n the a8sence of external
infor/ation6 people are free to let their i/aginations r.n free as long
as the /ental /odels they develop acco.nt for the facts as they per0
ceive the/5
;la/ing
the Wrong Ca.se
+<oo$ at this9+ !y colleague e4clai!ed to !e, +5y co!puter ter!i1
nal is #ro$en. The li#rary did it9 Every ti!e I connect it to the li#rary
catalog I have trou#le. *o& I can't even use the ter!inal to read !y
co!puter !ail any!ore.+
+That doesn't !a$e sense,+ . replied. +(ou can't even turn on the
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions !2
po&er to the ter!inal. 6o& could a co!puter progra! possi#ly do that
$ind of da!age)+
+%ll I $no&,+ he said, +is that everything &as &or$ing fine until I
tried to loo$ up an author in the li#rary catalog using that ne& li#rary
progra!, and then !y ter!inal stopped &or$ing. I al&ays have trou#le
&ith that progra!. %nd this is si!ply too !uch of a coincidence to #e
anything else.+
;ell, it &as a coincidence. It turns out that the po&er supply to the
ter!inal had #urned out, a fact that had nothing to do &ith the co!1
puter progra!. oincidence is enough to set the causal &heels rolling.
Earlier , s.ggested that people have a tendency to 8la/e the/selves
for diffic.lties &ith technology5 ct.ally6 the point is a 8it /ore co/0
plicated5 People do tend to find ca.ses for events6 and 4.st &hat they
assign as the ca.se varies5 ,n part people tend to assign a ca.sal relation
&henever t&o things occ.r in s.ccession5 ,f , do so/e action % 4.st
prior to so/e res.lt E, then , concl.de that % /.st have ca.sed E, even
if6 as in the exa/ple a8ove6 there really &as no relationship 8et&een
the t&o5 The story is /ore co/plex &hen &e intend an action to
prod.ce a desired res.lt and fail6 and there are pro8le/s &hen &e have
done the action thro.gh so/e inter/ediate /echanis/5
B.st &here do &e p.t the 8la/e for fail.re@ The ans&er is not clear5
The psychology of 8la/e Cor6 to 8e /ore acc.rate6 of attri8.tionD is
co/plex and not f.lly .nderstood5 ,n part6 there see/s to have to 8e
so/e perceived ca.sal relationship 8et&een the thing 8eing 8la/ed
and the res.lt5 The &ord perceived is critical: the ca.sal relationship does
not have to exist? the person si/ply has to thin7 it is there5 So/eti/es
&e attri8.te the ca.se to things that had nothing to do &ith the action5
nd so/eti/es &e ignore the real c.lprit5
One /a4or aspect of the assign/ent of 8la/e is that &e fre<.ently
have little infor/ation on &hich to /a7e the 4.dg/ent6 and &hat little
&e have /ay 8e &rong5 s a res.lt6 8la/e or credit can 8e assessed
al/ost independently of reality5 #ere is &here the apparent si/plicity
of everyday o84ects ca.ses pro8le/s5 S.ppose , try to .se an everyday
thing6 8.t , can9t: Where is the fa.lt6 in /y action or in the thing@ We
are apt to 8la/e o.rselves5 ,f &e 8elieve that others are a8le to .se the
device and if &e 8elieve that it is not very co/plex6 then &e concl.de
that any diffic.lties /.st 8e o.r o&n fa.lt5 S.ppose the fa.lt really lies
in the device6 so that lots of people have the sa/e pro8le/s5 ;eca.se
everyone perceives the fa.lt to 8e his or her o&n6 no8ody &ants to
The Design of Everyday Things
ad/it to having tro.8le5 This creates a conspiracy of silence6 /aintain0
ing the feelings of g.ilt and helplessness a/ong .sers5
,nterestingly eno.gh6 the co//on tendency to 8la/e o.rselves for
fail.res &ith everyday o84ects goes against the nor/al attri8.tions
people /a7e5 ,n general6 it has 8een fo.nd that people attri8.te their
o&n pro8le/s to the environ/ent6 those of other people to their per0
sonalities5
6ere is a !ade1up e4a!ple. onsider To!, the office terror. Today
To! got to &or$ late, sla!!ed the door to his office, and yelled at his
colleagues. +%h,+ his colleagues and staff said, +there he goes again.
6e's so e4cita#le:al&ays gets !ad at the slightest thing.+
*o& consider To!'s point of vie&. +I really had a hard day,+ To!
e4plains. +. &o$e up late #ecause &hen !y cloc$ radio turned on, I
tried to hit the snoo7e #ar to give !e five !inutes' !ore sleepD instead
I reset the ti!e so that I overslept for a &hole hour. That &asn't !y
fault:the radio's #adly designed. I didn't even have ti!e for !y !orn 1
ing coffee. I couldn't find a close par$ing spot #ecause I &as late. %nd
then #ecause I &as in such a rush I dropped !y papers all over the street
and got the! dirty. Then &hen I &ent to get a cup of coffee fro! the
office !achine, it &as all out. *one of this &as !y fault:I had a run
of really #ad events. (es, I &as a #it curt &ith !y colleagues, #ut &ho
&ouldn't #e under the sa!e circu!stances) 8urely they understand.+
>ut To!'s colleagues see a different picture. They don't have access
to his inner thoughts or even to his !orning's activities. %ll they see
is that To! yelled at the! si!ply #ecause the office coffee !achine &as
e!pty. %nd this re!inds the! of another ti!e &hen the sa!e thing
happened. +6e does that all the ti!e, +they conclude, +al&ays #lo&ing
up over the !ost !inor events.+ The events are the sa!e events, #ut
there are t&o different points of vie& and t&o different interpretations.
The protagonist, To!, vie&s his actions as sensi#le responses to the
trials of life. The onloo$er vie&s To!'s actions as a result of his e4plo1
sive, irasci#le personality.
,t see/s nat.ral for people to 8la/e their o&n /isfort.nes on the
environ/ent5 ,t see/s e<.ally nat.ral to 8la/e other people9s /isfor0
t.nes on their personalities5 B.st the opposite attri8.tion6 8y the &ay6
is /ade &hen things go &ell5 When things go right6 people credit their
o&n forcef.l personalities and intelligence: 3, really did a good 4o8
today? no &onder &e finished the pro4ect so &ell53 The onloo7ers do
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions "1
the reverse5 When they see things go &ell for so/eone else6 they credit
the environ/ent: 3Boan really &as l.c7y today? she 4.st happened to
8e standing there &hen the 8oss ca/e 8y6 so she got all the credit for
the pro4ect &or75 So/e people have all the l.c753
,n all cases6 &hether a person is inappropriately accepting 8la/e for
the ina8ility to &or7 si/ple o84ects or attri8.ting 8ehavior to environ0
/ent or personality6 a fa.lty /ental /odel is at &or75
HE$NE* #EHPHESSNESS
The pheno/enon called learned helplessness /ay help explain the self0
8la/e5 ,t refers to the sit.ation in &hich people experience fail.re at
a tas76 often n./ero.s ti/es5 s a res.lt6 they decide that the tas7
cannot 8e done6 at least not 8y the/: they are helpless5 They stop
trying5 ,f this feeling covers a gro.p of tas7s6 the res.lt can 8e severe
diffic.lties coping &ith life5 ,n the extre/e case6 s.ch learned helpless0
ness leads to depression and to a 8elief that the person cannot cope
&ith everyday life at all5 So/eti/es all that it ta7es to get s.ch a feeling
of helplessness is a fe& experiences that accidentally t.rn o.t 8ad5 The
pheno/enon has 8een /ost fre<.ently st.died as a prec.rsor to the
clinical pro8le/ of depression6 8.t it /ight easily arise &ith a fe& 8ad
experiences &ith everyday o84ects5
T)G#T #EHPHESSNESS
*o the co//on technology and /athe/atics pho8ias res.lt fro/ a
7ind of learned helplessness@ Co.ld a fe& instances of fail.re in &hat
appear to 8e straightfor&ard sit.ations generali>e to every technologi0
cal o84ect6 every /athe/atics pro8le/@ Perhaps5 ,n fact6 the design of
everyday things Cand the design of /athe/atics co.rsesD see/s al/ost
g.aranteed to ca.se this5 We co.ld call this pheno/enon taught helpless1
ness.
With 8adly designed o84ects:constr.cted so as to lead to /is.nder0
standing:fa.lty /ental /odels6 and poor feed8ac76 no &onder people
feel g.ilty &hen they have tro.8le .sing o84ects6 especially &hen they
perceive Ceven if incorrectlyD that no8ody else is having the sa/e
pro8le/s5 Or consider the nor/al /athe/atics c.rric.l./6 &hich con0
tin.es relentlessly on its &ay6 each ne& lesson ass./ing f.ll 7no&l0
"2 The Design of Everyday Things
edge and .nderstanding of all that has passed 8efore5 Even tho.gh each
point /ay 8e si/ple6 once yo. fall 8ehind it is hard to catch .p5 The
res.lt: /athe/atics pho8ia5 Not 8eca.se the /aterial is diffic.lt6 8.t
8eca.se it is ta.ght so that diffic.lty in one stage hinders f.rther
progress5 The pro8le/ is that once fail.re starts6 it soon generali>es 8y
self08la/e to all of /athe/atics5 Si/ilar processes are at &or7 &ith
technology5 The vicio.s cycle starts: if yo. fail at so/ething6 yo. thin7
it is yo.r fa.lt5 Therefore yo. thin7 yo. can9t do that tas75 s a res.lt6
next ti/e yo. have to do the tas76 yo. 8elieve yo. can9t so yo. don9t
even try5 The res.lt is that yo. can9t6 4.st as yo. tho.ght5 Ao.9re
trapped in a self0f.lfilling prophecy5
The Nat.re of #./an Tho.ght
and Explanation
,t isn9t al&ays easy to tell 4.st &here the 8la/e for a pro8le/ sho.ld
8e placed5 n./8er of dra/atic accidents have co/e a8o.t6 in part6
fro/ the false assess/ent of 8la/e in a sit.ation5 #ighly s7illed6 &ell0
trained people are .sing co/plex e<.ip/ent &hen s.ddenly so/ething
goes &rong5 They have to fig.re o.t &hat the pro8le/ is5 =ost ind.s0
trial e<.ip/ent is pretty relia8le5 When the instr./ents indicate that
so/ething is &rong6 one has to consider the possi8ility that the instr.0
/ents the/selves are &rong5 Often this is the correct assess/ent5 ;.t
&hen operators /ista7enly 8la/e the instr./ents for an act.al e<.ip0
/ent fail.re6 the sit.ation is ripe for a /a4or accident5
,t is spectac.larly easy to find exa/ples of false assess/ent in ind.s0
trial accidents5 nalysts co/e in &ell after the fact6 7no&ing &hat
act.ally did happen? &ith hindsight6 it is al/ost i/possi8le to .nder0
stand ho& the people involved co.ld have /ade the /ista7e5 ;.t fro/
the point of vie& of the person /a7ing decisions at the ti/e6 the
se<.ence of events is <.ite nat.ral5
t the Three =ile ,sland n.clear po&er plant6 operators p.shed a
8.tton to close a valve? the valve had 8een opened CproperlyD to allo&
excess &ater to escape fro/ the n.clear core5 ,n fact6 the valve &as
deficient6 so it didn9t close5 ;.t a light on the control panel indicated
that the valve position &as closed5 The light act.ally didn9t /onitor the
valve6 only the electrical signal to the valve6 a fact 7no&n 8y the
operators5 Still6 &hy s.spect a pro8le/@ The operators did loo7 at the
te/perat.re in the pipe leading fro/ the valve: it &as high6 indicating
that fl.id &as still flo&ing thro.gh the closed valve5 h6 8.t the opera0
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions "!
tors 7ne& that the valve had 8een lea7y6 so the lea7 &o.ld explain the
high te/perat.re? 8.t the lea7 &as 7no&n to 8e s/all6 and operators
ass./ed that it &o.ldn9t affect the /ain operation5 They &ere &rong6
and the &ater that &as a8le to escape fro/ the core added significantly
to the pro8le/s of that n.clear disaster5 , thin7 the operators9 assess0
/ent &as perfectly reasona8le: the fa.lt &as in the design of the lights
and in the e<.ip/ent that gave false evidence of a closed valve5
Si/ilar /isinterpretations ta7e place all the ti/e5 , have st.died a
n./8er of airline accidents5 Consider the flight cre& of the Hoc7heed
H01011 flying fro/ =ia/i6 (lorida6 to Nassa.6 ;aha/as5 The plane &as
over the tlantic Ocean6 a8o.t no /iles fro/ =ia/i6 &hen the lo&
oil press.re light for one of the three engines &ent on5 The cre& t.rned
off the engine and t.rned aro.nd to go 8ac7 to =ia/i5 Eight /in.tes
later6 the lo& press.re lights for the re/aining t&o engines also &ent
on6 and the instr./ents sho&ed >ero oil press.re and <.antity in all
three engines5 What did the cre& do no&@ They didn9t 8elieve itE fter
all6 the pilot correctly said later6 the li7elihood of si/.ltaneo.s oil
exha.stion in all three engines &as 3one in /illions , &o.ld thin753 t
the ti/e6 sitting in the airplane6 si/.ltaneo.s fail.re did see/ /ost
.nli7ely5 Even the National Transportation Safety ;oard declared6
3The analysis of the sit.ation 8y the flightcre& &as logical6 and &as
&hat /ost pilots pro8a8ly &o.ld have done if confronted 8y the sa/e
sit.ation53
I
;hat happened) The second and third engines &ere indeed out of
oil, and they failed. 8o there &ere no operating engines: one had #een
turned off &hen its gauge registered lo&, the other t&o had failed. The
pilots prepared the plane for an e!ergency landing on the &ater. The
pilots &ere too #usy to instruct the flight cre& properly, so the passen1
gers &ere not prepared. There &as se!i1hysteria in the passenger
ca#in. %t the last !inute, /ust as the plane &as a#out to ditch in the
ocean, the pilots !anaged to restart the first engine and to land safely
at 5ia!i. Then that engine failed at the end of the run&ay.
;hy did all three engines fail) Three !issing O1rings, one !issing
fro! each of three oil plugs, allo&ed all the oil to seep out. The O1rings
&ere put in #y t&o different people &ho &or$ed on the three engines
0one for the t&o plugs on the &ings, the other for the plug on the tail2.
6o& did #oth &or$ers !a$e the sa!e !ista$e) >ecause the nor!al
!ethod #y &hich they got the oil plugs had #een changed that day. The
&hole tale is very instructive, for there &ere four !a/or failures of
"" The Design of Everyday Things
different sorts, fro! the o!ission of the O1rings, to the inade-uacy of
the !aintenance procedures, to the false assess!ent of the pro#le!, to
the poor handling of the passengers. "ortunately, no#ody &as in/ured.
The analysts of the *ational Transportation 8afety >oard got to &rite
a fascinating report.
,9ve /isinterpreted signals6 as ,9/ s.re /ost people have5 =y fa/ily
&as driving fro/ San *iego to =a//oth6 California6 a s7i area a8o.t
K00 /iles north: a ten0 to t&elve0ho.r drive5 s &e drove6 &e noticed
/ore and /ore signs advertising the hotels and ga/8ling casinos of Has
-egas6 Nevada5 3Strange63 &e said6 3Has -egas al&ays did advertise a
long &ay off:there is even a 8ill8oard in San *iego:8.t this see/s
excessive6 advertising on the road to =a//oth53 We stopped for gaso0
line and contin.ed on o.r 4o.rney5 Only later6 &hen &e tried to find
a place to eat s.pper6 did &e discover that &e had ta7en the &rong t.rn
nearly t&o ho.rs earlier6 8efore &e had stopped for gasoline6 and that
&e &ere on the road to Has -egas6 not the road to =a//oth5 We had
to 8ac7trac7 the entire t&o0ho.r seg/ent6 &asting fo.r ho.rs of driv0
ing5 ,t9s h./oro.s no&? it &asn9t then5
(ind an explanation6 and &e are happy5 ;.t o.r explanations are
8ased on analogy &ith past experience6 experience that /ay not apply
in the c.rrent sit.ation5 ,n the Three =ile ,sland incident6 past experi0
ence &ith the lea7y valve explained a&ay the discrepant te/perat.re
reading? on the flight fro/ =ia/i to Nassa.6 the pilots9 lac7 of experi0
ence &ith si/.ltaneo.s oil press.re fail.re triggered their 8elief that
the instr./ents /.st 8e fa.lty? in the driving story6 the prevalence of
8ill8oards for Has -egas see/ed easily explained5 Once &e have an
explanation:correct or incorrect:for other&ise discrepant or p.>>ling
events6 there is no /ore p.>>le6 no /ore discrepancy5 s a res.lt6 &e
are co/placent6 at least for a &hile5
#o& People *o Things:
The Seven Stages of ction
I a! in Italy, at a conference. I &atch the ne4t spea$er atte!pt to
thread a fil! onto a pro/ector that he has never used #efore. 6e puts
the reel into place, then ta$es it off and reverses it. %nother person
co!es to help. :ointly they thread the fii! through the pro/ector and
hold the free end, discussing ho& to put it on the ta$eup reel. T&o
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions "'
!ore people co!e over to help, and then another. The voices gro&
louder, in three languages: Italian, Ier!an, and English. One person
investigates the controls, !anipulating each and announcing the result.
onfusion !ounts. I can no longer o#serve all that is happening. The
conference organi7er co!es over. %fter a fe& !o!ents he turns and
faces the audience, &hich has #een &aiting patiently in the auditoriu!.
+%he!, +he says, +is any#ody e4pert in pro/ectors)+ "inally, fourteen
!inutes after the spea$er had started to thread the fil! 0and eight
!inutes after the scheduled start of the session2 a #lue1coated techni1
cian appears. 6e sco&ls, then pro!ptly ta$es the entire fil! off the
pro/ector, rethreads it, and gets it &or$ing.
What /a7es so/ething:li7e threading the pro4ector:diffic.lt to
do@ To ans&er this <.estion6 the central one of this 8oo76 &e need to
7no& &hat happens &hen so/eone does so/ething5 We need to exa/0
ine the str.ct.re of an action5
The 8asic idea is si/ple5 To get so/ething done6 yo. have to start
&ith so/e notion of &hat is &anted:the goal that is to 8e achieved5
Then6 yo. have to do so/ething to the &orld6 that is6 ta7e action to
/ove yo.rself or /anip.late so/eone or so/ething5 (inally6 yo. chec7
to see that yo.r goal &as /ade5 So there are fo.r different things to
consider: the goal6 &hat is done to the &orld6 the &orld itself6 and the
chec7 of the &orld5 The action itself has t&o /a4or aspects: doing
so/ething and chec7ing5 Call these e4ecution and evaluation Cfig.re ..22.
$eal tas7s are not <.ite so si/ple5 The original goal /ay 8e i/pre0
cisely specified:perhaps 3get so/ething to eat63 3get to &or763 3get
dressed63 3&atch television53 Goals do not state precisely &hat to
do:&here and ho& to /ove6 &hat to pic7 .p5 To lead to actions goals
/.st 8e transfor/ed into specific state/ents of &hat is to 8e done6
state/ents that , call intentions. % goal is so/ething to 8e achieved6 often
vag.ely stated5 n intention is a specific action ta7en to get to the goal5
Aet even intentions are not specific eno.gh to control actions5
8uppose I a! sitting in !y ar!chair, reading a #oo$. It is dus$, and
the light has gotten di!!er and di!!er. I decide I need !ore light
0that is the goal: get !ore light2. 5y goal has to #e translated into the
intention that states the appropriate action in the &orld: push the
s&itch #utton on the la!p. There's !ore: I need to specify ho& to !ove
!y #ody, ho& to stretch to reach the light s&itch, ho& to e4tend !y
finger to push the #utton 0&ithout $noc$ing over the la!p2. The goal
"I The Design of Everyday Things
-)- The Action ycle Ca8ove leftD5 #./an action has t&o aspects6 exec.tion and eval.ation5
Exec.tion involves doing so/ething5 Eval.ation is the co/parison of &hat happened in the
&orld &ith &hat &e &anted to happen Co.r goalD5 -)2 %tages of E'ecution Ca8ove rightD5
Start at the top &ith the goal, the state that is to 8e achieved5 The goal is translated into an
intention to do so/e action5 The intention /.st 8e translated into a set of internal co//ands6
an action se-uence that can 8e perfor/ed to satisfy the intention5 The action se<.ence is still a
/ental event: nothing happens .ntil it is e4ecuted, perfor/ed .pon the &orld5 -)5 %tages
of Evaluation C8elo& leftD5 Eval.ation starts &ith o.r perception of the &orld5 This perception
/.st then 8e interpreted according to o.r expectations and then co/pared 0evaluated2 &ith respect
to 8oth o.r intentions Cfro/ fig.re 25!D and o.r goals5 -)8 %even %tages of Action C8elo&
rightD5
The stages of exec.tion fro/ fig.re 25! Cintentions6 action se<.ence6 and exec.tionD are co.pled
&ith the stages of eval.ation fro/ fig.re 2" Cperception6 interpretation6 and eval.ationD6 &it h
goals co//on to 8oth stages5
Goals
4hat e
ant to ha--en
4hat e )o
to the orl)
E0al'ation
Com-arin+ hat
ha--ene) ith hat
e ante) to ha--en
THE 4ORLD
THE 4ORLD
Goals
An intention to act
so as to achie0e the +oal
The act'al se='ence o& actions
that e -lan to )o
The -h(sical e*ec'tion o&
that action se='ence
Goals
E0al'ation o& the inter-retations
ith hat e e*-ecte) to ha--en
Inter-retin+ the -erce-tion
accor)in+ to o'r e*-ectations
2ercei0in+ the state
o& the orl)
THE 4ORLD THE 4ORLD
Goals
Intention to act
Se='ence o& actions
E*ec'tion o&
the action se='ence
E0al'ation o&
inter-retations
Inter-retin+
the -erce-tion
2ercei0in+ the state
o& the orl)
has to #e translated into an intention, &hich in turn has to #e !ade into
a specific action se-uence, one that can control !y !uscles. *ote that
I could satisfy !y goal &ith other action se-uences, other intentions.
If so!eone &al$ed into the roo! and passed #y the la!p, I !ight alter
!y intention fro! pushing the s&itch #utton to as$ing the other per1
son to do it for !e. The goal hasn't changed, #ut the intention and
resulting action se-uence have.
The specific actions 8ridge t he gap 8et &een &hat &e &o.l d li7e to
have done Co.r goals and intentionsD and all possi8le physical actions5
fter &e specify &hat actions to /a7e6 &e /.st act.ally do t he/:t he
stage of exec.tion5 ll in all6 there are three stages that follo& fro/ t he
goal: intention6 action se<.ence6 and exec.tion Cfig.re 25!D5
The eval.ation side of things6 chec7ing .p on &hat happened6 has
three stages: first6 perceiving &hat happened in t he &orld? second6
trying to /a7e sense of it Cinterpreting itD? and6 finally6 co/paring &hat
happened &i t h &hat &as &ant ed Cfig.re 25"D5
There &e have it5 Seven stages of action: one for goals6 three for
exec.tion6 and three for eval.ation5
F (or/ing the goal
F (or/ing the intention
F Specifying an action
F Exec.ting the action
F Perceiving the state of the &orld
F ,nterpreting the state of the &orld
F Eval.ating the o.tco/e
The seven stages for/ an appro4i!ate !odel, not a co/plete psycholog0
ical theory5 ,n partic.lar6 t he stages are al/ost certainly not discrete
entities5 =ost 8ehavior does not re<.ire going t hro.gh all stages in
se<.ence6 and /ost activities &ill not 8e satisfied 8y single actions5
There /.st 8e n./ero.s se<.ences6 and t he &hol e activity /ay last
ho.rs or even days5 There is a contin.al feed8ac7 loop6 in &hich t he
res.lts of one activity are .sed to direct f.rther ones6 in &hi ch goals
lead to s.8goals6 intenti ons lead to s.8intentions5 There are activities
in &hich goals are forgotten6 discarded6 or refor/.lated5
1
"or !any everyday tas$s, goals and intentions are not &ell specified:
they are opport.nistic rather than planned. Opportunistic actions are
"+ The Design of Everyday Things
those in &hich the #ehavior ta$es advantage of the circu!stances.
Eather than engage in e4tensive planning and analysis, the person goes
a#out the day's activities and perfor!s the intended actions if the
relevant opportunity arises. Thus, &e !ay not go out of our &ay to go
to a shop, or to the li#rary, or to as$ a -uestion of a friend. Eather, &e
go through the day's activities, and if &e find ourselves at the shop,
near the li#rary, or encountering the friend, then &e allo& the opportu1
nity to trigger the relevant activity. Other&ise, the tas$ re!ains un1
done. Only in the case of crucial tas$s do &e !a$e special efforts to
ensure that they get done. Opportunistic actions are less precise and
certain than specified goals and intentions, #ut they result in less !en1
tal effort, less inconvenience, and perhaps !ore interest.
The seven1stage process of action can #e started at any point. People
do not al&ays #ehave as full, logical, reasoning organis!s, starting &ith
high1level goals and &or$ing to achieve the!. Our goals are often
ill1for!ed and vague. ;e !ay respond to the events of the &orld 0in
&hat is called data1driven #ehavior2 rather than to thin$ out plans and
goals. %n event in the &orld !ay trigger an interpretation and a result1
ing response. %ctions !ay #e e4ecuted #efore they are fully developed.
In fact, so!e of us ad/ust our lives so that the environ!ent can control
our #ehavior. "or e4a!ple, so!eti!es &hen I !ust do an i!portant
tas$, I !a$e a for!al, pu#lic pro!ise to get it done #y a certain date.
I !a$e sure that I &ill #e re!inded of the pro!ise. %nd then, hours
#efore the deadline, I actually get to &or$ and do the /o#. This $ind
of #ehavior is fully co!pati#le &ith the seven1stage analysis.
The G.lfs of Exec.tion and Eval.ation
$e/e/8er the /ovie pro4ector story@ People9s pro8le/s threading the
pro4ector did not co/e fro/ a lac7 of .nderstanding of the goal or the
tas75 ,t did not co/e fro/ deep6 s.8tle co/plexity5 The diffic.lty lay
entirely in deter/ining the relationship 8et&een the intended actions
and the /echanis/s of the pro4ector6 in deter/ining the f.nctions of
each of the controls6 in deter/ining &hat specific /anip.lation of each
control ena8led each f.nction6 and in deciding 8y the sights6 so.nds6
lights6 and /ove/ents of the pro4ector &hether the intended actions
&ere 8eing done s.ccessf.lly5 The .sers had a pro8le/ &ith /appings
and feed8ac76 as they &o.ld have &ith the pro4ector in fig.re 25I5
The pro4ector story is only an extre/e case of the diffic.lties faced
in the cond.ct of /any tas7s5 (or a s.rprisingly large n./8er of every 0
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions "2
day tas7s6 the diffic.lty resides entirely in deriving the relationships
8et&een the /ental intentions and interpretations and the physical
actions and states5 There are several gulfs that separate /ental states
fro/ physical ones5 Each g.lf reflects one aspect of the distance 8e0
t&een the /ental representations of the person and the physical co/0
-)9 Threading the +ovie $ro4ector) The dar7 line at the right sho&s the path
of the fil/5 This pict.re doesn9 t tell the &hole story6 for the several loops of fil/
have to 8e threaded 4.st right6 neither too loose nor too ta.t5 C(ro/ Pro/ectionist's
!anual, *epart/ent of the r/y and the ir (orce6 =ay 12II5D
'0 The Design of Everyday Things
ponents and states of the environ/ent5 nd these g.lfs present /a4or
pro8le/s for .sers5
+
T#E G)H( O( EOEC)T,ON
*oes the syste/ provide actions that correspond to the intentions of
the person@ The difference 8et&een the intentions and the allo&a8le
actions is the G.lf of Exec.tion5 One /eas.re of this g.lf is ho& &ell
the syste/ allo&s the person to do the intended actions directly6 &ith0
o.t extra effort: *o the actions provided 8y the syste/ /atch those
intended 8y the person@
onsider the !ovie pro/ector e4a!ple: one pro#le! resulted fro!
the Iulf of E4ecution. The person &anted to set up the pro/ector.
Ideally, this &ould #e a si!ple thing to do. >ut no, a long, co!ple4
se-uence &as re-uired. It &asn't at all clear &hat actions had to #e done
to acco!plish the intentions of setting up the pro/ector and sho&ing
the fil!.
8elf1threading pro/ectors do e4ist. These nicely #ridge the gulf. Or
loo$ at HEs. They have the sa!e !echanical pro#le! as fil! pro/ec1
tors: the videotape has to #e threaded through their !echanis!. >ut
the solution is to hide this part of the syste!, to put the tas$ on the
!achine, not the person. 8o the !achinery #ridges the gulf. %ll the user
has to do is to plop in the cartridge and push the start #utton. It's a pity
the fil! co!panies are so far #ehind. ;ell, in a &hile it &on't !atter.
There &on't #e any fil!, /ust videotape.
T#E G)H( O( E-H)T,ON
*oes the syste/ provide a physical representation that can 8e directly
perceived and that is directly interpreta8le in ter/s of the intentions
and expectations of the person@ The G.lf of Eval.ation reflects the
a/o.nt of effort that the person /.st exert to interpret the physical
state of the syste/ and to deter/ine ho& &ell the expectations and
intentions have 8een /et5 The g.lf is s/all &hen the syste/ provides
infor/ation a8o.t its state in a for/ that is easy to get6 is easy to
interpret6 and /atches the &ay the person thin7s of the syste/5
In the !ovie pro/ector e4a!ple there &as also a pro#le! &ith the
Iulf of Evaluation. Even &hen the fil! &as in the pro/ector, it &as
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions '1
difficult to tell if it had #een threaded correctly. ;ith HEs all you
have to $no& is &hether the cartridge is properly inserted into the
!achine. If it isn't, usually it &on't fit right: it stic$s out o#viously, and
you $no& that things are not right.
>ut HEs aren't perfect, either. I re!e!#er a conference spea$er
&ho pushed the start #utton on the HE and told the audience to
&atch the screen. *o picture. 8he fiddled &ith the !achine, then called
for help. One, then t&o, then three technicians appeared on the scene.
They carefully chec$ed the po&er connections, the leads to the HE,
the circuits. The audience &aited i!patiently, giggling. "inally the
pro#le! &as found: there &asn't any tape in the HE. *o tape, no
picture. The pro#le! &as that once the cartridge door to that particular
HE &as shut, there &as no visi#le &ay to tell &hether it contained
a tape. >ad design. That Iulf of Evaluation sun$ another user.
The g.lfs are present to an a/a>ing degree in a variety of devices5
)s.ally the diffic.lties are .nre/ar7ed and invisi8le5 The .sers either
ta7e the 8la/e the/selves Cin the case of things they 8elieve they
sho.ld 8e capa8le of .sing6 s.ch as &ater fa.cets6 refrigerator te/pera0
t.re controls6 stove tops6 radio and television setsD or decide that they
are incapa8le of operating the pes7y devices Cse&ing /achines6 &ash0
ing /achines6 digital &atches6 digital controls on ho.sehold appliances6
-C$s6 a.dio setsD5 These are indeed the gadgets of everyday ho.sehold
.se5 None of the/ has a co/plex str.ct.re6 yet /any of the/ defeat
the other&ise capa8le .ser5
The Seven Stages of ction as *esign ids
The seven0stage str.ct.re can 8e a val.a8le design aid6 for it provides
a 8asic chec7list of <.estions to as7 to ens.re that the G.lfs of Eval.a0
tion and Exec.tion are 8ridged Cfig.re 251D5
,n general6 each stage of action re<.ires its o&n special design strate0
gies and6 in t.rn6 provides its o&n opport.nity for disaster5 ,t &o.ld
8e f.n6 &ere it not also so fr.strating6 to loo7 over the &orld and
gleef.lly analy>e each deficiency5 On the &hole6 as yo. can see in
fig.re 2516 the <.estions for each stage are relatively si/ple5 nd
these6 in t.rn6 8oil do&n to the principles of good design introd.ced
in chapter 15
F Hisi#ility. ;y loo7ing6 the .ser can tell the state of the device and
the alternatives for action5
'2 The Design of Everyday Things
251 )sing the Seven Stages
to s7 *esign P.estions
H)* E+,-./ C+0 O01(
Determine The F'nction
o& the De0ice>
Tell 4hat Actions
Are 2ossi/le>
Determine %a--in+
&rom Intention to
2h(sical %o0ement>
2er&orm the Action>
Tell i& S(stem is
in Desire) State>
Determine %a--in+
&rom S(stem State
to Inter-retation>
Tell 4hat State
the S(stem is In>
F % good conceptual !odel. The designer provides a good concept.al
/odel for the .ser6 &ith consistency in the presentation of operations
and res.lts and a coherent6 consistent syste/ i/age5
F Iood !appings. ,t is possi8le to deter/ine the relationships 8et&een
actions and res.lts6 8et&een the controls and their effects6 and 8e0
t&een the syste/ state and &hat is visi8le5
F "eed#ac$. The .ser receives f.ll and contin.o.s feed8ac7 a8o.t the
res.lts of actions5
Each point provides s.pport for one or /ore of t he seven stages of
action5 The next ti/e yo. can9 t i//ediat ely fi g.re o.t t he sho&er
control in a /otel or &or7 an .nfa/iliar television set or stove6 re/e/0
8er t hat the pro8l e/ is in t he design5 nd t he next ti/e yo. pic7 .p
an .nfa/iliar o84ect and .se it s/oothl y and effortlessly on t he first
try6 stop and exa/ine it: t he ease of .se did not co/e a8o.t 8y accident5
So/eone designed t he o84ect caref.lly and &ell5
T;O: The Psychology of Everyday %ctions '!
C # P T E $ T # $ E E
%NOWHE*GE , N
T#E #E* N* , N
T#E WO$H*
% friend $indly let !e #orro& his car. :ust #efore
I &as a#out to leave, I found a note &aiting for
!e: +I should have !entioned that to get the $ey
out of the ignition the car needs to #e in reverse.+
The car needs to #e in reverse9 If I hadn't seen the note, I never could
have figured that out. There &as no visi#le cue in the car: the $no&l1
edge needed for this tric$ had to reside in the head. If the driver lac$s
that $no&ledge, the $ey stays in the ignition forever.
,t is easy to sho& the fa.lty nat.re of h./an 7no&ledge and /e/0
ory5 co//on classroo/ exercise in the )nited States de/onstrates
that st.dents cannot recall the pairing of letters and n./8ers on their
telephones5 One of /y grad.ate st.dents fo.nd that &hen professional
typists &ere given caps for type&riter 7eys6 they co.ld not arrange
the/ in the proper config.ration5
1
/erican st.dents dial telephones
properly6 and all those typists co.ld type rapidly and acc.rately5 Why
the apparent discrepancy 8et&een the precision of 8ehavior and the
i/precision of 7no&ledge@ ;eca.se not all of the 7no&ledge re<.ired
for precise 8ehavior has to 8e in the head5 ,t can 8e distri8.ted:partly
in the head6 partly in the &orld6 and partly in the constraints of the
'"
&orld5 Precise 8ehavior can e/erge fro/ i/precise 7no&ledge for fo.r
reasons5
.. Infor!ation is in the &orld. =.ch of the infor/ation a person needs
to do a tas7 can reside in the &orld5 ;ehavior is deter/ined 8y
co/8ining the infor/ation in /e/ory Cin the headD &ith that in the
&orld5
25 Ireat precision is not re-uired. Precision6 acc.racy6 and co/pleteness
of 7no&ledge are seldo/ re<.ired5 Perfect 8ehavior &ill res.lt if the
7no&ledge descri8es the infor/ation or 8ehavior s.fficiently to dis0
ting.ish the correct choice fro/ all others5
!5 *atural constraints are present. The &orld restricts the allo&ed 8ehav0
ior5 The physical properties of o84ects constrain possi8le operations:
the order in &hich parts can go together and the &ays in &hich an
o84ect can 8e /oved6 pic7ed .p6 or other&ise /anip.lated5 Each
o84ect has physical feat.res:pro4ections6 depressions6 scre&threads6
appendages:that li/it its relationships to other o84ects6 operations
that can 8e perfor/ed to it6 &hat can 8e attached to it6 and so on5
"5 ultural constraints are present. ,n addition to nat.ral6 physical con0
straints6 society has evolved n./ero.s artificial conventions that
govern accepta8le social 8ehavior5 These c.lt.ral conventions have
to 8e learned6 8.t once learned they apply to a &ide variety of
circ./stances5
;eca.se of these nat.ral and artificial constraints6 t he n./8er of alter0
natives for any partic.lar sit.ation is red.ced6 as are t he a/o.nt and
specificity of 7no&l edge re<.ired &i t hi n h./an /e/ory5
,n everyday sit.ations6 8ehavior is deter/ined 8y the co/8ination
of internal 7no&ledge and external infor/ation and constraints5 People
ro.tinely capitali>e on this fact5 They can /ini/i>e t he a/o.nt of
/aterial t hey /.st learn or t he co/pleteness6 precision6 acc.racy6 or
dept h of t he learning5 People can deli8erately organi>e the envi ron/ent
to s.pport their 8ehavior5 So/e people &i t h 8rain da/age can f.nction
so &ell that even their co0&or7ers /ay not 8e a&are of their handi cap5
Nonreaders have 8een 7no&n to fool others6 even in sit.ations &here
their 4o8 pres./a8l y re<.ires reading s7ills5 They 7no& &hat is ex0
pected of t he/6 follo& t he 8ehavior of their co0&or7ers6 and set .p
sit.ations so that t hey do not need to read or so that their co0&or7ers
do the reading for t he/5
What is tr.e in these extre/e cases /.st certainly also 8e tr.e of
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld KK
ordinary people in ordinary sit.ations: it is only the a/o.nt of reliance
.pon the external &orld that differs5 There is a tradeoff 8et&een the
a/o.nt of /ental 7no&ledge and the a/o.nt of external 7no&ledge
re<.ired in perfor/ing tas7s5 People are free to operate vario.sly in
allo&ing for this tradeoff5
Precise ;ehavior
fro/ ,/precise %no&ledge
,N(O$=T,ON ,S ,N T#E WO$H*
Whenever infor/ation needed to do a tas7 is readily availa8le in the
&orld6 the need for .s to learn it di/inishes5 (or exa/ple6 &e lac7
7no&ledge a8o.t co//on coins6 even tho.gh &e recogni>e the/ 4.st
fine Cfig.re !51D5 Or consider typing5 =any typists have not /e/ori>ed
the 7ey8oard5 )s.ally each letter is la8eled6 so nontypists can h.nt and
pec7 letter 8y letter6 relying on 7no&ledge in the &orld and /ini/i>ing
the ti/e re<.ired for learning5 The pro8le/ is that s.ch typing is slo&
and diffic.lt5 With experience6 of co.rse6 h.nt0and0pec7 typists learn
the positions of /any of the letters on the 7ey8oard6 even &itho.t
instr.ction6 and typing speed increases nota8ly6 <.ic7ly s.rpassing
hand&riting speeds and6 for so/e6 reaching <.ite respecta8le rates5
Peripheral vision and the feel of the 7ey8oard provide so/e infor/a0
tion a8o.t 7ey locations5 (re<.ently .sed 7eys 8eco/e co/pletely
learned6 infre<.ently .sed 7eys are not learned &ell6 and the other 7eys
are partially learned5 ;.t as long as the typist needs to &atch the
7ey8oard6 the speed is li/ited5 The 7no&ledge is still /ostly in the
&orld6 not in the head5
,f a person needs to type large a/o.nts of /aterial reg.larly6 f.rther
invest/ent is &orth&hile: a co.rse6 a 8oo76 or an interactive co/p.ter
progra/5 The i/portant thing is to learn the proper place/ent of
fingers on the 7ey8oard6 to learn to type &itho.t loo7ing6 to get 7no&l0
edge a8o.t the 7ey8oard fro/ the &orld into the head5 ,t ta7es several
ho.rs to learn the syste/ and several /onths to 8eco/e expert5 ;.t the
payoff of all this effort is increased typing speed6 increased acc.racy6
and decreased /ental load and effort at the ti/e of typing5
There is a tradeoff 8et&een speed and <.ality of perfor/ance and
/ental effort5 Th.s6 in finding yo.r &ay thro.gh a city6 locating ite/s
in a store or ho.se6 or &or7ing co/plex /achinery6 the tradeoff can
deter/ine &hat needs to 8e learned5 ;eca.se yo. 7no& that the infor0
K? The Design of Everyday Things
!51 Which ,s the )5 S5 One Cent Coin:The Penny@ (e&er than half of the
/erican college st.dents &ho &ere given this set of dra&ings and as7ed to select
the correct one co.ld do so5 Pretty 8ad perfor/ance6 except that the st.dents6 of
co.rse6 have no diffic.lty .sing the /oney: in nor/al life6 &e have to disting.ish
8et&een the penny and other )5S5 coins6 not 8et&een several versions of one
deno/ination5 C(ro/ Nic7erson N da/s6 ognitive Psychology, .., N 12125 $e0
printed 8y per/ission of cade/ic Press5D
/ation is availa8le in the environ/ent 6 the infor/ation yo. internally
code in /e/ory need 8e precise eno.gh only to s.stain t he <.ality of
8ehavior yo. desire5 This is one reason people can f.nction &ell in their
envi ron/ent and still 8e .na8l e to descri8e &hat they do5 (or exa/ple6
a person can travel acc.rately t hro.gh a city &i t ho.t 8eing a8le to
descri8e the ro.t e precisely5
People f.nction t hro.gh their .se of t &o 7inds of 7no&ledge:
7no&ledge of and 7no&l edge ho&. %no&ledge of:&hat psychologists
call declarative 7no&ledge:incl.des the 7no&ledge of facts and r.les5
3St op at red lights53 3Ne& Aor7 City lies on a parallel a 8it so.t h of
=adrid6 San *iego9 s longit.de is east of $eno5 3 3To get the 7ey o.t
of t he ignition6 t he car /.st 8e in reverse53 *eclarative 7no&ledge is
easy to &rite do&n and to teach5 %no&ledge ho&O &hat psychologists
call proced.ral 7no&ledge:is t he 7no&l edge that ena8les a person to
perfor/ /.sic6 to stop a car s/oothly &i t h a flat tire on an icy road6
to ret.rn a serve in tennis6 or to /ove t he tong.e properly &hen saying
the phrase 3frightening &i t ches5 3 Proced.ral 7no&ledge is diffic.lt or
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld KC
i/possi8le to &rite do&n and diffic.lt to teach5 ,t is 8est ta.ght 8y
de/onstration and 8est learned thro.gh practice5 Even the 8est teach0
ers cannot .s.ally descri8e &hat they are doing5 Proced.ral 7no&ledge
is largely s.8conscio.s5
%no&ledge fro/ the &orld is .s.ally easy to co/e 8y5 *esigners
provide a large n./8er of /e/ory aids5 The letters on the type&riter
7ey8oard are one exa/ple5 The lights and la8els on controls act as
external /e/ory aids6 re/inding the .ser of the p.rpose and state of
the control5 ,nd.strial e<.ip/ent is replete &ith signal lights6 indica0
tors6 and other re/inders5 We /a7e extensive .se of &ritten notes5 We
place ite/s in specific locations as re/inders5 ,n general6 people str.c0
t.re the environ/ent to provide a considera8le a/o.nt of the infor/a0
tion re<.ired for so/ething to 8e re/e/8ered5
5any people organi7e their lives in the &orld, creating a pile here,
a pile there, each indicating so!e activity to #e done, so!e event in
progress. Pro#a#ly every#ody uses such a strategy to so!e e4tent. <oo$
around you at the variety of &ays people structure their roo!s and
des$s. 5any styles of organi7ation are possi#le, #ut the physical ar1
range!ent and visi#ility of the ite!s fre-uently convey infor!ation
a#out relative i!portance. ;ant to do your friends a nasty turn) Do
the! a favor:clean up their des$s or roo!s. Do this to so!e people
and you can co!pletely destroy their a#ility to function.
2
G$ET P$EC,S,ON ,S NOT $EP),$E*
Nor/ally6 people do not need precise /e/ory infor/ation5 People
can re/e/8er eno.gh to disting.ish one fa/iliar coin fro/ another
altho.gh they /ay 8e .na8le to re/e/8er the faces6 pict.res6 and
&ords on the coins5
!
;.t /a7e /ore precise /e/ory necessary and
yo. get havoc5 Three co.ntries have rediscovered this fact in recent
years: the )nited States6 &hen it introd.ced the S.san ;5 nthony
one0dollar coin? Great ;ritain6 &hen it introd.ced the one0po.nd
coin? and (rance6 &hen it introd.ced a ne& ten0franc coin5 The ne&
)5S5 dollar coin &as conf.sed &ith the existing t&enty0five0cent
piece Cthe <.arterD6 and the ;ritish po.nd coin &as conf.sed &ith the
existing five0pence piece5 CThe one0po.nd coin has the sa/e dia/eter
as the five0pence piece6 8.t is considera8ly thic7er and heavier5D #ere
is &hat happened in (rance:
'+ The Design of Everyday Things
+P%EI8 . . .+ ;ith a good deal of fanfare, the "rench govern!ent
released the ne& .01franc coin 0&orth a little !ore than P..K02 on Oct.
22 F.BJ?G. The pu#lic loo$ed at it, &eighed it, and #egan confusing it
so -uic$ly &ith the half1franc coin 0&orth only J cents2 that a cre1
scendo of fury and ridicule fell on #oth the govern!ent and the coin.
+"ive &ee$s later, 5inister of "inance Edouard >alladur suspended
circulation of the coin. ;ithin another four &ee$s, he canceled it
altogether.
+In retrospect, the "rench decision see!s so foolish that it is hard to
fatho! ho& it could have #een !ade. . . . %fter !uch study, designers
ca!e up &ith a silver1colored coin !ade of nic$el and featuring a
!odernistic dra&ing #y artist :oa-ui! :i!ene7 of a Iallic rooster on
one side and of 5arianne, the fe!ale sy!#ol of the "rench repu#lic,
on the other. The coin &as light, sported special ridges on its ri! for
easy reading #y electronic vending !achines and see!ed tough to
counterfeit.
+>ut the designers and #ureaucrats &ere o#viously so e4cited #y
their creation that they ignored or refused to accept the ne& coin's
si!ilarity to the hundreds of !illions of silver1colored, nic$el1#ased
half1franc coins in circulation . . . F&hoseG si7e and &eight &ere peri1
lously si!ilar.3
"
The conf.sions pro8a8ly occ.rred 8eca.se the .sers of coins for/ed
representations in their /e/ory syste/s that &ere s.fficiently precise
only to disting.ish a/ong the coins that they act.ally had to .se5 ,t is
a general property of /e/ory that &e store only partial descriptions
of the things to 8e re/e/8ered6 descriptions that are s.fficiently pre0
cise to &or7 at the ti/e so/ething is learned6 8.t that /ay not &or7
later on6 &hen ne& experiences have also 8een enco.ntered and en0
tered into /e/ory5 The descriptions for/ed to disting.ish a/ong the
old coins &ere not precise eno.gh to disting.ish 8et&een the ne& one
and at least one of the old ones5
'
8uppose I $eep all !y notes in a s!all red note#oo$. If this is !y
only note#oo$, I can descri#e it si!ply as !y note#oo$. If I #uy several
!ore note#oo$s, the earlier description &ill no longer &or$. *o& I
!ust call the first one s!all or red, or !ay#e #oth s!all and red,
&hichever allo&s !e to distinguish it fro! the others. >ut &hat if I
ac-uire several s!all, red note#oo$s) *o& I !ust find so!e other
!eans of descri#ing the first #oo$, adding to the richness of the de1
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld '2
scription and there#y to its a#ility to discri!inate a!ong the several
si!ilar ite!s. Descriptions need discri!inate only a!ong the choices
in front of !e, #ut &hat &or$s for one purpose !ay not for another.
I
THE $6:E! 6F 6N%T!A?NT%
;ac7 in the good old days of oral tradition Cand even today for so/e
c.lt.resD6 perfor/ers traveled aro.nd reciting epic poe/s tho.sands of
lines long5 #o& did they do it@ *o so/e people have h.ge a/o.nts
of 7no&ledge in their heads@ Not really5 ,t t.rns o.t that external
constraints exert po&erf.l control over the per/issi8le choice of
&ords6 th.s dra/atically red.cing the /e/ory load5
Consider the constraints of rhy/ing5 ,f yo. &ish to rhy/e one &ord
&ith another in English6 there are .s.ally ten to t&enty alternatives5
;.t if yo. /.st have a &ord &ith a partic.lar /eaning to rhy/e &ith
another6 there are .s.ally no candidates at all5 nd if there are any6 in
/ost cases there is only one5 Co/8ining the t&o constraints of rhy/e
and /eaning can therefore red.ce the infor/ation a8o.t the partic.lar
&ord that /.st 8e 7ept in /e/ory to nothing? as long as the con0
straints are 7no&n6 the choice of &ord can 8e co/pletely deter/ined5
The learning of /aterial li7e poetry is greatly aided 8y these 7inds of
constraints6 &hich &or7 on the general sche/a for the class of poe/6
/eter6 and topic5
6ere is an e4a!ple. I a! thin$ing of three &ords: one !eans +a
!ythical #eing,+ the second is +the na!e of a #uilding !aterial,+ and
the third is +a unit of ti!e.+ ;hat &ords do I have in !ind) %lthough
you can pro#a#ly thin$ of three &ords that fit the descriptions, you are
not li$ely to get the sa!e three that I have in !ind. There si!ply are
not enough constraints.
*o& try a second tas$, this ti!e loo$ing for rhy!ing &ords. . a!
thin$ing of three &ords: one rhy!es &ith +post,+ the second &ith
+eel,+ and the third &ith +ear.+ ;hat &ords a! I thin$ing of)
8uppose I no& tell you that the &ords I see$ are the sa!e in #oth
tas$s: ;hat is a &ord that !eans a !ythical #eing and rhy!es &ith
+post+) ;hat &ord is the na!e of a #uilding !aterial and rhy!es &ith
+eel+) %nd &hat &ord is a unit of ti!e and rhy!es &ith +ear+) *o&
the tas$ is easy: the /oint specification of the &ords co!pletely con1
strains the selection.
I0 The Design of Everyday Things
In the psychology la#oratory, people al!ost never got the correct
!eanings or rhy!es for the first t&o tas$s, #ut they correctly ans&ered
+ghost,+ +steel,+ and +year+ in the co!#ined tas$ al!ost al&ays.
C
The classic st.dy of /e/ory for epic poetry &as done 8y l8ert
;ates Hord5 #e &ent to A.goslavia and fo.nd people &ho still follo&ed
the oral tradition5 #e de/onstrated that the 3singer of tales63 the
person &ho learns epic poe/s and goes fro/ village to village reciting
the/6 is really recreating the/6 co/posing poetry on the fly in s.ch a
&ay that it o8eys the rhyth/6 the/e6 story line6 str.ct.re6 and other
characteristics of the poe/5 This is a prodigio.s feat6 8.t it is not an
exa/ple of rote /e/ory5 $ather6 the practice ill.strates the i//ense
po&er of the /.ltiple constraints that allo& the singer to listen to
another singer tell a lengthy tale once6 and then Cafter a delay of a fe&
ho.rs or a dayD apparently recite 3the sa/e song6 &ord for &ord6 and
line for line53
+
,n fact6 as Hord points o.t6 the original and ne& recita0
tions are not the sa/e &ord for &ord5 ;.t the listener &o.ld perceive
the/ as the sa/e6 even if the second version &ere t&ice as long as the
first5 They are the sa/e in the &ays that /atter to the listener: they tell
the sa/e story6 express the sa/e ideas6 and follo& the sa/e rhy/e and
/eter5 They are the sa/e in all senses that /atter to the c.lt.re5 Hord
sho&s 4.st ho& the co/8ination of /e/ory for poetics6 the/e6 and
style co/8ine &ith c.lt.ral str.ct.res into &hat he calls a for/.la for
prod.cing an appropriate poe/6 perceived as identical to earlier recita0
tions5 The notion that so/eone sho.ld 8e a8le to recite &ord for &ord
is relatively /odern5 S.ch a notion can 8e held only after printed texts
8eco/e availa8le? other&ise &ho co.ld 4.dge the acc.racy of a recita0
tion@ Perhaps /ore i/portant6 &ho &o.ld care@ ll this is not to
detract fro/ the feat5 Hearning and reciting an epic poe/ s.ch as
#o/er9s Odyssey o4 Iliad is clearly diffic.lt even if the singer is recreating
it: there are 2C,000 lines of verse in the &ritten version5
2
=ost of .s do not learn epic poe/s5 ;.t &e do /a7e .se of strong
constraints that serve to si/plify &hat /.st 8e retained in /e/ory5
Consider an exa/ple fro/ a co/pletely different do/ain: ta7ing apart
and reasse/8ling a /echanical device5 Typical ite/s in the ho/e that
an advent.reso/e person /ight atte/pt to repair incl.de a door loc76
toaster6 and &ashing /achine5 The device is apt to have tens of parts5
What has to 8e re/e/8ered in order to p.t the parts together again in
proper order@ Not as /.ch as /ight appear fro/ an initial analysis5 ,n
the extre/e case6 if there are ten parts6 there are 10E C10 factorial: 10
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld ?.
O 2 O + 5 5 5D different &ays in &hich to reasse/8le the/:a little over
!5' /illion alternatives5 ;.t never can all possi8le orderings 8e pro0
d.ced: there &ill 8e a n./8er of physical constraints on the ordering5
So/e pieces /.st 8e asse/8led 8efore it is even possi8le to asse/8le
the others5 So/e pieces are physically constrained fro/ fitting into the
spots reserved for others: 8olts /.st fit into holes of an appropriate
dia/eter and depth? n.ts and &ashers /.st 8e paired &ith 8olts and
scre&s of appropriate si>es? and &ashers /.st al&ays 8e p.t on 8efore
n.ts5 There are even c.lt.ral constraints: &e t.rn scre&s cloc7&ise to
tighten6 co.ntercloc7&ise to loosen? the heads of scre&s tend to go on
the visi8le part Cfront or topD of a piece6 8olts on the less visi8le part
C8otto/6 side6 or interiorD of a piece? &ood scre&s and /achine scre&s
loo7 different and are inserted into different 7inds of /aterials5 ,n the
end6 the apparently large n./8er of decisions is red.ced to only a fe&
choices that sho.ld have 8een learned or other&ise noted d.ring the
disasse/8ly5 The constraints 8y the/selves are often not s.fficient to
deter/ine the proper reasse/8ly of the device:/ista7es do get
/ade:8.t the constraints red.ce the a/o.nt that /.st 8e learned to
a reasona8le <.antity5
=e/ory ,s %no&ledge
in the #ead
$e/e/8er the story of 9li ;a8a and the forty thieves@ 9li ;a8a dis0
covered the secret &ords that opened the thieves9 cave5 #is 8rother0
in0la&6 %asi/6 forced hi/ to reveal the secret5 %asi/ then &ent to the
cave5
+;hen he reached the entrance of the cavern, he pronounced the
&ords, Open 8i!si!9
+The door i!!ediately opened, and &hen he &as in, closed on hi!.
In e4a!ining the cave he &as greatly astonished to find !uch !ore
riches than he had e4pected fro! '%6 >a#a's relation. 6e -uic$ly lade
at the door of the cavern as !any #ags of gold as his ten !ules could
carry, #ut his thoughts &ere no& so full of the great riches he should
possess, that he could not thin$ of the necessary &ords to !a$e the
door open. Instead of Open 8i!si!9 he said Open >arley9 and &as
!uch a!a7ed to find that the door re!ained shut. 6e na!ed several
sorts of grain, #ut still the door &ould not open.
+,asi! never e4pected such an incident, and &as so alar!ed at the
I2 The Design of Everyday Things
danger he &as in that the !ore he endeavoured to re!e!#er the &ord
8i!si! the !ore his !e!ory &as confounded, and he had as !uch
forgotten it as if he had never heard it !entioned.+
%asi/ never got o.t5 The thieves ret.rned6 c.t off %asi/9 s head6 and
<.artered his 8ody5
10
T#E 6N%$?!A@ A.A?N%T +E+6!@
=ost of .s &ill not get o.r heads c.t off if &e fail to re/e/8er a secret
code6 8.t it can still 8e very hard to do5 ,t is one thing to have to
/e/ori>e one or t &o secrets: a co/8i nation6 or a pass&ord6 or the
secret to opening t he door5 ;.t &hen the n./8er of secret codes gets
too large6 /e/ory fails5 There see/s to 8e a conspiracy6 one calc.lated
to destroy o.r sanity 8y overloading o.r /e/ory5 Consider &hat &e
are as7ed to re/e/8er in o.r 3conveni ent 3 &orld5 si/ple search
t hro.gh /y o&n &allet and papers reveals t he follo&ing things5
F Postal codes ranging in the )nited States fro/ the 3short for/3
of five digits to the 3long for/3 of nine5 #./an short0ter/ /e/0
ory can co/forta8ly retain only a five0 to seven0digit n./8er6 yet
here , a/ as7ed to .se nine5 , need to 7no& the code for &here ,
live6 the code for &here , &or76 the codes for /y parents and for
/y children6 the codes for /y friends6 and the codes for anyone
&ith &ho/ , correspond reg.larly5 /erican codes6 s.ch as 0201"0
I201? ;ritish codes6 s.ch as WC1N !;G? Canadian codes6 s.ch as
=IP2-+5 ll for the sa7e of the /achinery6 and despite the fact
that addresses are perfectly sensi8le and nor/ally .na/8ig.o.s5
;.t /achines have tro.8le &ith addresses6 &hereas they can deal
&ith si/ple postal codes5
F Telephone n./8ers6 so/eti/es &ith area codes and extensions5
seven0digit n./8er 8eco/es ten &hen the area code is added6 and
then fo.rteen &hen there is a fo.r0digit extension5 ,nternational
codes6 &ith co.ntry code and city code6 add /ore digits5 #o& /any
telephone n./8ers /.st , 7no&@ =ore than , &ish to conte/plate5
ll /y personal contacts5 N./8ers for infor/ation6 ti/e6 and
&eather? the special n./8er for e/ergencies5 nd , /.stn9 t forget to
dial 2 Cor6 in so/e cases6 +D so that the call &ill go o.tside the
instit.tion or co/pany5
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld I!
F ccess n./8ers for telephone 8.dget cards6 so that &hen , /a7e
a long distance call fro/ /y .niversity6 , can ca.se the correct ac0
co.nt to pay the 8ill: a five0digit n./8er for each acco.nt Cand , have
fo.r of the/D5 *on9 t sho& these to anyone6 , a/ &arned5 %eep the/
hidden in a secret place5
F ccess n./8ers for telephone credit cards6 so &hen , travel , can
have the 8ill a.to/atically p.t on /y ho/e telephone n./8er5 The
codes consist of /y ho/e telephone n./8er pl.s fo.r secret digits5
The secret digits aren9 t even printed on the card: /e/ori>e and
destroy5 ;.t , have six of the/ Ct&o ho/e phone acco.nts and fo.r
different .niversity phone acco.ntsD5 ,f , &ant to dial a long distance
n./8er fro/ a hotel .sing one of /y telephone credit cards6 , /.st
dial as /any as thirty0six digits5
F Pass&ords or n./8ers for 8an7 a.to/atic teller /achines6 those
clever /achines that let yo. p.t in a card6 type in yo.r secret pass0
&ord6 and get /oney5 T&o 8an7 acco.nts6 t&o secret pass&ords5
*on9 t &rite the/ do&n6 a thief /ight see the/5 =e/ori>e5 =e/o0
ri>e5
F Secret pass&ords for /y co/p.ter acco.nts: can9 t let people steal
/y val.a8le data6 or perhaps change their co.rse grades6 or pee7 at
the exa/ination <.estions5 =a7e the pass&ord at least six characters
long6 &e are told5 nd no &ords:&ords are too easy for so/eone
to discover:/a7e it nonsense5 C, cheat and /a7e all /y co/p.ter
acco.nts .se the sa/e pass&ord5D
F *river9s license n./8er5 When , lived 8riefly in Texas , co.ldn9 t
do anything &itho.t /y driver9s license n./8er: not pay for food at
the s.per/ar7et6 not pay the telephone 8ill6 not even open .p a 8an7
acco.nt5 That &as one letter6 seven digits5 Other states have longer
n./8ers5
F Social sec.rity n./8ers for /e6 /y &ife6 and /y children5 Nine
digits each5
F Passport n./8ers6 again for /y &hole fa/ily5
F =y e/ployee n./8er5
F Hicense plate n./8ers for o.r cars5
F ;irthdays5
F ges5
F Clothing si>es5
F ddresses5
The Design of Everyday Things
F Credit card n./8ers5
F ;ah and h./8.g5
So /any of these n./8ers and codes /.st 8e 7ept secret5 ppar0
ently6 thieves are every&here6 4.st &aiting for /e to &rite do&n /y
secret pass&ord or n./8er6 anxio.s to /a7e that phone call on /y
acco.nt or to p.rchase ite/s &ith /y charge card5 There is no &ay that
, can learn all those n./8ers5 nd they 7eep changing6 any&ay6 so/e
of the/ ann.ally5 , even have tro.8le re/e/8ering ho& old , a/: it
changes every year too5 CP.ic7: &hat /agic phrase &as %asi/ trying
to re/e/8er to open the cavern door@D
#o& can &e re/e/8er all these things@ =ost of .s can9t6 even &ith
the .se of /ne/onics to /a7e so/e sense of nonsensical /aterial5
;oo7s and co.rses on i/proving /e/ory can &or76 8.t the /ethods
are la8orio.s to learn and need contin.ed practice to /aintain5 So &e
p.t the /e/ory in the &orld6 &riting things do&n in 8oo7s6 on scraps
of paper6 even on the 8ac7s of o.r hands5 ;.t &e disg.ise the/ to
th&art &o.ld08e thieves5 That creates another pro8le/: #o& do &e
disg.ise the ite/s6 ho& do &e hide the/6 and ho& do &e re/e/8er
&hat the disg.ise &as or &here &e p.t the/@ h6 the foi8les of
/e/ory5
Where sho.ld yo. hide so/ething so that no8ody else &ill find it@
,n .nli7ely places6 right@ =oney is hidden in the free>er6 4e&elry in the
/edicine ca8inet or in shoes in the closet5 The 7ey to the front door
is hidden .nder the /at or 4.st 8elo& the &indo& ledge5 The car 7ey
is .nder the 8./per5 The love letters are in a flo&er vase5 The pro8le/
is6 there aren9t that /any .nli7ely places in the ho/e5 Ao. /ay not
re/e/8er &here the love letters or 7eys are hidden6 8.t yo.r 8.rglar
&ill5 T&o psychologists &ho exa/ined the iss.e descri8ed the pro8le/
this &ay:
+There is often a logic involved in the choice of unli$ely places. "or
e4a!ple, a friend of ours &as re-uired #y her insurance co!pany to
ac-uire a safe if she &ished to insure her valua#le ge!s. Eecogni7ing
that she !ight forget the co!#ination to the safe, she thought carefully
a#out &here to $eep the co!#ination. 6er solution &as to &rite it in
her personal phone directory under the letter S ne4t to '5r. and 5rs.
8afe, 'as if it &ere a telephone nu!#er. There is a clear logic here: 8tore
nu!erical infor!ation &ith other nu!erical infor!ation. 8he &as ap1
palled, ho&ever, &hen she heard a refor!ed #urglar on a dayti!e
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld ?K
television tal$ sho& say that upon encountering a safe, he al&ays
headed for the phone directory #ecause !any people $eep the co!#i1
nation there.+
..
ll these n./8ers to re/e/8er add .p to .n&itting tyranny5 ,t is
ti/e for a revolt5
T#E ST$)CT)$E O( =E=O$A
+8ay aloud the nu!#ers ., C, @, 2, J. *e4t, &ithout loo$ing #ac$,
repeat the!. Try again if you !ust, perhaps closing your eyes, the
#etter to 'hear' the sound still echoing in !ental activity. 6ave so!e1
one read a rando! sentence to you. ;hat &ere the &ords) The !e!1
ory of the /ust present is availa#le i!!ediately, clear and co!plete,
&ithout !ental effort.
+;hat did you eat for dinner three days ago) *o& the feeling is
different. It ta$es ti!e to recover the ans&er, &hich is neither as clear
nor as co!plete a re!e!#rance as that of the /ust present, and the
recovery is li$ely to re-uire considera#le !ental effort. Eetrieval of the
past differs fro! retrieval of the /ust present. 5ore effort is re-uired,
less clarity results. Indeed, the 'past' need not #e so long ago. ;ithout
loo$ing #ac$, &hat &ere those digits) "or so!e people, this retrieval
no& ta$es ti!e and effort. +
.2
Psychologists disting.ish 8et&een t&o /a4or classes of /e/ory:
short0ter/ /e/ory and long0ter/ /e/ory Ca88reviated ST= and
HT=6 respectivelyD5 The t&o are <.ite different5 Short0ter/ /e/ory is
the /e/ory of the 4.st present5 ,nfor/ation is retained in it a.to/ati0
cally and retrieved &itho.t effort? 8.t the a/o.nt of infor/ation that
can 8e retained this &ay is severely li/ited5 So/ething li7e five to
seven ite/s is the li/it of ST=6 &ith the n./8er going to ten or t&elve
if a person also rehearses6 /entally repeating the ite/s to 8e retained5
Short0ter/ /e/ory is inval.a8le in the perfor/ance of everyday
tas7s6 in letting .s re/e/8er &ords6 na/es6 phrases6 and parts of tas7s5
,t acts as a &or7ing or te/porary /e/ory5 ;.t the /e/ory is <.ite
fragile5 Get distracted 8y so/e other activity and6 poof6 the st.ff in
ST= disappears5 ,t is capa8le of holding a five0digit postal code or
seven0digit telephone n./8er fro/ the ti/e yo. loo7 the/ .p .ntil
the ti/e they are .sed:as long as no distractions occ.r5 Nine0 or
II The Design of Everyday Things
ten0digit n./8ers give tro.8le6 and &hen the n./8er starts to exceed
t hat :don9 t 8other5 Wri t e i t do&n5 Or divide the n./8er into several
shorter seg/ents5
Hong0ter/ /e/ory is /e/ory for t he past5 s a r.le6 it ta7es ti/e
to p.t st.ff a&ay in HT= and ti/e and effort to get it o.t again5 This
is ho& &e /aintai n o.r experiences6 not as an exact recording of the
events6 8.t as interpreted t hro.gh o.r .nderst andi ng of the/6 s.84ect
to all t he distortions and changes t hat the h./an explanatory /echa0
nis/ i/poses .pon life5 #o& &ell &e can ever recover experiences and
7no&l edge fro/ HT= is highly dependent .pon ho& t he /aterial &as
interpreted in t he first place5 What is stored in HT= .nder one i nterpre0
tation pro8a8l y cannot 8e fo.nd later on &hen so.ght .nder so/e
other interpretation5 s for ho& large t he /e/ory is6 no8ody really
7no&s: 8illions of ite/s6 pro8a8ly5 One infor/ed scientist esti/ates
the capacity as a 8illion C10
2
D 8its or a8o.t 100 /illion C10
+
D ite/s5
1!
What ever t he si>e6 it is so large as not to i/pose any practical li/it5 The
diffic.lty &it h HT= is in organi>ation:in getting /aterial in and in
fig.ring o.t ho& to retrieve it:not in capacity5 Storage and retrieval
are easier &hen t he /aterial /a7es sense6 &hen it fits into &hat is
already 7no&n5 When the /aterial /a7es no sense6 it &ill have to 8e
&or7ed on6 str.ct.red6 and interpreted6 .nti l finally it can 8e retained5
#./an /e/ory is essentially 7no&l edge in t he head6 or internal
7no&ledge5 ,f &e exa/ine ho& people .se their /e/ories and ho&
they retrieve infor/ation6 &e discover a n./8er of categories5 Three
are i /port ant for .s no&:
15 5e!ory for ar#itrary things. The ite/s to 8e retained see/ ar8itrary6
&ith no /eaning and no partic.lar relationship to one other or to
things already 7no&n5
25 5e!ory for !eaningful relationships. The ite/s to 8e retained for/
/eaningf.l relationships &ith the/selves or &ith other things al0
ready 7no&n5
!5 5e!ory through e4planation. The /aterial does not have to 8e re/e/0
8ered6 8.t rather can 8e derived fro/ so/e explanatory /echanis/5
+E+6!@ F6! A!B?T!A!@ TH?N.%
r8itrary 7no&l edge can 8e classified as t he si/ple re/e/8ering of
&hat is to 8e done6 &i t ho.t reliance on an .nderst andi ng of &hy or on
internal str.ct.re5 This is ho& &e learned the alpha8et and ho& to tie
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld ?C
a shoelace5 ,t is even ho& &e learned the /.ltiplication ta8les6 that !
ti/es 2 is I6 altho.gh for that &e co.ld refer to an external str.ct.re5
This is ho& &e are expected to learn ar8itrary codes to operate the
/odern6 /is8egotten telephone syste/5 ,t is also ho& &e are forced to
learn /any proced.res re<.ired of /odern technology: 3To load this
progra/6 p.t the floppy dis7ette into drive and type HT =O*E6
CONT$OH0S#,(T0O6 *EHETE53 This is rote learning6 the 8ane of
/odern existence5
$ote learning creates pro8le/s5 (irst6 8eca.se &hat is 8eing learned
is ar8itrary6 the learning is diffic.lt: it can ta7e considera8le ti/e and
effort5 Second6 &hen a pro8le/ arises6 the /e/ori>ed se<.ence of
actions gives no hint of &hat has gone &rong6 no s.ggestion of &hat
/ight 8e done to fix the pro8le/5 ltho.gh so/e things are appropri0
ate to learn 8y rote Cthe letters of the alpha8et6 for exa/pleD6 /ost are
not5 las6 it is still the do/inant /ethod of instr.ction in /any school
syste/s6 and even for /.ch ad.lt training5 This is ho& so/e people
are ta.ght to .se co/p.ters6 or to coo75 ,t is ho& &e have to learn to
.se so/e of the ne& Cpoorly designedD gadgets of o.r technology5
=ost psychologists &o.ld arg.e that it is not really possi8le to learn
ar8itrary associations or se<.ences5 Even &here there appears to 8e no
str.ct.re6 people /an.fact.re so/e artificial and .s.ally rather .n0
satisfactory one6 &hich is &hy the learning is so 8ad5 (or o.r p.rposes
it does not /atter &hether ar8itrary learning is i/possi8le or si/ply
very diffic.lt6 the end res.lt is the sa/e: it is not the 8est &ay to go6
not if there is any choice in the /atter5 Th.s6 in teaching the alpha8et6
&e try to /a7e it into a t.ne6 .sing the nat.ral constraints of rhy/e
and rhyth/ to si/plify the /e/ory load5 People &ho have learned to
.se co/p.ters or coo7 8y rote are pro8a8ly not very good5 Since they
do not .nderstand the reasons for their actions6 they /.st find tas7s
ar8itrary and strange5 When so/ething goes &rong6 they don9t 7no&
&hat to do C.nless they9ve /e/ori>ed sol.tionsD5 ltho.gh rote learn0
ing is at ti/es necessary or efficient:so that e/ergency proced.res for
things li7e high0speed /ilitary 4et aircraft are handled <.ic7ly6 a.to0
/atically &hen the need arises:on the &hole6 it is /ost .nsatisfac0
tory5
+E+6!@ F6! +EAN?N.F7L !ELAT?6N%H?$%
=ost things in the &orld have a sensi8le str.ct.re6 &hich tre/en0
do.sly si/plifies the /e/ory tas75 When things /a7e sense6 they
correspond to 7no&ledge that &e already have6 so the ne& /aterial can
I+ The Design of Everyday Things
8e .nderstood6 interpreted6 and integrated &ith previo.sly ac<.ired
/aterial5 No& &e can .se r.les and constraints to help .nderstand
&hat things go together5 =eaningf.l str.ct.re can organi>e apparent
chaos and ar8itrariness5
$e/e/8er the disc.ssion of /ental /odels in chapter 2@ Part of the
po&er of a good /ental /odel lies in its a8ility to provide /eaning to
things5 Het9s loo7 at an exa/ple to sho& ho& a /eaningf.l interpreta0
tion transfor/s an apparently ar8itrary tas7 into a nat.ral one5 Note
that the appropriate interpretation /ay not at first 8e o8vio.s? it6 too6
is 7no&ledge and has to 8e discovered5
% :apanese colleague, call hi! 5r. Tana$a, had difficulty re!e!#er1
ing ho& to use the turn1signal s&itch on his !otorcycle's left handle1
#ar. 5oving the s&itch for&ard signaled a right turn, #ac$&ard a left
turn. The !eaning of the s&itch &as clear and una!#iguous, #ut the
direction in &hich it should #e !oved &as not. Tana$a $ept thin$ing
that #ecause the s&itch &as on the left handle#ar, pushing it for&ard
should signal a left turn. That is, he &as trying to !ap the action +push
the left s&itch for&ard+ to the intention +turn left,+ &hich &as &rong.
%s a result, he had trou#le re!e!#ering &hich s&itch direction should
#e used for &hich turning direction. 5ost !otorcycles have the turn1
signal s&itch !ounted differently, rotated B0Q, so that !oving it left
signals a left turn, !oving it right a right turn. This !apping is easy
to learn 0it is a natural !apping2. >ut the turn s&itch on Tana$a's
!otorcycle !oved for&ard and #ac$, not left and right. 6o& could he
learn it)
5r. Tana$a solved the pro#le! #y reinterpreting the action. on1
sider the &ay the handle#ars of the !otorcycle turn. "or a left turn, the
left handle#ar !oves #ac$&ard. "or a right turn, the left handle#ar
!oves for&ard. The re-uired s&itch !ove!ents e4actly paralleled the
handle#ar !ove!ents. If the tas$ is reconceptuali7ed as signaling the
direction of !otion of the handle#ars rather than the direction of the
!otorcycle, the s&itch !otion can #e seen to !i!ic the desired !otionD
finally &e have a natural !apping. %t first, the !otion of the s&itch
see!ed ar#itrary, indirect, and difficult to re!e!#er. ;ith the proper
interpretation, the s&itch !otion is direct and logical, and, as a result,
easy to learn and to use. % !eaningful relationship can #e indispens1
a#le, #ut you have to have the right one.
1"
Witho.t the proper interpretation6 it &as diffic.lt to re/e/8er the
s&itch directions5 With it6 8oth the re/e/8ering and the perfor/ance
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld ?g
of the tas7 8eca/e trivial5 Note that Tana7a9s interpretation of the
s&itch /ove/ent did not e4plain anything5 ,t si/ply let hi/ relate the
proper direction to /ove the s&itch &ith the direction in &hich he &as
t.rning the /otorcycle5 The interpretation is essential6 8.t it sho.ld
not 8e conf.sed &ith .nderstanding5
+E+6!@ TH!67.H EA$LANAT?6N
No& &e co/e to a different6 /ore po&erf.l for/ of internal /e/ory:
.nderstanding5 People are explanatory creat.res6 as , sho&ed in chapter
25 Explanations and interpretations of events are f.nda/ental to
h./an perfor/ance6 8oth in .nderstanding the &orld and in learning
and re/e/8ering5 #ere /ental /odels play a /a4or role5 =ental /od0
els si/plify learning6 in part 8eca.se the details of the re<.ired 8ehav0
ior can 8e derived &hen needed5 They can 8e inval.a8le in dealing &ith
.nexpected sit.ations5 Note that the .se of /ental /odels to re/e/8er
Cin this case6 deriveD 8ehavior is not ideal for tas7s that /.st 8e done
rapidly and s/oothly5 The derivation ta7es ti/e and re<.ires /ental
reso.rces6 neither of &hich /ay 8e in great s.pply d.ring critical
incidents5 =ental /odels let people derive appropriate 8ehavior for
sit.ations that are not re/e/8ered Cor never 8efore enco.nteredD5 Peo0
ple pro8a8ly /a7e .p /ental /odels for /ost of the things they do5
This is &hy designers sho.ld provide .sers &ith appropriate /odels:
&hen they are not s.pplied6 people are li7ely to /a7e .p inappropriate
ones5
1'
The se&ing !achine provides a good e4a!ple of the po&er of a
!ental !odel. % se&ing !achine is a !ysterious #east, !anaging to
loop an upper thread through a lo&er thread, even though each thread
is al&ays connected to its spool or #o##in, respectively. The !ental
!odel has to e4plain ho& the upper thread goes through the !aterial
#eing se&n, dips under the surface plate, and then loops around the
lo&er thread.
The proper !odel, it turns out, is so!ething li$e this. Picture the
lo&er #o##in held gently in the !achine #y a $ind of cup &ith sloping
sides. The cup $eeps the #o##in sta#le, allo&ing it to rotate so its
thread can #e un&ound. (et the cup is loose enough so that the upper
thread can go inside the cup and around the #o##in:and therefore
around the #otto! thread. ;hen the upper needle goes through the
!ateriaG and under the plate, a rotating hoo$ gra#s its thread and
1o The Design of Everyday Things
guides it #et&een the inner &alls of the cup and the outer &alls of the
#o##in case. This helps e4plain &hy the !achine &on't &or$ properly
if the #o##in is #ent, even if the #o##in still appears to fit and the
#otto! thread unrolls properly. It e4plains &hy dirt on the #o##in or
in the cup &ill !ess things up, and &hy certain $inds of upper thread
!ight cause !ore trou#le than others. 0% thic$ upper thread, especially
one that &as rough or stic$y, !ight not go s!oothly around the #o#1
#in.2
To #e honest, I don't $no& if anything I /ust said a#out the failures
of #o##ins is true. I derived each e4a!ple fro! !y !ental !odel of
a se&ing !achine. I can't se&. >ut &hen *ao!i 5iya$e did her re1
search for her doctoral thesis in !y la#oratory, she studied people's
understanding of se&ing and of the !achines. The result &as t&ofold:
a fine piece of research for her and a !ental !odel for !e. 8o no& I
can derive &hat &ould happen, even if it has never happened to !e.
The po&er of /ental /odels is that they let yo. fig.re o.t &hat
&o.ld happen in novel sit.ations5 Or6 if yo. are act.ally doing the tas7
and there is a pro8le/6 they let yo. fig.re o.t &hat is happening5 ,f
the /odel is &rong6 yo. &ill 8e &rong too5 / , right a8o.t the se&ing
/achine@ *ecide for yo.rself: go loo7 at one5
%fter &ord got out that I &as collecting instances of design peculiari1
ties, a friend reported the follo&ing a#out the sunroof of his ne& car,
an %udi. 8upposedly, if the ignition is not on, the sunroof cannot #e
operated. 6o&ever, a !echanic e4plained that you could close the
sunroof even &ithout the ignition $ey if you turned on the headlights
and then 0.2 pulled #ac$ on the turn1signal stal$ 0&hich nor!ally
s&itches the headlights to high #ea!2, and 022 pushed the close control
for the sunroof.
5y friend said that it &as thoughtful of %udi to provide this over1
ride of the ignition $ey in case the sunroof &as open &hen it started
raining. (ou could close it even if you didn't have your $ey. >ut &e
#oth &ondered &hy the se-uence &as so peculiar.
Ever s$eptical, I as$ed to see the !anual for the car. The !anual &as
e4plicit: +(ou cannot &or$ the sunroof if the ignition is off. +% si!ilar
state!ent appeared in the discussion of the electrically po&ered &in1
do&s. 5y friend's !ental !odel &as functional: it e4plained &hy you
&ould &ant such a feature, #ut not ho& it &or$ed. If the feature &as
so desira#le, &hy &as it not !entioned in the !anual)
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld 11
;e searched for another e4planation. Perhaps it &asn't a design
feature, after all. Perhaps it &as an accident of design. Perhaps turning
on the lights and pulling #ac$ on the stal$ connected the electrical
po&er to the car, overriding the fact that the ignition $ey &as off. This
&ould allo& the sunroof to &or$, #ut only as a #y1product of the &ay
the lights &ere &ired.
This !odel &as !ore specific. It e4plained &hat &as happening and
allo&ed us to predict that all electrical ite!s should &or$. 8o &e
chec$ed. Turning on the light s&itch &ithout engaging the ignition did
not turn on the headlightsD only the par$ing lights &ent on. >ut &hen
&e also pulled #ac$ on the turn1signal stal$, the headlights did turn on,
even though the ignition &as off. ;ith the stal$ pulled #ac$, the
sunroof &ould close and open. The &indo&s &ould close and open.
The fan on the heating syste! &or$ed. 8o did the radio. This &as an
effective !ental !odel. *o& &e could understand #etter &hat &as
happening, predict ne& results, and !ore easily re!e!#er the peculiar
set of operations re-uired for the tas$.
=e/ory ,s lso %no&ledge
in the World
s &e have seen6 7no&ledge in the &orld6 external 7no&ledge6 can 8e
very val.a8le5 ;.t it6 too6 has dra&8ac7s5 (or one6 it is availa8le only
if yo. are there6 in the appropriate sit.ation5 When yo. are so/e&here
else6 or if the &orld has changed /ean&hile6 the 7no&ledge is gone5
The critical /e/ory aids provided 8y the external infor/ation are
a8sent6 and so the tas7 or ite/ /ay not 8e re/e/8ered5 fol7 saying
capt.res this sit.ation &ell: +Out of sight, out of !ind. +
$E=,N*,NG
One of the /ost i/portant and interesting aspects of the role of exter0
nal /e/ory is re/inding6 a good exa/ple of the interplay 8et&een
7no&ledge in the head and in the &orld5 S.ppose a neigh8oring fa/ily
as7s yo. to ta7e the/ to the airport5 Ao. agree to ta7e the/ next
Sat.rday at !:!0 P5=5 NOW the 7no&ledge is in yo.r head6 8.t ho& are
yo. going to re/e/8er it at the proper ti/e@ Ao. &ill need to 8e
re/inded5 There are /any strategies for re/inding5 One is si/ply to
7eep the infor/ation in yo.r head5 ,f the event is i/portant eno.gh6
12 The Design of Everyday Things
yo. co.nt on having it co/e repeatedly to /ind:&hat psychologists
call rehearsal:so that yo. can si/ply ass./e that there &ill 8e no
diffic.lty at all re/e/8ering &hen to leave on Sat.rday5 Ao. can 7eep
the infor/ation in yo.r head especially &hen the event is of great
personal i/portance: s.ppose yo. are catching the plane for yo.r first
trip to Paris5 Ao. &on9t have any pro8le/ re/e/8ering5 ;.t 7eeping
the 7no&ledge in yo.r head is not ordinarily a good re/inding tech0
ni<.e5
S.ppose the event is not personally i/portant6 it is several days
a&ay6 and yo. are leading a very 8.sy life5 No& yo.9d 8etter transfer
so/e of the 8.rden of re/e/8ering to the o.tside &orld5 #ere is &here
yo. .se notes to yo.rself6 or poc7et and des7 calendars or diaries6 or
electronic alar/ cloc7s that can 8e set for ti/e of day and date5 Or yo.
can as7 a friend to re/ind yo.5 Those of .s &ith secretaries p.t the
8.rden on the/5 They6 in t.rn6 &rite notes6 enter events on calendars6
or set an alar/ on the co/p.ter syste/ Cif it is &ell eno.gh designed
that they can fig.re o.t ho& to &or7 itD5
good re/inding /ethod is to p.t the 8.rden on the thing itself5
*o /y neigh8ors &ant /e to ta7e the/ to the airport@ (ine6 8.t they
have to call /e .p the night 8efore and re/ind /e5 *o , &ant to
re/e/8er to ta7e a 8oo7 to the .niversity to give to a colleag.e@ , p.t
the 8oo7 so/eplace &here , cannot fail to see it &hen , leave the ho.se5
good spot is against the front door of the ho.se5 , can9t leave &itho.t
tripping over the 8oo75 ,f , a/ at a friend9s ho.se and , 8orro& a paper
or a 8oo76 , re/e/8er to ta7e it 8y p.tting /y car 7eys on it5 Then
&hen , leave6 , a/ re/inded5 Even if , forget and go o.t to /y car6 ,
can9t drive a&ay &itho.t the 7eys5
There are t&o different aspects to a re!inder: the signal and the
!essage. :ust as in doing an action &e can distinguish #et&een $no&1
ing &hat can #e done and $no&ing ho& to do it, in re!inding &e !ust
distinguish #et&een $no&ing that so!ething is to #e re!e!#ered and
re!e!#ering &hat it is. 5ost popular re!inding devices provide only
one of these t&o critical aspects. The fa!ous +tie a string around your
finger+ re!inder provides only the signal. It gives no hint of &hat is
to #e re!e!#ered. ;riting a note to yourself provides only the !es1
sageD it doesn't re!ind you ever to loo$ at it. 0Tying a $not in your
hand$erchiefOarel!an's device in figure =.2:provides neither sig1
nal nor !essage.2 The ideal re!inder has to have #oth co!ponents: the
signal that so!ething is to #e re!e!#ered, the !essage of &hat it is.
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld 1!
2)- arelman*s $reknotted Handkerchief) What
an aid to the forgetf.l:except that the act of tying
the 7not is pro8a8ly 4.st as .sef.l a /e/ory c.e as
the 7not itself5 CBac<.es Carel/an: 3Pre7notted
#and7erchief3 Copyright J 12I201I0+0 Bac<.es
Carel/an and 5 *5 5 G5 P5 Paris5 (ro/ Bac<.es
Carel/an6 atalog of 3nfinda#le O#/ects. ;alland6 edi0
te.r6 Paris0(rance5 )sed 8y per/ission of the artist5D
The need for ti/ely re/inders has created loads of prod.cts that
/a7e it easier to p.t the 7no&ledge in the &orld:alar/ cloc7s6 diaries6
calendars5 variety of sophisticated &atches and s/all6 calc.lator0
si>ed re/inding devices are starting to appear5 So far they are li/ited
in po&er and diffic.lt to .se5 ;.t , 8elieve there is a need for the/5
They 4.st need /ore &or76 8etter technology6 and 8etter design5
;ould you li$e a poc$et1si7e device that re!inded you of each
appoint!ent and daily event) I &ould. I a! &aiting for the day &hen
porta#le co!puters #eco!e s!all enough that I can $eep one &ith !e
at all ti!es. I &ill definitely put all !y re!inding #urdens upon it. It
has to #e s!all. It has to #e convenient to use. %nd it has to #e relatively
po&erful, at least #y today's standards. It has to have a full, standard
type&riter $ey#oard and a reasona#ly large display. It needs good
graphics, #ecause that !a$es a tre!endous difference in usa#ility, and
a lot of !e!ory:a huge a!ount, actually. %nd it should #e easy to
hoo$ up to the telephoneD I need to connect it to !y ho!e and la#ora1
tory co!puters. Of course, it should #e relatively ine4pensive.
;hat I as$ for is not unreasona#le. The technology I need is availa1
#le today. It's /ust that the full pac$age has never #een put together,
partly #ecause the cost in today's &orld &ould #e prohi#itive. >ut it
&ill e4ist in i!perfect for! in five years, possi#ly in perfect for! in
ten.
1" The Design of Everyday Things
NAT7!AL +A$$?N.%
The arrange/ent of 8.rners and controls on the 7itchen stove provides
a good exa/ple of the po&er of nat.ral /appings to red.ce the need
for infor/ation in /e/ory5 Witho.t a good /apping6 the .ser cannot
readily deter/ine &hich 8.rner goes &ith &hich control5 Consider the
standard stove &ith fo.r 8.rners6 arranged in the traditional rectangle5
,f the fo.r controls &ere tr.ly ar8itrary6 as in fig.re !5!6 the .ser &o.ld
have to learn each control separately: t&enty0fo.r possi8le arrange0
/ents5 Why t&enty0fo.r@ Start &ith the left/ost control: it co.ld
&or7 any of the fo.r 8.rners5 That leaves three possi8ilities for the
next left/ost5 So there are 12 C" O !D possi8le arrange/ents of the first
t&o controls: fo.r for the first6 three for the second5 The third control
co.ld &or7 either of the t&o re/aining 8.rners6 and then there is only
one 8.rner left for the last control5 This /a7es t&enty0fo.r possi8le
/appings 8et&een the controls and 8.rners: " O ! O 2 O 1 K 2"5
With the co/pletely ar8itrary arrange/ent6 the stove is .n&or7a8le
.nless each control is f.lly la8eled to indicate &hich 8.rner it controls5
=ost stoves have controls arranged in a line6 even tho.gh the 8.rn0
ers are arranged rectang.larly5 Controls are not /apped nat.rally to
8.rners5 s a res.lt6 yo. have to learn &hich control goes &ith &hich
8.rner5 Consider ho& the .se of spatial analogies can relieve the /e/0
ory 8.rden5 Start &ith a partial /apping that is in co//on .se today:
the controls are segregated into left and right halves6 as in fig.re !5"5
No& &e need 7no& only &hich left 8.rner each of the t&o left controls
affects and &hich right 8.rner each right control affects:t&o alterna0
tives for each of the fo.r 8.rners5 The n./8er of possi8le arrange0
/ents is no& only fo.r:t&o possi8ilities for each side: <.ite a red.c0
tion fro/ the t&enty0fo.r5 ;.t the controls /.st still 8e la8eled6 &hich
indicates that the /apping is still i/perfect5 Since so/e of the infor/a0
tion is no& in the spatial arrange/ent6 each control need only 8e
la8eled 8ac7 or front? the left and right la8els are no longer needed5
What a8o.t a proper6 f.ll6 nat.ral /apping6 &ith the controls spa0
tially arranged in the sa/e pattern as the 8.rners6 as in fig.re !5'@ The
organi>ation of the controls no& carries all the infor/ation re<.ired5
We 7no& i//ediately &hich control goes &ith &hich 8.rner5 S.ch is
the po&er of nat.ral /apping5 We can see that the n./8er of possi8le
se<.ences has 8een red.ced fro/ t&enty0fo.r to one5
1I
,f all possi8le
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld 75
"ack Front "ack Front
Ri+ht Le&t Le&t Ri+ht
09
BACK
FRONT FRONT BACK
2)2 Ar=itrary Arrangement of %tove ontrols Ctop of opposite pageD5 Co.ple
the .s.al rectang.lar arrange/ent of 8.rners &ith this ar8itrary ro& of controls6
and there is tro.8le: &hich control goes &ith &hich 8.rner@ Ao. don9 t 7no& .nless
the controls are la8eled5 The /e/ory load for this arrange/ent is high: there are
t&enty0fo.r possi8le arrange/ents6 and yo. have to re/e/8er &hich of the
t&enty0fo.r this one is5 (ort.nately6 the controls are seldo/ arranged <.ite this
ar8itrarily5
2)5 $aired %tove ontrols C8otto/ of opposite pageD5 This is the type of partial
/apping of controls to 8.rners in co//on .se today5 The t&o controls on the left
&or7 the left 8.rners6 and the t&o controls on the right &or7 the right 8.rners5
No& there are only fo.r possi8le arrange/ents Ct&o for each sideD5 Even so6
conf.sion is possi8le Cand6 , can ass.re yo.6 it occ.rs oftenD5
2)8 Full Natural +a""ing of ontrols and Burners C8elo&D5 T&o of the Possi0
8le Ways5 There is no a/8ig.ity6 no need for learning or re/e/8ering6 no need
for la8els5 Why can9 t all stoves 8e li7e these@
77
nat.ral /appings &ere applied in o.r lives6 t he c./.lative effect
&o.l d 8e enor/o.s5
The pro8le/ of t he stove t op /ay see/ trivial6 8.t in fact it is a ca.se
of great fr.stration for /any ho/eo&ners5 Why do stove designers
insist on arranging t he 8.rners in a rectang.lar pat t ern and t he controls
in a ro&@ We have 7no&n for forty years 4.st ho& 8ad s.ch an arrange0
/ent is5 So/eti/es the stove co/es &i t h clever little diagra/s to
indicate &hi ch control &or7s &hi ch 8.rner5 So/eti/es there is a short
la8el5 ;.t the proper nat .ral /appi ng re<.ires no diagra/s6 no la8els6
and no instr.ctions5 There is a si/ple design principle l.r7ing here:
,f a design depends .pon la8els6 it /ay 8e fa.lty5 Ha8els are i/por0
tant and often necessary6 8.t the appropriate .se of nat.ral /appings
can /ini/i>e the need for the/5 Wherever la8els see/ necessary6
consider another design5
The sha/e a8o.t stove design is t hat it isn9 t hard to do right5 Text 0
8oo7s of ergono/ics6 h./an factors6 psychology6 and ind.strial engi 0
neering all sho& vario.s sensi8le sol.tions5 nd so/e stove /an.fac0
t.rers do .se good designs5 Oddl y6 so/e of t he very 8est and t he very
&orst are /an.fact.red 8y t he sa/e co/panies and are ill.strated side
8y side in t he sa/e catalogs5
Why do designers insist on fr.strating .sers@ Why do .sers still
p.rchase stoves t hat ca.se so /.ch tro.8le@ Why not revolt and ref.se
to 8.y t he/ .nless t he controls have an intelligent relationship to t he
8.rners@ , 8o.ght a 8ad one /yself5
3sa#ility is not often thought of as a criterion during the purchasing
process. 5oreover, unless you actually test a nu!#er of units in a
realistic environ!ent doing typical tas$s, you are not li$ely to notice
the ease or difficulty of use. If you /ust loo$ at so!ething, it appears
straightfor&ard enough, and the array of &onderful features see!s to
#e a virtue. (ou !ay not reali7e that you &on't #e a#le to figure out
ho& to use those features. I urge you to test products #efore you #uy
the!. Pretending to coo$ a !eal, or setting the channels on a video set,
or atte!pting to progra! a HE &ill do. Do it right there in the store.
Do not #e afraid to !a$e !ista$es or as$ stupid -uestions. Ee!e!#er,
any pro#le!s you have are pro#a#ly the design's fault, not yours.
% !a/or pro#le! is that often the purchaser is not the user. %ppli1
ances !ay #e in a ho!e &hen people !ove in. In the office, the pur1
chasing depart!ent orders e-uip!ent #ased upon such factors as price,
The Design of Everyday Things
personal relationships &ith the supplier, and perhaps relia#ility: us1
a#ility is seldo! considered. "inally, even &hen the purchaser is the
end user, it is so!eti!es necessary to trade one desira#le feature for
an undesira#le one. In the case of !y fa!ily's stove, &e did not li$e
the arrange!ent of controls, #ut &e #ought the stove any&ay: &e
traded off layout of the #urner controls for another feature that &as
!ore i!portant to us and availa#le only fro! one !anufacturer. 0I
return to these issues in chapter ?.2
The Tradeoff 8et&een %no&ledge
in the World and in the #ead
%no&ledge Cor infor/ationD in the &orld and in the head are 8oth
essential in o.r daily f.nctioning5 ;.t to so/e extent &e can choose
to lean /ore heavily on one or the other5 That choice re<.ires a trade0
!5I Tradeoffs
2RO2ERT$ 1NO4LEDGE IN THE 4ORLD 1NO4LEDGE IN THE HEAD
Retrievability
Learning
Efficiency of use
Ease of use at
first encounter
Aesthetics
Retrie0a/le hene0er 0isi/le
or a')i/le.
Learnin+ not re='ire).
Inter-retation s'/stit'tes &or
learnin+. Ho eas( it is to
inter-ret in&ormation in the
orl) )e-en)s '-on ho
ell it e*-loits nat'ral
ma--in+s an) constraints.
Ten)s to /e sloe) '- /(
the nee) to &in) an)
inter-ret the e*ternal
in&ormation.
Hi+h.
Can /e 'naesthetic an)
inele+ant, es-eciall( i& there
is a nee) to maintain a lot o&
in&ormation. This can lea) to
cl'tter. In the en), aesthetic
a--eal )e-en)s '-on the
skill o& the )esi+ner.
Not rea)il( retrie0a/le.
Re='ires memor( search or
remin)in+.
Re='ires learnin+, hich can
/e consi)era/le. Learnin+ is
ma)e easier i& there is
meanin+ o& str'ct're to the
material (or i& there is a
+oo) mental mo)el!.
Can /e 0er( e&&icient.
Lo.
Nothin+ nee) /e 0isi/le,
hich +i0es more &ree)om
to the )esi+ner, hich in
t'rn can lea) to /etter
aesthetics.
T6EEE: ,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld Cg
off:gaining the advantages of 7no&ledge in the &orld /eans losing
the advantages of 7no&ledge in the head Cfig.re !5ID5
%no&ledge in the &orld acts as its o&n re/inder5 ,t can help .s
recover str.ct.res that &e other&ise &o.ld forget5 %no&ledge in the
head is efficient: no search and interpretation of the environ/ent is
re<.ired5 ,n order to .se 7no&ledge in the head &e have to get it there6
&hich /ight re<.ire considera8le a/o.nts of learning5 %no&ledge in
the &orld is easier to learn6 8.t often /ore diffic.lt to .se5 nd it relies
heavily .pon the contin.ed physical presence of the infor/ation?
change the environ/ent and the infor/ation is changed5 Perfor/ance
relies .pon the physical presence of the tas7 environ/ent5
$e/inders provide a good exa/ple of the relative tradeoffs 8et&een
the roles of internal vers.s external 7no&ledge5 %no&ledge in the
&orld is accessi8le5 ,t is self0re/inding5 ,t is al&ays there6 &aiting to
8e seen6 &aiting to 8e .sed5 That is &hy &e str.ct.re o.r offices and
o.r places of &or7 so caref.lly5 We p.t piles of papers &here they can
8e seen6 or if &e li7e a clean des76 &e p.t the/ in standardi>ed loca0
tions and teach o.rselves C7no&ledge in the headD to loo7 in these
standard places ro.tinely5 We .se cloc7s and calendars and notes5
%no&ledge in the /ind is ephe/eral: here no&6 gone later5 We can9t
co.nt on so/ething 8eing present in /ind at any partic.lar ti/e6 .nless
it is triggered 8y so/e external event or .nless &e deli8erately 7eep it
in /ind thro.gh constant repetition C&hich then prevents .s fro/
having other conscio.s tho.ghtsD5 O.t of sight6 o.t of /ind5
11
+0 The Design of Everyday Things
C # P T E $ ( O) $
%NOW, NG W#T
TO *O
+'. I read a ne&s ite! a#out a ne& videotape1
only player and re/oiced &hen the &riter too$ a
healthy s&ipe at the inco!prehensi#le instruc1
tions that acco!pany HEs. I can't even set the
ti!e of day on !ine9
+There are !any consu!ers out here li$e !e:th&arted #y an un1
fatho!a#le !achine and #affled #y senseless instructions.
+Is there anyone, any&here &ho &ill translate OE give a short
course in HE at play school level)+
.
-ideo cassette recorders:-C$s:can 8e frightening to people &ho
are .nfa/iliar &ith the/5 ,ndeed6 the n./8er of options6 8.ttons6
controls6 displays6 and possi8le co.rses of action is for/ida8le5 ;.t at
least &hen &e have tro.8le operating a -C$ &e have so/ething to
8la/e: the /achine9s 8e&ildering appearance and the lac7 of cl.es to
s.ggest &hat can 8e done and ho& to do it5 Even /ore fr.strating6
ho&ever6 is that &e often have tro.8le &or7ing devices that &e expect
to 8e si/ple5
The diffic.lty of dealing &ith novel sit.ations is directly related to
the n./8er of possi8ilities5 The .ser loo7s at the sit.ation and tries to
discover &hich parts can 8e operated and &hat operations can 8e done5
+1
Pro8le/s occ.r &henever there is /ore than one possi8ility5 ,f there
is only one part that can 8e operated and only one possi8le action to
do6 there &ill 8e no diffic.lty5 Of co.rse6 if the designer has 8een too
clever6 hiding all the visi8le cl.es6 the .ser /ay 8elieve there are no
alternatives and not even 7no& ho& to 8egin5
When &e enco.nter a novel o84ect6 ho& can &e tell &hat to do &ith
it@ Either &e have dealt &ith so/ething si/ilar in the past and transfer
old 7no&ledge to the ne& o84ect6 or &e o8tain instr.ction5 ,n these
cases6 the infor/ation &e need is in the head5 nother approach is to
.se infor/ation in the &orld6 partic.larly if the design of the ne&
o84ect has presented .s &ith infor/ation that can 8e interpreted5
#o& can design signal the appropriate actions@ To ans&er the <.es0
tion &e 8.ild .pon the principles disc.ssed in chapter !5 One i/por0
tant set of signals co/es thro.gh the nat.ral constraints of o84ects6
physical constraints that li/it &hat can 8e done5 nother set of signals
co/es fro/ the affordances of o84ects6 &hich convey /essages a8o.t
their possi8le .ses6 actions6 and f.nctions5 flat plate affords p.shing6
an e/pty container affords filling6 and so on5 ffordances can signal
ho& an o84ect can 8e /oved6 &hat it &ill s.pport6 and &hether any0
thing &ill fit into its crevices6 over it6 or .nder it5 Where do &e gra8
it6 &hich parts /ove6 and &hich parts are fixed@ ffordances s.ggest
the range of possi8ilities6 constraints li/it the n./8er of alternatives5
The tho.ghtf.l .se of affordances and constraints together in design
lets a .ser deter/ine readily the proper co.rse of action6 even in a novel
sit.ation5
Classification
of Everyday Constraints
To .nderstand the operation of constraints 8etter6 , did so/e si/ple
experi/ents5 , as7ed people to p.t things together fro/ the parts given
the/? they had never seen the finished str.ct.re6 and they &ere not
even told &hat they sho.ld 8e constr.cting5
2
Het /e ill.strate &ith one
of the exa/ples: 8.ilding a /otorcycle fro/ a Hego set Ca children9s
constr.ction toyD5
The Hego /otorcycle Cfig.re "51D is a si/ple toy constr.cted of
thirteen parts6 so/e rather speciali>ed5 Of the thirteen parts6 only t&o
are ali7e:rectangles &ith the &ord police on the/5 One other piece is
a 8lan7 rectangle of the sa/e si>e5 Three other pieces /atch in si>e and
shape 8.t are different colors5 So there are t&o sets of three pieces in
+2 The Design of Everyday Things
5)( Lego +otorcycle) The toy is sho&n asse/8led and in pieces5 The thirteen
parts are so cleverly constr.cted that even an ad.lt can p.t the/ together5 The
design exploits constraints to specify 4.st &hich pieces fit &here5 Physical con0
straints li/it alternative place/ents5 Se/antic and c.lt.ral constraints provide the
necessary cl.es for f.rther decisions5 (or exa/ple6 se/antic constraints stop the
.ser fro/ p.tting the head 8ac7&ard on the 8ody and c.lt.ral constraints dictate
the place/ent of the three lights Cthe s/all rectangles6 &hich are red6 8l.e6 and
yello&D5
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do B2
&hich any of the three pieces are interchangea8le6 except for the se0
/antic or c.lt.ral interpretation of the res.lting constr.ction5 ,t t.rns
o.t that the appropriate role for every single piece of the /otorcycle
is .na/8ig.o.sly deter/ined 8y a set of physical6 se/antic6 and c.lt.0
ral constraints5 This /eans that people co.ld constr.ct the /otorcycle
&itho.t any instr.ctions or assistance6 altho.gh they had never seen
it asse/8led5 ,n this case6 constr.ction is entirely nat.ral6 if the 8.ilder
7no&s a8o.t /otorcycles and a8o.t the c.lt.ral ass./ptions that
serve to constrain the place/ent of parts5
ffordances of the pieces &ere i/portant in deter/ining 4.st ho&
they fit together5 The cylinders and holes characteristic of Hego s.g0
gested the /a4or constr.ction r.le5 The si>es and shapes of the parts
s.ggested their operation5 Physical constraints li/ited &hat parts
&o.ld fit together5 Other types of constraints also operated? all in all
there &ere fo.r different classes of constraints:physical6 se/antic6
c.lt.ral6 and logical5 These classes are apparently .niversal6 appearing
in a &ide variety of sit.ations6 and s.fficient5
$H@%?AL 6N%T!A?NT%
Physical li/itations constrain possi8le operations5 Th.s6 a large peg
cannot fit into a s/all hole5 The /otorcycle &indshield &o.ld fit in
only one place6 &ith only one orientation5 The val.e of physical con0
straints is that they rely .pon properties of the physical &orld for their
operation? no special training is necessary5 With the proper .se of
physical constraints there sho.ld 8e only a li/ited n./8er of possi8le
actions:or6 at least6 desired actions can 8e /ade o8vio.s6 .s.ally 8y
8eing especially salient5
Physical constraints are /ade /ore effective and .sef.l if they are
easy to see and interpret6 for then the set of actions is restricted 8efore
anything has 8een done5 Other&ise6 the physical constraint prevents
the &rong action fro/ s.cceeding only after it has 8een tried5 The Hego
&indshield &as so/eti/es tried in the &rong orientation first? the
design co.ld have /ade the correct position /ore visi8le5 The everyday
door 7ey can 8e inserted into a vertical slot only if the 7ey is held
vertically5 ;.t this still leaves t&o possi8le orientations5 &ell0de0
signed 7ey &ill either &or7 in 8oth orientations or provide a clear
physical signal for the correct one5 Good a.to/o8ile door 7eys are
/ade so that orientation doesn9t /atter5 poorly designed car 7ey can
+" The Design of Everyday Things
8e yet another of those /inor fr.strations of everyday life:not so
/inor6 perhaps6 &hen yo.9re standing o.tside the car in a stor/ &ith
8oth ar/s f.ll of pac7ages5
SE=NT,C CONST$,NTS
Se/antic constraints rely .pon the /eaning of the sit.ation to control
the set of possi8le actions5 ,n the case of the /otorcycle6 there is only
one /eaningf.l location for the rider6 &ho /.st sit facing for&ard5 The
p.rpose of the &indshield is to protect the rider9s face6 so it /.st 8e
in front of the rider5 Se/antic constraints rely .pon o.r 7no&ledge of
the sit.ation and of the &orld5 S.ch 7no&ledge can 8e a po&erf.l and
i/portant cl.e5
C)HT)$H CONST$,NTS
So/e constraints rely .pon accepted c.lt.ral conventions6 even if they
do not affect the physical or se/antic operation of the device5 One
c.lt.ral convention is that signs are /eant to 8e read? for the /otorcy0
cle6 the pieces &ith the &ord police on the/ have to 8e placed right side
.p5 C.lt.ral constraints deter/ine the locations of the three lights6
&hich are other&ise physically interchangea8le5 $ed is the c.lt.rally
defined standard for a stop light6 &hich is placed in the rear5 White or
yello& Cin E.ropeD is the standard color for headlights6 &hich go in
front5 nd a police vehicle often has a 8l.e flashing light on top5
Each c.lt.re has a set of allo&a8le actions for social sit.ations5 Th.s6
&e 7no& ho& to 8ehave in a resta.rant6 even one &e have never 8een
to 8efore5 This is ho& &e /anage to cope &hen o.r host leaves .s alone
in that strange roo/6 at that strange party6 &ith those strange people5
nd this is &hy &e so/eti/es feel fr.strated6 so incapa8le of action6
&hen &e are confronted &ith a resta.rant or gro.p of people fro/ an
.nfa/iliar c.lt.re6 &here o.r nor/ally accepted 8ehavior is clearly
inappropriate and fro&ned .pon5 C.lt.ral iss.es are at the root of of
/any of the pro8le/s &e have &ith ne& /achines: there are as yet no
accepted conventions or c.sto/s for dealing &ith the/5
Those of .s &ho st.dy these things 8elieve that g.idelines for c.lt.0
ral 8ehavior are represented in the /ind 8y /eans of sche/as6 7no&l0
edge str.ct.res that contain the general r.les and infor/ation neces0
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do +'
sary for interpreting sit.ations and for g.iding 8ehavior5 ,n so/e
stereotypical sit.ations Cfor exa/ple6 in a resta.rantD6 the sche/as /ay
8e very speciali>ed5 Cognitive scientists $oger Schan7 and ;o8 8el0
son have proposed that in these cases &e follo& 3scripts3 that can
g.ide the se<.ence of 8ehavior5 The sociologist Ervin Goff/an calls the
social constraints on accepta8le 8ehavior fra/es6 and he sho&s ho&
they govern 8ehavior even &hen a person is in a novel sit.ation or
novel c.lt.re5 *anger a&aits those &ho deli8erately violate the fra/es
for a c.lt.re5
!
*e4t ti!e you are in an elevator, stand facing the rear. <oo$ at the
strangers in the elevator and s!ile. Or sco&l. Or say hello. Or say, +%re
you feeling &ell) (ou don't loo$ &ell.+ ;al$ up to rando! passers#y
and give the! so!e !oney. 8ay so!ething li$e, +(ou !a$e !e feel
good, so here is so!e !oney.+ In a #us or streetcar, give your seat to
the ne4t athletic1loo$ing teenager you see. The act is especially effec1
tive if you are elderly, or pregnant, or disa#led.
L6.?AL 6N%T!A?NT%
?n the case of the /otorcycle6 logic dictated that all the pieces sho.ld
8e .sed6 &ith no gaps in the final prod.ct5 The three lights of the Hego
/otorcycle presented a special pro8le/ for /any people5 They co.ld
.se the c.lt.ral constraint to fig.re o.t that the red &as the stop light
and sho.ld go in the rear6 that the yello& &as the headlight and sho.ld
go in the front6 8.t &hat a8o.t the 8l.e@ =any people had no c.lt.ral
or se/antic infor/ation that &o.ld help the/ place the 8l.e light5 (or
the/6 logic provided the ans&er: only one piece left6 only one possi8le
place to go5 The 8l.e light &as logically constrained5
Nat.ral /appings &or7 8y providing logical constraints5 There are
no physical or c.lt.ral principles here? rather there is a logical relation0
ship 8et&een the spatial or f.nctional layo.t of co/ponents and the
things that they affect or are affected 8y5 ,f t&o s&itches control t&o
lights6 the left s&itch sho.ld &or7 the left light6 the right s&itch the
right light5 ,f the lights are /o.nted one &ay and the s&itches another6
the nat.ral /apping is destroyed5 ,f t&o indicators reflect the state of
t&o different parts of a syste/6 the location and operation of the
indicators sho.ld have a nat.ral relationship to the spatial or f.nctional
layo.t of the syste/5 las6 nat.ral /appings are not often exploited5
+I The Design of Everyday Things
pplying ffordances and Constraints
to Everyday O84ects
The characteristics of affordances and constraints can 8e applied to the
design of everyday o84ects6 /.ch si/plifying o.r enco.nters &ith
the/5 *oors and s&itches present interesting exa/ples6 for poor design
ca.ses .nnecessary pro8le/s for their .sers5 Aet the co//on pro8le/s
have si/ple sol.tions6 &hich properly exploit affordances and nat.ral
constraints5
THE $!6BLE+ :?TH D66!%
,n chapter 1 &e enco.ntered the sad story of /y friend &ho &as
trapped 8et&een sets of glass doors at a post office6 trapped 8eca.se
there &ere no cl.es to the doors9 operation5 When &e approach a door6
&e have to find 8oth the side that opens and the part to 8e /anip.lated?
in other &ords6 &e need to fig.re o.t &hat to do and &here to do it5
We expect to find so/e visi8le signal for the correct operation: a plate6
an extension6 a hollo&6 an indentation:so/ething that allo&s the
hand to to.ch6 grasp6 t.rn6 or fit into5 This tells .s &here to act5 The
next step is to fig.re o.t ho&: &e /.st deter/ine &hat operations are
per/itted6 in part .sing the affordances6 in part g.ided 8y constraints5
*oors co/e in a/a>ing variety5 So/e open only if a 8.tton is
p.shed6 and so/e don9t appear to open at all6 having neither 8.ttons6
nor hard&are6 nor any other sign of their operation5 The door /ight 8e
operated &ith a foot pedal5 Or /ay8e it is voice operated6 and &e /.st
spea7 the /agic phrase5 0+Open 8i!si!9+2 ,n addition6 so/e doors have
signs on the/: p.ll6 p.sh6 slide6 lift6 ring 8ell6 insert card6 type pass0
&ord6 s/ile6 rotate6 8o&6 dance6 or6 perhaps6 4.st as75 So/eho&6 &hen
a device as si/ple as a door has to co/e &ith an instr.ction /an.al:
even a one0&ord /an.al:then it is a fail.re6 poorly designed5
%ppearances deceive. I have seen people trip and fall &hen they
atte!pted to push open a door that &or$ed auto!atically, the door
opening in&ard /ust as they atte!pted to push against it. On !ost
su#&ay trains, the doors open auto!atically at each station. *ot so in
Paris. I &atched so!eone on the Paris 5etro try to get off the train and
fail. ;hen the train ca!e to his station, he got up and stood patiently
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do +1
in front of the door, &aiting for it to open. It never opened. The train
si!ply started up again and &ent on to the ne4t station. In the 5etro,
you have to open the doors yourself #y pushing a #utton, or depressing
a lever, or sliding the! 0depending upon &hich $ind of car you happen
to #e on2.
Consider the hard&are for an .nloc7ed door5 ,t need not have any
/oving parts: it can 8e a fixed 7no86 plate6 handle6 or groove5 Not only
&ill the proper hard&are operate the door s/oothly6 8.t it &ill also
indicate 4.st ho& the door is to 8e operated: it &ill exhi8it the proper
affordances5 S.ppose the door opens 8y 8eing p.shed5 The easiest &ay
to indicate this is to have a plate at the spot &here the p.shing sho.ld
8e done5 plate6 if large eno.gh for the hand6 clearly and .na/8ig.0
o.sly /ar7s the proper action5 =oreover6 the plate constrains the pos0
si8le actions: there is little else that one can do &ith a plate except p.sh5
)nfort.nately6 even this si/ple cl.e is /is.sed5 *oors that sho.ld 8e
p.lled or slid so/eti/es have plates Cfig.re "52D5 *oors that sho.ld 8e
p.shed so/eti/es have 8oth plates and 7no8s or a handle and no plate5
The violation of the si/ple .se of constraints on doors can have
serio.s i/plications5 Hoo7 at the door in fig.re "5! % : this fire exit door
has a p.sh 8ar6 a good exa/ple of an .na/8ig.o.s signal to p.sh6 and
a good design Cre<.ired 8y la& in the )nited StatesD 8eca.se it forces
proper 8ehavior &hen panic7ed people press against a door as they
atte/pt to flee a fire5 ;.t loo7 again5 On &hich side sho.ld yo. p.sh@
There is no &ay of 7no&ing5 dd so/e paint to the part that is to 8e
p.shed6 or fasten a plate over it Cfig.re "5! >2: these provide strong
c.lt.ral signals to g.ide the action properly5 P.sh 8ars offer strong
physical constraints6 si/plifying the tas7 of 7no&ing &hat to do5 The
.se of c.lt.ral constraints si/plifies the tas7 of fig.ring o.t &here to
do it5
So/e hard&are cries o.t to 8e p.lled5 ltho.gh anything that can
8e p.lled can also 8e p.shed6 the proper design &ill .se c.lt.ral con0
straints so that the signal to p.ll &ill do/inate5 ;.t even this can 8e
/essed .p5 , have seen doors &ith a /ixt.re of signals6 one i/plying
p.sh6 the other p.ll5 , have &atched people passing thro.gh the door
of fig.re "5! 0%2. nd they had tro.8le6 even people &ho &or7ed in
the 8.ilding and &ho therefore .sed the door several ti/es every day5
Sliding doors see/ to present special diffic.lties5 ,n fact6 there are
several good &ays to signal the operation of a sliding door .na/8ig.0
o.sly5 (or exa/ple6 a vertical slit in the door can 8e .sed in only one
The Design of Everyday Things
5)- The Design of Doors) The doors at
the left sho& t&o excellent exa/ples of
design: different handles6 side 8y side on
the sa/e a.to/o8ile6 each neatly signal0
ing its proper operation5 The vertical
place/ent of the lever on the handle to
the left ca.ses the hand to 8e held in a
vertical plane6 signifying a slide5 The hor0
i>ontal place/ent of the lever on the door
handle to the right6 co.pled &ith the
overhang and indentation that neatly af0
ford entrance 8y the hand6 signifies a
p.ll5 T&o different types of doors6 ad4a0
cent to one another6 and yet there is no
conf.sion 8et&een the/5
The handle depicted at the left sho&s
inappropriate signals5 This for/ of han0
dle clearly /ar7s grasp6 t&ist6 or p.ll:
except that this partic.lar door slides: a
classic case of inappropriate design5
t left and 8elo& are photographs of
hard&are for doors that open 8y 8eing
p.lled5 The large plates at the left are a
signal to p.sh6 8.t in fact the door is
s.pposed to 8e p.lled: no &onder the
door needs the signs5 The si/ple )0
shaped 8rac7ets 8elo& is a /.ch 8etter
design6 8.t they are a/8ig.o.s eno.gh
that a sign still see/s to 8e needed5 Con0
trast &ith the t&o handles at the top6 nei0
ther of &hich needs a sign yet is al&ays
operated properly5 ,f a door handle needs
a sign6 then its design is pro8a8ly fa.lty5
20 The Design of Everyday Things
"5! *oors in T&o Co//ercial ;.ildings5 P.shing the 8ar opens the door6 8.t
on &hich side do yo. p.sh@ ;ar % Ca8oveD hides the signal6 /a7ing it i/possi8le
to 7no& on &hich side to p.sh5 fr.strating door5 ;ar > C8elo&D has a flat plate
/o.nted on the side that is to 8e p.shed? this is a nat.rally interpreted signal5
nice design6 no fr.stration for the .ser5
&ay: the fingers are inserted and the door slid5 The location of the slit
specifies not only &here to exert the force 8.t also in &hich direction5
The critical signal is any depression in the door large eno.gh for the
fingers to fit into6 8.t &itho.t an overhang5 Si/ilarly6 any pro4ection
&ill also &or76 as long as it neither has an overhang nor is appropriate
for 8eing grasped &ith the hand5 On a properly designed door6 the
fingers can exert press.re along the sides of the depression or pro4ec0
tion:needed for sliding:8.t they can9t p.ll or t&ist5 , have seen
elegant sliding doors6 aesthetically pleasing6 yet &ith clear signals to
the .ser:in a conference roo/ in ,taly6 on a door on a =etro train in
Paris6 on so/e Scandinavian f.rnit.re5 Aet /ore often6 it see/s6 sliding
doors are 8.ilt &ith the &rong signals6 &ith cl./sy hard&are in posi0
tions that 4a/ the fingers5 Sliding doors so/eho& challenge the de0
signer to get the/ &rong5
So/e doors have appropriate hard&are6 &ell placed5 The o.tside
door handles of /ost /odern a.to/o8iles are excellent exa/ples of
design5 The handles are often recessed receptacles that si/.ltaneo.sly
indicate the place and /ode of action: the receptacle cannot 8e .sed
except 8y inserting the fingers and p.lling5 #ori>ontal slits g.ide the
hand into a p.lling position? vertical slits signal a sliding /otion5
Strangely eno.gh6 the inside door handles for a.to/o8iles tell a dif0
ferent story5 #ere6 the designer has faced a different 7ind of pro8le/6
and the appropriate sol.tion has not yet 8een fo.nd5 s a res.lt6
altho.gh the o.tside door handles of cars are often excellent6 the inside
ones are often diffic.lt to find6 hard to fig.re o.t ho& to operate6 and
diffic.lt to .se5
)nfort.nately6 the &orst door hard&are is fo.nd &here &e spend
/ost of o.r ti/e: at ho/e and in the office5 ,n /any cases6 the choice
of hard&are appears hapha>ard6 .sed for convenience Cor profita8ilityD5
rchitects and interior designers see/ to prefer designs that are vis.0
ally elegant and &in pri>es5 This often /eans that a door and its
hard&are are designed to /erge &ith the interior: the door /ay 8arely
8e visi8le6 the hard&are /erges &ith door6 and the operation is co/0
pletely o8sc.re5 (ro/ /y experience6 the &orst offenders are ca8inet
doors5 ,t is so/eti/es not even possi8le to deter/ine &here the doors
are6 let alone &hether and fro/ &here they are slid6 lifted6 p.shed6 or
p.lled5 The foc.s on aesthetics /ay 8lind the designer Cand the p.r0
chaserD to the lac7 of .sa8ility5
% particularly frustrating design is that of the door that opens out1
&ard #y #eing pushed in&ard. The push releases the catch and ener1
"O38: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 21
gi7es a spring, so that &hen the hand is ta$en a&ay the door springs
open. It's a very clever design, #ut !ost pu77ling to the first1ti!e user.
% plate &ould #e the appropriate signal, #ut designers so!eti!es do
not &ish to !ar the s!ooth surface of the door. I have such a latch in
the glass door of the ca#inet in &hich I store phonograph records. (ou
can see through the door, and it is o#vious that there is no roo! for
the door to open in&ardD to push on the door see!s contradictory. *e&
and infre-uent users of this door usually re/ect pushing and open it
instead #y pulling, &hich often re-uires the! to use fingernails, $nife
#lades, or !ore ingenious !ethods to pry it open.
THE $!6BLE+ :?TH %:?THE%
%t any lecture I give, !y first de!onstration needs no preparation.
I can count on the light s&itches of the roo! or auditoriu! to #e
un!anagea#le. +<ights please,+ so!eone &ill say. Then fu!#le, fu!1
#le, fu!#le. ;ho $no&s &here the s&itches are and &hich lights they
control) The lights see! to &or$ s!oothly only &hen a technician is
hired to sit in a control roo! so!e&here, turning the! on and off.
The s&itch pro8le/s in an a.ditori./ are annoying6 8.t si/ilar
pro8le/s in airplanes and n.clear po&er plants are dangero.s5 The
controls all loo7 the sa/e5 #o& do the operators avoid the occasional
/ista7e6 conf.sion6 or accidental 8./ping against the &rong control@
Or /isai/@ They don9t5 (ort.nately6 airplanes and po&er plants are
pretty ro8.st5 fe& errors every ho.r are not i/portant:.s.ally5
One type of popular s!all airplane has identical1loo$ing s&itches
for flaps and landing gear right ne4t to one another. (ou !ight #e
surprised to learn ho& !any pilots, &hile on the ground, have decided
to raise the flaps and instead raised the &heels. This very e4pensive
error happened fre-uently enough that the *ational Transportation
8afety >oard &rote a report a#out it. The analysts politely pointed out
that the proper design principles to avoid these errors have #een $no&n
for thirty years. ;hy &ere those design errors still #eing !ade)
;asic s&itches and controls sho.ld 8e relatively si/ple to design
&ell5 ;.t there are t&o f.nda/ental diffic.lties5 The first is the gro.p0
ing pro8le/6 ho& to deter/ine &hich s&itch goes &ith &hich f.nction5
22 The Design of Everyday Things
The second is t he /appi ng pro8le/5 (or exa/ple6 &hen there are /any
lights and an array of s&itches6 ho& can yo. det er/ine &hi ch s&itch
controls &hi ch light@
The s&itch pro8le/ 8eco/es serio.s only &here there are /any of
the/5 ,t isn9 t a pro8l e/ in sit.ations &i t h one s&itch6 and it is only a
/i nor pro8le/ &here there are t &o s&itches5 ;.t t he diffic.lties /o.nt
rapidly &i t h /ore t han t &o s&itches at the sa/e location5 =.ltiple
s&itches are /ore li7ely to occ.r in offices6 a.ditori ./s6 and ind.strial
locations t han in ho/es Cfig.re "5"D5
:H?H %:?TH 6NT!6L% :H?H F7NT?6NC
S&itches for .nrelated f.nctions are often placed together6 .s.ally
&i t h no disting.ishing /ar7s t o hel p t he .ser 7no& &hich s&itch
controls &hi ch f.nction5 *esigners love ro&s of identical0loo7ing
s&itches5 The s&itches loo7 good6 are easy to /o.nt 6 are inexpensive
to 8.ild6 and please the aesthetic sensi8ilities of t he vie&er5 ;.t t hey
"5" Typical .dio =ixing Control5 This pict.re &as ta7en in an a.ditori./ in
England5 (ort.nately6 errors on panels li7e these are seldo/ serio.s6 often not even
noted5
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 2!
5)8 A lock !adioD "Human Engineered" to %im"lify 6"eration) Note the ro&
of identical0loo7ing s&itches5 CCopyright Tandy Corporation5 )sed &ith per/is0
sion5D
/a7e it easy to err5 With identical s&itches all in a ro&6 it is diffic.lt
to disting.ish the s&itch for the coffee /a7er fro/ the s&itch to the
central po&er for the co/p.ter5 Or the set0the0ti/e s&itch fro/ the
t.rn0off0the0radio s&itch Cfig.re "5'D5 Or the landing gear s&itch fro/
the flap control s&itch5
onsider !y car radio: t&enty1five controls, !any apparently ar#i1
trary. %ll tiny 0so that they &ill fit the li!ited space availa#le2. I!agine
trying to use the radio &hile driving at high speed, at night. Or in
&inter &hen &earing gloves, so that the atte!pt to push one #utton
succeeds in pushing t&o, or the atte!pt to turn the loudness control
also ad/usts the tone control. (ou should #e a#le to use things in the
dar$. % car radio should #e usa#le &ith a !ini!u! of visual cues. >ut
the radio designers pro#a#ly designed it in the la#oratory, &ith little
or no thought a#out the car, or the driver. "or all I $no& the design &on
a pri7e for its visual aesthetics.
It should go &ithout saying that controls that cause trou#le should
not #e located &here they can #e operated #y accident, especially in the
dar$, or &hen the person is trying to use the device &ithout loo$ing.
It should go &ithout saying, #ut in fact, it is necessary to say it.
There is a si/ple6 &ell07no&n sol.tion to the gro.ping pro8le/: set
the s&itches for one set of f.nctions apart fro/ the s&itches that
control other f.nctions5 nother sol.tion is to .se different types of
s&itches5 The sol.tions can 8e co/8ined5 To solve the pro8le/ &ith
the airplane flap and landing gear s&itches6 separate the s&itches and
don9t line the/ .p in a ro&5 lso .se shape coding: a tire0shaped s&itch
2" The Design of Everyday Things
can control the landing gear6 and the flap s&itch can 8e a long6 thin
rectangle:the shape of a flap5 P.tting controls in different locations
/a7es it less li7ely that a /isai/ed hand &ill thro& the &rong s&itch5
nd .sing shape coding /eans that a potential error /ay 8e ca.ght and
that the correct s&itch can 8e fo.nd 8y feel alone Cfig.re "5ID5 That9s
ho& to solve this first pro8le/6 no& let .s t.rn to the other one5
#OW $E T#E SW,TC#ES $$NGE*@
With the lights in a roo/6 yo. 7no& that all the s&itches control lights5
;.t &hich s&itch controls &hich light@ $oo/ lights are .s.ally orga0
ni>ed in a t&o0di/ensional str.ct.re and they are .s.ally hori>ontal
Cthat is6 they are on the ceiling or6 if they are la/ps6 they are placed
along the floor or on ta8lesD5 ;.t s&itches are .s.ally arranged in a
one0di/ensional ro& /o.nted on the &all6 a vertical s.rface5 #o& can
a one0di/ensional ro& of s&itches /ap onto a t&o0di/ensional array
of lights@ nd &ith the s&itches 8eing /o.nted on the &all and the
"5I =a7e t he Controls Hoo7 and (eel *ifferent5 The control0roo/ operators in
a n.clear po&er plant tried to overco/e the pro8le/ of si/ilar0loo7ing 7no8s 8y
placing 8eer07eg handles over the/5 This is good design6 even if after the fact? the
operators sho.ld 8e re&arded5 C(ro/ Se/inara6 Gon>ales6 N Parsons6 12115 Photo0
graph co.rtesy of Boseph H5 Se/inara5D
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 2'
lights 8eing on the ceiling6 yo. have to do a /ental rotation of the
s&itches to get the/ to confor/ to the lights5 The /apping pro8le/
is .nsolva8le &ith the c.rrent str.ct.re of s&itches5
Electricians .s.ally try to lay o.t the s&itches in the sa/e order as
the lights they control6 8.t the /is/atch in the spatial arrange/ent of
the lights and the s&itches /a7es it diffic.lt6 if not i/possi8le6 to
prod.ce a f.ll nat.ral /apping5 Electricians have to .se standard co/0
ponents6 and the designers and /an.fact.rers of those standard co/0
ponents &orried only a8o.t fitting the proper n./8er of s&itches into
the/ safely5 No8ody tho.ght a8o.t ho& the lights &ere to 8e arranged
or ho& the s&itches o.ght to 8e laid o.t5
5y house &as designed #y t&o #rash young architects, a&ard &in1
ning, &ho, a!ong other things, li$ed neat ro&s of light s&itches. ;e
got a hori7ontal ro& of four identical s&itches in the front hall, a
vertical colu!n of si4 identical s&itches in the living roo!. +(ou &ill
get used to it,+ the architects assured us &hen &e co!plained. ;e
never did. "inally &e had to change the s&itches, !a$ing each one
different. Even so &e !ade lots of !ista$es.
In !y psychology la#oratory, the lights and their s&itches &ere
located in !any different places, yet !ost people &anted to control the
lights upon entering the area. The area is large, &ith three !a/or hall1
&ays and appro4i!ately fifteen roo!s. 5oreover, this floor of the
#uilding has no &indo&s, so it is dar$ unless the lights are turned on.
,f light s&itches are placed on the &all6 there is no &ay they can
exactly correspond in position to the place/ent of the lights5 Why
place the s&itches flat against the &all@ Why not redo things@ Why not
place the s&itches hori>ontally6 in exact analogy to the things 8eing
controlled6 &ith a t&o0di/ensional layo.t so that the s&itches can 8e
placed on a floorplan of the 8.ilding in exact correspondence to the
areas that they control@ =atch the layo.t of the lights &ith the layo.t
of the s&itches: the principle of nat.ral /apping5 ,n /y la8oratory6 as
in /y ho/e6 the sol.tion &as to constr.ct a si/ple s&itchplate that
/irrored the physical arrange/ent of the area6 &ith s/all light
s&itches placed in relevant locations5
"
(ig.re "51 sho&s the sit.ation
at /y ho/e6 and fig.re "5+ sho&s &hat &e did at the la8oratory5
#o& &ell do the ne& s&itch arrange/ents &or7@ P.ite &ell6 , a/
happy to report5 One la8oratory .ser sent /e the follo&ing note:
2I The Design of Everyday Things
"51 The vertical array of six s&itches at
the right is &hat o.r architects provided to
control the lights in o.r odd0shaped living
roo/5 We co.ld never re/e/8er &hich
s&itch did &hat5
The photograph 8elo& sho&s o.r sol.tion:
s&itches arranged to /atch the roo/ lay0
o.t5 COne /ore s&itch6 for a pro4ection
screen6 &ill 8e /o.nted on the vertical
plate 4.st a8ove the light s&itches5 The
s&itch panel &as constr.cted for the a.0
thor 8y *avid Wargo5D
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do BC
"5+ The original layo.t of s&itches in /y la8oratory had the light s&itches
scattered5 We p.t all the s&itches in one convenient location6 arranged on a floor
plan of the la8oratory5 CThe s&itch panel &as constr.cted 8y *avid Wargo5D
+(ou $no&, I actually $ind of li$e those ne& s&itches no&:they
see! easy to use, and it's nice to have all the s&itches in one location
&hen you first &al$ in. (ou can /ust sort of s&ipe at the! on your &ay
past and light up the area you &ant:very -uic$. 8o &hile I &as
&orried they &ouldn't #e advantageous for the e4perienced user, I &as
&rong.+
Can the ne& s&itches 8e .sed every&here@ Pro8a8ly not5 ;.t there
is no reason they co.ldn9t 8e &idely adopted5 There are a series of
technical pro8le/s still to 8e addressed: 8.ilders and electricians need
standardi>ed co/ponents5 #o& a8o.t /a7ing .p standard light s&itch
8oxes6 /ade to 8e /o.nted on the &all Cinstead of in the &all as they
are todayD6 &here the s&itches are /o.nted on the top of the 8ox6 on
the hori>ontal s.rface5 nd on the top6 /a7e .p a /atrix of s.pports
so that there can 8e free6 relatively .nrestricted place/ent of the
s&itches in &hatever pattern 8est s.its the roo/5 )se s/aller s&itches
2+ The Design of Everyday Things
if necessary5 =ay8e get rid of those standardi>ed light plates5 The
/atrix design &o.l d re<.ire drilling holes differently for each roo/6
8.t if the s&itches &ere designed to fit into standard si>ed circ.lar or
rectang.lar holes6 t he holes co.ld 8e drilled or p.nched <.ite easily5
=y s.ggestion re<.ires t hat the s&itch 8ox stic7 o.t fro/ the &all6
&hereas t oday9 s 8oxes are /o.nt ed so t hat t he s&itches are fl.sh &i t h
t he &all5 So/e /ight consider /y sol.tion .gly5 Well6 t hen6 i ndent t he
8oxes6 placing t he/ in t he &all5 fter all6 if there is roo/ inside the
&all for the existing s&itch 8oxes6 there is also roo/ for an indented
hori>ontal s.rface5 Or /o.nt t he s&itches on a little pedestal6 or on a
ledge5
-isi8ility
and (eed8ac7
So far &e have concentrated .pon constraints and /appings5 ;.t for
7no&i ng &hat to do there are other relevant principles6 too6 especially
visi8ility and feed8ac7:
15 Hisi#ility. =a7e relevant parts visi8le5
25 "eed#ac$. Give each action an i//ediate and o8vio.s effect5
When &e .se a novel o84ect6 a n./8er of <.estions g.ide o.r ac0
tions:
F Which parts /ove? &hich are fixed@
F Where sho.ld the o84ect 8e grasped@ What part is to 8e /anip.0
lated@ What is to 8e held@ Where is the hand to 8e inserted@ ,f it is
speech sensitive6 &here does one tal7@
F What 7ind of /ove/ent is possi8le: p.shing6 p.lling6 t.rning6
rotating6 to.ching6 stro7ing@
F What are the relevant physical characteristics of the /ove/ents@
With ho& great a force /.st the o84ect 8e /anip.lated@ #o& far can
it 8e expected to /ove@ #o& can s.ccess 8e ga.ged@
F What parts of the o84ect are s.pporting s.rfaces@ #o& /.ch si>e
and &eight &ill the o84ect s.pport@
The sa/e 7inds of <.estions arise &het her &e are trying to decide
&hat to do or att e/pti ng to eval.ate the res.lts of an action5 ,n exa/0
ining t he o84ect6 &e have to decide &hi ch parts signify t he state of t he
o84ect and &hi ch are solely decorative6 or nonf.nctional6 or part of t he
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 22
8ac7gro.nd or s.pports5 What things change@ What has changed over
the previo.s state@ Where sho.ld &e 8e &atching or listening to detect
any changes@ The i/portant things to &atch sho.ld 8e visi8le and
clearly /ar7ed? the res.lts of any action sho.ld 8e i//ediately appar0
ent5
+AE?N. F?%?BLE THE ?NF?%?BLE
The principle of visi8ility is violated over and over again in everyday
things5 ,n n./ero.s designs cr.cial parts are caref.lly hidden a&ay5
#andles on ca8inets distract fro/ so/e design aesthetics6 and so they
are deli8erately /ade invisi8le or left o.t5 The crac7s that signify the
existence of a door can also distract fro/ the p.re lines of the design6
so these significant c.es are also /ini/i>ed or eli/inated5 The res.lt
can 8e a s/ooth expanse of glea/ing /aterial6 &ith no sign of doors
or dra&ers6 let alone of ho& those doors and dra&ers /ight 8e oper0
ated5 Electric s&itches are often hidden: /any electric type&riters have
the onQoff s&itch hidden .nderneath? /any co/p.ters and co/p.ter
ter/inals have the onQoff s&itch in the rear6 diffic.lt to find and a&70
&ard to .se?
'
and the s&itches that control 7itchen gar8age disposal
.nits are often hidden a&ay6 so/eti/es nearly i/possi8le to find5
=any syste/s are vastly i/proved 8y the act of /a7ing visi8le &hat
&as invisi8le 8efore5 Consider the -C$5
+35PTEE*1D%(1 35PTEE*1EHE*T PEOIE%55I*I. >ecause ti!e1shifting is
so popular, !anufacturers and retailers play up a HE's a#ility to
record auto!atically. The typical HE can record four events 0video
/argon for progra!s2 over a @1day span. . . .
+It's one thing to $no& that a HE can record eight events in .@
days. It's -uite another to !a$e the !achine #ehave. (ou have to go
through a tedious series of steps to tell the HE &hen to start record1
ing, &hat channel to record, ho& long to run the tape, and so on.
+8o!e HE's are !uch easier to progra! than others. . . . >est of
all, &e thin$, is a feature called on1screen progra!!ing. o!!ands
that appear on the TH screen help you enter the ti!e, date, and channel
of the progra! you &ant to tape. +
?
s the <.otation fro/ onsu!er Eeports indicates6 the act of setting .p
these .nits to do the recording is horri8ly co/plex and diffic.lt5 The
sa/e article later &arns that if yo. are not caref.l in yo.r selection6
100 The Design of Everyday Things
3yo. co.ld &ind .p &ith a -C$ that 8rings o.t fear and loathing
&henever yo. try to change the channel resets or set it .p to record a
progra/ &hen yo. are a&ay53 ,t does not ta7e /.ch exa/ination to
discover the reason for the diffic.lties: there is no vis.al feed8ac75 s
a res.lt6 .sers C1D have tro.8le re/e/8ering their place in the lengthy
se<.ence of re<.ired steps? C2D have tro.8le re/e/8ering &hat next
needs to 8e done? and C!D cannot easily chec7 the infor/ation 4.st
entered to see if it is &hat &as intended6 and then cannot easily change
it6 if they decide it is &rong5
The g.lfs 8oth in exec.tion Cthe first t&o pro8le/sD and in eval.a0
tion Cthe last pro8le/D are significant for these -C$s5 ;oth can 8e
8ridged 8y the .se of a display5 *isplays often cost /oney and ta7e
.p roo/6 &hich is &hy designers hesitate to .se the/6 8.t in the case
of a -C$6 a display device is .s.ally already availa8le: the T- set5 nd6
indeed6 those -C$s that can 8e progra//ed thro.gh the .se of an
on0screen T- display are /.ch easier to .se5 -isi8ility /a7es all the
difference5
N6TH?N. %7EED% L?EE A .66D D?%$LA@
Over and over again &e find .n&arranted co/plexity that co.ld 8e
avoided &ere the device to contain a good display5 With the /odern
telephone Csee chapter 1D6 a display that co.ld pro/pt the .ser thro.gh
the series of steps re<.ired for progra//ing &o.ld /a7e the difference
8et&een a val.a8le6 .sa8le syste/ and a next0to0.seless one5 So6 too6
&ith any device of co/plexity6 &hether it 8e the &ashing /achine6
/icro&ave oven6 or office copying /achine5 Nothing s.cceeds li7e
vis.al feed8ac76 &hich in t.rn re<.ires a good vis.al display5
:HAT AN BE D6NEC
Ne& technologies6 especially the inexpensive /icroprocessors availa0
8le today Cthe heart of the co/p.terD /a7e possi8le the incorporation
of po&erf.l and intelligent syste/s even in si/ple6 everyday things6
fro/ toys to 7itchen appliances to office /achines5 ;.t ne& capa8ilities
/.st 8e acco/panied 8y appropriate displays6 also no& relatively
inexpensive5 , as7ed the st.dents in one of /y classes to generate so/e
possi8ilities for adding visi8ility to everyday devices5 #ere are so/e of
the/:
F Display the song titles for co!pact discs. Why not ta7e advantage of the
storage capacity of an a.dio co/pact disc CC*D and have it display
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 101
not only the n./8er of the song or trac7 Cas it no& doesD 8.t also
the title@ Each title co.ld 8e acco/panied 8y other infor/ation6 s.ch
as perfor/ers6 co/poser6 or playing ti/e5 Th.s6 in progra//ing the
C*6 yo. co.ld select 8y na/e rather than 8y n./8er6 and yo. &o.ld
al&ays 7no& &hat yo. &ere hearing5
F Display the na!es of television progra!s. ,f each television station &o.ld
also 8roadcast its station identification and the title of the c.rrent
progra/6 the vie&er &ho t.ned in d.ring the /iddle of a sho& co.ld
easily find o.t &hat it &as5 The infor/ation co.ld 8e sent in co/0
p.ter0reada8le for/at d.ring the retrace interval Cthe ti/e that the
8ea/ is off the screenD5
F Print the coo$ing infor!ation for foods on the food pac$age in co!puter1reada#le
for!. This is a sche/e for 8ypassing the need to /a7e things visi8le5
The coo7ing of fro>en foods often re<.ires several different coo7ing
ti/es6 &aiting ti/es6 and heat settings5 The progra//ing is co/plex5
,f the coo7ing infor/ation &ere on the pac7age in /achine0reada8le
for/6 one co.ld p.t the food in the /icro&ave oven6 pass a scanner
over the printed infor/ation6 and let the oven progra/ itself5
)S,NG SO)N* (O$ -,S,;,H,TA
So/eti/es things can9 t 8e /ade visi8le5 Enter so.nd: so.nd can pro0
vide infor/ation availa8le in no other &ay5 So.nd can tell .s t hat
thi ngs are &or7i ng properly or t hat t hey need /ai nt enance or repair5
,t can even save .s fro/ accidents5 Consider t he infor/ation provided
8y:
F The clic7 &hen the 8olt on a door slides ho/e
F The 3>>>3 so.nd &hen a >ipper &or7s properly
F The 3ti nny3 so.nd &hen a door doesn9 t sh.t right
F The roaring so.nd &hen a car /.ffler gets a hole
F The rattle &hen things aren9 t sec.red
F The &histle of a tea 7ettle &hen the &ater 8oils
F The clic7 &hen the toast pops .p
F The increase in pitch &hen a vac../ cleaner gets clogged
F The indescri8a8le change in so.nd &hen a co/plex piece of /a0
chinery starts to have pro8le/s
=any devices do .se so.nd6 8.t only for signals5 Si/ple so.nds6
s.ch as 8.>>ers6 8ells6 or tones5 Co/p.t ers .se 8leeping6 &hi ni ng6 and
102 The Design of Everyday Things
clic7ing so.nds5 This .se of so.nd is val.a8le and serves an i/portant
f.nction6 8.t it is very li/ited in po&er? it is as if the .se of vis.al c.es
&ere li/ited to different colored6 flashing lights5 We co.ld .se so.nd
for /.ch /ore co//.nication than &e do5
These days co/p.ters prod.ce several so.nds6 and 7eypads6 /icro0
&ave ovens6 and telephones 8eep and 8.rp5 These are not nat.ralistic
so.nds? they do not convey hidden infor/ation5 When .sed properly6
a 8eep can ass.re yo. that yo.9ve pressed a 8.tton6 8.t the so.nd is
as annoying as infor/ative5 So.nds sho.ld 8e generated so as to give
infor/ation a8o.t the so.rce5 They sho.ld convey so/ething a8o.t
the actions that are ta7ing place6 actions that /atter to the .ser 8.t that
&o.ld other&ise not 8e visi8le5 The 8.>>es6 clic7s6 and h./s that yo.
hear &hile a telephone call is 8eing co/pleted are one good exa/ple:
ta7e o.t those noises and yo. are less certain that the connection is
8eing /ade5
;ill Gaver6 &ho has 8een st.dying .se of so.nd in /y la8oratory6
points o.t that real6 nat.ral so.nd is as essential as vis.al infor/ation
8eca.se so.nd tells .s a8o.t things &e can9t see6 and it does so &hile
o.r eyes are occ.pied else&here5 Nat.ral so.nds reflect the co/plex
interaction of nat.ral o84ects: the &ay one part /oves against another?
the /aterial of &hich the parts are /ade:hollo& or solid6 /etal or
&ood6 soft or hard6 ro.gh or s/ooth5 So.nds are generated &hen
/aterials interact6 and the so.nd tells .s &hether they are hitting6
sliding6 8rea7ing6 tearing6 cr./8ling6 or 8o.ncing5 =oreover6 so.nds
differ according to the characteristics of the o84ects6 according to their
si>e6 solidity6 /ass6 tension6 and /aterial5 nd they differ &ith ho&
fast things are going and ho& far a&ay fro/ .s they are5
,f they are to 8e .sef.l6 so.nds /.st 8e generated intelligently6 &ith
an .nderstanding of the nat.ral relationship 8et&een the so.nds and
the infor/ation to 8e conveyed5 So.nds on artificial devices sho.ld 8e
as .sef.l as so.nds in the real &orld5 Gaver has proposed that so.nd
co.ld play an i/portant role in co/p.ter08ased applications5 #ere6
rich6 nat.ralistic so.nds co.ld serve as a.ditory icons6 caricat.res of
nat.rally occ.rring so.nds that co.ld provide infor/ation a8o.t the
concepts 8eing represented not easily conveyed in other &ays5
1
Ao. have to 8e very caref.l &ith so.nd6 ho&ever5 ,t easily 8eco/es
c.te rather than .sef.l5 ,t can annoy and distract as easily as it can aid5
One of the virt.es of so.nds is that they can 8e detected even &hen
attention is applied else&here5 ;.t this virt.e is also a deficit6 for
so.nds are often intr.sive5 So.nds are diffic.lt to 7eep private .nless
the intensity is lo& or earphones are .sed5 This /eans 8oth that neigh0
"O3E: ,no&ing ;hat to Do 10!
8ors /ay 8e annoyed and that others can /onitor yo.r activities5 The
.se of so.nd to convey infor/ation is a po&erf.l and i/portant idea6
8.t still in its infancy5
B.st as the presence of so.nd can serve a .sef.l role in providing
feed8ac7 a8o.t events6 the a8sence of so.nd can lead to the sa/e 7inds
of diffic.lties &e have already enco.ntered fro/ a lac7 of feed8ac75
The a8sence of so.nd can /ean an a8sence of infor/ation6 and if
feed8ac7 fro/ an action is expected to co/e fro/ so.nd6 silence can
lead to pro8le/s5
I once stayed in the guest apart!ent of a technological institute in
the *etherlands. The #uilding &as ne&ly co!pleted, &ith !any inter1
esting architectural features. The architect had gone to great lengths to
$eep the noise level lo&D the ventilation syste! could not #e heard. In
si!ilar fashion, the ventilation for the roo! ca!e and &ent through
invisi#le slots in the ceiling 0so I a! toldD I never did find the!2.
%ll &as fine until I too$ a sho&er. The #athroo! see!ed to have no
ventilation at all, so everything #eca!e &et, then eventually cold and
cla!!y. There &as a s&itch in the #athroo! that I thought !ight #e
the control for an e4haust fan. ;hen I pushed the s&itch, a light on
it ca!e on and stayed on. "urther pushing had no effect.
I noticed that &henever I returned to the apart!ent after an a#sence,
the light &ould #e off. 8o each ti!e I entered the apart!ent, I &ent into
the #athroo! and pushed the #utton. >y listening closely, I could hear
a slight +thu!p+ in the distance the first ti!e the #utton &as de1
pressed. I decided it &as so!e $ind of signal. Perhaps it &as a call
#utton, su!!oning the !aid, or the /anitor, or !ay#e even the fire
depart!ent 0though no one sho&ed up2. I did also consider that it
!ight control a ventilation syste!, #ut I could hear no flo& of air. I
e4a!ined the inside of the entire #athroo! &ith care, trying to find an
air inlet. I even got a chair and a flashlight and e4a!ined the ceiling.
*othing.
%t the end of !y stay, the person driving !e to the airport, e41
plained that the #utton controlled the e4haust fan. The fan &as on as
long as the light &as on, and it turned off, auto!atically, in a#out five
!inutes. The architect &as very good at disguising the ventilation
syste! and at $eeping the noise level do&n.
6ere is a case &here the architect &as too successful: the feed#ac$
&as clearly lac$ing. The light &as not enough:in fact, it &as -uite
!isleading. *oise &ould have #een &elco!e. It &ould have signaled
that there really &as ventilation.
10" The Design of Everyday Things
C # P T E $ ( , - E
TO E$$ ,S #)=N
+<O*DO*:%n ine4perienced co!puter1operator
pressed the &rong $ey on a ter!inal in early De1
ce!#er, causing chaos at the <ondon 8toc$ E41
change. The error at stoc$#ro$ers Ireen&ell
5ontagu led to syste!s staff &or$ing through the night in an atte!pt
to cure the pro#le!. +
.
People /a7e errors ro.tinely5 #ardly a /in.te of a nor/al conversa0
tion can go 8y &itho.t a st./8le6 a repetition6 a phrase stopped /id0
&ay thro.gh to 8e discarded or redone5 #./an lang.age provides
special /echanis/s that /a7e corrections so a.to/atic that the partici0
pants hardly ta7e notice? indeed6 they /ay 8e s.rprised &hen errors are
pointed o.t5 rtificial devices do not have the sa/e tolerance5 P.sh the
&rong 8.tton6 and chaos /ay res.lt5
Errors co/e in several for/s5 T&o f.nda/ental categories are slips
and /ista7es5 Slips res.lt fro/ a.to/atic 8ehavior6 &hen s.8conscio.s
actions that are intended to satisfy o.r goals get &aylaid en ro.te5
=ista7es res.lt fro/ conscio.s deli8erations5 The sa/e processes that
/a7e .s creative and insightf.l 8y allo&ing .s to see relationships
8et&een apparently .nrelated things6 that let .s leap to correct concl.0
sions on the 8asis of partial or even fa.lty evidence6 also lead to error5
(<8
O.r a8ility to generali>e fro/ s/all a/o.nts of infor/ation helps
tre/endo.sly in ne& sit.ations? 8.t so/eti/es &e generali>e too ra0
pidly6 classifying a ne& sit.ation as si/ilar to an old one &hen6 in fact6
there are significant discrepancies5 (alse generali>ations can 8e hard to
discover6 let alone eli/inate5
The differences 8et&een slips and /ista7es are readily apparent in
the analysis of the seven stages of action5 (or/ an appropriate goal 8.t
/ess .p in the perfor/ance6 and yo.9ve /ade a slip5 Slips are al/ost
al&ays s/all things: a /isplaced action6 the &rong thing /oved6 a
desired action .ndone5 =oreover6 they are relatively easy to discover
8y si/ple o8servation and /onitoring5 (or/ the &rong goal6 and
yo.9ve /ade a /ista7e5 =ista7es can 8e /a4or events6 and they are
diffic.lt or even i/possi8le to detect:after all6 the action perfor/ed
is appropriate for the goal5
Slips
% colleague reported that he &ent to his car to drive to &or$. %s he
drove a&ay, he reali7ed that he had forgotten his #riefcase, so he
turned around and &ent #ac$. 6e stopped the car, turned off the
engine, and un#uc$led his &rist&atch. (es, &rist&atch, instead of his
seat #elt.
=ost everyday errors are slips5 ,ntend to do one action6 find yo.rself
doing another5 #ave a person say so/ething clearly and distinctly to
yo.6 8.t 3hear3 so/ething <.ite different5 The st.dy of slips is the
st.dy of the psychology of everyday errors:&hat (re.d called 3the
psychopathology of everyday life53 So/e slips /ay indeed have hid0
den6 dar7er /eanings6 8.t /ost are acco.nted for 8y rather si/ple
events in o.r /ental /echanis/s5
2
Slips sho& .p /ost fre<.ently in s7illed 8ehavior5 We don9t /a7e
so /any slips in things &e are still learning5 ,n part6 slips res.lt fro/
a lac7 of attention5 On the &hole6 people can conscio.sly attend to only
one pri/ary thing at a ti/e5 ;.t &e often do /any things at once5 We
&al7 &hile &e tal7? &e drive cars &hile &e tal76 sing6 listen to the radio6
.se a telephone6 ta7e notes6 or read a /ap5 We can do /ore than one
thing at a ti/e only if /ost of the actions are done a.to/atically6
s.8conscio.sly6 &ith little or no need for conscio.s attention5
*oing several things at once is essential even in carrying o.t a single
tas75 To play the piano6 &e /.st /ove the fingers properly over the
7ey8oard &hile reading the /.sic6 /anip.lating the pedals6 and listen0
10I The Design of Everyday Things
ing to the res.lting so.nds5 ;.t to play the piano &ell6 &e sho.ld do
these things a.to/atically5 O.r conscio.s attention sho.ld 8e foc.sed
on the higher levels of the /.sic6 on style6 and on phrasing5 So it is &ith
every s7ill5 The lo&0level6 physical /ove/ents sho.ld 8e controlled
s.8conscio.sly5
TAPES O( SH,PS
So/e slips res.lt fro/ the si/ilarities of actions5 Or an event in the
&orld /ay a.to/atically trigger an action5 So/eti/es o.r tho.ghts
and actions /ay re/ind .s of .nintended actions6 &hich &e then
perfor/5 We can place slips into one of six categories: capt.re errors6
description errors6 data0driven errors6 associative activation errors6
loss0of0activation errors6 and /ode errors5
A$T7!E E!!6!%
+I &as using a copying !achine, and I &as counting the pages. .
found !yself counting '., 2, =6 @, K6 ?, C, J, B, .0, :ac$, 'ueen, ,ing.'
I have #een playing cards recently. +
=
Consider the co//on slip called the capt.re error6 in &hich a fre0
<.ently done activity s.ddenly ta7es charge instead of Ccapt.resD the
one intended5
"
Ao. are playing a piece of /.sic C&itho.t too /.ch
attentionD and it is si/ilar to another C&hich yo. 7no& 8etterD? s.d0
denly yo. are playing the /ore fa/iliar piece5 Or yo. go off to yo.r
8edroo/ to change yo.r clothes for dinner and find yo.rself in 8ed5
CThis slip &as first reported 8y Willia/ Ba/es in 1+205D Or yo. finish
typing yo.r tho.ghts on yo.r &ord processor or text editing progra/6
t.rn off the po&er6 and go off to other things6 neglecting to save any
of yo.r &or75 Or yo. get into yo.r car on S.nday to go to the store
and find yo.rself at the office5
The capt.re error appears &henever t&o different action se<.ences
have their initial stages in co//on6 &ith one se<.ence 8eing .nfa/il0
iar and the other 8eing &ell practiced5 Seldo/6 if ever6 does the .n0
fa/iliar se<.ence capt.re the fa/iliar one5
DE%!?$T?6N E!!6!%
% for!er student reported that one day he ca!e ho!e fro! /ogging,
too$ off his s&eaty shirt, and rolled it up in a #all, intending to thro&
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an .01
it in the laundry #as$et. Instead he thre& it in the toilet. 0It &asn't poor
ai!: the laundry #as$et and toilet &ere in different roo!s.2
,n the co//on slip 7no&n as the description error6 the intended
action has /.ch in co//on &ith others that are possi8le5 s a res.lt6
.nless the action se<.ence is co/pletely and precisely specified6 the
intended action /ight fit several possi8ilities5 S.ppose that /y tired
st.dent in the exa/ple for/ed a /ental description of his intended
action so/ething li7e 3thro& the shirt into the opening at the top of
the container53 This description &o.ld 8e perfectly .na/8ig.o.s and
s.fficient &ere the la.ndry 8as7et the only open container in sight? 8.t
&hen the open toilet &as visi8le6 its characteristics /atched the de0
scription and triggered the inappropriate action5 This is a description
error 8eca.se the internal description of the intention &as not s.ffi0
ciently precise5 *escription errors .s.ally res.lt in perfor/ing the cor0
rect action on the &rong o84ect5 O8vio.sly6 the /ore the &rong and
right o84ects have in co//on6 the /ore li7ely the errors are to occ.r5
*escription errors6 li7e all slips6 are /ore li7ely &hen &e are distracted6
8ored6 involved in other activities6 .nder extra stress6 or other&ise not
inclined to pay f.ll attention to the tas7 at hand5
*escription errors occ.r /ost fre<.ently &hen the &rong and right
o84ects are physically near each other5 People have reported a n./8er
of description errors to /e5
T&o cler$s in a depart!ent store &ere #oth on the telephone to
verify credit cards &hile si!ultaneously dealing &ith a custo!er and
filling out a credit card for!. One sales cler$ had passed in #ac$ of the
other to reach the charge for!s. ;hen this cler$ finished preparing the
sales slip, she hung up the handset on the &rong telephone, there#y
ter!inating the other cler$'s call.
% person intended to put the lid on a sugar #o&l, #ut instead put
it on a coffee cup 0&ith the sa!e si7e opening2.
I had a report of so!eone &ho planned to to pour orange /uice into
a glass #ut instead poured it into a coffee cup 0ad/acent to the glass2.
%nother person told !e of intending to pour rice fro! a storage /ar
into a !easuring cup, #ut instead pouring coo$ing oil into the !easur1
ing cup 0#oth the oil and the rice &ere $ept in glass containers on the
counter2.
So/e things see/ designed to ca.se slips5 Hong ro&s of identical
s&itches are perfect set.ps for description errors5 ,ntend to flip one
10+ The Design of Everyday Things
s&itch6 instead flip a si/ilar0loo7ing one5 ,t happens in ind.strial
plants6 aircraft6 ho/es6 any&here5 When different actions have si/ilar
descriptions6 there is a good chance of /ishap6 especially &hen the
operator is experienced and &ell practiced and therefore not paying f.ll
attention6 and if there are /ore i/portant things to do5
DATA,D!?FEN E!!6!%
+I &as assigning a visitor a roo! to use. I decided to call the depart1
!ent secretary to tell her the roo! nu!#er. I used the telephone in the
alcove outside the roo!, &ith the roo! nu!#er in sight. Instead of
dialing the secretary's phone nu!#er:&hich I use fre-uently and
$no& very &ell:I dialed the roo! nu!#er.+
=.ch h./an 8ehavior is a.to/atic6 for exa/ple6 8r.shing a&ay an
insect5 .to/atic actions are data driven:triggered 8y the arrival of
the sensory data5 ;.t so/eti/es data0driven activities can intr.de into
an ongoing action se<.ence6 ca.sing 8ehavior that &as not intended5
A%%6?AT?FE AT?FAT?6N E!!6!%
+5y office phone rang. I pic$ed up the receiver and #ello&ed 'o!e
in' at it.+
K
,f external data can so/eti/es trigger actions6 so6 too6 can internal
tho.ghts and associations5 The ringing of the telephone and 7noc7ing
on the door 8oth signal the need to greet so/eone5 Other errors occ.r
fro/ associations a/ong tho.ghts and ideas5 ssociative activation
errors are the slips st.died 8y (re.d? yo. thin7 so/ething that o.ght
not to 8e said and then6 to yo.r e/8arrass/ent6 yo. say it5
L6%%,6F,AT?FAT?6N E!!6!%
+I have to go to the #edroo! #efore I start &or$ing in the dining
roo!. I start going there and reali7e as I a! &al$ing that I have no idea
&hy I a! going there. ,no&ing !yself, I $eep going, hoping that
so!ething in the #edroo! &ill re!ind !e. . . . I get there #ut still
cannot recall &hat I &anted. . . so I go #ac$ to the dining roo!. There
I reali7e that !y glasses are dirty. ;ith great relief I go #ac$ to the
#edroo!, get !y hand$erchief, and &ipe !y glasses clean.+
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 102
One of the /ore co//on slips is si/ply forgetting to do so/ething5
=ore interesting is forgetting part of the act6 re/e/8ering the rest6 as
in the story a8ove &here the goal &as forgotten6 8.t the rest of the
action contin.ed .ni/paired5 One of /y infor/ants &al7ed all the
&ay thro.gh the ho.se to the 7itchen and opened the refrigerator door?
then he &ondered &hy he &as there5 Hac70of0activation errors occ.r
8eca.se the pres./ed /echanis/:the 3activation3 of the goals:has
decayed5 The less technical 8.t /ore co//on ter/ &o.ld 8e 3forget0
ting53
+6DE E!!6!%
+I had /ust co!pleted a long run fro! !y university to !y ho!e in
&hat I &as convinced &ould #e record ti!e. It &as dar$ &hen I got
ho!e, so I could not read the ti!e on !y stop&atch. %s I &al$ed up
and do&n the street in front of !y ho!e, cooling off, I got !ore and
!ore an4ious to see ho& fast I had run. I then re!e!#ered that !y
&atch had a #uilt1in light, operated #y the upper right1hand #utton.
Elated, I depressed the #utton to illu!inate the reading, only to read
a ti!e of 7ero seconds. I had forgotten that in stop&atch !ode, the
sa!e #utton Fthat in the nor!al, ti!e1reading !ode &ould have turned
on a lightG cleared the ti!e and reset the stop&atch.+
=ode errors occ.r &hen devices have different /odes of operation6
and the action appropriate for one /ode has different /eanings in
other /odes5 =ode errors are inevita8le any ti/e e<.ip/ent is de0
signed to have /ore possi8le actions than it has controls or displays6
so the controls /.st do do.8le d.ty5 =ode errors are especially li7ely
&here the e<.ip/ent does not /a7e the /ode visi8le6 so the .ser is
expected to re/e/8er &hat /ode has 8een esta8lished6 so/eti/es for
/any ho.rs5
=ode errors are co//on &ith digital &atches and co/p.ter syste/s
Cespecially text editorsD5 Several accidents in co//ercial aviation can
8e attri8.ted to /ode errors6 especially in the .se of the a.to/atic
pilots C&hich have a large n./8er of co/plex /odesD5
*ETECT,NG SH,PS
ltho.gh slips are relatively easy to detect 8eca.se there is a clear
discrepancy 8et&een goal and res.lt6 detection can only ta7e place if
110 The Design of Everyday Things
there is feed8ac75 ,f t he res.lt of the action is not visi8le6 ho& can a
/isaction 8e detected@ Even &hen a /is/atch is not ed6 the person /ay
not 8elieve that t he error occ.rred5 So/e trail of the se<.ence of actions
t hat &as perfor/ed is val.a8le5
Even &hen an error has 8een detected6 it /ay not 8e clear &hat the
error &as5
+%lice+ &as driving a van and noticed that the rearvie& !irror on
the passenger side &as not ad/usted properly. %lice !eant to say to the
passenger on the right, +Please ad/ust the !irror,+ #ut instead said
+Please ad/ust the &indo&.+
The passenger, +8ally,+ &as confused and as$ed, +;hat should I do)
;hat do you &ant)+
%lice repeated the re-uest: +%d/ust the &indo& for !e.+
The situation continued through several frustrating cycles of con1
versation and atte!pts #y the passenger to understand /ust &hat ad1
/ust!ents should #e !ade to the &indo&. The error1correction !echa1
nis! adopted #y the driver &as to repeat the erroneous sentence !ore
and !ore loudly.
,n this exa/ple6 it &as easy to detect that so/ething &as &rong 8.t
hard to discover &hat 5 lice 8elieved the pro8le/ &as t hat she co.ldn9 t
8e .nderst ood or heard5 She &as /onit oring t he &rong part of t he
action se<.ence:she had a pro8le/ of level5
ctions can 8e specified at /any different levels5 S.ppose , &ere
driving /y car to t he 8an75 t any given /o/ent 6 t he action 8eing
perfor/ed co.ld 8e descri8ed at /any different levels:
F *riving to the 8an7
F T.rning into the par7ing lot
F =a7ing a right t.rn
F $otating the steering &heel cloc7&ise
F =oving /y left hand .p&ard and to the right and /y right hand
do&n&ard
F ,ncreasing the tension on the sternocostal portion of the pectoralis
/a4or /.scle
ll these levels are active at t he sa/e ti/e5 The /ost glo8al descrip0
tion Cthe one at t he top of t he listD6 is called t he high0level specification5
The /ore detailed descriptions6 t he ones at t he 8ot t o/ of t he list6 are
called t he lo&0level specifications5 ny one of t he/ /ight 8e in error5
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an ...
,t is often possi8le to detect that the res.lt of an action is not as
planned6 8.t then not to 7no& at &hich level of specification the error
has ta7en place5
Pro8le/s of level co//only th&art the correction of error5 =y
collection of slips incl.des several exa/ples in &hich a person detects
a pro8le/ 8.t atte/pts to correct it at the &rong level5
One fre-uent e4a!ple is the non1&or$ing $ey, reported to !e #oth
for cars and ho!es. 8o!eone goes to his or her car and the $ey &on't
&or$. The first response is to try again, perhaps holding the $ey !ore
level or straight. Then the $ey is reversed, tried upside do&n. ;hen
that fails, the $ey is e4a!ined and perhaps another tried in its stead.
Then the door is &iggled, sha$en, hit. "inally, the person decides that
the loc$ has #ro$en, and &al$s around the car to try the other door,
at &hich point it is suddenly clear that this is the &rong car.
,n all the sit.ations , have exa/ined the error correction /echanis/
see/s to start at the lo&est possi8le level and slo&ly &or7s its &ay
higher5 Whether this is .niversally tr.e , do not 7no&6 8.t the hypoth0
esis &arrants f.rther exa/ination5
DE%?.N LE%%6N% F!6+ THE %T7D@ 6F %L?$%
T&o different 7inds of design lessons can 8e dra&n6 one for preventing
slips 8efore they occ.r and one for detecting and correcting the/ &hen
they do occ.r5 ,n general6 the sol.tions follo& directly fro/ the preced0
ing analyses5 (or exa/ple6 /ode errors are /ini/i>ed 8y /ini/i>ing
/odes6 or at least 8y /a7ing /odes visi8le5
Cars provide a n./8er of exa/ples of ho& design relates to error5
variety of fl.ids are re<.ired in the engine co/part/ent of an a.to0
/o8ile: engine oil6 trans/ission oil6 8ra7e fl.id6 &indshield &asher
sol.tion6 radiator coolant6 8attery &ater5 P.tting the &rong fl.id into
a reservoir co.ld lead to serio.s da/age or even an accident5 .to/o0
8ile /an.fact.rers try to /ini/i>e these errors Ca co/8ination of de0
scription and /ode errorsD 8y /a7ing the different co/part/ents loo7
different:.sing different shapes and different0si>e openings:and 8y
adding color to the fl.ids so that they can 8e disting.ished5 #ere design
8y and large prevents errors5 ;.t6 .nfort.nately6 designers see/ to
prefer to enco.rage the/5
((- The Design of Everyday Things
I &as in a ta4i in %ustin, Te4as, ad!iring the large nu!#er of ne&
devices in front of the driver. *o !ore si!ple radio. In its place &as
a co!puter display, so that !essages fro! the dispatcher &ere no&
printed on the screen. The driver too$ great delight in de!onstrating
all the features to !e. On the radio trans!itter I sa& four identical1
loo$ing #uttons laid out in a ro&.
+Oh,+ I said, +you have four different radio channels.+
+*ope, +he replied, +three. The fourth #utton resets all the settings.
Then it ta$es !e thirty !inutes to get everything all set up properly
again.+
+6!!,+ I said, +I #et you hit that every no& and then #y accident.+
+I certainly do,+ he replied 0in his o&n unprinta#le &ords2.
,n co/p.ter syste/s6 it is co//on to prevent errors 8y re<.iring
confir/ation 8efore a co//and &ill 8e exec.ted6 especially &hen the
action &ill destroy a file5 ;.t t he re<.est is ill ti/ed? it co/es 4.st after
the person has initiated t he action and is still f.lly content &i t h the
choice5 The standard interaction goes so/ething li7e this:
)SE$: $e/ove file 3=y0/ost0i/portant0&or75 3
CO=P)TE$: re yo. certain yo. &ish to re/ove the file 3=y0/ost 0
i/portant0&or73@
)SE$: Aes5
CO=P)TE$: re yo. certain@
)SE$: Aes6 of co.rse5
CO=P)TE$: The file 3=y0/ost0i/portant0&or73 has 8een re/oved5
)SE$: Oops6 da/n5
The .ser has re<.ested deletion of the &rong file 8.t t he co/p.ter9 s
re<.est for confir/ation is .nli7ely to catch the error? the .ser is
confir/ing t he action6 not the file na/e5 Th.s as7ing for confir/ation
cannot catch all slips5 ,t &o.l d 8e /ore appropriate to eli/inate irrever0
si8le actions: in this exa/ple6 t he re<.est to re/ove a file &o.l d 8e
handled 8y t he co/p.t er9 s /ovi ng t he file t o so/e te/porary holding
place5 Then t he .ser &o.l d have ti/e for reconsideration and recovery5
%t a research la#oratory I once directed, &e discovered that people
&ould fre-uently thro& a&ay their records and notes, only to discover
the ne4t day that they needed the! again. ;e solved the pro#le! #y
getting seven trash cans and la#eling the! &ith the days of the &ee$.
"IHE: TO Err Is 6u!an 11!
Then the trash can la#eled ;ednesday &ould #e used only on
;ednesdays. %t the end of the day it &as safely stored a&ay and not
e!ptied until the ne4t Tuesday, /ust #efore it &as to #e used again.
People discovered that they $ept neater records and #oo$s #ecause
they no longer hesitated to thro& a&ay things that they thought &ould
pro#a#ly never #e used againD they figured it &as safe to thro& so!e1
thing a&ay, for they still had a &ee$ in &hich to change their !inds.
>ut design is often a tradeoff. ;e had to !a$e roo! for the si4
reserve &aste1#as$ets, and &e had a never1ending struggle &ith the
/anitorial staff, &ho $ept trying to e!pty all of the &aste1#as$ets every
evening. The users of the co!puter center ca!e to depend upon the
+soft+ nature of the &aste1#as$ets and &ould discard things that they
other&ise !ight have $ept for a &hile longer. ;hen there &as an
error:so!eti!es on the part of the /anitorial staff, so!eti!es on our
part in cycling the &aste1#as$ets properly:then it &as a cala!ity.
;hen you #uild an error1tolerant !echanis!, people co!e to rely
upon it, so it had #etter #e relia#le.
=ista7e
Errors of Tho.
=ista7es res.lt fro/ the choice of inappropriate goals5 person /a7es
a poor decision6 /isclassifies a sit.ation6 or fails to ta7e all the relevant
factors into acco.nt5 =any /ista7es arise fro/ the vagaries of h./an
tho.ght6 often 8eca.se people tend to rely .pon re/e/8ered experi0
ences rather than on /ore syste/atic analysis5 We /a7e decisions
8ased .pon &hat is in o.r /e/ory? /e/ory is 8iased to&ard overgen0
erali>ation and overreg.lari>ation of the co//onplace and overe/0
phasis on the discrepant5
SO=E =O*EHS O( #)=N T#O)G#T
Psychologists have chronicled the fail.res of tho.ght6 the nonrational0
ity of real 8ehavior5 Even si/ple tas7s can so/eti/es thro& other&ise
clever people into disarray5 Even tho.gh principles of rationality see/
as often violated as follo&ed6 &e still cling to the notion that h./an
tho.ght sho.ld 8e rational6 logical6 and orderly5 =.ch of la& is 8ased
.pon the concept of rational tho.ght and 8ehavior5 =.ch of econo/ic
theory is 8ased .pon the /odel of the rational h./an &ho atte/pts
11" The Design of Everyday Things
to opti/i>e personal 8enefit6 .tility6 or co/fort5 =any scientists &ho
st.dy artificial intelligence .se the /athe/atics of for/al logic:the
predicate calc.l.s:as their /a4or tool to si/.late tho.ght5
;.t h./an tho.ght:and its close relatives6 pro8le/ solving and
planning:see/ /ore rooted in past experience than in logical ded.c0
tion5 =ental life is not neat and orderly5 ,t does not proceed s/oothly
and gracef.lly in neat6 logical for/5 ,nstead6 it hops6 s7ips6 and 4./ps
its &ay fro/ idea to idea6 tying together things that have no 8.siness
8eing p.t together? for/ing ne& creative leaps6 ne& insights and con0
cepts5 #./an tho.ght is not li7e logic? it is f.nda/entally different in
7ind and in spirit5 The difference is neither &orse nor 8etter5 ;.t it is
the difference that leads to creative discovery and to great ro8.stness
of 8ehavior5
Tho.ght and /e/ory are closely related6 for tho.ght relies heavily
.pon the experiences of life5 ,ndeed6 /.ch pro8le/ solving and deci0
sion /a7ing ta7es place thro.gh atte/pts to re/e/8er so/e previ0
o.s experience that can serve as a g.ide for the present5 There have
8een /any theories of h./an /e/ory5 (or exa/ple6 every /ethod
of filing things has sho&n .p so/e&here along the line as a /odel
for h./an /e/ory5 *o yo. file photographs neatly in a scrap8oo7@
One theory of /e/ory has post.lated that o.r experiences are neatly
encoded and organi>ed6 as if in a photo al8./5 This theory is &rong5
#./an /e/ory is /ost definitely not li7e a set of photographs or a
tape recording5 ,t /.shes things together too /.ch6 conf.ses one
event &ith another6 co/8ines different events6 and leaves o.t parts of
individ.al events5
nother theory is 8ased on the filing ca8inet /odel6 &herein there
are lots of cross references and pointers to other records5 This theory
has a good deal going for it6 and it is pro8a8ly a reasona8le characteri0
>ation of the /ost pro/inent approach today5 Of co.rse6 it is not called
a file ca8inet theory5 ,t goes 8y the na/es of 3sche/a theory63 3fra/e
theory63 or so/eti/es 3se/antic net&or7s3 and 3propositional encod0
ing53 The individ.al file folders are defined in the for/al str.ct.re of
the sche/as or fra/es6 and the connections and associations a/ong the
individ.al records /a7e the str.ct.re into a vast and co/plex net&or75
The essence of the theory consists of three 8eliefs6 all reasona8le and
s.pported 8y considera8le evidence: C1D that there is logic and order to
the individ.al str.ct.res Cthis is &hat the sche/a or fra/e is a8o.tD?
C2D that h./an /e/ory is associative6 &ith each sche/a pointing and
referring to /.ltiple others to &hich it is related or that help define the
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 11'
co/ponents Cth.s the ter/ 3net&or73D? and C!D that /.ch of o.r po&er
for ded.ctive tho.ght co/es fro/ .sing the infor/ation in one sche/a
to ded.ce the properties of another Cth.s the ter/ 3prepositional en0
coding3D5
I
To ill.strate the third concept: once , learn that all living
ani/als 8reathe6 , 7no& that any live ani/al , &ill ever /eet &ill
8reathe5 , don9t have to learn this separately for all ani/als5 We call this
the 3defa.lt val.e53 )nless told other&ise6 anything , learn for a gen0
eral concept applies to all of its instances 8y defa.lt5 *efa.lt val.es do
not have to apply to everything:, can learn exceptions6 s.ch as that
all 8irds fly except for peng.ins and ostriches5 ;.t defa.lts hold tr.e
.nless an exception sho&s other&ise5 *ed.ction is a /ost .sef.l and
po&erf.l property of h./an /e/ory5
T#E CONNECT,ON,ST PP$OC#
We still are a long &ay fro/ .nderstanding h./an /e/ory and cogni0
tion5 Today6 in the developing field of cognitive science6 t&o different
vie&s are e/erging5 The traditional vie& considers tho.ght to 8e ratio0
nal6 logical6 and orderly? this approach .ses /athe/atical logic as the
scientific /eans to explain tho.ght5 dherents of this approach have
pioneered the develop/ent of sche/as as the /echanis/ of h./an
/e/ory5 ne&er approach is rooted in the &or7ing of the 8rain itself5
Those of .s &ho follo& this ne& approach call it 3connectionis/63 8.t
it also goes .nder the na/es of 3ne.ral nets63 3ne.ral /odels63 and
3parallel distri8.ted processing53 ,t is an atte/pt to /odel the &ay in
&hich the 8rain itself is str.ct.red6 &ith 8illions of 8rain cells con0
nected into gro.ps6 /any cells connected to tens of tho.sands of oth0
ers6 /any all &or7ing at the sa/e ti/e5 This approach follo&s the r.les
of ther/odyna/ics /ore than it does the r.les of logic5 Connectionis/
is still tentative6 still .nproven5 , 8elieve that it has the potential to
explain /.ch of &hat p.>>led .s 8efore6 8.t part of the scientific
co//.nity thin7s that it is f.nda/entally fla&ed5
1
The 8rain consists of 8illions of nerve cells:ne.rons:each con0
nected to tho.sands of other cells5 Each ne.ron sends si/ple signals to
the ne.rons to &hich it is connected6 each signal atte/pting to increase
or decrease the activity of its recipient5 The connectionist approach to
the st.dy of tho.ght /i/ics these connections5 Each connectionist .nit
is connected to /any other .nits5 The signals are either positive in
val.e Ccalled 3activation3 signalsD or negative in val.e Ccalled 3inhi8i0
11I The Design of Everyday Things
tion3D5 Each .nit adds .p the total infl.ence of the signals that it
receives and then sends along its o.t&ard connections a signal &hose
val.e is a f.nction of that s./5 That9s a8o.t all there is to it5 The
ele/ents are all si/ple: the co/plexity and po&er co/e fro/ the fact
that there are a large n./8er of interconnected .nits trying to infl.ence
the activities of the others5 ll this interconnection leads to /assive
interaction a/ong the .nits6 &ith the signals so/eti/es leading to
fights and conflicts6 so/eti/es to cooperation and sta8ility5 fter a
&hile6 ho&ever6 the syste/ of interconnected .nits &ill event.ally
settle do&n to a sta8le state that represents a co/pro/ise a/ong the
opposing forces5
Tho.ghts are represented 8y sta8le patterns of activity5 Ne&
tho.ghts are triggered &henever there is so/e change in the syste/6
oftenti/es 8eca.se so/e ne& infor/ation arrives at the senses and
changes the pattern of activation and inhi8ition5 We can thin7 of the
interactions as the co/p.tational part of tho.ght: &hen one set of .nits
sends signals activating another6 this can 8e interpreted as offering
s.pport for a cooperative interpretation of events? &hen one set of
.nits sends signals s.ppressing another6 it is 8eca.se the t&o .s.ally
offer co/peting interpretations5 The res.lt of all this s.pport and co/0
petition is a co/pro/ise: not the correct interpretation6 si/ply one that
is as consistent as possi8le &ith all possi8ilities .nder active considera0
tion5 This approach s.ggests that /.ch of tho.ght res.lts fro/ a 7ind
of pattern /atching syste/6 one that forces its sol.tions to 8e analo0
go.s to past experiences6 and one that does not necessarily follo& the
for/al r.les of logical inference5
The relaxation of interacting connectionist str.ct.res into patterns
happens relatively <.ic7ly and a.to/atically6 8elo& the s.rface of
conscio.sness5 We are conscio.s only of the end states6 not of the
/eans for getting there5 s a res.lt6 in this vie& of the /ind6 o.r
explanations of o.r o&n 8ehavior are al&ays s.spect6 for they a/o.nt
to stories /ade .p after the fact to explain the tho.ghts that &e already
have5
=.ch of o.r 7no&ledge is hidden 8eneath the s.rface of o.r /inds6
inaccessi8le to conscio.s inspection5 We discover o.r o&n 7no&ledge
pri/arily thro.gh o.r actions5 We can also find o.t 8y testing o.r0
selves6 8y trying to retrieve exa/ples fro/ /e/ory:self0generated
exa/ples5 Thin7 of an exa/ple6 then thin7 of another exa/ple5 (ind
a story that explains the/5 Then &e 8elieve that story and call it the
reason or explanation for o.r 8ehavior5 The pro8le/ is that the story
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an ..1
changes dra/atically depending .pon &hat exa/ples &e select5 nd
the exa/ples &e select depend .pon a large set of factors6 so/e .nder
o.r control6 so/e not5
The connectionist approach to /e/ory /ight also 8e called the
3/.ltiple0expos.re3 theory of /e/ory5
8uppose, un#e$no&nst to you, your ca!era #ro$e so that the fil!
&ouldn't &ind. Every picture you too$ &ent right on top of all the
others. If you had ta$en pictures of different scenes, you !ight still #e
a#le to !a$e out the individual parts. >ut suppose you had ta$en a
picture of a high1school graduating class, one person at a ti!e. Each
person too$ a turn sitting in the chair in front of the fi4ed ca!eraD each
s!iledD each had a picture ta$en. %fter&ard, &hen you developed the
fil!, you &ould find /ust one picture, a co!posite of all those faces. %ll
the individual records &ould still #e there, #ut on top of one another,
difficult to separate out. (ou'd have the average high1school graduate.
Thro& everything into /e/ory on top of one another5 That is a
cr.de approxi/ation of the connectionist approach to /e/ory5 ct.0
ally6 things aren9t thro&n together .ntil after a lot of processing has
gone on5 nd /e/ory isn9t really li7e a /.ltiple expos.re5 Still6 this
is not a 8ad characteri>ation of the connectionist approach5
Consider &hat happens &hen t&o si/ilar events are experienced:
they /erge together to for/ a 7ind of average6 a 3prototypical event53
This prototype governs interpretations and actions related to any other
event that see/s si/ilar5 What happens &hen so/ething really dis0
crepant occ.rs@ ,f it is <.ite different fro/ the prototype6 it still /an0
ages to /aintain its identity &hen thro&n into /e/ory5 ,t stands o.t
8y itself5
,f there &ere a tho.sand si/ilar events6 &e &o.ld tend to re/e/8er
the/ as one co/posite prototype5 ,f there &ere 4.st one discrepant
event6 &e &o.ld re/e/8er it6 too6 for 8y 8eing discrepant it didn9t get
s/.dged .p &ith the rest5 ;.t the res.lting /e/ory is al/ost as if
there had 8een only t&o events: the co//on one and the discrepant
one5 The co//on one is a tho.sand ti/es /ore li7ely6 8.t not to the
/e/ory? in /e/ory there are t&o things6 and the discrepant event
hardly see/s less li7ely than the everyday one5
So it is &ith h./an /e/ory5 We /.sh together details of things
that are si/ilar6 and give .nd.e &eight to the discrepant5 We relish
discrepant and .n.s.al /e/ories5 We re/e/8er the/6 tal7 a8o.t
11+ The Design of Everyday Things
the/6 and 8ias 8ehavior to&ard the/ in &holly inappropriate &ays5
What has this to do &ith everyday tho.ght@ lot5 Everyday tho.ght
see/s to 8e 8ased .pon past experiences6 .pon o.r a8ility to retrieve
an event fro/ the past and .se it to /odel the present5 This event0
8ased reasoning is po&erf.l6 yet f.nda/entally fla&ed5 ;eca.se
tho.ght is 8ased on &hat can 8e recalled6 the rare event can predo/i0
nate5 Thin7 a8o.t it5 Thin7 of yo.r experiences &ith co/p.ters6 or
-C$s6 or ho/e appliances? &hat pro8a8ly co/e to /ind are the
.n.s.al experiences6 things that are discrepant5 ,t doesn9t /atter that
yo. /ay have .sed the device a h.ndred ti/es s.ccessf.lly:it is the
one ti/e yo. got e/8arrassed that &ill co/e to /ind5
+
The li/itations of h./an tho.ght processes have i/portant i/0
plications for everyday activities6 and in fact can 8e called in to distin0
g.ish everyday activities fro/ others5
The Str.ct.re
of Tas7s
Everyday activities are concept.ally si/ple5 We sho.ld 8e a8le to do
/ost things &itho.t having to thin7 a8o.t &hat &e9re doing5 The
si/plicity lies in the nat.re of the str.ct.re of the tas7s5
:?DE AND DEE$ %T!7T7!E%
Consider the ga/e of chess6 an activity that is neither everyday nor
si/ple6 at least6 not for /ost of .s5 When it is /y t.rn to play6 , have
a n./8er of possi8le /oves5 (or each of /y /oves6 /y opponent has
a n./8er of possi8le responses5 nd for each of /y opponent9s re0
sponses6 , have a n./8er of possi8le co.nterresponses5 The se<.ences
can 8e represented on a decision tree6 a diagra/ that in this case ta7es
the c.rrent 8oard position as a starting point and sho&s each of /y
possi8le /oves6 each of the possi8le co.nter/oves6 each possi8le
co.nter0co.nter /ove6 each possi8le co.nter0co.nter0co.nter /ove6
and so on6 as deep as ti/e and energy per/it5 The si>e of the tree for
chess is i//ense6 for the n./8er of choices increases exponentially5
S.ppose that at each spot there are + possi8le /oves5 t that spot ,
/.st consider + initial /oves for /e6 + O + K I" replies of /y
opponent6 I" O + K '12 replies , can /a7e6 '12 O + K "602I possi8le
replies 8y /y opponent6 and then "602I O + K !261I+ /ore possi8ili0
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 112
8)' :ide and Dee" Decision Tree) The ga/e of tic0tac0toe Cna.ghts and
crossesD5 The tree starts at the top6 &ith the initial state6 then deepens as each
s.ccessive layer considers all the alternative /oves 8y each player5 ltho.gh this
diagra/ loo7s a 8it co/plex6 it is a pretty si/ple str.ct.re as these things go5 (irst
of all6 this pict.re is /.ch si/plified5 Only one possi8le first /ove 8y 0 is sho&n6
and the sy//etry of the 8oard is .sed to red.ce the n./8er of alternatives 8eing
considered5 COnly t&o first /oves 8y O need 8e considered: the eight possi8ilities
are really e<.ivalent to the t&o sho&n 8eca.se of the sy//etry5D ,n the f.ll ga/e6
there are nine possi8le first /oves for 06 eight possi8le replies 8y O6 seven second
/oves 8y 06 and so on6 .p to the third /ove 8y 06 &hich is the first possi8le ti/e
for the ga/e to 8e &on? there are 1'6120 possi8le se<.ences .p to that point5 Even
this si/ple ga/e leads to s.ch a &ide and deep decision tree that it is not possi8le
to &or7 o.t all the possi8ilities in the head5 Expert players ta7e advantage of si/ple
strategies and /e/ori>ed /ove se<.ences5 C(ro/ 6u!an Infor!ation Processing, Sec0
ond Edition6 8y Peter #5 Hindsay and *onald 5 Nor/an6 copyright J 1211 8y
#arco.rt ;race Bovanovich6 ,nc5 $eprinted 8y per/ission of the p.8lisher5D
(-< The Design of Everyday Things
ties for /e5 s yo. can see6 the decision tree gets large rapidly: loo7ing
ahead five /oves /eans considering over =0,000 possi8ilities5 The tree
is characteri>ed 8y a vast6 spreading net&or7 of possi8ilities5 There
isn9t space here for the decision tree for chess5 ;.t even a si/ple ga/e
li7e tic0tac0toe Cor na.ghts and crossesD has a si/ilar str.ct.re6 sho&n
in fig.re '515
That decision tree for chess is even &ider and deeper:&ide in the
sense that at each point in the tree there are /any alternatives6 so that
the tree spreads o.t over a considera8le area? deep in the sense that
/ost 8ranches of the tree go on for a considera8le distance5
Everyday activities don9t re<.ire the 7ind of co/plex analyses re0
<.ired for so/ething li7e chess5 ,n /ost everyday activities6 &e need
only exa/ine the alternatives and act5 Everyday str.ct.res are either
shallo& or narro&5
2
S#HHOW ST$)CT)$ES
The /en. of an ice crea/ store provides a good exa/ple of a shallo&
str.ct.re Cfig.re '52D5 There are /any alternative actions6 8.t each is
si/ple? there are fe& decisions to /a7e after the single top0level choice5
The /a4or pro8le/ is to decide &hich action to do5 *iffic.lties arise
fro/ co/peting alternatives6 not fro/ any prolonged search6 pro8le/
solving6 or trial and error5 ,n shallo& str.ct.res6 there9s no pro8le/ of
planning or depth of analysis5
N$$OW ST$)CT)$ES
coo78oo7 recipe is a good exa/ple of a narro& str.ct.re Cfig.re K.=2.
narro& str.ct.re arises &hen there are only a s/all n./8er of
alternatives6 perhaps one or t&o5 ,f each possi8ility leads to only one
or t&o f.rther choices6 then the res.lting tree str.ct.re can 8e said to
8e narro& and deep5
B.st as the ice crea/ store /en. is an exa/ple of a shallo& str.ct.re6
the /.ltico.rse6 fixed /en. /eal can serve as an exa/ple of a deep
str.ct.re5 ltho.gh there /ay 8e /any co.rses6 for each co.rse the
diner is either a.to/atically served the relevant dish or offered the
choice of one or t&o dishes5 The only action re<.ired is to accept one
or to ref.se: no deep tho.ght is re<.ired5
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 121
'52 Wide and Shallo& *ecision Tree5 lot of alternatives6 8.t after the first
decision6 fe& or no f.rther decisions5 ,n this /en. fro/ an ice crea/ parlor6 there
are /any choices6 8.t once the flavor has 8een chosen6 the re/aining decisions are
si/ple:&hat 7ind of cone6 ho& /any scoops6 and &hat 7ind of topping5 CPhoto0
graph 8y the a.thor of a sign at a ;as7in0$o88ins store5D
not her exa/ple is t he se<.ence of steps re<.ired to start a car5 Ao.
/.st go to t he car6 select t he proper 7ey6 insert it in t he door loc76 t .rn
t he 7ey6 open t he door6 re/ove t he 7ey6 get int o t he car6 close t he door6
p.t on t he seat8elt6 insert t he proper 7ey into t he ignition6 /a7e s.re
122 The Design of Everyday Things
203 C+45-..) S1+ B+,,
Sa'te onion an) +arlic.
Heat ? /ottles o& /eer to /oilin+.
2lace sea /ass in -an.
2o'r /eer o0er &ish.
A)) onion, +arlic, an) m'shrooms.
A)) @ hole +arlic clo0es, 'n-eele)
A)) cilantro.
2oach &or <A min'tes (a--ro*.!
Remo0e &ish &rom -an.
Re)'ce stock o0er hi+h heat.
2't /ron rice on ser0in+ -late.
2lace &ish o0er rice.
Co0er &ish ith stock an)
Bn) Cale-eno sa'ce.
8)2 Dee" and Narro& Decision Tree) (e& decisions need 8e /ade at any level6
8.t to co/plete the tas76 /any steps ClevelsD /.st 8e follo&ed5 This decision
str.ct.re is characteristic of any tas7 that has a large n./8er of steps6 each of
&hich is relatively straightfor&ard5 n exa/ple is the steps re<.ired to follo& a
recipe6 s.ch as /y favorite fish recipe5
the car is not in gear6 start the engine6 and so on5 This is a deep
str.ct.re6 8.t it is narro&5 There is a long series of steps6 8.t at each
point6 there are fe&6 if any6 alternatives to consider5 ny tas7 that
involves a se<.ence of activities &here the action to 8e done at any
point is deter/ined 8y its place in the se<.ence is an exa/ple of a
narro& str.ct.re5
The /odern s.perhigh&ay offers the driver a series of exits5 The
driver either starts on the road &ith a predeter/ined exit in /ind or
else /.st decide at each exit &hether to stay on the road or not5 ,n fact6
road designers atte/pt to lineari>e and si/plify the decision0/a7ing
tas7s of the driver: the relevant infor/ation is fed slo&ly and se<.en0
tially to the driver to /ini/i>e the /ental &or7load and the need for
overlapping processing5
"ree&ay design is #y no& a science, &ith a &ell1defined set of
procedures and &ith societies, #oo$s, and /ournals devoted to it. Dif1
ferent countries of the &orld have reached different solutions to the
pro#le! of guiding the driver.
% rather co!plete analysis &as done in >ritain for the design of the
= series !otor&ays. Each !otor&ay e4it has a carefully progra!!ed
se-uence of si4 signs. The first precedes the e4it #y one !ile and is
203 6+.1710) S+891
Cho- < lar+e onion.
2eel an) cho- ; tomatillos.
Slice ? Cala-eno chiles len+thise.
2eel an) ='arter ? tomatoes.
2lace onion, tomatillos, chile, an)
tomatoes in sa'ce -an.
Co0er ith < c'- re) ine.
Simmer &or <D min'tes to ? ho'rs (the
lon+er the mil)er!.
A)) cilantro.
Ser0e.
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an (-2
intended to serve an alerting function, as &ell as to present route
nu!#er infor!ation. The second precedes the e4it #y a half !ile and
gives the !a/or to&ns reached #y the e4it 0#ut no route nu!#er infor1
!ation2. The third precedes the e4it #y a -uarter !ile and adds the
+for&ard destination+ 0&here you eventually get to if you don't e4it2.
The fourth sign is at the e4it and provides !a/or route nu!#ers and
a fe& to&n na!es. The fifth sign is on the !otor&ay #eyond the e4itD
it is intended to play a +confir!atory+ role: it displays the for&ard
destinations and their distances. The si4th sign is on the e4it ra!p, in
colors the reverse of all the preceding signsD it sho&s all the local
destinations, usually on a !ap of the rounda#out 0traffic circle2 found
at !ost e4its.
10
THE NAT7!E 6F EFE!@DA@ TA%E%
=ost tas7s of daily life are ro.tine6 re<.iring little tho.ght or plan0
ning:things li7e 8athing and dressing6 8r.shing teeth6 eating at the
ta8le6 getting to &or76 /eeting &ith friends6 going to the theater5 These
are the daily activities that occ.py /ost of o.r ti/e6 and there are /any
of the/5 Aet each6 8y itself6 is relatively si/ple: either shallo& or
narro&5
What are not everyday activities@ Those &ith &ide and deep str.c0
t.res6 the ones that re<.ire considera8le conscio.s planning and
tho.ght6 deli8erate trial and error: trying first this approach6 then
that:8ac7trac7ing5 )n.s.al tas7s incl.de &riting a long doc./ent or
letter6 /a7ing a /a4or or co/plex p.rchase6 co/p.ting inco/e tax6
planning a special /eal6 arranging a vacation trip5 nd don9t forget
intellect.al ga/es: 8ridge6 chess6 po7er6 cross&ord p.>>les6 and so on5
The tas7s /ost fre<.ently st.died 8y psychologists are not everyday
tas7s5 They are things li7e chess or alge8raic p.>>les6 &hich re<.ire
/.ch tho.ght and effort? 8.t indeed6 these p.rs.its have 4.st the sort
of &ide and deep str.ct.res that do not characteri>e everyday activi0
ties5
,n general6 &e find &ide and deep str.ct.res in ga/es and leis.re
activities6 &here the str.ct.re is devised so as to occ.py the /ind or
to /a7e the tas7 deli8erately Cand artificiallyD diffic.lt5 fter all6 &hat
challenge &o.ld there 8e if ga/es s.ch as chess or 8ridge &ere concep0
t.ally si/ple@ #o& &o.ld interest in a /ystery novel:or any novel
for that /atter:8e s.stained if the plot &ere straightfor&ard and the
12" The Design of Everyday Things
ans&ers readily ded.cti8le@ $ecreational activities should 8e &ide and
deep6 for &e do the/ &hen &e have the ti/e and &ish to expend the
effort5 ,n the everyday &orld6 &e &ant to get on &ith the i/portant
things of life6 not spend o.r ti/e in deep tho.ght atte/pting to open
a can of food or dial a telephone n./8er5
Everyday activities /.st .s.ally 8e done relatively <.ic7ly6 often
si/.ltaneo.sly &ith other activities5 Neither ti/e nor /ental reso.rces
/ay 8e availa8le5 s a res.lt6 everyday activities str.ct.re the/selves
so as to /ini/i>e conscio.s /ental activity6 &hich /eans they /.st
/ini/i>e planning Cand especially any planning &ith extensive loo7ing
ahead and 8ac7ing .pD and /ental co/p.tation5 These characteristics
restrict everyday tas7s to those that are shallo& Chaving no need for
extensive loo7ing ahead and 8ac7ing .pD and those that are narro&
Chaving fe& choices at any point6 and therefore re<.iring little plan0
ningD5 ,f the str.ct.re is shallo&6 &idth is not i/portant5 ,f the str.ct.re
is narro&6 depth is not i/portant5 ,n either case6 the /ental effort
re<.ired for doing the tas7 is /ini/i>ed5
Conscio.s and
S.8conscio.s ;ehavior
=.ch h./an 8ehavior is done s.8conscio.sly6 &itho.t conscio.s
a&areness and not availa8le to inspection5 The exact relationship 8e0
t&een conscio.s and s.8conscio.s tho.ght is still .nder great de8ate5
The res.lting scientific p.>>les are co/plex and not easily solved5
S.8conscio.s tho.ght /atches patterns5 ,t operates6 , 8elieve6 8y
finding the 8est possi8le /atch of one9s past experience to the c.rrent
one5 ,t proceeds rapidly and a.to/atically6 &itho.t effort5 S.80
conscio.s processing is one of o.r strengths5 ,t is good at detecting
general trends6 at recogni>ing the relationship 8et&een &hat &e no&
experience and &hat has happened in the past5 nd it is good at
generali>ing6 at /a7ing predictions a8o.t the general trend 8ased on
fe& exa/ples5 ;.t s.8conscio.s tho.ght can find /atches that are
inappropriate6 or &rong6 and it /ay not disting.ish the co//on fro/
the rare5 S.8conscio.s tho.ght is 8iased to&ard reg.larity and str.c0
t.re6 and it is li/ited in for/al po&er5 ,t /ay not 8e capa8le of sy/0
8olic /anip.lation6 of caref.l reasoning thro.gh a se<.ence of steps5
Conscio.s tho.ght is <.ite different5 ,t is slo& and la8ored5 #ere is
&here &e slo&ly ponder decisions6 thin7 thro.gh alternatives6 co/pare
different choices5 Conscio.s tho.ght ponders first this approach6 then
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 12'
that:co/paring6 rationali>ing6 finding explanations5 (or/al logic6
/athe/atics6 decision theory: these are the tools of conscio.s tho.ght5
;oth conscio.s and s.8conscio.s /odes of tho.ght are po&erf.l and
essential aspects of h./an life5 ;oth can provide insightf.l leaps and
creative /o/ents5 nd 8oth are s.84ect to errors6 /isconceptions6 and
fail.res5
Conscio.s tho.ght tends to 8e slo& and serial5 Conscio.s processing
see/s to involve short0ter/ /e/ory and is there8y li/ited in the
a/o.nt that can 8e readily availa8le5 Try conscio.sly to solve the
children9s ga/e called tic0tac0toe or na.ghts and crosses and yo. &ill
discover that yo. can9t6 not if yo. try to explore all the alternatives5
#o& can , clai/ that a trivial children9s ga/e cannot 8e done in the
head@ ;eca.se yo. don9t really play 8y thin7ing it thro.gh? yo. play
8y /e/ori>ing the patterns6 8y transfor/ing the ga/e into so/ething
si/pler5 Try playing the follo&ing ga/e:
8tart &ith the nine nu!#ers ., 2, =6 @, K, ?, C, J, and B. (ou and your
opponent alternate turns, each ti!e ta$ing a nu!#er. Each nu!#er can
#e ta$en only once, so if your opponent has selected a nu!#er, you
cannot also ta$e it. The first person to have any three nu!#ers that
total .K &ins the ga!e.
This is a difficult ga!e. (ou &ill find it is very hard to play &ithout
&riting it do&n. >ut this ga!e is identical to tic1tac1toe. ;hy should
it #e hard if tic1tac1toe is easy)
To see the relationship #et&een the ga!e of .K and tic1tac1toe,
si!ply arrange the nine digits into the follo&ing pattern:
J . ?
= K C
@ B 2
*o& you can see the connection: any three nu!#ers that solve the .K
pro#le! also solve tic1tac1toe. %nd any tic1tac1toe solution is also a
solution to .K. 8o &hy is one easy and the other hard) >ecause tic1tac1
toe ta$es advantage of perceptual a#ilities, and #ecause you si!plify
tic1tac1toe #y changing it in several &ays, #y ta$ing advantage of
sy!!etries, and #y !e!ori7ing 0+learning+2 the #asic opening !oves
and their appropriate responses. In the end, unless so!eone !a$es a
slip, t&o players &ill al&ays dra&, neither one &inning.
The transfor!ations of tic1tac1toe have !ade a co!ple4 tas$ into an
12I The Design of Everyday Things
everyday one5 The everyday version doesn9t re<.ire /.ch /ental ef0
fort6 it does not re<.ire planning and thin7ing6 and it is 8oring5 Which
is exactly &hat everyday tas7s o.ght to 8e:8oring6 so that &e can p.t
o.r conscio.s attention on the i/portant things of life6 not the ro.tine5
Conscio.s tho.ght is severely li/ited 8y the s/all capacity of short0
ter/ /e/ory5 (ive or six ite/s is all that can 8e 7ept availa8le at any
one /o/ent5 ;.t s.8conscio.s tho.ght is one of the tools of the
conscio.s /ind6 and the /e/ory li/itation can 8e overco/e if only an
appropriate organi>ational str.ct.re can 8e fo.nd5 Ta7e fifteen .n0
related things and it is not possi8le to 7eep the/ in conscio.s /e/ory
at once5 Organi>e the/ into a str.ct.re and it is easy6 for only that one
str.ct.re has to 8e 7ept in conscio.s /e/ory5 s a res.lt of this po&er
of organi>ation to overco/e the li/its of &or7ing /e/ory6 explana0
tion and .nderstanding 8eco/e essential co/ponents of conscio.s
tho.ght: &ith .nderstanding and explanation6 the n./8er of things
that can 8e 7ept conscio.sly in /ind expands enor/o.sly5
No& consider ho& /ista7es /ight 8e /ade: 8y /is/atch? 8y ta7ing
the c.rrent sit.ation and falsely /atching it &ith so/ething in the
past5 ltho.gh &e are really good at finding exa/ples fro/ the past
to /atch the present6 these exa/ples are 8iased in one of t&o &ays:
to&ard the reg.larities of the past:the prototypical sit.ation:or to0
&ard the .ni<.e6 discrepant event5 ;.t s.ppose the c.rrent event is
different fro/ all that has 8een experienced 8efore: it is neither co/0
/on nor .ni<.e6 it is si/ply rare5 We &on9t deal &ell &ith it: &e are
apt to classify the rare &ith either the co//on or the .ni<.e6 and
either of these choices is &rong5 The sa/e po&ers that /a7e .s so good
at dealing &ith the co//on and the .ni<.e lead to severe error &ith
the rare5
EA$LA?N?N. A:A@ E!!6!%
% refor!ed thief, telling of his success, put it this &ay: +I'! telling
you . . . if I had a hundred dollars for every ti!e I heard a dog o&ner
tell their dog to 'shut up... go lie do&n,' &hile I &as right outside their
&indo&, I'd #e a !illionaire.+
..
=ista7es6 especially &hen they involve /isinterpreting the sit.a0
tion6 can ta7e a very long ti/e to 8e discovered5 (or one thing6 the
interpretation is <.ite reasona8le at the ti/e5 This is a special pro8le/
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an (-0
in a novel sit.ation5 The sit.ation /ay loo7 very /.ch li7e others
&e9ve 8een in? &e tend to conf.se the rare event &ith the fre<.ent one5
#o& /any ti/es have yo. heard a strange noise &hile driving yo.r
car6 only to dis/iss it as not relevant6 or .ni/portant@ #o& /any ti/es
does yo.r dog 8ar7 in the night6 ca.sing yo. to get .p and yell o.t6
3;e <.ietE3 nd &hat if the car t.rns o.t to 8e 8ro7en6 and yo.r
/ista7e has increased the da/age@ Or there really is a 8.rglar o.tside6
8.t yo.9ve silenced the dog@
This pro8le/ is nat.ral5 There are lots of things &e co.ld pay atten0
tion to or &orry a8o.t? /ost &o.ld 8e false alar/s6 irrelevant /inor
events5 t the other extre/e6 &e can ignore everything6 rationally
explain each apparent ano/aly5 #ear a noise that so.nds li7e a pistol
shot and explain it a&ay: 3=.st 8e a car9s exha.st 8ac7firing53 #ear
so/eone yell o.t and thin76 Why can9t /y neigh8ors 8e <.iet@ =ost
of the ti/e &e are correct5 ;.t &hen &e9re not6 o.r explanations see/
st.pid and hard to 4.stify5
When there is a devastating accident6 people9s explaining a&ay the
signs of the i/pending disaster al&ays see/s i/pla.si8le to others5
fter&ard6 there is a tendency to read a8o.t &hat has ta7en place and
to critici>e: 3#o& co.ld those people 8e so st.pid@ (ire the/5 Pass a
la& against it5 $edo the training53 Hoo7 at the n.clear po&er accidents5
Operators at Three =ile ,sland /ade n./ero.s errors and /isdiag0
noses6 8.t each one &as logical and .nderstanda8le at the ti/e5 The
n.clear plant disaster at Cherno8yl in the Soviet )nion &as triggered
8y a &ell0intentioned atte/pt to test the safety feat.res of the plant5
The actions see/ed logical and sensi8le to the operators at the ti/e6 8.t
no& their 4.dg/ents can 8e seen to have 8een erroneo.s5
12
Explaining a&ay errors is a co//on pro8le/ in co//ercial acci0
dents5 =ost /a4or accidents follo& a series of 8rea7do&ns and errors6
pro8le/ after pro8le/6 each /a7ing the next /ore li7ely5 Seldo/ does
a /a4or accident occ.r &itho.t n./ero.s fail.res: e<.ip/ent /alf.nc0
tions6 .n.s.al events6 a series of apparently .nrelated 8rea7do&ns and
errors that c.l/inate in /a4or disaster? yet no single step has appeared
to 8e serio.s5 ,n /any of these cases6 the people involved noted the
pro8le/ 8.t explained it a&ay6 finding a logical explanation for the
other&ise deviant o8servation5
The contrast in our understanding #efore and after an event can #e
dra!atic. The psychologist >aruch "ischhoff has studied e4planations
given in hindsight, &here events see! co!pletely o#vious and predict1
a#le after the fact #ut co!pletely unpredicta#le #eforehand.
1!
12+ The Design of Everyday Things
"ischhoff presented people &ith a nu!#er of situations and as$ed
the! to predict &hat &ould happen: they &ere correct only at the
chance level. 6e then presented the sa!e situation along &ith the
actual outco!e to another group of people, as$ing the! to state ho&
li$ely the outco!e &as: &hen the actual outco!e &as $no&n, it ap1
peared to #e plausi#le and li$ely, &hereas the others appeared unli$ely.
;hen the actual outco!e &as not $no&n, the various alternatives had
-uite different plausi#ility. It is a lot easier to deter!ine &hat is o#vi1
ous after it has happened.
SOC,H P$ESS)$E N* =,ST%ES
s.8tle iss.e that see/s to fig.re in /any accidents is social press.re5
ltho.gh it /ay not at first see/ to 8e relevant in design6 it has strong
infl.ence on everyday 8ehavior5 ,n ind.strial settings social press.res
can lead to /isinterpretation6 /ista7es6 and accidents5 (or .nderstand0
ing /ista7es6 social str.ct.re is every 8it as essential as physical str.c0
t.re5
Hoo7 at airline accidents6 not everyday activities for /ost of .s6 8.t
s.84ect to the sa/e principles5 ,n 12+!6 %orean ir flight 001 strayed
over the Soviet )nion and got shot do&n6 pro8a8ly 8eca.se of an error
in progra//ing the flight path into the inertial navigation syste/
C,NSD5 ltho.gh each chec7point &as discrepant6 apparently the devia0
tions &ere easily explained a&ay if the cre& s.8stit.ted for each point
the chec7point reading for the previo.s ,NS point5 ;.t there &ere
significant social press.res operating as &ell5
The cre& of flight 001 pro8a8ly /isprogra//ed the ,NS6 8.t the
,NS co.ldn9t 8e reprogra//ed in flight: if an error &ere detected the
aircraft &o.ld have to go 8ac7 to the original airport6 land C4ettisoning
f.el to get to a safe landing &eightD6 and then reset the ,NS and ta7e
off again:an expensive proposition5 Three %orean ir flights had re0
t.rned to their airport in the six /onths preceding the flight 001
incident6 and the airline had told its pilots that the next pilot &ho
ret.rned &o.ld 8e p.nished5 Was this a factor in the accident@ ,t9s hard
to 7no&6 8.t the design of the ,NS so.nds 8adly deficient5 The social
press.res on the cre& not to find Cor ad/it toD an error in the ,NS &ere
clearly strong5 ;.t p.nish/ent for follo&ing a safety proced.re is
never &ise5 The proper approach &o.ld 8e to redesign either the ,NS9s
or the proced.res for .sing the/5
1"
The real c.lprit6 al/ost al&ays6 is the design5 *esign that /a7es it
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 122
easy to /a7e &rong settings6 or to /isread an instr./ent6 or to /isclas0
sify an event5 *esign of the social str.ct.re that /a7es false reporting
of danger p.nisha8le5 T.rn a n.clear po&er plant off 8y /ista7e and
yo. cost the co/pany h.ndreds of tho.sands of dollars? yo.9ll pro8a0
8ly lose yo.r 4o85 (ail to t.rn it off &hen there is a real incident6 and
yo. /ight lose yo.r life5 ,f yo. ref.se to fly a cro&ded airliner 8eca.se
the &eather loo7s 8ad6 the co/pany loses lots of /oney and the pas0
sengers get very angry5 Ta7e off .nder those sit.ations and /ost of the
ti/e it &or7s o.t fine6 &hich enco.rages ris7 ta7ing5 ;.t every so often
there is a disaster5
Tenerife, the anary Islands, in .BCC. % ,<5 >oeing C@C that &as
ta$ing off crashed into a Pan %!erican C@C that &as ta4iing on the
run&ay, $illing KJ= people. The ,<5 plane should not have tried to
ta$e off then, #ut the &eather &as starting to get #ad, and the cre& had
already #een delayed for too long 0even #eing on the anary Islands
&as a diversion fro! the scheduled flight:they had to land there
#ecause #ad &eather had prevented the! fro! landing at their sched1
uled destination2D they had not received clearance to ta$e off. %nd the
Pan %!erican flight should not have #een on the run&ay, #ut there
&as considera#le !isunderstanding #et&een the pilots and the air
traffic controllers. "urther!ore, the fog &as co!ing in so neither plane
could see the other.
There &ere ti!e pressures and econo!ic pressures acting together.
The Pan %!erican pilots -uestioned their orders to ta4i on the run &ay,
#ut they continued any&ay. The co1pilot of the ,<5 flight voiced
!inor o#/ections to the pilot, suggesting that they &ere not yet cleared
for ta$eoff. %ll in all, a tragedy occurred due to a co!ple4 !i4ture of
social pressures and logical e4plaining a &ay of discrepant o#servations.
The %ir "lorida flight fro! *ational %irport, ;ashington, D..,
crashed at ta$eoff into the .@th 8treet #ridge over the Poto!ac Eiver,
$illing seventy1eight people, including four &ho &ere on the #ridge.
The plane should not have ta$en off #ecause there &as ice on the
&ings, #ut it had already #een delayed over an hour and a halfD this
and other factors +!ay have predisposed the cre& to hurry.+ The
accident occurred despite the first officer's 0the co1pilot's2 concern:
+%lthough the first officer e4pressed concern that so!ething '&as not
right' to the captain four ti!es during the ta$eoff, the captain too$ no
action to re/ect the ta$eoff. +%gain &e see social pressures coupled &ith
ti!e and econo!ic forces.
1'
1!0 The Design of Everyday Things
*esigning
for Error
Error is often t ho.ght of as so/ething to 8e avoided or so/ething done
8y .ns7illed or .n/ot i vat ed people5 ;.t everyone /a7es errors5 *e0
signers /a7e the /ista7e of not ta7ing error into acco.nt5 ,nadvert0
ently6 they can /a7e it easy to err and diffic.lt or i/possi8le to discover
error or to recover fro/ it5 Consider the Hondon stoc7 /ar7et story t hat
opened this chapter5 The syste/ &as poorly designed5 ,t sho.ld not 8e
possi8le for one person6 &i t h one si/ple error6 to ca.se s.ch &i de0
spread da/age5 #ere is &hat designers sho.ld do:
15 )nderstand the ca.ses of error and design to /ini/i>e those
ca.ses5
25 =a7e it possi8le to reverse actions:to 3.ndo3 the/:or /a7e it
harder to do &hat cannot 8e reversed5
!5 =a7e it easier to discover the errors that do occ.r6 and /a7e the/
easier to correct5
"5 Change the attit.de to&ard errors5 Thin7 of an o84ect9s .ser as
atte/pting to do a tas76 getting there 8y i/perfect approxi/ations5
*on9 t thin7 of the .ser as /a7ing errors? thin7 of the actions as
approxi/ations of &hat is desired5
When so/eone /a7es an error6 there .s.ally is good reason for it5
,f it &as a /ista7e6 t he infor/ation availa8le &as pro8a8l y inco/plete
or /isleading5 The decision &as pro8a8ly sensi8le at t he ti/e5 ,f it &as
a slip6 it &as pro8a8l y d.e to poor design or distraction5 Errors are
.s.ally .nderst anda8l e and logical6 once yo. t hi n7 t hro.gh their
ca.ses5 *on9 t p.ni sh t he person for /a7i ng errors5 *on9 t ta7e offense5
;.t /ost of all6 don9 t ignore it5 Try to design t he syste/ to allo& for
errors5 $eali>e that nor/al 8ehavior isn9 t al&ays acc.rate5 *esign so
that errors are easy to discover and corrections are possi8le5
H6: T6 DEAL :?TH E!!6!GAND H6: N6T T6
Consider t he error of loc7ing yo.r 7eys int o yo.r car5 So/e cars have
/ade this error /.ch less li7ely5 Ao. si/ply can9 t loc7 t he doors Cnot
easily6 any&ayD except 8y .sing the 7ey5 So yo.9 re prett y /.ch forced
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 1!1
to have t he 7eys &i t h yo.5 , call this 7ind of design a forcing function.
C=ore on this topic in the next section5D
,n the )nited States6 cars are re<.ired to 8e designed so t hat if the
door is opened &hil e the 7eys are in t he ignition6 a &arni ng so.nd
co/es on5 ,n theory6 if yo. &al7 a&ay fro/ yo.r car6 leaving t he 7eys
in the ignition6 t he 8.>>er &ill call yo. 8ac75 Aet t he signal /.st 8e
ignored as often as it /.st 8e at t ended to5 ,t /.st 8e ignored &hen yo.
open the door of yo.r car &hile the engine is r.nni ng so yo. can hand
so/eone so/ething5 On these occasions it is annoying? yo. 7no& the
door is open5 nd so/eti/es yo. &ant to or need to leave t he 7eys in
the car5 There goes t he 8.>>er:it can9 t disting.ish deli8erate actions
fro/ erroneo.s ones5
Warni ng signals are .s.ally not the ans&er5 Consider t he control
roo/ of a n.clear po&er plant or t he coc7pit of a co//ercial aircraft5
Tho.sands of inst r./ent s6 each designed 8y so/eone &ho t ho.ght it
&as necessary to p.t in a &arni ng signal for it5 =any of t he signals
so.nd t he sa/e5 =ost can 8e ignored any&ay 8eca.se t hey tell t he
operator a8o.t so/ethi ng t hat is already 7no&n5 nd &hen a real
e/ergency happens6 all t he &arni ng signals see/ to go on at once5 Each
co/petes &it h t he others to 8e heard6 preventing t he person fro/
concentrating .pon t he pro8le/5
1I
;.ilt0in &arni ng feat.res are 8ypassed for several reasons5 One is
that they can go off in error6 disr.pting perfectly sensi8le6 proper 8e0
havior5 not her is t hat t hey often conflict6 and t he res.lting cacophony
is distracting eno.gh to ha/per perfor/ance5 (inally6 t hey are often
inconvenient5 Ao. can9 t sit in t he car on a &ar/ day6 open t he door to
get so/e air6 and listen to t he radio5 The 7ey /.st 8e in t he ignition
to /a7e t he radio &or76 8.t t hen the door 8.>>es all t he ti/e5 So &e
disconnect those &arni ng signals6 tape t he/ over6 silence t he 8ell6
.nscre& the li ght 8.l 8s5 Warni ngs and safety /et hods /.st 8e .sed
&i t h care and intelligence6 ta7ing into acco.nt t he tradeoffs for the
people &ho are affected5
F6!?N. F7NT?6N%
(orcing f.nctions are a for/ of physical constraint: sit.ations in &hi ch
the actions are constrained so t hat fail.re at one stage prevents t he next
step fro/ happening5 Starting a car has a forcing f.nction associated
&it h it:yo. /.st p.t t he ignition 7ey into t he ignition s&itch5 So/e
(2- The Design of Everyday Things
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an 1!!
The ;orn Hoser6 =ay 116 12+I5 Copyright J 12+I NE ,nc5
ti/e ago6 the 8.tton that activated the starter /otor &as separate fro/
the ignition 7ey6 so that it &as possi8le to atte/pt to start the car
&itho.t the 7eys? the error &as /ade fre<.ently5 ,n /ost /odern
a.to/o8iles6 the starter s&itch is activated 8y t.rning the 7ey:an
effective forcing f.nction that /a7es yo. .se the 7ey to do the opera0
tion5
There is no analogo.s forcing f.nction for re/oving the 7ey .pon
leaving the a.to/o8ile5 s &e have already seen6 those a.to/o8iles
that have door loc7s that can 8e operated only 8y a 7ey Cfro/ o.tside
the vehicleD do introd.ce a forcing f.nction: if yo. &ant to loc7 the
door yo. can9t leave the 7ey in the car5 ,f a forcing f.nction is really
desired6 it is .s.ally possi8le to find one6 altho.gh at so/e cost for
nor/al 8ehavior5 ,t is i/portant to thin7 thro.gh the i/plications of
that cost:to decide &hether people &ill deli8erately disa8le the forc0
ing f.nction5
The history of seat#elts in autos provides a good e4a!ple. Despite
all the evidence that seat#elts are an effective !eans of saving lives,
so!e people disli$e the! enough that they refuse to &ear the!, pro#a1
#ly #ecause the perceived ris$ is so !uch less than the actual, statistical
ris$. "or a short period, the 3nited 8tates tried a forcing function on
seat#elts: a special interloc$ &as installed on each ne& car. If the
driver's and passengers' #elts &ere not fastened, the car &ould not start
0and a #u77er &ould sound2. This forcing function &as so disli$ed that
!ost drivers had their !echanics disconnect it. The la& &as -uic$ly
changed.
There see!ed to #e three pro#le!s. "irst, !any people did not &ant
to &ear seat#elts, and they resented the !echanical forcing function.
8econd, the forcing function couldn't distinguish legiti!ate cases in
&hich the seat#elt should not #e #uc$led fro! illegiti!ate ones. Thus,
if you &anted to carry a pac$age in the passenger's seat, the &eight1
sensing ele!ent in the seat registered a person, so the car &ouldn't start
unless the passenger seat's #uc$le &as fastened. Third, the !echanis!s
&ere not relia#le, so they often failed:#u77ing, stopping the engine,
and #eing an overall nuisance. Those people &ho couldn't figure out
ho& to disconnect the forcing function si!ply #uc$led the #elts per1
!anently, fastening the #uc$le &hen the seat &as unoccupied and
stuffing it under the seat. 8o if a passenger really &anted to use the #elt,
it couldn't #e done. 5oral: it isn't easy to force un&anted #ehavior
upon people. %nd if you are going to use a forcing function, !a$e sure
1!" The Design of Everyday Things
it &or$s right, is relia#le, and distinguishes legiti!ate violations fro!
illegiti!ate ones.
(orcing f.nctions are the extre/e case of strong constraints that
/a7e it easy to discover erroneo.s 8ehavior5 Not every sit.ation allo&s
s.ch strong constraints to operate6 8.t the general principle can 8e
extended to a &ide variety of sit.ations5 ,n the field of safety engineer0
ing6 forcing f.nctions sho& .p .nder other na/es6 in partic.lar as
speciali>ed /ethods for the prevention of accidents5 Three s.ch /eth0
ods are interloc$s, loc$ins, and loc$outs.
n interloc$ forces operations to ta7e place in proper se<.ence Cfig.re
'5"D5 =icro&ave ovens and television sets .se interloc7s as forcing
f.nctions to prevent people fro/ opening the door of the oven or
ta7ing off the 8ac7 of the television set &itho.t first t.rning off the
electric po&er: the interloc7 disconnects the po&er the instant the door
is opened or the 8ac7 re/oved5 The pin on a fire exting.isher or hand
grenade and the safety on a rifle are other exa/ples of interloc7s? these
forcing f.nctions prevent the accidental .se of the devices5
loc$in 7eeps an operation active6 preventing so/eone fro/ pre/a0
t.rely stopping it5 The sad stories of those &ho t.rn off &ord proces0
sors &itho.t first saving their &or7 co.ld 8e avoided &ith the .se of
a loc7in5 S.ppose the on0off s&itch &ere a 3soft3 s&itch6 not really
disconnecting the po&er6 8.t sending a signal to the progra/ to <.it6
chec7ing that all files had 8een saved6 and then6 after all the appropriate
ho.se7eeping operations had 8een co/pleted6 t.rning off the po&er5
COf co.rse6 a nor/al po&er s&itch sho.ld also exist as an override for
special sit.ations or for &hen a soft&are pro8le/ ca.ses the soft s&itch
to fail5D
loc$out device is one that prevents so/eone fro/ entering a place
that is dangero.s6 or prevents an event fro/ occ.rring5 good exa/ple
of a loc7o.t occ.rs in stair&ays of p.8lic 8.ildings6 at least in the
)nited States Cfig.re K.K2. ,n cases of fire6 people have a tendency to
flee in panic6 do&n the stairs6 do&n6 do&n6 do&n6 past the gro.nd floor
and into the 8ase/ent6 &here they are trapped5 The sol.tion Cre<.ired
8y the fire la&sD is not to allo& si/ple passage fro/ the gro.nd floor
to the 8ase/ent5
In the #uilding in &hich I &or$, at the ground floor the stairs see!
to end, leading directly to the #uilding's e4it door. To go do&n further
re-uires finding a different door, opening it, and proceeding do&n the
"IHE: TO Err Is 6u!an 1!'
.=? The Design of Everyday Things
8)5 7se of an ?nterlock) The Nissan Stan>a van &as constr.cted &ith the access
door for its f.el tan7 right in the path of the sliding passenger door Ca8oveD5 ,t co.ld
8e dangero.s for the door to 8e opened &hile so/eone &as f.eling the car5 To
overco/e the pro8le/6 Nissan added a forcing f.nction6 a 8ar that prevented the
sliding door fro/ opening &henever the f.el tan7 &as 8eing filled5 The 8ar is
constr.cted in the for/ of an interloc7: the cap to the f.el tan7 cannot 8e re/oved
.nless the 8ar is /oved to its safety position C8elo&D5 (.rther/ore6 the f.el door
cannot 8e sh.t again .nless the 8ar is ret.rned to its nor/al position5 (inally6
&arning signals &ere added6 so that if so/eone atte/pts to open the door d.ring
f.eling6 a 8.>>er so.nds5 ll in all6 a lot of effort &as p.t into these forcing
f.nctions:&hich &ere needed only 8eca.se of an .nfort.nate place/ent of the
f.el tan7 access in the first place5
5.5 Lockout) for/ of forcing f.nction that prevents people fro/ going do&n
the stairs6 past the gro.nd floor6 and into the 8ase/ent5 ltho.gh in nor/al ti/es
this is a n.isance6 in ti/es of fire6 &hen people flee do&n the stairs in panic6 the
forcing f.nction can save lives 8y preventing a /ad dash into the 8ase/ent5 The
8ar enco.rages people to stop at the gro.nd floor and leave the 8.ilding5
stairs. This safety feature is usually a nuisance: &e have never had a
fire, yet . fre-uently !ust go fro! a higher floor into the #ase!ent. It's
a !inor nuisance, ho&ever, and it is &orth the cost if it can save lives
&hen there is a fire.
(orcing f.nctions al/ost al &ays are a n.isance in nor/al .sage5 The
clever designer has to /ini/i>e t he n.isance val.e &hile retaining t he
safety6 forcing0f.nction /echanis/6 to g.ard against t he occasional
tragedy5
There are other .sef.l devices t hat /a7e .se of a forcing f.nction5
,n so/e p.8lic rest0roo/s there9 s a pac7age shelf inconvenient ly placed
on the &all 4.st 8ehi nd t he c.8icle door6 held in a vertical position 8y
a spring5 Ao. lo&er t he shelf to t he hori>ontal position6 and t he &eight
of a pac7age 7eeps it there5 Why not s.pply a per/anent shelf6 al&ays
hori>ontal6 placed so t hat it &o.l dn9 t interfere &it h t he opening of t he
door@ There is roo/5 little t ho.ght reveals t he ans&er: the shelf9s
position is a forcing f.nction5 When the shelf is lo&ered6 it 8loc7s the
"IHE: To Err Is 6u!an (20
door5 So to get o.t of t he c.8icle6 yo. have to re/ove &hat ever is on
the shelf and raise it o.t of t he &ay5 nd t hat forces yo. to re/e/8er
yo.r pac7ages5 Clever design5
,t is co//on to forget ite/s5 Exa/ples spring readily to /i nd:
F =a7ing copies of a doc./ent6 8.t leaving the original inside the
/achine and &al7ing off &ith only the copy5
F )sing a 8an7 or credit card to &ithdra& /oney fro/ an a.to/atic
teller /achine6 then &al7ing off &itho.t the card5 This &as a fre0
<.ent eno.gh error that /any /achines no& have a forcing f.nction:
yo. /.st re/ove the card 8efore the /oney &ill 8e delivered5 Of
co.rse6 yo. then can &al7 off &itho.t yo.r /oney6 8.t this is less
li7ely than forgetting the card 8eca.se /oney is the goal of .sing the
/achine5 The possi8ility exists so the forcing f.nction isn9 t perfect5
F Heaving a child 8ehind at a rest stop d.ring a car trip5 , also heard
a8o.t a ne& /other &ho left her infant in the dressing roo/ of a
depart/ent store5
F Hosing a pen 8eca.se it &as ta7en o.t to &rite a note or a chec7
in so/e p.8lic location6 then p.t do&n for a /o/ent &hile doing
so/e other tas7:s.ch as giving the chec7 to the salesperson5 The
pen is forgotten in the activities of p.tting a&ay the chec78oo76
pic7ing .p the goods6 tal7ing to the salesperson or friends6 and so on5
Or the reverse: 8orro&ing a pen6 .sing it6 and then p.tting it a&ay
in poc7et or p.rse6 even tho.gh it is so/eone else9s? this slip is an
exa/ple of a capt.re error5
(orcing f.nctions don9 t al&ays sho& .p &here t hey sho.ld5 So/e0
ti/es their a8sence ca.ses all sorts of .nnecessary conf.sion5 $ead t he
ca.tion stat e/ent fro/ t he ga/e instr.ctions sho&n in fig.re K.?.
ll those excla/ation /ar7sE nd t he ca.tion is repeated t hro.gh0
o.t t he instr.ction /an.al 5 ,t &on9 t do any good5 The Ni nt endo Enter0
t ai n/ent Syste/ i s /eant to 8e .sed 8y children5 The instr.ction
/an.al pro8a8l y &on9 t 8e aro.nd5 Even if it is6 a gro.p of active
children6 anxio.s to try a different ga/e6 &on9 t 8ot her &i t h it5 ,
&at ched /y o&n child follo& t he instr.ction faithf.lly for several
days6 t hen fail &hen as7ed to stop playing and co/e to dinner5 , forgot
on t he fe& att e/pt s , /ade to /aster t he ga/e5 The only possi8le
virt.e of t he &arni ng is to protect t he /an.fact.rer: &hen t he children
repeatedly 8.rn o.t t he electronic circ.its6 t he co/pany can disclai/
lia8ility6 asserting that t he children violated the instr.ctions5
1!+ The Design of Everyday Things
5 TO START 2LA$
<. T'rn (o'r tele0ision on to Channel 9.
NoteE I& Channel 9 is /roa)castin+ in (o'r area an) inter&erin+ ith the +ame,
set the sitch on the /ack o& the Control Deck to Channel @.
?. I& (o'r T# has an a'tomatic &ine t'nin+ control (AFC!, t'rn it o&&. (Use the
man'al &ine t'ne )ial to a)B'st the -ict're a&ter insertin+ the +ame -ak as
)escri/e) /elo.!
NoteE I& (o' ha0e a color T# that t'rns /lack an) hite hen the AFC is
t'rne) o&&, lea0e the AFC on.
9. %ake s're that the -oer sitch on the Control Deck is o&&.
CAUTION FF AL4A$S %A1E SURE THAT THE 2O4ER S4ITCH ON
THE CONTROL DEC1 IS OFF "EFORE INSERTING OR
RE%O#ING A GA%E 2A1 IF
@. O-en the Cham/er Li) Insert a Game 2ak into 2ress Don on the Game
on the Control Deck. the Cham/er (La/el Fa: 2ak 'ntil it locks into
cin+ '-! an) 2'sh it all -lace an) close the
the a( in. Cham/er Li).
5.6 The Nintendo hildren*s Toy) This ho/e video ga/e set is intended for .se
8y children5 #o&ever6 it has a co/plex safety instr.ction6 one al/ost g.aranteed
to 8e ignored5 To .se the syste/6 one inserts a 3ga/e pa73 cartridge into the
3cha/8er53 The po&er s&itch sho.ld 8e off &hen inserting or re/oving the car0
tridge5 ,n the a8sence of any forcing f.nction6 the instr.ction is al/ost .niversally
disregarded Cif anyone even 7no&s a8o.t itD5 ,f order is i/portant6 there sho.ld 8e
a forcing f.nction5 ,f order does not /atter6 the instr.ction sho.ld 8e dropped5
C(ro/ the Nintendo instr.ction /an.al5 NintendoR and Nintendo Entertain/ent
Syste/R are trade/ar7s of Nintendo of /erica ,nc5 J 12+I Nintendo5D
@. O2ERATING $OUR NES
(2;
Proper design calls for a forcing f.nction here5 There are several
via8le sche/es5 The cover over t he ga/e pac7 co/part/ent co.ld
control an interloc76 so t hat it a.to/atically t .rned off t he po&er
&henever it &as opened5 Or t he po&er s&itch co.ld /ove a lever
8loc7ing the top of t he ga/e pac7 co/part /ent 6 so that t he pac7s
co.ld not 8e re/oved or inserted .nless the lever &ere o.t of t he &ay6
t.rning off t he po&er5 There are other possi8ilities5 =y point is6 of
co.rse6 that t he design sho.l d have incl.ded one? &i t ho.t t he forcing
f.nction6 fail.re to heed t he &arni ng is al/ost g.aranteed5
*esign
Philosophy
There are lots of &ays for a designer to deal &i t h errors5
11
The critical
thing6 ho&ever6 is to approach t he topic &i t h t he proper phi losophy5
The designer sho.l dn9 t t hi n7 of a si/ple di chot o/y 8et &een errors and
correct 8ehavior? rather6 t he entire interaction sho.ld 8e treated as a
cooperative endeavor 8et &een person and /achi ne6 one i n &hi ch /i s0
conceptions can arise on either side5 Thi s phi l osophy is /.ch easier to
i/pl e/ent on so/ething li7e a co/p.ter &hich has t he a8ility to /a7e
decisions on its o&n t han on things li7e doors and po&er plants6 &hi ch
do not have s.ch intelligence5 ;.t t he phi l osophy of .ser0centered
syste/ design still hol ds5 Thi n7 of t he .ser9 s point of vie&5 ss./e
t hat every possi8le /i shap &ill happen6 so protect against it5 =a7e
actions reversi8le5 Try to /a7e t he/ less costly5 ll t he re<.ired princi0
ples have 8een t horo.ghl y disc.ssed in this 8oo75
F P.t the re<.ired 7no&ledge in the &orld5 *on9 t re<.ire all the
7no&ledge to 8e in the head5 Aet do allo& for /ore efficient opera0
tion &hen the .ser has learned the operations6 has gotten the 7no&l 0
edge in the head5
F )se the po&er of nat.ral and artificial constraints: physical6 logical6
se/antic6 and c.lt.ral5 )se forcing f.nctions and nat.ral /appings5
F Narro& the g.lfs of exec.tion and eval.ation5 =a7e things visi8le6
8oth for exec.tion and eval.ation5 On the exec.tion side6 /a7e the
options readily availa8le5 On the eval.ation side6 /a7e the res.lts of
each action apparent5 =a7e it possi8le to deter/ine the syste/ state
readily6 easily6 and acc.rately6 and in a for/ consistent &ith the
person9s goals6 intentions6 and expectations5
1"0 The Design of Everyday Things
(5(
They #egan &or$ at once, and #y the ne4t 8ep1
te!#er the first Ftype&riterG !achine &as fin1
ished, and letters &ere &ritten &ith it. It &or$ed
successfully so far as to &rite rapidly and cor1
rectly, #ut trial and e4perience sho&ed it to #e far short of an accept1
a#le, practica#le &riting !achine. . . .
One device after another &as conceived and developed till t&enty1
five or thirty e4peri!ental instru!ents &ere !ade, each succeeding
one a little different fro! and a little #etter than the one preceding.
They &ere put into the hands of stenographers, practical persons &ho
&ere presu!ed to $no& #etter than anyone else &hat &ould #e needed
and satisfactory. Of these, :a!es O. lephane, of ;ashington, D..,
&as one. 6e tried the instru!ents as no one else had tried the!D he
destroyed the!, one after another, as fast as they could #e !ade and
sent hi!, till the patience of 5r. 8holes Fthe inventorG &as e4hausted.
>ut 5r. Dens!ore insisted that this &as the very salvation of the
enterpriseD that it sho&ed the &ea$ spots and defects, and that the
!achine !ust #e !ade so that any#ody could use it, or all efforts !ight
as &ell #e a#andonedD that such a test &as a #lessing and not a !isfor1
tune, for &hich the enterprise should #e than$ful.
.
T#E
*ES,GN
C#HHENGE
C # P T E$ S, O
The Nat.ral Evol.tion
of *esign
=.ch good design evolves: the design is tested6 pro8le/ areas are
discovered and /odified6 and then it is contin.ally retested and
re/odified .ntil ti/e6 energy6 and reso.rces r.n o.t5 This nat.ral de0
sign process is characteristic of prod.cts 8.ilt 8y craftspeople6 espe0
cially fol7 o84ects5 With hand/ade o84ects s.ch as r.gs6 pottery6 hand
tools6 or f.rnit.re6 each ne& o84ect can 8e /odified slightly fro/ the
previo.s one6 eli/inating s/all pro8le/s6 /a7ing s/all i/prove/ents6
or testing ne& ideas5 Over ti/e6 this process res.lts in f.nctional6
aesthetically pleasing o84ects5
,/prove/ents can ta7e place thro.gh nat.ral evol.tion as long as
each previo.s design is st.died and the crafts0person is &illing to 8e
flexi8le5 The 8ad feat.res have to 8e identified5 The fol7 artists
change the 8ad feat.res and 7eep the good ones .nchanged5 ,f a
change /a7es /atters &orse6 &ell6 it 4.st gets changed again on the
next go0aro.nd5 Event.ally the 8ad feat.res get /odified into good
ones6 &hile the good ones are 7ept5 The technical ter/ for this pro0
cess is 3hill0cli/8ing63 analogo.s to cli/8ing a hill in the dar75 =ove
yo.r foot in one direction5 ,f it is do&nhill6 try another direction5 ,f
the direction is .phill6 ta7e one step5 %eep doing this .ntil yo. have
reached a point &here all steps &o.ld 8e do&nhill? then yo. are at
the top of the hill:or at least at a local pea75
2
(O$CES T#T WO$% G,NST
E-OH)T,ON$A *ES,GN
Nat.ral design does not &or7 in every sit.ation: there /.st 8e eno.gh
ti/e for the process to 8e carried o.t6 and the ite/ /.st 8e si/ple5
=odern designers are s.84ect to /any forces that do not allo& for the
slo&6 caref.l crafting of an o84ect over decades and generations5 =ost
of today9s ite/s are too co/plex6 &ith too /any varia8les6 for this slo&
sifting of i/prove/ents5 ;.t si/ple i/prove/ents o.ght to 8e possi0
8le5 Ao. &o.ld thin7 that o84ects s.ch as a.to/o8iles6 appliances6 or
co/p.ters6 &hich periodically co/e o.t in ne& /odels6 co.ld 8enefit
fro/ the experience of the previo.s /odel5 las6 the /.ltiple forces of
a co/petitive /ar7et see/ not to allo& this5
1"2 The Design of Everyday Things
One negative force is the de/ands of ti/e: ne& /odels are already
into their design process 8efore the old ones have even 8een released
to c.sto/ers5 =oreover6 /echanis/s for collecting and feeding 8ac7
the experiences of c.sto/ers seldo/ exist5 nother force is the pres0
s.re to 8e distinctive6 to stand o.t6 to /a7e each design loo7 different
fro/ &hat has gone 8efore5 ,t is the rare organi>ation that is content
to let a good prod.ct stand or to let nat.ral evol.tion perfect it slo&ly5
No6 each year a 3ne&6 i/proved3 /odel /.st co/e o.t6 .s.ally incor0
porating ne& feat.res that do not .se the old as a starting point5 ,n far
too /any instances6 the res.lts spell disaster for the cons./er5
There is yet another pro8le/: the c.rse of individ.ality5 *esigners
have to /a7e an individ.al sta/p6 their /ar76 their signat.re5 nd if
different co/panies /an.fact.re the sa/e type of ite/6 each /.st do
it differently to allo& its prod.ct to 8e disting.ished fro/ others95
/ixed c.rse6 individ.ality6 for thro.gh the desire to 8e different co/e
so/e of o.r 8est ideas and innovations5 ;.t in the &orld of sales6 if a
co/pany &ere to /a7e the perfect prod.ct6 any other co/pany &o.ld
have to change it:&hich &o.ld /a7e it &orse:in order to pro/ote
its o&n innovation6 to sho& that it &as different5 #o& can nat.ral
design &or7 .nder these circ./stances@ ,t can9t5
Consider the telephone5 The early telephone evolved slo&ly6 over
several generations5 ,t once &as a /ost a&7&ard device6 &ith handset
and /icrophone6 one held &ith each hand5 Ao. had to t.rn a cran7 to
generate a signal that &o.ld ring the 8ell at the other end of the line5
-oice trans/ission &as poor5 Over the years i/prove/ents &ere
slo&ly /ade in si>e and shape6 relia8ility6 and feat.res that si/plified
its .se5 The instr./ent &as heavy and ro8.st: drop it on the floor6 and
not only did it still &or7 8.t yo. seldo/ lost the telephone connection5
The layo.t of the dial or the p.sh 8.ttons res.lted fro/ caref.l ex0
peri/entation in the la8oratory5 The si>e and spacing of the 7eys &ere
caref.lly selected to &or7 for a &ide variety of the pop.lation6 incl.d0
ing the very yo.ng and the very old5 The so.nds of the telephone &ere
also caref.lly designed to prod.ce feed8ac75 P.sh a 8.tton and yo.
heard a tone in the earphone5 Spea7 into the /icrophone6 and a care0
f.lly deter/ined percentage of yo.r o&n voice &as fed 8ac7 into the
earphone6 the 8etter to help yo. reg.late ho& lo.dly yo. &ere tal7ing5
The clic7s6 8.>>es6 and other noises yo. heard &hile a connection &as
8eing esta8lished provided .sef.l indications of progress5
ll these /inor aspects of the telephone &ere arrived at slo&ly6 over
years of develop/ent protected 8y the /onopoly stat.s of /ost na0
si4: The Design hallenge 1"!
1"" The Design of Everyday Things
I51 *esign S.8tleties5 ,n the older ;ell Syste/ instr./ent6 the prongs that held
the receiver also prevented the s&itch hoo7 fro/ 8eing accidentally depressed5
=ore recent telephones often lac7 s.ch niceties5
tional telephone syste/s5 ,n today9s &ildly co/petitive /ar7et6 there
is a fierce desire to 8ring o.t a prod.ct that appeals to a &ide 8ody of
people and that is distinctive and different:the /ar7et de/ands speed
and novelty5 =any of the /ost .sef.l refine/ents are 8eing lost5 P.sh
8.ttons are apt to 8e arranged hapha>ardly6 &ith the 7eys oversi>e or
tiny5 The so.nds have 8een ta7en a&ay5 =any telephones don9t even
give feed8ac7 &hen the 8.ttons are p.shed5 ll the fol7lore of design
has 8een lost &ith the 8rash ne& engineers &ho can9t &ait to add yet
the latest electronic gi//ic7ry to the telephone6 &hether needed or
not5
One si/ple detail can /a7e the point: the ridge of plastic next to the
s&itch hoo7:the 8.tton .nder the receiver that6 &hen depressed6
hangs .p the call5 Ever 7noc7 the telephone off the ta8le and onto the
floor &hile yo. &ere tal7ing@ Wasn9t it nice &hen yo. didn9t get
disconnected6 fr.strating &hen yo. did@ The /onopolistic ;ell Syste/
designers explicitly recogni>ed this pro8le/ and designed &ith it in
/ind5 They /ade the telephone heavy and st.rdy eno.gh to &ithstand
the fall5 nd they protected the critical 8.tton &ith a shield that
prevents the s&itch hoo7 fro/ hitting the gro.nd5 Hoo7 caref.lly at
fig.re I51: see that on the one telephone the 8.ttons cannot reach the
gro.nd and so are not depressed5 s/all feat.re6 8.t an i/portant one5
Econo/ic press.res have /ade the ne&er telephones lighter6 less ex0
pensive6 and less st.rdy:thro&a&ay phones6 they are often called5
nd the protective shield@ Often as not6 there is none:in this case not
8eca.se of cost6 8.t 8eca.se the ne& designers pro8a8ly never tho.ght
of it6 pro8a8ly never reali>ed its f.nction5 The res.lt@ This scenario6
repeated in office over office5
5ar$ is sitting at his des$ &hen the phone rings. +6ello,+he an1
s&ers. +(eah, I can help you:let !e get out the !anual. +6e reaches,
pulling the telephone &ith hi!. >ang9 rash9 The phone falls on the
floor, hanging itself up. +Da!n,+ !utters 5ar$, +I don't even $no&
&ho that &as.+
T#E TAPEW$,TE$:
CSE #,STO$A ,N T#E
E-OH)T,ON O( *ES,GN
+%!ong all the !echanical inventions for &hich the age is noted,
none, perhaps, has !ore rapidly co!e into general use than the type1
&riter. . . . The ti!e is co!ing &hen it &ill al!ost, or -uite as !uch,
supersede the steel pen as that has the good, gray goose -uill. +
=
The history of the type&riter is the story of dedicated inventors in
/any co.ntries6 each striving to develop a /achine for rapid &riting5
They tried /any versions in their str.ggle to get the one that fit all the
constraints:that &or7ed6 co.ld 8e /an.fact.red at reasona8le cost6
and co.ld 8e .sed5
Consider the type&riter 7ey8oard6 &ith its ar8itrary6 diagonally
sloping arrange/ent of 7eys and its even /ore ar8itrary arrange/ent
of letters on the 7eys5 The c.rrent standard 7ey8oard &as designed 8y
Charles Hatha/ Sholes in the 1+10s5 The design is called the 3<&erty3
7ey8oard C8eca.se in the /erican version the top ro& of letters
8egins &ith 3<&erty3D6 or so/eti/es the Sholes 7ey8oard5 The Sholes
type&riter &as not the first6 8.t it &as the /ost s.ccessf.l of the early
versions? it event.ally 8eca/e the $e/ington type&riter6 the /odel
.pon &hich /ost /an.al type&riters &ere constr.cted5 Why s.ch a
&eird 7ey8oard@
si4: The Design hallenge 1"'
The design of the 7ey8oard has a long and pec.liar history5 Early
type&riters experi/ented &ith a &ide variety of layo.ts6 .sing three
8asic the/es5 One &as circ.lar6 &ith the letters laid o.t alpha8etically?
the operator &o.ld find the proper spot and depress a lever6 lift a rod6
or do &hatever other /echanical operation the device re<.ired5 n0
other pop.lar layo.t &as li7e the piano 7ey8oard6 &ith the letters laid
o.t in a long ro&? so/e of the early 7ey8oards6 incl.ding an early
version 8y Sholes6 even had 8lac7 and &hite 7eys5 ;oth the circ.lar
layo.t and the piano 7ey8oard proved a&7&ard5 ,n the end6 a third
arrange/ent &as adopted 8y all: a rectang.lar arrange/ent of 7eys6
still in alpha8etical order5 The levers /anip.lated 8y the 7eys &ere
large and .ngainly6 and the si>e6 spacing6 and arrange/ent of the 7eys
&ere dictated 8y these /echanical considerations6 not 8y the character0
istics of the h./an hand5
Why did the alpha8etical ordering change@ To overco/e a /echani0
cal pro8le/5 When the typist &ent too <.ic7ly the type8ars &o.ld
collide6 4a//ing the /echanis/5 The sol.tion &as to change the loca0
tions of the 7eys: letters s.ch as i and e that &ere often typed in
s.ccession &ere placed on opposite sides of the /achine so that their
8ars &o.ld not collide5
"
Other type&riting technologies did not follo&
the <&erty arrange/ent5 Typesetting /achines Cs.ch as the Hinotype
/achineD .se a co/pletely different layo.t? the Hinotype 7ey8oard is
called 3shrdl.63 after the pattern of 7eys it follo&s6 and is /odeled
after the relative fre<.ency of letters in English5 This &as ho& hand
printers arranged the letters that they &o.ld re/ove fro/ 8ins and
insert /an.ally into the printing for/s5 h6 yes6 the nat.ral evol.tion
of design5
Not all early 7ey8oards had a 8ac7space6 and the 3ta8.lation3 7ey
C3ta83 on /odern 7ey8oardsD &as a revol.tionary 8rea7thro.gh5 The
first type&riters co.ld print only .pper case letters5 The addition of
lo&er case letters &as6 at first6 acco/plished 8y adding a ne& 7ey for
each lo&er case letter6 so in effect there &ere t&o separate 7ey8oards5
So/e early type&riters organi>ed the 7eys for .pper case differently
than for lo&er case5 ,/agine ho& diffic.lt it &o.ld 8e to learn that
7ey8oardE ,t too7 years to develop the shift 7ey so that 8oth .pper and
lo&er case letters co.ld share the sa/e 7ey5 This &as a nontrivial
invention6 co/8ining /echanical ingen.ity &ith a d.al0faced type8ar5
,n the end6 the 7ey8oard &as designed thro.gh an evol.tionary
process6 8.t the /ain driving forces &ere /echanical5 =odern 7ey0
8oards do not have the sa/e pro8le/s? 4a//ing isn9t a possi8ility &ith
1"I The Design of Everyday Things
electronic 7ey8oards and co/p.ters5 Even the style of typing has
changed5 ,n the early years6 people 7ept their eyes on the 7ey8oard and
typed &ith one or t&o fingers of each hand5 Then one co.rageo.s
person6 (ran7 =cG.rrin of Salt Ha7e City6 /e/ori>ed the 7ey locations
and learned to type &ith all his fingers6 &itho.t loo7ing at the 7ey0
8oard5 #is s7ills &ere not recogni>ed at first? it too7 a national contest
held in Cincinnati6 Ohio6 in 1+11 to prove that this /ethod &as indeed
s.perior5
'
,n the end6 the <&erty 7ey8oard &as adopted thro.gho.t the
&orld &ith 8.t /inor variations5 We are co//itted to it6 even tho.gh
it &as designed to satisfy constraints that no longer apply6 &as 8ased
on a style of typing no longer .sed6 and is diffic.lt to learn5
Tin7ering &ith 7ey8oard design is a pop.lar pasti/e Cfig.re I52D5
So/e sche/es 7eep the existing /echanical layo.t of the 7eys6 8.t
arrange the assign/ents of letters /ore efficiently5 Others i/prove the
physical layo.t as &ell6 arranging the 7eys to acco//odate the /irror0
i/age sy//etry of the hands and the varied spacing and agility of the
fingers5 Still others red.ce the n./8er of 7eys dra/atically 8y having
patterns of 7eys:chords:represent the letters6 per/itting one0
handed or faster t&o0handed typing5 ;.t none of these innovations
ta7es hold 8eca.se the <&erty 7ey8oard6 &hile deficient6 is good
eno.gh5 ltho.gh its anti4a//ing arrange/ent no longer has /echan0
ical 4.stification6 it does p.t /any co//on letter pairs on opposing
hands? one hand can 8e getting ready to type its letter &hile the other
is finishing6 so typing is speeded .p5
What a8o.t alpha8etical 7ey8oards Cfig.re I5!D@ Wo.ldn9t they at
least these 8e easier to learn@ Nope5
I
;eca.se the letters have to 8e laid
o.t in ro&s6 4.st 7no&ing the alpha8et isn9t eno.gh5 Ao. also have to
7no& &here the ro&s 8rea75 Even if yo. co.ld learn that6 it &o.ld still
8e easier to scan the 7ey8oard than to co/p.te &here a 7ey /ight 8e5
Then yo. are 8etter off if co//on letters are located &here yo. are apt
to find the/ 8y scanning:a property that the <&erty 7ey8oard pro0
vides5 ,f yo. don9t 7no& any 7ey8oard6 there is little difference in
typing speed a/ong a <&erty 7ey8oard6 an alpha8etic 7ey8oard6 and
even a rando/ arrange/ent of 7eys5 ,f yo. 7no& even a little of the
<&erty6 that is eno.gh to /a7e it 8etter than the others5 nd for expert
typists6 the alpha8etical arrange/ents are al&ays slo&er than <&erty5
There is a 8etter &ay:the *vora7 7ey8oard:painsta7ingly devel0
oped 8y Cand na/ed afterD one of the fo.nders of ind.strial engineer0
ing5 ,t is easier to learn and allo&s for a8o.t 10 percent faster typing6
8.t that is si/ply not eno.gh of an i/prove/ent to /erit a revol.tion
si4: The Design hallenge 1"1
A
B
C
D
E
(5B
9)- Ty"e&riter Eey=oards)
The standard /erican layo.t of 7eys
:the Sholes or <&erty 7ey8oard5
The /erican Si/plified %ey8oard
Coften called S%D6 a si/plified version
of the original *vora7 7ey8oard? on the
original6 the n./erals and p.nct.ation
7eys are arranged differently5
=ost alpha8etically organi>ed 7ey0
8oards arrange the alpha8et along hori0
>ontal ro&s6 as sho&n Cand in the
7ey8oards of fig.re I5!D5
This alpha8etical arrange/ent is s.pe0
rior6 ho&ever: &ith its diagonal ar0
range/ent6 letters increase syste/0
atically .p the alpha8et fro/ left to
right &itho.t /a4or 8rea7s5
The 7ey8oard at left has rando/ly
arranged letters5
;eginners s.cceed a8o.t the sa/e on all
these 7ey8oards: alpha8etical &or7s
8arely 8etter than rando/5 (or experts6
S% is 8est6 follo&ed 8y <&erty: alpha0
8etical 7ey8oards are <.ite inferior5
=oral: *on9 t 8other &ith alpha8etical
7ey8oards5
9)2 $roducts &ith Al"ha=etical Eey=oards) Even t ho.gh several experi/ents
sho& that these are of no .se to novices and detri/ental to experts6 every year
designers pl.nge ahead and foist yet another alpha8etical 7ey8oard on .s5 Even if
yo. /anage to learn one6 yo. &ill not have learned to .se all the different ones5
si4: The Design hallenge (5;
in the 7ey8oard5 =illions of people &o.ld have to learn a ne& style
of typing5 =illions of type&riters &o.ld have to 8e changed5 The
severe constraints of existing practice prevent change6 even &here the
change &o.ld 8e an i/prove/ent5
1
Co.ldn9t &e at least do 8etter &ith t&o hands at once@ Aes6 &e
co.ld5 Co.rt stenographers can o.ttype anyone else5 They .se chord
7ey8oards6 typing sylla8les directly onto the page:sylla8les6 not let0
ters5 Chord 7ey8oards have very fe& 7eys:as fe& as five or six6 8.t
.s.ally ten to fifteen5 =any chord 7ey8oards allo& yo. to type single
letters or &hole &ords &ith one depression of the hand on several 7eys5
,f yo. .se all ten fingers at the sa/e ti/e6 then there are 1602! possi8le
co/8inations5 That is eno.gh for all the letters and n./8ers6 lo&er
case and .pper case6 pl.s a lot of &ords:if only yo. can learn the
patterns5 Chord 7ey8oards have a horri8le disadvantage: they are very
hard to learn and very hard to retain? all the 7no&ledge has to 8e in
the head5 Wal7 .p to any reg.lar 7ey8oard and yo. can .se it right
a&ay5 B.st search for the letter yo. &ant and p.sh the 7ey5 With a
chord 7ey8oard6 yo. have to press several 7eys si/.ltaneo.sly5 There
is no &ay to la8el the 7eys properly and no &ay to 7no& &hat to do
4.st 8y loo7ing5 So/e chord 7ey8oards are incredi8ly clever and re0
/ar7a8ly easy to learn6 considering5 , tried to learn one of the easier
ones5 Thirty /in.tes9 practice6 and , 7ne& the alpha8et5 ;.t if , didn9t
.se the 7ey8oard for a &ee76 , forgot the chords5 The gain did not see/
&orth the effort5 What a8o.t one0handed chord 7ey8oards@ Wo.ldn9t
it 8e &orth a lot of ti/e and effort to 8e a8le to type &ith one hand@
Perhaps6 if yo. are flying a 4et aircraft &ith one hand and need to enter
data into yo.r co/p.ter &ith the other5 ;.t not for the rest of .s5
+
ll this 8rings .p an i/portant lesson in design5 Once a satisfactory
prod.ct has 8een achieved6 f.rther change /ay 8e co.nterprod.ctive6
especially if the prod.ct is s.ccessf.l5 Ao. have to 7no& &hen to stop5
(ou can o#serve the design iterations and e4peri!ents &ith the
co!puter $ey#oard. The layout of the #asic $ey#oard is no& standard1
i7ed through international agree!ent. >ut co!puter $ey#oards need
e4tra $eys, and these are not standardi7ed. 8o!e $ey#oards have an
e4tra $ey #et&een the shift $ey and the +7+ $ey. The return $ey ta$es on
different shapes and locations. The special $eys of the co!puter $ey1
#oard:for e4a!ple, control, escape, #rea$, delete 0not to #e confused
&ith #ac$space2, and the +arro&+ or cursor control $eys:vary in loca1
tion &ith the phases of the year, varying even a!ong the products of a
single !anufacturer. 5uch confusion and strong e!otions result.
1'0 The Design of Everyday Things
*ote, too, that the co!puter allo&s for fle4i#le letter arrange!ents.
It is a si!ple !atter on so!e co!puters to s&itch the interpretation of
the $eys fro! -&erty to Dvora$: one co!!and and the change is done.
>ut unless the Dvora$ fan also pries off and rearranges the $eycaps, the
Dvora$ fan has to ignore the la#els on the $eys and rely on !e!ory.
8o!eday $ey la#eling &ill #e done #y electronic displays on each $ey,
so changing the la#els &ill also #eco!e trivial. 8o co!puter technology
!ay li#erate users fro! forced standardi7ation. Everyone could select
the $ey#oard of personal choice.
Why *esigners
Go stray
+F"ran$ <loydG ;right evidently &asn't very sy!pathetic a#out
co!plaints. ;hen 6er#ert ". :ohnson, the late president of 8. .:ohn1
son, Inc., in Eacine, ;is., called ;right to say that his roof &as lea$ing
all over a dinner guest, the architect is said to have responded, 'Tell hi!
to !ove his chair.' +
B
,f everyday design &ere r.led 8y aesthetics6 life /ight 8e /ore
pleasing to the eye 8.t less co/forta8le? if r.led 8y .sa8ility6 it /ight
8e /ore co/forta8le 8.t .glier5 ,f cost or ease of /an.fact.re do/i0
nated6 prod.cts /ight not 8e attractive6 f.nctional6 or d.ra8le5 Clearly6
each consideration has its place5 Tro.8le occ.rs &hen one do/inates
all the others5
*esigners go astray for several reasons5 (irst6 the re&ard str.ct.re
of the design co//.nity tends to p.t aesthetics first5 *esign collec0
tions feat.re pri>e0&inning cloc7s that are .nreada8le6 alar/s that
cannot easily 8e set6 can openers that /ystify5 Second6 designers are not
typical .sers5 They 8eco/e so expert in .sing the o84ect they have
designed that they cannot 8elieve that anyone else /ight have pro80
le/s? only interaction and testing &ith act.al .sers thro.gho.t the
design process can forestall that5 Third6 designers /.st please their
clients6 and the clients /ay not 8e the .sers5
$7TT?N. AE%THET?% F?!%T
3,t pro8a8ly &on a pri>e3 is a disparaging phrase in this 8oo75 Why@
;eca.se pri>es tend to 8e given for so/e aspects of a design6 to the
si4: The Design hallenge 1'1
neglect of all others:.s.ally incl.ding .sa8ility5 Consider the follo&0
ing exa/ple6 in &hich a .sa8le6 liva8le design &as penali>ed 8y the
design profession5 The assign/ent &as to design the Seattle offices of
the (ederal viation d/inistration C(D5 The /ost note&orthy fea0
t.re of the design process &as that those &ho &o.ld &or7 in the
8.ilding had a /a4or say in the planning5 One of the /e/8ers of the
design tea/6 $o8ert So//er6 descri8es the process as follo&s:
+%rchitect 8a! 8loan coordinated a pro/ect in &hich e!ployees
... &ere a#le to select their o&n office furniture and plan office layout.
This represented a !a/or departure fro! prevailing practices in the
federal services &here such !atters &ere decided #y those in authority.
8ince #oth the 8eattle and <os %ngeles #ranches of the "%% &ere
scheduled to !ove into ne& #uildings at a#out the sa!e ti!e, the client
for the pro/ect, the Ieneral 8ervices %d!inistration, agreed &ith archi1
tect 8loan's proposal to involve e!ployees in the design process in
8eattle, &hile leaving the <os %ngeles office as a control condition
&here traditional !ethods of space planning &ould #e follo&ed. +
.0
So there really &ere t&o designs: one in Seattle6 &ith heavy participa0
tion 8y the .sers6 and one in Hos ngeles6 designed in the conventional
/anner 8y architects5 Which design do the .sers prefer@ Why the
Seattle one6 of co.rse5 Which one got the a&ard@ Why the Hos ngeles
one6 of co.rse5 #ere is So//er9s description of the o.tco/e:
+8everal !onths follo&ing the !ove into the ne& #uildings, surveys
#y the research tea! &ere !ade in <os %ngeles and 8eattle. The 8eattle
&or$ers &ere !ore satisfied &ith their #uilding and &or$ areas than
&ere the <os %ngeles e!ployees. . . . It is note&orthy that the <os
%ngeles #uilding has #een given repeated a&ards #y the %!erican
Institute of %rchitects &hile the 8eattle #uilding received no recogni1
tion. One !e!#er of the %I% /ury /ustified his denial of an a&ard to
the 8eattle #uilding on the #asis of its 'residential -uality' and 'lac$ of
discipline and control of the interiors,' &hich &as &hat the e!ployees
li$ed the !ost a#out it. This reflects the &ell1docu!ented differences
in preferences #et&een architects and occupants The director of the
8eattle office ad!itted that !any visitors &ere surprised that this is a
federal facility. E!ployees in #oth locations rated their satisfaction
&ith their /o# perfor!ance #efore and after the !ove into the ne&
#uilding. There &as no change in the <os %ngeles office and a C percent
i!prove!ent in rated /o# perfor!ance in the 8eattle office.+
..
1'2 The Design of Everyday Things
esthetics6 not s.rprisingly6 co/es first at /.se./s and design cen0
ters5 , have spent /.ch ti/e in the science /.se./ of /y o&n city6
San *iego6 &atching visitors try o.t the displays5 The visitors try hard6
and altho.gh they see/ to en4oy the/selves6 it is <.ite clear that they
.s.ally /iss the point of the display5 The signs are highly decorative?
8.t they are often poorly lit6 diffic.lt to read6 and have lots of g.shing
lang.age &ith little explanation5 Certainly the visitors are not enlight0
ened a8o.t science C&hich is s.pposed to 8e the point of the exhi8itD5
Occasionally , help o.t &hen , see 8e&ildered faces 8y explaining the
scientific principles 8eing de/onstrated 8y the exhi8it Cafter all6 /any
of the exhi8its in this sort of /.se./ are really psychology de/onstra0
tions6 /any of &hich , explain in /y o&n introd.ctory classesD5 , a/
often re&arded &ith s/iles and nods of .nderstanding5 , too7 one of
/y grad.ate classes there to o8serve and co//ent? &e all agreed a8o.t
the inade<.acy of the signs6 and6 /oreover6 &e had .sef.l s.ggestions5
We /et &ith a /.se./ official and tried to explain &hat &as happen0
ing5 #e didn9t .nderstand5 #is pro8le/s &ere the cost and d.ra8ility
of the exhi8its5 3re the visitors learning anything@3 &e as7ed5 #e still
didn9t .nderstand5 ttendance at the /.se./ &as high5 ,t loo7ed
attractive5 ,t had pro8a8ly &on a pri>e5 Why &ere &e &asting his ti/e@
=any /.se./s and design centers /a7e pri/e exa/ples of pretty
displays and signs co.pled &ith illegi8le and .ninfor/ative la8els5
=ostly6 , s.spect6 it9s 8eca.se these 8.ildings are 4.dged as places of
art6 &here the exhi8its are /eant to 8e ad/ired6 not to 8e learned fro/5
, /ade several trips to the *esign Centre in Hondon to collect /aterial
for this 8oo75 , hoped it &o.ld have a good li8rary and 8oo7shop Cit
didD and good exhi8its6 de/onstrating the proper principles for co/0
8ining aesthetics6 econo/ics6 .sa8ility6 and /an.fact.ra8ility5 , fo.nd
the Hondon *esign Centre itself to 8e an exercise in poor design5 Ta7e
the cafeteria: 4.st a8o.t i/possi8le to .se5 ;ehind the co.nter6 the fo.r
&or7ers contin.ally get in each other9s &ay5 The layo.t of the 8ac70
co.nter facilities see/s &itho.t str.ct.re or f.nction5 (ood is caref.lly
heated for the c.sto/er6 8.t it gets cold 8y the ti/e the c.sto/er gets
thro.gh the line5 The cafeteria has tiny ro.nd ta8les6 &hich are also too
high5 There are elegant ro.nd stools to sit on5 The set .p is i/possi8le
to .se if yo. are elderly or yo.ng or have yo.r hands f.ll of pac7ages5
Of co.rse6 the design /ay have 8een a deli8erate atte/pt to disco.rage
.se of the cafeteria5 Consider this scenario5
The cafeteria is &ell designed, &ith spacious ta#les and co!forta#le
chairs. >ut it then #eco!es too popular, interfering &ith the true pur1
si4: The Design hallenge 1'!
pose of the Design entre, &hich is to encourage good design a!ong
>ritish !anufacturers. The popularity of the entre and its cafeteria to
tourists is une4pected. The Design entre decides to discourage people
fro! using the cafeteria. They ta$e out the original ta#les and chairs
and replace the! &ith dysfunctional, unco!forta#le ones, all in the
na!e of good design:the goal in this case #eing to discourage people
fro! using the cafeteria and lingering. %ctually, restaurants often in1
stall unco!forta#le chairs for /ust this reason. "ast1food places often
have no chairs or ta#les. 8o !y co!plaints provide evidence that the
design criteria &ere !et, that the design &as successful.
12
,n Hondon , visited the ;oiler&or7s6 a part of the -ictoria and l8ert
=.se./6 to loo7 at a special exhi8it called 3nat.ral design53 The
exhi8it itself &as one of the 8est exa/ples of .nnat.ral design , have
ever &itnessed5 Pretty6 tastef.l signs near each display5 *ra/atically
stri7ing layo.t of the o84ects5 ;.t yo. co.ldn9t tell &hich sign &ent
&ith &hich exhi8it6 or &hat the text /eant5 las6 this see/s typical of
/.se./s5
/a4or part of the design process o.ght to 8e the st.dy of 4.st ho&
the o84ects 8eing designed are to 8e .sed5 ,n the case of the cafeteria
at the Hondon *esign Centre6 the designers sho.ld i/agine a cro&d of
people in line6 i/agine &here the line &ill start and end6 and st.dy
&hat effect the line &ill have on the rest of the /.se./5 St.dy the
&or7 patterns of the cafeteria e/ployees: consider the/ responding to
c.sto/er re<.ests5 Where &ill they have to /ove@ What o84ects &ill
they have to reach@ ,f there are several e/ployees6 &ill they get in each
other9s &ay@ nd then consider the c.sto/ers5 Grandparents &ith
heavy coats6 ./8rellas6 pac7ages6 and perhaps three s/all children:
ho& &ill they pay for their p.rchases@ ,s there a place for the/ to p.t
do&n their pac7ages so they can open their &allets or p.rses and get
o.t their /oney@ Can this 8e done in a &ay that /ini/i>es the disr.p0
tion for the next people in line and i/proves the speed and efficiency
of the cashier@ nd finally6 consider the c.sto/ers at the ta8les5 Str.g0
gling to get .p on a high stool to eat off a tiny ta8le5 nd don9t 4.st
i/agine: go o.t and loo7 at the c.rrent design6 or at other cafeterias5
,ntervie& potential c.sto/ers6 intervie& the cafeteria e/ployees5
,n the case of science /.se./s6 st.dies have to 8e /ade on people
&ho are the sa/e as the intended a.dience5 The designers and e/0
ployees already 7no& too /.ch: they can no longer p.t the/selves
into the role of the vie&er5
1'" The Design of Everyday Things
<et !e #e positive for a change: there are science !useu!s and
e4hi#its that &or$ &ell. The science !useu!s in >oston and in
Toronto, the 5onterey %-uariu!, the E4ploratoriu! in 8an "rancisco.
There are pro#a#ly !any others that I do not $no& a#out. onsider
the E4ploratoriu!. It is dar$ and grungy on the outside, located in a
re!odeled, left1over #uilding. Hery little is devoted to slee$ness or
aesthetics. The e!phasis is on using and understanding the e4hi#its.
The staff is interested in e4plaining things.
It is possi#le to do things right. :ust don't let the focus on cost, or
dura#ility, or aesthetics destroy the !a/or point of the !useu!: to #e
used, to #e understood. The pro#le! of focus, I call this.
*ES,GNE$S $E NOT TAP,CH )SE$S
*esigners often thin7 of the/selves as typical .sers5 fter all6 they are
people too6 and they are often .sers of their o&n designs5 Why don9t
they notice6 &hy don9t they have the sa/e pro8le/s as the rest of .s@
The designers , have spo7en &ith are tho.ghtf.l6 concerned people5
They do &ant to do things properly5 Why6 then6 are so /any failing@
ll of .s develop an everyday psychology:professionals call it
3fol7 psychology3 or6 so/eti/es6 3naive psychology3:and it can 8e
as erroneo.s and /isleading as the naive physics that &e exa/ined in
chapter 25 Worse6 act.ally5 s h./an 8eings6 &e have access to o.r
conscio.s tho.ghts and 8eliefs 8.t not to o.r s.8conscio.s ones5 Con0
scio.s tho.ghts are often rationali>ations of 8ehavior6 explanations
after the fact5 We tend to pro4ect o.r o&n rationali>ations and 8eliefs
onto the actions and 8eliefs of others5 ;.t the professional sho.ld 8e
a8le to reali>e that h./an 8elief and 8ehavior are co/plex and that the
individ.al is in no position to discover all the relevant factors5 There
is no s.8stit.te for interaction &ith and st.dy of act.al .sers of a
proposed design5
3Steve Wo>nia76 the &hi>07id co0fo.nder of pple Co/p.ter
offered the first p.8lic gli/pse of CO$E6 his latest 8rainchild5
3CO$E6 &hich stands for controller of re/ote electronics6 is a
single device that allo&s cons./ers to f.lly operate their ho/e
e<.ip/ent 8y re/ote control as long as the e<.ip/ent is all in one
roo/5 5 5 5
si4: The Design hallenge 1''
3CO$E co/es &ith a "00page .ser /an.al5 ;.t Wo>nia7 says
.sers of his gi>/o 5 5 5 &on9t 8e da.nted 8eca.se6 initially6 /ost &ill
8e 9techies59 3
1!
There is a 8ig difference 8et&een the expertise re<.ired to 8e a
designer and that re<.ired to 8e a .ser5 ,n their &or76 designers often
8eco/e expert &ith the device they are designing5 )sers are often expert
at the tas$ they are trying to perfor/ &ith the device5
1"
Steve Wo>nia7 designs a device to help people li7e hi/self6 people
&ho co/plain that their ho.se is cl.ttered &ith too /any re/ote
control devices for their electronic co/ponents5 So he prod.ces a single
controller that replaces the /any5 ;.t the tas7 is co/plex6 the instr.c0
tion /an.al thic75 Not a pro8le/6 &e are told6 the initial .sers &ill 8e
3techies53 B.st li7e Wo>nia76 pres./a8ly5 ;.t ho& acc.rate is that
characteri>ation@ *o &e even 7no& that the technically a/8itio.s6 the
3techies63 &ill really 8e a8le to .nderstand and .se the device@ The
only &ay to find o.t is to test the designs on .sers:people as si/ilar
to the event.al p.rchaser of the prod.ct as possi8le5 (.rther/ore6 the
designer9s interaction &ith potential .sers /.st ta7e place fro/ the
very 8eginning of the design process6 for it soon 8eco/es too late to
/a7e f.nda/ental changes5
Professional designers are .s.ally a&are of the pitfalls5 ;.t /ost
design is not done 8y professional designers6 it is done 8y engineers6
progra//ers6 and /anagers5 One designer descri8ed the iss.es to /e
this &ay:
+People, generally engineers or !anagers, tend to feel that they are
hu!ans, therefore they can design so!ething for other hu!ans /ust as
&ell as the trained interface e4pert. It's really interesting to &atch
engineers and co!puter scientists go a#out designing a product. They
argue and argue a#out ho& to do things, generally &ith a sincere desire
to do the right thing for the user. >ut &hen it co!es to assessing the
tradeoffs #et&een the user interface and internal resources in a product,
they al!ost al&ays tend to si!plify their o&n lives. They &ill have to
do the &or$, they try to !a$e the internal !achine architecture as
si!ple as possi#le. Internal design elegance so!eti!es !aps to user
interface elegance, #ut not al&ays. Design tea!s really need vocal
advocates for the people &ho &ill ulti!ately use the interfaceL'
.K
*esigners have 8eco/e so proficient &ith the prod.ct that they can
no longer perceive or .nderstand the areas that are apt to ca.se dif0
1'I The Design of Everyday Things
c.ities5 Even &hen designers 8eco/e .sers6 their deep .nderstanding
and close contact &ith the device they are designing /eans that they
operate it al/ost entirely fro/ 7no&ledge in the head5 The .ser6 espe0
cially the first0ti/e or infre<.ent .ser6 /.st rely al/ost entirely on
7no&ledge in the &orld5 That is a 8ig difference6 f.nda/ental to the
design5
,nnocence lost is not easily regained5 The designer si/ply cannot
predict the pro8le/s people &ill have6 the /isinterpretations that &ill
arise6 and the errors that &ill get /ade5 nd if the designer cannot
anticipate errors6 then the design cannot /ini/i>e their occ.rrence or
their ra/ifications5
THE DE%?.NE!*% L?ENT%
+A@ N6T BE 7%E!%
*esigners /.st please their clients6 &ho are often not the end .sers5
Consider /a4or ho.sehold appliances s.ch as stoves6 refrigerators6
dish&ashers6 and clothes &ashers and dryers? and fa.cets and ther/o0
stats for heating and air conditioning syste/s5 They are often p.r0
chased 8y ho.sing developers or landlords5 ,n 8.siness6 p.rchasing
depart/ents /a7e decisions for large co/panies and o&ners or /anag0
ers /a7e decisions in s/all co/panies5 ,n all these cases6 the p.rchaser
is pro8a8ly interested pri/arily in price6 perhaps in si>e or appearance6
al/ost certainly not in .sa8ility5 nd once devices are p.rchased and
installed6 the p.rchaser has no f.rther interest in the/5 The /an.fac0
t.rer is pri/arily concerned a8o.t these decision /a7ers6 its i//ediate
c.sto/ers6 not the event.al .sers5
,n so/e sit.ations cost /.st 8e p.t first6 especially in govern/ent
or ind.stry5 ,n /y .niversity6 copying /achines are p.rchased 8y the
Printing and *.plicating Center6 then dispersed to the vario.s depart0
/ents5 The copiers are p.rchased after a for/al 3re<.est for proposals3
has gone o.t to /an.fact.rers and dealers of /achines5 The selection
is al/ost al&ays 8ased solely on price6 pl.s a consideration of the cost
of /aintenance5 )sa8ility@ Not considered5 The state of California
re<.ires 8y la& that .niversities p.rchase things on a price 8asis? there
are no legal re<.ire/ents regarding .nderstanda8ility or .sa8ility of
the prod.ct5 That is one reason &e get .n.sa8le copying /achines and
telephone syste/s5 ,f .sers co/plained strongly eno.gh6 .sa8ility
co.ld 8eco/e a re<.ire/ent in the p.rchasing specifications6 and that
si4: The Design hallenge 1'1
de/and co.ld tric7le 8ac7 to the designers5 ;.t &itho.t this feed8ac76
designers /.st often design the cheapest possi8le prod.cts 8eca.se
those are &hat sell5
*esigners face a to.gh tas75 They ans&er to their clients6 and it /ay
8e hard to find o.t &ho the act.al .sers are5 So/eti/es they are even
prohi8ited fro/ contacting the .sers for fear they &ill incidentally
reveal co/pany plans for ne& prod.cts or /islead .sers into 8elieving
that ne& prod.cts are a8o.t to 8e developed5 The design process is a
captive of corporate 8.rea.cracy6 &ith each stage in the process adding
its o&n assess/ent and dictating the changes it 8elieves essential for
its concerns5 The design is al/ost certainly altered as it leaves the
designers and proceeds thro.gh /an.fact.ring and /ar7eting5 ll par0
ticipants are &ell intentioned6 and their partic.lar concerns are legiti0
/ate5 The factors sho.ld all 8e considered si/.ltaneo.sly6 ho&ever6
and not s.84ect to the accidents of ti/e se<.ence or the realities of
corporate ran7 and clo.t5 One designer &rote /e this a8o.t his pro80
le/s:
+5ost designers live in a &orld &here the gulf of evaluation is
infinite. True, &e often $no& the product too &ell to envision ho&
people &ill use it, yet &e are separated fro! the end users #y !ultiple
layers of corporate #ureaucracy, !ar$eting, custo!er services, etc.
These people #elieve they $no& &hat custo!ers &ant and feed#ac$
fro! the real &orld is li!ited #y >iters they i!pose. If you accept the
pro#le! definition 0product re-uire!ents2 fro! these outside sources
&ithout personal investigation you &ill design an inferior product
regardless of your #est intentions. If this initial hurdle is overco!e you
are only half&ay ho!e. The #est design ideas are often ruined #y the
develop!ent1!anufacturing process that ta$es place &hen they leave
the design studio. ;hat this really points out is that the process #y
&hich &e design is fla&ed, pro#a#ly !ore so than our conception of
ho& to create -uality designs. +
.?
The Co/plexity
of the *esign Process
+Design is the successive application of constraints until only a
uni-ue product is left. +
.C
1'+ The Design of Everyday Things
Ao. /ight thin7 that a &ater fa.cet &o.ld 8e pretty easy to design5
fter all6 yo. /erely &ant to start or stop the flo& of &ater5 ;.t
consider so/e of the pro8le/s5 S.ppose the fa.cets are for .se in
p.8lic places6 &here .sers /ay fail to t.rn the/ off5 Ao. can /a7e a
spring0operated fa.cet6 &hich operates only as long as the handle is
held5 This a.to/atically t.rns the fa.cet off? 8.t it is diffic.lt for .sers
to hold the handle &hile &etting their hands5 O76 so yo. add a ti/er?
then one p.sh on the fa.cet handle yields five or ten seconds of &ater
flo&5 ;.t the extra co/plexity of the fa.cet design adds to the cost and
lo&ers the relia8ility of the fa.cet5 (.rther/ore6 it is diffic.lt to decide
ho& long the &ater sho.ld stay on5 So/eho& it never see/s li7e long
eno.gh for the .ser5
#o& a8o.t a foot0operated fa.cet6 &hich overco/es the pro8le/s
of springs and ti/ers 8eca.se the &ater stops as soon as the foot leaves
the pedal Cfig.re I5" %D@ This sol.tion re<.ires slightly /ore ela8orate
pl./8ing6 again raising the cost5 ,t also /a7es the control invisi8le6
violating a /a4or design principle and /a7ing it diffic.lt for a ne& .ser
to find the control5 #o& a8o.t a high0technology sol.tion6 &ith a.to0
/atic sensors that t.rn on the &ater as soon as a hand is placed in the
sin76 t.rning it off as soon as it leaves Cfig.re I5" 'D@ This sol.tion has
several pro8le/s5 (irst6 it is expensive5 Second6 it /a7es the controls
invisi8le6 ca.sing diffic.lty for ne& .sers5 nd third6 it is not easy to
see ho& the .ser co.ld control either the vol./e of &ater or the
te/perat.re5 =ore on this fa.cet later5
Not all fa.cets are designed .nder the constraints of p.8lic fa.cets5
t ho/e6 aesthetic considerations tend to do/inate5 Styles often reflect
the social and econo/ic class of the .ser5 nd different 7inds of .sers
have different re<.ire/ents5
The sa/e considerations hold tr.e for /ost everyday things5 The
variety of possi8le sol.tions to the .s.al pro8le/s is enor/o.s5 The
range of expression per/itted the designer is vast5 =oreover6 the n./0
8er of tiny details that /.st 8e acco.nted for is asto.nding5 Pic7 .p
al/ost any /an.fact.red ite/ and exa/ine its details &ith care5 The
little &iggly 8ends on a hairpin are essential in 7eeping it fro/ slipping
o.t of the hair: so/eone had to thin7 of that6 then design special
e<.ip/ent to create the 8ends5 The felt0tip pen , a/ exa/ining as ,
&rite has six different si>es on the pen 8ody6 t&o different si>es on the
cap5 The pen changes its taper at n./ero.s spots6 each change serving
so/e f.nction5 (o.r different s.8stances co/prise the pen 8ody Cand
, a/ not co.nting the in76 the container that holds the in76 or the felt
si4: The Design hallenge 1'2
I5" Nonst andard (a.cets5 There are
often good reasons for .sing non0
standard /eans for operating fa.cets6
8.t the res.lt is that the .ser is apt to
need help to operate the/5 % Ca8oveD
sho&s the fa.cet and operating in0
str.ctions fro/ the sin7 in a ;ritish
train5 > CrightD sho&s an advertise0
/ent for an a.to/atic fa.cet: si/ply
p.t the hand .nder it and the &ater
co/es o.t at a preset te/perat.re and
rate of flo&5 Convenient6 8.t only for
those &ho 7no& the secret5
1I0
tipD5 The cap is /ade of t&o 7inds of plastic and one 7ind of /etal5 The
inside of the cap has a n./8er of s.8tle indentations and internal
str.ct.res that clearly /atch .p &ith corresponding parts of the pen
8ody6 8oth to hold the cap on fir/ly and to prevent the felt tip fro/
drying o.t5 There are /ore parts and varia8les than , &o.ld ever have
i/agined5
The pen9s designer /.st 8e a&are of h.ndreds of re<.ire/ents5
=a7e the pen too thin6 and it &ill not 8e strong eno.gh to stand .p
to the hard .se of schoolchildren5 =a7e the /iddle section too thic76
and it can neither 8e grasped properly 8y the fingers nor controlled
&ith eno.gh precision5 Aet people &ith arthritic hands /ay need a
thic7 8ody 8eca.se they can9t close their fingers entirely5 Heave o.t the
tiny hole near the tip6 and press.re changes in the at/osphere &ill
ca.se the in7 to lea7 o.t5 nd &hat of those &ho .se the pen as a
/eas.ring device or as a /echanical i/ple/ent to pry6 po7e6 sta86 and
t&ist@ (or exa/ple6 the instr.ctions for the cloc7 in /y a.to/o8ile say
to set it 8y depressing the recessed 8.tton &ith the tip of a 8all0point
pen5 #o& co.ld the pen designer have 7no&n a8o.t this@ What o8liga0
tion does the designer have to consider varied and o8sc.re .ses@
DE%?.N?N. F6! %$E?AL $E6$LE
There is no s.ch thing as the average person5 This poses a partic.lar
pro8le/ for the designer6 &ho .s.ally /.st co/e .p &ith a single
design for everyone? the tas7 is diffic.lt &hen all sorts of people are
expected to .se the ite/5 The designer can cons.lt hand8oo7s &ith
ta8les that sho& average ar/ reach and seated height6 ho& far the
average person can stretch 8ac7&ard &hile seated6 and ho& /.ch roo/
is needed for average hips6 7nees6 and el8o&s5 Physical anthropo/etry
the field is called5 With the data the designer can try to /eet the si>e
re<.ire/ents for al/ost everyone6 say for the 20th6 2'th6 or even the
22th percentile5 S.ppose yo. design a prod.ct for the 2'th percentile6
that is6 for everyone except the ' percent of people &ho are s/aller or
larger5 Ao.9re leaving o.t a lot of people5 ,f the )nited States has 2'0
/illion people6 ' percent is 125' /illion5 Even if yo. design for the
22th percentile yo.9ll leave o.t 1 percent of the pop.lation:25' /il0
lion5
Consider typists5 Typists need to have their hands co/forta8ly
poised a8ove the 7ey8oard5 ;eca.se of the thic7ness of type&riters6
si4: The Design hallenge 1I1
typi ng ta8les are designed to 8e lo&er t han &or7 ta8les5 Of co.rse6
&hat /atters is not the ta8le height or the 7ey8oard thic7ness6 8.t t he
distance fro/ t he nor/al position of the typist9 s hands to t he 7ey0
8oard6 &hich is deter/ined 8y several factors:
F #o& 8ig the typist is: legs6 chest6 hands
F #o& high the ta8le is
F #o& thic7 the 7ey8oard is
F #o& high the chair is
What can t he designer do@ One sol.tion is to /a7e everyt hing
ad4.sta8le: chair height6 height and angle of the typi ng ta8le5 ,n fact6
good t yping ta8les have several parts: a part for the 7ey8oard6 a part
for the co/p.ter screen6 a part that hol ds &or7ing papers5 Het each part
8e separately ad4.sta8le in height and angle5 Then everyone can 8e
acco//odated5
So/e pro8le/s are not solved 8y ad4.st/ents5 Heft0handed people6
for exa/ple6 present special pro8le/s5 Si/ple ad4.st/ents &on9 t &or76
nor &ill averages: average a left0hander &ith a right 0hander and &hat
do yo. get@ #ere is &here special prod.cts help:left0handed scissors
and 7nives6 left0handed r.lers Cfig.re ?.K2. These special0p.rpose
devices don9 t al&ays &or76 of co.rse6 not &hen one device is to 8e .sed
8y /any6 or &here t he ite/s are too large or expensive for each person
to o&n or to carry aro.nd5 ,n s.ch cases the only sol.tion is to /a7e
the device itself a/8idext ro.s6 even if that /a7es it a 8it less efficient
for each person5
Consider the special pro8le/s of t he aged and infir/6 the handi 0
capped6 t he 8lind or near08lind6 the deaf or hard of hearing6 t he very
short or very tall6 or the foreign5 Wheelchairs6 for exa/ple6 cannot
easily /ani p.l at e c.r8s6 stairs6 or narro& aisles5 s &e age6 o.r physical
agility decreases6 o.r reaction ti/e slo&s6 o.r vis.al s7ills deteriorate6
9)8 Left,handed !uler) Writing fro/ left to right &ith the left hand /eans that
yo. cover &hat yo. &rite6 /a7ing r.lers hard to .se6 s/earing the in75 left0
handed pen is a pen &ith fast0drying in75 This r.ler for left0handers has the
n./8ers going fro/ right to left5 One sol.tion to the pro8le/ of diversity a/ong
individ.als is to prod.ce speciali>ed o84ects5
1I2 The Design of Everyday Things
and o.r a8ility to attend to several things at once or to s&itch rapidly
a/ong co/peting events decreases5
#igh0speed high&ays pose special pro8le/s for the aged5 n a.to0
/o8ile traveling at high speed on a cro&ded high&ay at d.s7 is already
p.shing the li/it of the driver9s capa8ilities5 The elderly are p.shed
8eyond their li/it5 The sol.tion adopted 8y /any elderly drivers is to
travel very slo&ly6 to ad4.st their speed to &hat their processing can
handle co/forta8ly5 )nfort.nately6 the slo& driver poses a ha>ard to
other drivers: on high0speed high&ays6 things are considera8ly safer if
everyone travels at approxi/ately the sa/e speed5 , see no si/ple
sol.tion to this pro8le/5 ,n /any cities6 especially in the )nited States6
there is no easy &ay to get fro/ one place to another except 8y private
a.to/o8ile5 Aet the elderly can9t 8e expected to stay ho/e5 The sol.0
tion has got to 8e either increased p.8lic transportation6 or s.pplied
drivers6 or perhaps special streets or high&ay lanes &ith slo&er speed
li/its5 .to/ated cars6 the drea/ of science fiction &riters and city
planners6 /ay still one day co/e a8o.t? they &o.ld ta7e care of this
pro8le/5
Those of yo. &ho are yo.ng6 do not s/ir75 O.r a8ilities 8egin to
deteriorate relatively early6 starting in o.r /id0t&enties5 ;y o.r /id0
forties o.r eyes can no longer ad4.st s.fficiently to foc.s over the entire
range of distances6 so /ost of .s need reading glasses or 8ifocals5
;ifocals /a7e it harder to do fine &or76 harder to .se co/p.ter ter/i0
nals C&hose screens see/ to 8e designed for t&enty0year0oldsD5
I type these &ords seated in front of !y co!puter ter!inal, head
tilted up&ard at an unco!forta#le angle so that I can see the screen out
of the #otto! half of !y eyeglasses. I can't figure out ho& to get
co!forta#le. <o&er the screen and it gets in the &ay of !y typing. 3se
special +co!puter+ glasses ad/usted for screen si7e and distance, and
I can't read all the notes and outlines scattered a#out !e at various
distances. "ortunately, I can change the si7e of the type that appears
on the screen. I use a t&elve1point font, one &hose letters are co!forta1
#ly large. %las, this is a tradeoff, for the larger the letters on the screen,
the less !aterial can fit. hange to nine1point font and I can see CJ
percent !ore !aterial 0== percent !ore lines, each &ith == percent
!ore &ords2: a non1trivial difference &hen I'! trying to &rite long
sections. >ut the letters are == percent s!aller, !a$ing it harder #oth
to read and to correct the!. %t least !y co!puter allo&s fle4i#ility in
type si7eD !ost do not.
si4: The Design hallenge .?=
;y the ti/e &e9re sixty6 eno.gh stray /aterial has scattered a8o.t
in o.r eyes that vis.al contrast is di/inished6 eno.gh to 8e one of the
/a4or reasons that airline pilots are forced to retire at this age5 t the
age of sixty a person is still in good /ental and physical shape6 and the
acc./.lated &isdo/ of the years leads to s.perior perfor/ance in
/any tas7s5 ;.t physical strength is lessened6 the agility of the 8ody
decreased6 and the speed of so/e operations lessened5 ,n a &orld &here
the average age is increasing6 sixty is still relatively yo.ng: /ost sixty0
year0olds have another t&enty years to live6 /any have forty5 We need
to design &ith these people in /ind:thin7 of it as designing &ith o.r
f.t.re selves in /ind5
There is no si/ple sol.tion6 no one si>e fits all5 ;.t designing for
flexi8ility helps5 (lexi8ility in the si>e of the i/ages on co/p.ter
screens6 in the si>es6 heights6 and angles of ta8les and chairs5 (lexi8ility
on o.r high&ays6 perhaps /a7ing s.re there are alternative ro.tes &ith
different speed li/its5 (ixed sol.tions &ill invaria8ly fail &ith so/e
people? flexi8le sol.tions at least offer a chance for those &ith special
needs5
%ELET?FE ATTENT?6N: THE $!6BLE+ 6F F67%
The a8ility of conscio.s attention is li/ited: foc.s on one thing and
yo. red.ce yo.r attention to others5 Psychologists call the pheno/e0
non 3selective attention53 Excessive foc.s leads to a 7ind of t.nnel
vision6 &here peripheral ite/s are ignored5
I &atched a consu!er sho& on >ritish television on toasters that
caught Ere &hen the #read &as too dry. The consu!er representatives
pointed out that people often inserted their fingers, a for$, or a $nife
into the toaster to e4tract the toast. This &as very dangerous 0even
!ore dangerous in >ritain than in the 3nited 8tates #ecause the voltage
is 2@0 volts, not the .20 of the 3nited 8tates2. (et so!e toasters had
e4posed &ires very close to the top, -uite reacha#le #y the finger or the
!etal utensil. The consu!er representatives argued that !anufacturers
should not have placed the &ires so close to the opening.
The !anufacturers denied that their toasters &ere dangerous.
+;hy,+ they as$ed, +&ould so!eone stic$ their fingers or a $nife into
a toaster)+ ertainly the instructions &arned the! not to. ertainly
they !ust $no& it is dangerous. To the designer, such an action is so
unthin$a#le that prevention did not enter into the design considera1
tions.
1I" The Design of Everyday Things
onsider the !atter fro! the user's point of vie&. The person sees
a pro#le!:stuc$ or #urning toast:and focuses on the solution:to
e4tract it. The danger does not co!e to !ind. To !y o&n surprise, I
did the sa!e thing the very ne4t day. . inserted t&o cru!pets into the
toasterD a fe& !inutes later, s!o$e &as pouring out. 'uic$, I ran over
to the toaster, popped up the cru!pets as far as they &ould go, and
then -uic$ly 0#ut carefully)2 inserted a $nife #lade into the toaster,
do&n the side, to lift the! out. ;hat &as I doing)
8elective attention: attend to the i!!ediate pro#le!, forget the rest.
8ure I &as #eing careful, #ut that is pro#a#ly &hat the people &ho
electrocuted the!selves also #elieved. It /ust didn't see! dangerous,
that's all.
The sa/e story is repeated over and over again5 )nder&ater divers
foc.s so /.ch on str.ggling to the s.rface that they fail to release the
lead &eights Con a special easy0to0release 8eltD that are 7eeping the/
.nder&ater5 People &ho are fleeing a fire p.sh hard against a door6
harder and harder6 failing to recogni>e that the door opens 8y p.lling5
So/eone is trapped 8ehind a door6 p.shing against the left side &hen
it opens fro/ the right5 =otorcyclists have their hel/ets strapped to
their 8i7e6 not their head5 People don9t .se seat8elts6 or they drive too
fast6 8eca.se it is inconvenient to do other&ise and 8eca.se they don9t
see the danger5
When there is a pro8le/6 people are apt to foc.s on it to the excl.0
sion of other factors5 The designer /.st design for the pro8le/ case6
/a7ing other factors /ore salient6 or easier to get to6 or perhaps less
necessary5 That9s &hat the forcing f.nctions of chapter ' &ere all
a8o.t5 =a7e the po&er c.toff s&itch of the toaster a forcing f.nction6
so that a person can9t stic7 so/ething into the toaster &itho.t flipping
a po&er c.toff s&itch C&hich sho.ld 8e easy to get to and .seD5 Or
change the design of the &iring and heating ele/ents so that lethal
ele/ents cannot 8e reached fro/ o.tside6 no /atter &hat flesh or /etal
gets p.t into the toaster5
corollary principle is that designers /.st g.ard against the pro80
le/s of foc.s in their o&n design5 *id their attention to one set of
varia8les ca.se the/ to neglect another@ *id safety s.ffer for .sa8ility@
)sa8ility for aesthetics@ esthetics for /an.fact.ra8ility@
si4: The Design hallenge 1I'
The (a.cet: Case #istory of
*esign *iffic.lties
It !ay #e hard to #elieve that an everyday &ater faucet could need
an instruction !anual. I sa& one, this ti!e at the !eeting of the >ritish
Psychological 8ociety in 8heffield, England. The participants stayed in
dor!itories. 3pon chec$ing into one of these, the Ean!oor 6ouse, a
guest &as given a pa!phlet that gave useful infor!ation: &here the
churches &ere, the ti!es of !eals, the location of the post office, and
ho& to &or$ the taps 0faucets2. +The taps on the &ashhand #asin are
operated #y pushing do&n gently.+
;hen it &as !y turn to spea$ at the conference, I as$ed the audience
a#out those taps. 6o& !any had trou#le using it) Polite, restrained
titterings fro! the audience. 6o& !any tried to turn the handle) %
large sho& of hands. 6o& !any had to see$ help) % fe& honest fol$s
raised their hands. %fter&ard, one &o!an ca!e up to !e and said that
she had given up and had to &al$ up and do&n the halls until she
found so!eone &ho could e4plain the taps to her.
% si!ple sin$, a si!ple1loo$ing faucet. >ut it loo$s li$e it should #e
turned, not pushed 0figure ?.? %2. If you &ant the faucet to #e pushed,
!a$e it loo$ li$e it should #e pushed. It can #e done: the airlines do
it right 0figure ?.? >2.
Pity the poor house porters, al&ays getting calls for help a#out the
faucets. 8o instructions &ere put in the orientation sheet. ;ho &ould
ever thin$ of having to read instructions #efore using a faucet) %t least
put the! on the faucets, &here they can't #e !issed. >ut &hen si!ple
things need instructions, it is a certain sign of poor design.
Why are fa.cets so hard to get right@ Het .s ta7e a closer loo7 at the
t&o /a4or varia8les Cthey &ill give .s <.ite eno.gh to doD5 The person
&ho .ses the fa.cets cares a8o.t t&o things: the &ater te/perat.re and
vol./e5 T&o things to control5 We sho.ld 8e a8le to do that &ith t&o
controls6 one for each5 Except that &ater co/es in t&o pipes6 hot and
cold6 and so the t&o things that are easiest to control:vol./e of hot
&ater and vol./e of cold &ater:are not the t&o things &e &ant to
have controlled5 #ence the designer9s dile//a5
There are three pro8le/s? t&o relate to the /apping of intentions to
actions6 and the third is the pro8le/ of eval.ation:
1II The Design of Everyday Things
9)9 ontrasting Designs for "$ush" Faucets) The fa.cets % Ca8oveD in the
$an/oor dor/itory at the )niversity of Sheffield give little cl.e to their /ode of
operation5 s a res.lt6 occ.pants /.st 8e s.pplied &ith the instr.ction sheet for
3the taps35 The fa.cets > C8elo&D on the sin7 of a co//ercial airline are designed
properly5 P.shing is clearly indicated5 No instr.ction /an.al is re<.ired5
si4: The Design hallenge .?C
?.C -ertical (a.cets5 The &orld
standard is that hot is on the left6
cold on the right5 What do yo. do
here@ Why &o.ld anyone drea/
.p this sche/e@
F Which fa.cet controls the hot6 &hich the cold@
F What do yo. do to the fa.cet to /a7e it increase or decrease the
&ater flo&@
F #o& do yo. deter/ine if the vol./e or te/perat.re is correct@
The t &o /appi ng pro8le/s are solved t hro.gh c.lt.ral convent ions6
or constraints5 ,t is a &orl d&i de convention that the left fa.cet sho.ld 8e
hot 6 t he right cold5 ,t is also a .niversal conventi on that scre& threads are
/ade to tighten &i t h cloc7&ise t .rni ng6 loosen &i t h co.ntercloc7&ise5
Ao. t .rn off a fa.cet 8y t ighteni ng a scre& t hread Ctightening a &asher
against its seatD6 there8y sh.t t i ng off t he flo& of &ater5 So cloc7&ise
t .rni ng sh.ts off t he &ater6 co.ntercloc7&ise t.rns it on5
)nfort.nately6 t he constraints do not al&ays hold5 =ost of t he
English people , as7ed &ere not a&are t hat l eft Q hot6 ri ght Q col d &as a
convention? it is violated too often to 8e considered a convent ion in
England5 ;.t the conventi on isn9 t .niversal in the )nit ed States5 Hoo7
at t he pict.re of a sho&er control fro/ /y o&n .niversit y Cfig.re ?.C2.
#ere &e have vertical fa.cets5 -ertical@ ,f left is t he standard for hot6
ho& does that translate to vertical arrange/ents@ ,s hot t he top or t he
8ot to/@ Weird5
1I+ The Design of Everyday Things
So/eti/es a designer /esses &ith the convention on p.rpose5 The
h./an 8ody has a /irror0i/age sy//etry6 says this pse.dopsycholo0
gist5 So if the left hand /oves cloc7&ise6 &hy6 the right hand sho.ld
/ove co.ntercloc7&ise5 Watch o.t6 yo.r pl./8er or architect /ay
install a 8athroo/ fixt.re &here cloc7&ise rotation t.rns the hot &ater
off and the cold &ater on5 Or is it the other &ay aro.nd@ No /atter6
as yo. try to control the &ater te/perat.re6 soap r.nning do&n over
yo.r eyes6 groping to change the &ater control &ith one hand6 soap or
sha/poo cl.tched in the other6 yo. are g.aranteed to get it &rong5 The
&ater is free>ing6 so yo. try to increase the a/o.nt of hot5 Ao. &ill
pro8a8ly t.rn on the sho&er6 or the 8ath6 or open the drain Cor sh.t
itD6 or t.rn off the hot &ater co/pletely6 or scald yo.rself5
;hoever invented that !irror1i!age nonsense should #e forced to
ta$e a sho&er. (es, there is so!e logic to it. To #e a #it fair to the
inventor of the sche!e, it does &or$ reasona#ly &ell as long as you
al&ays use the faucets #y placing #oth hands on the! at the sa!e ti!e,
ad/usting #oth controls si!ultaneously. It fails !isera#ly, ho&ever,
&hen one hand is used to alternate #et&een the t&o controls. Then you
cannot re!e!#er &hich direction does &hat.
What a8o.t the eval.ation pro8le/@ (eed8ac7 in the .se of /ost
fa.cets is rapid and direct6 so t.rning the/ the &rong &ay is easy to
discover and correct:the eval.ate0action cycle is easy to traverse5 s
a res.lt6 the discrepancy fro/ nor/al r.les is often not noticed5 )nless
yo. are in the sho&er and the feed8ac7 occ.rs &hen yo. scald yo.rself5
Older sin7s have t&o separate spo.ts5 #ere eval.ation is diffic.lt5
Ao. can &ave yo.r hand rapidly 8ac7 and forth 8et&een the spo.ts6
hoping there8y to get a good /ix of te/perat.res6 or yo. can fill .p
the 8asin6 ad4.sting the a/o.nt of hot and cold &ater so that the
acc./.lating /ixt.re reaches the desired te/perat.re5 )s.ally yo.
settle for anything in the neigh8orhood5 Each pro8le/ alone isn9t a 8ig
deal5 ;.t the total s./ of all the trivial /al0design .nnecessarily adds
to the tra./a of everyday life5
No& consider the /odern single0spo.t6 single0control fa.cet5 Tech0
nology to the resc.e5 =ove the control one &ay6 it ad4.sts te/perat.re5
=ove it another6 it ad4.sts vol./e5 #.rrahE We control exactly the
varia8les of interest6 and the /ixing spo.t solves the eval.ation pro80
le/5
Aes6 these ne& fa.cets are 8ea.tif.l5 Slee76 elegant6 pri>e &inning5
si4: The Design hallenge 1I2
)n.sa8le5 They solved one set of pro8le/s only to create yet another5
The /appi ng pro8le/s no& predo/i nate5
F Which control is associated &ith &hich action@
F What operations do yo. apply to the controls@
The pro8le/ is that it is very diffic.lt to fig.re o.t &hich part of t he
slee7 fa.cet is t he control5 nd even if yo. fig.re that o.t6 it is hard
to fig.re o.t in &hich direction it /oves5 nd once yo. fig.re that o.t6
it is hard to fig.re o.t &hich direction controls &hi ch action5 nd &hen
these fancy6 /.lti p.rpose6 slee7 designs also control the 8asin pl.g and
t he diversion of &ater to sho&er or 8at h6 disaster a&aits5
There are t &o pro8le/s here5 (irst6 in t he na/e of elegance6 t he
/oving parts so/eti/es /eld invisi8ly into the fa.cet str.ct.re6 /a70
ing it nearly i/possi8le even to find t he controls6 let alone fig.re o.t
&hi ch &ay t hey /ove or &hat t hey control5 Second6 in the na/e of
novelty6 the ne& designs have forfeited the po&er of c.lt.ral con0
stancy5 )sers don9 t &ant each ne& design to .se a different /et hod for
controlling t he &ater5 )sers need standardi>ation5 ,f all /a7ers of fa.0
cets co.ld agree on a standard set of /ot ions to control a/o.nt and
te/perat .re Cho& a8o.t .p and do&n to control a/o.nt :.p /eaning
increase:and left and right to control te/perat.re:left /eaning
hot@D6 t hen &e co.ld all learn the st andards once6 and forever after&ard
.se t he 7no&l edge for every ne& fa.cet &e enco.ntered5
,f yo. can9t p.t the 7no&ledge on the device6 then develop a c.lt.ral
constraint: standardi>e &hat has to 8e 7ept in the head5
There co.ld 8e s/all variations in the standard5 S.ppose a designer
&ant ed t e/perat .re t o 8e controlled 8y a 7no8 t hat t.rned rather t han
a lever that /oved left and right5 (ort.nately6 there is a nat.ral /ap0
ping that relates t.rning to direction: a cloc7&ise t .rni ng is t he sa/e
as /oving to the right:getting colder:and a co.ntercloc7&ise t .rn0
ing is the sa/e as /oving to the left:hotter5
Technological develop/ent never ceases5 There is yet another sol.0
tion to t he control pro8le/6 one t hat has a slight virt.e over the others:
it is cheaper5 One control t .rns the &ater on or off and lets yo. ad4.st
either te/perat .re or vol./e6 8.t not 8ot h Cfig.re I5+D5 ll yo. have
to do is to locate the control and operate it5 Thi n7 of all the /ental
energy and conf.sion yo. have 8een saved5 We finally have a control
that is tr.ly easy to .se5 S.ccess5
110 The Design of Everyday Things
si4: The Design hallenge l 0 l
6.8 %im"ler Faucets) ,n % Ca8oveD the /apping pro8le/ is solved:the fa.cet is
pres./ed to 8e easy to .se5 The pro8le/ is that yo. cannot control the a/o.nt
of &ater5 On top of that6 once the 7no8 has 8een t.rned 1+0S6 it is no longer clear
&hich &ay to t.rn it in order to /a7e the &ater hotter or colder5 (a.cet > C8elo&D
co.ldn9t 8e si/pler5 ,t certainly is easy to .se5 Of co.rse6 yo. can only t.rn it on?
yo. get a fixed te/perat.re and a fixed vol./e of &ater5
Wait6 &e really do &ant to control 8oth a/o.nt and te/perat.re
independently5 This sol.tion gives .s only one control5 So &e can
ad4.st te/perat.re6 8.t &e get o.t &hatever a/o.nt of &ater the
designer tho.ght &as good for .s5 Or &e can ad4.st the a/o.nt &hile
getting an ar8itrary te/perat.re5 The story of progress5
8o!e variants on this faucet control only on or off: you have control
over neither volu!e nor te!perature. 8o!eti!es there is no visi#le
!eans to turn on the &ater. 6o& does the novice user reali7e that one
is supposed to &ave the hands under the faucet) There is no sign of
the re-uired operation, no relevant infor!ation in the &orld.
Perhaps you have a #ig sign: +Do not ad/ust controls, si!ply place
hand under spout.+ The sign ruins the elegance, doesn't it) Interesting
choice:understanda#ility or elegance. Of course, if such faucets #e1
ca!e co!!on, then people &ould $no& ho& to use the! and the signs
could co!e do&n. 8o!eday.
T&o *eadly
Te/ptations
for the *esigner
Het9s ret.rn to the designer9s pro8le/s5 ,9ve /entioned the ti/e and
econo/ic press.res on the/5 No& let /e tell yo. of t&o deadly te/p0
tations that a&ait the .n&ary6 te/ptations that lead to&ard prod.cts
that are overly co/plex6 prod.cts that drive .sers to distraction:, call
these creeping feat.ris/ and the &orshipping of false i/ages5
C$EEP,NG (ET)$,S=
I recently attended a de!onstration of a ne& &ord processing pro1
gra!, held in a large, cro&ded auditoriu!. % representative fro! the
co!pany sat in front of the co!puter, a video pro/ector putting a large
i!age of the co!puter screen onto the !ovie screen. The audience &as
s$eptical: they &ere e4perts and $ne& the li!itations of such pro1
gra!s. The de!onstrator &as s!ooth and convincing, co!posing an
outline, e4panding it into te4t, indenting the paragraphs, nu!#ering
the!, changing their styles, flipping into a dra&ing progra!, dra&ing
a figure, inserting the dra&ing into the te4t &ith the te4t flo&ing neatly
around the dra&ing. +(ou &ant t&o colu!ns)+ as$ed the de!onstra1
.C2 The Design of Everyday Things
tor. +6ere it is. Three colu!ns) "our) :ust na!e it.+ The screen flo&ed:
three colu!ns of te4t neatly lined up, illustrations /ust &here they
ought to #e, page headers, footers, paragraph nu!#ers, #oldface italics.
<arge type, s!all type, footnotes neatly displayed at the end of col1
u!ns. (ou could even highlight /ust the things that had #een changed
in the last revision. (ou could leave notes for yourself or a co1author,
notes that &ould appear on the screen #ut need not #e printed in the
final te4t.
The audience applauded. They called out for their favorite features.
3sually the de!onstrator &ould say, +(es, I a! glad you as$ed, here
it is,+ and &hi7, #ang, &ave of hands, clic$ of $eys, s&ish of the !ouse,
and the screen &ould display the latest called1for feature. 8o!eti!es
the de!onstrator &ould say, +*ot yet, it &ill #e in the second release:
in a fe& !onths.+
Creeping feat.ris/ is the tendency to add to the n./8er of feat.res
that a device can do6 often extending the n./8er 8eyond all reason5
There is no &ay that a progra/ can re/ain .sa8le and .nderstanda8le
8y the ti/e it has all of those special0p.rpose feat.res5 The &ord
processor , .se on /y ho/e co/p.ter co/es &ith a !"00page reference
/an.al6 pl.s a 1'00page introd.ctory /an.al intended for first0ti/e
.sers C&ho pro8a8ly can9t .nderstand the reference /an.al .ntil they
have first read the learning /an.alD5 E=CS6 the text editor , .se on
/y .niversity co/p.ter6 co/es &ith a 2'00page /an.al6 &hich &o.ld
8e longer if yo. &eren9t ass./ed to 8e expert at /any things5
#o& can .sers cope@ #o& can .sers protect the/selves fro/ the/0
selves@ fter all6 as the story of the de/onstration ill.strates6 it is the
.sers &ho re<.est the feat.res? the designers are si/ply o8liging the/5
;.t each ne& set of feat.res adds i//eas.ra8ly to the si>e and co/0
plexity of the syste/5 =ore and /ore things have to 8e /ade invisi8le6
in violation of all the principles of design5 No constraints6 no afford0
ances? invisi8le6 ar8itrary /appings5 nd all 8eca.se the .sers have
de/anded feat.res5
Creeping feat.ris/ is a disease6 fatal if not treated pro/ptly5 There
are so/e c.res6 8.t6 as .s.al6 the 8est approach is to practice preventive
/edicine5 The pro8le/ is that the disease co/es so nat.rally6 so inno0
cently5 naly>e a tas76 and yo. see ho& it can 8e /ade easier5 Why6
adding feat.res see/s so virt.o.s6 follo&ing the very preachings of
this 8oo76 si/ply trying to /a7e life easier for everyone5 ;.t &ith extra
feat.res co/es extra co/plexity5 Each ne& feat.re adds yet another
si4: The Design hallenge .C=
control6 or display6 or 8.tton6 or instr.ction5 Co/plexity pro8a8ly
increases as the s<.are of the feat.res: do.8le the n./8er of feat.res6
<.adr.ple the co/plexity5 Provide ten ti/es as /any feat.res6 /.lti0
ply the co/plexity 8y one h.ndred5
There are t&o paths to treating feat.ris/5 One is avoidance6 or at the
least6 great restraint5 Aes6 allo& feat.res that see/ a8sol.tely neces0
sary6 8.t steel yo.rself to the rigors of doing &itho.t the rest5 Once a
device has /.ltiple f.nctions6 there is no &ay to avoid having /.ltiple
controls and operations6 /.ltiple pages of instr.ctions6 /.ltiple dif0
fic.lties and conf.sions5
The second path is organi>ation5 Organi>e6 /od.lari>e6 .se the strat0
egy of divide and con<.er5 S.ppose &e ta7e each set of feat.res and
hide the/ a&ay in separate locations6 perhaps &ith dividing 8arriers
8et&een sets5 The technical &ord is !odulari7ation. Create separate f.nc0
tional /od.les6 each &ith a li/ited set of controls6 each speciali>ed for
so/e different aspect of the tas75 The virt.e is that each separate
/od.le has li/ited properties6 li/ited feat.res5 Aet the s./ total of
feat.res in the device is .nchanged5 The proper division of a co/plex
set of controls into /od.les allo&s yo. to con<.er co/plexity Cas can
8e seen in fig.re I52D5
THE :6!%H?$$?N.
6F FAL%E ?+A.E%
The designer:and .ser:/ay f.rther 8e te/pted to &orship co/plex0
ity5 So/e of /y st.dents did a st.dy of office copying /achines5 They
discovered that the /ost expensive6 /ost feat.re0laden /achines &ere
8est sellers a/ong la& fir/s5 *id the fir/s need the extra feat.res of
the /achines@ No5 ,t t.rns o.t that they li7ed to p.t the/ in the front
offices &here clients &ere &aiting:i/pressive /achines6 &ith flashing
lights and pretty displays5 The fir/ gained an a.ra of 8eing /odern and
.p to date6 capa8le of dealing &ith the rigors of /odern high technol0
ogy5 The fact that the /achines &ere too co/plex to 8e /astered 8y
/ost of the people in the fir/s &as irrelevant: the copiers did not even
have to 8e .sed:appearance alone did the 4o85 h6 yes6 the &orship0
ping of false i/ages6 in this case6 8y the c.sto/ers5
% colleague told !e of her difficulties &ith her ho!e audioLtelevi1
sion set. It &as co!prised of separate co!ponents, each alone not too
co!ple4. >ut the co!#ination &as so over&hel!ing that she could not
11" The Design of Everyday Things
9); 6vercoming om"le'ity through 6rgani3ation) The re/ote control device
% Ca8oveD for the ;ang N Ol.fsen a.dio set Cthere are no controls on the set itselfD
serves n./ero.s feat.res and options5 The controls are /ade si/ple thro.gh
several principles5 (irst6 the 8.ttons are gro.ped into logical6 f.nctional /od.les5
Second6 the display on the re/ote gives good feed8ac7 a8o.t the operation5 Third6
infre<.ently .sed controls are hidden 8eneath a panel > C8elo&D6 &hich red.ces
the vis.al co/plexity in nor/al .se 8.t is availa8le &hen needed5
(08
use it. 6er solution &as to &or$ through each of the operations she
&ished to perfor! and &rite e4plicit instructions for herself 0figure
?..02. %nd even &ith these instructions, operation &as not easy. 6ere
the culprit clearly is the interactions a!ong co!ponents. I!agine hav1
ing to &rite several pages of instructions in order to use your o&n audio
set9
,n the case of the overly co/plex a.dioQtelevision set6 the co/po0
nents &ere fro/ different /an.fact.rers5 Nonetheless6 they &ere in0
tended to 8e p.rchased and .sed individ.ally5 , have seen e<.al co/0
plexity in co/ponents fro/ a single /an.fact.rer5 So/e salespeople
try to create the i/pression that this is ho& it has to 8e6 that anyone
&ith any technical co/petence can /anage to &or7 the devices5 No6
9)(< A $ersonal ?nstruction +anual) =y colleag.e had to &rite o.t three pages
of instr.ctions to help herself set .p any desired config.ration of her a.dioQvideo
co/ponents5 Too /any interacting parts6 too /.ch co/plexity5
.C? The Design of Everyday Things
that attit.de &on9t &or75 The e<.ip/ent is si/ply too co/plex6 the
interaction 8et&een co/ponents too over&hel/ing5 There &as noth0
ing partic.larly ela8orate a8o.t /y colleag.e9s e<.ip/ent5 This person
&as reasona8ly sophisticated in technical things:she has a Ph5*5 in
co/p.ter science:8.t &as 8affled 8y an everyday a.dio set5
One of the pro8le/s &ith a.dioQvideo e<.ip/ent is that even if
each co/ponent has 8een designed &ith care6 the interaction 8et&een
co/ponents ca.ses pro8le/s5 The t.ner6 cassette dec76 television6
-C$6 C* player6 and so on6 all see/ to 8e designed in relative isolation5
P.t the/ all together and there is chaos: an a/a>ing proliferation of
controls6 lights6 /eters6 and interconnections that can defeat even the
/ost talented5
,n this case6 the false i/age is appearance of technical sophistication5
This is the sin responsi8le for the extra co/plexity of /any of o.r
devices6 fro/ telephones and televisions to dish&ashers and &ashing
/achines6 fro/ a.to/o8ile dash8oards to a.diovis.al sets5 There is no
re/edy except thro.gh ed.cation5 Ao. /ight arg.e that this is a vic0
ti/less sin6 h.rting only those &ho practice it6 8.t this is not tr.e5
=an.fact.rers and designers prod.ce prod.cts for &hat they perceive
as their /ar7et de/ands? therefore6 if eno.gh people sin in this &ay:
and the evidence is that they do:then all the rest of .s /.st pay for
the pleas.res of a fe&5 We pay in fancy6 colorf.l0loo7ing e<.ip/ent
that is nearly i/possi8le to .se5
The (oi8les of
Co/p.ter Syste/s
No& t.rn to the co/p.ter6 an area &here all the /a4or diffic.lties of
design can 8e fo.nd in prof.sion5 ,n this real/ the .ser is seldo/
considered5 There is nothing partic.larly special a8o.t the co/p.ter?
it is a /achine6 a h./an artifact6 4.st li7e the other sorts of things &e
have loo7ed at6 and it poses fe& pro8le/s that &e haven9t enco.ntered
already5 ;.t designers of co/p.ter syste/s see/ partic.larly o8livio.s
to the needs of .sers6 partic.larly s.scepti8le to all the pitfalls of
design5 The professional design co//.nity is seldo/ called in to help
&ith co/p.ter prod.cts5 ,nstead6 design is left in the hands of engi0
neers and progra//ers6 people &ho .s.ally have no experience6 and
no expertise in designing for people5
The a8stract nat.re of the co/p.ter poses a partic.lar challenge for
the designer5 The co/p.ter &or7s electronically6 invisi8ly6 &ith no
sign of the actions it is perfor/ing5 nd it is instr.cted thro.gh an
si4: The Design hallenge .CC
a8stract lang.age6 one that specifies the internal flo& of control and
/ove/ent of infor/ation6 8.t one that is not partic.larly s.ited for the
needs of the .ser5 Speciali>ed progra//ers &or7 in these lang.ages to
instr.ct the syste/ to perfor/ its operations5 The tas7 is co/plex6 and
progra//ers /.st have a variety of s7ills and talents5 The design of
a progra/ re<.ires a co/8ination of expertise6 incl.ding technical
s7ills6 7no&ledge of the tas76 and 7no&ledge of the needs and a8ilities
of the .sers5
Progra//ers sho.ld not 8e responsi8le for the co/p.ter9s inter0
action &ith the .ser? that is not their expertise6 nor sho.ld it 8e5 =any
existing progra/s for .ser applications are too a8stract6 re<.iring ac0
tions that /a7e sense for the de/ands of the co/p.ter and to the
co/p.ter professional 8.t that are not cohesive6 sensi8le6 necessary6 or
.nderstanda8le to the everyday .ser5 To /a7e the syste/ easier to .se
and to .nderstand re<.ires a large a/o.nt of extra &or75 , sy/pathi>e
&ith the pro8le/s of the progra//er6 8.t , cannot exc.se the general
lac7 of concern for the .sers5
#OW TO *O T#,NGS W$ONG
Ever sit do&n to a typical co!puter) If so, you have encountered
+the tyranny of the #lan$ screen.+ The person sits in front of the
co!puter screen, ready to #egin. >egin &hat) 6o&) The screen is
either co!pletely #lan$ or contains noninfor!ative sy!#ols or &ords
that give no hint of &hat is e4pected. There is a type&riterli$e $ey1
#oard, #ut there is no reason to suppose that one $ey is prefera#le to
any other. %ny&ay, isn't it true that one &rong $eystro$e can #lo& up
the !achine) Or destroy valua#le data) Or accidentally get connected
to so!e top1secret data #an$ and then #e investigated #y the 8ecret
8ervice) ;ho $no&s &hat danger lur$s in the $eypress) It is al!ost
as frightening as #eing ta$en to a party filled &ith strange people, #eing
led to the center of the roo! and let go. (our host disappears, saying:
+5a$e yourself at ho!e. I'! sure there are lots of people you can tal$
to. +*ot !e. I retreat to the fringes and try to find so!ething to read.
What is the pro8le/@ Nothing special6 4.st /ore of everything5 The
special po&ers of the co/p.ter can a/plify all the .s.al pro8le/s to
ne& levels of diffic.lty5 ,f yo. set o.t to /a7e so/ething diffic.lt to
.se6 yo. co.ld pro8a8ly do no 8etter than to copy the designers of
11+ The Design of Everyday Things
/odern co/p.t er syste/s5 *o yo. &ant to do things &rong@ #ere is
&hat to do:
F =a7e things invisi8le5 Widen the G.lf of Exec.tion: give no hints
to the operations expected5 Esta8lish a G.lf of Eval.ation: give no
feed8ac76 no visi8le res.lts of the actions 4.st ta7en5 Exploit the
tyranny of the 8lan7 screen5
F ;e ar8itrary5 Co/p.ters /a7e this easy5 )se nono8vio.s co/0
/and na/es or actions5 )se ar8itrary /appings 8et&een the in0
tended action and &hat /.st act.ally 8e done5
F ;e inconsistent: change the r.les5 Het so/ething 8e done one &ay
in one /ode and another &ay in another /ode5 This is especially
effective &here it is necessary to go 8ac7 and forth 8et&een the t&o
/odes5
F =a7e operations .nintelligi8le5 )se idiosyncratic lang.age or a80
8reviations5 )se .ninfor/ative error /essages5
F ;e i/polite5 Treat erroneo.s actions 8y the .ser as 8reaches of
contract5 Snarl5 ,ns.lt5 =./8le .nintelligi8le ver8iage5
F =a7e operations dangero.s5 llo& a single erroneo.s action to
destroy inval.a8le &or75 =a7e it easy to do disastro.s things5 ;.t
p.t &arnings in the /an.al? then6 &hen people co/plain6 yo. can
as76 3;.t didn9 t yo. read the /an.al@3
This list is getting depressing6 so let .s t .rn to t he good side5 The
co/p.ter has vast potential 6 /ore t han eno.gh to overco/e all its
pro8le/s5 ;eca.se it has .nli/i ted po&er6 8eca.se it can accept al/ost
any 7i nd of control6 and 8eca.se it can create al/ost any 7i nd of pict.re
or so.nd6 it has t he potential to 8ridge the g.lfs6 to /a7e life easier5
,f designed properly6 syste/s can 8e tailored for Cand 8yD each of .s5
;.t &e /.st insist t hat t he co/p.ter developers &or7 for .s:not for
the technology6 not for the/selves5 Progra/s and syste/s do exist t hat
have sho&n .s t he potential? they t a7e t he .ser into acco.nt6 and they
/a7e it easier for .s to do o.r tas7s:pleas.ra8le6 even5 This is ho&
it o.ght to 8e5 Co/p.t ers have t he po&er not only to /a7e everyday
tas7s easier6 8.t to /a7e t he/ en4oya8le as &ell5
,T9S N6T T66 LATE T6 D6 TH?N.% !?.HT
Co/p.t er technology is still yo.ng6 still exploring its potential5 The
notion lingers t hat if yo. have not passed t he secret rites of initiation
si4: The Design hallenge .79
into progra//ing s7ills6 yo. sho.ld not 8e allo&ed into the society of
co/p.ter .sers5 ,t is li7e the early days of the a.to/o8ile: only the
8rave6 the advent.ro.s6 and the /echanically sophisticated need apply5
Co/p.ter scientists have so far &or7ed on developing po&erf.l
progra//ing lang.ages that /a7e it possi8le to solve the technical
pro8le/s of co/p.tation5 Hittle effort has gone to&ard devising the
lang.ages of interaction5 Every st.dent progra//er ta7es co.rses on
the co/p.tational aspect of co/p.ters5 ;.t there are very fe& co.rses
on the pro8le/s faced 8y the .ser? s.ch co.rses are .s.ally not re0
<.ired6 and they are not easy to fit into the already cro&ded sched.le
of the fledgling co/p.ter scientist5 s a res.lt6 /ost progra//ers
fl.ently &rite co/p.ter progra/s that do &onderf.l things 8.t that are
.n.sa8le 8y the non0professional5 =ost progra//ers have never
tho.ght of the pro8le/s faced 8y the .sers5 They are s.rprised to
discover that their creations tyranni>e the .ser5 There is no longer any
exc.se for this5 ,t is not that diffic.lt to develop progra/s that /a7e
visi8le their actions6 that allo& the .ser to see &hat is going on6 that
/a7e the set of possi8le actions visi8le6 that display the c.rrent state
of the syste/ in a /eaningf.l and clear &ay5
1+
Het /e give so/e exa/ples of excellent &or76 syste/s that do ta7e
into acco.nt the needs of the .ser5 (irst6 there is the spreadsheet6 an
acco.nting progra/ that has changed the face of office 8oo77eeping5
The first spreadsheet progra/6 -isicalc6 &as so i/pressive that people
8o.ght co/p.ters 4.st so they co.ld .se this one progra/5 That is a
strong arg./ent for its .sa8ility5 Spreadsheets have their pro8le/s?
8.t on the &hole6 they allo& people to &or7 &ith n./8ers in a conve0
nient &ay6 &ith i//ediately visi8le res.lts5
What did people li7e a8o.t the spreadsheet@ The &ay it loo7ed5 Ao.
didn9t see/ to 8e .sing a co/p.ter:yo. &ere &or7ing on yo.r pro80
le/5 Ao. organi>ed the pro8le/ 4.st the &ay yo. al&ays &o.ld6 except
no& it &as easy to /a7e changes6 easy to see the res.lts5 Change one
n./8er and everything that depended on that n./8er changed along
&ith it6 in 4.st the proper &ay5 What a painless &ay to do 8.dget
pro4ections5 ll the 8enefits of the co/p.ter6 &itho.t the technical
i/pedi/ents5 ,n fact6 the 8est co/p.ter progra/s are the ones in &hich
the co/p.ter itself 3disappears63 in &hich yo. &or7 directly on the
pro8le/ &itho.t having to 8e a&are of the co/p.ter5
%ctually, Hisicalc had nu!erous pro#le!s. The concept &as #ril1
liant, #ut the e4ecution &as fla&ed. I'! not co!plaining a#out the
1+0 The Design of Everyday Things
designers, for they &ere li!ited #y the po&er of an earlier generation
of personal co!puters. Today's personal co!puters are !uch !ore
po&erful, and the spreadsheet progra!s are !uch easier to use. >ut the
progra! esta#lished the !odel: it felt as if you &ere &or$ing directly
on the pro#le!, not on a co!puter.
,t is not easy to develop effective and .sa8le co/p.ter syste/s5 (or
one thing6 it is expensive5 Consider the principles descri8ed in this
8oo7: visi8ility6 constraints6 affordances6 nat.ral /appings6 feed8ac75
pplied to co/p.ter syste/s6 these /ean that6 a/ong other things6 the
co/p.ter /.st 8e capa8le of /a7ing things visi8le Cor a.di8leD6 &hich
re<.ires large and high <.ality vis.al displays6 a variety of inp.t de0
vices6 and plenty of co/p.ter /e/ory5 These re<.ire faster6 /ore
po&erf.l co/p.ter circ.its5 nd all this adds .p to /ore expensive
syste/s: /ore cost to /an.fact.re6 /ost cost to the cons./er5 ,t /ay
not 8e i//ediately clear that the everyday .sers of co/p.ter syste/s
are the ones &ho re<.ire the /ost po&erf.l syste/s6 &ith the /ost
/e/ory and the 8est displays5 Professional progra//ers can get 8y
&ith less6 for they 7no& ho& to deal &ith /ore co/plex interactions
and less effective displays5
The first proper atte/pt to 8.ild an effective syste/ &as not a
co//ercial s.ccess5 This &as the Oerox Star6 a 8rainchild of the Oerox
Corporation9s Palo lto $esearch Center5 The developers recogni>ed
the i/portance of large6 highly detailed display screens &ith plenty of
graphics? they gave the /achine the a8ility to have several different
doc./ents on the screen at the sa/e ti/e? and they introd.ced a
pointing device:in this case6 the 3/o.se3:for the .ser to specify a
&or7 area on the screen5 The Oerox Star co/p.ter &as a 8rea7thro.gh
in .sa8le design5
12
;.t the syste/ &as too expensive and too slo&5
)sers li7ed the po&er and the ease of operation6 8.t they needed 8etter
perfor/ance5 The 8enefits of easy to .se co//ands &ere co/pletely
o.t&eighed 8y the slo& response speed5 The display co.ld not al&ays
7eep .p &ith typing6 and re<.ests for explanation Cthe 3help3 syste/D
so/eti/es too7 so long that a .ser co.ld go for a c.p of coffee &hile
&aiting for an ans&er to even the si/plest <.estion5 Oerox sho&ed the
&ay 8.t s.ffered a co//on fate of pioneers: the spirit &as &illing 8.t
the i/ple/entation &ea75
"ortunately for the consu!er, the %pple o!puter o!pany has
follo&ed through on Rero4's ideas, using the philosophy developed for
si4: The Design hallenge 1+1
the Rero4 8tar 0and hiring a&ay so!e of Rero4's people2 to produce
first the %pple <isa 0also too slo& and e4pensive and a failure in the
!ar$etplace2 and then the 5acintosh, a success story.
The approach follo&ed #y Rero4 has #een &ell docu!ented.
20
The
!a/or goal &as consistency of operations, to !a$e things visi#le so that
the availa#le options could al&ays #e deter!ined, and to test each idea
&ith users at every step of the develop!ent process. These are all the
i!portant characteristics of good syste! design.
pple9s =acintosh co/p.ter /a7es extensive .se of vis.al displays5
These eli/inate the 8lan7 screen: the .ser can see &hat alternative
actions are possi8le5 The co/p.ter also /a7es the actions relatively
easy to do6 and it standardi>es proced.res so that /ethods learned
for one progra/ apply to /ost other progra/s5 There is good feed0
8ac75 =any actions are done 8y /oving a /o.se:a s/all6 hand0held
pointing device that ca.ses a /ar7er to /ove to the appropriate loca0
tion on the screen5 The /o.se provides good /apping of action to
res.lt6 and the .se of /en.s:choices spelled o.t on the screen:/a7es
the operations easy to perfor/5 The G.lf of Exec.tion and the G.lf of
Eval.ation are 8oth sec.rely 8ridged5
The 5acintosh fails #adly at !any things, especially those for &hich
it uses o#scure co!#inations of $eypresses to acco!plish so!e tas$.
5any of the pro#le!s arise fro! the use of the !ouse. The !ouse has
one #utton, &hich si!plifies its use #ut !eans that so!e actions !ust
#e specified #y clic$ing the #utton several ti!es or #y si!ultaneously
holding do&n various co!#inations of $eys on the $ey#oard and clic$1
ing the !ouse #utton. These actions violate the #asic design philoso1
phy. They are difficult to learn, difficult to re!e!#er, and difficult to
do.
%h, the #uttons1on1the1!ouse pro#le!. 6o& !any #uttons should
the !ouse have) Harious !odels use one, t&o, or three, three #eing the
!ost co!!on nu!#er. %ctually, so!e !ice have !ore #uttonsD one
design even has a chord $ey#oard on it. "ierce argu!ents rage over the
correct nu!#er. The ans&er, of course, is that there is no correct an1
s&er. It is a tradeoff. Increase the nu!#er of #uttons and you si!plify
so!e operations, #ut you also increase the co!ple4ity of the !apping
pro#le!. Even t&o #uttons lead to an inconsistent !apping of func1
tions to #uttons. Eeduce to one #utton and the !apping pro#le! goes
a&ay, #ut so, too, does so!e of the functionality.
1+2 The Design of Everyday Things
The =aci nt osh provides an exa/pl e of &hat co/p.ter syste/s
co.ld 8e li7e5 The design e/phasi>es visi8ility and feed8ac75 ,ts
3h./an interface g.ideli nes3 and its internal 3t ool 8ox3 provide st an0
dards for t he /any progra//ers &ho design for it5 ,t has e/phasi>ed
consideration for t he .ser5 Aes6 there are several serio.s dra&8ac7s to
the =acintosh: it is far fro/ perfect5 nd it isn9 t .ni <.e5 Still6 for its
relative s.ccess in /a7i ng .sa8ility and .nderst andi ng i nto pri/ary
design o84ectives6 ,9d give t he pple =acint osh a pri>e5 ,f only ,
tho.ght /ore of pri>es5
6+$7TE! A% HA+ELE6N
The co/p.ter is .n.s.al a/ong /achines in t hat its shape6 for/6 and
appearance are not fixed: t hey can 8e anyt hi ng t he designer &ishes
the/ to 8e5 The co/p.ter can 8e li7e a cha/eleon6 changing shape and
o.t&ard appearance to /atch the sit.ation5 The operations of t he
co/p.ter can 8e soft6 8eing done in appearance rather t han s.8stance5
nd the appearance can 8e reversed &i t h a change of /i nd 8y t he .ser5
s .sers6 &e can create explora8le syste/s that can 8e learned thro.gh
experi/entation6 &i t ho.t fear of fail.re or da/age5 (.rther/ore6 the
co/p.ter can ta7e on t he appearance of t he tas7? it can disappear
8ehind a facade Cits syste/ i/ageD5
EA$L6!ABLE %@%TE+%: ?NF?T?N. EA$E!?+ENTAT?6N
One i/portant /et hod of /a7ing syste/s easier to learn and to .se is
to /a7e the/ explora8le6 to enco.rage t he .ser to experi/ent and learn
the possi8ilities t hro.gh active exploration5 This is ho& /any people
learn a8o.t ho/e appliances6 or a8o.t a ne& stereo syste/6 television
set6 or video ga/e5 Wor 7 t he 8.t t ons &hile listening and loo7ing to see
&hat happens5 The sa/e can 8e tr.e &i t h co/p.ter syste/s5 There are
three re<.ire/ents for a syste/ to 8e explora8le5
15 ,n each state of the syste/6 the .ser /.st readily see and 8e a8le
to do the allo&a8le actions5 The visi8ility acts as a s.ggestion6 re0
/inding the .ser of possi8ilities and inviting the exploration of ne&
ideas and /ethods5
25 The effect of each action /.st 8e 8oth visi8le and easy to inter0
pret5 This property allo&s .sers to learn the effects of each action6 to
si4: The Design hallenge 1+!
develop a good /ental /odel of the syste/6 and to learn the ca.sal
relationships 8et&een actions and o.tco/es5 The syste/ i/age plays
a critical role in /a7ing s.ch learning possi8le5
!5 ctions sho.ld 8e &itho.t cost5 When an action has an .ndesir0
a8le res.lt6 it /.st 8e readily reversi8le5 This is especially i/portant
&ith co/p.ter syste/s5 ,n the case of an irreversi8le action6 the
syste/ sho.ld /a7e clear &hat effect the conte/plated action &ill
have prior to its exec.tion? there sho.ld 8e eno.gh ti/e to cancel the
plan5 Or the action sho.ld 8e diffic.lt to do6 nonexplora8le5 =ost
actions sho.ld 8e cost0free6 explora8le6 discovera8le5
T:6 +6DE% 6F 6+$7TE! 7%A.E
Co/pare t &o different &ays of getting a tas7 done5 One &ay is to iss.e
co//ands to so/eone else &ho does t he act.al &or7: call this 3co/0
/and /ode3 or 3t hi rd0 person3 interaction5 The other &ay i s t o do t he
operations yo.rself: call this 3direct /anip.lati on /ode3 or 3first0
person3 interaction5 The difference 8et &een these t &o is li7e t he dif0
ference 8et &een 8eing driven 8y a cha.ffe.r and driving an a.to/o8il e
yo.rself5 These t &o different /odes exist &i t h co/p.ters5
21
=ost co/p.ter syste/s offer co//and /ode6 t hi rd0person inter0
actions5 To .se the co/p.ter6 yo. t ype co//ands to it6 .si ng a special
3co//and l ang.age3 that yo. have to learn5 So/e co/p.t er syste/s
offer direct /anip.lation6 first0person interactions6 good exa/ples
8eing t he driving6 flying6 and sports ga/es t hat are co//onplace in
arcades and on ho/e /achines5 ,n these ga/es6 t he feeling of direct
control over the actions is an essential part of t he tas75 This feeling of
directness is also possi8le &i t h everyday co/p.t er tas7s6 s.ch as &ri t 0
ing or 8oo77eeping5 Spreadsheet progra/s and /any text editors and
&ord processing progra/s are good exa/ples of direct /ani p.l ation
syste/s .sed in 8.siness5
;oth for/s of interaction are needed5 Thi rd0person interaction is
&ell s.ited for sit.ations in &hi ch the 4o8 is la8orio.s or repetitive6 as
&ell as those in &hich yo. can tr.st t he syste/ Cor other personD to do
t he 4o8 for yo. properly5 So/eti/es it is nice to have a cha.ffe.r5 ;.t
if t he 4o8 is critical6 novel6 or ill0specified6 or if yo. do not yet 7no&
exactly &hat is to 8e done6 t hen yo. need direct6 first0person i nt er0
action5 No& direct control is essential? an inter/ediary gets in t he &ay5
;.t direct /anip.lation6 first0person syste/s have their dra&8ac7s5
l t ho.gh t hey are often easy to .se6 f.n6 and entertaining6 it is often
1+" The Design of Everyday Things
diffic.lt to do a really good 4o8 &ith the/5 They re<.ire the .ser to do
the tas7 directly6 and the .ser /ay not 8e very good at it5 Colored
pencils and /.sical instr./ents are good exa/ples of direct /anip.la0
tion syste/s5 ;.t ,6 for one6 a/ not a good artist or /.sician5 When
, &ant good art or good /.sic6 , need professional assistance5 So6 too6
&ith /any direct /anip.lation co/p.ter syste/s5 , find that , often
need first0person syste/s for &hich there is a 8ac7.p inter/ediary6
ready to ta7e over &hen as7ed6 availa8le for advice &hen needed5
When , .se a direct /anip.lation syste/:&hether for text editing6
dra&ing pict.res6 or creating and playing ga/es:, do thin7 of /yself
not as .sing a co/p.ter 8.t as doing the partic.lar tas75 The co/p.ter
is6 in effect6 invisi8le5 The point cannot 8e overstressed: /a7e the
co/p.ter syste/ invisi8le5 This principle can 8e applied &ith any for/
of syste/ interaction6 direct or indirect5
THE ?NF?%?BLE 6+$7TE! 6F THE F7T7!E
Consider &hat the co/p.ter of the f.t.re /ight loo7 li7e5 S.ppose ,
told yo. it &o.ldn9t even 8e visi8le6 that yo. &o.ldn9t even 7no& yo.
&ere .sing one@ What do , /ean@ Well6 this is already tr.e: yo. .se
co/p.ters &hen yo. .se /any /odern a.to/o8iles6 /icro&ave
ovens6 and ga/es5 Or C* players and calc.lators5 Ao. don9t notice the
co/p.ter 8eca.se yo. thin7 of yo.rself as doing the tas76 not as .sing
the co/p.ter5
22
,n the sa/e sense6 yo. don9t go to the 7itchen to .se an electric
/otor? yo. go to .se the refrigerator6 or the 8lender6 or the dish&asher5
The /otors are part of the tas76 even in the case of the 8lender6 /ixer6
or food processor6 &hich are essentially p.re /otors and the speciali>ed
attach/ents they drive5
The co!puter of the future is perhaps #est illustrated #y !y i!agi1
nary perfect calendar. 8uppose I a! ho!e one evening, deciding
&hether to accept an invitation to attend a conference ne4t 5ay. I pic$
up !y appoint!ent calendar and turn to the appropriate page. I tenta1
tively decide that I can attend and pencil in the topic. The calendar
flashes at !e and displays a note re!inding !e that the university &ill
still #e in session during that period and that the trip overlaps !y &ife's
#irthday. I decide that the conference is i!portant, so I !a$e a note to
chec$ &hether I can get so!eone to ta$e over !y classes and to see
&hether I can leave the conference early for the #irthday. I close the
si4: The Design hallenge 1+'
calendar and get #ac$ to other things. The ne4t day, &hen I arrive at
!y office I find t&o notes on !y !essage screen: one to find a su#sti1
tute for !y classes ne4t 5ay, the other to chec$ &ith the conference
organi7ers to see if I can leave early.
This i!aginary calendar loo$s li$e a calendar. It's a#out the si7e of
a standard pad of paper, it opens up to display dates. >ut it really is
a co!puter, so it can do things that today's appoint!ent calendar
cannot. It can, for e4a!ple, present its infor!ation in different for!ats:
it can display the pages co!pressed so that a &hole year fits on one
pageD it can e4pand the display so that I see a single day in thirty1
!inute intervals. >ecause I fre-uently use !y calendar in con/unction
&ith !y travels, the calendar is also an address #oo$, notepad, and
e4pense account record. 5ost i!portant, it can also connect itself to !y
other syste!s 0via a &ireless infrared or electro!agnetic channel2.
Thus, &hatever I enter into the calendar gets trans!itted to !y office
and ho!e syste!s so that they are al&ays in synchrony. If I !a$e an
appoint!ent or change so!eone's address or telephone nu!#er on one
syste!, the others get told. ;hen I finish a trip, the e4pense record can
#e transferred to the e4pense account for!. The co!puter is invisi#le,
hidden #eneath the surfaceD only the tas$ is visi#le. %lthough I !ay
actually #e using a co!puter, I feel as if I a! using !y appoint!ent
calendar.
1+I The Design of Everyday Things
)SE$0CENTE$E*
*ES, GN
OFF THE LEASH B/ W:B: $+5;
GDarn these hoo0esF I hit the ron+ sitch a+ainF 4ho
)esi+ns these instr'ment -anels, raccoons>G
(B0
The point of POET is to advocate a .ser0centered design6 a phi loso0
phy 8ased on the needs and interests of t he .ser6 &i t h an e/phasis on
/a7ing prod.cts .sa8le and .nderst anda8l e5 ,n this chapter , s.//a0
ri>e t he /ai n principles6 disc.ss so/e i/plications6 and offer s.gges0
tions for t he design of everyday things5
*esign sho.ld:
F =a7e it easy to deter/ine &hat actions are possi8le at any /o/ent
C/a7e .se of constraintsD5
F =a7e things visi8le6 incl.ding the concept.al /odel of the syste/6
the alternative actions6 and the res.lts of actions5
F =a7e it easy to eval.ate the c.rrent state of the syste/5
F (ollo& nat.ral /appings 8et&een intentions and the re<.ired ac0
tions? 8et&een actions and the res.lting effect? and 8et&een the
infor/ation that is visi8le and the interpretation of the syste/ state5
,n other &ords6 /a7e s.re t hat C1D t he .ser can fig.re o.t &hat to do6
and C2D the .ser can tell &hat is going on5
*esign sho.ld /a7e .se of the nat .ral properties of people and of
t he &orld: it sho.ld exploit nat.ral relationships and nat.ral con0
straints5 s /.ch as possi8le6 it sho.l d operate &i t ho.t instr.ctions or
la8els5 ny necessary instr.ction or training sho.ld 8e needed only
once? &i t h each explanation t he person sho.l d 8e a8le to say6 3Of
co.rse63 or 3Aes6 , see53 si/ple explanation &ill s.ffice if t here is
reason to t he design6 if everything has its place and its f.nction6 and
if t he o.tco/es of actions are visi8le5 ,f t he explanation leads t he
person to t hi n7 or say6 3#o& a/ , going to re/e/8er t hat @3 t he design
has failed5
Seven Principles for
Transfor/ing *iffic.lt Tas7s
into Si/ple Ones
#o& does t he designer go a8o.t t he tas7@ s ,9ve arg.ed in POET6 the
principles of design are straightfor&ard5
15 )se 8oth 7no&ledge in the &orld and 7no&ledge in the head5
25 Si/plify the str.ct.re of tas7s5
!5 =a7e things visi8le: 8ridge the g.lfs of Exec.tion and Eval.ation5
"5 Get the /appings right5
1++ The Design of Everyday Things
'5 Exploit the po&er of constraints6 8oth nat.ral and artificial5
I5 *esign for error5
15 When all else fails6 standardi>e5
)SE ;OT# %NOWHE*GE
,N T#E WO$H* N* %NOWHE*GE ,N T#E #E*
, have arg.ed that people learn 8etter and feel /ore co/forta8le &hen
the 7no&ledge re<.ired for a tas7 is availa8le externally:either expli0
cit in the &orld or readily derived thro.gh constraints5 ;.t 7no&ledge
in the &orld is .sef.l only if there is a nat.ral6 easily interpreted
relationship 8et&een that 7no&ledge and the infor/ation it is intended
to convey a8o.t possi8le actions and o.tco/es5
Note6 ho&ever6 that &hen a .ser is a8le to internali>e the re<.ired
7no&ledge:that is6 to get it into the head:perfor/ance can 8e faster
and /ore efficient5 Therefore6 the design sho.ld not i/pede action6
especially for those &ell0practiced6 experienced .sers &ho have inter0
nali>ed the 7no&ledge5 ,t sho.ld 8e easy to go 8ac7 and forth6 to
co/8ine the 7no&ledge in the head &ith that in the &orld5 Het &hich0
ever is /ore readily availa8le at the /o/ent 8e .sed &itho.t interfer0
ing &ith the other6 and allo& for /.t.al s.pport5
TH!EE 6NE$T7AL +6DEL%
The operation of any device:&hether it 8e a can opener6 a po&er
generating plant6 or a co/p.ter syste/:is learned /ore readily6 and
the pro8le/s are trac7ed do&n /ore acc.rately and easily6 if the .ser
has a good concept.al /odel5 This re<.ires that the principles of opera0
tion 8e o8serva8le6 that all actions 8e consistent &ith the concept.al
/odel6 and that the visi8le parts of the device reflect the c.rrent state
of the device in a &ay consistent &ith that /odel5 The designer /.st
develop a concept.al /odel that is appropriate for the .ser6 that cap0
t.res the i/portant parts of the operation of the device6 and that is
.nderstanda8le 8y the .ser5
Three different aspects of /ental /odels /.st 8e disting.ished: the
design !odel, the user's !odel, and the syste! i!age Cfig.re 151D5 The design
/odel is the concept.ali>ation that the designer has in /ind5 The .ser9s
/odel is &hat the .ser develops to explain the operation of the syste/5
,deally6 the .ser9s /odel and the design /odel are e<.ivalent5 #o&0
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 1+2
151 Three spects of =ental =odels5
The design /odel6 the .ser9s /odel6 and
the syste/ i/age5 C(ro/ Nor/an6 12+I5D
120 The Design of Everyday Things
ever6 the .ser and designer co//.nicate only thro.gh the syste/
itself: its physical appearance6 its operation6 the &ay it responds6 and
the /an.als and instr.ctions that acco/pany it5 Th.s the syste! i!age
is critical: the designer /.st ens.re that everything a8o.t the prod.ct
is consistent &ith and exe/plifies the operation of the proper concep0
t.al /odel5
ll three aspects are i/portant5 The .ser9s /odel is essential6 of
co.rse6 for that deter/ines &hat is .nderstood5 ,n t.rn6 it is .p to the
designer to start &ith a design /odel that is f.nctional6 learna8le6 and
.sa8le5 The designer /.st ens.re that the syste/ reveals the appropri0
ate syste/ i/age5 Only then can the .ser ac<.ire the proper .ser9s
/odel and find s.pport for the translation of intentions into actions
and syste/ state into interpretations5 $e/e/8er6 the .ser ac<.ires all
7no&ledge of the syste/ fro/ that syste/ i/age5
THE !6LE 6F +AN7AL%
The syste/ i/age incl.des instr.ction /an.als and doc./entation5
5anuals tend to #e less helpful than they should #e. They are often
&ritten hastily, after the product is designed, under severe ti!e pres1
sures and &ith insufficient resources, and #y people &ho are over1
&or$ed and underappreciated. In the #est of &orlds, the !anuals
&ould #e &ritten first, then the design &ould follo& the !anual. ;hile
the product &as #eing designed, potential users could si!ultaneously
DE8II*
5ODE<
DESIGNER
S$STE%
8(8TE5
I5%IE
USER
38EE'8
5ODE<
test the !anuals and !oc$1ups of the syste!, giving i!portant design
feed#ac$ a#out #oth.
%las, even the #est !anuals cannot #e counted onD !any users do
not read the!. O#viously it is &rong to e4pect to operate co!ple4
devices &ithout instruction of so!e sort, #ut the designers of co!ple4
devices have to deal &ith hu!an nature as it is.
S,=PH,(A T#E ST$)CT)$E O( TS%S
Tas7s sho.ld 8e si/ple in str.ct.re6 /ini/i>ing t he a/o.nt of pl an0
ning or pro8le/ solving t hey re<.ire5 )nnecessarily co/plex tas7s can
8e restr.ct.red6 .s.ally 8y .sing technological i nnovati ons5
#ere is &here t he designer /.st pay attention to t he psychology of
the person6 to t he li/its on ho& /.ch a person can hold in /e/ory
at one ti/e6 to the li/its on ho& /any active t ho.ght s can 8e p.rs.ed
at once5 These are t he li/itations of short 0t er/ and l ong0t er/ /e/ory
and of attenti on5 The li/itations of short 0t er/ /e/ory CST=D are s.ch
that a person sho.ld not 8e re<.ired to re/e/8er /ore t han a8o.t five
.nrelated ite/s at one ti/e5 ,f necessary6 t he syste/ sho.ld provide
technological assistance for any te/porary /e/ory re<.ire/ent s5 The
li/itations of l ong0t er/ /e/ory CHT=D /ean that infor/ation is 8et 0
ter and /ore easily ac<.ired if it /a7es sense6 if it can 8e integrated
into so/e concept.al fra/e&or75 =oreover6 retrieval fro/ HT= is apt
to 8e slo& and to contai n errors5 #ere is &here infor/ation in t he &orld
is i /port ant 6 to re/ind .s of &hat can 8e done and ho& to do it5
Hi/itations on attention are also severe? t he syst e/ sho.ld help 8y
/ini/i>ing interr.pti on6 8y providing aids to allo& for recovery of t he
exact stat.s of t he operations that &ere int err.pted5
/a4or role of ne& technology sho.ld 8e to /a7e tas7s si/pler5
tas7 can 8e restr.ct.red t hro.gh technology6 or technology /i ght pr o0
vide aids to red.ce t he /ent al load5 Technological aids can sho& t he
alternative co.rses of action? help eval.ate i/plications? and port ray
o.tco/es in a /ore co/plete6 /ore easily interpreta8le /anner5 These
aids can /a7e the /appi ngs /ore visi8le or6 8etter6 /a7e t he /appings
/ore nat.ral5 (o.r /a4or technological approaches can 8e follo&ed:
F %eep the tas7 /.ch the sa/e6 8.t provide /ental aids5
F )se technology to /a7e visi8le &hat &o.ld other&ise 8e invisi8le6
th.s i/proving feed8ac7 and the a8ility to 7eep control5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 121
F .to/ate6 8.t 7eep the tas7 /.ch the sa/e5
F Change the nat.re of the tas75
Het .s loo7 separately at each of these possi8ilities5
EEE$ THE TA%E +7H THE %A+ED
B7T $!6F?DE +ENTAL A?D%
*on9t .nderesti/ate the po&er or i/portance of si/ple /ental aids5
Consider6 for exa/ple6 the val.e of si/ple6 everyday notes to o.r0
selves5 Witho.t the/6 &e /ight fail5 Or si/ple notepads for telephone
n./8ers6 na/es6 addresses:for the facts that are essential to everyday
f.nctioning6 8.t that &e cannot tr.st o.r o&n /e/ory str.ct.res to
provide5 So/e /ental aids are also technological advances? these in0
cl.de &atches6 ti/ers6 calc.lators6 poc7et dictating /achines6 co/p.ter
notepads6 and co/p.ter alar/s5 So/e aids are still to co/e: the poc7et
co/p.ter &ith a po&erf.l display6 &hich &ill 7eep o.r notes6 re/ind
.s of o.r appoint/ents6 and s/ooth o.r passage thro.gh the sched.les
and interactions of life5
7%E TEHN6L6.@ T6 +AEE F?%?BLE :HAT :67LD 6THE!:?%E BE
?NF?%?BLED TH7% ?+$!6F?N. FEEDBAE AND THE AB?L?T@ T6 EEE$
6NT!6L
The instr./ents in the a.to/o8ile or aircraft do not change the tas76
8.t they do /a7e visi8le the state of the engine and the other parts of
the vehicle6 even tho.gh yo. cannot physically get access to the/5
Si/ilarly6 the /icroscope and telescope6 television set6 ca/era6 /icro0
phone6 and lo.dspea7er all provide &ays of getting infor/ation a8o.t
a re/ote o84ect6 /a7ing visi8le Cor a.di8leD &hat is happening6 /a7ing
possi8le tas7s and p.rs.its that &o.ld other&ise not 8e possi8le5 With
/odern co/p.ters and their po&erf.l graphic displays6 &e no& have
the po&er to sho& &hat is really happening6 to provide a good6 co/0
plete i/age that /atches the person9s /ental /odel of the tas7:
there8y si/plifying 8oth .nderstanding and perfor/ance5 Today6
co/p.ter graphics are .sed /ore for sho& than for legiti/ate p.r0
poses5 Their po&ers are &asted5 ;.t there exists great potential to /a7e
visi8le &hat sho.ld 8e visi8le Cand to 7eep hidden &hat is irrelevantD5
These first t&o approaches to !ental aids $eep the !ain tas$s un1
changed. They act as re!inders. They reduce !e!ory load #y provid1
122 The Design of Everyday Things
ing e4ternal !e!ory devices 0providing $no&ledge in the &orld rather
than re-uiring it to #e in the head2. They supple!ent our perceptual
a#ilities. 8o!eti!es they enhance hu!an s$ills sufficiently so that a
/o# that &as not possi#le #efore, or &as possi#le only for the !ost
highly s$illed perfor!ers, #eco!es availa#le to !any.
Don't these so1called advances also cause us to lose valua#le !ental
s$ills) Each technological advance that provides a !ental aid also
#rings along critics &ho decry the loss of the hu!an s$ill that has #een
!ade less valua#le. "ine, I say: if the s$ill is easily auto!ated, it &asn't
essential.
I prefer to re!e!#er things #y &riting the! on a pad of paper rather
than spending hours of study on the art of !e!ory. I prefer using a
poc$et calculator to spending hours of pencil pushing and grinding,
usually only to !a$e an arith!etic !ista$e and not discover it until
after the har! has #een done. I prefer prerecorded !usic to no !usic,
even if I ris$ #eco!ing co!placent a#out the po&er and #eauty of the
rare perfor!ance. %nd I prefer &riting on a te4t editor or &ord proces1
sor so that I can concentrate on the ideas and the style, not on !a$ing
!ar$s on the paper. Then I can go #ac$ later and correct ideas, redo the
gra!!ar. %nd &ith the aid of !y all1i!portant spelling correction
progra!, I can #e confident of !y presentation.
Do I fear that I &ill lose !y a#ility to spell as a result of overreliance
on this technological crutch) ;hat a#ility) %ctually, !y spelling is
i!proving through the use of this spelling corrector that continually
points out !y errors and suggests the correction, #ut &on't !a$e a
change unless I approve. It is certainly a lot !ore patient than !y
teachers used to #e. %nd it is al&ays there &hen I need it, day or night.
8o I get continual feed#ac$ a#out !y errors, plus useful advice. 5y
typing does see! to #e deteriorating #ecause I can no& type even !ore
sloppily, confident that !y !ista$es &ill #e detected and corrected.
In general, I &elco!e any technological advance that reduces !y
need for !ental &or$ #ut still gives !e the control and en/oy!ent of
the tas$. That &ay lean e4ert !y !ental efforts on the core of the tas$,
the thing to #e re!e!#ered, the purpose of the arith!etic or the !usic.
I &ant to use !y !ental po&ers for the i!portant things, not fritter
the! a&ay on the !echanics.
A7T6+ATED B7T EEE$ THE TA%E +7H THE %A+E
There are dangers in si/plification: .nless &e are caref.l6 the a.to0
/ation can har/ as &ell as help5 Consider one i/pact of a.to/ation5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 12!
s 8efore6 the tas7 &ill stay essentially the sa/e6 8.t parts of it &ill
disappear5 ,n so/e cases the change is confir/ed as a .niversal 8less0
ing5 , don9t 7no& of anyone &ho /isses the a.to/atic spar7 advance
in a.to/o8iles or cran7ing the engine to get it started5 B.st a fe&
people /iss having /an.al control over the a.to/o8ile cho7e5 On
the &hole6 this type of a.to/ation has res.lted in .sef.l advances6
replacing tedio.s or .nnecessary tas7s and red.cing &hat /.st 8e
/onitored5 The a.to/atic controls and instr./ents of ships and air0
craft have 8een great i/prove/ents5 So/e a.to/ation is /ore pro80
le/atic5 .to/atic shift on a car: *o &e lose so/e control6 or does it
help lighten the /ental 8.rden of driving@ fter all6 &e drive to get
to a destination6 so the need to /onitor engine speed and gearshift
position &o.ld see/ <.ite irrelevant5 ;.t so/e people ta7e pleas.re
in perfor/ing the tas7 itself? for the/6 part of driving is .sing the
engine &ell6 8elieving that they can operate /ore efficiently than can
the a.to/atic device5
What a8o.t the a.to/atic pilot of an aircraft6 or the a.to/atic
navigation syste/s that have eli/inated the sextant and lengthy co/0
p.tations@ Or &hat a8o.t fro>en6 precoo7ed /eals@ *o the changes
destroy the essence of the tas7@ #ere there9s /ore de8ate5 ,n the 8est
of &orlds &e &o.ld 8e a8le to choose a.to/ation or f.ll control5
HAN.E THE NAT7!E 6F THE TA%E
When a tas7 see/s inherently co/plex 8eca.se of the /an.al s7ill
re<.ired6 certain technological aids can dra/atically change &hich type
of s7ill is re<.ired 8y restr.ct.ring the tas75 ,n general6 technology can
help transfor/ deep6 &ide str.ct.res into narro&er6 shallo&er ones5
Tying a shoelace is one of the standard6 everyday tas7s that is act.0
ally <.ite diffic.lt to learn5 d.lts /ay have forgotten ho& long it too7
the/ to learn C8.t they &ill 8e re/inded if their fingers stiffen &ith
in4.ry6 age6 or diseaseD5 The introd.ction of ne& fastening /aterials:
for exa/ple6 -elcro hoo70and0loop fasteners:has eli/inated the need
for a co/plex se<.ence of s7illed /otor actions 8y changing the tas7
to one that is considera8ly si/pler6 one that re<.ires less s7ill5 The tas7
has 8eco/e possi8le for 8oth yo.ng children and infir/ ad.lts5 The
exa/ple of shoelaces /ay see/ trivial6 8.t it isn9t? li7e /any everyday
activities6 it is diffic.lt for a large seg/ent of the pop.lation and its
diffic.lties can 8e overco/e thro.gh the restr.ct.ring provided 8y a
si/ple technology5
12" The Design of Everyday Things
The hoo$1and1loop fasteners provide another e4a!ple of design
tradeoffs 0figure C.22. 6oo$1and1loop fasteners dra!atically si!plify
shoe fastening for the young and infir!. >ut they add to the pro#le!s
of parents and teachers, for children delight in fastening and unfasten1
ing their shoesD so a fastener that is !ore difficult to &or$ has certain
virtues. %nd for sports for &hich precise support of the foot is re-uired,
the #est solution still appears to #e the shoelace, &hich can #e ad/usted
so as to offer different tensions at different parts of the foot. The
current generation of hoo$1and1loop fasteners does not have the fle41
i#ility of laces.
*igital &atches represent another exa/ple of ho& a ne& technology
can s.pplant an old one? it has delayed or eli/inated t he need for
children to learn t he /appi ng of the analog hands of t he traditional
cloc7face ont o t he ho.rs6 /i n.t es6 and seconds of the day5 *igital
ti/epieces are controversial: in changing t he representation of ti/e6 t he
152 #oo70and0Hoop (astener5 With the .se of hoo70and0loop fasteners6 the act
of tying shoes is /.ch si/plified: a good exa/ple of the po&er of technology to
change the nat.re of the tas75 ;.t there is a cost5 Children find the tas7 so easy
they gleef.lly .ntie their shoes5 nd these fasteners are not yet as flexi8le as
shoelaces for the s.pport needed for sports5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 12'
po&er of t he analog for/ has 8een lost6 and it has 8eco/e /ore dif0
fic.lt to /a7e <.ic7 4.dg/ent s a8o.t ti/e5 The digital display /a7es
it easier to deter/i ne t he exact ti/e6 8.t harder to /a7e esti/ates or
to see approxi/at ely ho& /.ch ti/e has passed since an earlier read0
ing5 This /ight serve as a .sef.l re/inder t hat tas7 si/plification6 8y
itself6 is not necessarily a virt.e5
I do not &ant to argue for digital ti!epieces, #ut let !e re!ind you
ho& difficult and ar#itrary the analog ti!epiece really is. %fter all, it,
too, &as an ar#itrary i!position of a notational sche!e, i!posed upon
the &orld #y the early technologists. Today, #ecause &e can no longer
re!e!#er the origins, &e thin$ of the analog syste! as necessary,
virtuous, and proper. It presents a horrid, classic e4a!ple of the !ap1
ping pro#le!. (es, the notion that ti!e should #e represented #y the
distance a hand !oves around a circle is a good one. The pro#le! is
that &e use t&o or three different hands !oving around the sa!e circle,
each one !eaning so!ething different and operating on a different
scale. ;hich hand is &hich) 0Do you re!e!#er ho& hard it is to teach
a child the difference #et&een the little hand and the #ig hand, and not
to confuse the second hand:&hich is so!eti!es #ig, so!eti!es
little:&ith the !inute hand or the hour hand)2
Do I e4aggerate) Eead &hat ,evin <ynch says a#out this in his
delightful #oo$ on city planning, What ti/e is this place@
3Telling ti/e is a si/ple technical pro8le/6 8.t .nfort.nately the
cloc7 is a rather o8sc.re percept.al device5 ,ts first &idespread .se in
the thirteenth cent.ry &as to ring the ho.rs for clerical devotions5
The cloc7face &hich translated ti/e into spatial alteration6 ca/e
later5 That for/ &as dictated 8y its &or7s6 not 8y any principle of
perception5 T&o Cso/eti/es threeD s.peri/posed cycles give d.pli0
cate readings6 according to ang.lar displace/ent aro.nd a finely
/ar7ed ri/5 Neither /in.tes nor ho.rs nor half days correspond to
the nat.ral cycles of o.r 8odies or the s.n5 nd so teaching a child
to read a cloc7 is not a childish .nderta7ing5 When as7ed &hy a cloc7
had t&o hands6 a fo.r0year0old replied6 9God tho.ght it &o.ld 8e a
good idea59 3
%ircraft designers started using !eters that loo$ed li$e cloc$faces
to represent altitude. %s airplanes &ere a#le to fly higher and higher,
the !eters needed !ore hands. Iuess &hat) Pilots !ade errors:seri1
ous errors. 5ultihanded analog alti!eters have #een largely a#an1
doned in favor of digital ones #ecause of the prevalence of reading
12I The Design of Everyday Things
errors. Even so, !any conte!porary alti!eters !aintain a !i4ed !ode:
infor!ation a#out rate and direction of altitude change is deter!ined
fro! a single analog hand, &hile precise /udg!ents of height co!e
fro! the digital display,
D6N*T TAEE A:A@ 6NT!6L
.to/ation has its virt.es6 8.t a.to/ation is dangero.s &hen it ta7es
too /.ch control fro/ the .ser5 3Overa.to/ation3:too great a degree
of a.to/ation:has 8eco/e a technical ter/ in the st.dy of a.to/ated
aircraft and factories5
2
One pro8le/ is that overreliance on a.to/ated
e<.ip/ent can eli/inate a person9s a8ility to f.nction &itho.t it6 a
prescription for disaster if6 for exa/ple6 one of the highly a.to/ated
/echanis/s of an aircraft s.ddenly fails5 second pro8le/ is that a
syste/ /ay not al&ays do things exactly the &ay &e &o.ld li7e6 8.t
&e are forced to accept &hat happens 8eca.se it is too diffic.lt Cor
i/possi8leD to change the operation5 third pro8le/ is that the person
8eco/es a servant of the syste/6 no longer a8le to control or infl.ence
&hat is happening5 This is the essence of the asse/8ly line: it deper0
sonali>es the 4o86 it ta7es a&ay control6 it provides6 at 8est6 a passive
or third0person experience5
ll tas7s have several layers of control5 The lo&est level is the details
of the operation6 the ni/8le finger &or7 of se&ing or playing the piano6
the ni/8le /ental &or7 of arith/etic5 #igher levels of control affect
the overall tas76 the direction in &hich the &or7 is going5 #ere &e
deter/ine6 s.pervise6 and control the overall str.ct.re and goals5 .to0
/ation can &or7 at any level5 So/eti/es &e really &ant to /aintain
control at the lo&er level5 (or so/e of .s6 it is the ni/8le exec.tion of
the finger or /ind that /atters5 So/e of .s &ant to play /.sic &ith
s7ill5 Or &e li7e the feel of tools against &ood5 Or &e en4oy &ielding
a paint8r.sh5 ,n cases li7e these6 &e &o.ld not &ant a.to/ation to
interfere5 t other ti/es &e &ant to concentrate on higher level things5
Perhaps o.r goal is to listen to /.sic6 and &e find the radio /ore
effective for .s than the piano? perhaps o.r artistic s7ill can9t get .s as
far as can a co/p.ter progra/5
=%E T#,NGS -,S,;HE: ;$,*GE
T#E G)H(S O( EOEC)T,ON N* E-H)T,ON
This has 8een a focal the/e of POET5 =a7e things visi8le on the
exec.tion side of an action so that people 7no& &hat is possi8le and
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design .BC
ho& actions sho.ld 8e done? /a7e things visi8le on the eval.ation side
so that people can tell the effects of their actions5
There is /ore5 The syste/ sho.ld provide actions that /atch in0
tentions5 ,t sho.ld provide indications of syste/ state that are
readily perceiva8le and interpreta8le and that /atch intentions and
expectations5 nd6 of co.rse6 the syste/ state sho.ld 8e visi8le Cor
a.di8leD and readily interpreta8le5 =a7e the o.tco/es of an action
o8vio.s5
8o!eti!es the &rong things are visi#le. % friend of !ine, a profes1
sor of co!puter science at !y university, proudly sho&ed !e his ne&
D player and its associated re!ote control. 8lee$, functional. The
re!ote control unit had a little !etal loop protruding fro! one end.
;hen I as$ed &hat it &as for, !y friend told a story. ;hen he first
got the set, he assu!ed that the loop &as an antenna for the re!ote
unit, so he al&ays ai!ed it at the D player. It didn't see! to &or$
&ellD he had to stand &ithin a fe& feet of the D &hile using the
re!ote. 6e !u!#led to hi!self that he had #ought a poorly designed
unit. ;ee$s later he discovered that the !etal hoo$ &as /ust a hoo$
for hanging up the device. 6e had #een ai!ing the re!ote at his o&n
#ody. ;hen he turned the re!ote around, it &or$ed fro! far across
the roo!.
6ere is a case of natural !appings that fails. The hoo$ provided a
natural !apping for function: it indicated &hich side of the re!ote
control device should #e pointed at the D set. 3nfortunately, it pro1
vided erroneous infor!ation. In !a$ing things visi#le, it is i!portant
to !a$e the correct things visi#le. Other&ise people for! e4planations
for the things they can see, e4planations that are li$ely to #e false. %nd
then they find so!e reason for poor perfor!ance:in this e4a!ple,
that the re!ote &as not very po&erful. People are very good at for!ing
e4planations, at creating !ental !odels. It is the designer's tas$ to
!a$e sure that they for! the correct interpretations, the correct !ental
!odels: the syste! i!age plays the $ey role.
Ee!ote trans!itter units that need to #e pointed at a receiver should
have so!e visi#le evidence of the trans!itting !echanis!. 5ode!
units carefully hide any indication of the signaling !ethod, violating
the rules of visi#ility. 5y friend searched hard for so!e clue of the
direction to point the device in, and he found one: the hoo$. %nd, no,
the instruction !anual did not say &hich end of the unit should #e
pointed at the D player.
12+ The Design of Everyday Things
GET T#E =PP,NGS $,G#T
Exploit nat .ral /appings5 =a7e s.re t hat t he .ser can deter/i ne t he
relationships:
F ;et&een intentions and possi8le actions
F ;et&een actions and their effects on the syste/
F ;et&een act.al syste/ state and &hat is perceiva8le 8y sight6
so.nd6 or feel
F ;et&een the perceived syste/ state and the needs6 intentions6 and
expectations of the .ser
Nat.ral /appi ngs are the 8asis of &hat has 8een called 3response
co/pati8ility3 &i t hi n the fields of h./an factors and ergono/ics5 The
/a4or re<.i re/ent of response co/pati8ility is t hat t he spatial rela0
tionship 8et &een t he positioning of controls and t he syste/ or o84ects
.pon &hi ch t hey operat e sho.ld 8e as direct as possi8le6 &i t h t he
controls either on t he o84ects the/selves or arranged to have an anal og0
ical relationship to t he/5 ,n si/ilar fashion6 t he /ove/ent of t he
controls sho.ld 8e si/ilar or analogo.s to t he expected operation of the
syste/5 *iffic.lties arise &herever t he positioning and /ove/ent s of
the controls deviate fro/ strict proxi/ity6 /i/icry6 or analogy to t he
things 8eing controlled5
The sa/e arg./ent s apply to t he relationship of syste/ o.t p.t to
expectations5 critical part of an action is t he eval.ation of its effects5
This re<.ires ti/ely feed8ac7 of t he res.lts5 The feed8ac7 /.st pro0
vide infor/ation t hat /at ches t he .ser9 s intentions and /.st 8e in a
for/ t hat i s easy to .nderst and5 =any syste/s o/it t he relevant visi8le
o.tco/es of actions? even &hen infor/ation a8o.t t he syste/ state is
provided6 i t /ay not 8e easy to interpret5 The easiest &ay to /a7e
things .nderstanda8l e is to .se graphics or pict.res5 =odern syste/s
Cespecially co/p.t er syste/sD are <.i t e capa8le of this6 8.t t he need
see/s not to have 8een recogni>ed 8y designers5
EOPHO,T T#E POWE$ O( CONST$,NTS6
;OT# NT)$H N* $T,(,C,H
)se constraints so that t he .ser feels as if there is only one possi8le
thing to do:t he right thing6 of co.rse5 ,n chapter " , .sed t he exa/ple
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 122
of the Hego toy /otorcycle6 &hich co.ld 8e correctly p.t together 8y
people &ho had never 8efore seen it5 ct.ally6 the toy is not si/ple5
,t &as caref.lly designed5 ,t exploits a variety of constraints5 ,t is a good
exa/ple of the po&er of nat.ral /appings and constraints6 constraints
that red.ce the n./8er of alternative actions at each step to at /ost
a fe&5
DE%?.N F6! E!!6!
ss./e that any error that can 8e /ade &ill 8e /ade5 Plan for it5 Thin7
of each action 8y the .ser as an atte/pt to step in the right direction?
an error is si/ply an action that is inco/pletely or i/properly specified5
Thin7 of the action as part of a nat.ral6 constr.ctive dialog 8et&een
.ser and syste/5 Try to s.pport6 not fight6 the .ser9s responses5 llo&
the .ser to recover fro/ errors6 to 7no& &hat &as done and &hat
happened6 and to reverse any .n&anted o.tco/e5 =a7e9 it easy to
reverse operations? /a7e it hard to do irreversi8le actions5 *esign ex0
plora8le syste/s5 Exploit forcing f.nctions5
:HEN ALL EL%E FA?L%D %TANDA!D?HE
When so/ething can9t 8e designed &itho.t ar8itrary /appings and
diffic.lties6 there is one last ro.te: standardi>e5 Standardi>e the actions6
o.tco/es6 layo.t6 displays5 =a7e related actions &or7 in the sa/e
&ay5 Standardi>e the syste/6 the pro8le/? create an international stan0
dard5 The nice thing a8o.t standardi>ation is that no /atter ho& ar8i0
trary the standardi>ed /echanis/6 it has to 8e learned only once5
People can learn it and .se it effectively5 This is tr.e of type&riter
7ey8oards6 traffic signs and signals6 .nits of /eas.re/ent6 and calen0
dars5 When follo&ed consistently6 standardi>ation &or7s &ell5
There are diffic.lties5 ,t /ay 8e hard to o8tain an agree/ent5 nd
ti/ing is cr.cial: it is i/portant to standardi>e as soon as possi8le:to
save everyone tro.8le:8.t late eno.gh to ta7e into acco.nt advanced
technologies and proced.res5 The shortco/ings of early standardi>a0
tion are often /ore than /ade .p for 8y the increase in ease of .se5
!
)sers have to 8e trained to the standards5 The very conditions that
re<.ire standardi>ation re<.ire training6 so/eti/es extensive training
Cthat is O%: it ta7es /onths to learn the alpha8et6 or to type6 or to drive
-<< The Design of Everyday Things
15! The ;ac7&ard Cloc75
C*ra&ing 8y Eileen Con&ay5D
a carD5 $e/e/8er6 standardi>ation is essential only &hen all the neces0
sary infor/ation cannot 8e placed in the &orld or &hen nat.ral /ap0
pings cannot 8e exploited5 The role of training and practice is to /a7e
the /appings and re<.ired actions /ore availa8le to the .ser6 overco/0
ing any shortco/ings in the design6 /ini/i>ing the need for planning
and pro8le/ solving5
Ta$e the everyday cloc$. It's standardi7ed. onsider ho& !uch
trou#le you &ould have telling ti!e &ith a #ac$&ard cloc$, &here the
hands revolved countercloc$&ise. 8uch cloc$s do e4ist 0figure C.=2.
They !a$e effective conversation pieces. *ot so good for telling the
ti!e, though. ;hy not) There is nothing illogical a#out a cloc$ that
goes countercloc$&ise. It's /ust as logical as one that goes cloc$&ise.
The reason &e disli$e it is that &e have standardi7ed on a different
sche!e, on the very definition of the ter! +cloc$&ise.+ ;ithout such
standardi7ation, cloc$ reading &ould #e !ore difficult: you'd al&ays
have to figure out the !apping.
%TANDA!D?HAT?6N AND TEHN6L6.@
,f &e exa/ine the history of advances in all technological fields6 &e see
that so/e i/prove/ents nat.rally co/e thro.gh technology6 others
co/e thro.gh standardi>ation5 The early history of the a.to/o8ile is
a good exa/ple5 The first cars &ere very diffic.lt to operate5 They
re<.ired strength and s7ill 8eyond the a8ilities of /any5 So/e pro80
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 201
le/s &ere solved t hro.gh a.to/at ion: t he cho7e6 t he spar7 advance6
and the starter engine5
r8itrary aspects of cars and driving had to 8e standardi>ed:
F Which side of the road people drove on
F Which side of the car the driver sat on
F Where the essential co/ponents &ere: steering &heel6 8ra7e6
cl.tch pedal6 and accelerator Cin so/e early cars it &as on a hand
leverD
Standardi>ation is si/ply another aspect of c.lt.ral constraints5
Wi t h standardi>ation6 once yo. have learned to drive one car6 yo. feel
4.stifia8ly confident t hat yo. can drive any car6 any place in t he &orld5
Today9 s co/p.t ers are still poorly designed6 at least fro/ t he .ser9 s
point of vie&5 ;.t one pro8le/ is si/ply that t he technology is still
very pri/itive:li7e t he 120I a.to:and there is no standardi>ation5
Standardi>ation is t he sol.tion of last resort6 an ad/ission t hat &e
cannot solve t he pro8le/s in any other &ay5 So &e /.st at least all
agree to a co//on sol.tion5 When &e have standardi>ation of o.r
7ey8oard layo.ts6 o.r i np.t and o.t p.t for/ats6 o.r operating sys0
te/s6 o.r text editors and &ord processors6 and t he 8asic /eans of
operating any progra/6 t hen s.ddenl y &e &ill have a /a4or 8rea70
t hro.gh in .sa8ility5
"
THE T?+?N. 6F %TANDA!D?HAT?6N
Standardi>e and yo. si/plify lives: everyone learns t he syste/ only
once5 ;.t don9 t standardi>e too soon? yo. /ay 8e loc7ed int o a pri/i 0
tive technology6 or yo. /ay have introd.ced r.les that t .rn o.t to 8e
grossly inefficient6 even error0ind.cing5 Standardi>e too late and there
/ay already 8e so /any &ays of doing t he tas7 t hat no international
standard can 8e agreed on? if there is agree/ent on an old0fashioned
technology6 it /ay 8e too expensive to change5 The /etric syste/ is
a good exa/ple: it is a far si/pler and /ore .sa8le sche/e for repre0
senting distance6 &eight6 vol ./e6 and t e/perat.re than the older6 ;rit0
ish syste/ Cfeet6 po.nds6 seconds6 degrees on t he (ahrenheit scaleD5 ;.t
ind.strial nations &i t h a heavy co//i t /ent to t he old /eas.re/ent
standards clai/ they cannot afford t he /assive costs and conf.sion of
conversion5 So &e are st.c7 &i t h t &o standards6 at least for a fe& /ore
decades5
202 The Design of Everyday Things
;ould you consider changing ho& &e specify ti!e) The current
syste! is ar#itrary. The day is divided into t&enty1four rather ar#i1
trary units:hours. >ut &e tell ti!e in units of t&elve, not t&enty1
four, so there have to #e t&o cycles of t&elve hours each, plus the
special convention of %.5. and P.5. so &e $no& &hich cycle &e are
tal$ing a#out. Then &e divide each hour into si4ty !inutes and each
!inute into si4ty seconds. ;hat if &e s&itched to !etric divisions:
seconds divided into tenths, !illiseconds, and !icroseconds) ;e
&ould have days, !illidays, and !icrodays. There &ould have to #e a
ne&hour, !inute, and second: call the! the ne&hour, the ne&!inute,
and the ne&second. It &ould #e easy: ten ne&hours to the day, one
hundred ne&!inutes to the ne&hour, one hundred ne&seconds to the
ne&!inute.
Each ne&hour &ould last e4actly 2.@ ti!es an old hour: .@@ old
!inutes. 8o the old one1hour period of the schoolroo! or television
progra! &ould #e replaced &ith a half1ne&hour period:only 20 per1
cent longer than the old. Each ne&!inute &ould #e -uite si!ilar to the
current !inute: 0.C of an old !inute, to #e e4act 0each ne&!inute
&ould #e a#out @2 old seconds2. %nd each ne&second &ould #e
slightly shorter than an old second. The differences in durations could
#e gotten used toD they aren't that large. %nd co!putations &ould #e
so !uch easier. I can hear the everyday conversations no&:
+I'll !eet you at noon:K ne&hours. Don't #e late, it's only a half
hour fro! no&, K0 ne&!inutes, O,)+
+;hat ti!e is it) C.JK:1' !inutes to the evening ne&s.+
;hat do I thin$ of it) I &ouldn't go near it.
*eli8erately
=a7ing Things *iffic.lt
+6o& can good design 0design that is usa#le and understanda#le2 #e
#alanced &ith the need for 'secrecy' or privacy, or protection) That is,
so!e applications of design involve areas &hich are sensitive and ne1
cessitate strict control over &ho uses and understands the!. Perhaps
&e don't &ant any user1in1the1street to understand enough of a sys1
te! to co!pro!ise its security. ouldn't it #e argued that so!e things
sho.ldn9t #e designed &ell) an't things #e left cryptic, so that only
those &ho have clearance, e4tended education, or &hatever, can !a$e
use of the syste!) 8ure, &e have pass&ords, $eys, and other types of
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 20!
15" School *oor6 *eli8er0
ately =ade *iffic.lt to )se5
The school is for handicapped
children? the school officials
did not &ant children to 8e
a8le to go in and o.t of the
school &itho.t ad.lt s.pervi0
sion5 The principles of .sa8il0
ity espo.sed in POET can 8e
follo&ed in reverse to /a7e
diffic.lt those tas7s that o.ght
to 8e diffic.lt5
security chec$s, #ut this can #eco!e &eariso!e for the privileged user.
It appears that if good design is not ignored in so!e conte4ts, the
purpose for the e4istence of the syste! &ill #e nullified. +
K
Consider fig.re 15"6 a door on a school in Stapleford6 England: t he
latches are .p at t he very top of the door6 &here t hey are 8ot h hard
to find and hard to reach5 This is good design6 deli8erately and caref.lly
done5 The door is to a school for handi capped children6 and t he school
di dn9 t &ant t he children to 8e a8le to get o.t to the street &i t ho.t an
ad.lt5 -iolating the r.les of ease of .se is 4.st &hat is needed5
=ost things are int ended to 8e easy to .se6 8.t aren9 t5 ;.t so/e
things are deli8erately diffic.lt to .se:and o.ght to 8e5 The n./8er
of things t hat sho.ld 8e diffic.lt to .se is s.rprisingly large:
20" The Design of Everyday Things
F ny door designed to 7eep people in or o.t5
F Sec.rity syste/s6 designed so that only a.thori>ed people &ill 8e
a8le to .se the/5
F *angero.s e<.ip/ent6 &hich sho.ld 8e restricted5
F *angero.s operations6 s.ch as life0threatening actions5 These can
8e designed so that one person alone can9 t co/plete the action5 ,
&or7ed for a s.//er setting off dyna/ite .nder&ater Cto st.dy
.nder&ater so.nd trans/issionD? the circ.its &ere set .p to re<.ire
t&o people to &or7 the/5 T&o 8.ttons had to 8e depressed at the
sa/e ti/e in order to set off the charge: one 8.tton o.tside6 one
inside the electronic recording trailer5 Si/ilar preca.tions are ta7en
at /ilitary installations5
F Secret doors6 ca8inets6 safes: yo. don9 t &ant the average person
even to 7no& that they are there6 let alone to 8e a8le to &or7 the/5
These /ay re<.ire t&o different 7eys or co/8inations6 /eant to 8e
carried or 7no&n 8y t&o people5
F Cases deli8erately intended to disr.pt the nor/al ro.tine action Cin
chapter ' , call these forcing f.nctionsD5 Exa/ples incl.de the ac0
7no&ledg/ent re<.ired 8efore per/anently deleting a file fro/ a
co/p.ter storage syste/6 safeties on pistols and g.ns6 pins in fire
exting.ishers5
F Controls deli8erately /ade 8ig and spread far apart so that chil0
dren &ill have diffic.lty operating the/5
F Ca8inets and 8ottles of /edications and dangero.s s.8stances
deli8erately /ade diffic.lt to open to 7eep the/ sec.re fro/ children5
F Ga/es6 a category in &hich designers deli8erately flo.t the la&s
of .nderstanda8ility and .sa8ility5 Ga/es are /eant to 8e diffic.lt5
nd in so/e ga/es6 s.ch as the advent.re or *.ngeons and *ragons
ga/es pop.lar on ho/e Cand officeD co/p.ters6 the &hole point of
the ga/e is to fig.re o.t &hat is to 8e done6 and ho&5
F *ot the door on a train Cfig.re C.KS.
=any things need to 8e designed for a certain lac7 of .nderst anda0
8ility or .sa8ility5 The r.les of design are e<.ally i /port ant to 7no&
here6 ho&ever6 for t &o reasons5 (irst6 even deli8erately diffic.lt designs
sho.ldn9 t 8e entirely diffic.lt5 )s.ally there is one diffic.lt part6 de0
signed to 7eep .na.thori>ed people fro/ .sing t he device? t he rest of
it sho.ld follo& t he nor/al good principles of design5 Second6 even if
yo.r 4o8 is to /a7e so/ething diffic.lt to do6 yo. need to 7no& ho&
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 20'
to go a8o.t doing it5 ,n this case6 t he r.les are .sef.l6 for they state in
reverse 4.st ho& to go a8o.t t he tas75 Ao. syste/atically violate t he
r.les5
F #ide critical co/ponents: /a7e things invisi8le5
F )se .nnat.ral /appings for the exec.tion side of the action cycle6
so that the relationship of the controls to the things 8eing controlled
is inappropriate or hapha>ard5
F =a7e the actions physically diffic.lt to do5
F $e<.ire precise ti/ing and physical /anip.lation5
F *o not give any feed8ac75
F )se .nnat.ral /appings for the eval.ation side of the action cycle6
so that syste/ state is diffic.lt to interpret5
8afety syste!s pose a special pro#le! in design. Oftenti!es the
design feature added to ensure safety eli!inates one danger only to
create a secondary one. ;hen &or$ers dig a hole in a street, they !ust
put up #arriers to prevent people fro! &al$ing into the hole. The
#arriers solve one pro#le!, #ut they the!selves pose another danger,
often circu!vented #y adding signs and flashing lights to &arn of the
#arriers. E!ergency doors, lights, and alar!s !ust often #e acco!1
panied #y &arning signs or #arriers that control &hen and ho& they
can #e used.
onsider the school door of figure C.@. 3nder nor!al use, this design
adds to the safety of the children. >ut &hat if there &as a fire) Even
nonhandicapped adults !ight have trou#le &ith the door as they
rushed to get out. ;hat a#out short or handicapped teachers:ho&
could they open the door) The solution to one pro#le!:unauthori7ed
e4it of schoolchildren:can easily create a !a/or ne& pro#le! in ti!es
of fire. 6o& could this pro#le! #e solved) Pro#a#ly &ith a push #ar
located &ithin everyone's reach on the door, #ut connected to an alar!
so that in nor!al circu!stances it &ould not #e used.
DE%?.N?N. A D7N.E6N% AND D!A.6N% .A+E
One of /y st.dent s &or7ed for a co/p.t er ga/e co/pany helping
develop a ne& *.ngeons and *ragons ga/e5 #e and his fello& st .0
dents .sed his experience to do a class pro4ect on t he diffic.lty of
20I The Design of Everyday Things
7.5 British Train DoorD from the ?n,
side) Clearly diffic.lt to .se6 8.t &hy@ ,
haven9 t the foggiest idea5 To prevent acci0
dental opening@ To /a7e it so that yo.ng
children cannot open the door@ None of
the hypotheses , have tried stand .p .nder
close exa/ination5 , leave this to the
reader5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 207
ga/es5 ,n partic.lar6 they co/8ined so/e research on &hat /a7es
ga/es interesting &ith the analysis of the seven stages of action Cchap0
ter 2D to deter/ine &hat factors ca.se diffic.lties in d.ngeon ga/es5
I
s yo. /ight i/agine6 /a7ing things diffic.lt is a tric7y 8.siness5 ,f
a ga/e isn9t diffic.lt eno.gh6 experienced players lose interest5 On the
other hand6 if it is too diffic.lt6 the initial en4oy/ent gives &ay to
fr.stration5 ,n fact6 several psychological factors hang in a delicate
8alance: challenge6 en4oy/ent6 fr.stration6 and c.riosity5 s the st.0
dents reported6 3Once the c.riosity is lost and the fr.stration level
8eco/es too high6 it is hard to get a person9s interest to ret.rn to the
ga/e53 ll this has to 8e considered6 yet the ga/e /.st /aintain its
appeal for players of /any different levels6 fro/ first0ti/e players to
experienced players5 One approach is to sprin7le the ga/e &ith /any
different challenges of varia8le diffic.lty5 nother is to have /any little
things contin.ally happening6 /aintaining the c.riosity /otive5
The sa/e r.les that apply to /a7e tas7s .nderstanda8le and .sa8le
also apply to /a7e the/ /ore diffic.lt and challenging? they can 8e
applied perversely to sho& &here the diffic.lty sho.ld 8e added5 ;.t
diffic.lty and challenge sho.ld not 8e conf.sed &ith fr.stration and
error5 The r.les /.st 8e applied intelligently6 for ease of .se or dif0
fic.lty of .se5
ESA HOO%,NG ,S NOT NECESS$,HA
ESA TO )SE
Early in POET , exa/ined the /odern office telephone6 si/ple loo7ing
8.t hard to .se5 , contrasted this &ith an a.to/o8ile dash8oard that
has /ore than a h.ndred controls6 co/plicated loo7ing 8.t easy to .se5
pparent co/plexity and act.al co/plexity are not at all the sa/e5
Consider a s.rf8oard6 ice s7ates6 parallel 8ars6 or a 8.gle5 ll are
si/ple loo7ing5 Aet years of st.dy and practice are re<.ired to 8e good
at .sing any of these o84ects5
The pro8le/ is that each of the apparently si/ple devices is capa8le
of a &ide repertoire of actions6 8.t 8eca.se there are fe& controls Cand
no /oving partsD6 the rich co/plexity of action can 8e acco/plished
only thro.gh a rich co/plexity of exec.tion 8y the .ser5 $e/e/8er the
office telephone syste/@ When there are /ore actions than controls6
each control /.st ta7e part in a variety of different actions5 ,f there are
exactly the sa/e n./8er of controls as actions6 then6 in principle6 the
20+ The Design of Everyday Things
controls can 8e si/ple and the exec.tion can 8e si/ple: find the correct
control and activate it5
ct.ally6 increasing the n./8er of controls can 8oth enhance and
detract fro/ ease of .se5 The /ore controls6 the /ore co/plex things
loo7 and the /ore the .ser /.st learn a8o.t? it 8eco/es harder to find
the appropriate control at the appropriate ti/e5 On the other hand6 as
the n./8er of controls increases .p to the n./8er of f.nctions6 there
can 8e a 8etter /atch 8et&een controls and f.nctions6 /a7ing things
easier to .se5 So the n./8er of controls and co/plexity of .se is really
a tradeoff 8et&een t&o opposing factors5
#o& /any controls does a device need@ The fe&er the controls6 the
easier it loo7s to .se and the easier it is to find the relevant controls5
s the n./8er of controls increases6 specific controls can 8e tailored
for specific f.nctions5 The device /ay loo7 /ore and /ore co/plex6
8.t it &ill 8e easier to .se5 We st.died this relationship in o.r la8ora0
tory5
1
Co/plexity of appearance see/s to 8e deter/ined 8y the n./0
8er of controls6 &hereas diffic.lty of .se is 4ointly deter/ined 8y the
diffic.lty of finding the relevant controls C&hich increases &ith the
n./8er of controlsD and diffic.lty of exec.ting the f.nctions C&hich
/ay decrease &ith the n./8er of controlsD5
We fo.nd that to /a7e so/ething easy to .se6 /atch the n./8er
of controls to the n./8er of f.nctions and organi>e the panels accord0
ing to f.nction5 To /a7e so/ething loo7 li7e it is easy6 /ini/i>e the
n./8er of controls5 #o& can these conflicting re<.ire/ents 8e /et
si/.ltaneo.sly@ #ide the controls not 8eing .sed at the /o/ent5 ;y
.sing a panel on &hich only the relevant controls are visi8le6 yo.
/ini/i>e the appearance of co/plexity5 ;y having a separate control
for each f.nction6 yo. /ini/i>e co/plexity of .se5 ,t is possi8le to eat
yo.r ca7e and have it6 too5
*esign
and Society
Tools affect /ore than the ease &ith &hich &e do things? they can
dra/atically affect o.r vie& of o.rselves6 society6 and the &orld5 ,t is
hardly necessary to point o.t the dra/atic changes in society that have
res.lted fro/ the invention of today9s everyday things: paper and
pencil6 the printed 8oo76 the type&riter6 the a.to/o8ile6 the telephone6
radio6 and television5 Even apparently si/ple innovations can 8ring
a8o.t dra/atic changes6 /ost of &hich cannot 8e predicted5 The tele0
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 202
phone6 for exa/ple6 &as &idely /is.nderstood C3Why &o.ld &e &ant
one@ Who &o.ld &e &ant to tal7 to@3D6 as &as the co/p.ter Cfe&er
than ten &ere tho.ght to 8e s.fficient to satisfy all of /erica9s co/0
p.ting needsD5
+
Predictions of the f.t.re of the city &ere &idely off the
/ar75 nd n.clear po&er &as once tho.ght destined to lead to ato/ic
a.to/o8iles and airplanes5 So/e people expected private air transpor0
tation to 8eco/e as &idespread as the a.to/o8ile:a helicopter in
every garage5
#OW W$,T,NG =ET#O* ((ECTS STAHE
The history of technology sho&s that &e are not very good at predic0
tion6 8.t that does not di/inish the need for sensitivity to possi8le
changes5 Ne& concepts &ill transfor/ society6 for 8etter or &orse5 Het
.s exa/ine one si/ple sit.ation: the effect of the grad.al a.to/ation
of the tools of &riting on styles of &riting5
F!6+ I7?LL AND ?NE T6 EE@B6A!D AND +?!6$H6NE
,n earlier ti/es6 &hen goose <.ill and in7 &ere .sed on parch/ent6 it
&as tedio.s and diffic.lt to correct &hat had 8een &ritten5 Writers had
to 8e caref.l5 Sentences had to 8e tho.ght thro.gh 8efore 8eing set to
paper5 One res.lt &as sentences that &ere long and e/8ellished:the
gracef.l rhetorical style &e associate &ith o.r older literat.re5 With the
advent of easier to .se &riting tools6 corrections 8eca/e easier to /a7e?
so &riting &as done /ore rapidly6 8.t also &ith less tho.ght and
care:/ore li7e everyday speech5 So/e critics decried the lac7 of liter0
ary niceties5 Others arg.ed that this &as ho& people really co/0
/.nicated6 and 8esides6 it &as easier to .nderstand5
With changes in &riting tools6 the speed of &riting increases5 ,n
hand&riting6 tho.ght r.ns ahead6 posing special de/ands on /e/ory
and enco.raging slo&er6 /ore tho.ghtf.l &riting5 With the type&riter
7ey8oard6 the s7illed typist can al/ost 7eep .p &ith tho.ght5 With the
advent of dictation6 the o.tp.t and the tho.ght see/ reasona8ly &ell
/atched5
Even greater changes have co/e a8o.t &ith the pop.larity of dicta0
tion5 #ere the tool can have a dra/atic effect6 for there is no external
record of &hat has 8een spo7en? the a.thor has to 7eep everything in
/e/ory5 s a res.lt6 dictated letters often have a long6 ra/8ling style5
210 The Design of Everyday Things
They are /ore collo<.ial and less str.ct.red:the for/er 8eca.se they
are 8ased on speech6 the latter 8eca.se the &riter can9t easily 7eep trac7
of &hat has 8een said5 Style /ay change f.rther &hen &e get voice
type&riters6 &here o.r spo7en &ords &ill appear on the page as they
are spo7en5 This &ill relieve the /e/ory 8.rden5 The collo<.ial nat.re
/ay re/ain and even 8e enhanced6 8.t:8eca.se the printed record of
the speech is i//ediately visi8le:perhaps the organi>ation &ill i/0
prove5
The &idespread availa8ility of co/p.ter text editors has prod.ced
other changes in &riting5 On the one hand6 it is satisfying to 8e a8le
to type yo.r tho.ghts &itho.t &orrying a8o.t /inor typographical
errors or spelling5 On the other hand6 yo. /ay spend less ti/e thin7ing
and planning5 Co/p.ter text editors affect str.ct.re thro.gh their
li/ited real estate5 With a paper /an.script6 yo. can spread the pages
.pon the des76 co.ch6 &all6 or floor5 Harge sections of the text can 8e
exa/ined at one ti/e6 to 8e reorgani>ed and str.ct.red5 ,f yo. .se only
the co/p.ter6 then the &or7ing area Cor real estateD is li/ited to &hat
sho&s on the screen5 The conventional screens display a8o.t t&enty0
fo.r lines of text5 Even the largest screens no& availa8le can display
no /ore than a8o.t t&o f.ll printed pages of text5 The res.lt is that
corrections tend to 8e /ade locally6 on &hat is visi8le5 Harge0scale
restr.ct.ring of the /aterial is /ore diffic.lt to do6 and therefore sel0
do/ gets done5 So/eti/es the sa/e text appears in different parts of
the /an.script6 &itho.t 8eing discovered 8y the &riter5 CTo the &riter6
everything see/s fa/iliar5D
67TL?NE $!6E%%6!% AND H@$E!TEAT
The c.rrent fad in &riting aids is the o.tline processor6 a tool designed
to enco.rage planning and reflection on the organi>ation of /aterial5
The &riter can co/press the text into an o.tline or expand an o.tline
to cover the entire /an.script5 =oving a heading /eans /oving an
entire section5 O.tline processors atte/pt to overco/e organi>ational
pro8le/s 8y allo&ing collapsed vie&s of the /an.script to 8e exa/0
ined and /anip.lated5 ;.t the process see/s to e/phasi>e the organi0
>ation that is visi8le in the o.tline or heading str.ct.re of the /an.0
script6 there8y dee/phasi>ing other aspects of the &or75 ,t is
characteristic of tho.ght processes that attention to one aspect co/es
at the cost of decreased attention to others5 What a technology /a7es
easy to do &ill get done? &hat it hides6 or /a7es diffic.lt6 /ay very &ell
not get done5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 211
The next step in &riting technology is already visi8le on the hori>on:
hypertext5
2
#ere &e have another set of possi8ilities6 another set of
diffic.lties6 in this case for 8oth &riter and reader5 Writers fre<.ently
co/plain that the /aterial they are trying to explain is co/plex6 /.lti0
di/ensional5 The ideas are all interconnected6 and there is no single
se<.ence of &ords to convey the/ properly5 =oreover6 readers vary
enor/o.sly in s7ill6 interest6 and prior 7no&ledge5 So/e need expan0
sion of the /ost ele/entary ideas6 so/e &ant /ore technical details5
10
So/e &ish to foc.s on one set of topics6 others find those .ninteresting5
#o& on earth can a single doc./ent satisfy the/ all6 especially &hen
that doc./ent /.st 8e in a linear se<.ence6 &ords follo&ing &ords6
chapters follo&ing chapters@ ,t has al&ays 8een considered part of the
s7ill of a &riter to 8e a8le to ta7e other&ise chaotic /aterial and order
it appropriately for the reader5 #ypertext relieves the a.thor of this
8.rden5 ,n theory6 it also frees the reader fro/ the constraints of the
linear order? the reader can p.rs.e the /aterial in &hatever order see/s
/ost relevant or interesting5
#ypertext /a7es a virt.e o.t of lac7 of organi>ation6 allo&ing ideas
and tho.ghts to 8e 4.xtaposed at &ill5 The &riter thro&s o.t the ideas6
attaching the/ to the page &here they see/ first relevant5 The reader
can ta7e any path at all thro.gh the 8oo75 See an interesting &ord on
the page6 point at it6 and the &ord expands into text5 See a &ord yo.
don9t .nderstand6 and a to.ch gives the definition5 Who co.ld 8e
against s.ch a &onderf.l idea@
,/agine that this 8oo7 &as in hypertext5 #o& &o.ld it &or7@ Well6
,9ve .sed several devices that relate to hypertext: one is the footnote6
11
another is parenthetical co//ents6 and yet another is contrasting text5
C, have tended not to .se parenthetical asides in this 8oo7 8eca.se , fear
they distract6 /a7e the sentences longer6 and add to the reader9s /e/0
ory 8.rden6 as this parenthetical state/ent de/onstrates5D
ontrasting te4t, &hen used as a co!!entary, is a $ind of hyperte4t.
6ere is a co!!ent on the te4t itself, optional and not essential to a first
reading. The typography gives signals to the reader.
%ctual hyperte4t &ill #e &ritten and read using a co!puter, of
course, so that this co!!entary &ouldn't #e visi#le unless it had #een
re-uested.
footnote is essentially a signal that so/e co//ent is availa8le to
the reader5 ,n hypertext6 act.al n./8ered footnotes &ill not 8e needed6
212 The Design of Everyday Things
8.t so/e sort of signal is still re<.ired5 With hypertext6 the signal that
/ore infor/ation is availa8le can 8e given thro.gh color6 /otion Cs.ch
as flashingD6 or typeface5 To.ch the special &ord and the /aterial
appears? yo. don9t need a n./8er5
So6 &hat do yo. thin7 of hypertext@ ,/agine trying to &rite so/e0
thing .sing it5 The extra freedo/ also poses extra re<.ire/ents5 ,f
hypertext really 8eco/es availa8le6 especially in the fancy versions
no& 8eing tal7ed a8o.t:&here &ords6 so.nds6 video6 co/p.ter
graphics6 si/.lations6 and /ore are all availa8le at the to.ch of the
screen:&ell6 it is hard to i/agine anyone capa8le of preparing the
/aterial5 ,t &ill ta7e tea/s of people5 , predict that there &ill 8e /.ch
experi/entation6 and /.ch fail.re6 8efore the di/ensions of this ne&
technology are f.lly explored and .nderstood5
One thing that does #other !e, ho&ever, is the #elief that hyperte4t
&ill save the author fro! having to put !aterial in linear order. ;rong.
To thin$ this is to allo& for sloppiness in &riting and presentation. It
is hard &or$ to organi7e !aterial, #ut that effort on the part of the
&riter is essential for the ease of the reader. Ta$e a&ay the need for
this discipline and I fear that you pass the #urden on to the reader, &ho
!ay not #e a#le to cope, and !ay not care to try. The advent of
hyperte4t is apt to !a$e &riting !uch !ore difficult, not easier. Iood
&riting, that is.
T#E H6+E 6F THE F7T7!E: A $LAE 6F 6+F6!T
6! A NE: %67!E 6F F!7%T!AT?6N
Even as this 8oo7 is 8eing co/pleted6 ne& so.rces of pleas.re and
fr.stration are entering o.r lives5 T&o develop/ents are &orthy of
/ention6 8oth intended to serve the ever0pro/ised 3ho.se of the f.0
t.re53 One /ost &onderf.l develop/ent is the 3s/art ho.se63 the
place &here yo.r every &ant is ta7en care of 8y intelligent6 o/niscient
appliances5 The other pro/ised develop/ent is the ho.se of 7no&l0
edge: &hole li8raries availa8le at o.r fingertips6 the &orld9s infor/ation
reso.rces availa8le thro.gh o.r telephoneQtelevision setQho/e co/0
p.terQrooftop satellite antenna5 ;oth develop/ents have great poten0
tial to transfor/ lives in 4.st the positive &ays pro/ised6 8.t they are
also apt to explode every fear and co/plexity disc.ssed in this 8oo7
into reality a tho.sand0ti/es over5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 21!
,/agine all of o.r electric appliances connected together via an in0
telligent 3infor/ation 8.s53 This 8.s Cthe technical ter/ for a set of
&ires that acts as co//.nication channels a/ong devicesD allo&s
ho/e la/ps6 ovens6 and dish&ashers to tal7 to one another5 The cen0
tral ho/e co/p.ter senses the car p.lling into the drive&ay6 so it
signals the front door to .nloc76 the hall lights to go on6 and the oven
to start preparing the /eal5 ;y the ti/e yo. arrive in the ho.se6 yo.r
television set has already t.rned on to yo.r favorite ne&s station6
yo.r favorite appeti>er is availa8le in the 7itchen6 and the coo7ing of
the /eal has 8eg.n5 So/e of these syste/s 3spea73 to yo. C&ith
voice0synthesi>ers inside their co/p.ter 8rainsD6 /ost have sensors
that detect roo/ te/perat.re6 the o.tside &eather6 and the presence
of people5 ll ass./e a /aster controlling device thro.gh &hich the
ho.se occ.pants infor/ the syste/ of their every &ant5 =any allo&
for telephone control5 Going to /iss yo.r favorite sho& on televi0
sion@ Call ho/e and instr.ct yo.r -C$ to record it for yo.5 Co/ing
ho/e an ho.r later than expected@ Call yo.r ho/e oven and delay
the starting ti/e of the /eal5
Can yo. i/agine &hat it &o.ld ta7e to control these devices@ #o&
&o.ld yo. tell yo.r oven &hen to t.rn on@ Wo.ld yo. do this thro.gh
the 8.ttons availa8le at yo.r friendly pay telephone@ Or &o.ld yo. l.g
aro.nd a porta8le controlling .nit@ ,n either case6 the co/plexity 8og0
gles the /ind5 *o the designers of these syste/s have so/e secret c.re
for the pro8le/s descri8ed thro.gho.t this 8oo7 or have they perhaps
already /astered the lessons &ithin@ #ardly5 n article entitled 3The
9s/artest ho.se9 in /erica3 in the technical /aga>ine for design engi0
neers6 Design *e&s,
12
sho&s the nor/al set of ar8itrary control devices6
overly co/plex panels6 and conventional co/p.ter screens and 7ey0
8oards5 The /odern coo7top Cacco/panied 8y the caption 3for the
.lti/ate chef3D has t&o gas 8.rners6 fo.r electric 8.rners6 and a 8ar8e0
c.e grill controlled thro.gh a ro& of eight identical0loo7ing6 evenly
spaced 7no8s5
,t is easy to i/agine positive .ses for intelligent ho/e appliances5
The energy0saving virt.es of a ho/e that t.rns on the heat only for
roo/s that are occ.pied6 or &aters the yard only &hen the gro.nd is
dry and rain does not threaten6 see/ virt.o.s indeed5 Not the /ost
critical of the pro8le/s facing h./an7ind6 perhaps6 8.t reass.ring
nonetheless5 ;.t it is diffic.lt to see ho& the co/plex instr.ctions
re<.ired for s.ch a syste/ &ill 8e conveyed5 , find it diffic.lt to instr.ct
/y children ho& to do these tas7s appropriately and , often fail at the/
/yself5 #o& &ill , /anage the precise6 clear instr.ctions re<.ired for
21" The Design of Everyday Things
/y intelligent dish&asher6 especially thro.gh the very li/ited control
/echanis/ , a/ s.re to 8e provided &ith@ , do not loo7 for&ard to the
day5
No& consider the infor/ation &orld of the f.t.re5 The /odern laser
dis7 is capa8le of holding 8illions of characters of infor/ation5
1!
This
/eans that instead of p.rchasing individ.al 8oo7s6 &e can no& p.r0
chase &hole li8raries5 One co/pact dis7 can hold h.ndreds of tho.0
sands Ceven /illionsD of printed pages of infor/ation5 Whole ency0
clopaedias can 8e availa8le at o.r fingertips6 thro.gh o.r co/p.ter
ter/inals and television screens5 nd &hen every ho/e is connected
to a central co/p.ter syste/ thro.gh i/proved capacity telephone
lines6 or the ca8le television &ire6 or a rooftop antenna ai/ed at the
neigh8orhood earth satellite6 the infor/ation of the &orld is availa8le
to all5
There are t&o costs for these pleas.res5 One is econo/ic: it /ay only
cost a fe& dollars to /an.fact.re a co/pact dis7 that contains the
contents of one h.ndred 8oo7s6 8.t the cost to the cons./er &ill 8e
/eas.red in the h.ndreds of dollars5 fter all6 each 8oo7 too7 an
a.thor several years of effort and a p.8lishing ho.se &ith editors and
8oo7 designers another three to nine /onths5 Connection to the
&orld9s li8raries thro.gh the telephone6 television6 and satellite lines of
the &orld cost /oney to the telephone6 ca8le6 and co//.nication
co/panies5 These costs have to 8e recovered5 Those of .s &ho .se the
co/p.ter li8rary search facilities availa8le today 7no& that it is /ost
convenient to have the/ availa8le 8.t that each second of .se is
/ar7ed 8y the tension that the costs are piling .p5 Stop to reflect on
so/ething6 and yo.r 8ill increases astrono/ically5 The tr.e costs of
these syste/s are high6 and the .ser9s contin.al tho.ght that each .se
exacts a cost is not reass.ring5
The second cost is the diffic.lty of finding anything in s.ch large
data 8ases5 , can9t al&ays find /y car 7eys or the 8oo7 , &as reading
last night5 When , read an interesting article and store it a&ay in /y
files for so/e .n7no&n 8.t pro8a8le f.t.re .se6 , 7no& at the ti/e ,
stic7 it a&ay that , /ay never 8e a8le to re/e/8er &here , p.t it5 ,f
, already have these diffic.lties &ith /y o&n li/ited possessions and
8oo7s6 i/agine &hat it &ill 8e li7e &hen trying to find so/ething in
the li8raries and data 8ases of the &orld6 &here the organi>ation &as
done 8y so/eone else &ho had no idea of &hat /y needs &ere5 Chaos5
Sheer chaos5
The society of the f.t.re: so/ething to loo7 for&ard to &ith pleas0
.re6 conte/plation6 and dread5
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 21'
The *esign
of Everyday Things
That design affects society is hardly ne&s to designers5 =any ta7e the
i/plications of their &or7 serio.sly5 ;.t the conscio.s /anip.lation of
society has severe dra&8ac7s6 not the least of &hich is the fact that not
everyone agrees on the appropriate goals5 *esign6 therefore6 ta7es on
political significance? indeed6 design philosophies vary in i/portant
&ays across political syste/s5 ,n Western c.lt.res6 design has reflected
the capitalistic i/portance of the /ar7etplace6 &ith an e/phasis on
exterior feat.res dee/ed to 8e attractive to the p.rchaser5 ,n the con0
s./er econo/y taste is not the criterion in the /ar7eting of expensive
foods or drin7s6 .sa8ility is not the pri/ary criterion in the /ar7eting
of ho/e and office appliances5 We are s.rro.nded &ith o84ects of
desire6 not o84ects of .se5
1"
Everyday tas7s are not diffic.lt 8eca.se of their inherent co/plexity5
They are diffic.lt only 8eca.se they re<.ire learning ar8itrary relation0
ships and ar8itrary /appings6 and 8eca.se they so/eti/es re<.ire
precision in their exec.tion5 The diffic.lties can 8e avoided thro.gh
design that /a7es o8vio.s &hat operations are necessary5 Good design
exploits constraints so that the .ser feels as if there is only one possi8le
thing to do:the right thing6 of co.rse5 The designer has to .nderstand
and exploit nat.ral constraints of all 7inds5
Errors are an .navoida8le part of everyday life5 Proper design can
help decrease the incidence and severity of errors 8y eli/inating the
ca.ses of so/e6 /ini/i>ing the possi8ilities of others6 and helping to
/a7e errors discovera8le6 once they have 8een /ade5 S.ch design
exploits the po&er of constraints and /a7es .se of forcing f.nctions
and visi8le o.tco/es of actions5 We do not have to experience conf.0
sion or s.ffer fro/ .ndiscovered errors5 Proper design can /a7e a
difference in o.r <.ality of life5
*o& you are on your o&n. If you are a designer, help fight the #attle
for usa#ility. If you are a user, then /oin your voice &ith those &ho cry
for usa#le products. ;rite to !anufacturers. >oycott unusa#le designs.
8upport good designs #y purchasing the!, even if it !eans going out
of your &ay, even if it !eans spending a #it !ore. %nd voice your
concerns to the stores that carry the productsD !anufacturers listen to
their custo!ers.
;hen you visit !useu!s of science and technology, as$ -uestions
21I The Design of Everyday Things
if you have trou#le understanding. Provide feed#ac$ a#out the e4hi#its
and &hether they &or$ &ell or poorly. Encourage !useu!s to !ove
to&ard #etter usa#ility and understanda#ility.
%nd en/oy yourself. ;al$ around the &orld e4a!ining the details
of design. Ta$e pride in the little things that helpD thin$ $indly of the
person &ho so thoughtfully put the! in. Eeali7e that even details
!atter, that the designer !ay have had to fight to include so!ething
helpful. Iive !ental pri7es to those &ho practice good design: send
flo&ers. :eer those &ho don't: send &eeds.
8EHE*: 3ser1entered Design 2.C
NOTES
C#PTE$ ONE: The Psychopathology
of Everyday Things
15 $eprinted 8y per/ission of the ;all 8treet :ournal, J *o& Bones N Co56
,nc56 12+I5 ll rights reserved5
25 W5 #5 =ayall C1212D6 Principles in design, +"5
!5 The notion of affordance and the insights it provides originated &ith
B5 B5 Gi8son6 a psychologist interested in ho& people see the &orld5 , 8elieve
that affordances res.lt fro/ the /ental interpretation of things6 8ased on
o.r past 7no&ledge and experience applied to o.r perception of the things
a8o.t .s5 =y vie& is so/e&hat in conflict &ith the vie&s of /any Gi80
sonian psychologists6 8.t this internal de8ate &ithin /odern psychology
is of little relevance here5 CSee Gi8son6 12116 12125D
"5 *5 (isher N $5 ;ragonier6 Br5 C12+1D6 ;hat's &hat: % visual glossary of the
physical &orld. The list of the eleven parts of the sin7 ca/e fro/ this 8oo75
, than7 Ba/es Grier =iller for telling /e a8o.t the 8oo7 and lending /e
his copy5
'5 ;ieder/an C12+1D sho&s ho& he derives the n./8er =0,000 on pages
121 and 12+ of his paper6 3$ecognition08y0co/ponents: theory of
h./an i/age .nderstanding63 Psychological Eevie&, B@, 11'01"15
I5 , than7 =i7e %ing for this exa/ple Cand othersD5
15 =ore co/plex syste/s have already 8een s.ccessf.lly 8.ilt5 One exa/0
ple is the speech /essage syste/ that recorded phone calls for later retrie0
- ( ;
val6 8.ilt 8y ,;= for the 12+" Oly/pics5 #ere &as a rather co/plex
telephone syste/6 designed to record /essages 8eing sent to athletes 8y
friends and colleag.es fro/ all over the &orld5 The .sers spo7e a variety
of lang.ages6 and so/e &ere <.ite .nfa/iliar &ith the /erican telephone
syste/ and &ith high technology in general5 ;.t 8y caref.l application of
psychological principles and contin.al testing &ith the .ser pop.lation
d.ring the design stage6 the syste/ &as .sa8le6 .nderstanda8le6 and f.nc0
tional5 Good design is possi8le to achieve6 8.t it has to 8e one of the goals
fro/ the 8eginning5 CSee the description of the phone syste/ 8y Go.ld6
;oies6 Hevy6 $ichards6 N Schoonard6 12+15D
C#PTE$ TWO: The Psychology of Everyday ctions
15 )nfort.nately6 8la/ing the .ser is i/8edded in the legal syste/5 When
/a4or accidents occ.r6 official co.rts of in<.iry are set .p to assess the
8la/e5 =ore and /ore often the 8la/e is attri8.ted to 3h./an error53 The
person involved can 8e fined6 p.nished6 or fired5 =ay8e training proce0
d.res are revised5 The la& rests co/forta8ly5 ;.t in /y experience6 h./an
error .s.ally is a res.lt of poor design: it sho.ld 8e called syste/ error5
#./ans err contin.ally? it is an intrinsic part of o.r nat.re5 Syste/ design
sho.ld ta7e this into acco.nt5 Pinning the 8la/e on the person /ay 8e a
co/forta8le &ay to proceed6 8.t &hy &as the syste/ ever designed so that
a single act 8y a single person co.ld ca.se cala/ity@ n i/portant 8oo7
on this topic is Charles Perro&9s *or!al accidents C12+"D5 , cover h./an error
in detail in chapter '5
25 This exa/ple is ta7en fro/ White N #or&it>9 s C12+1D technical report
on 3Thin7erTools63 their syste/ for teaching children physics6 in part to
overco/e the 8eliefs in naive physics &hich are other&ise so strong5
!5 The s.84ect of naive vie&s is treated at length in /any revie&s5 The
relationship 8et&een ristotle9s physics and /odern naive physics is de0
veloped in =cClos7ey9 s C12+!D 8cientific %!erican article6 3,nt.itive phys0
ics53
"5 The valve theory of the ther/ostat is ta7en fro/ %e/pton C12+ID6 a
st.dy p.8lished in the 4o.rnal ognitive 8cience.
'5 So/e ther/ostats are designed to anticipate the need to t.rn on or off5
They avoid a co//on pro8le/: the te/perat.re in a cooling ho.se contin0
.es to drop after the ther/ostat has t.rned on the f.rnace6 and the te/per0
at.re of a heating ho.se contin.es to rise after the ther/ostat has t.rned
off the f.rnace6 d.e to the heat already in the syste/5 The 3intelligent3
ther/ostat t.rns off or on a little 8efore the desired te/perat.re is reached5
I5 National Transportation Safety ;oard C12+"D6 %ircraft accident report:
Eastern %ir <ines, Inc., <oc$heed <1.0.., *==@E%, 5ia!i International %irport,
5ia!i, "lorida, 5ay K, .BJ=.
220 *otes: hapter T&oLThe Psychology of Everyday %ctions
C. S.rprisingly little is 7no&n a8o.t the nat.re of action se<.ences5 The
/ost relevant 8oo7 to &hat , a/ descri8ing is Plans and the structure of #ehavior,
8y =iller6 Galanter6 and Pri8ra/ C12I0D5 The GO=S CGoals6 Operators6
=ethods6 and SelectionD /odel of Card6 =oran6 and Ne&ell C12+!D is /ore
recent and /ore relevant to applications5 =y &or7 is descri8ed in /ore
detail in Nor/an C12+ID5 Sanders C12+0D has revie&ed a host of experi0
/ental st.dies that s.pports this 8rea7do&n of the se<.ence into seven
stages5 fair a/o.nt of &or7 on a theory of action is 8eing done 8y social
psychologists5 On the &hole6 this is a rich6 .nexplored area6 &orthy of
/.ch st.dy5
+5 The story of these g.lfs and the initial analyses ca/e a8o.t fro/ re0
search perfor/ed &ith Ed #.tchins and Bi/ #ollan6 then part of a 4oint
research tea/ 8et&een the Naval Personnel $esearch and *evelop/ent
Center and the )niversity of California6 San *iego5 The &or7 exa/ined
the develop/ent of co/p.ter syste/s that &ere easier to learn and easier
to .se and6 in partic.lar6 of &hat has 8een called direct /anip.lation
co/p.ter syste/s5 , ret.rn to this in chapter I5 The initial &or7 is de0
scri8ed in the chapter 3*irect /anip.lation interfaces3 in the 8oo7 3ser
centered syste! design C#.tchins6 #ollan6 N Nor/an6 12+ID5
C#PTE$ T#$EE: %no&ledge in the #ead and in the World
15 =any people are responsi8le for the develop/ent of these de/onstra0
tions5 , do not 7no& &ho first pointed o.t the pro8le/s &ith re/e/8ering
the letter0n./8er /atch.p on the telephone5 Nic7erson N da/s C1212D
and $.8in N %ontis C12+!D sho&ed that people co.ld neither recall nor
recogni>e acc.rately the pict.res and &ords on /erican coins5 Bonathan
Gr.din did the de/onstration of the typists9 apparent lac7 of 7no&ledge
of the 7ey8oard C.np.8lished st.dyD5
25 Tho/as =alone6 no& at the =,T School of ;.siness d/inistration6
exa/ined ho& people organi>e their &or7 on their office des7s5 #is st.dies
of the i/portance of physical organi>ation are often cited as 4.stification
for the fre<.ent .se of the des7top /etaphor in so/e co/p.ter syste/s6
especially the Oerox Star and the pple Hisa and =acintosh Cthe pple
/achines &ere derived fro/ the Oerox Star? =alone &as &or7ing for
Oerox at the ti/e he did his st.diesD5 See =alone9s C12+!D paper 3#o& do
people organi>e their des7s: ,/plications for designing office a.to/ation
syste/s53
!5 , ta7e this res.lt fro/ the &or7 of $.8in N %ontis C12+!D6 &ho at0
te/pted to deter/ine the /ental representation Cthe /e/ory sche/aD that
their st.dents had for /erican coins5
"5 Stanley =eisler6 Ti!es staff &riter6 in the <os %ngeles Ti!es, *ec5 !16
12+I5 Copyright 12+I6 <os %ngeles Ti!es. $eprinted 8y per/ission5
*otes: hapter ThreeL,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld 221
'5 Confir/atory evidence co/es fro/ the fact that altho.gh long0ter/
residents of ;ritain still co/plain that they conf.se the one0po.nd coin
&ith the five0pence coin6 ne&co/ers Cand childrenD do not have the sa/e
conf.sion5 This is 8eca.se the long0ter/ residents are &or7ing &ith their
original set of descriptions6 &hich did not easily acco//odate the distinc0
tions 8et&een these t&o coins5 Ne&co/ers6 ho&ever6 start off &ith no
preconceptions and /.st for/ a set of descriptions to disting.ish a/ong
all the coins? in this sit.ation6 the one0po.nd coin offers no partic.lar
pro8le/s5 ,n the )nited States6 the one0dollar coin never 8eca/e pop.lar
and is no longer 8eing /ade6 so the e<.ivalent o8servations cannot 8e
/ade5
I5 The s.ggestion that /e/ory storage and retrieval is /ediated thro.gh
partial descriptions &as p.t forth in a paper &ith *anny ;o8ro& CNor/an
N ;o8ro&6 1212D5 We arg.ed that6 in general6 the re<.ired specificity of
a description depends on the set of ite/s a/ong &hich a person is trying
to disting.ish5 =e/ory retrieval can therefore involve a prolonged series
of atte/pts &hen the initial retrieval description yields the &rong res.lt6
so that the person /.st 7eep trying to retrieve the desired ite/6 each
retrieval atte/pt co/ing closer to the ans&er and helping to /a7e the
description /ore precise5
15 *5 C5 $.8in N W5 T5 Wallace C12+1D6 Ehy!e and reason: Integral properties
of &ords C)np.8lished /an.scriptD5 Given 4.st the c.es for /eaning Cthe
first tas7D6 the people $.8in and Wallace tested co.ld get the three target
&ords .sed in these exa/ples only o percent6 " percent6 and o percent of
the ti/e6 respectively5 Si/ilarly6 &hen the sa/e target &ords &ere c.ed
only 8y rhy/es6 they still did <.ite poorly6 g.essing the targets correctly
only o percent6 o percent6 and " percent of the ti/e6 respectively5 Th.s6
each c.e alone offered little assistance5 Co/8ining the /eaning c.e &ith
the rhy/ing c.e led to perfect perfor/ance: the people got the target
&ords 100 percent of the ti/e5
+5 5 ;5 Hord C12I0D6 The singer of tales CCa/8ridge6 =: #arvard )niversity
PressD6 215
25 Hord C12I0D points o.t that this length is excessive6 pro8a8ly prod.ced
only d.ring the special circ./stances in &hich #o/er Cor so/e other
singerD dictated the story slo&ly and repetitively to the person &ho first
&rote it do&n5 Nor/ally the length &o.ld 8e varied to acco//odate the
&hi/s of the a.dience6 and no nor/al a.dience co.ld sit thro.gh 2C,000
lines5
105 The <.otation is fro/ 9li ;a8a and the forty thieves6 in The %ra#ian
nights: Tales of &onder and !agnificence, selected and edited 8y Padraic Col./6
fro/ the translation 8y Ed&ard Willia/ Hane CNe& Aor7: =ac/illan6
12'!D5 The na/es here are in an .nfa/iliar for/5 We are /.ch /ore .sed
to having the /agic phrase 8e 3Open Sesa/e63 8.t according to Col./6
3Si/si/3 is the a.thentic transliteration5
222 *otes: hapter ThreeL,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld
115 The <.ote co/es fro/ Winograd N Solo&ay9s interesting st.dy
C12+ID6 On forgetting the locations of things stored in special places6 :ournal
of E4peri!ental Psychology: Ieneral, ..K, !II0!125
125 The description is ta7en fro/ an earlier 8oo76 <earning and !e!ory
CNor/an6 12+2D5
1!5 Handa.er C12+ID provides the /ost sophisticated atte/pt , have yet
seen to esti/ate the a/o.nt of /aterial people /ight 7no& in his ognitive
8cience article 3#o& /.ch do people re/e/8er@ So/e esti/ates of the
<.antity of learned infor/ation in long0ter/ /e/ory53
1"5 This story is ta7en fro/ #.tchins6 #ollan6 N Nor/an C12+I6 p5 11!D6
slightly re&orded5 , a/ of co.rse inde8ted to o.r rena/ed colleag.e for
allo&ing his tho.ght processes to 8e aired in p.8lic5
1'5 S.rprisingly little is 7no&n a8o.t the properties of /ental /odels5
There are t&o 8oo7s &ith 5ental !odels as their title6 one the report of a
conference6 edited 8y Gentner and Stevens C12+!D6 the other6 8y Bohnson0
Haird C12+!D6 an exa/ination of a partic.lar for/ of /ental /odel that
/ight 8e .sed in pro8le/ solving and reasoning5 The first is closer in spirit
to the types 8eing disc.ssed here5 The role /ental /odels /ight play in
the .nderstanding of co/plex syste/s in general and co/p.ter syste/s in
partic.lar is disc.ssed in o.r 8oo7 on the design of co/p.ter syste/s
CNor/an N *raper6 12+ID5 n excellent revie& is provided 8y $o.se and
=orris C12+ID5
1I5 $eaders conversant &ith infor/ation theory /ight consider ho& the
vario.s /appings red.ce the infor/ation load on the .ser5 The standard
/eas.re of infor/ation is the 38it63 the a/o.nt of infor/ation re<.ired
to disting.ish 8et&een t&o ite/s5 With the co/pletely ar8itrary /apping
of fig.re !5!6 each control co.ld &or7 any of fo.r 8.rners6 so it ta7es 2 8its
of infor/ation to specify &hich 8.rner each control operates5 ,f yo. &ish
to 8e a8le to loo7 at any of the fo.r controls and 7no& i//ediately &hich
8.rner it operates6 + 8its /.st 8e learned5 Eight 8its is a lot5 CTechnically6
all fo.r controls can 8e specified &ith a total of only "5I 8its6 8.t this
/a7es .se of the fact that once the first control is 7no&n T2 8itsU6 the
second one has to 8e selected fro/ only three possi8ilities T15' 8itsU6 the
third fro/ the t&o re/aining possi8ilities T1 8itU6 and then the last control
8eco/es f.lly deter/ined T0 8itsU5 This strategy re<.ires less infor/ation
to specify all fo.r controls6 8.t at the cost of /ore co/p.tation: yo. can9 t
loo7 directly at a control and 7no& &hich 8.rner it &or7s:yo. have to
fig.re it o.t5D
The partial /apping of arrange/ent fig.re !5" red.ces the infor/ation
load5 No&6 selection of each proper control is selection fro/ t&o alterna0
tives6 or 1 8it5 So a total of only " 8its are re<.ired to let the person go
to each control and 7no& i//ediately &hich 8.rner it operates5 The f.ll
nat.ral /appings of fig.re !5' have only one interpretation6 so nothing has
to 8e learned: 0 8its5
*otes: hapter ThreeL,no&ledge in the 6ead and in the ;orld 22!
The change fro/ an ar8itrary /apping to a partial /apping to a f.ll
nat.ral /apping red.ces the n./8er of alternatives fro/ 2" to " to 1 and
red.ces the infor/ation theory content fro/ + to " to 0 8its6 respectively5
115 *espite the i/portance of re/inding fro/ 8oth the practical and the
theoretical point of vie&6 little is 7no&n a8o.t it5 $e/inds6 of co.rse6 occ.r
in a n./8er of different &ays5 One for/ of re/inding occ.rs entirely
internally6 as &hen a tho.ght or an experience 3re/inds3 one of another
tho.ght or experience5 s far as , 7no&6 only $oger Schan7 has &ritten
a8o.t it Cin his 8oo7 Dyna!ic !e!ory, 12+2D5 nother for/ of re/inding
co/es fro/ external c.es: for exa/ple6 as &hen seeing a cloc7 re/inds one
of the ti/e and of a tas7 that needs to 8e done Cor &orse6 that can no longer
8e doneD5 nother for/ of re/inding:the type , have 8een disc.ssing:is
deli8erately invo7ed or set .p6 as &hen one tries to set .p physical c.es
on one day of tas7s that are to 8e done d.ring another5 We treat so/e of
these iss.es in the chapters 8y Cypher and 8y =iyata and Nor/an in
Nor/an N *raper C12+ID6 3ser centered syste! design.
C#PTE$ (O)$: %no&ing What to *o
15 Hetter to ne&spaper advice col./nist Ellie $.c7er6 %ustin TTexasU %!eri1
can18tates!an, .g5 !16 12+I5 $eprinted 8y per/ission5
25 The res.lts of /y experi/ents are re/iniscent of st.dies of chess /as0
ters &ho &ere allo&ed only ten seconds to exa/ine a chess 8oard &ith a
config.ration fro/ the /iddle of a real ga/e 8efore 8eing as7ed to recon0
str.ct the 8oard fro/ /e/ory5 They did so very acc.rately5 Novices
reconstr.ct the 8oard poorly5 ;.t sho& an illegal Cor illogicalD co/8ination
of those very sa/e chess pieces to a /aster and a novice6 and they perfor/
a8o.t e<.ally poorly5 The expert has learned so /.ch of the str.ct.re of
the ga/e that n./ero.s nat.ral and artificial constraints co/e into play6
a.to/atically r.ling o.t all sorts of config.rations and red.cing &hat has
to 8e re/e/8ered to a /anagea8le a/o.nt5 The novice does not have
s.fficient internal 7no&ledge to /a7e .se of these constraints5 Si/ilarly6
&hen faced &ith the illegal or illogical config.ration6 the expert9 s con0
straints and prior 7no&ledge are no longer .sef.l Csee Chase N Si/on6
121!D5
!5 See Schan7 N 8elson9s C1211D 8cripts, plans, goals, and understanding or
Goff/an9s C121"D 8oo7 "ra!e analysis, on social str.ct.res and conventions5
"5 We had to overco/e a n./8er of technical pro8le/s to i/prove the
/apping5 The lights &ere already installed6 and it &as not possi8le to redo
the &iring5 We /odified so/e light di//ers so that they co.ld 8e .sed
as controls for re/otely located lights5 The choice of electrical s&itches
&as also li/ited5 ,deally6 &e &o.ld have /ade parts especially for o.r
p.rpose5 Still6 the experi/ent has 8een re/ar7a8ly s.ccessf.l5 ,n this
22" *otes: hapter "ourL,no&ing ;hat to Do
&or76 , relied heavily on the electrical and /echanical ingen.ity of *ave
Wargo6 &ho act.ally did the design6 constr.ction6 and installation of the
s&itches5
'5 The reason for the a&7&ard location of the s&itch is cost5 One designer
&rote /e: 3, fo.ght the good 8attle to get the onQoff s&itch to the front
of the ter/inal5 , lost the arg./ent 8oth ti/es5 The hard&are engineers
costed the front /o.nted s&itch at a8o.t V10 Ca8o.t V!0 to the cons./erD6
pl.s the potential for the po&er to conta/inate so/e near8y circ.its53
Those prices see/ high to /e6 8.t this designer &as spea7ing of profes0
sional e<.ip/ent6 &here the ter/inal pro8a8ly costs in the tho.sands of
dollars5 #ere is the standard tradeoff of cost vers.s .sa8ility5 What price
are yo. &illing to pay for .sa8ility@ *oes the cost really have to 8e that
high@ What if the s&itch had 8een designed to 8e on the front fro/ the
very 8eginning6 as opposed to having to 8e /oved after the rest of the
layo.t had 8een co/pleted@
I5 Copyright 12+1 8y Cons./ers )nion of )nited States6 ,nc56 =o.nt
-ernon6 NA 10''!5 Excerpted 8y per/ission fro/ onsu!er Eeports, Ban5
12+15
15 See Gaver C12+ID5
C#PTE$ (,-E: TO Err ,s #./an
15 Info;orld, *ec5 226 12+I5 $eprinted 8y per/ission5
25 See Sherry T.r7le9 s C12+"D analysis in her 8oo7 The second self. The 8oo7
is /ostly a8o.t the i/pact of co/p.ters on people9s lives6 especially on
the children &ho have gro&n .p &ith daily6 contin.al contact &ith /a0
chines:the 3hac7ers3 of the &orld5 T.r7le also presents an analysis of the
changes that infor/ation0processing vie&s of the h./an /ind have /ade
to o.r interpretation of (re.d5 ll aro.nd6 it is an intrig.ing and i/portant
8oo75
!5 )nless other&ise noted6 all the exa/ples in this section &ere collected
8y /e6 pri/arily fro/ the errors of /yself6 /y research associates6 /y
colleag.es6 and /y st.dents5 Everyone diligently recorded their slips6 &ith
the re<.ire/ent that only the ones that had 8een i//ediately recorded
&o.ld 8e added to the collection5 =any &ere first p.8lished in Nor/an
C12+0 and 12+1D5
"5 The ter/ 3capt.re error3 &as invented 8y Bi/ $eason of =anchester6
England C$eason6 1212D5 $eason has &ritten &idely on slips and other
/ishaps5 , reco//end as a good revie& of his &or7 the #oo$ %#sent !inded)
The psychology of !ental lapses and everyday errors C$eason N =yciels7a6 12+2D5
'5 $eason C1212D5
I5 si/ple introd.ction to sche/a theory can 8e fo.nd in /y 8oo7
<earning and !e!ory CNor/an6 12+2D5
*otes: hapter "iveLTo Err Is 6u!an 22'
15 The 8est so.rce of infor/ation a8o.t the connectionist approach is the
t&o08oo7 series Parallel Distri#uted Processing C$./elhart N =cClelland6
12+I? =cClelland N $./elhart6 12+ID5
+5 n i/portant set of st.dies has 8een perfor/ed 8y *anny %ahne/an
and /os Tvers7y CTvers7y N %ahne/an6 121!D5 %ahne/an and =iller9s
C12+ID 3Nor/ theory3 applies a related set of ideas5
25 standard o84ection to /y clai/ that everyday tas7s are concept.ally
si/ple:that they do not re<.ire extensive search and 8ac7trac7ing:is
that perception and lang.age are certainly everyday tas7s6 yet they violate
these r.les5 , disagree5
Aes6 perception and lang.age are certainly everyday tas7s5 ;.t , do not
8elieve they violate /y arg./ent5 , arg.e that the 7ey to concept.al
co/plexity is &hether or not 8ac7trac7ing is re<.ired: ,s there trial and
error@ re /.ltiple paths investigated@ , &ant to arg.e that none of these
are re<.ired for everyday tas7s6 incl.ding perception and lang.age5
The st.dy of perception is a diffic.lt topic: &e still do not 7no& ho&
it gets done5 Clearly it involves a lot of co/p.tation5 ;.t , s.spect that the
co/p.tation is less co/plex than /ight 8e s.pposed5 Percept.al syste/s
are parallel str.ct.res6 they .se parallel algorith/s5 , 8elieve they reach
their sol.tions 8y pattern /atching6 8y relaxation6 8y /ini/./ energy
constraints5 With the proper hard&are Cthe hard&are of the 8rainD6 , 8e0
lieve these tas7s are done &itho.t 8ac7trac7ing6 &itho.t follo&ing false
leads5
The r.le , &ish to invo7e is that everyday lang.age and perception are
/ostly concept.ally si/ple5 They are done &itho.t 8ac7trac7ing6 &itho.t
conscio.s involve/ent or even a&areness5 ;oth lang.age and perception
have sit.ations that violate these ass./ptions6 8.t they are relatively
infre<.ent5 When they occ.r6 they re<.ire conscio.s involve/ent5 nd
they provide patterns that are diffic.lt to perceive or .nderstand5 ,n fact6
a /a4ority of these str.ct.res are created deli8erately6 as ill.sions6 or
p.>>les6 or 8rainteasers6 or as the co.nterexa/ples and pro8le/s that
ling.ists spend so /any ho.rs inventing and disc.ssing5
105 There is a &hole field devoted to the design and analysis of high&ay
syste/s5 These partic.lar points are disc.ssed in chapters 8y lexander N
H.nenfeld C12+"D and 8y %inner C12+"D5
=y o&n experience is that &hile signs on the /a4or national /otor&ays
/ay 8e &ell done6 &ith considera8le tho.ght and planning6 signs on the
s/aller roads are not5 The signs on the local roads re<.ire /ore local
7no&ledge6 &hich visitors .s.ally lac75 ,n England6 &hen , a/ offered a
choice 8et&een ;.xton and Whittlesford &hile , a/ trying to get to
Oxford6 &hat do , do@ Or s.ppose , a/ ho/e in San *iego trying to get
to =ission ;ay6 &hen , a/ offered a choice 8et&een El Centro and Hos
ngeles6 neither of &hich , &ish to visit5 When /a7ing long 4o.rneys on
the secondary roads of England6 , learned to go aro.nd each ro.nda8o.t
t&o or three ti/es6 each ti/e eli/inating a different exit .ntil , finally
22I *otes: hapter "iveLTo Err Is 6u!an
co.ld select &hat appeared to 8e the 8est5 ,n this &ay , got lost only one
in five ti/es instead of every ti/e5 (ort.nately6 the good /anners of
;ritish /otorists /ade /y circling possi8le6 even safe5 , have tried the
sa/e thing in the )nited States6 8.t , &as ris7ing /y life5
115 B5 =aclean C12+!D6 8ecrets of a superthief CNe& Aor7: ;er7ley ;oo7sD6
10+5
125 ltho.gh the n.clear po&er ind.stry has done a good 4o8 of analy>ing
the sit.ation6 it has not 8een so responsive in act.ally changing anything6
especially the design of the control roo/s5 ,t9s al/ost i/possi8le to redo
an existing control roo/6 a process that can cost /illions of dollars and
disr.pt the plant for several years5 We no& 7no& ho& to 8.ild /.ch
8etter control roo/s6 8.t there aren9t any ne& plants 8eing 8.ilt in the
)nited States5 nd6 of co.rse6 /anage/ent &o.ld have to ta7e responsi0
8ility and recogni>e that h./an error res.lts pri/arily fro/ deficient
design? , see fe& signs that this /essage is .nderstood5 The ne& control
roo/s of other co.ntries9 plants that , read a8o.t appear to have the sa/e
old /isg.ided6 inferior philosophy a8o.t ho& control roo/s sho.ld 8e
designed5 The designs &ill definitely lead to error C&hich &ill 8e 8la/ed
on the operators6 &ho &ill then 8e retrained and retrained6 or6 /ore li7ely6
si/ply firedD5
The aviation ind.stry has 8een /ore responsive5 ;.t its costs are lo&er6
and ne& coc7pit designs and aircraft are contin.ally 8eing prod.ced5
Other ind.stries see/ <.ite .na&are of these pro8le/s6 even tho.gh
the doc./ented accident and death rates to &or7ers and innocent 8y0
standers /ay 8e higher than for either n.clear po&er or co//ercial avia0
tion5 #./an error6 they call it6 allo&ing the/ to fire the people involved
and ignore the /isdesign of the plant that led to the pro8le/ in the first
place5 The che/ical6 petrole./6 and shipping ind.stries see/ partic.larly
at fa.lt6 8la/ing training or operator inco/petence &hen6 in fact6 the
pro8le/s are inherent in the syste/5 (or an excellent analysis of these
iss.es6 read Charles Perro&9s C12+"D 8oo76 *or!al accidents.
1!5 (ischhoff9s C121'D st.dy is called 3#indsight KQK foresight: The effect
of o.tco/e 7no&ledge on 4.dg/ent .nder .ncertainty53 nd &hile yo.
are at it6 see the very i/pressive 8oo7 of readings entitled %ccepta#le ris$
C(ischhoff6 Hichtenstein6 Slovic6 *er8y6 N %eeney6 12+1D5
1"5 The %orean ir flight 001 has 8een analy>ed 8y #ersh C12+ID6 &ho
gives a pla.si8le6 detailed acco.nt of &hat /ight have gone &rong &ith
the flight5 ;eca.se the aircraft flight recorders &ere not recovered6 &e &ill
never 7no& &ith certainty &hat did happen5 ,t appears that the actions on
the Soviet side &ere pro8a8ly e<.ally conf.sed6 &ith pilots and the /ili0
tary .nder vario.s social press.res to act5 The infor/ation availa8le a8o.t
the Soviets9 actions is ins.fficient to reach any relia8le concl.sions5
1'5 =y so.rce for infor/ation a8o.t the Tenerife crash is $oitsch6 ;a80
coc76 N Ed/.nds C.ndatedD6 the report iss.ed 8y the /erican irline
*otes: hapter "iveLTo Err Is 6u!an 221
Pilots ssociation5 ,t is perhaps not too s.rprising that it differs in interpre0
tation fro/ the Spanish govern/ent9s report CSpanish =inistry of Trans0
port and Co//.nications6 121+D6 &hich in t.rn differs fro/ the report 8y
the *.tch ircraft ccident ,n<.iry ;oard C1212D5 See also ho& Weiner
treats the crash and its after/ath CWeiner6 12+0? reprinted in #.rst N
#.rst6 12+2D5 CWeiner calls the episode the res.lt of the Eealpoliti$ of a
syste/ that 3e/phasi>es airspace allocation and political co/pro/ise6
rather than dealing directly &ith the variety of pro8le/s facing pilots and
controllers53D
The infor/ation and <.otations a8o.t the ir (lorida crash are fro/ the
report of the National Transportation Safety ;oard C12+2D5 n excellent
revie& of the social press.res can 8e fo.nd in Weiner C12+ID and in t&o
8oo7s entitled Pilot error C#.rst6 121I? #.rst N #.rst6 12+2D5 CThe t&o
8oo7s are <.ite different5 The second is 8etter than the first6 in part 8eca.se
at the ti/e the first 8oo7 &as &ritten6 not /.ch scientific evidence &as
availa8le5D
1I5 Warning signals can 8e designed properly5 $oy Patterson at the =edi0
cal $esearch Co.ncil9s pplied Psychology )nit in Ca/8ridge6 England6
has devised a syste/atic set of proced.res for conveying the /eaning and
i/portance of a pro8le/ &ith a caref.lly controlled se<.ence of so.nds6
&here the fre<.ency6 intensity6 and rate of presentation identifies the
pro8le/ and indicates the serio.sness5 The sche/e can 8e applied &her0
ever a n./8er of devices all re<.ire &arning so.nds6 s.ch as in aircraft
coc7pits or hospital operating roo/s5 ,t has 8een proposed as an interna0
tional standard for &arnings6 and it is no& &or7ing its &ay slo&ly thro.gh
the societies and co//ittees that /.st approve s.ch things5
One pro8le/ has al&ays 8een 7no&ing ho& lo.d to /a7e the signal5
The co//on sol.tion is to /a7e it very lo.d5 Patterson points o.t that the
so.nd level that is re<.ired depends on &hat else is happening5 When an
airplane is ta7ing off6 lo.d &arnings are needed5 When it is in level6
contin.o.s flight6 lo& levels &ill do5 Patterson9 s syste/ has a varia8le
lo.dness: the &arning so.nd starts off softly6 then repeats &ith increasing
so.nd intensity .ntil the signal is ac7no&ledged5
=odern technology /a7es it possi8le to have /achines tal76 either 8y
storing a co/pressed &avefor/ or 8y synthesi>ing a voice5 This approach6
li7e all approaches6 has it strengths and &ea7nesses5 ,t allo&s for precise
infor/ation to 8e conveyed6 especially &hen the person9s vis.al attention
is 8eing directed else&here5 ;.t if several speech &arnings operate at the
sa/e ti/e6 or if the environ/ent is noisy6 speech &arnings cannot 8e
.nderstood5 Or if conversations a/ong the .sers or operators are neces0
sary6 speech &arnings &ill interfere5 Speech &arning signals can 8e effec0
tive6 8.t only if .sed intelligently5
115 , disc.ss the idea of designing for error in a paper in the o!!unications
of the %5, in &hich , analy>e a n./8er of the slips people /a7e in .sing
22+ *otes: hapter "iveLTo Err Is 6u!an
co/p.ter syste/s and s.ggest syste/ design principles that /ight /ini0
/i>e those errors CNor/an6 12+!D5 This philosophy also pervades the 8oo7
that o.r research tea/ p.t together: 3ser centered syste! design CNor/an N
*raper6 12+ID5 #ere &e disc.ss ho& to 8.ild syste/s for .sers5 T&o
chapters are especially relevant to the disc.ssions here: /y 3Cognitive
engineering3 and the one , &rote &ith Clayton He&is6 called 3*esigning
for error53
C#PTE$ six: The *esign Challenge
15 =ares &rites a8o.t the process .sed in the develop/ent of the first
s.ccessf.l type&riter C12026 pp5 "20"!D5 =ares said he &as <.oting 3fro/
an old catalog iss.ed 8y the $e/ington Co/pany6 /any years 8ac753
25 There are very good descriptions of the hill0cli/8ing process in lexan0
der9s C12I"D 8oo7 *otes on the synthesis of for! and Bones9s 8oo7 Design !ethodsD
also see Bones9s C12+"D Essays in design. Bones C12+1D has a partic.larly good
description of the evol.tion of the &heels of far/ &agons: did yo. 7no&
they are 3dished3 or 3c.pped3 o.t&ard6 so that the ri/s 8.lge o.t /ore
than the center@ *id yo. 7no& that the &agon &ill not f.nction as &ell
if the &heels are not c.pped@ This i/prove/ent res.lted fro/ a nat.ral6
hill0cli/8ing design process5
ll of lexander9s &or7s descri8e this process of evol.tion6 and his
8oo7s on architect.ral design are infl.ential5 ,n addition to the one already
/entioned6 see The ti!eless &ay of #uilding Clexander6 1212D and % pattern
language: To&ns, #uildings, construction, 8y lexander6 ,shi7a&a6 and Silverstein
C1211D5 , find the &or7s fascinating to s7i/6 fr.strating to read6 and dif0
fic.lt to p.t into practice6 8.t his descriptions of the str.ct.re of ho/es
and villages are very good5
While yo.9 re trac7ing do&n these classic 8oo7s on design6 8y all /eans
loo7 at Si/on9s C12+1D The sciences of the artificial.
!5 *e& (or$ Daily Tri#une editorial fro/ a8o.t 1+206 <.oted in G5 C5 =ares
C1002D6 The history of the type&riter, successor to the pen: %n illustrated account of the
origin, rise, and develop!ent of the &riting !achine frontispiece5
"5 The story /a7es sense6 8.t the arrange/ent of the 7eys doesn9 t co/0
pletely fit the story5 Aes6 i and e for/ a fre<.ent pair and are far apart6 8.t
&hat a8o.t other fre<.ent pairs6 s.ch as e and r, or i, n, g) nd it see/s
s.spicio.s that the letters of the &ord type&riter all appear on the top ro&?
so/e other constraints see/ to have 8een operating5 l/ost every co.ntry
in the &orld .ses a 7ey8oard si/ilar to <&erty5 There are differences:the
(rench6 for exa/ple6 replaced a and & &ith a and 7, for 3a>erty3:8.t the
changes are re/ar7a8ly /inor5 Aet different lang.ages have very different
patterns of letter .se6 so an English08ased 7ey8oard &o.ld not 8e expected
to &or7 &ell for other lang.ages5
*otes: hapter 8i4LThe Design hallenge 222
'5 The acco.nt of the 3d.el 3 is presented in ;eeching9s C121"D 8oo76
entury of the type&riter Cpp5 "00"1D5
I5 (isher and , st.died a variety of 7ey8oard layo.ts5 We tho.ght that
alpha8etically organi>ed 7eys &o.ld 8e s.perior for 8eginners5 No6 they
&eren9t: &e discovered that 7no&ledge of the alpha8et &as not .sef.l in
finding the 7eys5 O.r st.dies of alpha8etical and *vora7 7ey8oards &ere
p.8lished in the 4o.rnal 6u!an "actors CNor/an N (isher6 12+2D5
15 d/irers of the *vora7 7ey8oard clai/ /.ch /ore than a 10 percent
i/prove/ent6 as &ell as faster learning rates and less fatig.e5 ;.t , &ill
stic7 8y /y st.dies and /y state/ents5 ,f yo. &ant to read /ore6 incl.ding
a &orth&hile treat/ent of the history of the type&riter6 see the 8oo7
ognitive aspects of s$illed type&riting, edited 8y Cooper C12+!D6 &hich incl.des
several chapters of research fro/ /y la8oratory5
+5 The ,sraeli psychologist *aniel Gopher has developed a clever single0
hand chord 7ey8oard for 8oth the ro/an and #e8re& alpha8ets5 #e clai/s
great s.ccess &ith the .se of the #e8re& chord 7ey8oard 8y pilots &ho
have to enter data into their flight co/p.ter &ith one hand &hile flying
the plane &ith the other CGopher6 %aris6 N %oenig6 12+'? Gopher N $ai46
in pressD5
25 ;all 8treet :ournal, *ec5 26 12+I5 $eprinted 8y per/ission of the ;all
8treet :ournal. J *o& Bones N Co56 ,nc56 12+I5 ll rights reserved5
105 So//er C12+!D6 8ocial design: reating #uildings &ith people in !ind Cp5 12ID5
115 So//er C12+!6 pp5 12+0122D5
125 3Wait a /in.te63 yo. /ight say6 3&hat has the design of the cafeteria
got to do &ith the *esign Centre@ That isn9t the p.rpose of the Centre5
Ao. are /issing the &hole point53 , don9 t thin7 so5 The lac7 of concern
for the .ser of the Centre reflects the attit.de of the Centre as a &hole5
The exhi8its are tastef.l6 pleasing to the eye5 They e/phasi>e artistic
<.alities and ease of /an.fact.re5 Those <.alities are indeed i/portant6
8.t they aren9 t s.fficient5 The cafeteria &as aesthetically pleasing 8.t
f.nctionally inade<.ate5 #o& /any of the designs on display had the
sa/e characteristics@ ,t isn9t .nreasona8le to expect the Centre to sho&
ho& design can 8e applied to all the relevant di/ensions5
1!5 <os %ngeles Ti!es, B.ne 16 12+15
1"5 =ost designers today &or7 in tea/s5 Nonetheless6 the co//ents ,
/a7e a8o.t 3the designer3 apply5 ,n fact6 the 8etter the tea/&or76 the
/ore apt /e/8ers are to share co//on /odes of thin7ing and co//on
sets of approaches6 and there8y to fall prey si/.ltaneo.sly to the sa/e
pro8le/s5
1'5 =i7e %ing6 a telephone co/pany designer6 co//enting on an early
draft of POET5
1I5 *an $osen8erg6 a design engineer6 co//enting on an early draft of
POET5
2!0 *otes: hapter 8i4LThe Design hallenge
115 $ichard W5 Pe&6 an a.thority on h./an factors and ind.strial design
Cpersonal co//.nication6 12+'D5
1+5 There are so/e technical pro8le/s facing the progra//er5 ,t is .p to
each individ.al progra//er to develop an appropriate syste/ for repre0
senting the actions to 8e perfor/ed6 to find o.t &hat is possi8le6 and then
to discover &hat has happened:to /a7e 4.dicio.s .se of feed8ac76 of
intelligent interpretation5 There sho.ld 8e a nat.ral dialog6 a co/forta8le
interaction 8et&een co/p.ter and .ser in &hich 8oth parties cooperate to
reach the desired sol.tion5 ll of this is too /.ch of a 8.rden to p.t .pon
the individ.al progra//ers5 fter all6 the person s7illed in a pro8le/ area
or at progra//ing is not li7ely also to 8e s7illed in the psychology of
h./an0co/p.ter interaction5 The pict.re &on9 t i/prove .ntil there are
8etter pac7ages of tools for the .ser to /a7e it easier to do things right5
These pac7ages are called 3tool8oxes63 3&or78enches63 3rapid proto0
typing tools63 and 3.ser interface /anage/ent syste/s63 and they are no&
co/ing o.t5
Hiterat.re on ho& to do things right exists5 good starting point is
;aec7er N ;.xt on9 s C12+1D Eeadings in hu!an1co!puter interactionD Shnei der 0
/an9 s t ext 6 Designing the user interface: 8trategies for effective hu!an1co!puter inter1
action C12+1D? and /y 3ser centered syste! design CNor/an N *raper6 12+ID5
The 8oo7 8y Card6 =oran6 and Ne&ell6 The psychology of hu!an co!puter
interaction C12+!D provides a 8eginning to&ard a set of co/p.tational design
tools? it is also the /ost technical5 (or the /ost c.rrent &or76 see any of
the proceedings of the ann.al conferences sponsored 8y the ssociation
for Co/p.ting =achinery9 s s.8gro.p6 S,GC#, CSpecial ,nterest Gro.p on
Co/p.ter #./an ,nteractionD5 Several international conference series
/eet at vario.s locations in the )nited States and thro.gho.t E.rope5
S.rely co/p.ter /an.fact.rers can9t 8e ignorant of all these activities5
125 Oerox did indeed /a7e significant innovations in the .sa8ility of
co/p.ter syste/s6 8.t /any of the 8asic ideas originated else&here5 There
is a long history of research on this topic5 Hight pens had 8een .sed as a
pointing device for /any years5 *o.g Engel8art invented the /o.se in his
pro4ect on a.g/ented h./an reasoning at the Stanford $esearch ,nstit.te5
,t is not clear &here the e/phasis on graphics ca/e fro/6 8.t co/p.ter0
aided design progra/s had already exploited the idea5 Windo&s /ay have
co/e fro/ several so.rces6 8.t lan %ay6 then at Oerox Cno& at ppleD6
co//only gets the credit5
20. S/ith6 ,r8y6 %i/8all6 -erplan76 N #arsle/ C12+2D6 Designing the star user
interface.
215 The .nderstanding of these different /odes of interaction has devel0
oped slo&ly: it still re/ains an active research topic5 ;en Shneider/an
C121"6 12+!6 12+1D invented the ter/ direct /anip.lation and has done
/.ch to pro/ote its .se5 The distinction 8et&een first0person and third0
person interactions and the notion of direct engage/ent &as developed 8y
;renda Ha.rel &hile she &as &or7ing at tari6 at that ti/e a /a4or ga/es
*otes: hapter 8i4LThe Design hallenge -2(
/an.fact.rer5 Co/p.ter ga/es provide a /odern for/ of dra/atic expe0
rience5 There are /any varieties of ga/es6 fro/ those that concentrate on
e/otions and /otor s7ills to those that foc.s on the intellect5 =ost ga/es6
&hether on the co/p.ter or not6 present this feeling of direct engage/ent6
of a first0person interaction &ith the environ/ent5 Si/ilar feelings of
8eing capt.red6 of &or7ing directly at the tas76 are possi8le for other
activities as &ell5 See Ha.rel9s C12+ID chapter6 3,nterface as /i/esis53 lso
see the chapter on direct /anip.lation interfaces 8y #.tchins6 #ollan6 and
Nor/an C12+ID5
225 The ideas in this section &ere developed 4ointly &ith Bi/ =iller of the
=icroelectronics and Co/p.ter Technology Corporation C=CCD6 of .s0
tin6 Texas6 the /erican research consorti./ for the develop/ent of f.0
t.re technologies for co/p.ters5
C#PTE$ SE-EN: )ser0Centered *esign
15 Hynch C1212D6 ;hat ti!e is this place) Cpp5 ??1?C2.
25 n excellent treat/ent of overa.to/ation is Weiner and C.rry9 s C12+0D
paper6 3(light0dec7 a.to/ation: Pro/ises and pro8le/s53
!5 , have eno.gh friends on national and international standards co//it0
tees for /e to reali>e that the process of deter/ining an internationally
accepted standard is la8orio.s5 Even &hen all parties agree on the /erits
of standardi>ation6 the tas7 of selecting standards 8eco/es a lengthy and
political iss.e5 s/all co/pany or a single designer can standardi>e pro0
d.cts &itho.t too /.ch diffic.lty6 8.t it is /.ch /ore diffic.lt for an
ind.strial6 national6 or international 8ody to agree to standards5 There even
exists a standardi>ed proced.re for esta8lishing national and international
standards5 set of national and international organi>ations &or7s on
standards? &hen a ne& standard is proposed6 it /.st &or7 its &ay .p
thro.gh the organi>ational hierarchy5 Each step is co/plex6 for if there are
three &ays of doing so/ething6 then there are s.re to 8e strong proponents
of each of the three &ays6 pl.s people &ho &ill arg.e that it is too early
to standardi>e5 Each proposal is de8ated at the /eeting &here it is pre0
sented6 then ta7en 8ac7 to the sponsoring organi>ation:&hich is so/e0
ti/es a co/pany6 so/eti/es a professional society:&here o84ections and
co.ntero84ections are collected5 Then the standards co//ittee /eets again
to disc.ss the o84ections5 nd again and again and again5 ny co/pany
that is already /ar7eting a prod.ct that /eets the proposed standard &ill
have a h.ge econo/ic advantage6 and the de8ates are therefore often
affected 8y the econo/ics and politics of the iss.es as /.ch as 8y real
technological s.8stance5 The process is al/ost g.aranteed to ta7e five
years6 and <.ite often longer5
The res.lting standard is .s.ally a co/pro/ise a/ong the vario.s co/0
2!2 *otes: hapter 8evenL3ser entered Design
peting positions6 oftenti/es an inferior co/pro/ise5 So/eti/es the an0
s&er is to agree on several inco/pati8le standards5 Witness the existence
of 8oth /etric and English .nits? of left0hand and right0hand drive a.0
to/o8iles? of three different 7inds of color television6 all inco/pati8le5
There are several international standards for the voltages and fre<.ency of
electricity and several different 7inds of electrical pl.gs and soc7ets:
&hich cannot 8e interchanged5
ct.ally6 /y description of ho& standards are achieved is /ore hope
than reality5 One of /y colleag.es6 Bonathan Gr.din6 &ho has &or7ed on
national and international standards for the design of co/p.ter &or7
stations6 co//ented on /y paragraphs this &ay:
Ao. said standards develop/ent 3/.st &or7 its &ay .p thro.gh
the organi>ational hierarchy3 8.t in fact &ith the international stan0
dard increasingly the goal6 it is a vastly /ore iterative proced.re6 at
least in the NS,0,SO arena TNS, is /erican National Standards
,nstit.te: the standards are la8eled things li7e NSC O!-16 &here
the , for ,nstit.te is replaced &ith a C for Co//ittee5 ,SO is ,nterna0
tional Standards Organi>ationU5 What happens is that so/eone dra&s
.p a proposal or parts of one6 and it is <.ic7ly hashed .p a 8it at the
national /eeting then carried to the next international /eeting5
There it gets hashed .p a lot /ore6 often re&ritten or extended6 and
8ro.ght 8ac7 to all of the national /eetings5 They che& it over6 and
at the next international /eeting it typically gets a real &or7ing over6
this 8eing the first inp.t fro/ vario.s national &or7ing gro.ps5 Then
it goes 8ac7 to the national gro.ps again6 &ho really sin7 their teeth
in it6 the original sponsor /oaning &ith pain at &hat they9 ve done
to its song6 often5 Then this process goes thro.gh /any /ore itera0
tions? in the case of a /a4or standard6 it co.ld go thro.gh a do>en or
/ore over several years5
co/pro/ise a/ong existing approaches is generally not the result
of the standards process6 8.t an initial ai/ of the developers5 Ao.r
tactf.l phrasing /a7es the process so.nd slightly /ore scientific and
less political than it is6 tho.gh , don9 t o84ect to it5 On the other hand6
the standards developers are s.rely al&ays .tterly convinced that
they are prod.cing a co/pro/ise that is superior, not inferior6 to any
of the contri8.tions to it6 and they are &ell a&are of the ca/el0is0a0
horse0designed08y0co//ittee pro8le/5 , have not st.died eno.gh
cases to 7no& that they are &rong5 , &o.ld have g.essed that they
/ight often 8e right5
"5 One reason the pple =acintosh co/p.ter is s.ch a .sa8le /achine is
8eca.se pple enforced a set of standard proced.res for all the people &ho
&rote progra/s for the =acintosh5 The proced.res governed the loo7 and
style of the interface6 /ost especially the &ay that infor/ation co.ld 8e
*otes: hapter 8evenL3ser entered Design 2!!
/odified6 the &ay the /en.s &ere .sed6 the &ay infor/ation &as dis0
played6 the heavy .se of the /o.se6 the a8ility to 3.ndo3 the 4.st0previo.s
action if the .ser &ished to6 and the for/at for &or7ing &ith text6 &or7ing
&ith &indo&s6 displaying choices6 getting at files6 and telling a8o.t errors5
The res.lt is that once the 8asic principles are learned6 they carry over to
/ost of the progra/s availa8le for the syste/5 No& if &e co.ld enlarge
a si/ilar spirit of standardi>ation to the /achines of all /an.fact.rers6 all
over the &orld6 &e &o.ld have a /a4or 8rea7thro.gh in .sa8ility5
'5 co/p.ter /ail <.estion sent to /e 8y a st.dent6 *ina %.r7tchi5 ,t
is 4.st the right <.estion5
I5 The co/pany &as (TH Ga/es5 The st.dents &ere *ennis Wal7er6 $od
#artley6 Steve Par7er6 and Boey Garon5 n earlier st.dy on ga/es &as
perfor/ed 8y To/ =alone C12+1D6 &ho exa/ined ho& to develop ed.ca0
tional progra/s that &o.ld 8e 8oth interesting to st.dents and of ed.ca0
tional val.e5
15 These st.dies &ere carried o.t 8y #enry Str.8 at the )niversity of
California6 San *iego5
+5 P5 Cer.>>i C12+ID6 n .nforeseen revol.tion: Co/p.ters and expecta0
tions6 12!'012+'5
25 #ypertext can9t 8e defined? it has to 8e experienced5 , &ill atte/pt to
convey &hat it &o.ld 8e li7e5 This note is a 7ind of hypertext6 for it is a
co//entary on the text itself5 That is &hat the 3hyper3 of the na/e
/eans: a higher0level text that co//ents on and expands the /ain text6
allo&ing the reader freedo/ to explore or ignore the /aterial as interests
dictate5
#ypertext re<.ires a co/p.ter &ith high0resol.tion display6 good
graphics6 a pointing device6 and a tre/endo.s a/o.nt of /e/ory5 ,t is
only today that technology is starting to /a7e s.ch syste/s afforda8le5 t
the ti/e of this &riting6 only a fe& hypertext syste/s are availa8le6 8.t
a lot have 8een tal7ed a8o.t5 ,n fact6 as , travel fro/ research la8oratory
to research la8oratory across the co.ntry6 everyone see/s to 8e tal7ing
a8o.t doing a hypertext syste/5 ;.t there is a 8ig difference 8et&een
tal7ing a8o.t doing so/ething and act.ally doing it5
#ypertext &as invented 8y Ted Nelson6 altho.gh the 8asic idea can
pro8a8ly 8e traced to -annevar ;.sh9s prophetic %tlantic 5onthly article
3s &e /ay thin73 C12"'D5 Nelson9s 8oo7s are pretty good exa/ples of
ho& close one can co/e to hypertext &itho.t the .se of a co/p.ter5 The
8oo7s are f.n and insightf.l Csee6 for exa/ple6 Nelson6 12+1D5
105 So/e of yo. already 7no& all a8o.t hypertext and &ish , &o.ld get
on &ith it? yo. /ight si/ply &ant to see &hether , a/ for or against it5
Others of yo. have never heard of the concept and need even /ore
description than , a/ a8le to provide5 #o& are &e going to /anage to
satisfy all of yo.@ -iva hypertextE Ct this point , need a footnote to this
2!" *otes: hapter 8evenL3ser1entered Design
note6 8.t that isn9t allo&ed6 /y p.8lisher tells /e5 So6 into contrasting
text5D
I a! not going to tell you &hether I a! for or against it. %ctually, that
is #ecause I a! #oth. It is a really e4citing concept. >ut I don't #elieve it
can &or$ for !ost !aterial. "or an encyclopaedia, yesD or a dictionaryD or
an instruction !anual. >ut not for a te4t, or a novel. I!agine a !ystery
novel in hyperte4t. 6!!, it !ight #e very interesting.
115 ;.t &hat a pain these notes are5 ,f positioned at the 8otto/ of the
page6 they distract5 ,f at the end of the text6 as in this 8oo76 they are
a&7&ard to .se5 #o& /.ch nicer if one co.ld 4.st to.ch the footnoted
&ord and have it instantly expand into a note:on the side of the page6
of co.rse6 &here it &o.ldn9 t get in the &ay5 h yes6 hypertext5
125 *5 ;.l7eley C12+1D6 The 9s/artest ho.se in /erica69 Design *e&s, @=,
'I0I15
1!5 The s/all co/pact dis7 no& .sed for a.dio recordings is capa8le of
holding T giga8yte of infor/ation6 &here a giga8yte is the technical ter/
for one 8illion characters C10
2
D5 This n./8er is s.re to increase in the
co/ing years6 and larger si>e dis7s already hold considera8ly /ore infor0
/ation5
1"5 n excellent treat/ent of ho& design affects and is affected 8y society
is given in drian (orty9s O#/ects of desire C12+ID5 The f.ll assess/ent of the
e/ptiness of the architect.ral revol.tion is provided /ost effectively 8y
To/ Wolfe C12+1D6 in his "ro! >auhaus to our house, and in a /ore scholarly
&ay 8y Peter ;la7e C1211D in "or! follo&s fiasco: ;hy !odern architecture hasn9t
&or$ed.
*otes: hapter 8evenL3ser entered Design 2!'
S)GGESTE*
$E*, NGS
Thro.gho.t the co.rse of /y research on design , have co/e across a
n./8er of relevant &or7s5 ,n this section , co//ent on the ones , have
fo.nd /ost val.a8le6 especially for those readers &ho &ish to contin.e
their investigations of the psychology of everyday things and the de0
sign process5 , concentrate pri/arily on design6 and especially on &or7s
that , feel did not receive s.fficient ac7no&ledg/ent &ithin the chap0
ters of POET5 This list is not exha.stive 8.t rather incl.des the 8oo7s
that , have fo.nd /ost helpf.l and that , reco//end /ost strongly to
others5
Everyday Things
#ere are t&o fascinating 8oo7s6 &hich deal not &ith design 8.t rather
&ith the str.ct.res of everyday life:str.ct.res that6 to a large extent6
deter/ine &hy things are designed5 One 8oo76 ;ra.del9s C12+1D The
structures of everyday life, tal7s a8o.t the develop/ent of civili>ation and
capitalis/ in the fifteenth thro.gh eighteenth cent.ries and o.tlines
the i/pact on ordinary people of rapid develop/ents in agric.lt.re6
eating ha8its6 clothing6 ho.sing6 and fashion6 as &ell as the general
spread of technological develop/ents in energy6 /etall.rgy6 and trans0
port5 CThis is vol./e one of a three0vol./e series6 ivili7ation and capital1
is!. #ighly reco//ended as a /asterf.l treat/ent6 for those &ho are
interested in s.ch things5D The other 8oo76 Panati9 s C12+1D E4traordinary
origins of everyday things, disc.sses t he origins of /any of o.r pop.l ar
o84ects6 ha8it s6 and c.sto/s5 Panati incl.des excellent sections of refer0
ences and s.ggested readings5 ;ra.del9 s 8oo7 is a scholarly C8.t &ell
&rit tenD6 syste/atic6 cohesive t reat/ent of the rise of /odern civili>a0
tion 8y a noted (rench historian5 Panati 9 s 8oo7 is a pop.l ar treat /ent
consisting of h.ndreds of .nrelated6 short essays6 each treating a dif0
ferent topic6 incl.ding t he devel op/ent of ta8le&are6 ta8le /anners6
toilets6 and everyday s.perstitions and c.sto/s5
rchitect.ral *esign
rchitect.re plays a /a4or role in design6 in part 8eca.se its /any
schools provide a nat.ral ho/e for t he st.dy of design6 in part 8eca.se
architects so deli8erately .se t he constr.ction of ho/es and 8.ildings
as design state/ents5 The ;a.ha.s in Ger/any &as pro8a8l y the origin
of t he /odern extre/es6 8.t t he e/phasis started long 8efore t hen5 The
/ost engaging disc.ssion of t he excesses of /odern architect.re is t hat
of To/ Wolfe C12+1D6 "ro! >auhaus to our house. ;la7e9s C1211D "or! follo&s
fiasco: ;hy !odern architecture hasn't &or$ed, is a 8it /ore scholarly6 8.t
especially reada8le5 There is6 of co.rse6 a h.ge literat.re on architect.re
and it is not 7ind si/ply to cite t &o criti<.es5 Nonet heless6 t hat is &hat
, shall do6 especially as /i ne is not a 8oo7 a8o.t architect.re5 The other
architects &hose &or7 has infl.enced /e are not 8.ilders? t hey are
thin7ers and designers6 in partic.lar6 lexander and his colleag.es at
the )niversity of California6 ;er7eley Csee lexander6 12I"6 1212?
lexander6 ,shi7a&a6 N Silverstein6 12115D
,nd.strial *esign
The classic 8oo7s on ind.strial design are *reyf.ss9 s Designing for people
C12'1D and Hoe&y9 s *ever leave &ell enough alone C12'1D6 alt ho.gh , cannot
state t hat t hey had /.ch i/pact on /e5 =.ch /ore i /port ant 8oo7s
&ere Caplan C12+2D6 >y design: ;hy there are no loc$s on the #athroo! doors
in 6otel <ouis RIH and other o#/ect lessonsD Hynch C12I0D6 The i!age of the cityD
and Hynch C1212D6 ;hat ti!e is this place)
Several good histories of design exist5 , have fo.nd (orty9 s C12+ID
O#/ects of desire: Design and society fro! ;edge&ood to I>5 especially .sef.l5
$y8c>yns7i9 s C12+ID 6o!e: % short history of an idea provides an excellent
2!+ 8uggested Eeadings
and engaging s.//ary of t he design of ho/es and f.rnishings5 ,f yo.
tho.ght t hat co/fort /ight 8e relevant to the design of f.rnit.re6 yo.
are naive? read $y8c>yns7i9 s 8oo7 and 8e infor/ed5 Co/fort6 li7e
.sa8ility6 &on9 t 8e a design factor .nless and .ntil t he p.rchasers
de/and it5
,n t he text , co//ent on t he .sef.lness of Bones9 s several 8oo7s on
design phil osophy and /et hods6 especially t he pro8le/ of going fro/
original specification to reali>ation CBones6 12106 12+16 12+"D5
Papane7 has 8een a /a4or critic of /odern ind.strial design6 espe0
cially scornf.l of t he e/phasis on frivolo.s excesses that /a7e pro0
d.cts expensive6 ill0conceived6 and ill0operating5 #is o&n designs e/0
phasi>e lo& cost6 d.ra8ility6 and ease of constr.ction Cespecially for
thi rd0&orl d econo/iesD6 all .sef.l and i /portant attri8.tes6 8.t not
necessarily relevant to t he .sa8ility of t he designs Csee Papane76 12116
and Papane7 N #ennessey6 1211D5 ,llich9s cogent arg./ents for 3con0
vivial t ool s3 help define t he phi l osophy ai/ed for in POET Csee his
8oo7 Tools for conviviality T121!UD5
good &ay to find o.t &hat the design &orld cares a8o.t is to read
t he /aga>ines of ind.strial design5 ,n t he )nited States6 thi s is ID, a
3/aga>ine of ,nternational *esign53L ,t9 s a fascinating /aga>ine &i t h
clever innovative design5 ;.t , detect little interest in /a7ing designs
.sa8le6 f.nctional6 or .nderst anda8l e5 The professionals read Innovation,
the 4o.rnal of t he ,nd.strial *esigners Society of /erica5
General ,ss.es in *esign
Petros7i9 s C12+'D To engineer is hu!an: The role of failure in successful design
provides an excellent analysis of t he role of fail.res in the advance/ent
of ind.strial and civil design6 sho&ing ho&6 for exa/ple6 each collapse
of a 8ridge advances the design profession C8.t only if detailed st .dy
of the reasons for the collapse is /ade and t he lessons propagated to
the other designersD? it9 s a tr.ly excellent 8oo75 Perro& C12+"D has
&ritten an extre/ely i /port ant 8oo76 *or!al accidents, in &hi ch he loo7s
at the str.ct.re of large syste/s Cthings s.ch as oil drilling platfor/s6
n.clear po&er plants6 and ocean0going shipsD and de/onstrates that
the co/8ination of co/plexity and 3t i ght 0co.pl i ng3 /a7es s.ch sys0
te/s highly s.scepti8le to catastrophic fail.re5 This 8oo7 is essential
L*esign P.8lications6 ,nc56 !!0 W5 "2 St56 Ne& Aor76 NA 100!I5
8uggested Eeadings 2!2
reading for everyone involved in t he design and operation of large0
scale pl ant s and syste/s5
,t sho.l d co/e as no s.rprise to learn that , thin7 t hat three excellent
essays on the role /odel provided 8y architect.re as &ell as t he i /por0
tance of social factors can 8e fo.nd in t he chapters 8y ;annon6 ;ro&n6
and #ooper in /y 3ser centered syste! design. n excellent t reat /ent of
t he social aspects of design is provided 8y So//er C12+!D in his 8ocial
design: reating #uildings &ith people in !ind C&hich , <.ot e fro/ extensively
in chapter ID5
=y &or7 has 8een heavily infl.enced 8y Si/on6 especially 8y his
ideas developed in The sciences of the artificial C12+1D6 &hi ch6 a/ong other
things6 pointed o.t t hat /.ch of t he co/plexity of o.r 8ehavior re0
flects the co/plexity of t he &orld6 not of o.r t ho.ght processes5 ,n part
, a/ co/ple/enting t hat arg./ent 6 arg.ing that t hro.gh design t he
&orld can 8e /ade si/pler5 second6 related idea &as Si/on9 s i nt ro0
d.ction of the concept of 3satisficing63 for &hich he arg.ed t hat &e do
not necessarily exa/ine all t he alternatives availa8le to .s and choose
t he opt i /./6 8.t rather &e t end to /ini/i>e /ental effort and ta7e
t he first one t hat see/s satisfactory5
Co/p.t ers6 of co.rse6 play an ever increasing role in /odern design6
8ot h as tools for t he design process and as t he o84ect of design5 S/ith6
,r8y6 %i/8all6 -erplan76 N #arsle/ C12+2D present an excellent de0
scription of t he design of a co/p.ter syste/ Cthe Oerox StarD t hat
heavily e/phasi>ed .sa8ility and .nderstanda8il ity: this is reco/0
/ended reading for people interested in co/p.ter syste/s5 CThe Star
&as not a co//ercial s.ccess6 8.t later versions have 8een /ore s.c0
cessf.l? t he design principles and philosophies &ere ta7en over 8y t he
ppl e Co/p.t er Corporation and have acco.nted for the s.ccess of t he
=acintosh5D Ted Nelson C12+1D presents an engaging description of t he
possi8le f.t.re of /achines in his <iterary !achines Cand ot her vol./esD5
,ll./inating disc.ssions of t he i/port ance of t he social context in
&hich tools are .sed are provided i n t &o ne&6 i /port ant st.dies:
Wi nograd and (lores C12+ID6 3nderstanding co!puters and cognition: % ne&
foundation for designD and S.ch/an9 s C12+1D Plans and situated actions: The
pro#le! of hu!an1!achine co!!unication.
2"0 8uggested Eeadings
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son)
:einerD E) L) /(;B91) Falli=le humans and vulnera=le systems: Lessons
learned from aviation) 7n"u=lished manuscri"t) /To =e "u=lished in
Infor!ation 8yste!s: "ailure %nalysis. $roceedings of a NAT6 Advanced
!esearch :orksho" on Failure Analysis of ?nformation %ystems)1
:einerD E) L)D J urryD !) E) /(;B<1) Flight,deck automation: $romises and
"ro=lems) Ergono!ics, 2=, ;;8,(<(() !e"rinted in !) Hurst J L) !) Hurst
CEds5D5 C12+2D5 Pilot error: The hu!an factor. Ne& @ork: Kason Aronson)
:hiteD B) @)D J Hor&it3D $) /(;B01) Thin$erTools: Ena#ling children to understand
physical la&s /!e"ort No) 950<1) am=ridgeD +A: BBN La=oratories)
:inogradD E)D J %olo&ayD !) +) /(;B91) 6n forgetting the locations of
things stored in s"ecial "laces) :ournal of E4peri!ental Psychology: Ieneral,
..K, 299,20-)
:inogradD T)D J FloresD F) /(;B91) 3nderstanding co!puters and cognition: % ne&
foundation for design. Nor&oodD NK: A=le')
:olfeD T) /(;B(1) "ro! >auhaus to our house. Ne& @ork: :ashington %Luare
$ress /$ocket Books1)
References ?@H
,N*EO
8elson6 $56 +I6 22"
ccidents? airline6 !+6 ""0"'6 1220
!0? explaining a&ay error and6
12+022? false assess/ent of
8la/e and6 "!0""
ctionCsD: a.to/atic6 102? co/0
plexity of6 20+02? cycle6 "1? data0
driven6 102? eval.ation of6 1!6 "I6
'20'!6 220100? everyday6 !"0'!?
exec.tion of6 "I6 "+6 '1? goals
and6 "I6 "+? intentions and6 "I6
"+6 12+022? /appings6 1II? op0
port.nistic6 "+0"2? perceived6 1+?
reversi8ility of6 1!1? seven stages
of6 "'0"+6 '00 '16 '!? standardi0
>ation of6 2000202? visi8ility and6
2'
da/s6 =5 B56 '"6 221
esthetics6 1'00'"
ffordances: 00126 +1010"6 212
lexander6 C6 1"16 2226 2!+
lexander6 G5 B56 12!6 22I
pproxi/ate /odel of action6 "2
r8itrary associations6 I2
ristotle6 !I0!+6 220
ttention6 selective6 1I!0I"
ttri8.tion6 psychology of6 "00"2
.dio /ixing control6 2!? see also
So.nd
.to/ation: 12!02"6 1216 2!2
.to/o8ile6 see Car
;a8coc76 G5 H56 1!06 221
;ae7er6 $56 11+6 2!1
;annon6 H5 B56 2"0
;eeching6 W5 56 1"16 2!0
;icycle6 Carel/an9 s tande/ for fi0
ances6 1!
;ieder/an6 ,56 126 212
;la7e6 P56 21I6 2!'6 2!+
;la/e: "!0""? assign/ent of6 "1?
false6 of self6 !"0!I? g.lf of eval0
.ation and6 '2? learned helpless0
ness and6 "2? psychology of6 "0?
of the &rong ca.se6 !00"!6 "10"+
;o8ro&6 *5 G56 I06 222
-5;
;oies6 S5 B56 2+6 220
;ragonier6 $56 Br56 126 212
;ra.del6 (56 2!10!+
;ro&n6 B5 S56 2"0
;.l7eley6 *56 21"6 2!'
;.ses: nat.ral /appings and6 2'?
infor/ation6 21"
;.sh6 -56 2126 2!"
;.xton6 W56 11+6 2!1
Ca8inets6 20!
Calc.lators6 121? as co/p.ters6
1+!? display screen and6 21
Calendars6 1!01"6 +06 1+'0+I
Caplan6 $56 2!+
Car: concept.al /odel of6 good6 2 1 0
22? forcing f.nctions and6 1!20
!'? 7eys6 physical constraints
and6 +"? /apping relationships6
2!? seat ad4.st/ent control6 2"?
standardi>ation of6 20102
Card6 S56 11+6 2216 2!1
Carel/an6 B56 26 1!6 1!01"
Ca.sality: psychology of6 11? rela0
tionship of 8et&een thing 8eing
8la/ed and res.lt6 "0
Cer.>>i6 P56 2106 2!"
Chase6 W56 +26 22"
Cherno8yl6 12+
Clephane6 B5 O56 1"0
Cloc7s: 8ac7&ard6 201? as re/ind0
ers6 1!01"6 +0? standardi>ation
of6 201
Col./6 P56 I!6 222
Co//and lang.age6 1+"
Co/pact dis7 CC*D players6 1+!
Co/plexity: of actions6 20+02? Sf
correct /odelling as perceived 8y
/an.fact.rer6 11? deep s.8tle6
"2? of design6 .KC1?0D false ca.s0
ality and6 11? inherent6 of tas76
122? overco/ing thro.gh organi0
>ation6 11"? of radio6 !0? of tele0
phone6 !0? )0shaped c.rve in de0
velop/ent of a technology6 !0? of
&atches6 !00!1
Co/p.terCsD: acco.nts6 secret pass0
&ords for6 I"? as cha/eleon6
1+!0"? co//and lang.age6 1+"?
design philosophy and6 1"06
2"0? direct /anip.lation /ode6
1+"0'6 221? error prevention and6
11!? explora8le syste/s6 1+!0"?
foi8les of6 1110+'? of the f.t.re6
1+'0I6 2"0? g.lf of eval.ation
and6 1+2? g.lf of exec.tion and6
1126 1+2? 7ey8oard6 !'6 1'00 '1?
laser dis76 21!? nat.ral /appings
and6 112? as re/inders6 1"?
spreadsheet progra/s6 1+0? text
editors6 1106 211? third0person
interaction and6 1+"? &ord
processors6 1!'
Concept.al /odel6 !+6 1++021? for
calendar6 1+'0+I? for car6 2 1 0
22? definition of6 12? design
/odel as6 1I? fa.lty6 1"6 1I6 126
216 !+? good6 1!6 21022? for re0
frigerator6 1'011? seven stages of
action and6 '!? for telephone6 126
-(
Connectionis/6 11I012
Conscio.s: 8ehavior6 12'021? proc0
essing6 short0ter/ /e/ory and6
12I
Conspiracy: against /e/ory6 I ! 0
II? of silence6 self08la/e and6 "1
Constraints6 KK, +1010"6 21I? co/0
p.ters and6 1+1? c.lt.ral6 KK, I26
+!0+I6 1'06 202? deter/ination
of co.rse of action and6 +2? ev0
eryday6 classification of6 +20+1?
forcing f.nctions6 1!'? of linear
se<.ence6 212? logical6 +I0+1?
physical6 +!0+"? po&er of6 ?01
I26 1220200? of rhy/ing6 I00 I1?
se/antic6 +!0+'
onsu!er Eeports, 100
2'0 Inde4
Controls: ease of .se and n./8er
of6 11'6 20+02? /a7ing to loo7
and feel different6 2'? place/ent
of6 2202!
Cooper6 B5 %56 1'06 2!0
Copying /achines6 1'1
C.lt.ral: constraints6 KK, I26 202?
standards6 nat.ral /appings and6
2!
C.rry6 $5 E56 1216 2!2
Cypher6 56 22"
*ecision tree: deep and narro&6
12!? &ide and deep6 120? &ide
and shallo&6 122
*eep str.ct.res6 11202'
*efa.lt val.e6 11I
*epression6 "2
*er8y6 S56 12+6 221
*escriptions6 as aid in discri/inat0
ing 8et&een o84ects6 I0
*esign: aesthetics as priority in6
1'10''? car radio6 2"? deli8er0
ately diffic.lt6 2026 20'01? of
doors6 26 11? of *.ngeons and
*ragons ga/e6 2010+? for error6
1!10!+6 1216 22+022? evol.tion0
ary6 forces &or7ing against6 1"20
"'? false ca.sality and6 11? fa.cet
as case history6 1II012? forcing
f.nctions6 1!20!+? lessons fro/
the st.dy of slips6 11201"? of
light s&itches6 2I? /appings and6
'? /odel6 1I6 1+2020? of /.ltiple
f.nction cloc7 radio6 !10!!? nat0
.ral6 "6 1"10"!? of o84ects for
special people6 1I10I"? poor6 26
K1?, 2"6 2I? principles for .nder0
standa8ility and .sa8ility6 1!0!!?
pro8le/s6 posed 8y safety sys0
te/s6 201? process6 co/plexity
of6 1'+0I1? seven stages of action
'!? society and6 202010? s.8tle0
ties6 1""? of telephone6 1+021? of
ther/ostat6 !2? tradeoffs6 12'?
type&riter as case history6 1"'0
'1? .ser0centered6 1"06 1++0211?
.ser fr.stration and6 12? &hy de0
signers go astray6 1'10'+? see also
*esigners
*esigners: clients /ay not 8e .sers6
.KC1KJD creeping feat.ris/6 1120
1"? t&o deadly te/ptations6 1120
CCD are not typical .sers6 .KK1KCD
&orship of false i/ages6 112011?
see also *esign
*i/ensions6 additive and s.8stit.0
tive6 2!
*irect /anip.lation6 1+"0+'
*isplay: a.ditory6 21? i/portance
of6 10102
*oorCsD: affordances and6 106 JC1
++6 21? constraints and6 +10++6
21? deli8erately diffic.lt6 202? in0
terloc7s and6 1!'
*raper6 S5 W56 C0, 1!26 1+06 22!0
2"6 2226 2!1
*reyf.ss6 #56 2!+
Ed/.nds6 W5 W56 1!06 221
Engel8art6 *56 1+06 2!1
Ergono/ics6 CJ, 10211
ErrorCsD: associative activation6
10102? capt.re6 1010+? categories
of6 10'6 102? ca.ses of6 1!1? cor0
rection of6 1126 1!1? data0driven6
10102? description6 10102? de0
signing for6 !I6 1!10!+6 2006 220?
explaining a&ay6 121022? feed0
8ac7 on6 121? loss0of0activa0
tion6 1010106 /ista7es6 10'0I6
11"? /ode6 1106 11!? slips6 10'0
11"? social press.re and6 1220
!1
Exec.tion: of action6 1!6 "I6 "+6
20+02? g.lf of6 '00'1, 2201006
Inde4 -8(
Exec.tion 0continued2
1116 1+06 1+I6 12102+? stages of6
"1
Explora8le syste/s6 1+"
(a.cetCsD: as case history of design
diffic.lties6 1II012? co/plexity
of design process and6 1'+0'2
(eat.ris/6 creeping6 11201"
(eed8ac7: a8sent6 10"? a.ditory6
216 10!0"6 22+? co/p.ters and6
1+2? definition of6 21? on error6
12!? patterning of6 2!? principle
of6 21022? seven stages of action
and6 '!? tactile6 21? ta.ght help0
lessness and6 "2? technology and6
12202!? visi8ility and6 220102
(ischoff6 ;56 12+0226 221
(isher6 *56 126 212
(isher6 *iane6 1"16 2!0
(lores6 (56 2"0
(oc.s6 selective attention and6
1I"0I'
(orcing f.nctions6 1!10!+6 2006
20'
(orgetf.lness6 1106 1!1
(orty6 56 21I6 2!'6 2!+
(ra/e theory6 11'01I
(re.d6 S56 10I6 1026 22'
(r.strationCsD: of everyday life6 10+?
ho/e of the f.t.re and6 21101!?
.ser6 poor design and6 12
Galanter6 E56 "+6 221
Ga/es: chess6 1126 22"? *.ngeons
and *ragons6 201? of 1'6 12I?
standardi>ation of design6 2010+?
tic0tac0toe6 1206 12I? &ide and
deep str.ct.re in6 12"
Garon6 B56 20+6 2!"
2'2 Inde4
Gaver6 W5 W56 !26 10!6 22'
Gentner6 *56 106 22!
Gi8son6 B5 B56 26 212
Goals: for/ation of6 "I0"+6 10I?
inappropriate6 10I6 11"
Goff/an6 E56 +I6 22"
Gopher6 *56 1'06 2!0
Go.ld6 B5 *56 2+6 220
Gr.din6 B56 '"6 2026 2216 2!!
G.ilt6 self08la/e and6 "1
#and7erchief6 Carel/an9 s 7notted6
05
#arsle/6 E56 1+26 2!16 2"0
#artley6 $56 20+6 2!"
#elplessness6 "10"!
#ennessey6 B56 2!2
#ersch6 S5 =56 1226 221
#ollan6 B5 *56 '16 I26 1+26 2216 22!6
2!2
#o/e6 of the f.t.re6 21!01'
#oo70and0loop fasteners6 12"02'
#ooper6 %56 2"0
#or&it>6 P56 !16 220
#.rst6 H56 1!06 22+
#.rst6 $56 1!06 22+
#.tchins6 E56 '16 ?g, 1+16 2216 22!6
2!2
#ypertext6 21101!6 2!"0!'
Iliad C#o/erD6 I1
,llich6 ,56 2!2
,/precision6 of 7no&ledge6 '"
,nfor/ation 8.s6 21"
,ntentionCsD: actions and6 "I0"+6
12+0200? for/ation of6 "+? speci0
ficity of6 "I0"+
,nterloc7s6 1!'0!I
,nterpretation: of environ/ent6 CBD
of /e/ory6 ?CD of o84ects6 1? of
perceived actions and visi8le
str.ct.re6 11? .nderstanding and6
10? of the &orld6 "10'0
,r8y6 C6 1+26 2!16 2"0
,shi7a&a6 S56 1"16 2226 2!+
Ba/es6 W56 10+
Bohnson6 #5 (56 1'1
Bohnson0Haird6 P5 N56 C0, 22=,
Bones6 B5 C6 1"16 2226 2!2
%ahne/an6 *56 1126 22I
%aris6 *56 1'06 2!0
%ay6 56 1+06 2!1
%eeney6 $56 12+6 221
%e/pton6 W56 !26 220
%ey8oard6 1"'0'16 1I10I2
%i/8all6 $56 1+26 2!16 2"0
%ing6 =56 216 1''6 2126 2!0
%inner6 B56 12!6 22I
%no&ledge: declarative6 KCD exter0
nal6 12? fa.lty nat.re of6 '"? in
the head and in the &orld6 '"0+06
1+1? i/precision of6 '"0'I? inac0
cessi8le to conscio.s inspection6
111? internal6 ?CD proced.ral6 KC1
'+? transfer of fro/ old to ne&
o84ect6 +2? of &hat to do6 +1010"
%oenig6 W56 1'06 2!0
%ontis6 T5 C6 '"6 221
%.r7tchi6 *56 20"6 2!"
Handa.er6 T5 %56 II6 22!
Hane6 E5 W56 I!6 222
Ha.rel6 ;56 1+16 2!10!2
Hearning: acc.racy of6 KKD of ar8i0
trary codes6 ?JD assi/ilation of
everyday o84ects and6 12? of digi0
tal &atch6 !1? of poetry6 I00 I1?
rote6 I+? si/plification thro.gh
/ental /odels6 C0D telephone
syste/s6 21
Hevy6 S56 2+6 220
He&is6 C6 1"06 222
Hichtenstein6 S56 12+6 221
Hoc7ins6 1!'
Hoc7o.ts6 1!'0!1
Hoe&y6 $56 2!+
Hong0ter/ /e/ory6 ?C, 1+2
Hord6 5 ;56 I16 222
Ho.dspea7ers6 nat.ral /appings
and6 2'02I
H.nenfeld6 #56 12"6 22I
Hynch6 %56 12I6 2!26 2!+
=acHean6 B56 1216 221
=alone6 T5 W56 '+6 20+6 2216 2!"
=an.als6 role of6 1'I6 120021
=appingCsD: ar8itrary6 226 21I?
8.ses and6 2'? cars and6 2'? co/0
p.ters and6 112? definition of6
'6 2!6 CK1CCD fa.cets and6 1II?
intentions of actions and6 '6 2?
nat.ral6 2!6 2'02I6 1'01+6 1++6
12+022? principle of6 2!6 2I021?
relation of to visi8ility6 +? seven
stages of action and6 '!? tele0
phones and6 2202"? .nnat.ral6
design and6 201? .ser0centered
design and6 122? visi8ility and6
126 2'
=ares6 G5 C6 1"06 1""6 222
=aterials6 psychology of6 2
=ath anxiety6 "20"!
=ayall6 W5 #56 26 212
=cClelland6 B5 H56 11I6 22I
=cClos7ey6 =56 !+6 220
=cG.rrin6 (56 1"1
=eisler6 S56 '26 221
=e/ory: for ar8itrary things6 I1?
associative nat.re of6 11I? capac0
ity6 I1? co/p.ter6 1+0? con0
spiracy against6 I!0II? critical6
Inde4 2'!
=e/ory 0continued2
12? decisions 8ased .pon6 11'?
thro.gh explanation6 I16 10012?
fa.lty nat.re of6 '"? fra/e theory
of6 11'01I? i/prove/ent6 ?KD
as 7no&ledge in the head6 I20II?
as 7no&ledge in the &orld6 120
1"? load6 red.ction of6 12!?
long0ter/6 ??1?C, .B.D as /ain0
tenance of experiences6 II0I1?
for /eaningf.l relationships6 I16
I+010? /.ltiple expos.re theory
of6 11+? overgenerali>ation and6
11'? overloading of6 I!0II? prop0
ositional encoding theory of6 11'?
retrieval6 ?CD sche/a theory of6
11'01I? se/antic net&or7s the0
ory of6 11'? short0ter/6 ??1?C,
12I0216 121? tho.ght and6 11'
=ental /odel: definition of6 11? de0
sign /odel as6 1+0020? to explain
the o8serva8le6 !2? po&er of6 I00
12? syste/ i/age6 1+2020? ta.ght
helplessness and6 "20 "!? .ser9s
/odel as6 1+2020
=iller6 *5 T56 22I
=iller6 G5 56 "+6 1126 221
=iller6 B56 1+'6 2!2
=iller6 B5 G56 212
=iyata6 A56 22"
=ne/onics6 ?K
=od.lari>ation6 112
=oran6 T56 1+06 2216 2!1
=orris6 N5 =56 '26 22!
=otorcycleCsD: Hego6 +20+"6 +I6
200? /e/ory for /eaningf.l re0
lationships and6 I2010
=.ltiple expos.re theory6 11+
=yciels7a6 %56 1016 22'
Naive psychology6 1'"? naive phys0
ics and6 !I0!+
Narro& str.ct.res6 12102"
National Transportation Safety
;oard6 ""
Nelson6 T56 2126 2!"6 2"0
Ne&ell6 56 11+6 2216 2!1
Ne&ton6 ,56 !I
Nic7erson6 $5 S56 '"6 221
Nor/ theory6 1126 22I
Nor/an6 *5 56 '16 ?0, ?K, I20106
+06 1016 11I6 1!26 1"16 1+06 1+'6
2210!'
Odyssey C#o/erD6 I1
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Olsen6 %56 1
Oral tradition6 rhy/ing constraints
and6 I00I1
O.tline processors6 211
OvenCsD: 21"? /ental /odel of6 !+0
!2? /icro&ave6 16 10!6 1!'
Panati6 C56 2!+
Papane76 -56 2!2
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Par7er6 S56 20+6 2!"
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2!? of the &orld6 "10"+
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Petros7i6 #56 2!2
Pe&6 $5 W56 1'+6 2!1
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I00I1
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I!
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Pri>es6 1'10'"6 1I26 1+!6 211
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'1? Heit>6 '? seven stages of action
2'" Inde4
and6 "'0"I6 '00 '1? .ser pro80
le/s in threading6 "2? visi8ility
and6 '
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$adioCsD: cloc76 3h./an engi0
neered3 to si/plify operation6
2"? co/plexity c.rve of in his0
tory of6 !0? design of6 !10!!? g.lf
of eval.ation and6 '2? s&itches
for6 2"
$ai46 *56 1'06 2!0
$eason6 B5 T56 1016 1026 22'
$efrigeratorCsD: concept.al /odels
of6 1"01+6 !+? g.lf of eval.ation
and6 '2
$ehearsal6 definition of6 1!
$e/inding6 1201!6 J0, 22"
$epetition6 116 J0
$esponse co/pati8ility6 122
$hy/ing6 constraints of6 I00I1
$ichards6 B5 T56 2+6 220
$oitsch6 P5 56 1!06 221
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201
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'1? as design aid6 '!
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10011
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2!20!!
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controls on6 C?D 8.rners6 16 CC,
22!02"? designer9s clients /ay
not 8e .sers6 1'1? g.lf of eval.a0
tion and6 '2? inco/prehensi8le
design of6 1? nat.ral /appings of
controls6 CK1CJ
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ternal reliance on6 ?CD /eaning0
f.l6 ?gD of /e/ory6 ??1?CD nar0
ro&6 12102"? shallo&6 1216 12'?
of tas7s6 1100!0? visi8le6 1201!6
1101+? &ide6 1120216 12"02'
S.ch/an6 H56 2"0
S.perstition6 false ca.sality as 8asis
of6 11
S&itches: affordances and6 JC, 220
2!? arrange/ent of6 2'022? con0
Inde4 2''
S&itches 0continued2
straints and6 JC, gi1gy, soft6 1!'?
visi8ility and6 100
Sy//etry6 /irror0i/age of h./an
8ody6 1I1
Syste/ i/age6 116 1+00216 12+
Tas7s: a.to/ation of6 12!02"6 121?
changing nat.re of6 12"021? goals
and intentions not &ell specified6
"+0"2? str.ct.re of6 1100!0?
transfor/ing diffic.lt into si/0
ple6 1++0+2
Technology: co/p.ter6 still in
yo.ng stages6 1100+!? control
and6 12202!? feed8ac7 and6 1220
2!? paradox of6 220!!? re/inder
devices and6 1"? self08la/e for
diffic.lties &ith6 "0? standardi>a0
tion and6 20102? )0shaped c.rve
in develop/ent of6 !0? visi8ility
and6 12202!
TelephoneCsD: access n./8ers6 I"?
co/plexity c.rve in history of6
!0? forces &or7ing against evol.0
tionary design and6 1"10"'?
f.nctions of6 2I021? of the f.0
t.re6 21!01'? good design of6
212020? hold 8.tton6 16 1+6 20?
/apping pro8le/s and6 2!02"?
poor design of6 1+022? .sa8ility
and6 2+? visi8ility and6 1+0226
10!
TelevisionCsD: co/plexity and6 !06
11"011? of the f.t.re6 21!01'?
g.lf of eval.ation and6 '2? in0
co/prehensi8le design of6 1? in0
terloc7s and6 1!'
Ther/ostatCsD: 8.yers /ay not 8e
.sers6 1'1? intelligent6 220? /en0
tal /odel of6 !+0!2
Third0person interaction6 1+"
Tho.ght: connectionist approach
to st.dy of6 11I012? conscio.s6
12'021? ded.ctive6 sche/a the0
ory and6 11I? explanation and
nat.re of6 "!0"2? /e/ory and6
11'? psychology of6 12? s.80
conscio.s6 12'02I
Ti/ing6 of standardi>ation6 202?
/etric day6 20!
Tradeoffs6 2+6 K?, 120 +06 11"6 1'I0
I!6 1+26 12'6 2026 2116 22'
T.r7le6 S56 10I6 22'
Tvers7y6 5 *56 1126 22I
Typesetting6 1"'
Type&riterCsD: as case history in ev0
ol.tion of design6 1"'0'1? de0
signed &ith needs of typist in
/ind6 1I1? 7ey8oards6 1"'0'1
)nderstanda8ility6 design princi0
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)sa8ility6 2+6 1+0126 211? design
principles for6 1!0!!? standardi0
>ation and6 2000202
)serCsD: 0centered design6 1+10
211? designers are not typical6
.KK1KCD designer9s clients /ay
not 8e6 1'10'+? /odel6 1+2020?
needs6 !!6 1I10I"? standardi>a0
tion and6 110
-erplan76 W56 1+26 2!16 2"0
-ideo cassette recorderCsD C-C$sD:
designer &orship of false i/ages
and6 111? diffic.lty in operating6
16 +16 11"011? of the f.t.re6 21"?
g.lf of eval.ation and6 '10'!?
g.lf of exec.tion and6 '1? .sa8il0
ity and6 CBD visi8ility and6 26 1000
(<(
-isi8ility6 26 1!6 1++? adding6 to ev0
eryday devices6 102? co/p.ters
2'I Inde4
and6 1+1? creating6 1101+6 2202!?
design aesthetics and6 100? design
and6 "6 ?1CD feed8ac7 and6 220
100? g.lf of eval.ation and6 1210
2+D g.lf of exec.tion and6 1210
g8D technology and6 120021?
telephones and6 I6 16 11022? .se
of so.nd for6 1020"
Wal7er6 *56 20+6 2!"
Wallace6 W5 T56 I16 222
Wargo6 *56 2I6 22"02'
Watches: co/plexity c.rve of in
history6 !00 !1? f.nctions of6 !1?
g.lf of eval.ation and6 '!? lac7 of
visi8le str.ct.re in6 1!? /ode er0
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and6 !00 !16 12'02I
Weiner6 E5 H56 1!06 1216 22+6 2!2
White6 ;5 A56 !16 220
Wide str.ct.res6 1120216 12"02'
Winograd6 E56 ?K, 22!
Winograd6 T56 2"0
Wolfe6 T56 21I6 2!'6 2!+
Wo>nia76 S56 .KK1K?
Wright6 (5 H56 1'1
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