Concepts in Animal Welfare 3rd Edition 2013

Module 1
Introduction to Animal Welfare
Lecture Notes
Slide 1:
This lecture was rst developed for WSPA by Dr David Main (University of Bristol) in
2003. It was revised by WSPA scientic advisors in 2012 using updates provided by
Dr Caroline Hewson.
Slide 2:
This module covers:
which animals we are concerned about and why (looking at sentience, suffering,
anthropomorphism, and death and animal welfare
why animal welfare is complex (considering different scientic denitions of animal welfare;
why animal welfare science involves more than veterinary medicine; the roles of science,
ethics and law).
Slide 3:
The formal, scientic study of animal welfare began ~50 years ago, and the discipline as a
whole is known as animal welfare science. However, the question of whether animals are
suffering and what to do about it has mattered to people around the world for thousands
of years.
A common criticism of this concern has been that animals dont have feelings as we do, and
people who worry about animals may simply be attributing human feelings to animals. This
attribution of human feelings to animals is called anthropomorphism.
However, modern science suggests that we share many feelings with animals, to some
degree. This scientic nding supports the common intuitive sense that many people around
the world have always had, i.e. that animals have similar feelings to us and therefore can and
do show signs of feeling fear, pain, pleasure and other emotions.
The capacity of humans and other animals to have feelings that they experience as pleasant or
unpleasant is called sentience.
The next slide looks at this denition.
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Slide 4:
Sentience is more than local sensation. A sentient being is one that has some ability to
evaluate the actions of others in relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its
own actions and their consequences, to assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some
degree of awareness (Broom, 2006). These feelings matter to the individual (Webster, 2011)
and the organism is conscious of feeling something pleasant or unpleasant. Knowing that
many species of animal are sentient means we know that they can suffer.
There is clear scientic evidence proving all vertebrates and some invertebrates are sentient.
Research into invertebrate sentience is continually advancing and we are learning of sentience
and new capacities of invertebrate species every day. Our understanding of sentience
is still developing; many species we now think are not sentient may actually be sentient,
and therefore able to suffer. For example, there is preliminary evidence that prawns may
be sentient.
Slide 5:
Sentience is the capacity to have feelings and to experience suffering and pleasure. It implies
a level of conscious awareness.
Animal sentience is the fact that animals can feel pain and suffer but also experience many
positive emotions, such as joy and pleasure.
Animal sentience is recognised in legislation around the world (e.g. the Lisbon treaty).
Studies have shown many animals can experience complex emotions which are often thought
to be unique to humans, such as grief and empathy.
The acceptance of animal sentience is based on decades of scientic evidence from the elds
of neuroscience, behavioural sciences and cognitive ethology.
Slide 6:
Knowing that many species of animal are sentient means we know that they can suffer.
Knowing that a species can suffer helps us to ask careful ethical and scientic questions
about how we can care for them in ways that prevent one or more bad feelings continuing for
more than a short period (Broom & Fraser, 2007).
There is growing evidence from neurobiology and behavioural studies that animals can also
experience pleasant sensory input that produces positive emotions such as satisfaction.
Knowing this will also inform how we care for animals.
Because we do not yet know much about positive emotions, most of animal welfare science
and most veterinary clinical work focuses on how to prevent animals from suffering. However,
it is likely that during your professional life, there will be practical developments in how to give
animals a positive experience of their lives, not simply a life that avoids suffering. Positive
experiences are what make an animals life a life worth living. An example of a positive
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experience could be, when training working animals, if you ask an animal to lift something or
do something they are not used to doing, timing the request with a treat will mean the animal
associates the task with a positive reward.
Slide 7:
Anthropomorphism is generally seen as a bad thing by scientists. However, some now
acknowledge that we can use human needs as a starting point for considering what animals
may need in order to have a good life or, at least, to avoid suffering. This is called critical
anthropomorphism. An example of this is pain: as humans, we nd surgery very painful,
especially if no anaesthesia or analgesia is used. It is reasonable to expect the same to be
true of many animals. Viuela-Fernandez et al. (2007) studied the anatomical responses of
farm and companion animals to drugs such as morphine; this proved that these animals can
feel pain.
However, it is essential not to rely on anthropomorphism alone, without science and other
information. For example, many pet cats are not friendly to humans and do not seem to
enjoy interacting much with their owners; this is because of their paternal genetics and early
experience (McCune, 1995). For most people, the presence of a companion is benecial, and
they assume that if they get a pet cat, the cat will enjoy the owners companionship and want
a lot of close contact, e.g. stroking. However, for many cats, this close attention from their
owners is unpleasant, and those cats tend to be independent, not sleep on the owners lap,
etc. In this case, the original assumption that the cat will like social contact is incorrect.
Slide 8:
As vets, we are concerned primarily with the welfare of domesticated and captive wild
species that humans keep as companions, for food, for research, or for entertainment.
The concerns include:
how those animals are cared for (including when neglect or cruelty may occur)
how they are used, e.g. milking cows; shearing sheep and llamas; experimental procedures
in research animals; activities required of animals in sport (e.g. dressage, rodeo) and
entertainment (e.g. circuses, dog ghting)
how they are handled and housed during transport and at sales
how those animals are killed so that they do not suffer during the lead-up to their death and
during the killing process (e.g. the slaughter of farm animals for meat, euthanasia because
of illness, or killing for population control).
The logic of sentience means that we must be concerned when wild animals are killed
because they are pests, or for food (e.g. ocean sh) or sport, that those killing processes
are also humane. Vets are not normally involved in the care of those wild species and do not
have oversight of their killing. However, because the profession is devoted to animal care, it is
important to be aware of the issues; other lectures in this course summarise them. (Adapted
from Fraser & MacRae, 2011.)
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Slide 9:
People disagree about whether it is right for humans to kill animals. However, the state of
death is not a welfare issue in its own right because welfare concerns the quality of an animals
life (suffering, etc), and when the animal is dead, he/she can no longer have experiences.
Humans usually want to have as long a life as possible and to avoid a poor quality of life.
However, with animals we are usually concerned with giving them a good quality of life, but not
in keeping them alive at all costs. Much of the time we end their lives for our own purposes,
and the manner in which the animal dies is an important welfare issue. For example, the
method of slaughter of food animals should, ideally, cause instantaneous death. For example,
farmed sh are stunned and then killed instantly. However, in ocean shing, the sh are caught
en masse and most die relatively slowly, by suffocation.
Although being dead is not a welfare concern, a high death rate in a group of animals is a
welfare concern. This is because, if many animals are dying, this may indicate poor husbandry
or another problem under which many animals become diseased and therefore experience
bad welfare.
Slide 10:
We have now claried what animals can suffer (sentient ones) and what we mean by sentience
and suffering.
We have also seen that critical anthropomorphism can be a helpful starting point if we are
concerned about animals suffering.
Finally, we have seen that death itself is not a welfare concern, but how animals die is
very important.
We shall now look in detail at the denition of animal welfare.
Slide 11:
In being concerned about animal suffering, we are concerned about what effect our treatment
of animals has on their experience of their lives. Different people have different ideas about
how we should treat animals, and they understand animal welfare in different ways. A common
view has been that if animals are healthy, their welfare must be good. However, animals can be
healthy but still not have a good life experience.
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Slide 12:
Most scientists agree that there are three areas to be considered when assessing
animal welfare.
The rst area is very familiar to vets: physical factors including the animals physiology, e.g.
growth rate or disease. For example, mild early tumours or infections can lead to detectable
physical problems for a dog without the dog having any mental problems. This is often
referred to as physical functioning when animals are not functioning well, their owners
usually ask the vet to nd out why and seek to change it.
The second area overlaps heavily with the rst and concerns the animals mental state,
including their preferences and their feelings. As vets, we are also familiar with an animals
feelings as they relate to health and how we can make ill animals feel better (for example, we
have drugs to treat nausea and pain). However, other feelings in animals that an animal would
choose to avoid can occur without there being any disease or production problem present,
e.g. fear and anxiety during handling, but these may not necessarily be associated with any
physical abnormality. Often, because owners have not noticed that their animals might have
these feelings, they have not asked vets to advise on them, and veterinary medicine in turn has
not concerned itself with them very much.
We can distinguish between welfare affecting the physical or mental state of animals. However,
most clinical diseases and injuries induce both physical damage to the body and some degree
of mental pain or discomfort.
The third area also overlaps with the other two, especially with the mental state of the animal.
It concerns an animals species-typical behaviours (e.g. hens dust-bathing; pigs rooting;
horses pair-bonding to groom; polar bears walking for many kilometres as part of their
hunting behaviour) and its environment whether it is kept in the sort of natural environment
in which it evolved. This naturalness area of animal welfare has not been a traditional
part of veterinary work, because often it is not an obvious cause of ill-health. If an animal
is kept in a way that does not allow them to express important behaviours, the animal can
develop abnormal behaviours, and may suffer from frustration and other negative emotions
as a result. Furthermore, restrictions on behaviour and environment may lead to physical
effects, sometimes severe. It is also important to understand that just as there are aspects of
naturalness that can lead to good welfare, for example, having the ability to express natural
behaviours, there are also aspects of naturalness that can lead to poor welfare. For example,
it can be natural for wild animals to starve, be diseased or feel extreme pain.
So we can see that these three areas of animal welfare may or may not overlap with
each other.
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Slide 13:
This slide illustrates these three areas of animal welfare and how they can overlap. Any
signicant compromise in one area tends to affect the other two, although this may not
always be the case.
For example, if a single hen is housed in a wire cage on her own and has food, water, a perch,
a nesting box, and an area for dust-bathing, her physical functioning is likely to be good.
Her mental state is likely to be good too, although she may feel frustration because of social
isolation which may occur even if other birds are close by, in other cages. She will also be able
to perform important behaviours like nesting before she lays. However, some people would still
have concerns for her welfare because keeping a chicken in a cage is not natural. The cages
actually impact on other areas of welfare including the health of the animal, e.g. wired oors
are likely to cause injuries; if an animal is frustrated then he or she may self-mutilate or
perform stereotypical behaviours, which can cause physical damage. So in this example,
the chickens welfare is affected in terms of all three of the naturalness, physical and
mental areas of welfare.
These three areas of welfare should never be looked at in isolation and we should focus on
the centre of the diagram where they all overlap. It requires a holistic approach to welfare,
incorporating all three and understanding the relationships between the areas.
A different example is a sheep which is farmed extensively but has a chronic infection of the
foot. Some aspects of naturalness of the sheeps welfare will be very good. However, his/her
welfare will be affected in terms of:
physical area (functioning: slower movement, weight loss because the animal is unable to
access enough good grass or extra feed), and
mental area (feelings: pain, hunger, perhaps fear, if separated from the ock, and therefore
is more vulnerable to predators)
the overlap between physical functioning and mental state.
These examples illustrate that animal welfare is a complex concept and that people including
scientists may not agree on an animals welfare because they value the three areas of
welfare differently. We will now look very briey at some of these earlier scientic denitions.
Slide 14:
The earliest denitions concerned physical areas of animal welfare, particularly in
connection with how an animal might cope with stress and how the body responds to stress
physiologically. Professor Don Broom developed this view of welfare (see slide).
McGlone (1993) proposed an apparently more extreme view: that welfare is only poor when
survival or reproduction are impaired by a physical problem (see slide). Similarly, Moberg
(1985) argued: ...the only defensible measurement of well-being in animals is to determine if
the animal is suffering from stress. Furthermore, I believe that the most appropriate indicator of
stress is the appearance of a pre-pathological state.
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Slide 15:
Other scientists argued for mental states, notably Professor Ian Duncan, as in this slide.
Professor Marion Dawkins made a similar argument: To be concerned about animal welfare is
to be concerned with the subjective feelings of animals, particularly the unpleasant subjective
feelings of suffering and pain (Dawkins, 1988).
More recently, researchers as well as vets, owners and others are all acknowledging that
an absence of negative feelings does not mean an animals welfare is good. To have good
welfare, it is important to have positive feelings such as happiness, safety, satisfaction, etc.
(Yeates & Main, 2008; Mellor et al., 2009).
Behavioural studies and research in neurobiology using techniques such as brain imaging
are beginning to indicate when animals experience positive feelings, and how much the
opportunity to experience positive feelings matters to animals (Mellor et al., 2009). However,
the idea is not that we have to prevent animals from ever having any negative feelings. That
is unrealistic and unnatural: negative feelings have adaptive value because they motivate the
animal to avoid, or escape from, harmful situations. Rather, the goal is not to keep animals in
such a way that they experience only negative feelings and cannot remove themselves from
that situation or adapt to it (Keeling et al., 2011).
Slide 16:
In the 1960s, there was widespread public concern about the effect on animals of the
intensication of farming. In the UK, the government set up a committee of scientists and
others to investigate the matter. The committee was named after its chair, Brambell, and they
issued a report known as the Brambell Report.
One of the comments in that report was: In principle, we disapprove of a degree of
connement of an animal which necessarily frustrates most of the major activities which make
up its natural behaviour (Brambell Committee, 1965).
In another example of how some authorities stress the importance of natural living, the
scientists Barnard and Hurst (1996) argued that species have evolved behaviours and
physiology that enable them to survive and to reproduce and that that is the basis of natural
selection. They concluded that domestic animals should be kept in ways that allow them to
perform the behaviours, i.e. in accordance with natural selection.
The American ethicist Professor Bernie Rollin has also argued for this. He noted that
animals have an inherent nature (in Greek, telos), or genetic traits manifest in breed and
temperament, and he argues that, to have good welfare, animals need to be able to full their
nature (Rollin, 1993).
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Slide 17:
Related to mental states and aspects of naturalness is the idea that animals need to perform
certain highly motivated behaviours that are typical of their species. Those behaviours would
have developed in their wild ancestors to enable them to obtain essential resources and
therefore, to survive (e.g. in calves, the act of suckling to ingest milk from the mother;
in pre-parturient sows, building a secluded nest in which to give birth).
The need to show a behaviour originates in the brain and therefore it is generally understood
now that if animals do not live in an environment that permits these behaviours the animals are
likely to experience negative emotions and therefore to suffer. This has given rise to the idea
that animals have behavioural needs and that being in an environment that enables animals to
express the behaviours can be a source of positive emotion (reviewed by Widowski, 2010).
Slide 18:
These examples show that animal welfare is a complex concept with three important areas
physical, mental and aspects of naturalness. The best denition therefore seems to be one
that combines all three areas.
That is what the World Organisation for Animal Health uses. The Organisation is known by
its French acronym OIE (Ofce International des Epizooties) and is based in Paris. The OIE
represents around 178 countries and territories, and is taking the lead in promoting animal
welfare standards around the world. Its statement regarding welfare is on this slide, and it
stresses the importance of scientic evidence. This denition covers all three aspects of
animal welfare:
Functioning (Physical)
coping; healthy; disease prevention; nutrition
Mental (Feelings)
comfortable; safe; not suffering from unpleasant states; humane handling and slaughter
Aspects of Naturalness
coping; able to express innate behaviour.
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Slide 19:
Another set of key statements that combines all elements of welfare are known by the term
the Five Freedoms.
The Five Freedoms were based on the concerns and recommendations laid out in the
Brambell Report (discussed above), published in the UK in 1965. They are listed on the
slide, and you can see that they also relate to physical functioning, mental state/feelings
and natural behaviour.
The Five Freedoms overlap with the three aspects of welfare: physical, mental and
naturalness. For example, to achieve functioning we need freedom from injury and disease,
freedom from hunger and thirst, freedom from thermal discomfort, freedom from fear and
distress, and so on.
Slide 20:
We started this lecture by clarifying that being concerned about animal welfare means being
concerned about animal suffering. We dened suffering, and we saw that only sentient
animals can suffer. We have now also claried what animal welfare is, and that it is a complex
concept that includes the physical, mental and aspects of naturalness. We have also seen that
because veterinary medicine has not traditionally been concerned with animal behaviours that
are not signs of disease, veterinary medicine has not traditionally covered all of animal welfare.
Individuals value these various aspects of animal welfare differently. That is what makes animal
welfare controversial, and the arguments have not changed over many millennia. We will now
look briey at the historical context, and see how animal welfare science developed.
Slide 21:
Taking India as our rst example, concern for animals is part of the ancient religions
practised there. Concern is motivated in part by a belief in reincarnation, that is, that the
animal may be a reincarnated human soul, and that your own actions as a human will affect
how you are reincarnated.
Another example from India is the Bishnoi tribe in Riajasthan, as on the slide.
Slide 22:
In China, Confucianism includes concern about animal suffering.
India and China are only two examples from around the world. Today, the dominant ethical
arguments about how we should treat animals are rooted in Western thought, starting with the
philosophies of the Ancient Greeks, with inuential additions from thinkers in Britain and other
European countries in the 18th and 19th centuries.

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Slide 23:
Fraser has pointed out that all todays arguments for example, about whether or not to eat
animals, and what our duty of care is to animals are the same concerns that the Ancient
Greeks had. Some of these are outlined here.
Slide 24:
Western thought developed following that era and in Britain in the 18th century, a philosopher
called Jeremy Bentham pointed out that treating animals well was nothing to do with whether
or not they could talk or think, but simply whether they could suffer. In 1822, Britain passed
what was probably the rst animal protection law in Western democracies. However, in non-
Christian religions such as Islam and Judaism, there were already religious laws in place about
treating animals well.
Slide 25:
Moving forward to modern-day concerns, these grew with the development of modern
intensive agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s in Europe and North America in the aftermath of
the Second World War. The focus was on making animals more productive (e.g. with faster
growth rates, producing more milk, producing larger litters) so that people could afford to eat
more nutritiously and so enjoy better health. The systems typically involve housing animals in
large numbers, and veterinary medicine was and is an important part of the animals welfare
there, because such housing allows infectious diseases to spread quickly. However, the
development and use of veterinary vaccines and antibiotics prevents them from suffering in
this way.
As other nations develop economically today, they too want affordable, nutritious animal-
based food, and national agricultural practices are drawing on and adapting the intensive
approaches developed in Europe. Two examples are:
1. In sub-Saharan Africa: cross-breeding zebu and other indigenous breeds, to increase their
fertility and other traits while retaining their suitability for being managed by pastoralist
farmers, under the local climatic conditions (Scholtz et al., 2011).
2. In Asia: there is rapidly growing demand for a more Western diet in most Asian countries,
notably China and India; that is, for a diet including more meat and sh, rather than
traditional rice/carbohydrate-based meals. There is also growing demand for dairy
products: by 2006, cheese dominated the growth in dairy consumption in both Malaysia
and Japan, perhaps because of its use in burgers at fast-food outlets such as McDonalds
and Wendys (Pingali, 2006).
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Slide 26:
As intensive husbandry developed in the Europe and the USA in the 1960s, there was
growing public concern about its effects on animals. In the UK, a book on the subject, Animal
Machines by Ruth Harrison, caused such concern that the British government called for a
committee of scientists, vets and others to examine the question. That was the Brambell
Committee, which published the Brambell Report, which was mentioned earlier.
There was also public concern about other animals under human care or inuence e.g. the use
of wild-caught primates for research, and the need to conserve wild species.
Slide 27:
In light of concern for farmed animals in particular, and the Brambell Committees report,
scientists began to formally investigate questions of animal welfare. The discipline is known
as animal welfare science, and it has arisen out of specic questions that the public want
answered, e.g. do hens need to dust-bathe as they would in the wild? Why do piglets bite
each others tails in intensive systems? Do dairy calves suffer if they are removed from their
mothers after 24 hours?
Because animal welfare science arose out of public concern, rather than from general curiosity
about the world, it is a mandated science (Fraser, 2008a).
Slide 28:
Animal welfare science is now a well-established eld, and this slide gives some examples of
that. The professional group for researchers in animal welfare is the International Society for
Applied Ethology (ISAE) (which was co-founded by a veterinarian, Andrew Fraser).The logo is
at the top of the slide, in green.
The other images show examples of the scientic and academic publications on the topic of
animal welfare. There at least 50 books on the topic in English; you will see some of them in
the reference list at the end of this module.
There are several peer-reviewed scientic journals that include a lot of animal welfare research,
and more and more of this research is appearing in the veterinary clinical journals as well. In
addition, there are two principal peer-reviewed journals that are dedicated to animal welfare
science. They are Animal Welfare (shown on the slide) and Applied Animal Behaviour Science,
which is the ISAEs publication.
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Slide 29:
The importance of animal welfare internationally is reected by the OIE, which we mentioned
earlier when discussing denitions of animal welfare. The OIEs member countries have
authorised the organisation to take the lead internationally on animal welfare with guidelines
and recommendations. The OIE has an Animal Welfare Working Group which holds
international conferences every three or four years, e.g. Egypt in 2008, Kuala Lumpur in 2012.
Since May 2005, the World Assembly of OIE Delegates has adopted seven animal welfare
standards in the Terrestrial Animal Health Code and two animal welfare standards in the OIE
Aquatic Animal Health Standards Code (Aquatic Code) (OIE, 2011b).
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations (UN) now has an online
resource for international and national information related to farm animal welfare, called the
Gateway to Farm Animal Welfare (FAO, 2011).
Slide 30:
Animal welfare is also an aspect of the One Health Initiative. This is an international
collaboration among all health professionals, including veterinarians. It aims to expand
knowledge of diseases in people and animals worldwide, especially because several diseases
put both animals and people at risk. Animal welfare is involved here because disease affects
feelings and functioning so much. Also, mass slaughter is sometimes used to prevent the
spread of some diseases to animals and people. When this is urgent (e.g. during outbreaks
of avian u) animals can suffer at the time of slaughter because personnel are not trained to
handle them humanely.
The One Health Initiative is supported by the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).
Slide 31:
We now move on to how veterinary medicine and animal welfare science overlap. We saw
earlier that veterinary medicine already concerns the functioning and feelings aspects of
animal welfare, through the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of disease. Infectious
diseases have been particularly important, especially in intensively farmed animals, and vets
have been very important in this aspect of animal welfare.
For example, there are now at least 60 vaccines against major infectious diseases in the main
domestic species (e.g. tetanus in horses; Newcastle disease in poultry; clostridial diseases
in sheep; rabies in many species; distemper in dogs). These diseases would otherwise
cause widespread suffering. Vets continue to research infectious diseases and to advise
governments and individual owners about the best use of these vaccines, so that many
millions of animals are protected each year.
As research has revealed more about how animals can suffer for reasons other than
infection or other disease, vets in different countries are including this consideration more
and more. Because of the rapid expansion in knowledge of health and diseases infectious
and otherwise in all veterinary species, veterinary medicine has not always kept up with
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developments in the other elds relevant to animal welfare, especially the eld of applied
animal behaviour.
Vets have always understood a lot about normal animal behaviour as it relates to physical
health: many clinical signs of disease are changes in normal behaviour (e.g. a calf that is
mouth-breathing instead of breathing quietly through his/her nose; a horse that is lame, i.e.
not bearing weight evenly on all four legs). Vets also use an animals behaviour to assess how
much pain he/she may be feeling, and to determine the appropriate mixture of analgesic drugs
to give.
What is still quite new for veterinarians is the growing scientic knowledge about behavioural
signs that occur because the animals handling or housing are not appropriate. Similarly, there
is more and more research arising on the importance of positive emotions in animal welfare;
this research may in time tell us how, as vets, we can advise animal owners about how to
facilitate more positive experiences for animals.
Slide 32:
Today, countries worldwide agree that animal welfare is important, and animal welfare
science is an established scientic discipline. In addition to the many government research
departments and non-veterinary university faculties that teach and study animal welfare, more
and more vet schools also have research groups and postgraduate training in animal welfare.
The World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommends that animal welfare is a required
Day 1 competency for all veterinary graduates (OIE, 2011c). That means that when you
graduate as a vet, you should be able to:
explain animal welfare and the related responsibilities of owners, handlers, veterinarians
and others responsible for the care of animals; identify animal welfare problems and
participate in corrective actions; and know where to nd up-to-date and reliable information
regarding local, national and international animal welfare regulations/standards in order to
describe humane methods for:
animal production;
transport; and
slaughter for human consumption and killing for disease control purposes.
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Slide 33:
Many people today agree that we have an obligation towards animals. Their reasons for this
may differ. For example, for some people it is because animals have inherent value. For others,
it is because animals have economic value to us, i.e. are useful to us for food, etc. For others,
it is because of empathy, i.e. concern that animals can suffer. For others, it is because the
species of animal is becoming rare and we have the power to prevent it from dying out.
These different reasons for showing concern for animals mean that, in turn, there are different
views about what our obligations to animals entail. That is the eld of ethics how we should
treat animals. Other lectures will look more closely at ethics, and at how the law on animals
may or may not reect these concerns.
Slide 34:
To sum up this introduction to animal welfare:
Animal welfare is concerned with how sentient animals experience their lives, in terms of
their physical functioning, mental state and natural behaviours. To understand these three
aspects requires science hence animal welfare science.
Animal welfare is affected by peoples values how they think we should treat animals,
and what they think is important for animals. Science helps us to understand some of
these issues. Ethics then weighs that knowledge with human desires (e.g. to earn a living
by farming; to clear land and build houses), so that we can decide how we should treat
animals. That is the eld of animal ethics.
Related to this, animal welfare also involves the law, i.e. societys rules about how we
must treat animals. Ideally, animal welfare law should reect the decisions that society
has reached using science and ethical reasoning about how we ought to treat animals.
However, often animal welfare law may set a low standard of care because there may not
be public money available to enforce higher standards or because the public is not aware of
welfare problems or is not willing to spend money on enforcing higher standards of welfare.
The rest of this course will examine these three aspects of animal welfare science, ethics
and law and show you how they apply in practice.