SOLAR SYSTEM, COORDINATES

1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM

The solar system has been a topic of study from the beginning of history. For nearly all
that time, people have had to rely on long-range and indirect measurements of its objects.
For all of human history and prehistory, observations were based on visible light. Then in
the 20th century people discovered how to use additional parts of the spectrum. Radio
waves, received here on arth, have been used since !"#! to investigate celestial objects.
$tarting with the emergence of space flight in !"%&, instruments operating above arth's
obscuring atmosphere could ta(e advantage not only of light and radio, but virtually the
whole spectrum )the electromagnetic spectrum is the subject of a later chapter*. +t last,
with interplanetary travel, instruments can be carried to many solar system objects, to
measure their physical properties and dynamics directly and at very close range. ,n the
2!st century, (nowledge of the solar system is advancing at an unprecedented rate. The
solar system consists of an average star we call the sun, the planets -ercury, .enus,
arth, -ars, /upiter, $aturn, 0ranus, 1eptune, and 2luto. ,t includes the satellites of the
planets, numerous comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and the interplanetary medium, which
permeates interplanetary space. The sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy in
the solar system. The sun's nearest (nown stellar neighbor is a red dwarf star called
2ro3ima 4entauri, at a distance of about 5.2 light years. )+ light year is the distance light
travels in a year, at about #00,000 (m per second.* 6ur whole solar system, together with
all the local stars you can see on a clear dar( night, orbits the center of our home gala3y.
This spiral dis( we call the -il(y 7ay includes some 200 billion stars, thousands of
gigantic clouds of gas and dust, and enormous 8uantities of mysterious dar( matter.
,nterstellar space is the term given to the space between stars in the gala3y. 7e are
beginning to find that many stars besides the sun harbor their own planets, called e3tra-
solar planets. +s of /anuary 2005 astronomers have detected about !00 planets orbiting
other stars. They are all giant, /upiter-li(e planets, made mostly of gas, since current
detection methods cannot reveal smaller worlds. Their formation process is still unclear.
Motions within the Solar System
The sun and planets each rotate on their a3es. 9ecause they formed from the same
rotating dis(, the planets, most of their satellites, and the asteroids, all revolve around the
sun in the same direction as it rotates, and in nearly circular orbits. The planets orbit the
sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic )because it is where eclipses occur*.
2luto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined )!& degrees* and the
most highly elliptical of all the planets. 9ecause its orbit is so eccentric, 2luto sometimes
comes closer to the sun than does 1eptune. ,t's interesting to note that most planets rotate
in or near the plane in which they orbit the sun, since they formed, rotating, out of the
same dust ring. 0ranus must have suffered a whopping collision, though, that set it
rotating on its side.
Distances within the Solar System
The most common unit of measurement for distances within the solar system is the
astronomical unit )+0*. The +0 is based on the mean distance from the sun to arth,
roughly !%0,000,000 (m. /2:'s ;eep $pace 1etwor( refined the precise value of the +0
in the !"<0s by obtaining radar echoes from .enus. This measurement was important
since spacecraft navigation depends on accurate (nowledge of the +0. +nother way to
indicate distances within the solar system is in terms of light time, which is the distance
the light travels in a unit of time. ;istances within the solar system, while vast compared
to our travels on arth's surface, are comparatively small-scale in astronomical terms. For
reference, 2ro3ima 4entauri, the nearest star at about 5 light years away, is over 2<%,000
+0 from the sun.
Liht Time A!!ro"imate Distance E"am!le
# seconds "00,000 (m =arth--oon Round Trip
# minutes %5,000,000 (m =$un to -ercury
>.# minutes !5",<00,000 (m $un to arth )! +0*
! hour !,000,000,000 (m =!.% 3 $un-/upiter ;istance
!2.% hours "0 +0 .oyager-! )/anuary, 2005*
! year <#,000 +0 :ight ?ear
5 years 2%2,000 +0 =1e3t closest star 2ro3ima 4entauri
1.# RE$ERENCE $RAMES AND COORDINATE SYSTEMS
$patial coordinates and timing conventions are adopted in order to consistently identify
locations and motions of an observer, of natural objects in the solar system, and of
spacecraft traversing interplanetary space or orbiting planets or other bodies. 7ithout
these conventions it would be impossible to navigate the solar system.
Terrestrial Coor%inates
+ great circle is an imaginary circle on the surface of a sphere whose center is the center
of the sphere. @reat circles that pass through both the north and south poles are called
meridians, or lines of longitude. For any point on the surface of arth a meridian can be
defined. The prime meridian, the starting point measuring the east-west locations of other
meridians, mar(s the site of the old Royal 6bservatory in @reenwich, ngland.
:ongitude is e3pressed in degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc from 0 to !>0 degrees
eastward or westward from the prime meridian. For e3ample, downtown 2asadena,
4alifornia, is located at !!> degrees, > minutes, 5! seconds of arc west of the prime
meridianA !!>B >' 5!C 7. The starting point for measuring north-south locations on arth
is the e8uator, a great circle which is everywhere e8uidistant from the poles. 4ircles in
planes parallel to the e8uator define north-south measurements called parallels, or lines of
latitude. :atitude is e3pressed as an arc subtended between the e8uator and the parallel,
as seen from the center of the arth. ;owntown 2asadena is located at #5 degrees, 0>
minutes, 55 seconds latitude north of the e8uatorA #5B 0>' 55C 1. 6ne degree of latitude
e8uals appro3imately !!! (m on the arth's surface, and by definition e3actly <0 nautical
miles. 9ecause meridians converge at the poles, the length of a degree of longitude varies
from !!! (m at the e8uator to 0 at the poles where longitude becomes a point.

:ongitudes :atitudes Terrestrial 4oordinates
Rotation an% Re&ol'tion
CRotationC refers to an object's spinning motion about its own a3is. CRevolutionC refers
the object's orbital motion around another object. For e3ample, arth rotates on its own
a3is, producing the 25-hour day. arth revolves about the $un, producing the #<%-day
year. + satellite revolves around a planet.
arth's Rotation
The arth rotates on its a3is relative to the sun every 25.0 hours mean solar time, with an
inclination of 2#.5% degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun. -ean solar time
represents an average of the variations caused by arth's non-circular orbit. ,ts rotation
relative to Cfi3edC stars )sidereal time* is # minutes %<.%% seconds shorter than the mean
solar day, the e8uivalent of one solar day per year.
(recession o) Earth*s A"is
Forces associated with the rotation of arth cause the planet to be slightly oblate,
displaying a bulge at the e8uator. The moon's gravity primarily, and to a lesser degree the
sun's gravity, act on arth's oblateness to move the a3is perpendicular to the plane of
arth's orbit. Dowever, due to gyroscopic action, arth's poles do not Cright themselvesC
to a position perpendicular to the orbital plane. ,nstead, they precess at "0 degrees to the
force applied. This precession causes the a3is of arth to describe a circle having a 2#.5
degree radius relative to a fi3ed point in space over about 2<,000 years, a slow wobble
reminiscent of the a3is of a spinning top swinging around before it falls over.


9ecause of the precession of the poles over 2<,000 years, all the stars, and other celestial
objects, appear to shift west to east at the rate of .0! degree each year )#<0 degrees in
2<,000 years*. This apparent motion is the main reason for astronomers as well as
spacecraft operators to refer to a common epoch such as /2000.0. +t the present time in
arth's 2<,000 year precession cycle, a bright star happens to be very close, less than a
degree, from the north celestial pole. This star is called 2olaris, or the 1orth $tar. $tars do
have their own real motion, called proper motion. ,n our vicinity of the gala3y, only a few
bright stars e3hibit a large enough proper motion to measure over the course of a human
lifetime, so their motion does not generally enter into spacecraft navigation. 9ecause of
their immense distance, stars can be treated as though they are references fi3ed in space.
)$ome stars at the center of our gala3y, though, display tremendous speeds as they orbit
close to the massive blac( hole located there.*
N'tation
$uperimposed on the 2<,000-year precession is a small nodding motion with a period of
!>.< years and amplitude of ".2 arc seconds. This nutation can trace its cause to the %
degree difference between the plane of the -oon's orbit, the plane of the arth's orbit,
and the gravitational tug on one other.
Re&ol'tion o) Earth
arth revolves in orbit around the sun in #<% days, < hours, " minutes with reference to
the stars, at a speed ranging from 2".2" to #0.2" (mEs. The < hours, " minutes adds up to
about an e3tra day every fourth year, which is designated a leap year, with the e3tra day
added as February 2"th. arth's orbit is elliptical and reaches its closest approach to the
sun, a perihelion of !5&,0"0,000 (m, on about /anuary fourth of each year. +phelion
comes si3 months later at !%2,!00,000 (m.
E!ochs
9ecause we ma(e observations from arth, (nowledge of arth's natural motions is
essential. +s described above, our planet rotates on its a3is daily and revolves around the
sun annually. ,ts a3is precesses and nutates. ven the Cfi3edC stars move about on their
own. 4onsidering all these motions, a useful coordinate system for locating stars, planets,
and spacecraft must be pinned to a single snapshot in time. This snapshot is called an
epoch. 9y convention, the epoch in use today is called /2000.0, which refers to the mean
e8uator and e8uino3 of year 2000, nominally /anuary !st !2A00 hours 0niversal Time
)0T*. The C/C means /ulian year, which is #<%.2% days long. 6nly the 2<,000-year
precession part of the whole precessionEnutation effect is considered, defining the mean
e8uator and e8uino3 for the epoch. The last epoch in use previously was 9!"%0.0 - the
mean e8uator and e8uino3 of !"5" ;ecember #!st 22A0" 0T, the C9C meaning 9esselian
year, the fictitious solar year introduced by F. 7. 9essell in the nineteenth century.
8uations are published for interpreting data based on past and present epochs.
1.+ CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
+ basic re8uirement for studying the heavens is determining where in the s(y things are.
To specify s(y positions, astronomers have developed several coordinate systems. ach
uses a coordinate grid projected on the 4elestial $phere, in analogy to the @eographic
coordinate system used on the surface of the arth. The coordinate systems differ only in
their choice of the fundamental plane, which divides the s(y into two e8ual hemispheres
along a great circle. )the fundamental plane of the geographic system is the arth's
e8uator*. ach coordinate system is named for its choice of fundamental plane.
E,'atorial coor%inate system
The Equatorial coordinate system is probably the most widely used celestial coordinate
system. ,t is also the most closely related to the @eographic coordinate system, because
they use the same fundamental plane, and the same poles. The projection of the arth's
e8uator onto the celestial sphere is called the 4elestial 8uator. $imilarly, projecting the
geographic 2oles onto the celestial sphere defines the 1orth and $outh 4elestial 2oles.
The Celestial S!here
The celestial sphere is an imaginary sphere of gigantic radius, centered on the arth. +ll
objects which can be seen in the s(y can be thought of as lying on the surface of this
sphere. + useful construct for describing locations of objects in the s(y is the celestial
sphere. The center of the earth is the center of the celestial sphere. The figure illustrates
that the sphere's poles and e8uator are analogs of the corresponding constructs on the
surface of the arth. 7e can specify precise location of objects on the celestial sphere by
giving the celestial e8uivalent of their latitudes and longitudes. The point on the celestial
sphere directly overhead for an observer is the zenith. +n imaginary arc passing through
the celestial poles and through the Fenith is called the observer's meridian. The nadir is
the direction opposite the FenithA for e3ample, straight down from a spacecraft to the
center of the planet. 6f course, we (now that the objects in the s(y are not on the surface
of a sphere centered on the arth, so why bother with such a constructG verything we
see in the s(y is so very far away, that their distances are impossible to gauge just by
loo(ing at them. $ince their distances are indeterminate, you only need to (now the
direction toward the object to locate it in the s(y. ,n this sense, the celestial sphere model
is a very practical model for mapping the s(y.
Dowever, there is an important difference between the e8uatorial and geographic
coordinate systemsA the geographic system is fi3ed to the arthH it rotates as the arth
does. The 8uatorial system is fi3ed to the stars, so it appears to rotate across the s(y
with the stars, but of course it is really the arth rotating under the fi3ed s(y.
The latitudinal )latitude-li(e* angle of the 8uatorial system is called Declination );ec
for short*. ,t measures the angle of an object above or below the 4elestial 8uator.
;eclination );4* is the celestial sphere's e8uivalent of latitude and it is e3pressed in
degrees, just li(e latitude. For ;4, I and - refer to north and south. The celestial e8uator
is 0B ;4, and the poles are I"0B and -"0B.
The longitudinal angle is called the Right Ascension )R+ for short*. ,t measures the angle
of an object ast of the .ernal 8uino3. ,t is the celestial e8uivalent of longitude 0nli(e
longitude, Right +scension is usually measured in hours, minutes, and seconds instead of
degrees, because the apparent rotation of the 8uatorial coordinate system. $ince a full
rotation of the s(y ta(es 25 hours to complete, there are )#<0 degrees E 25 hours* J !%
degrees in one Dour of Right +scension. +n hour of R+ is !%B of s(y rotation.
+nother important feature intersecting the celestial sphere is the ecliptic plane. This is the
plane in which the arth orbits the sun, 2#.5B from the celestial e8uator. :oo(ing at the
ecliptic, the great circle mar(ing the intersection of the ecliptic plane on the celestial
sphere is where the sun and planets appear to travel, and it's where the $un and -oon are
during eclipses )that's where the plane and circle get their names*. The Fero point for R+
is one of the points where the ecliptic circle intersects the celestial e8uator circle. ,t's
defined to be the point where the sun crosses into the northern hemisphere beginning
springA the vernal e8uino3, also (nown as the first point of +ries. The R+ and ;4 of an
object specify its position uni8uely on the celestial sphere just as the latitude and
longitude do for an object on the arth's surface. For e3ample, the very bright star $irius
has celestial coordinates < hr 5% min R+ and -!<B 5#' ;4.
-reat Circles
4onsider a sphere, such as the arth, or the 4elestial $phere. The intersection of any
plane with the sphere will result in a circle on the surface of the sphere. ,f the plane
happens to contain the center of the sphere, the intersection circle is a Great Circle. @reat
circles are the largest circles that can be drawn on a sphere. +lso, the shortest path
between any two points on a sphere is always along a great circle
The Celestial E,'ator
The Celestial Equator is an imaginary great circle on the celestial sphere. The celestial
e8uator is the fundamental plane of the 8uatorial 4oordinate $ystem, so it is defined as
the locus of points with ;eclination of Fero degrees. ,t is also the projection of the arth's
e8uator onto the s(y. The 4elestial 8uator and the cliptic are set at an angle of 2#.%
degrees in the s(y. The points where they intersect are the .ernal and +utumnal
8uino3es.
Celestial (oles
The s(y appears to drift overhead from east to west, completing a full circuit around the
s(y in 25 )$idereal* hours. This phenomenon is due to the spinning of the arth on its
a3is. The arth's spin a3is intersects the 4elestial $phere at two points. These points are
the Celestial Poles. +s the arth spinsH they remain fi3ed in the s(y, and all other points
seem to rotate around them. The celestial poles are also the poles of the 8uatorial
4oordinate $ystem, meaning they have Declinations of I"0 degrees and -"0 degrees )for
the 1orth and $outh celestial poles, respectively*.
The 1orth 4elestial 2ole currently has nearly the same coordinates as the bright star
Polaris )which is :atin for K2ole $tarL*. This ma(es 2olaris useful for navigationA not
only is it always above the 1orth point of the horiFon, but its +ltitude angle is always
)nearly* e8ual to the observer's @eographic :atitude )however, 2olaris can only be seen
from locations in the 1orthern hemisphere*. The fact that 2olaris is near the pole is purely
a coincidence. ,n fact, because of 2recession, 2olaris is only near the pole for a small
fraction of the time.
The E,'ino"es
-ost people (now the .ernal and +utumnal 8uino3es as calendar dates, signifying the
beginning of the 1orthern hemisphere's $pring and +utumn, respectively. ;id you (now
that the e8uino3es are also positions in the s(yG
The 4elestial 8uator and the cliptic are two @reat 4ircles on the 4elestial $phere, set
at an angle of 2#.% degrees. The two points where they intersect are called the Equinoxes.
The Vernal Equinox has coordinates R+J0.0 hours, ;ecJ0.0 degrees. The Autumnal
Equinox has coordinates R+J!2.0 hours, ;ecJ0.0 degrees. The e8uino3es are times at
which the center of the $un is directly above the e8uator, mar(ing the beginning of spring
and autumn. The day and night would be of e8ual length at that time, if the $un were a
point and not a disc, and if there were no atmospheric refraction. 7ith the apparent disc
of the $un, and the arth's atmospheric refraction, day and night actually become e8ual at
a point within a few days of each e8uino3. The 8uino3es are important for mar(ing the
seasons. 9ecause they are on the cliptic, the $un passes through each e8uino3 every
year. 7hen the $un passes through the .ernal 8uino3 )usually on -arch 2!st*, it crosses
the 4elestial 8uator from $outh to 1orth, signifying the end of 7inter for the 1orthern
hemisphere. $imilarly, when the $un passes through the +utumnal 8uino3 )usually on
$eptember 2!st*, it crosses the 4elestial 8uator from 1orth to $outh, signifying the end
of 7inter for the $outhern hemisphere.
.ori/ontal Coor%inate System
The DoriFontal coordinate system uses the observer's local horiFon as the Fundamental
2lane. This conveniently divides the s(y into the upper hemisphere that you can see, and
the lower hemisphere that you can't )because the arth is in the way*. The pole of the
upper hemisphere is called the Menith. The pole of the lower hemisphere is called the
nadir. The angle of an object above or below the horiFon is called the Altitude )+lt for
short*. The angle of an object around the horiFon )measured from the 1orth point, toward
the ast* is called the Azimuth. The DoriFontal 4oordinate $ystem is sometimes also
called the +ltE+F 4oordinate $ystem.
The DoriFontal 4oordinate $ystem is fi3ed to the arth, not the $tars. Therefore, the
+ltitude and +Fimuth of an object changes with time, as the object appears to drift across
the s(y. ,n addition, because the DoriFontal system is defined by your local horiFon, the
same object viewed from different locations on arth at the same time will have different
values of +ltitude and +Fimuth.
DoriFontal coordinates are very useful for determining the Rise and $et times of an object
in the s(y. 7hen an object has +ltitudeJ0 degrees, it is either Rising )if its +Fimuth is N
!>0 degrees* or $etting )if its +Fimuth is O !>0 degrees*.
The orizon is the line that separates arth from $(y. -ore precisely, it is the line that
divides all of the directions you can possibly loo( into two categoriesA those which
intersect the arth, and those which do not. +t many locations, the DoriFon is obscured
by trees, buildings, mountains, etc.. Dowever, if you are on a ship at sea, the DoriFon is
stri(ingly apparent. The horiFon is the !undamental Plane of the DoriFontal 4oordinate
$ystem. ,n other words, it is the locus of points which have an Altitude of Fero degrees, it
is either Rising )if its +Fimuth is N !>0 degrees* or $etting )if its +Fimuth is O !>0
degrees*.
Ecli!tic coor%inate system
The cliptic coordinate system uses the cliptic for its Fundamental 2lane. The cliptic
is the path that the $un appears to follow across the s(y over the course of a year. ,t is
also the projection of the arth's orbital plane onto the 4elestial $phere. The latitudinal
angle is called the Ecliptic "atitude, and the longitudinal angle is called the Ecliptic
"ongitude. :i(e Right +scension in the 8uatorial system, the Feropoint of the cliptic
:ongitude is the .ernal 8uino3.
7hat do you thin( such a coordinate system would be useful forG ,f you guessed charting
solar system objects, you are rightP ach of the planets )e3cept 2luto* orbits the $un in
roughly the same plane, so they always appear to be somewhere near the cliptic )i.e.,
they always have small ecliptic latitudes*.
@alactic 4oordinate $ystem
The @alactic coordinate system uses the #il$y %ay as its Fundamental 2lane. The
latitudinal angle is called the Galactic "atitude, and the longitudinal angle is called the
Galactic "ongitude. This coordinate system is useful for studying the @ala3y itself. For
e3ample, you might want to (now how the density of stars changes as a function of
@alactic :atitude, to how much the dis( of the -il(y 7ay is flattened. +ctually, the
e8uatorial coordinates are not 8uite fi3ed to the stars. $ee precession. +lso, if Dour +ngle
is used in place of Right +scension, then the 8uatorial system is fi3ed to the arth, not
to the stars.
@eographic 4oordinates:ocations on arth can be specified using a spherical coordinate
system. The geographic )Kearth0ma!!inL* coordinate system is aligned with the
spin a3is of the arth. ,t defines two angles measured from the center of the arth.
6ne angle, called the Latitude, measures the angle between any point and the
8uator. The other angle, called the Longitude, measures the angle along the
8uator from an arbitrary point on the arth )@reenwich, ngland is the accepted
Fero-longitude point in most modern societies*.
9y combining these two angles, any location on arth can be specified. For e3ample,
9altimore, -aryland )0$+* has a latitude of #".# degrees 1orth, and a longitude of &<.<
degrees 7est. $o, a vector drawn from the center of the arth to a point #".# degrees
above the 8uator and &<.< degrees west of @reenwich, ngland will pass through
9altimore.
The 8uator is obviously an important part of this coordinate systemH it represents the
zeropoint of the latitude angle, and the halfway point between the poles. The 8uator is
the !undamental Plane of the geographic coordinate system. +ll $pherical 4oordinate
$ystems define such a Fundamental 2lane.
:ines of constant :atitude are called Parallels. They trace circles on the surface of the
arth, but the only parallel that is a @reat 4ircle is the 8uator ):atitudeJ0 degrees*.
:ines of constant :ongitude are called #eridians. The -eridian passing through
@reenwich is the Prime #eridian )longitudeJ0 degrees*. 0nli(e 2arallels, all -eridians
are great circles, and -eridians are not parallelA they intersect at the north and south
poles.
3erciseA
7hat is the longitude of the 1orth 2oleG ,ts latitude is "0 degrees 1orth.
This is a tric( 8uestion. The :ongitude is meaningless at the north pole )and the south
pole too*. ,t has all longitudes at the same time. -eora!hic Coor%inates :ocations on
arth can be specified using a spherical coordinate system. The geographic )Kearth-
mappingL* coordinate system is aligned with the spin a3is of the arth. ,t defines two
angles measured from the center of the arth. 6ne angle, called the "atitude, measures
the angle between any point and the 8uator. The other angle, called the "ongitude,
measures the angle along the 8uator from an arbitrary point on the arth )@reenwich,
ngland is the accepted Fero-longitude point in most modern societies*.
9y combining these two angles, any location on arth can be specified. For e3ample,
9altimore, -aryland )0$+* has a latitude of #".# degrees 1orth, and a longitude of &<.<
degrees 7est. $o, a vector drawn from the center of the arth to a point #".# degrees
above the 8uator and &<.< degrees west of @reenwich, ngland will pass through
9altimore.
The 8uator is obviously an important part of this coordinate systemH it represents the
zeropoint of the latitude angle, and the halfway point between the poles. The 8uator is
the !undamental Plane of the geographic coordinate system. +ll $pherical 4oordinate
$ystems define such a Fundamental 2lane.
:ines of constant :atitude are called Parallels. They trace circles on the surface of the
arth, but the only parallel that is a @reat 4ircle is the 8uator ):atitudeJ0 degrees*.
:ines of constant :ongitude are called #eridians. The -eridian passing through
@reenwich is the Prime #eridian )longitudeJ0 degrees*. 0nli(e 2arallels, all -eridians
are great circles, and -eridians are not parallelA they intersect at the north and south
poles.
7hat is the longitude of the 1orth 2oleG ,ts latitude is "0 degrees 1orth.
This is a tric( 8uestion. The :ongitude is meaningless at the north pole )and the south
pole too*. ,t has all longitudes at the same time.
-reat Circles
4onsider a sphere, such as the arth, or the 4elestial $phere. The intersection of any
plane with the sphere will result in a circle on the surface of the sphere. ,f the plane
happens to contain the center of the sphere, the intersection circle is a Great Circle. @reat
circles are the largest circles that can be drawn on a sphere. +lso, the shortest path
between any two points on a sphere is always along a great circle.
.o'r Anle
+s e3plained in the $idereal Time article, the Right Ascension of an object indicates the
$idereal Time at which it will transit across your :ocal -eridian. +n object's our Angle
is defined as the difference between the current :ocal $idereal Time and the Right
+scension of the objectA
D+obj J :$T - R+obj
Thus, the object's Dour +ngle indicates how much $idereal Time has passed since the
object was on the :ocal -eridian. ,t is also the angular distance between the object and
the meridian, measured in hours )! hour J !% degrees*. For e3ample, if an object has an
hour angle of 2.% hours, it transited across the :ocal -eridian 2.% hours ago, and is
currently #&.% degrees 7est of the -eridian. 1egative Dour +ngles indicate the time
until the next transit across the :ocal -eridian. 6f course, an Dour +ngle of Fero means
the object is currently on the :ocal -eridian.
The Local Meri%ian
The :ocal -eridian is an imaginary @reat 4ircle on the 4elestial $phere that is
perpendicular to the local DoriFon. ,t passes through the 1orth point on the DoriFon,
through the 4elestial 2ole, up to the Menith, and through the $outh point on the DoriFon.
9ecause it is fi3ed to the local DoriFon, stars will appear to drift past the :ocal -eridian
as the arth spins. ?ou can use an object's Right +scension and the :ocal $idereal Time
to determine when it will cross your :ocal -eridian.
1enith
The Menith is the point in the s(y where you are loo(ing when you loo( Kstraiht
'!L from the ground. -ore precisely, it is the point on the s(y with an Altitude of
I"0 ;egreesH it is the 2ole of the .ori/ontal Coor%inate System. @eometrically,
it is the point on the Celestial S!here intersected by a line drawn from the center of
the arth through your location on the arth's surface. The Menith is, by definition,
a point along the Local Meri%ian.
2'lian Day
/ulian ;ays are a way of rec(oning the current date by a simple count of the
number of days that have passed since some remote, arbitrary date. This number of days
is called the &ulian Day, abbreviated as /;. The starting point, /;J0, is /anuary !, 5&!#
94 )or -5&!2 /anuary !, since there was no year '0'*. /ulian ;ays are very useful because
they ma(e it easy to determine the number of days between two events by simply
subtracting their /ulian ;ay numbers. $uch a calculation is difficult for the standard
)@regorian* calendar, because days are grouped into months, which contain a variable
number of days, and there is the added complication of :eap ?ears.
4onverting from the standard )@regorian* calendar to /ulian ;ays and vice versa is best
left to a special program written to do this, such as the Q$tars +strocalculator. Dowever,
for those interested, here is a simple e3ample of a @regorian to /ulian day converterA
/; J ; - #20&% I !5<!R) ? I 5>00 I ) - - !5 * E !2 * E 5 I #<&R) - - 2 - ) - - !5 * E !2 R
!2 * E !2 - #R) ) ? I 5"00 I ) - - !5 * E !2 * E !00 * E 5
where ; is the day )!-#!*, - is the -onth )!-!2*, and ? is the year )!>0!-20""*. 1ote
that this formula only wor(s for dates between !>0! and 20"". -ore remote dates re8uire
a more complicated transformation.
+n e3ample /ulian ;ay isA /; 2550%>>, which corresponds to ! /an, !"&0.
/ulian ;ays can also be used to tell timeH the time of day is e3pressed as a fraction of a
full day, with !2A00 noon )not midnight* as the Fero point. $o, #A00 pm on ! /an !"&0 is
/; 2550%>>.!2% )since #A00 pm is # hours since noon, and #E25 J 0.!2% day*. 1ote that
the /ulian ;ay is always determined from 0niversal Time, not :ocal Time.
+stronomers use certain /ulian ;ay values as important reference points, called Epochs.
6ne widely-used epoch is called /2000H it is the /ulian ;ay for ! /an, 2000 at !2A00 noon
J /; 25%!%5%.0.
-uch more information on /ulian ;ays is available on the internet. + good starting point
is the 0.$. 1aval 6bservatory. ,f that site is not available when you read this, try
searching for K/ulian ;ayL with your favorite search engine.
,t's the number of days since noon @-T 5&!# 94 /anuary !. 7hat's so special about this
dateG /oseph /ustus $caliger )!%50--!<0"* was a noted ,talian-French philologist and
historian who was interested in chronology and reconciling the dates in historical
documents. 9efore the western civil calendar was adopted by most countries, each little
city or principality rec(oned dates in its own fashion, using descriptions li(e Cthe %th year
of the @reat 2oo-bah -agnaminus.C $caliger wanted to ma(e sense out of these disparate
references so he invented his own era and rec(oned dates by counting days. De started
with 5&!# 94 /anuary ! because that was when solar cycle of 2> years )when the days of
the wee( and the days of the month in the /ulian calendar coincide again*, the -etonic
cycle of !" years )because !" solar years are roughly e8ual to 2#% lunar months* and the
Roman indiction of !% years )decreed by the mperor 4onstantine* all coincide. There
was no recorded history as old as 5&!# 94 (nown in $caliger's day, so it had the
advantage of avoiding negative dates. /oseph /ustus's father was /ulius 4aesar $caliger,
which might be why he called it the /ulian 4ycle. +stronomers adopted the /ulian cycle
to avoid having to remember C#0 days hath $eptember ....C For reference, /ulian day
25%0000 began at noon on !""% 6ctober ". 9ecause /ulian dates are so large,
astronomers often ma(e use of a Cmodified /ulian dateCH -/; J /; - 2500000.%.
)Though, sometimes they're sloppy and subtract 2500000 instead.*
Lea! Years
The arth has two major components of motion. First, it spins on its rotational a3isH a full
spin rotation ta(es one Day to complete. $econd, it orbits around the $unH a full orbital
rotation ta(es one 'ear to complete. There are normally #<% days in one calendar year,
but it turns out that a true year )i.e., a full orbit of the arth around the $unH also called a
tropical year* is a little bit longer than #<% days. ,n other words, in the time it ta(es the
arth to complete one orbital circuit, it completes #<%.252!" spin rotations. ;o not be too
surprised by thisH there is no reason to e3pect the spin and orbital motions of the arth to
be synchroniFed in any way. Dowever, it does ma(e mar(ing calendar time a bit
aw(ward....
7hat would happen if we simply ignored the e3tra 0.252!" rotation at the end of the
year, and simply defined a calendar year to always be #<%.0 days longG The calendar is
basically a charting of the arth's progress around the $un. ,f we ignore the e3tra bit at
the end of each year, then with every passing year, the calendar date lags a little more
behind the true position of arth around the $un. ,n just a few decades, the dates of the
solstices and e8uino3es will have drifted noticeably.
,n fact, it used to be that all years (ere defined to have #<%.0 days, and the calendar
KdriftedL away from the true seasons as a result. ,n the year 5< 94, /ulius 4aeser
established the &ulian Calendar, which implemented the world's first leap yearsA De
decreed that every 5th year would be #<< days long, so that a year was #<%.2% days long,
on average. This basically solved the calendar drift problem.
Dowever, the problem wasn't completely solved by the /ulian calendar, because a tropical
year isn't #<%.2% days longH it's #<%.252!" days long. ?ou still have a calendar drift
problem, it just ta(es many centuries to become noticeable. +nd so, in !%>2, 2ope
@regory S,,, instituted the Gregorian calendar, which was largely the same as the /ulian
4alendar, with one more tric( added for leap yearsA even 4entury years )those ending
with the digits K00L* are only leap years if they are divisible by 500. $o, the years !&00,
!>00, and !"00 were not leap years )though they would have been under the /ulian
4alendar*, whereas the year 2000 (as a leap year. This change ma(es the average length
of a year #<%.252% days. $o, there is still a tiny calendar drift, but it amounts to an error
of only # days in !0,000 years. The @regorian calendar is still used as a standard calendar
throughout most of the world.
Si%ereal Time
)idereal *ime literally means Kstar timeL. The time we are used to using in our everyday
lives is $olar Time. The fundamental unit of $olar Time is a DayA the time it ta(es the
$un to travel #<0 degrees around the s(y, due to the rotation of the arth. $maller units of
$olar Time are just divisions of a ;ayA
!E25 ;ay J ! Dour
!E<0 Dour J ! -inute
!E<0 -inute J ! $econd
Dowever, there is a problem with $olar Time. The arth does not actually spin around
#<0 degrees in one $olar ;ay. The arth is in orbit around the $un, and over the course of
one day, it moves about one ;egree along its orbit )#<0 degreesE#<%.2% ;ays for a full
orbit J about one ;egree per ;ay*. $o, in 25 hours, the direction toward the $un changes
by about a ;egree. Therefore, the arth has to spin #<! degrees to ma(e the $un loo( li(e
it has traveled #<0 degrees around the $(y.
,n astronomy, we are concerned with how long it ta(es the arth to spin with respect to
the Kfi3edL stars, not the $un. $o, we would li(e a timescale that removes the
complication of arth's orbit around the $un, and just focuses on how long it ta(es the
arth to spin #<0 degrees with respect to the stars. This rotational period is called a
)idereal Day. 6n average, it is 5 minutes shorter than a $olar ;ay, because of the e3tra !
degree the arth spins in a $olar ;ay. Rather than defining a $idereal ;ay to be 2# hours,
%< minutes, we define $idereal Dours, -inutes and $econds that are the same fraction of
a ;ay as their $olar counterparts. Therefore, one $olar $econd J !.002&> $idereal
$econds.
The $idereal Time is useful for determining where the stars are at any given time.
$idereal Time divides one full spin of the arth into 25 $idereal DoursH similarly, the map
of the s(y is divided into 25 Dours of Right Ascension. This is no coincidenceH :ocal
$idereal Time ):$T* indicates the Right +scension on the s(y that is currently crossing
the :ocal -eridian. $o, if a star has a Right +scension of 0%h #2m 25s, it will be on your
meridian at :$TJ0%A#2A25. -ore generally, the difference between an object's R+ and
the :ocal $idereal Time tells you how far from the -eridian the object is. For e3ample,
the same object at :$TJ0<A#2A25 )one $idereal Dour later*, will be one Dour of Right
+scension west of your meridian, which is !% degrees. This angular distance from the
meridian is called the object's Dour +ngle.
)olar *ime is time measured with respect to the $un. )idereal *ime is time measured with
respect to the celestial sphere.
.iewed from arth, the celestial sphere rotates through 25h of R+ in a $idereal ;ay.
The .o'r Anle 3.A4 of an object is its position, measured around the celestial e8uator,
(est(ard from the observer's meridian.
Solar Time
6wing to the ellipticity of Earth+s or,it )see Qepler's 2nd :aw* and the o,liquity of the
ecliptic, the $un does not appear to travel through the s(y at a uniform rate. #ean )olar
*ime is referred to an imaginary body, the #ean )un, which travels around the celestial
e8uator )not the eclipticP* at a constant rate of #<0T per year.
Mean Solar Time is defined as the Dour +ngle of the -ean $un )D+-$* I !2h.
Solar Time is the time given by a sundial, i.e. the time given by the real $un. ,t differs
from #ean )olar *ime by the Equation of *ime )*. can be as great as !< minutes.
E - )olar *ime . #ean )olar *ime
The observable effect of this is that the position of the midday sun at !2h cloc( time will
describe an irregular lemniscate, called the analemma, throughout the year.
5ni&ersal Time )0T*. For most everyday purposes, this can be ta(en as the #ean )olar
*ime on the Green(ich #eridian )@reenwich -ean Time -- @-T*. 0T is actually
calculated from sidereal time. 0T0 is the result of this calculation. 0T! is corrected for
arth's Cpolar wobbleC. 7hen C0TC is used by astronomers, it normally refers to 0T!.
Coordinated /niversal *ime )0T4* is used for time-signal broadcasts. ,t is derived from
,nternational +tomic Time )T+,*, from which it differs from a whole number of seconds.
,t is lin(ed to 0T!, from which it never differs by more than 0."s -- hence the use of leap
seconds to (eep them in step.
Time 1ones
The arth is round, and it is always half-illuminated by the $un. Dowever, because the
arth is spinning, the half that is illuminated is always changing. 7e e3perience this as
the passing of days wherever we are on the arth's surface. +t any given instant, there are
places on the arth passing from the dar( half into the illuminated half )which is seen as
da(n on the surface*. +t the same instant, on the opposite side of the arth, points are
passing from the illuminated half into dar(ness )which is seen as dus$ at those locations*.
$o, at any given time, different places on arth are e3periencing different parts of the day.
Thus, $olar time is defined locally, so that the cloc( time at any location describes the
part of the day consistently.
This localiFation of time is accomplished by dividing the globe into 25 vertical slices
called *ime 0ones. The :ocal Time is the same within any given Fone, but the time in
each Fone is one Dour earlier than the time in the neighboring Mone to the ast. +ctually,
this is a idealiFed simplificationH real Time Mone boundaries are not straight vertical lines,
because they often follow national boundaries and other political considerations.
1ote that because the :ocal Time always increases by an hour when moving between
Mones to the ast, by the time you move through all 25 Time Mones, you are a full day
ahead of where you started. 7e deal with this parado3 by defining the 1nternational Date
"ine, which is a Time Mone boundary in the 2acific 6cean, between +sia and 1orth
+merica. 2oints just to the ast of this line are 25 hours behind the points just to the 7est
of the line. This leads to some interesting phenomena. + direct flight from +ustralia to
4alifornia arrives before it departs. +lso, the islands of Fiji straddle the ,nternational ;ate
:ine, so if you have a bad day on the 7est side of Fiji, you can go over to the ast side of
Fiji and have a chance to live the same day all over again.
5ni&ersalTime
The time on our cloc(s is essentially a measurement of the current position of the
$un in the s(y, which is different for places at different :ongitudes because the
arth is round
Dowever, it is sometimes necessary to define a global time, one that is the same for all
places on arth. 6ne way to do this is to pic( a place on the arth, and adopt the :ocal
Time at that place as the /niversal *ime, abbreviated 0T. )The name is a bit of a
misnomer, since 0niversal Time has little to do with the 0niverse. ,t would perhaps be
better to thin( of it as glo,al time*.
The geographic location chosen to represent 0niversal Time is @reenwich, ngland. The
choice is arbitrary and historical. 0niversal Time became an important concept when
uropean ships began to sail the wide open seas, far from any (nown landmar(s. +
navigator could rec(on the ship's longitude by comparing the :ocal Time )as measured
from the $un's position* to the time bac( at the home port )as (ept by an accurate cloc(
on board the ship*. @reenwich was home to ngland's Royal 6bservatory, which was
charged with (eeping time very accurately, so that ships in port could re-calibrate their
cloc(s before setting sail.
The arth is round, and it is always half-illuminated by the $un. Dowever, because the
arth is spinning, the half that is illuminated is always changing. 7e e3perience this as
the passing of days wherever we are on the arth's surface. +t any given instant, there are
places on the arth passing from the dar( half into the illuminated half )which is seen as
da(n on the surface*. +t the same instant, on the opposite side of the arth, points are
passing from the illuminated half into dar(ness )which is seen as dus$ at those locations*.
$o, at any given time, different places on arth are e3periencing different parts of the day.
Thus, $olar time is defined locally, so that the cloc( time at any location describes the
part of the day consistently.
This localiFation of time is accomplished by dividing the globe into 25 vertical slices
called *ime 0ones. The :ocal Time is the same within any given Fone, but the time in
each Fone is one Dour earlier than the time in the neighboring Mone to the ast. +ctually,
this is a idealiFed simplificationH real Time Mone boundaries are not straight vertical lines,
because they often follow national boundaries and other political considerations.
1ote that because the :ocal Time always increases by an hour when moving between
Mones to the ast, by the time you move through all 25 Time Mones, you are a full day
ahead of where you started. 7e deal with this parado3 by defining the 1nternational Date
"ine, which is a Time Mone boundary in the 2acific 6cean, between +sia and 1orth
+merica. 2oints just to the ast of this line are 25 hours behind the points just to the 7est
of the line. This leads to some interesting phenomena. + direct flight from +ustralia to
4alifornia arrives before it departs. +lso, the islands of Fiji straddle the ,nternational ;ate
:ine, so if you have a bad day on the 7est side of Fiji, you can go over to the ast side of
Fiji and have a chance to live the same day all over again.