FGM in the context of Islam:

- The Holy Quran is void of any reference to FGM, there is no Ijma or consensus on a specic
legalruling,and there is no Qiyasor analogy that can be accepted
- As for the Sunna, there is doubt as to the authenticity of some of the Hadith attributed to
the Prophet (PBUH) in this concern. The truth is there is no proof of the authenticity of these
narratives that can be used as the bases for a legal ruling on such a life-threatening issue
- PRVI HADITH:It is the most famous Hadith in which it is related that a woman called Om
Atteya performed circumcision in Medina and that the Prophet (PBUH) told her: Do not cut
severely as that is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband. (vpraljiva zaradi
neistovrednosti naratorja)
- DRUGI HADITH: Female circumcision is an act of Sunna for men and an honorable act for
women.
Even if we were to consider the Hadith as hypothetically acceptable, which it is not, the
ruling on circumcision does not put males and females on an equal footing, for while
circumcision is an act of Sunna for males, it is an honorable act for females.
- It is as if Islam deemed it necessary to regulate this practice which was already performed by
the Arabs prior to the advent of Islam.
- TRETJI HADITH: navaja, da je obrezovanje za enske obvezno (spet navajanje o
nekredibilnosti avtorja)
- ETRTI HADITH: Should the two circumcised organs meet, then Ghusl (ablution) is
necessary. nekateri ta citat uporabljajo kot argument in podporo enskemu obrezovanju. A
vendar le ta ni dovolj za legitimizacijo tega.
- PETI HADITH: Acts of natural disposition are ve:circumcision, removal of the pubic hair,
shaving of the moustache, cutting of the ngernails,andpluckingofthearmpithair.
namenjeno mokim in ne enskam, torej tudi obrezovanje zgolj za moke.
e en argument, ki nasprotuje enskemu obrezovanju je ta, da Prerokove ene in here same
niso bile obrezane. e bi to bil muslimanski obiaj, bi Prerok Mohamed to uvedel najprej pri
njemu najblijih enskah.
- Zgoraj navedeni citati Hadithov o naklonjenosti enskemu obrezovanju so ibki in tudi
avtentina Sunna ne vsebuje dokazov, kateri bi podprli to prakso. Obrezovanje ensk je
dejansko obiaj ali tradicija, katero je Islam prepustil asu in medicinskemu napredku k njeni
pozabi. A vendar temu ni tako. Obiaj mogoe pojenja v Afriki; a v Indoneziji, kjer je zakonsko
prepovedan, je dandanes razirjen mnogo bolj, kot v preteklosti.


- Mnenje znanstvenikov o FGM je jasno. Je totalno ali delno rezanje enskih zunanjih
reprodukcijskih organov, ki odvzame telesu njegove naravne funkcije in legimatizacijo fizinih
uitkov. Je drubena praksa, ki nadzoruje enske in ustvarja ruenje njihovih pravic.


- Znanstvena definicija, naravne funkcije prizadetih organov, fizine in psiholoke posledice
obrezovanja, drubeni razlogi
- the procedure implants in the mind of the girl child a dreadful image of herself as an
immature being who is unable to respect her body and control her sexual desires and
behavior as stipulated by her religion, mind and conscience and is therefore forced to do so
by having her reproductive organs removed, and being subjected to pain. By this, we are,
individually and collectively, implanting in our daughters negative, in fact erroneous, values.
- FGM reduces the sexual desire of a female, thereby helping maintain a girls virginity prior to
marriage and her delity thereafter.
- An uncircumcised female exhausts her husband during intercourse while a circumcised
female is more placid and less demanding, and thus will remain faithful if he is sick or absent.
All this is done to guarantee the mans sexual happiness and contentment regarding his
wifes delity.
- The legendary misconceptions concerning the size and function of a females reproductive
organs that circumcision allows the girl to develop into a mature woman
tformarriageandchildbirth.
- Circumcision is a procedure meant to beautify and maintain the cleanliness of a female since
it rids her of impure and ugly parts.
- We have created man in the best form. (The Fig: 4) People are of the view that FGM is
meant to beautify the female. It is as if God created her physique with a awand they are
repairing it!! (God forbid).

- FGM je tudi v v oeh uenjakov smatran kot zloin, legalno kot tudi v oeh Islama.

- Do not cut severely as that is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband












ISLAMIC RULING ON MALE AND FEMALE CIRCUMCISION (world health organization)
Pharaonic circumcision or infubilation, it is an outright amputation, an outrageous deformation, a
violation and an act of aggression which would be rejected by any sensible person. (str. 6)









XXX NEKATERI




















FEMALE CIRCUMCISION: NEITHER A SUNNA OR A SIGN OF RESPECT




XXXX NEKATERI
.
FEMALE GENITAL SURGERIES (OBERMEYER)
The extensive literature on the subject, the support of international organiza-tions,3 and the
emergence of local groups working against the continuation of these
practices appear to suggest that an international consensus has been reached. The
terminology used to refer to these surgeries has changed, and the clearly disapprov-ing and
powerfully evocative expression of "female genital mutilation" has now all
but replaced the possibly inaccurate, but relatively less value-laden term of "fe-male circumcision."


While this article does not explicitly deal with the debates
regarding the possibility of integrating the "problem-orientation" of public health
with critical medical anthropology, it does represent an effort to effect such a syn-thesis. The
attempt to bring together epidemiology and demography with anthro-pology is motivated by the
conviction that a single approach is not sufficient in it-self to understand the issue, that some benefit
may accrue to those on each
disciplinary turf from efforts to be informed about the other side, and that the syn-thesis of
knowledge from each of the fields will be more than the sum of the parts

The literature on traditional female genital surgeries is very abundant, and
writings on the subject span several disciplinary fields, including literature and hu-manities, social
sciences, law, ethics, and medical sciences, as well as the numer-ous documents of "advocacy"
produced by various organizations. Since a major
goal of this review was to gain a clear idea of the prevalence and medical complica-tions of these
practices, the available evidence is assessed using standards derived
from demography and epidemiology, two disciplines where the evaluation of em-pirical evidence is a
central preoccupation. Less attention is given to discussions of
the reasons for, or significance of, the practice, and the ethical debates that occupy
a major place in the literature are not directly addressed. The interpretation of the
evidence as a whole, however, is very much shaped by the critical perspective and
in-depth insights derived from the anthropological literature on the subject.

The most commonly used
terms are "pharaonic circumcision," or "infibulation,"4 which refer to complete exci-sion of the
clitoris and labia minora and the paring and stitching of the labia majora;
"intermediate circumcision," which includes a lesser degree of excision of the labia,
with milder or no infibulation; "clitoridectomy," which is the removal of the clitoris;
and swwa, which refers to the removal of the prepuce of the clitoris. Regarding this lat-ter category,
it has been argued convincingly (Toubia 1994a, 1994b) that no opera-tions, in fact, conform to this
description because part of the clitoris is always removed.
In practice, the different categories are not clearly separate, and each term may cover a
broad range of operations. In addition, the techniques of practitioners vary in different
regions and practices change over time.5 Thus any general classification is to a certain
extent inaccurate. In this article, since it was not possible to reclassify the different
types, the prevalence of the different surgeries is reported according to the terminology
used in the respective articles

In Arabic, for example,
the generic term for circumcision (for males and females) is khitan, but the most
commonly used term in Egypt and Sudan is tahara/tahur. These words, which are
derived from a verb meaning "to purify," refer to both the operation and the cere-mony surrounding
it, and evoke the idea of hygienic and religious purification. The
less extensive operations are commonly called sunna, the same word that is used to
refer to the normative traditions of the prophet Muhammad and the precedent they
represent. This tends to associate the practice with religious values, despite the fact
that it is not prescribed in the Muslim scriptures. The precise term for clitoridec-tomy (one that is
used in a relatively limited way) is khifad, or deduction," which
emphasizes the notion that the operation smoothes what may otherwise protrude.
Clitoridectomy is, in fact, frequently connected to a popular belief that unless it is
"reduced," the clitoris will grow into a penis, and this underscores the symbolism
of the operation as reshaping women's anatomy to emphasize differences between
the sexes. Recently, the notion of sexual mutilation, al-tashwih aljinsi, has been
introduced into the Arabic discourse on female genital surgeries, but its use has not
been generalized beyond the spheres of policy discussions.


"fe-male genital mutilation," emphasizes the extent of the operation and maximizes
dramatic impact, while at the same time making a value judgement about the intent
of those who carry it out. The frequently used acronym FGM



.


The Kaleidoscope of Gender: Prisms, Patterns, and Possibilities
edited by Joan Z. Spade, Catherine G. Valentin
- Female circumcision:muslim identities and zero tolerance policies in rural west java,
by lynda newland str.116-

- sedem ro v vazi z vodo, skleda surovega ria s 1000 rs in jajcem,
- while praying in Arabic, the midwife drew a lenght of cotton thread through turmenic to color
it gold and then loosened the baby's swaddling to reveal the little girl's genitals. (str. 116)
- still praying, she (the midwife, op.avtorja) tied gold thread around the baby's neck and then
tied the yellowed cotton around the baby's left wrist, the mother's right wrist, the baby's right
leg, and finally the right leg of a chicken. Then she held the chicken above the baby's head and
drew three circles in the air. Finally, she gave the chicken to the grandmother with a handful of
rice, and the grandmother left the room. This, i was to learn, was the gnahuripan or ritual
blessing that tied souls into and between mother, child, and the chicken, () (str.116)
- leta 1995 so Zdrueni narodi razglasili obrezovanje ensk kot krenje lovekih pravic s
pravnomojo Pekinke deklaracije in platforme za akcijo (unesco, 2005)
- WHO razlikuje 4 tipe obrezovanja, a fgm zajema vse tipe
() studies conducted in Indonesia suggest there are no significant health risks related to
female circumcision and that infection and bleeding seem to be more likely to result from male
circumcision than from female circumcision (Darwin, Faturochman, Ptranti, Purwatiningsih &
Octaviatie 2002), indicating that theese practices are probably less harmful to women than they
are to men. () while the impact of Indonesian forms of circumcision on sexual pleasure cannot
be mesaured, such a response calls dominant and broadly Western notions of sexual
embodyment into question. (str117)
- Abussharaf 2001, Boddy 1989 pieta o javi
- Na javi je obrezovanje deklic ne izraz nasilja, temve prezentacija starevske odgovornosti k
otroku
- children are closely asociated with both material and non-material forms of wealth and well
being as evident in the Indonesia-wide saying banyak anak, banyak rezeki, or many children,
much fortune. (str.118)
- a child's entry into this world is conceptualised as the beginning of a process of affirmation
of a destined personhood, although this personhood will not be complete until after death at
Judgement Day thus, the rituals around birth are replete with ideas about how to imbue
the child with the values of the preceding generation that will maintain the quality of the
family vertically through the generations as well as enhancing the horizontal communal
relationships. (str. 118)
- Str 119, 120 ni
- () suggestions that the practice may have increased because of Islamic revivalism (Hull and
Budiharsana, 2001) are difficoult to substantiate, given that in West Java the practice had
remained unquestioned and unproblematic during my fieldwork in the mid -1990s. () it
seemed that female circumcision had been practiced throughout the aging midwifes' careers
and probably for many generations. (str.121)
- during the 1990s () the Sundanese ha dan ambivalent relationship with the state as
institutionalised and led by the Suharto regime. In its early years, the regime had
depoliticised Islamic parties and distanced itself from Muslim influence in its pursuit of
development. Moreover, state programs such as the family planning campain (dua anak
cukup), were widely percieved to be in contradiction with rural Sundanese values (Newland,
1999, 2002a). (str.122)
- () it would seem that any Indonesian goverment would be wary of antagonising Muslims
by overtly supporting and leislating zero tolerance policies that might be percieved as anti-
Islam in a country that hosts the largest number of Muslim in the world. (str 122)
- () female circumcision was not performed with any intention of violence, abuse, or even
harm towards girl children and did not seem to have any measurable effect on their lives.
Instead, parents were fulfilling their obligations by circumcising boys and girls to conform to
a moral order deeply identified with Islam and to position them appropriately in the Muslim
community. (str.122)

.
Female Circumcision in Indonesia :Extent, Implications and Possible Interventions to Uphold
Womens Health Rights

- Religious leaders want the practice of FC to continue indefinitely, because of their common
interpretations that FC is required act of faith, although when being probed, they admitted
that the law varies from one mazhab to another, from wajib (obligatory) to sunnah
(recommended but optional), while some placed it an even lower level of religious duty. (str
vii)
- Many maternity clinic midwives have begun to market FC as part of a birth delivery
package. (str. viii)
- FC practices can be divided into two main groups: symbolic only types where there is no
incision or excision, accounting for about 28% of all the cases of FC in the study for which an
eye-witness account was available, and harmful forms, involving incision (49%) and
excision (22%). (str. vii)
- We can conclude that the practice of FC in Indonesia is essentially a tradition which has
been passed from one generation to the next with little questioning about its meaning or its
basis in Islamic history or law. Many adhere to, and pass down, this tradition simply because
elders and grandparents wish to preserve this practice in the younger generations. (str. viii)
- The practice of FC in Indonesia can therefore be said to violate the rights of the child as
guaranteed under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which was ratified by Indonesia
in 1990. (str. ix)
- In Indonesia, the perils of FC are still unknown. Despite widely practiced, information
regarding current types of FC, the extent of the practice, or its impact on women's health and
sexual life in Indonesia has been limited. (str 1)
- FC refers to the unclassified type or Type IV of the WHO's classification on Female Genital
Mutilation (FGM). ()Based on its severity, there are four major types (WHO, 1998:4):
Type I Excision of the prepuce, with or without incision of part or the entire clitoris
Type II Excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of the labia minora
Type III Excision of part or all of the external genitalia and stitching/ narrowing of the vaginal
opening (infibulation)
Type IV Unclassified, which includes: pricking, piercing or incising of the clitoris and/or labia;
stretching of the clitoris and/or labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and the
surrounding tissue; scraping of tissue surrounding the vaginal orifice ('angurya' cuts) or
cutting of the vagina ('gishiri cuts'); introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the
vagina to cause bleeding or for the purposes of tightening or narrowing it; and any other
procedure that falls under the definition of FGM given above (str.2-3)
- The cited perceived benefits for practicing FC or FGM include (WHO, 1996a; 2000):

Psychosexual reasons: perceived beliefs that reduction or elimination of the sensitive tissue
of the outer genitalia, particularly the clitoris, can attenuate sexual desire in the female,
maintain chastity and virginity before marriage and fidelity during marriage, and increase
male sexual pleasure. Male attitudes to sex and sexual pleasure in the communities
practicing female circumcision may support this belief. For example, anecdotal reports
suggest that in some communities practicing infibulation, achievement of difficult
penetration of a tight vagina was a proof of virginity following marriage;

Sociological reasons: identification with the cultural heritage, initiation of girls into
womanhood, social integration, and the maintenance of social cohesion;

Hygiene and aesthetic reasons: the external female genitalia are considered dirty
and unsightly and are to be removed to promote hygiene and provide aesthetic
appeal;
Myths: enhancement of fertility and promotion of child survival;

Religious reasons: some Muslim communities practice FGM in the belief
that it is demanded by the Islamic faith although this customs, however,
predates Islam. (str. 3-4)

- Ali je FC krenje osnovnih lovekih in zdravstvenih pravic e ga obravnavamo na primeru FC
na Javi?????
- Unlike findings of FGM practices in Africa that tends to ruin almost all female genital parts,
from the cutting of all the clitoris, labia minora, to even stitching the vagina and only leaving
a hole for sexual intercourse, the literature review on FC practices in Indonesia could not
present sufficient evidence of a harmful traditional practice with sexual, reproductive and
psychological health impacts. (str. 5)
- The most common word for FC is female khitan. Khitan, originally came from an Arabic
word khatana, means cutting the prepuce of a male genital part. According to a quote in
the book of Womens Fiqh, female khitan is cutting part of the skin of labia minora or kelentit
(preputium clitoridis) at the top of urethra and farji (vaginas entrance), which usually has the
shape of jengger ayam (roosters comb) or biji kurma (seed of dates). Another word that is
commonly mentioned is sunat, in reference to the Prophet PBUHs requisition or sunnah
fitrah. Less popular words include: khifad which came from khafd, a specific term for female
khitan only, meaning to lower down the voice (while specific term for male only is called
Izar) (str. 6)
- ()unclassified type (Type IV) which combines: pricking, piercing or
incising of the clitoris and/or labia, stretching of the clitoris and/or labia,
cauterization by burning of the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scraping of
tissue surrounding the vaginal orifice or cutting of the vagina, introduction
of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to cause bleeding or for the
purposes of tightening or narrowing it; and any other procedure that falls
under the definition of FGM given above (WHO, 1998). (str. 6)
- Marcoes (1998) concluded that there was very little difference between FC
procedures before and after 1945. Before 1945 circumcisers used turmeric
and after 1945 they used Betadine to prevent infection. They did describe
four terms of circumcision: (1) cutting off the tiny upper part of the clitoris;
(2) tearing off the skin with a curved needle; (3) rubbing off the skin or
secret around the clitoris without cutting any part of it; and (4) piercing with
a needle or the edge of a knife to extract a single drop of blood, but nothing
was cut off. (str. 7)
- FC ni verska obveznost (obrezovanje in Islam), je zgolj prakticiranje
tradicije (glej str. 8)
- A majority of Muslims in Indonesia are followers of mazhab Syafii who perceives
circumcision as an obligatory practice for boys and girls, in contrast to followers of mazhab
Maliki who perceive male circumcision as an obligatory rule but FC merely as a symbolic
gesture. The other two mazhab Hambali and Hanafi believe that circumcision is a sunnah for
men and a sign of respect for women (Salam, 1994 quoted in Rahman, 1999; Tatapangarsa,
1980). (str. 9)
- Unfortunately, individual interpretation in various places has turned this cultural tradition
into a religious doctrine that commands FC as a basic element of religious faith, similar to the
abstention of pork in daily food. They declared FC practices as a required act of purification,
or a pre-condition to become a Muslim (Ramali, 1951, cited in Feillard and Marcoes, 1998;
Adrina et al, 1998; Tatapangarsa, 1980; Research Team of LSPPA, 1999). (str 9)
- Raziskave so pokazale, da obrezovanje deklic prakticirajo tudi javanski ne-muslimani, tu je
obrezovanje smatrano kot podedovan obiaj ali tradicija (str. 9)
- Metodologija: (2) a qualitative study for refining research questions and approaches to be
used in the quantitative study; (3) a quantitative study to estimate the prevalence and
distribution of the FC practices; (4) a qualitative study to explore sensitive information and to
comprehend the research-findings.
- Za statistike glej str. 18-23
- Matere se sklicujejo na obveznost FC kot versko dolnost. eprav same ne poznajo izvor le
tega, se drijo navodil verskih vodij in druinske tradicije. Veliko se jih sklicuje na dedovano
tradicijo, s podedovanimi kulturnimi vrednotami, neodvisnimi od doloenih verskih dolnosti.
- TBA (traditional birth attendants / dukun bayi), traditional circumcision practitioner (dukun
sunat) in babice najvekrat izvajajo FC. Since FC is a tradition, the practice requires
traditional procedures, including prayer, which the traditional providers can provide where
HCPs cannot. ()only TBAs know how to do using knowledge passed to them from previous
generations of TBAs in their families. The involvement of a TBA is one of the must criteria
for the legitimate practice of FC. (str. 26)
- Starost: veinoma se izvaja kmalu po rojstvu. Le majhen procent se izvede po 9.letu.
- Community members surveyed defended the practice as an important tradition which is
based on the belief that FC bestows purification on the girl (in part by preventing girls from
becoming over-sexed as adults) and gives parents the satisfaction of having fulfilled their
religious obligations. (str. 40)
- ()the practice of FC in Indonesia is essentially a tradition which has been passed from one
generation to the next with little questioning about its meaning or its basis in Islamic history
or law. (str 41)


Eliminating female genital mutilation: an interagency statement UNAIDS, UNDP,
UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCHR, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, WHO.
WHO 2008
- The practice also violates the rights to health, security and physical integrity of the person,
the right to be free from torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, and the right to
life when the procedure results in death. (str. 1)
- Female genital mutilation comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the
external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons
(WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, 1997). (str. 4)
- Classification
Type I: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and/or the prepuce (clitoridectomy).
Type II: Partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the
labia majora (excision).
Type III: Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and
appositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris
(infibulation).
Type IV: All other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for
example: pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization
- ()female genital mutilation is a social convention governed by rewards and punishments
which are a powerful force for continuing the practice. In view of this conventional nature of
female genital mutilation, it is difficult for families to abandon the practice without support
from the wider community. (str. 5)
- FGM se obravnava kot nujnost pri vzgoji deklic, saj naj bi pripomoglo k njihovim pripravam na
odraslost in poroko (glej Yoder 2007, 2009; Ahmadu 2000; Hernlund 2003; Behrendt 2005 in
Johnson 2007).
- It is often believed that the practice ensures and preserves a girls or womans virginity
(Talle, 1993, 2007; Berggren et al., 2006; Gruenbaum, 2006). In some communities, it is
thought to restrain sexual desire, thereby ensuring marital fidelity and preventing sexual
behaviour that is considered deviant and immoral (Ahmadu, 2000; Hernlund, 2000, 2003;
Abusharaf, 2001; Gruenbaum, 2006). Female genital mutilation is also considered to make
girls clean and beautiful. Removal of genital parts is thought of as eliminating masculine
parts such as the clitoris (Talle, 1993; Ahmadu, 2000; Johansen, 2007), or in the case of
infibulation, to achieve smoothness considered to be beautiful (Talle, 1993; Gruenbaum,
2006). A belief sometimes expressed by women is that female genital mutilation enhances
mens sexual pleasure (Almroth-Berggren et al., 2001). ( str. 6)
- Female genital mutilation has been recognized as discrimination based on sex because it is
rooted in gender inequalities and power imbalances between men and women and inhibits
womens full and equal enjoyment of their human rights. It is a form of violence against girls
and women, with physical and psychological consequences. (str 10)
- Trained health professionals who perform female genital mutilation are violating girls and
womens right to life, right to physical integrity, and right to health. They are also violating
the fundamental medical ethic to Do no harm. Yet, medical professionals have performed
and continue to perform female genital mutilation (UNICEF, 2005a).

TIP 5
Type IV(WHO MODIFIED TYPOLOGY 2007): Unclassified: All other harmful procedures to the female
genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and
cauterization.
Type IV (WHO TYPOLOGY 1995): Unclassified: pricking, piercing or incising of the clitoris and/or labia;
stretching of the clitoris
and/or labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scraping of tissue sur-
rounding the vaginal orifice (angurya cuts) or cutting of the vagina (gishiri cuts); introduction of
corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to cause bleed-ing or for the purpose of tightening or
narrowing it; and any other procedure that falls under the broad definition of female genital
mutilation. (str 26)

- Pricking, piercing and incision can be defined as procedures in which the skin is pierced with
a sharp object; blood may be let, but no tissue is removed. Pricking has been described in
some countries either as a traditional form of female genital mutilation (Budiharsana, 2004)
or as a replacement for more severe forms of female genital mutilation (Yoder et al., 2001;
Njue and Askew, 2004). Incision of the genitals of young girls and infants has been
documented (Budiharsana, 2004), as has scraping (Newland, 2006). (str 26)
-


Refugee Review Tribunal Australia: RRT Research Response; 31 Marec 2009. IDN 34558


- A 2003 research report publicises the results of a study on female genital mutilation (FGM)
in Indonesia conducted by the Population Council, Jakarta. The executive summary states
that in Indonesia, the practice of female circumcision has long existed, but information
concerning exactly where and how it is carried out has been limited. In order to gather more
information about the procedures in Indonesia, a relatively large study of female circumcision
covering several major ethnic groups from the western to the eastern parts of the country, has
recently been conducted. Among the groups surveyed, the study found that 86-100 percent
of girls had been circumcised. According to the report, the majority of Muslims in Indonesia
follow the Syafii mazhab (school of law) which perceives circumcision as an obligatory
practice for boys and girls. The report states that age at circumcision for girls varied from
newborn up to 9 years of age. The report notes the wide variation in procedures, providers
and tools involved in FC. It states that FC practices can be divided into two main groups:
symbolic only types where there is no incision or excision, accounting for about 28% of all
the cases of FC in the study for which an eye-witness account was available, and harmful
forms, involving incision (49%) and excision (22%) (Budiharsana M. 2003, Female
circumcision in Indonesia: extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold womens
health rights, September. (ni navedbe strani)
- In 2007 the minister of womens empowerment called for a complete ban of the practice. In
2006 the Ministry of Health banned FGM by doctors and nurses. However, symbolic female
circumcisions that do not involve physical damaging of the child could be carried out, and
violators of the ban did not face prosecution (US Department of State 2009, Country
Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2008 Indonesia, 25 February, Section 5
Attachment 1).
- ()the available information indicates that FGM is widespread in Indonesia, with an
estimated 86-100 percent of females undergoing some form of the procedure. The US
Department of State human rights report notes that the Ministry of Health banned FGM by
doctors and nurses in 2006, however, violators of the ban did not face prosecution. (US
Department of State 2009, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2008 Indonesia,
25 February, Section 5 Attachment 1).
-


.

Moore, Matthew and Karuni Rompies (2004) In the cut. Sydney Morning Herald 13/1/2004

Obrezovanje deklic je ena najvejih skrivnosti v Indoneziji. Mnogo ensk sploh ne ve, ali so bile v
mladosti obrezane, e manj pa vedo, da so se udejstvovale v ritualu, za katerega WHO govori, da je
neobvezen, v ritualu, kateri je v Indoneziji zakonsko prepovedan od leta 2006.
- Medicinsko osebje v zdravstvenih institucijah izvajajo bolj 'grob' poseg (poseg sodi v
1.kategorijo FBM), medtem ko tradicionalni izvajalci izvajajo zgolj 'simbolno obrezovanje' t.j.
ritual, kjer je veji pomen na molitvi in simbolnemu 'drgnjenju' zgornjega dela genitalij (poseg
sodi v 5., neformalno kategorijo). Tu se pojavi vpraanje, ali lahko ta indonezijski obred
obrezovanja sploh uvrstimo v FC ali FBM.
- Pri tradicionalnih izvajalcih je poseg manj 'invaziven', a na drugi strani zastrauje dejstvo, da
izvajalci svoja 'orodja' za obrezovanje ne steriliziraji ne pred ne po posegu, kar lahko povzroi
huje posledice, kot poseg v zdravstveni institiciji; virus HIV ter druge (krvno) prenosljive
bolezni so v Indoneziji zelo razirjeni.
Although many questions remain unanswered, the study concluded circumcision in
Indonesia at present "did not reveal any clear, immediate or long-term physical or
psychological complications ... for girls or women". It listed the most common forms
of circumcision as "rubbing and scraping; stretching, pricking and piercing; incision;
and excision", and the cutting instruments used as "penknife; scissors; bamboo
knife/razor blade and needles".
While blades of some sort have long been used, traditional practitioners used a
knife only to rub or scrape in a symbolic exercise that often did not draw blood. The
concern is that circumcisions in hospitals are changing that because health
professionals use scissors in more than 75 per cent of cases and using scissors
invariably means cutting flesh. "Where scissors were used, cutting was almost
always involved including incision (22 per cent) and excision (72 per cent)," the report
said.
The practitioners who came from the local hospital always cut a piece off the clitoris,
he says. Most of those who were circumcised were babies, but older people come,
too. "Sometimes there are also women of 20 or 30. Even grandmothers aged 50 or
60 years old come." Those who had the procedure described it as "like an ant bite".
Masitoh Chusnan, from the women's wing of Muhammadiyah, one of Indonesia's
two biggest Muslim organisations, says the circumcision of girls is regarded in Islam
as an honourable practice. "The Hadith did not say it's obligatory, but it is
recommended to have it done," she says. "There is the Prophet's words saying girls
must be circumcised but you should not cut too much."
"People should not judge this. It should be clarified by Indonesians, not by us. I am
absolutely against any female circumcision but it's the women here who have to do
something. If it's just a ritual, it's not necessarily a horrible thing just because the
genitals are touched."
While the report concludes there is no evidence of damage to girls who are
circumcised, that it is done without the consent of the child, and without clear health
benefits or religious mandate, was enough to classify it as a violation of human rights,
according to the Population Council report. The practice could be seen to violate the
rights of the child as stated under the Convention on the Rights of the Child, ratified
by Indonesia in 1990.
Whether that's the case or not, the practice shows no signs of declining in popularity -
more than 90 per cent of mothers questioned supported the practice continuing. And
one in five mothers even suggested social sanctions should be imposed on girls who
were uncircumcised.
..




Female genital Mutilation/Cutting: A statistical overview and exploration of the
dynamics of change; UNICEF July 2013
(str. 10)
(str. 11)
(
str. 12)
(
str. 13)
- In societies where it is practised it is a socially upheld behavioural rule.
Families and individuals uphold the practice because they believe that their
group or society expects them to do so. Abandonment of the practice requires
a process of social change that results in new expectations on families. (United
Nations General Assembly, The Girl Child: Report of the Secretary-General, UN document A/64/315, 21 August 2009,
United Nations, New York, operational paragraph 68, p. 17.)
- Pie predvsem o Afriki in statistikah tam

FGM is prevalent in Indonesia. In certain communities of Indonesia, mass female circumcision
(khitanan massal) ceremony are organized by local Islamic foundations around Prophet Muhammads
birthday. Some FGM are Type IV done with a pen knife, others are Type I done with scissors. Two
Indonesian nationwide studies in 2003 and 2010 found over 80% of Muslim girls are subjected to
cutting, typically newborns through the age of 9. More than 90% of adults claimed they wanted the
practice to continue. Historical records suggest female circumcision in Indonesia started and became
prevalent with the arrival of Islam in the 13th century as part of its drive to convert people to Islam.
In islands of Indonesia, where partial populations converted to Islam in 17th century, FGM has been
prevalent in Muslim females only. In 2006, FGM was banned by the government; however, FGM/C
remained commonplace for women in Indonesia - the worlds largest Muslim nation. In 2010, the
Indonesian Health Ministry issued a decree outlining the proper procedure for FGM, which activists
claim contradicted the 2006 ruling prohibiting clinics from performing any FGM. In 2013,
the Indonesian Ulema Council ruled that it favors FGM, stating that although it is not mandatory, it is
still morally recommended. The Ulema has been pushing Indonesian government to circumcise
girls, claiming it is part of Islamic teachings. Some Indonesian officials, in March 2013, claimed cutting
and pricking type circumcision is not FGM.
........................
The Jakarta Post, Jakarta | Headlines | Tue, January 22 2013, 9:41 AM
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/01/22/mui-pushes-govt-circumcise-girls.html
- The Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) is bucking a United Nations campaign to ban female
circumcision, demanding that the government keep the practice legal.
- Constitutional right
- Female circumcision performed by licensed doctors, nurses or midwives
was legalized by a Health Ministry regulation issued in 2010 that defined
the practice as incising the skin that covers the front part of clitoris,
without harming the clitoris.
- Huzaemah, a member of MUIs fatwa commission, said that female
circumcision was a religious obligation that should be done to control
womens sexual desire.

Social, Cultural, and Humanitarian: Female Genital Mutilation; director Monica McKinnon;
IDIA:2008
- The social practice of FGM is based on the belief that womens bodies are the property of
their husbands, brothers, and fathers, contradicting the highly prioritized concept of gender
equality. It is also a major problem in the realm of childrens rights; in countries such as
Sudan, the surgery is preferably performed on girls before their sixth birthday. (str. 5)
- The social implications of the procedure are similarly massive. FGM is considered a cultural,
traditional, religious, pragmatic or even an aesthetic practice in participating cultures; in
many cases, an uncircumcised womans bride price is lower and her ability to marry is
drastically affected, from a financial perspective. Further, her status as uncircumcised draws
shame to her entire family and is grounds for abandonment. It is in these cultures that a
womans sexuality is tantamount to her family, personal and societal reputation. (str. 5)
- Female genital mutilation dates back to 5thCentury B.C. in ancient Egypt, Rome, Arabia, and
Tsarist Russia; mummies found in ancient Egypt were found to be circumcised, suggesting
that the practice was common, if not in Egyptian society, then amongst high society at the
time. (Cindy M. Little, Female circumcision: medical and cultural considerations. Journal of
Cultural Diversity, 2003. Via BNet,
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0MJU/is_1_10/ai_102025141. Accessed 23 April
2008.)
- The purpose for the rite in this historical context is unknown, though it was carried by
tolerant Islamic jurisprudence into modern times for a variety of reasons.( Imad-ad-Dean
Ahmad, Ph.D. Female Genital Mutilation: An Islamic Perspective. Minaret of Freedom
Institute, http://www.minaret.org/fgm-pamphlet.htm. Accessed 13 February 2008.)
- In some circles it is considered a preventative measure against violations of sexual modesty,
and thereby a preservation of both individual and family honor. In other circles it is thought
that the uncircumcised female genitalia is unattractive, and the circumcised genitalia appears
clean and beautiful, and in still others it is a traditional rite of passage. In most of these
situations, an uncircumcised woman cannot be married or will marry for a drastically lower
price. Beliefs about the medical benefits of FGM include eased childbirth and prevention of
birth defects, but can be omitted due to their proven falsehood. (str. 11)
- Worlds such as these, where cultural traditions are considered an essential part of social
cohesion and everyday life, would suffer a huge impact should their traditions be obliterated
by the outside world; the very structure by which people regulate their lives would
disintegrate and a new framework of customs marriage, family patterns, social interaction
would be needed. (str. 19)

.
Gerry Mackie and John LeJeune (2008), Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful
Practices: A New Look at the Theory, Innocenti Working Paper No. XXX. Florence,
UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre
- Another commonly cited cause of FGM/C is religion, and religious obligation often
plays a role in a familys decision to practice FGM/C (Abdi 2007; Hady 2003: 22). Despite
the fact that no religious scriptures actually require FGM/C, communities sometimes consider
the practice a requirement to make a girl spiritually pure. Among the Bambara in Mali, for
example, excision is called Seli ji, meaning ablution or ceremonial washing (UNICEF
2005: 12; Dorkenoo and Elworthy 1992). Data on the role of religion are difficult to interpret
because in many cases, religion, tradition and chastity are not differentiated. A study in
Somalia illustrates that for some, the concepts of religion, to remain a virgin in order to be
married, and tradition are not fundamentally different, because infibulation creates a
barrier that preserves virginity, which Muslims consider the will of God and therefore
religious (Gruenbaum 2001: 50, referencing Dirie and Lindmark 1991). Surveys routinely
show respondents frequently citing a multitude of reasons directly or indirectly related to
religion religion, health, cleanliness, and tradition, and control of female sexuality, among
others as reasons for the practice. (Daffeh, et al. 1999: 13, cited in Hernlund and Shell-Duncan
2007; see also Hady 2003: 22). (str. 14)



...........................

CEPLAK

Etnologi govorijo o enem najstarej.ih in glede na svojo planetarno raz.irjenost .e
kar o vseljudskem obiaju, ki se je pri veini ljudstev pojavil samoniklo in ki pogosto
ka.e izrazite elemente mistifikacije. Med obredom obrezovanja deke ponekod obleejo
v deklice, se.igajo sol ali posebno oglje, pripravljajo gostije. Marsikje odrezane telesne
dele slavnostno zakopljejo v pepel ali zemljo, obrezovanje pa tradicionalno izvr.ujejo le
na posebne dneve v tednu (ME, 1963: 353).
1


Tradicionalno prakso obrezovanja .ensk so izvajali za za.ito njihove nedol.nosti
in za zmanj.anje njihove seksualne .elje. Gre torej za drastino obliko obvladovanja
oziroma nadzorovanja .enske seksualnosti v dru.bah, kjer so .enske v izrazito
podrejenem polo.aju. Pravzaprav .e ve . gre za nadzorovanje .ensk nasploh, saj je
prav nadzorovanje seksualnosti najbolj uinkovit normalizacijski mehanizem (katerega
uinkovitost ni odvisna le od nasilnosti praks, preko katerih se vzpostavljajo gospostvena
razmerja . prim. Foucault, Zgodovina seksualnosti).


Zgodovinarji in arheologi poudarjajo, da velja obrezovanje spolovil verjetno za
najstarej.i poznani kirur.ki poseg, saj naj bi ga s kamnitim orodjem izvajali .e v paleolitiku,
to je pred ve kot deset tiso leti. Obstajajo kamniti falusi, jamske slikarije, reliefi in
drugi viri, ki priajo o razlinih arhainih obrezovanjih. Obrezovanja .ensk in mo.kih
niso poznali Asirci in Babilonci, Judje pa so mo.ke obrezovali kot pripravo na poroko.
V starem Egiptu so obrezovanje .ensk in mo.kih prakticirali .e v najzgodnej.ih dinastijah,
pred ve kot 6000 leti pr.n..t. Verjetno so ga Egipani razvili neodvisno od drugih
kultur, eprav raz.irjenost obrezovanja v dana.njem Sudanu in adu to teorijo
neodvisnosti Egipta postavlja pod vpra.aj. V Egiptu je obrezovanje pomenilo pripadnost
kultu boga Sonca . Amon-Raja, najvi.jega bo.anstva in stvarnika vseh bitij. Egipanski
kozmogonski mit pripoveduje, da si je Amon-Ra sam pohabil genitalije. Indikativno pa
je, da naj bi bili mnogi ribii, pastirji in drugi preprosti prebivalci starega Egipta obrezani,
medtem ko so na.li ve mumij kraljev, ki brez dvoma niso bili nikoli obrezani. V starem
Rimu so znani poskusi tedanje oblasti, da bi obrezovanje .ensk in mo.kih izkoreninili
(ME, 1963: 351). Sveto pismo pa od Abrahama dalje vekrat omenja obrezovanje mo.kih
potomcev kot znamenje zveze z bogom.3 Judovska sveta knjiga Talmud posvea
obrezovanju novorojenih dekov kar celo poglavje, pozna pa tudi obrezovanje
mrtvorojenih sinov.4 V stari Griji pa je bilo obrezovanje privilegij duhovnikov.



Danes v znanosti prevladuje preprianje, da so religije, ki podpirajo obrezovanje,
zgolj prevzele .e prej prisotne obiaje in jih izkoristile kot kohezivni simbol pripadnosti
verski skupnosti.55 Glej Leksikon CZ, str. 726 (geslo obrezovanje).


Pojem FGM obsega tri glavne naine pohabljanja .enskih genitalij:
1) Sunna obrezovanje je odstranitev prepucija ali/in vrha klitorisa. Sunna pomeni v
arab.ini tradicija.
2) Klitoridektomija (poimenovano tudi izrezovanje) je odstranitev vsega klitorisa
(prepucij in glans) in odstranitev zunanjih sramnih usten.
3) Infibulacija, poimenovana tudi faraonsko obrezovanje, je najekstremnej.a oblika.
Gre za izrezovanje klitorisa, sramnih usten (majora in minora) in privrstitev
po.kodovanih strani vulve ez vagino s trnji ali za.itje z revi ali sukancem.
Pustijo malo odprtino za uriniranje in menstrualno kri. Infibulirano .ensko
mora mo.ki prerezati . odpreti z no.em, da lahko z njo obuje, kar se zgodi na
porono no. V nekaterih kulturah se to za.itje in odpiranje vekat ponovi (npr.
po rojstvu otrok) (Dorkenoo, 1995: 5).


Women and the State in
Modern Indonesia
Susan Blackburn 2004
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, So Paulo

Before the twentieth century there was no public discussion of maternal
health. As individuals, Indonesian women cared for their own health
as best they could, with the knowledge and means available to them.
Herbal medicines were assiduously taken and the help of traditional
healers sought. The village experts in childbirth have always been the
traditional birth attendants (TBAs), known in Java as dukun bayi, who
surround the crisis of childbirth with practices intended to ward off evil
spirits and misfortune. Poor women have sought their own best interests
and those of their families in circumstances that have often been very
difficult and fraught with dangers.(sr 143)

In order to replace them, the government opened a few maternity hospitals and
training institutions forWestern-style doctors, nurses and midwives. Not
only were the numbers of such trainees woefully inadequate, however, but
the Dutch also found their midwives were not accepted by Indonesian
women, who preferred the comfort, convenience and low cost of the care
of TBAs during and after childbirth, even when midwives were available
(Verdoorn 1941: 211). .(sr 143)

It was only towards the end of the New Order that younger Indonesian
women were bold enough to pose demands on the state in relation to
reproductive health. The more overtly feminist organisations founded
in this period were attracted to the notion of reproductive health rights
and used it as a platform to put womens health on the political agenda. Sr 159

One referred to the failure of a woman in a maternity clinic to prevent
the circumcision of her daughter. Female circumcision, practised
in Indonesia in a very minimalist fashion, had not been publicly discussed
(Feillard and Marcoes 1998). Sr 160
Feillard, A. and L. Marcoes 1998. Female circumcision in Indonesia: to
Islamize in ceremony or secrecy. Archipel (56): 33767

.

Circumcision is, thus, first of all a willingness to submit to the conquest of
God and, as in the story of Abraham and Isaac, to co-operate with His
apparently murderous intentions. This is made particularly clear in an
alternative origin story for circumcision given in the Bible (Exodus 4.24-26).
Yahweh, having had a fair amount of trouble making Moses obey, attempts to
kill him and/or his son for no clear reason when they are on their way to Egypt.
However, death is once again avoided at the last moment through the
intervention of Moses's wife who circumcises them both. Circumcision
appears here as a last-moment alternative to, or perhaps postponement of,
death which is granted precisely because of the actors' willing submission to
conquest. sr 107


-
Recommended Reading
Abdalla, R. Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa, Zed Press,
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DANIDA Guidelines on the prevention of Female Genital Mutilation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Copenhagen, 1996.
Dorkenoo, E. CuttingThe Rose. Female Genital Mutilation: The Practice and Its Prevention, Minority
Rights Group, London, 1994.
Dorkenoo, E. and Elworthy, S. Female Genital Mutilation: Proposals for Change, Minority Rights
Group, London, 1992.
El Dareer, A. Woman why do you weep? Circumcision and its Consequences, Zed Press, London,
1982.
El Saadawi, N. The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World, Zed Press, London, 1980.
Garvey-Graham A.M. Midwives Experiences of Caring for Women During Childbirth Who Have
Undergone Female Genital Mutilation: An Interpretative Study, Victoria University, 2008.
Hedley, R. and Dorkenoo, E. Child Protection and Female Genital Mutilation, FORWARD, London,
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Hosken, F.P. Stop Female Genital Mutilation. Women Speak Facts and Action, Womens
International Network News, Massachusetts, 1995.
Hosken, F.P. The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, 4th edition, Womens
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Light-foot Klein, H. Prisoners of Ritual. An Odyssey into Female Genital Mutilation in Africa, The
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Lockhat, H. Female Genital Mutilation. Treating the Tears. Middlesex University Press, 2004.
McCaffrey, M. and Gordon, H. Management of Female Genital Mutilation: The Northwick Park
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McCaffrey, M. Female Genital Mutilation: consequences for reproduction and sexual health, Sexual
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Momoh, C. Female Genital Mutilation. Radcliffe Publishing UK. 2005.
Rymer, J., Momoh, C. Managing the Reality of FGM in the UK. Female Genital Mutilation. Radcliffe
Publishing UK, 2005.
Thiam, A. Black Sisters, Speak Out. Feminism and Oppression in Black Africa, Pluto Press, London,
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Toubia, N. Female Genital Mutilation a Call for Global Action, Rainbow, New York, 1985.
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Van der Kwaak, Anke
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and Medicine 35(6):777-787.

Toubia, Nahid
1988 Women and Health in Sudan. In Women of the Arab World: The Coming Challenge.
N. Toubia, ed. Pp. 98-109. London: Zed Press.
1993 Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action. New York: Ink.
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1996 Female Genital Mutilation: A Call for Global Action (in Arabic). Cairo: Task
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Taba, A.
1979 Female Circumcision. World Health, May: 8-12.

Messing, Simon
1980 The Problem of "Operations Based on Custom" in Applied Anthropology: The
Challenge of the Hosken Report of Genital and Sexual Mutilations of Females. Human
Organization 39(3):295-297

Ismail, E.
1982 Female CircumcisionPhysical and Mental Complications. In Traditional
Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children. Technical Publication No. 2,
Volume 2. Alexandria, Egypt: World Health Organization, Regional Office for the
Eastern Mediterranean.

Budiharsana, meiwita, amaliah, lila, utomo, budi & erwina (2003) Female circumcision in
Indonesia: Extent , implications and possible interventions to uphold women's health rights, Jakarta:
Population Council.

Darwin, Muhadijir, Faturochman, Ptanti, Basilica Dyah, Purwatiningsih, Sri & Octaviatie, Isaac
Tri (2002) . Male and Female genital cutting among Yogyakartans and Madurans.


Circumcision and Human Rights
edited by George C. Denniston, Frederick Mansfield Hodges, Marilyn Fayre Milos

Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives
edited by Rogaia Mustafa Abushara

Female Circumcision in Indonesia: Extent,
Implications and Possible Interventions to Uphold Women's Health Rights :
Research Report
Under the Veil: Islam's Shrouded Secret
By LaLeh Azhadi