:::Linear Algebra Lectures ::: MAL101 :::

January 2014
Lecture 1
(1) We study system of linear equations with complex coecients. But for most of the cases
the coecients will be rational numbers. Give examples of such systems. Explain what is a
solution of a system of linear equations. Geometrically describe solution of an equation when
number of unknowns is two or three and the coecients are real numbers (respectively as a
line in a plane and a plane in space). Also describe what is a solution of a system of linear
equations when the number of unknowns is two or three (as intersection of lines or planes etc.).
(2) Examples of systems which have (a) no solutions, (b) has a unique solution, (c) innitely many
solutions (when number of unknowns is two or three or four):
a) x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 3, x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 6, x
2
+ 2x
3
= 1;
b) x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 3, x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 6, x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
3
= 4;
c) x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 3, x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
= 6, x
2
+ 2x
3
= 3. Verify that the rst system has no
solution, (1, 1, 1) is the only solution of the second system and the third equation has innitely
many solutions. Indeed, for any real number , the tuple (, 3 2, ) is a solution.
(3) Students should recall Crammers rule and any other methods they learnt to solve a system
of equations. The Crammers rule is applicable when number of unknowns and equations are
same and the determinant of the coecient matrix is nonzero. Discuss the limitations. We will
not disucss Crammers rule in the class.
(4) We write a general system of m linear equations with real (or complex) coecients with n
unknowns x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
as
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ + a
2n
x
n
= b
2

a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
a
i,j
(1 i m, 1 j n) are called coecients and b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
m
are called constant
terms of the equations. We call the system a homogenous system if b
i
= 0 for each i and a
nonhomogeneous system if it is not homogenous.
(5) The above system can be described by the following matrix equation: AX = B where A =

a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n

a
m1
a
m2
a
mn

, B =

b
1
b
2

b
m

and X is the matrix (or column) of unknowns

x
1
x
2
. . .
x
n

. A is
called the coecient matrix and B the matrix (or column) of constants. The matrix (A|B) is
called the augmented matrix of the system.
In a), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
0 1 2

, B =

3
6
1

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and (A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
0 1 2 | 1

.
In b), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
1 1 2

, B =

3
6
4

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and(A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
1 1 2 | 4

.
In c), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
0 1 2

, B =

3
6
3

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and (A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
0 1 2 | 4

.
Remark: i) A solution of a system of equations in n unknowns is an n-tuple whose components
are from R (or C or Q).
ii) The homogeneous equations always has a solution (namely, the zero tuple).
iii) When scalars are complex numbers geometric description of the solution set is not what we
have when scalars are real.
Warning: Before we write the matrix equation we should arrange the unknowns in the same
order in the equations. If an unkown is missing from an equation the corresponding coecient
is assumed to be zero.
2
Lecture 2
(6) Recall that the collection R of all the real numbers is not just a set. There are two binary
operations (namely, addition and multiplications) along with certain nice properties (namely,
commutativity, associativity, distributivity of multiplication over addition, also dierence of
numbers and division by nonzero real numbers etc.)
Note that R can be replaced by C (complex numbers) or Q (rational numbers). However,
mostly we will use R. For solving a system of linear equations using N (natural numbers) or
Z (integers) only will not be considered. When we solve linear equations, we take dierence
or/and ratio, so we always take some eld (in this course, R, Q or C).
(7) To have a geometric idea we consider R as a straight line and R
2
as plane and R
3
as the space
etc. If x = (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
), y = (y
1
, y
2
, . . . , y
n
) R
n
and a R, dene x + y = (x
1
+ y
1
, x
2
+
y
2
, . . . , x
n
+y
n
) and a x = (ax
1
, ax
2
, . . . , ax
n
).
(8) Introduce matrices and the symbol M
mn
(R). Recall properties of matrix addition and matrix
multiplication and recall trace and determinant of square matrices. Dene column and
row matrix. If A is an n n matrix with (i, j)-th entry equal to a
i,j
then tr(A) =

n
i=1
a
ii
and det(A) =

n
i=1
a
ii
A
ii
where A
ij
is (1)
i+j
det of the matrix obtained from A by simply
removing the i-th row and j-th column. It is not dicult to verify using the denition that
tr(A + B) = tr(A) + trB and tr(AB) = tr(BA). It may be harder to verify that det(AB) =
det Adet B.
(9) Dene row reduced echelon matrix (RRE). A matrix is called row reduced echelon if the
following properties hold.
(a) Every zero row is below every nonzero row.
(b) The leading coecient of every nonzero row is 1.
(c) A column which contains leading nonzero entry (which is 1) of a row has all other coe-
cients equal to zero.
(d) Suppose the matrix has r nonzero rows (and remaining m r rows are zero). If leading
nonzero entry of i-th row (1 i r) occurs in the k
i
-th column, then k
1
< k
2
< < k
r
.
Consider the following matrices: a)

1 0 2
0 0 0
0 1 0

is not RRE since it has a zero row preceding a

nonzero row, b)

1 0 1
0 2 0
0 0 0

is not RRE since, he second row is nonzero but its leading non zero
entry is 2 (= 1), c)

1 1 2
0 1 1
0 0 0

is not RRE since the leading nonzero coecient of the second

row is in the second column but the second column has another nonzero coecien (in the rst
row), d)

1 0 2
0 1 3
0 0 1

is not RRE since the the leading nonzero coecient of the third row is
in the third column and the third column has another nonzero coecients , e)

1 0 2
0 1 3
0 0 0

is
RRE, f)

0 1 2
1 0 3
0 0 0

is not RRE since in this there are two nonzero rows and k
1
= 2 and k
2
= 1
violating K
1
< k
2
.
(10) Recall: What is an equivalent relation (a relation which is reexive, symmetric and transitive).
We are going to describe an equivalence relation (called row equivalence) on the collection
M
n
(F) of n n matrices with coecients from F = R, C or Q.
(11) Dene elementary row operations. Namely,
(a) Multiplying the i-th row by a nonzero scalar denoted by R
i
R
i
.
(b) Interchanging i-th row and j-th row denoted by R
i
R
j
.
(c) Replacing the i-th row by the sum of i-th row and multiple of j-th row denoted by
R
i
R
i
+R
j
.
3
Lecture 3
(12) Students should describe how determinant of a square matrix would change if an elementary
row operation is applied (in each of the three cases).
(13) If B is obtained from A by an elementary row operation then nd how to get A from B.
Students have to describe the inverse operations in each cases. Students should note that an
elementary row operation is an invertible map from M
mn
(R) to itself.
(14) Denote an elementary row operation by . If A M
mn
(R) then (A) = (I) A (pre-
multiplication of A by (I)) where I is the m m identity matrix. Students should verify
this fact in each case. If is an elementary row operation then (I) is referred to as an
elementary matrix.
(15) Use the above rule successively on a matrix and get the following two statements for any nitely
many elementary row operations
1
,
2
, . . . ,
s
:
(a) (
s

2

1
)(A) = (
s

2

1
)(I)A.
(b) (
s

2

1
)(A) =
s
(I)
2
(I)
1
(I)A.
(16) A matrix A is said to be row equivalent to the matrix B if there is a nitely many elementary
row operations
1
,
2
, . . . ,
s
such that B = (
s

2

1
)(A).
(17) Observe that row equivalence is an equivalence relation.
(a) A is row equivalent to itself. Recall that the identity map is composition of two elementary
row operations (for instance, composition of R
i
R
j
with itself).
(b) A is row equivalent to B if and only if B is row equivalent to A. If B = (
s

2

1
)(A),
then A = (
1
1

1
s1

1
s
)(B) and inverse of an elementary row operation is an
elementary row operation.
(c) If A is row equivalent to B and B is row equivalent to C then A is row equivalent to C. If
B = (
s

2

1
)(A) and C = (
s+t

s+2

s+1
)(B) then C = (
s+t

2

1
)(A).
If A is row equivalent to B we will often write A B.
(18) One can write an algorithm to show, Every matrix is row equivalent to a unique row reduced
echelon matrix. This statement is same as Every equivalence class of row equivalent matrices
contains a unique row reduced echelon matrix.
Step 1: Appy interchange of rows to push down the zero rows to the end of the matrix so
that no zero row is before a nonzero row.
Step 2: Find the rst nonzero column (from left) (suppose it is k
1
).
Step3: Again apply interchange of rows to push up a row whose leading nonzero coecient
occurs in rst nonzero column (i.e. in the k
1
-th column), to the rst row. Divide the rst row
by the leading nonzero coecient so that the leading nonzero coecient becomes 1.
Step 4. Next apply apply R
i
R
i
R
1
for suitable values of i and so that the rst nonzero
column has nonzero coecient only in the rst row.
Step5: Find the rst nonzero column (from left) when we ignore the rst row (suppose it is k
2
).
Apply interchange of rows to push up a row whose leading nonzero coecient occurs in column
k
2
, to the second row. Divide the second the second row by the leading nonzero coecient.
Step 6: Apply R
i
R
2
for suitable values of i and so that k
2
column has nonzero coecients
only in the second row.
Step 7: Find the rst nonzero row when we ignore the rst two rows. continue. When there is
no nonzero rows left, stop.

0 0 4 1
0 3 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 4 2 0

Apply R
3
R
4
. Get

0 0 4 1
0 3 0 1
0 4 2 0
0 0 0 0

. Apply R
1
R
2
. Get

0 3 0 1
0 0 4 1
0 4 2 0
0 0 0 0

.Next
apply R
1
1/3R
1
. Get

0 1 0 1/3
0 0 4 1
0 4 2 0
0 0 0 0

. Apply R
3
R
3
4R
1
, get

0 1 0 1/3
0 0 4 1
0 0 2 4/3
0 0 0 0

.
Appy R
2
1/4R
2
, get

0 1 0 1/3
0 0 1 1/4
0 0 2 4/3
0 0 0 0

. Apply R
3
R
3
2R
2
, get

0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1/4
0 0 0 11/6
0 0 0 0

.
4
Apply, R
3
6/11R
3
, get

0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1/4
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

. Apply R
1
R
1
R
3
and R
2
R
2
1/4R
3
get

0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0

, which is RRE.
Remark: There are more than one ways of getting the row reduced echelon form of a matrix.
Lecture 4
(19) Following applications of row equivalence of matrices are to be discussed:
(a) Finding rank of a matrix. If A is row equivalent to the row reduced echelon matrix R then
the number of nonzero rows of R is called the rank of A. In particular, the rank of a row
reduced echelon matrix is the number of nonzero rows. We will see later that the row rank
of a matrix (i.e. dimension of the row space) is the rank of the matrix.
The rank of

0 0 4 1
0 3 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 4 2 0

is 3. The Rank of

1 1 1 1 1
1 2 1 3 1
0 1 0 2 0
1 0 1 1 1

is two. Student must

show that this matrix is row equivalent to

1 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 2 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

which is row reduced echelon

(so that the rank of the given matrix is 2).
Remark: We will see use of rank of a matrix.
(b) Determining whether a square matrix is invertible. In case it is invertible nding the
inverse. Theorem: Suppose R is row reduced echelon and row equivalent to A. Then A
is invertible if and only if R is the identity matrix. In fact,
Algorithm: Suppose (A| I) is row equivalent to (R| B) and R is row reduced echelon.
Then A is invertible if and only if R = I and in this case B = A
1
.
If (
k

2

1
)(A) = I, then (
k

2

1
)(I) A = I. Therefore A
1
=
(
k

2

1
)(I).
Example: Suppose A =

1 1 1
1 2 1
1 2 3

. Apply elementary row operations on the matrix

(A|I) to nd (R|B) where R is the RRE matrix row equivalent to A.
Apply R
2
R
2
R
1
and then R
3
R
1
on

1 1 1 | 1 0 0
1 2 1 | 0 1 0
1 2 3 | 0 0 1

and get

1 1 1 | 1 0 0
0 1 0 | 1 1 0
0 1 2 | 1 0 1

. Then apply R
1
R
1
R
2
and R
3
R
3
R
1
and get

1 0 1 | 2 1 0
0 1 0 | 1 1 0
0 0 2 | 0 1 1

. Then apply R
3
1/3R
3
and then R
1
R
1
R
3
and get

1 0 0 | 2 1/2 1/2
0 1 0 | 1 1 0
0 0 1 | 0 1/2 1/2

. Conclude that A
1
=

2 1/2 1/2
1 1 0
0 1/2 1/2

.
Remark: Algorithm to nd row reduced echelon form of a matrix, also determines whether
a square matrix is invertible and if it is invertible, it can be used to nd the inverse.
(c) Solving a system of linear equations. Obviously, AX = 0 always has a solution (for
instance, x
i
= 0 i). Suppose we have the following system of linear equations: AX = B.
Observe the following statements:
5
i) If (A| B) is row equivalent to (A

| B

), then the two systems AX = B and A

X = B

have the same solutions.

Reasoning: Since (PQ) = (P)Q we have AX = B if and only (A)X = (B) for any
composition of nitely many elementary row operations.
ii) If A is row reduced echelon matrix then one can determine whether AX = B has a
solution and what are all solutions just by inspection.
Reasoning: Suppose A is a row reduced echelon matrix. If there is a row i of (A|B) such
that i-th row of A a zero row but i-th row of B nonzero then AX = B has no solution.
Suppose AX = B has a solution. Assume that A has r nonzero rows and the leading
nonzero coecient of i-th row is in the k
i
-th coecients. Call x
k
1
, . . . x
kr
dependent un-
knowns. Assign arbitrary values to all x
i
for i {k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
r
} then write x
k
1
, . . . , x
kr
as
a linear combination as the independent unknowns.
Discuss enough examples.
(We will discuss later, if the system is homogenous then the dimension of the solution
space is n r.)
6
Lecture 5
(20) Observation: If (A|B) (A

|B

) (row equivalent) then the the following system have exactly

same set of solutions: AX = B and A

X = B

.
Reasoning: If =
k

k1

1
is a composition of elementary row operations then
(AX) = (B) (A)X = (B) A

X = B

.
Suppose A M
mn
(F) is a row reduced echelone matrix having r nonzero rows (and m r
zero rows). Further assume that the leading nonzero coecient of the i-th nonzero row occurs
in the k
i
-th column. Call the x
k
1
, x
k
2
, . . . , x
kr
to be dependent unknowns and the remaining
unknowns as independent or free unknowns.
The system has no solution if any one of the last m r rows of B is nonzero because such a
row gives an inconsistent equation 0 = b
r+i
for some i 1. If the last m r rows are zero
rows then the system has a solution. In this case, assign arbitrary values to the independent
unknowns and then write the dependent unknowns in terms of arbitrary values assigned to the
independent unknowns.
(21) Thus, AX = B has a solution if and only if rank(A) = rank(A|B). Further, AX = B has a
unique solution if and only if rank(A) = rank(A|B) = n, the number of unknowns (so that
n r = 0 is the number of free unknowns).
(22) Now we discuss the three system of equations in the rst lectures using the method.
In a), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
0 1 2

, B =

3
6
1

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and (A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
0 1 2 | 1

.
Apply elementary row operations on (A|B) to nd the row reduced echelon form of the rst
block. (A|B)
R
2
R
2
R
1

1 1 1 | 3
0 1 2 | 3
0 1 2 | 1

R
1
R
1
R
2
,R
3
R
3
R
2

1 0 1 | 0
0 1 2 | 3
0 0 0 | 2

.
Since the third row of the rst block is zero but the third entry of the second column is nonzero
the system has no solution.
In b), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
1 1 2

, B =

3
6
4

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and(A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
1 1 2 | 4

.
In this case, (A|B) =
R
2
R
2
R
1
,R
3
R
3
R
1

1 1 1 | 3
0 1 2 | 3
0 0 1 | 1

R
1
R
1
R
2

1 0 1 | 0
0 1 2 | 3
0 0 1 | 1

R
1
R
1
+R
3
,R
2
R
2
2R
3

1 0 0 | 1
0 1 0 | 1
0 0 1 | 1

. Thus, r = 3 = n = m, k
i
= i for each i = 1, 2, 3
so that there is no independent unknown. In fact the solution is x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= 1 (unique).
In c), A =

1 1 1
1 2 3
0 1 2

, B =

3
6
3

, X =

x
1
x
2
x
3

and (A|B) =

1 1 1 | 3
1 2 3 | 6
0 1 2 | 3

R
2
R
2
R
1

1 1 1 | 3
0 1 2 | 3
0 1 2 | 3

R
1
R
1
R
2
,R
3
R
3
R
2

1 0 1 | 0
0 1 2 | 3
0 0 0 | 0

.
In this case, n = m = 3, r = 2, k
1
= 1, k
2
= 2. x
3
is the independent unknown so assign any
arbitrary value to it, say x
3
= . Then x
1
= 0 and x
2
+2 = 3. Thus the general solution
of the system is (, 3 2, ).
(23) Denote by e
i
, (1 i n) the n-tuple with 1 in the i-th component and 0 in the other
components. Then (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) =
n

i=1
a
i
e
i
. In fact any n-tuple is a unique linear combination
of e
i
s (recall that two n-tuples are equal if and only if each component of the rst tuple is equal
to the corresponding component of the second tuple). Suppose f
1
= e
1
+e
2
+e
3
, f
2
= e
2
+e
3
, f
3
=
e
3
R
3
. Then (x, y, z) = af
1
+bf
2
+cf
3
for some a, b, c R. In fact, a = x, b = yx, c = z y.
Further, choices for a, b, c are unique (prove this).
7
More generally, the set {e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
} can be replaced by some other set X = {f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
n
}
of n elements from R
n
so that every element of R
n
can be written as a linear combination of
tuples belonging to X.
Note that that not any choice of n vectors f
i
will do. We need a set of n linearly independent
set of vectors. X is said to be linear independent if a linear combination of vectors belonging
to X is zero only when each coecient is zero. Further the number of elements in X cannot
be changed if we want every vector of R
n
is represented as a linear combination of elements of
X in a unique way.
Explain geometrically when n = 1, 2, 3.
8
Lecture 6
(24) Suppose V is a nonempty set. A map V V V is said to be a binary operation. Using
a binary operation on V we can combine any two elements of V to get a third element of V .
Suppose + is a binary operation on V . Suppose F = R, Q or C and there is a map F V V
(i.e., there is a way to multiply an element of F to an element of V ). Then we say that V is a
vector space over F if the following conditions are satised.
(a) v + w = w + v for any v, w V (addition of vectors is commutative),
(b) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w for any u, v, w V (addition of vector is associative),
(c) there is a unique vector denoted (often) by 0 (same notation as the zero of F) such that
v + 0 = v for any v V .
(d) for every vector v V there is a vector denoted by v V such that v + v = 0,
(e) a(bv) = ab)v for any a, b F and v V ,
(f) (a + b)v = av + bv for any a, b F and v V ,
(g) a(v + w) = av + aw for any a F, v, w V .
(h) 1v = v for each v V (where 1 is the usual 1 in F).
The following examples can be understood easily: R
n
over R, F
n
over F, M
mn
(R) over R,
M
mn
(F) over F. In these, addition of vectors is component wise addition and scalar multipli-
cation is by multiplying every component by the scalar. The space C[0, 1] is the collection of
continuous real valued functions on the interval [0, 1] where f + g is the function which takes
value f(x) +g(x) at x and for any scalar a R, af is the function which takes value af(x) at
x. F[X] denotes the collection of polynomials in X with coecients from F. One can verify
that F[X] is a vector space over F under usual addition of polynomials (also we know how to
multiply a scalar to a polynomial). We dene for every n N, P
n
:= {f F[X] : deg f < n}.
Denote the space of all the sequences in F by Maps(N, F) and F

:= {{x
n
} : x
n
= 0 for all but
nitely many n N}.
Students should understand the vector space structure of these.
(25) Remark: C
n
is a vector space over R as well as over C. To specify the base eld we may use
the notation C
n
(R) and C
n
(C) (respectively).
Remark: Not dicult to show that when the zero scalar is multiplied to a vector, the out put
is the zero vector. For instance, 0v = (0 + 0)v 0v = 0v + 0v. Adding 0v to both sides we
have 0 = 0v. Similarly, justify that if a scalar is multiplied to the zero vector the out put is
the zero vector.
(26) Suppose V is a vector space over F. A nonempty subset W of V is said to be a subspace
if W is a vector space under the operations obtained by restricting the operations of V to
W. Thus we require, u, v W u + v W and a F, u W au W. E.g.,
W
1
:= {(x, y) F
2
: x + 2y = 0} is a subspace of F
2
; but W
2
:= {(x, x + 1) : x R} is not a
subspace of R
2
. For instance, (1, 2), (2, 3) W
2
but (1, 2) + (2, 3) = (3, 5) / W
3
.
W
3
:= {

a b
c d

M
22
(F) : a = c + d, b = c d} is a subspace of M
22
(F).
F

is a subspace of Maps(N, F).

P
n
is a subspace of F[X].
Remark: 1. R is not a vector space over C. Because if a real number (= 0) is multiplied by
a non-real complex number then we get a non-real complex number.
2. Every subspace must contain the zero vector. Thus a subset which does not contain the
zero vector is not a subspace.
3. The singleton set {0} is a vector space over evey eld. The only element is the zero vector
of this space. This space is called the zero space. The zero space is a subspace of every vector
space.
9
Lecture - 7 and 8
(27) A Criterion for a subset to be a subspace- Theorem: A necessary and sucient condition for
a non-empty subset W of a vector space over F is that u, v W and a F au +v W.
Proof: This condition is necessary because if W is a subspace of V , sum of any two vectors in
W must be in W and every scalar multiple of an element of W is also in W.
Conversely, suppose u, v W and a F au + v W. Since W is nonempty, may pick
u W. Then (1)u + u W and 0 = (1)u + u, hence 0 W. Let u, v W. Then
u + v = 1u + v and 1 F so that u + v W. Further, u W, a F au + 0 W and
au + 0 = au so that au W.
Theorem: A necessary and sucient condition for a nonempty subset S of a vector space to
be a subspace is a, b F, u, v S au +bv S.
(28) Suppose A M
mn
(F). Then W = X F
n
: AX = 0 is a subspace of F
n
. This is called
the solution space of AX = 0. (Warning: Note that here a vector in F
n
is written as a
column matrix rather than an n-tuple.) Conversely, every subspace of F
n
is a solution space of
a homogenous system of linear equations in n unknowns.
(29) Suppose S is a subset of the vector space V over F. Denote by S the intersection of all
the subspaces of V which contain S, then S is a subspace of V . (Proof: If u, v are in the
intersection of all the subspaces containing S, then u, v and hence au + v is in each subspace
containing S for any a F. Thus, au +v is in the intersection of all the subspaces containing
S. This shows that the intersection of all the subspaces containing S is a subspace (using the
criterion above.) ) We call S the subspace generated by S in V . By denition it is the
smallest subspace containing S. If S = , the empty set, then S = 0, the zero space.
Dene span(S) := a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
r
v
r
: r N, a
i
R, v
i
S. Show that span(S) is a
subspace containing S. By convention, if S is empty, we write spanS = 0, the zero space.
Observations: (i) S S, (ii) S span(S), (iii) S and span(S) are both subspaces of V .
Theorem: S = span(S).
Proof: By denition, S is contained in every subspace which contains S. Since span(S) is a
subspace containing S, S span(S). To show the other containment, an arbitrary element
of span(S) is a nite linear combination of elements of S. Such an element is contained in every
subspace containing S. Therefore, in particular span(S) S (Recall that X Y X, Y ).
Exercise: Geometrically describe the possible subspaces of R
2
and R
3
.
Find span(S) for the following S: a) S = (1, 1, 1), (1, 2, 3), b) S = (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2).
Write the space as solution space for a suitable matrix.
(30) A subset X of a vector space V over F is said to be linearly dependent if there exist a nite
subset v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
of X and scalars a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
m
F such that at least one of these scalars
is nonzero and a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
m
v
m
= 0. E.g., in R
3
, the set X = (n, n, n) : n N, n 2
is linearly dependent. Since (2, 2, 2), (3, 3, 3) X and 3(2, 2, 2) 2(3, 3, 3) so that X is linearly
dependent. A subset X of a vector space is said to be linearly independent if it is not linearly
dependent. Thus a subset of a vector space is either linear independent or linear dependent (and
cannot be both). Thus, a subset X of a vector space V is said to be linearly independent if its
every subset is linearly independent. A nite subset X = v
1
v
2
, . . . , v
m
is linearly independent
if and only if a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
m
v
m
= 0 a
1
= a
2
= = a
m
= 0.
The set X = (1, 2, 3), (2, 3, 4), (1, 1, 2) is linearly independent. To see this consider a(1, 2, 3)+
b(2, 3, 4) + c(1, 1, 2) = 0. Then (a + 2b + c, 2a + 3b + c, 3a + 4b + 2c) = (0, 0, 0). Thus,
a +2b +c = 0, 2a +3b +c = 0, 3a +4b +2c = 0. Next, we have to apply the method of solving
a system of linear equations to show that a = 0, b = 0, c = 0 is the only possible solution. Find
the row reduced echelon form of the coecient matrix and nd all the solutions. Students may
see the QWS 2 (in the course webpage) to understand this concept.
Remark: Students must observe the following (equivalent) statements:
(a) A subset of a linearly independent set is linearly independent.
(b) A superset of a linearly dependent set is linearly dependent.
10
(31) A subset B of a vector space V is said to be a basis of V if B is linearly independent and every
vector in V is a linear combination of nitely many vectors belonging to B. We have already
seen that e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
is a basis of F
n
for any eld F. Dene f
i
=
i

j=1
e
j
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Show that f
1
, f
2
, . . . , f
n
is a basis of R
n
and the set 1, X, X
2
, . . . , X
n
, . . . is a basis of F[X].
Remarks: Students should make the following observations:
(a) A basis of a vector space V is a maximal linearly independent subset of V . In other words,
a superset of a basis is linearly dependent.
Proof: Let v V but v , B. Then v = a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
r
v
r
for some v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
r
B
and a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
r
F. Hence, v a
1
v
1
a
2
v
2
a
r
v
r
= 0 which assures that B v
is linearly dependent.
(b) A maximal linearly independent subset of a vector space is a basis.
Proof: Suppose S is a maximal linear independent subset of a vector space V . Let
v V . If v S, then v is a linear combination of element of S. If v , S then by
assumption S v is linearly dependent. So there are vectors v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
r
S such that
av+a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
r
v
r
= 0 for some a, a
1
, a
2
, a
r
F. Observe that if a = 0 the each a
i
is
zero as S is linearly independent. Thus a ,= 0. Then v = a
1
a
1
v
1
a
1
a
2
v
2
a
1
a
r
v
r
so that v is a linear combination of vectors in S.
(c) If B is a basis of a vector space V , then every vector in V is a unique linear combination
of elements of B. That is, there is only one way of writing a vector as a linear combination
of basis vectors.
Proof: Suppose v = a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
m
v
m
= b
1
v
1
+b
2
v
2
+ +b
m
v
m
(One may wonder
what if a dierent set of vectors occur in the second expression! You supply zero coecients
to certain vectors if necessary.) Then we have (a
1
b
1
)v
1
+(a
2
b
2
)v
2
+ +(a
m
b
m
)v
m
= 0.
Since v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
B, it is linearly independent and so a
1
b
1
= a
2
b
2
= a
m
b
m
= 0
so that a
i
= b
i
for each (1 i m).
We assume the following fact without proof: Theorem Every vector space has a basis.
(32) Lemma Any linearly independent nite set of vectors is a part of a basis. In other words, any
nite linearly independent set of vectors can be extended to a basis of the vector space.
Proof: Suppose S := v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
m
is a linear indepent set of vectors and B is a basis. We
will show that we get a new basis of V by substituting a suitable vector of B by v
1
. There exists
w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
r
B such that v
1
= a
1
w
1
+ a
2
w
2
+ + a
r
w
r
for some a
1
, a
2
, . . . a
r
(,= 0) R.
Then w
1
= a
1
1
v
1
a
1
1
a
2
w
2
a
1
1
a
r
w
r
. Then B
1
:= Bw
1
v
1
is a basis of V and it is
an easy check. Next we can get a new basis B
2
from B
1
substituting a suitable vector (dierent
from v
1
) by v
2
(using the same procedure). For instance, v
2
= b
1
u
1
+b
2
u
2
+ +b
t
u
t
+av
1
where
at least one of b
1
, b
2
, . . . , b
t
is nonzero (since v
1
, v
2
is a linearly independent set). Suppose
b
1
,= 0 and dene, B
2
= v
2
B
1
u
1

This process will stop in m steps and we get a basis B

n
of V which contains S as a subset.
(33) If V has a nite basis with n vectors then any other basis is nite and has n vectors.
Proof: Suppose B
1
and B
2
are two bases of a vector space. Assume without loss of generality
that [B
1
[ [B
2
[ (otherwise interchange the role of B
1
and B
2
). Suppose S is a subset of B
2
containing as many elements as B
1
possesses. Since B
2
is linearly independent, S is linearly
independent. By the procedure described in the above Lemma, we can construct a basis B

from B
1
such that S B

and [B

[ = [B
1
[. Since [B
1
[ = [S[, we must have S = B

. If B
2
properly contains S then B
2
is linearly dependent (since S is a basis). Hence S = B
2
so that
[B
1
[ = [B
2
[.
(34) If a vector space has no nite basis, we say that it is an innite dimensional vector space.
F[X], Maps(N, R), C[0, 1] are innite dimensional vector space. We have proved that if a vector
space has a nite basis then any two basis have the same number of elements. This number is
call the dimension of the vector space. We write dim(V ) or dim
F
(V ). Show the following by
producing a basis in each case: dim
R
(R
n
) = n, dim
C
(C
n
) = n, dim
R
(C
n
) = 2n, dim
F
(T
n
) = n,
dim
F
M
mn
(F) = mn.
11
Lecture 9 and 10
(35) A basis B (of a vector space) with an ordering of the elements (of B) is called an ordered
basis. Now on we will consider nite dimensional vector spaces (unless otherwise stated) and
ordered bases of vector spaces.
Suppose B = {v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
} be a basis of a vector space V over the eld F. Fix the ordering
of elements in B as they are listed. Then we know that v = a
1
v
1
+a
2
v
2
+ +a
n
v
n
(recall that
the coecients are uniquely determined). We write [v]
B
for the column matrix (a
1
a
2
a
n
)
T
which is in F
n
. [v]
B
is called the coordinate vector of v with respect to the basis B. With
respect to the standard basis {e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
} the coordinates of (a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) is the column
(a
1
a
2
a
n
)
T
. Observe that B = {(1, 1), (1, 1)} is a basis of R
2
. Let v = (a, b). Note,
(a, b) = x(1, 1) +y(1, 1) if an only if x +y = a and x y = b if and only if x =
a+b
2
, y =
ab
2
.
Hence [(a, b)]
B
= (
a+b
2
ab
2
)
T
=

a+b
2
ab
2

. Next, suppose B

= {(1, 2), (2, 1)}. Then B

is another
basis of R
2
. Then [(a, b)]
B
is

2ba
3
2ab
3

.
Thus, the coordinate vector of a vector depends upon the basis. Next we will see how the
coordinate vector changes with a change of basis..
(36) Change of basis (relation between coordinates with respect to old and new bases). Suppose
B = {v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
n
} and B

= {w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
} are bases of a vector space V over a eld F.
Suppose
(1) v
j
=
n

i=1
p
ij
w
i
Suppose for a vector v V and [v]
B
= (a
1
a
2
a
n
)
T
. Then
v =
n

j=1
a
j
v
j
=
n

j=1
a
j
n

i=1
p
i,j
w
i
=
n

i=1
(
n

i=1
p
i,j
a
j
)w
i
.
Thus [v]
B
=

i=1
p
1,j
a
j
n

i=1
p
2,j
a
j

n

i=1
p
n,j
a
j

= P

a
1
a
2

a
n

where P is the n n matrix whose (i, j)-th entry is p

i,j
.
Then [v]
B
= P[v]
B
.
Remark: The matrix P which occur in the change of basis is invertible. Suppose
(2) w
k
=
n

j=1
q
jk
v
j
for (1 k n). Denote by Q the matrix whose (i, j)-th coecient is q
i,j
. One can see that
PQ = QP = I. Indeed, use (1) in (2) to get
w
k
=
n

j=1
q
jk
n

i=1
p
ij
w
i
=
n

i=1

j=1
p
ij
q
jk

w
i
Since {w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
n
} is a basis, we must have
n

j=1
p
ij
q
jk
=
i,k
. Therefore, PQ = I. In
particular, P is invertible and Q = P
1
.
Exercise: Find P for the example in subsection 35 and verify the relation.
Hint: If (1, 1) = a(1, 2) + b(2, 1) and (1, 1) = c(1, 2) + d(2, 1) then P =

a c
b d

.
12
Let e
i,j
M
mn
(F) be the matrix whose (i, j)-th coecient is 1 and any other coecient is
zero. Show that {e
i,j
: 1 i m, 1 j n} is a basis of M
mn
(F).
(37) Let A M
mn
(F). Denote the i-th row (1 i m) by R
i
. Then R
i
M
1n
(F). A
row can be thought as an n-tuples. With this understanding M
1n
(F) is identied with F
n
.
span(R
1
, R
2
, . . . , R
m
) as a subspace of F
n
is called the row space of A. The dimension of the
row space of A is called the row rank of A. Suppose S
1
, S
2
are subspaces of a vector space.
If S
1
span(S
2
) and S
2
span(S
1
) then span(S
1
) = span(S
2
). This statement can be used
to understand the following statement: If A and B are row equivalent matrices then their
row spaces and hence their row ranks are same. How will you prove it? If A and B are row
equivalent then every row of A is a linear combination of rows of B (hence in the span of rows
of B) and every row of B is a linear combination of rows of A (hence in the span of rows of A).
In particular, let B be the row reduced echelon form of A. Then rankA = rankB = row rank
of B=row rank of A. Thus, rankA = row rank of A.
Remark: If a matrix is row reduced echelon, the nonzero rows form a basis of the row space.
(Students should prove this statement.) Thus, to nd a basis of the row space of a matrix A,
we require to nd the row reduced echelon form of A.
(38) Theorem: The dimension of the solution space of AX = 0 is n r where n is the number of
unknowns and r is the rank of A.
Proof: Suppose R is row reduced echelon form of A. Then the solution space of AX = 0 is
same as the solution space of RX = 0. We need to show that the dimension of the solution
space of RX = 0 is n r where r is number of nonzero rows of R. Suppose for 1 i r, the
leading nonzero coecient of the i-th row is in the k
i
-th column. Since R is row reduced echelon,
k
1
< k
2
< < k
r
. Then x
k
1
, x
k
2
, . . . , x
kr
are the dependent unknowns and the remaining nr
unknowns are free. To nd a solution of the system, for j {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} \ {k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
r
},
assign x
j
=
j
and get each x
kt
as a linear combination of these
j
s from the t-th equation
(This is how we write the general solution.). How to write the basis? We write n r linearly
independent solutions. For i {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} \ {k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
r
}, pick
j
=
i,j
(the kronecker
delta) and get a solution v
i
. Then B = {v
i
: i {1, 2, . . . , n} \ {k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
r
}} is a basis of the
solution space. Indeed, if v is the solution obtained by assigning
i
to the the free unknown x
i
then v =

i{1,2,...,n}\{k
1
,k
2
,...,kr}

i
v
i
. In particular dimension of the solution space is n r.
To understand the above proof, students should go though the following example.
Example: To nd a basis solution space of AX = 0 where A =

1 2 0 1
1 2 1 4
2 4 1 5

, rst nd the
row reduced echelon form of A. Here, it is

1 2 0 1
0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0

. Thus, r = 2, k
1
= 1, k
2
= 3. So x
1
, x
3
are the dependent unknowns and x
2
, x
4
are the free unknowns. The general solution is obtained
by assigning arbitrary values to x
2
and x
4
. Let x
2
and x
4
be assigned
2
and
4
respectively.
Then the rst equation x
1
+ 2x
2
+ x
4
= 0 gives x
1
= 2
2

4
and the second equation
x
3
+ 3x
4
= 0 gives x
3
= 3
4
so that the general solution is v = (2
2

4
,
2
, 3
4
,
4
)
where
2
,
4
R. By assigning x
2
= 1 and x
4
= 0 we get v
2
= (2, 1, 0, 0) and by assiging
x
2
= 0 and x
4
= 1 we get v
4
= (1, 0, 3, 1). Then {v
2
, v
4
} is a basis of the solution space.
Indeed, the general solution v which we have written above satises v =
2
v
2
+
4
v
4
.
Suggestion: Students are advised to solve any system of linear equations (homogeneous or
non-homogeneous) by reducing the coecient matrix into RRE form. Find r, k
1
, k
2
, . . . , k
r
and
identify the free unknowns and assign arbitrary values to the free unknowns only to get the
general solution.
Remark: The column space of A M
mn
(F) is the row space of A
T
(the transpose of A)
and the column rank of A is the dimension of the column space. We will see later, The row
rank and the column rank of a matrix are same.
13
Lecture 11 and 12
(39) Suppose W
1
, W
2
are subspaces of a vector space V over F. Then dene
W
1
+ W
2
:= {w
1
+ w
2
: w
1
W
1
, w
2
W
2
}.
This is a subspace of V and it is call the sum of W
1
and W
2
. Students must verify that W
1
+W
2
is a subspace of V (use the criterion for a subspace).
Examples:
(a) Let V = R
2
, W
1
= {(x, x) : x R} and W
2
= {(x, x) : x R}. Then W
1
+ W
2
= R
2
.
Indeed, (x, y) = (
x+y
2
,
x+y
2
) + (
xy
2
,
xy
2
).
(b) Next, let V = R
4
, W
1
= {(x, y, z, w) : x + y + z = 0, x + 2y z = 0}, W
2
= {(s, 2s, 3s, t) :
s, t R}. How to describe W
1
+ W
2
(e.g., nd a basis)?
The following theorem tells us the dimension of W
1
+W
2
and the proof of the theorem suggest
how to write its bases.
Theorem: If W
1
, W
2
are subspaces of a vector space V , then
dim(W
1
+ W
2
) = dimW
1
+ dimW
2
dim(W
1
W
2
).
Proof: Let S be a basis of W
1
W
2
(if W
1
W
2
is the zero space then S = .). For each i = 1, 2,
extend S to a basis B
i
of W
i
. Let S = {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
r
}, B
1
= {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
r
, v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
s
} and
B
2
= {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
r
, w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
t
}. Then dim(W
1
W
2
) = r, dimW
1
= r +s, dimW
2
= r +t.
Let B = {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
r
, v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
s
, w
1
, w
2
, . . . , w
t
}. It is enough to show that B is a basis
of W
1
+ W
2
because then we have dim(W
1
+ W
2
) = r + s + t = (r + s) + (r + t) r =
dimW
1
+ dimW
2
dim(W
1
W
2
).
To show that B is linearly independent let
r

i=1
a
i
u
i
+
s

j=1
b
j
v
j
+
t

k=1
c
k
w
k
= 0.
Then
r

i=1
a
i
u
i
+
s

j=1
b
j
v
j
=
t

k=1
c
k
w
k
.
Now the LHS is in W
1
and the RHS is in W
2
. So this element is in W
1
W
2
. Thus
t

k=1
c
k
w
k
=
t

k=1
d
i
u
i
so that
r

i=1
d
i
u
i
+
t

k=1
c
k
w
k
= 0 which implies d
i
= 0 and c
k
= 0 for each i and k (since
B
2
is linearly independent). Therefore,
r

i=1
a
i
u
i
+
s

j=1
b
j
v
j
= 0 which implies a
i
= 0, b
j
= 0 for
each i and each j (since B
1
is linearly independent). Thus, B is linearly independent. Let
w W
1
+ W
2
. Then w = w
1
+ w
2
for some w
i
W
i
for i = 1, 2. Then w
1
=
r

i=1
p
i
u
i
+
s

j=1
q
j
v
j
and w
2
=
r

i=1
g
i
u
i
+
t

j=1
h
j
w
j
for p
i
, q
i
, g
i
, h
i
F. Now w =
r

i=1
(p
i
+ g
i
)u
i
+
s

j=1
q
j
v
j
+
t

k=1
h
k
w
k
which is in span(B).
(40) The sum W
1
+ W
2
is called direct if W
1
W
2
= {0}. In particular, a vector space V is said to
be the direct sum of two subspaces W
1
and W
2
if V = W
1
+W
2
and W
1
W
2
= {0}. When V
is a direct sum of W
1
and W
2
we write V = W
1
W
2
.
Theorem: Suppose W
1
and W
2
are subspaces of a vector space V so that V = W
1
+W
2
. Then
V = W
1
W
2
if and only if every vector in V can be written in a unique way as w
1
+w
2
where
w
i
W
i
.
Proof: Since V = W
1
+ W
2
, every vector in V is a sum of a vector in W
1
and a vector in
W
2
. Suppose that for every v V , there is only one pair (w
1
, w
2
) with w
i
W
i
such that
v = w
1
+ w
2
. If W
1
W
2
is nonzero, pick a nonzero vector u W
1
W
2
. Then u = u + 0
14
with u W
1
, 0 W
2
and u = 0 + u with 0 W
1
, u W
2
. This contradicts our uniqueness
assumption.
Conversely, suppose V = W
1
W
2
. Then V = W
1
+W
2
and W
1
W
2
= {0}. If for v V we
have v = w
1
+ w
2
= w

1
+ w

2
for w
1
, w

1
W
1
and w
2
, w

2
W
2
then w
1
w

1
= w

2
w
2
. The
LHS is in W
1
and the RHS in W
2
; therefore, this vector is in W
1
W
2
. Since by assumption
W
1
W
2
= {0}, we have w
1
w

1
= 0 and w

2
w
2
= 0 so that w
1
= w

1
and w
2
= w

2
.
Examples:
(a) V = R
2
, W
1
= {(x, 2x) : x R}, W
2
= {(x, 3x) : x R}. Then V = W
1
W
2
.
Indeed, (x, y) = (3x y, 6x 2y) + (y 2x, 3y 6x) (Hint: Find a, b F such that
(x, y) = (a, 2a) + (b, 3b)) and W
1
W
2
= 0 (Hint: Let (x, y) W
1
W
2
then (x, y) =
(a, 2a) = (b, 3b) for some a, b F. By comparing the rst component we get a = b and
comparing the second we get a = 0).
(b) Suppose n 2, V = R
n
, W
1
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) R
n
: a
1
+ a
2
+ a
n
= 0} and
W
2
= {(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) R
n
: a
1
+ a
2
+ (1)
n
a
n
= 0}. Show that V = W
1
+ W
2
.
Further show that when n = 2, V = W
1
W
2
and when n > 2 the sum is not direct.
(c) V = M
n
(R), W
1
is the subspace of all the upper trangular matrices and W
2
is the subspace
of all the lower trangular matrices over R (this sum is not direct).
(d) V = M
n
(R), W
1
is the subspace of all the symmetric n n matrices over R and W
2
is the
subspace of all the skew-symmetric n n matrices over R (in this, the sum is direct).
Exercise: Write a basis of W
1
+ W
2
of example 39b.
(41) Suppose V and W are vector spaces over the same eld F. A map T : V W is called a
linear transformation if T(au + bv) = aT(u) + bT(v) for any a, b F and any u, v V .
Examples:
(a) Let V = W = R
2
, F = R. Then T
1
(x, y) = (ax + by, cx + dy) for any a, b, c, d R
is a linear transformation (verify). But T
2
(x, y) = (x + y + 1, x y) is not a linear
transformation (why?). If T : R
2
R
2
is a linear transformation then T = T
1
for
some choices of a, b, c, d R. Indeed, T(x, y) = T(xe
1
+ ye
2
) = xT(e
1
) + yT(e
2
). Since
T(e
1
), T(e
2
) R
2
, we have T(e
1
) = (p, q) and T(e
2
) = (r, s) for some p, q, r, s R. Thus,
T(x, y) = x(p, q) + y(r, s) = (px + ry, qx + sy).
(b) For any vector spaces V, W over F, map from V to W dened by v 0 for all v V is a
linear transformation and it is called the zero map (or zero transformation).
(c) Id
V
: V V dened by v v for all v V is a linear tranformation; it is called the
identity operator.
(d) For each 1 i n, p
i
: R
n
R dened by p
i
(a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
) = a
i
is a linear transformation
and it is called the i-th projection.
Remarks: If T : V W is a linear transformation then T(0) = 0, i.e., the image of the zero
vector of V is the zero vector of W. Indeed, T(0) = T(00) = 0T(0) = 0 (where we have written
00, the rst zero is the scalar zero and the second zero is the zero vector in the domain space
V of T. T : R
2
R
2
given by T(x, y) = (x +y +1, x y) is not linear because T(0, 0) = (1, 0)
which is not the zero vector of R
2
.
(42) Suppose T : V W is a linear transformation. Then dene
ker(T) := {v V : T(v) = 0} and T(V ) := {T(v) : v V }.
Show that ker(T) < V and T(V ) < W for any linear transformation T. The spaces ker(T)
and T(V ) are called respectively null space (or kernel) and image space (or range space)
of T. The dimension of ker(T) is call the nullity of T and the dimension of T(V ) is call the
rank of T.
Theorem: A linear tranformation is injective if and only if its null space is the zero space.
Proof: Suppose T : V W is a linear tranformation. Suppose that the null space is the
zero space. If T(u) = T(v) for u, v V then T(u v) = 0 so that u v ker(T) = {0}
which implies u v = 0 u = v. Conversely, assume that T is injective. If u ker(T) then
T(u) = 0 = T(0) which implies u = 0 (since T is invertible).
15
Theorem: (Rank-nullity Theorem) Suppose T : V W is a linear tranformation. Then
rank(T) + Nullity(T) = dim(V ).
Proof: Suppose {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
m
} is a basis of the null space ker(T). Extend this basis to a
basis of V . Let {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
m
, v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
r
} be a basis of V so that dim(V ) = s + r. We
will show that B = {T(v
1
), T(v
2
), . . . , T(v
r
)} is a basis of the range space T(V ) (to prove that
dim(T(V )) = r). By denition B T(V ). Suppose
r

i=1
a
i
T(v
i
) = 0. Then T(
r

i=1
a
i
v
i
) = 0 (since
T is linear). Hence
r

i=1
a
i
v
i
ker(T) so that
r

i=1
a
i
v
i
=
m

i=1
b
j
u
j
or
m

j=1
(b
j
)u
j
+
r

i=1
a
i
v
i
= 0. Since
{u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
m
, v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
r
} is linearly independent, the coecients are all zero. In particular,
a
i
= 0 for each 1 i r. Thus, B is linearly independent. If w T(V ), there exists v V such
that T(v) = w. Since {u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
m
, v
1
, v
2
, . . . , v
r
} is a basis of V , v =
m

i=1
p
i
u
i
+
r

j=1
q
j
v
j
where
p
i
, q
j
F. Since T(u
i
) = 0 for each i, we get, by applying T both sides, T(v) =
r

j=1
q
j
T(v
j
).
Examples: Let T : R
3
R
3
dened by T(x, y, z) = (x + y z, x y + z, y z). The null of
T is {(x, y, z) : x + y z = 0, x y + z = 0, y z = 0} which is the solution space of certain
homogeneous system of linear equations. We know how to solve a system of homogenous linear
equations. Show that ker(T) = {(x, y, z) : x = 0, y = z} = {(0, t, t) : t R}. {(0, 1, 1)} is a
basis of ker(T) so that Nullity(T) = 1. Using the rank-nullity theorem rank(T) = dim(R
3
)1 =
3 1 = 2.
How to compute rank(T) directly by displaying a basis of T(V ): First pick a basis of V ,
for instance, {e
1
, e
2
, e
3
}. Then T(V ) is generated by Y = {T(e
1
), T(e
2
), T(e
3
)} which is
{(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1)}. We have to pick a basis of T(V ) using Y . Consider the
matrix A =

1 1 0
1 1 1
1 1 1

which is obtained from Y by converting elements of Y into rows.

Then a basis of the row space of A is a basis of the range space. To nd a basis of the row space
nd the row reduced echelon form of A which is

1 0
1
2
0 1
1
2
0 0 0

. Hence {(1, 0,
1
2
), (0, 1,
1
2
)} is
a basis of the range space. Thus rank(T) = 2. Thus we have veried the rank-nullity theorem
for the given linear tranformation.
Applications of rank-nullity theorem: Since for any linear transformation T, rank(T)
0,Nullity(T) 0, we have, rank(T) dim(V ) and Nullity(T) dim(V ). A linear tranforma-
tion T : V W is injective if and only if Nullity = {0}; and T is surjective if and only if
rank(T) = dim(W). Using rank-nullity theorem we have the following statements.
(a) There is no injective linear tranformation from R
m
to R
n
if m > n.
(b) There is no surjective linear transformation from R
m
to R
n
if n > m.
(c) There is an isomorphism (a bijective linear tranformation) from R
m
to R
n
if and only if
m = n.
Proof: (a) If T : R
m
R
n
is injective, then Nullity(T) = 0 so rank(T) + 0 = dim(R
m
) = m
(by rank-nullity theorem). Since T(V ) < R
n
, rank(T) n. Therefore, m n. Equivalentely,
if m > n, there is no injective linear transformation from R
m
to R
n
.
(b) If T : R
m
R
n
is surjective (i.e.,T(V ) = W), then rank(T) = n. By rank-nullity theorem,
n + Nullity(T) = m. So mn 0 or m n (since Nullity(T) 0).
(c) Suppose T : R
m
R
n
is an isomorphism (a bijective linear transformation). Since T is
injective, by part (a), m n and since T is surjective m n. Therefore, m = n.
Next, suppose m = n. Then the identity map is a linear transformation from R
m
to itself.
Remark: This completes the syllabus of Minor Test I. Go through the questions with answers
appeared in the course page. Soon more of QWA are to appear.