Reducing CO

Emissions Using
Electrotechnology
-Hybrid Cars-
Date




Name
Abstract
The following is a report on the Electrotechnology components of Hybrid Cars. Included is
a brief explanation of the main causes of CO
2
emissions in modern society, a brief
explanation of hybrid cars including explanations of the 3 main variations of hybrid cars
and a history of each, the emission and cost savings of hybrid cars, negative environmental
impacts associated with hybrid cars, as well as detailed reference to the principles of
operation in relation to the Electrotechnology present in hybrid cars.


2
Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
2

Causes of CO
2
Emissions
Since the Industrial Revolution, majority of human advances involve the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil
or gas. The primary cause of CO
2
emissions into the atmosphere (approx. 96%) come from the burning of these
fossil fuels, as stored carbon is released into the atmosphere during combustion. During the formation of fossil
fuels through processes such as anaerobic decomposition, carbon from organic material becomes trapped and
through these processes becomes transformed over millions of years into what is then collected in the form of
coal, oil or natural gas. As illustrated below
1
majority of all CO
2
emissions are from the burning of fossil fuels in
such things as transportation (cars, trucks, trains etc), utilities (power generation etc) or through industrial
production processes (manufacture of cement, steel or other metals etc).



1
Whats Your Impact, http://www.whatsyourimpact.eu.org/co2-sources.php, Accessed: 19
th
August 2012
Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
3

The primary cause for concern over CO
2
emissions is in relation to global warming. Global Warming is caused
by the emission of greenhouse gasses, of which 72% are carbon dioxide, 18% Methane and 9% Nitrous Oxide.
Carbon Dioxide is thus the most significant cause of global warming. The two graphs below outline the
increase in carbon dioxide emissions and atmospheric concentrations, which then lead to global warming via
the greenhouse effect.





Carbon Dioxide concentrations in Earth
atmosphere. 1991 to 2005, measured in
parts per million.
Total Carbon Dioxide emissions world-wide,
measured in billions of tonnes of CO
2
.
Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
4

Global warming plays host to such problems as;
Increased sea levels____________________________
Due to global warming sea levels will increase rapidly as glaciers melt at a steady pace, engulfing small islands
and low land level areas. The resulting drowning of islands will cause a break in the food chain in local
ecosystems wherein animals and plants depend on each other for habitat and means of food. With this loss of
habitat and food they must adapt or die.
Increased water temperatures____________________________
As global warming is associated with the rise in average temperature of the planet, this increased temperature
passes on the heat to water sources present on Earth. This increased water temperature is responsible for
killing Flora and Fauna which live in these oceans, rivers and lakes. Due to already rising temperatures, some of
the rarest and oldest algae species present in deep water have been wiped out.
Increased climate disasters____________________________
Global warming problems are a threat to our planet as they cause increases in the frequency of natural
disasters. Many of the disasters caused in recent years, such as tornadoes, cyclones and droughts are caused
by the increased prominence of global warming.
Economic Problems____________________________
With the increase in natural disasters and climate related issues, different nations have been forced to spend
excessive amounts of money on reconstruction, or repair due to damage caused by these disasters. The
resulting disasters and demand for energy efficient alternatives will indebt governments as they provide aid
and construct energy efficient structures and clean energy production alternatives.


Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
5

The Hybrid Car
Hybrid Cars are made so efficient by only burning petrol, gas or diesel when needed, while propelling the
vehicle with the onboard electric motor where possible.
A hybrid car by definition is known to have two or more different methods of propulsion, commonly an
internal combustion engine and an electric motor. The electric motor is powered by a rechargeable bank of
batteries and is responsible for the majority of all low speed propulsion such as driving through a suburban
street.
During coasting and slow-down when a driver taps lightly on the brakes, the vehicles wheels are automatically
engaged to an electric generator which creates additional load to slow the vehicle while at the same time
generating power to recharge the vehicles battery bank.
Often the electric motor and combustion engine work in conjunction with each other when needed. For
example, when additional power is required to overtake a vehicle or when driving down a freeway, the
combustion engine will take over as it is best suited and most efficient for the current job at hand.
There are 3 main variations of hybrid cars which operate on one or more of the above principles, they are as
follows;
Full Hybrid Cars____________________________
A full hybrid car is capable of running solely on just the internal combustion engine or just the electric motor,
or a combination of both. The Toyota Prius and Ford Escape are examples of full hybrids. In order to run solely
off the electric motor, a high-capacity battery is required. Typically the internal combustion engine is
shutdown when the vehicle is stationary and only re-engaged when extra power is needed or to recharge the
battery bank.
Parallel Hybrid Cars_________________________
Parallel hybrid systems connect both the electric motor and the internal combustion engine to a mechanical
transmission. Typically this type of car will run solely off the internal combustion engine and will only use the
electric motor when extra power is required. Often the electric motor and generator are combined into one
unit which is used to charge the battery bank for later use or supply power to vehicle accessories as needed.
Series Hybrid Cars___________________________
In a series hybrid vehicle the internal combustion engine is not connected in any way to the transmission of
the car. The vehicles is solely propelled by the electric motor, however the internal combustion engine is used
as an electric generator to charge the battery bank which the electric motor is fed off. Therefore a series
hybrid is ultimately an electric vehicle with an on board fossil fuel power generation unit.


Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
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Electrotechnology Involved

Electronic Controlled Assist_________________________
Depending on how hard you step on the gas pedal, the cars computer will determine how much power to
draw from the internal combustion engine and how much to pull from the cars electric motor. The dashboard
shows you exactly when the electric assist is working. The electronic control unit then determines when the
car has come to a stop so that it can shutdown the internal combustion engine to save on emissions. The
computer is able to calculate when to let the combustion engine do all the work while allowing the electric
motor to provide a boost where needed. The computer will also determine when the combustion engine is not
needed in scenarios where the electric motor is capable of maintaining the current speed or accelerating.

The Battery____________________________
In 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile. This consisted of alternating disks of zinc and copper, with
pieces of cardboard soaked in brine positioned between the metals. This was the worlds first wet cell battery.
During 1863 John F. Daniell invented the Daniell Cell which incorporated two electrolytes: copper sulphate and
zinc sulphate. The Daniell Cell worked well and lasted much longer than the Volta pile and so it was used
extensively for hundreds of years. From here other inventors developed new and improved alterations of
these to arrive at what is now commonly used in hybrid cars, the lithium battery and nickel metal hydride.
The battery in a hybrid car acts as a
supply of electricity to power the electric
motor. Within a battery, the anode is
usually a metal that is oxidized (gives up
electrons) at a potential between 0.5 and
4 volts above that of the cathode. The
cathode generally consists of a metal
oxide or sulphide that is converted to a
less-oxidized state by accepting electrons,
along with ions into its structure. A
conductive link via an external circuit (e.g.
the vehicles motor or other device) must
be present to provide a path to carry
electrons from the anode to the negative
battery contact.


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Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
7

Electric Motors_______________________________
Originally invented by Michael Faraday (English physicist and chemist) in 1821, the electric motor involves
converting electrical power into rotational movement through the use of magnetic fields.
Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is fundamental in the operation of an electric motor. An electric current passing through a
wire creates a magnetic field around the wire. By making the wire into a coil and placing it around an iron or
steel core, the magnetic field is intensified. The magnetic field has a north and south pole, just like a magnet
does. It is the repulsion and attraction between like and unlike poles respectively that force an electric motor
to turn.
Principle of operation
When a coil of wire is placed within a magnetic field with an electric current applied to it, the opposite poles of
the two magnetic fields attract each other. The attraction places a force on the coil, causing it to rotate to
satisfy the attraction between the two fields. As the two like poles of the magnetic fields become aligned, the
electric current polarity changes and the coils magnetic poles reverse, causing the attraction between poles to
continue and the coil to rotate. If the coil is attached to a motor shaft, the motor shaft rotates with the coil.

Ratings and Specifications
2
_______________________


Car
Toyota Prius Honda Civic Honda Insight
Electric Motor Type
Permanent Magnet AC
Synchronous Motor
Permanent Magnet
Motor
DC Brushless Motor
(Permanent Magnet AC
Synchronous)
Motor Power Output 80 hp (60kW) 27 hp (20kW) 13 hp (9.7kW)
Torque 207 Nm 105.7 Nm 78.6 Nm
Operating Voltage 650 V Max 108 172 V Unspecified
Battery Type Nickel Metal Hydride Lithium Ion Nickel Metal Hydride
Battery Power Output 27 kW 20 kW Unspecified
Battery Voltage 201.6 V 144 V 100.8 V
Battery Capacity 6.5Ah 5.5Ah 5.75Ah
* hp = Horse Power
Nm = Newton metres



2
Based on specification supplied by respective companies; http://www.toyota.com/prius-hybrid/specs.html,
http://automobiles.honda.com/civic-hybrid/specifications.aspx http://automobiles.honda.com/insight-hybrid/specifications.aspx

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Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
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Emission Savings and Benefits
Hybrid vehicles can offer substantial savings in fuel, which convert to a reduction in emissions and a reduction
in running cost, however it can often cost more to purchase a hybrid vehicle as opposed to a standard internal
combustion engine vehicle. The table below outlines the savings in fuel as compared to a hybrid and non-
hybrid type / class of each brand of car.
Car Cost Difference City L/100km HW L /100km AVG L/100km
Civic LX $25,170 8.2 5.7 6.95
Civic Hybrid $29,200 $4,030 4.7 4.3 4.5
Corolla LE $24,665 7.4 5.6 6.5
Prius $32,866 $8,201 4 4.2 4.1
Ford Escape (fwd) $30,226 10.3 7.7 9
Escape Hybrid $35,119 $4,893 5.7 6.7 6.2
Camry LE $30798 9.5 6.2 7.85
Camry Hybrid $36191 $5,393 5.7 5.7 5.7

As a result of the figures stated above, on average you will be reducing your fuel consumption by 23% to 37%
per litre, per 100km. Due to this decrease in fuel consumption, it can be established that you will also reduce
your emissions (at point of use) by 23% to 37% per litre of fuel burnt, per 100km because of the reduction in
fuel burnt.


Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
9

Negative Environmental Impacts
Hybrid cars are powered by both internal combustion engines and electric motors. The electric motor is used
to supplement the internal combustion engine in order to produce fewer emissions and provide better fuel
economy (km per litre). Despite the many benefits of hybrid cars, there are still negative environmental
drawbacks.
Hybrids Arent Emission Free___________________
Although hybrid cars drastically reduce the amount of carbon dioxide and other gasses entering the
atmosphere, they still produce CO
2
in general operation due to the on board internal combustion engine which
is used for power generation, or propulsion.
Electricity Source____________________________
Often hybrid cars offer the option to recharge the on board battery banks by plugging them into a general
purpose outlet in a home. Often the emissions during the production of the electricity supplying the GPOs are
overlooked. More often than not coal, gas, or other fossil fuels are used to generate the electricity which
supplies these outlets, ultimately meaning the hybrid car is producing no emissions at point of use, but in turn
is consuming electricity which produced emissions during generation.
Batteries____________________________
Hybrid cars utilize large batteries which provide a means for storing electricity for the electric motor to use.
These batteries are typically made of nickel or lithium, which are more environmentally friendly that the lead
in traditionally batteries, however there are concerns over nickel being a possible carcinogen (according to
hybridcars.com) and the environmental impacts associated with mining nickel and lithium.
Materials____________________________
The materials used in large quantities when manufacturing hybrid cars are also to be taken into consideration.
Commonly copper windings are used in hybrid electric motors. These windings use a substantial amount of
copper which must first be refined, a process which produces large amounts of air pollution. Combined with
this copper mining often utilizes a mining technique known as strip mining which involves stripping off the
surface of the land using explosive, in the process removing all trees, grass and vegetation which subsequently
destroys local ecosystems. These processes are also used in the mining of other metals / minerals used in the
body or other parts of the vehicle.


Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
10

References

Time for Change
http://timeforchange.org/CO2-cause-of-global-warming
Author: Jeurg Rohrer
Accessed: 19
th
August 2012

Whats Your Impact
http://www.whatsyourimpact.eu.org/co2-sources.php
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 19
th
August 2012

What Problems Does Global Warming Cause
http://www.carebadges.com/?p=15
Author: Blake Johnson
Accessed: 19
th
August 2012

Hybrids: Really better for environment?
http://www.hybridcars.com/forums/hybrids-really-better-t691.html
Author: Multiple
Accessed: 20
th
August 2012

Negative Effects of Hybrid Cars
http://www.livestrong.com/article/147944-negative-effects-of-hybrid-cars/
Author: Matt Olberding
Accessed: 20
th
August 2012

Hybrid Cars
http://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-042810-194328/unrestricted/Hybrid_Cars_IQP.pdf
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 21
st
August 2012

Hybrid Cars
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-hybrid-cars.html
Author: Batul Nafisa Baxamusa
Accessed: 21
st
August 2012

Name
Reducing CO
2
Emissions Using Electrotechnology
11

A Guide to Hybrid Cars
http://www.supplierbusiness.com/uploadedpdfs/hybrid_sample.pdf
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 21
st
August 2012

Basic Electrical Motor Concepts
http://www.ehow.com/info_7786749_basic-electrical-motor-concepts.html#ixzz24535TKfY
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 23
rd
August 2012

Hybrid Car, How It Works
http://www.hybridcars.com/types-systems/how-hybrids-work.html
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 23
rd
August 2012

Million Dollar Journey, Hybrid vs Gas Vehicle Comparison
http://www.milliondollarjourney.com/hybrid-vs-gasoline-vehicle-comparison-are-hybrids-worth-it.htm
Author: Unknown
Accessed: 23
rd
August 2012