Brand Positioning Through Advertising in Asia, North America, and Europe: The Role of

Global Consumer Culture

Author(s): Dana L. Alden, Jan-Benedict E. M. Steenkamp, Rajeev Batra
Source: The Journal of Marketing, Vol. 63, No. 1 (Jan., 1999), pp. 75-87
Published by: American Marketing Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1252002
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Dana L.
Alden,
Jan-Benedict E.M.
Steenkamp,
&
Rajeev
Batra
Brand PositioningThrough
Advertisingin Asia, N orth America,
and Europe: The Role of Global
Consumer Culture
In this
study,
the authors examine the
emergence
of brand
positioningstrategies
in
advertising
that
parallel
the
growth
of the
global marketplace.
A new construct, global
consumer culture
positioning(GCCP),
is proposed, op-
erationalized, and tested. Thisconstruct associatesthe brand with a
widely
understood and
recognized
set of
sym-
bolsbelieved toconstitute
emergingglobal
consumer culture. Study
results
support
the validity
of the new construct
and indicate that
meaningf ul percentages
of advertisements
employ GCCP, as
opposed
to
positioning
the brand as
a member of a local consumer culture or a
specif ic f oreign
consumer culture. Identif ication of GCCPas a position-
ing
tool
suggests
one
pathway through
which certain brandscome tobe perceived by
consumers as
"global"
and
provides managers with strategic direction in the multinational marketplace.
G lobalization isa
relatively
recent
phenomenon
that
af f ords marketingmanagers
new
opportunities
(Roth 1995a) as well as threats (Duncan and
Ramaprasad 1995). One
opportunity
isthe
growth
of
global
consumer
segments(Dawar and Parker 1994; Hassan and
Katsanis1994) that associate similar
meanings
with certain
places, people,
and
things(Caudle 1994). Paralleling
the
growth
of
global segments
isthe
emergence
of
global
con-
sumer cultures, shared setsof
consumption-related symbols
(product categories, brands, consumption activities, and so
f orth) that are
meaningf ul
to
segment
members
(Terpstra
and David 1991). Massmedia
programming, f lowingpri-
marily
f rom the United States, has
played
a
major
role in the
creation, learning,
and
sharing
of such
consumption sym-
bols
(Appadurai 1990; Walker 1996).
Building
on the
emergence
of
globally
shared
meanings,
this
study presents
a new brand
positioningstrategy
de-
signed
toassist international
managers
whoseek to
strength-
en their brand's
equity
in an
increasingly competitive
marketplace (Aaker 1991; Kapf erer 1992). We label this
strategy "global
consumer culture
positioning" (GCCP) and
hypothesize
that GCCPcan be contrasted with twoother
types
of consumer culture
positioning:
local consumer cul-
ture
positioning(LCCP), in which the brand isassociated
with the local consumer culture (e.g.,
Budweiser'sassocia-
Dana L. Alden isan associate prof essor and chair, Department of Market-
ing, College of BusinessAdministration, University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp isProf essor of Marketing and
Marketing
Area Coordinator, Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium,
and Gf K Pro-
f essor of International
Marketing Research, Wageningen University,
The
N etherlands.
Rajeev
Batra isProf essor of
Marketing, School of Business
Administration, University
of
Michigan.
The authors
gratef ully acknowl-
edge support f rom the Center f or International BusinessEducation at the
University
of Hawaii, data collection assistance f rom ACME, Madras, In-
dia, and the guidance of the three anonymous JM reviewers.
tion with small-town American culture in itsU.S. advertis-
ing),
and
f oreign
consumer culture
positioning(FCCP),
in
which the brand isassociated with a
specif ic f oreign
culture
(e.g., Singapore
Airline'suse of the
"Singapore
Girl" in its
global
media
advertising).
The
potential
contributionstobrand
equity
that f low
f rom associating
a brand with
global
consumer culture have
long
been recognized (Aaker 1991; Kapf erer 1992).
Buzzell
(1968) argues
that a
global image
isa
powerf ul
meansof in-
creasingsales, and Duncan
(1992)
and Shocker, Srivastava,
and Ruekert (1994) hypothesize
that
building
a
global image
gives
a brand more
power
and value. In
part,
brandswith a
global image may
derive their additional
power
and value
f rom consumer attributionsof enhanced self -worth and sta-
tus
through purchase
of the brand (Friedman 1990).
That is,
consumersmay purchase
certain brandstoreinf orce their
membership
in a
specif ic global segment,
such as
teenager,
business, governmental/diplomatic, elite, and sof orth
(Han-
nerz
1990),
and/or their
self -image
as
cosmopolitan,
knowl-
edgeable,
and modern (Friedman 1990).
In addition,
globally positioned
brandsare
likely
tohave
special
credi-
bility
and
authority (Kapf erer 1992).
The
proposed conceptualization
of GCCPshould not be
conf used with
globally
standardized
advertising(cf .
Duncan
and
Ramaprasad 1995).
Such
advertising
entailsthe use of
similar content around the world (Johansson 1997).
Al-
though
GCCPcan be
employed
in a standardized advertis-
ing campaign,
so can FCCP
(e.g.,
Louis Jadot wine
positioned globally
asa "taste" of France).
At the other ex-
treme, a
manager may position
the brand
using
GCCPin one
national market, FCCPin a second, and LCCPin a third. Fi-
nally,
GCCP
may
be communicated (somewhat) dif f erently
in each market. For
example,
P&G's"all-in-one"
shampoo
with conditioner, Wash & Go, hasbeen
positioned globally
asa time saver in a
busy
world. In the United Statesand Eu-
rope,
thiswas
signif ied by
a woman
rushing
intoa
gym
Journal of
Marketing
Vol. 63 (January 1999), 75-87 Global Consumer Culture / 75
locker room and
slammingthe locker door, but in Thailand,
the creative content wastoned down, though it still commu-
nicated convenience in a hectic world (The Economist
1992). Thus, though
GCCP
may
be used in standardized ad-
vertising, we view it asa distinct construct.
In
summary,
the
purpose
of this
study
istoconceptual-
ize, measure, and examine the use of a new brand
position-
ingstrategy ref erred toas GCCP. In addition, GCCPis
contrasted with LCCPand FCCP, and other f actorsinf lu-
encing
itsuse are tested. Tothisend, we f irst draw on semi-
otics and communication theories to
conceptualize
culture-based
positioningstrategies
that
might
be used in
advertising.
We next
develop
and test several
hypotheses
re-
garding
the use of GCCP.
Finally, implications
are discussed
and directionsf or f urther research
suggested.
Theoretical Framework
Semiotics
Theory
The
hypothesized positioningf ramework f ocuseson the use
of verbal, thematic, and visual
signs
in
advertising
toasso-
ciate the brand with
global, f oreign, or local consumer cul-
ture, a
process
that McCracken (1993) ref erstoas
"meaning
transf er." Given our f ocuson
signs,
semiotics
theory pro-
videsan
appropriate
f oundation. Semioticsisdevoted tothe
study
of
signs
and their
meanings(cf . Mick 1986). Sherry
and
Camargo(1987) apply
a semiotics
approach
in their
analysisof the visual
symbolism
of
Japanese packaging.
They
note that use of kanji (Chinese ideograms) represents
tradition and f ormality, hiragana (simplif ied
one or two
stroke characters) connotes
f emininity
and sof tness, and
katakana (used toexpressf oreign words) impliesnewness,
f oreignness,
and directness.
Related tothisvisual
aspect
of semioticsisa broader
category
ref erred toas"visual aesthetics." Examples
of aes-
thetic
signs
used tocreate brand associationsinclude colors,
shapes,
and materialsused in
advertising
and
packaging,
as
well asaesthetic
styles
such as
complexity (minimalism ver-
sus omamentalism) or
representation (realism versusab-
straction; Schmitt and Simonson 1997). Aesthetic values
vary culturally,
and theref ore, certain
signsare likely
tobe
pref erred
over others. For
example,
Asiansvalue
complexi-
ty
and decoration, balance and
harmony,
and naturalism
(Schmitt and Pan 1994).
Advertising
themesalsoserve assigns
tocommunicate
meanings
associated with the brand. Schmitt, Simonson,
and Marcus(1995)
note that themes
aesthetically
communi-
cate brand
positioning,
and
they provide examples,
includ-
ingthe
prof essionalism
theme used
by many
investment
housesand the
high-tech
theme used
by many
electronics
manuf acturers.
Cheng
and Schweitzer (1996) report
that
themesin Chinese television advertisementstend to
signif y
f amily values, tradition, and
technology,
whereasthemesin
American advertisementstend to
symbolize
the
importance
of
enjoyment,
cost
savings,
and individualism.
Finally, verbal soundsalsocan symbolize certain brand
associations. For
example, Corey
and Williams
(1994, p.
211) note that
knowledge
of social class
language
dif f er-
enceshasenabled marketerstouse
appropriate language
in
segmenting
markets. Heath, Chatterjee, and France (1990,
p. 38) ref er tothisas"phonetic symbolism"
and argue that
the soundsof brand namescan
symbolize
attributesand
strengthen
brand
positioning. Leclerc, Schmitt, and Dube
(1994) investigate the ef f ectsof
f oreign branding(pronunci-
ation or
spelling
of a brand name in a
f oreign language)
on
consumer brand
perceptions
and attitudesin the United
States. French, as
opposed
toEnglish, pronunciation
of the
same brand name enhanced brand attitudesf or hedonic
products
but not f or utilitarian or
hybrid products.
French
spelling
of the brand name
produced
more
positive
brand at-
titudesf or hedonic brandsthan did
country-of -origin
inf or-
mation alone (i.e., "Made in France").
Aswe noted
previously,
it isour contention that visual,
thematic, and verbal
signsref lecting
the
emergence
of
glob-
al culture are
likely
tobe f ound in
advertising
around the
world. A
f airly well-developed
literature existstoaccount
f or the general development
of a
global
consumer culture
f rom which such
signs
arise.
The
Emergence
of Global Consumer Culture
Hannerz (1990, p. 237) notesthat "world culture" is
emerg-
ing
asa result of the
"increasing
interconnectednessof var-
ied local culturesas well as
through
the development
of
cultureswithout a clear
anchorage
in
any
one territory." Ap-
padurai (1990, p. 299) proposes
a
particularly
relevant
f ramework of dif f usion f or
global
consumer culture
using
f ive
paths
of
global
cultural f low, includingmediascapes,
which
"provide (especially
in their television, f ilm and cas-
sette f orms) large
and
complex repertoires
of
images,
narra-
tivesand
'ethnoscapes'
toviewers
throughout
the world, in
which the world of commoditiesand the world of 'news'
and
politics
are
prof oundly
mixed." From these sources,
"scripts
can be f ormed of
imagined lives, their own aswell
asthose of others
living
in other
places" (Appadurai 1990,
p. 299). From the semiotics
perspective,
it can be
argued
that certain consumers
(e.g., elite, post-World
War II
[WW
II] consumers, teens)
will desire
consumption experiences
and
objects
that
they
consider
"signs"
of these
scripts
in or-
der toact out
imagined
or real
participation
in the more
cosmopolitan global
consumer culture communicated
by
the
media.
Walker (1996) provides
evidence of the extent towhich
massmedia in
general
and television in
particular
are
play-
ing
central rolesin the creation of
global consumption sym-
bols. He notesthat MTV alone reached 239 million viewers
in 68 countriesin 1996.
Among
teensin the United States,
Europe,
Latin America,
and Asia, eight
out of their
top
ten
activitiesare media related. In a semioticssense,
the direct
inf luence of such
programming
isevidenced
by
teenswho
watch MTV or similar channels
being
more
likely
to
display
the
signs
of teen
global culture, such as
jeans, runningshoes,
and denim
jackets(Walker 1996).
Walker
(1996, p. 42)
con-
cludes that worldwide access totelevision is
creating
a
global
culture of
consumption,
what he ref erstoasa
"glob-
al mall."
Because of the dif f usion of such
imagery
and the desire
f or real or
imagined participation
in the consumer culture it
creates,
certain
product categories
become
signs
of
global
cosmopolitanism
and
modernity (e.g.,
air conditioners, CDs,
76 / Journal of
Marketing, January
1999
the
hamburger,
businesssuits). Simultaneously,
it is
likely
that brand managersseek tocapitalize
on the semiotic na-
ture of the product category by positioning
their brand as
symbolic
of
global
consumer culture-f or
example,
the
jeans
brand worn
by adult, upper-middle-class
men whoare
globally cosmopolitan.
The
objective
would be tohave con-
sumers
identif y
the brand asa sign
of
membership (real or
imagined)
in the globally cosmopolitan segment.
With this
review in mind, we now turn toa f ormal def inition of our
constructs.
Global, Foreign,
and Local
Consumer Culture
Positioning
On the basisof the
f oregoingreview, a GCCPstrategy
isde-
f ined asone that identif iesthe brand asa symbol
of a
given
global
culture-f or
example,
the
post-WW II, cosmopolitan
segment.
It does so
usingmeaning
transf er (McCracken
1993), an
advertisingprocessthrough
which the brand isas-
sociated with other
signs
that ref lect thiscultural orientation
(e.g., language, aesthetics, themes). Globalization
hasbeen
def ined
by
Robertson asthe
"crystallization
of the world as
a
single place" (1987a, p. 38) and "the emergence
of the
global
human condition" (1987b, p. 23). By implication,
ad-
vertisingf eaturingthe idea that consumersall over the
world consume a
particular
brand or
appealingtocertain hu-
man universals
might
invest the brand with the cultural
meaning
of
being
a conduit tof eeling
at one with
global
cul-
ture.
Examples
of brandsthat
apparently
have used such
strategies
include Sony ("My
First
Sony"),
which
positioned
one of its
products
as
appropriate
f or
youngpeople
around
the world; Philips("Let'sMake ThingsBetter"), whose ad-
vertisementsexplicitly
f eature people
f rom dif f erent coun-
tries; and Benetton ("The United Colors of Benetton"),
whose
slogan emphasizes
the unity
of humankind.
Aswe noted previously,
GCCPshould be distinguished
f rom at least twoother strategies
that involve cultural mean-
ing
transf er. First, LCCP(local consumer culture
position-
ing)
isdef ined asa
strategy
that associatesthe brand with
local cultural
meanings,
ref lectsthe local culture'snorms
and identities, is
portrayed
asconsumed
by
local people
in
the national culture, and/or is
depicted
as
locally produced
f or local
people.
For
example, Chevy
Trucksand Dr
Pepper
sof t drinkshave been
positioned
in U.S. advertising
as
part
of the "American" way
of lif e. Second, FCCP
(f oreign
con-
sumer culture
positioning)
isdef ined asa
strategy
that
posi-
tionsthe brand as
symbolic
of a
specif ic
f oreign consumer
culture; that is, a brand whose
personality,
use occasion,
and/or user
group
are associated with a
f oreign
culture. For
example,
Gucci in the United Statesis
positioned
asa
pres-
tigious
and f ashionable Italian
product.
Dimensions of Consumer Culture
Positioning
Three central
components
of a cultural symbol
set are lan-
guage,
aesthetic
styles,
and story
themes.
Although
it
may
have
originally
ref lected Anglo-American culture, English
hascome torepresent somethingmore. Asthe primary lan-
guage
of international business,
the mass
media,
and now,
the Internet (BusinessWeek 1996), English
hascome to
sig-
nal modernism and internationalism to
many
consumers.
For example, Sherry and Camargo(1987) note that English
symbolizesmodernization, social mobility,
and an interna-
tionalized outlook when used on
packaging
in
Japan.
Fur-
thermore, Ray, Ryder,
and Scott (1994, p. 251) hypothesize
that the extensive use of English
in
print
advertisements
around the world occurs
primarily
to
suggest
toconsumers
that they are cosmopolitan.
In this case, the denotative
meaningattached tothe wordsisof ten secondary.
What is
more
important
isan
appreciation
of the language'simplic-
it, symbolic meaning. Theref ore, one way
f or a brand to
communicate GCCPistouse
English words, written and/or
spoken,
in itscommunications. In contrast, a brand manag-
er wanting
touse LCCPmight emphasize
the local lan-
guage. Finally,
a brand could associate itself with a
specif ic
f oreign
consumer culture (FCCP) by employingspoken
and
written wordsf rom that culture in its advertising
and/or
brand name. For
example, Volkswagen
hasused the
slogan
"Fahrvergniigen"
in U.S. advertisements.
Aswith the English language,
certain aesthetic styles
are
becomingrecognized
as
part
of
global
consumer culture. As
an example,
consider the use of
spokespersons
in advertis-
ing.
Just ascertain aesthetic characteristicsof a
spokesper-
son are associated with local culture
prototypes(cf .
Mehta
and Belk 1991), it is
likely
that a distinct set of
spokesper-
son characteristicsis
coming
toref lect GCCP, and use of
such
spokesperson
characteristicsis
likely
to
give
the brand
a more
global image (e.g.,
Michael Jordan f or N ike, Pierce
Brosnan f or Omega).
Tothe extent that the
spokesperson
embodiesaesthetic characteristicsthat ref lect the local cul-
ture (e.g.,
a French businesswoman driving
a
Peugeot
in a
French television advertisement) or a
specif ic f oreign
cul-
ture (e.g.,
a German engineer spokesperson
f or Audi in a
U.S. television advertisement), consumersare
likely
toas-
sociate the brand with that culture.
The aesthetic construction and
display
of brand
logos
al-
so
may
ref lect alternative consumer culture
positionings.
For
example,
some
logosmay
be tied lessto
specif ic
cul-
turesin termsof their
appearance,
such as the
logos
f or
AT&T (abstract globe),
N ike (swoosh), Royal
Dutch/Shell
(shell),
Mercedes-Benz (star),
and sof orth. Others
may
be
more symbolic
of
specif ic
cultural traditions.
Cathay
Pacif -
ic, f or
example, recently changed
its
logo
toa white Chinese
calligraphy
stroke that
suggests
the
wing
of a bird to
"give
itself a more Asian air" (The Asian Wall Street Journal
Weekly 1994, p. 11). Of course, it is
likely
that most con-
sumerswould view the
logo
in itsaesthetic entirety (includ-
ingshape, color, texture, and overall
design)
and f orm
linkages
to
global, f oreign,
or local consumer culture on the
basisof the
symbol'sgestalt-like f amiliarity (cf .
Grunert
1996).
Finally,
certain
story
themesare
likely
tobe identif ied
generally
as
symbolic
of
global
consumer culture. For ex-
ample,
the
young, prof essional businessperson
whoison the
rise usesa Toshiba
laptop
whether in N ew York,
N ew Del-
hi, or Paris. Thus, the
story
theme
implies
that
ownership
of
thisbrand
signif ies
that the consumer isa member of the
"transnational commerce culture" (Hannerz 1990).
Other
story
themesare more
likely
tobe associated with a
specif -
ic
f oreign positioning,
such asthe
purple
cow in the
Alps
in
the advertisementsf or Milka chocolate, or with local
Global Consumer Culture / 77
themes, such asscenesf rom the characteristic landscape
of
Tyrol
f or Tirolmilch. Thus, depending
on the story-related
themesin an advertisement, consumersare more or lesslike-
ly
toassociate the brand with a specif ic
consumer culture.
One additional point
should be considered aswe con-
clude the review. In thisstudy,
we adopt
an "etic-emic" ap-
proach (Poortinga
and Malpass1986). From a theoretic
perspective,
we investigate
the hypothesis
that the basic
structure of the
global-f oreign-local positioning
f rame-
work, namely, language, aesthetics, and story themes, iset-
ic and
applies
toadvertising
around the world. However, the
detailed
expression
of that structure can be inf luenced by lo-
cal culture (emic). For example, N escaf e'sadvertisingpro-
jects
the image
of a brand consumed globally. However, in
the N etherlands, this
positioning
isexecuted by f eaturingan
old man f rom South America enjoying
the cof f ee. In Greece,
the advertisement settingportrays
several youngpeople
on
a raf t with a small hut f or a cabin at the sea shore. Thus, lo-
cal culture membersshould determine whether signs
in their
country'sadvertisingsymbolize global, f oreign,
or local
consumer culture. This
empirical approach
enablesthe re-
searcher totest hypothesesregarding
a universal positioning
f ramework while remaining
sensitive tovariationsacross
cultures.
Research
Hypotheses
Identif ication of consumer culture positioning.
The pre-
ceding
discussion indicatesthat GCCP, LCCP, and FCCP
should be identif iable as distinct brand positioning
con-
structsin television advertising.
With thisin mind, our f irst
hypothesis
states:
Hi:
LCCP, FCCP, and GCCPare meaningf ul positioning
con-
structsin television
advertising.
Thishypothesis
doesnot assume that mixed consumer
culture
positioningstrategies(e.g.,
GCCPand FCCPsigns
in the same advertisement) cannot occur. A brand can be (1)
uniquely positioned
on GCCP, LCCP, or FCCP; (2) posi-
tioned predominantly
on one of the three types
while incor-
porating
elementsof other
types
of
positioning;
or (3) not
positioned predominantly
on any
of the dimensions. The ad-
vertising
seriesin which Tina Turner sings
the Pepsi-Cola
theme song
with local bandsin dif f erent countriesto
provide
local identif ication in a
global campaign
isan example
of a
mixed strategy (Jeannet and Hennessey 1995).
Relative f requency of GCCP. Despite
mass exposure
to
certain similar signs
of
consumption,
there appears
tobe
f airly strong
consensusthat global
consumer culture isstill
in itsinf ancy (cf . Samli 1995). Some scholars, such asde
Mooij (1998), even
argue
that global
consumer culture is
essentially nonexistent, that it isa concept
that existsonly
in the mindsof
corporate strategists. However, we believe
that thisisan extreme
position
and that there is
ample
the-
oretic
justif ication,
aswell as
empirical
evidence (ref erred
to
previously),
toconclude that certain consumption sym-
bolsand meanings
have dif f used globally
asa result of the
substantial increase in intercultural interaction since the
end of WW II
(Appadurai 1990; Hannerz 1990). At the
same time, given
the continued importance
of local culture
toindividual identity (Johansson 1997) and the relatively
early stage
of global
consumer culture dif f usion (Feather-
stone 1990), it isexpected
that the brandsin each country
sample
most of ten will be positioned
aslocal brands, em-
ployinglanguage, aesthetic, and thematic signs
that are
symbolic
of the home culture.
H2:
LCCPwill be used more f requently
than FCCPor GCCP
asthe brand positioningstrategy in television advertising.
Consumer culture positioning
in the United States.
Based on our literature review, it appears
that there may
be
a substantial overlap
between brand symbols
that constitute
global
consumer culture and those f ound in the United
States(Domzal and Keman 1993; Ray, Ryder,
and Scott
1994). From f ast f ood tof urniture tof ashions, consumer
culture meaningsystems(language, aesthetics, and lif estyle
themes) are transmitted f rom the United Statestothe rest of
the world through
the mediascapes
described previously
(Appadurai 1990; Hannerz 1990). Over time, certain brand
symbols
are likely
tobecome disassociated with the United
States
per se, becoming
associated with something
that is
larger
than any single country-the global consumption
set.
However, within the United States, many symbols(e.g.,
f ried chicken) in all likelihood continue tobe viewed aslo-
cal. Because of the number of
global symbols
that were
originally American, brand managersmay
believe that
GCCPhasmore dif f erentiatingpower
outside the United
Statesand theref ore use it more in other markets, such asin
developingcountries, where consumersmay
seek toen-
hance self -perceptions
of status, competence,
and esteem
by
acquiring
brandsthat are
perceived
as
cosmopolitan,
mod-
em, and
global (Friedman 1990).
If these observationsare
true, then f ewer (more)
television advertisementsshould
employ
GCCP(LCCP)
in the United Statesrelative toother
countries. Based on this
logic,
our next two
hypotheses
state:
H3:
GCCPwill be identif ied less f requently
in television
advertisementsin the United Statesrelative toadvertise-
mentsin other countries.
H4:
LCCPwill be identif ied more f requently
in television
advertisementsin the United Statesrelative toadvertise-
mentsin other countries.
Advertising
content
dif f erences.
Turning
to
advertising
f ormat/style,
there are
strong
reasonsto
expect
advertise-
mentsemploying
GCCPtouse more of ten a "sof t-sell" in-
stead of a "hard-sell"
approach.
Sof t-sell advertisementsuse
more visual imagery
and are more subtle and
ambiguous
than hard-sell ones, which are relatively
more inf ormational
and f ocuson
tangible product
f eatures(Bradley, Hitchon,
and Thorson 1994, p. 143). Furthermore, because sof t-sell
advertisementstypically
use a lot of visual
imagery, they
lend themselvestomessages
that
require implicit,
rather
than
explicit,
communication (Messaris1997, p. vi).
In ad-
dition, because image-oriented psychological concepts
are
typically
more abstract than f eature-based inf ormational
concepts(Johnson 1988; Lef kof f -Hagius
and Mason 1993),
sof t-sell advertisementsthat use
imagery
instead of f eatures
are also, by implication, usually
more abstract than hard-sell
advertisements.
78 / Journal of
Marketing, January
1999
These f eaturesof sof t-sell advertisements(subtlety, im-
plicitness,
and abstractness) would seem tomake them more
suitable f or advertisementsusing
GCCP. Because global
consumer culture isan
emerging
and
rapidly changingphe-
nomenon, with
dif f eringsetsof signs
in
dif f eringglobal seg-
ments(Hannerz 1990), advertisingusing
this
positioning
should be more ef f ective if it communicatesin a subtle, in-
direct, and abstract f ashion. A more direct and tangible ap-
proach
runsa
greater
risk of
misspecif ying
the symbols
that
are ref lective of GCCP. It is also
plausible
that advertise-
ments
using
GCCPare more of ten
image
oriented than in-
f ormational because of
linkages
between the brandsand the
imagined membership
in a
global
consumer segment (Ap-
padurai 1990). These f actors
provide
the rationale f or our
next
hypothesis:
H5:
Television advertisements usingGCCPwill more f re-
quently
use indirect, image-oriented
content approaches
(sof t-sell) than direct, strongmessage argument appeals
(hard-sell).
Product
category dif f erences.
Recall that GCCPin-
volves associating
a brand with
globally shared,
consumption-related symbols
that
signal membership
in
global
consumer
segments(Dawar and Parker 1994; Han-
nerz 1990). It also
may involve appeals
tocertain human
universals(Robertson 1987b), especially
the
urge
to
appear
modem and
cosmopolitan (Friedman 1990). It f ollowsthat
the use of GCCPshould be easier and more
f requent
in
product categories
f or which consumersexhibit common
behaviors, rather than in those consumed in
locally idiosyn-
cratic
ways.
In addition, GCCPshould be
potentially
more
relevant in
product categories
that have come to
symbolize
modernity
and
cosmopolitanism
rather than tradition.
Because of its
deep
connectionstolocal culture, f ood
generally
is
regarded
asthe
product category
that ismost of -
ten consumed in traditional and
locally idiosyncratic ways.
Fischler (1988) maintainsthat f oodsplay
a crucial role in
the
process
of enculturation. What we eat, how it is
pre-
pared,
and the rulesand
meanings
that
permeate every
as-
pect
of f ood
consumption practices
are all sociocultural
matters, irrespective
of their biological, psychological,
or
economic dimensions. Even what isconsidered edible or not
is
largely
a local cultural matter (Fischler 1988; Murcott
1986). Although
there are
exceptions(e.g., global
f ast-f ood
brandssuch asMcDonald's),
because of such
strong
tiesto
local traditionsand
meanings,
f ood brands
appear
least like-
ly
tobe associated with GCCP.
Consumer
high-tech
durables
(such
as camerasand
computers), however, are used worldwide in similar, if not
identical, ways. Yip (1995, pp. 30-32) argues
that common-
ality
of consumer needs acrosscountriesis
highest
f or
higher-tech
durablesand lowest f or f oods, with household
and
personal
care
products
near the middle of the
spectrum.
Such
high-tech
durablesalso
satisf y
universal consumer
needssuch asthe demand f or
superior technology (Levitt
1983). Furthermore, many higher-tech
durable brandshave
come to
symbolize
the essence of modernism and interna-
tionalism,
aswell as
membership
in
global
consumer
seg-
ments (such
as cellular
phones
f or
businesspeople).
Together,
these characteristicsshould f acilitate the use of
GCCPin
high-tech product categories.
It thusseemslikely
that GCCPwill be used most
f requently
f or
products
that are
durable, f airly complex,
and
highly technological
and least
f requently
f or f oods, with the other goodscategories
in be-
tween. The converse should be true f or LCCP.
In
comparinggoods
with services, it hasbeen
argued
that servicesare more dif f icult tohomogenize than
goods,
in
part
because of variationsin local consumption patterns
(e.g., Zeithaml, Parasuraman, and
Berry 1990). Asa result,
services
generally
tend tobe
positioned
more
f requently
as
local in
comparison
with goods(Mef f ert and Bolz 1993). If
thisisthe case, then LCCPis
likely
tobe used more of ten in
advertisementsf or servicesthan in those f or
goods.
Based
on thisreview, our next hypotheses
state that (relative touse
with other goods)
H6: GCCPwill be used least f requently
in television advertis-
ingf or f ood productsand most f requently f or durable,
high-technology goods, with household, personal care, and
low-tech durable consumer products
in between.
H7: LCCPwill be used most f requently in television advertis-
ingf or f ood productsand least f requently
f or durable,
high-technology goods, with household, personal care, and
low-tech durable consumer products in between.
H8: LCCPwill be used more of ten in television advertising f or
servicesthan f or
goods.
Method
Sampling-N ational
cultures. Seven countrieswere se-
lected to
represent broadly
Asian and Western culturesas
well as
developed
and
developing
economies: India, Thai-
land, Korea, Germany,
the N etherlands, France, and the
United States.
Comparison
of the countrieson
demographic
and economic characteristics, as well as on Hof stede's
(1980) cultural dimensions, indicated considerable variation
within each
region
and between
regions.1
Thisenhancesthe
generalizability
of our f indings.
Sampling-Advertisements
within
country.
Randomized
cluster
samples
of national-brand television advertisements
shown on
major
networksin each
country
were collected.
Local advertising(e.g.,
f or small, local retailers) and
dupli-
cationsof national-brand advertisementswere eliminated,
along
with advertisementsthat contained more than 50%
sales
promotion
inf ormation
(e.g.,
a tie-in
promotion
f or
Pepsi
with a local
supermarket).
Advertisementsf or the
same brand that dif f ered in termsof 50% or more of the con-
tent remained in the
sample.
Sampling
wasconducted
during
a three- or
f our-day pe-
riod in the winter or
spring
of 1995. On each
day (random-
ly chosen), a
major,
national network
(randomly assigned
to
each
day)
wasrecorded f rom 6 A.M. to
midnight.
All adver-
tisementsthen were
logged.
A
systematic
random
sample
(i.e., every
kth advertisement)
wastaken f rom the overall
data set toachieve a random
sample
of 20% to25% of all
advertisementscollected. For most countries,
thisresulted in
samples
of 175 to200 national-brand advertisements, with
1Tables
showing
the
position
of each
country
on Hof stede's
(1980)
dimensions and several economic and
demographic
charac-
teristicsare available on
request.
Global Consumer Culture / 79
the
exception
of India, f or which 120 advertisementswere
selected.2 This
processproduced
a total sample
of 1267
unduplicated,
national-brand television advertisementsf rom
seven countries.
In-depth codingprocedures.
In each country,
twonative
codersused a standard coding
f orm that wasdouble back
translated intotheir own
language (if needed) toevaluate the
advertisements. With the exception
of India, graduate
stu-
dent research assistants, all nativesliving
in their home
country,
were
employed
ascoders. For the Indian advertise-
ments, coderswere recently
arrived
graduate
studentsliving
in the United States.3 Research assistantsrather than
large
samples
of native
subjects
were used because the coding
task wascomplex
and time-consuming.
This
approach
is
regularly employed
in cross-cultural research involving
ad-
vertising
content analyses(cf . Alden, Hoyer,
and Lee 1993;
Bradley, Hitchon, and Thorson 1994; Cheng
and Schweitzer
1996).
All codersreceived extensive trainingusingpractice
ad-
vertisements
prior
tothe actual coding
task. Much of this
training
was conducted in the coders' native languages,
though f oreign
researcherswere
usually present.
The coders
worked
independently
and took
approximately
ten minutes
tocode each advertisement. For all itemsin all country
sam-
ples, interjudge agreement
exceeded 80%. Disagreements
were resolved with the assistance of a third research assis-
tant or
project
coordinator when the twocoderswere unable
toreach consensuson their own.
Measures. Previously
in thisarticle, three broad cultural
categories
f rom which
signs
arise were identif ied, namely,
language, aesthetics, and story
themes. Ref lecting
each of
these cultural categories,
the measure of consumer culture
positioning
in television advertising
was
composed
of f ive
indicators. Signs
of consumer culture
positioning
were (1)
pronunciation
of brand name, (2) symbols
used and/or
spelling
of visually displayed
brand name, (3) symbol
used
f or brand
logo, (4) central themes, and (5) appearance
of
spokesperson(s). Although
there are other
sign categories
that could have been coded (cf . Caudle 1994),
these cate-
gories
f orm a reasonable initial subset that
represents
multi-
ple
semiotic dimensionswithout being
too onerousf or
coderstouse. If codersf ound that one or more of the
signs
were
present
in the advertisement, they
determined whether
21t ispossible
that the samplingprocedure yielded
f ewer adver-
tisementsin India because the
proportion
of broadcast time devot-
ed toadvertisingmay
have been smaller there than in other
markets, though
we have noway
toconf irm this
hypothesis.
Al-
though
the number of Indian advertisements wasstill substantial
(120), thismay
limit the extent towhich our
f indings
can be
gen-
eralized tothe universe of all Indian television advertisements.
3The Indian advertisements were coded in the United Statesin-
stead of in India because of resource limitations with the Indian re-
search partner. However, because the coders
employed
were native
Indian
graduate
research assistantsrecently
arrived f rom India,
there islittle reason to
expect
India-based coderstohave coded the
advertisements any dif f erently
than
they
did. N ote that
graduate
studentsare
regularly employed
ascodersf or
advertising
content
analyses(Alden, Hoyer,
and Lee 1993; Bradley, Hitchon,
and
Thorson 1994; Cheng
and Schweitzer 1996).
the indicator(s) ref lected
global, local, or f oreign
consumer
culture.
In
carrying
out their task, coderswere told that the
signs
should be coded as(1) local, if
they
ref lected their own na-
tive culture (e.g.,
use of the Thai alphabet towrite the brand
name in Thailand); (2) f oreign,
if
they represented
another
individual, identif iable culture (e.g., use of the southern
French countryside
in an American advertisement f or wine);
and (3) global,
if
they represented
a cultural element that
wasnot associated with a
single country (local or
f oreign),
but rather a
larger group generally recognized
as interna-
tional and
transcending
individual national cultures(e.g.,
an
airline advertisement f eaturingbusinesspeople
f rom multi-
ple
countriesinteracting
in businessclasson an internation-
al
f light). Beyond
these etic instructions, coderswere lef t to
determine emically
which elementswere local, global,
or
f oreign.
Theref ore, on each of three dimensions(GCCP, LCCP,
FCCP), ad content scorescould range
f rom 0 to5. Adver-
tisementswith three or more of
any single
consumer culture
positioning
element were labeled as
emphasizing
that posi-
tioningstrategy;
f or
example,
an advertisement with three or
more local elements was categorized
as
emphasizing
LCCP.4 Our codingprocedure
isconsistent with our
position
that GCCP, LCCP, and FCCPare
separate
constructsthat
can occur
simultaneously
and todif f erent degrees
in specif -
ic advertisements. Thismulti-item measurement procedure
enablesustoarrive at a more reliable classif ication and val-
idate the structure of the items.5
Other characteristicsof the advertisementsrelevant to
testing
our
hypotheses
also were coded. For
H5,
(sof t-
versushard-sell and GCCP), a dichotomousscale was
ap-
plied.
Coderswere asked todetermine whether the overall
sales
appeal
of the advertisement should be labeled as"sof t-
sell/image" (image-oriented
content that doesnot
emphasize
reasonstobuy, but rather general associationswith the
4Thus, our coding
scheme categorizes
an advertisement asem-
phasizing
a particular
consumer culture positioning
if the majority
of the f ive
signsbelong
toone
particular type
of consumer culture
positioning.
It alsouses
equal weighting
of each cultural indicator.
The use of
equally weighted
indicators iscommon in
marketing.
However, other types
of assignment
schemesare also
possible.
One reviewer suggested
the
f ollowing
scheme: An advertisement is
classif ied as
using
a
particular
culture
positioningonly
when at
least f our of the
signsincluding
the theme are
supportive
of that
culture. The rationale f or this
approach
isthat advertisements f or
some brandsmight
be classif ied as
using
GCCPbecause of their
brand name, logo,
and
symbols,
rather than because these adver-
tisements(explicitly)
are
trying
to
convey
that the brand isused
around the world and is
part
of the
global
consumer culture. We al-
sotested
H2-H8
with thisalternative branding
scheme. The results
were always
in the same direction asthat f or our classif ication
scheme. For six of
eight hypotheses,
the resultsreached statistical
signif icance (p
< .10), and another
hypothesis
wasclose to
signif i-
cance (p
=
.12). Thus, our resultsare robust acrosstwodif f erent
classif ication schemes, which increasesconf idence in our
f indings.
5See alsoRoth (1995b),
whousesa
closely
related
procedure
but
employssingle
rather than
multiple
itemsto
identif y f unctional,
so-
cial, and sensory brand-image strategies.
In hiswork, brandscould
be
positioned uniquely along
one of these
image strategies,
or a
company
could
employ
a
hybrid approach by combining
several
strategies.
80 / Journal of
Marketing, January
1999
brand) or "hard-sell/direct" (sales-oriented, verbal, strong
message arguments, comparative content; cf .
Bradley,
Hitchon, and Thorson 1994; Mueller 1996). Totest H6-H8,
productsdisplayed or ref erred toin the advertisementswere
classif ied as f ollows: f ood nondurables, personal
non-
durables, household nondurables, lower-technology
con-
sumer durables, higher-technology durables, consumer
services, businessgoods, businessservices, and other. Fol-
lowing
discussion amongthe research coordinatorsabout
f unctional and
conceptual equivalence
across countries,
similar
examples
of each
product category
were
provided
in
all countries(e.g., personal nondurable care
goods
include
shampoo, makeup, toothpaste,
and deodorant).
Results
Identif ication of Consumer Culture Positioning
Hl
statesthat LCCP, FCCP, and GCCPwould be f ound as
meaningf ul
but distinct brand
positioning
constructsin tele-
vision
advertising
f rom countriesaround the world. The f ive
itemsused tomeasure the extent towhich an advertisement
employed LCCP, FCCP, or GCCPwere scaled categorically.
Theref ore, classical (metric) f actor analysis
could not be
used tovalidate the structure of the categorizations.
Multi-
ple correspondence analysis(MCA), which, conceptually,
can be regarded
as
principal componentsanalysis
on cate-
gorical data, isa more
appropriate analytic technique (Gif i
1990; Hof f man, de Leeuw, and
Arjunji 1994).6
The MCA
approach, using
the versatile HOMALS pro-
gram (SPSS 1989), was
applied
tothe matrix of 1267 ad-
vertisementsby
f ive items. The
analysis
was
perf ormed
in
twodimensionsbased on elbow and interpretability
criteria.
The f it was.857, indicating
that 85.7% of the variance was
explained (af ter optimal scaling).7 Figure
1 showsthe
quan-
titative results f or the three categories
of local, f oreign,
and
global
f or each item. Clear regions
of categories
are re-
vealed in this plot.
6The MCA
approach
dealswith the analysisof interdependence
among
a set of categorical items. It quantif iescategorical data by
assigning
numerical valuestothe advertisementsand the cate-
gories
of the items(f or all f ive items, the categories
were "local,"
"f oreign,"
and
"global").
In addition, MCA
provides
an
interpreta-
tion in termsof distancesin a multidimensional map. Categoriesof
dif f erent itemsthat tend toshare the same advertisementsare rela-
tively
close toone another in the map. Thus, categoriesof dif f erent
itemsare located relatively close toone another if
they
occur joint-
ly
in the same advertisements(Hof f man, de Leeuw, and Arjunji
1994). The validity of combiningscoresacrossitemsistheref ore
supported
if the relevant itemsare close
together.
7Some of the advertisementshad missing
data f or one or more
itemsbecause none of the categories
wasapplicable.
For example,
if the brand
logo
wasnot
displayed visually during
the advertise-
ment, thisitem could not be coded. However, missing
data
present
no
problems
f or HOMALS, and there is noneed todiscard the
missing
observations(Gif i 1990).
The analysis
wascarried out on
the
incomplete
data matrix. Gif i (1990, p. 138) ref erstothistreat-
ment of
missing
data as"missing
values
passive."
Another
option
istoadd the category "missing"
toeach item. Gif i (1990, p. 138)
callsthis
"missing
valuessingle."
We alsoanalyzed
the data
using
the
"missing
data single" approach.
The
category quantif ications
f or local, f oreign,
and
global
were
virtually
the same.
For all items, the category "f oreign"
islocated in the
up-
per-right quadrant.
The upper-lef t quadrant
containsthe cat-
egory "global"
f or all items, and the lower-right quadrant
hasthe
category
"local" f or all items. The cluster of f oreign
categories
isrelatively
loose. In contrast, the clustersof the
local and global categories
are
tight,
and these twocate-
gories
constitute the main f oci of our study.8
The HOMALS program
of f ersan additional, powerf ul
test on the discriminability
of the three cultural
positioning
concepts.
If the
conceptsclearly represent unique perspec-
tives, a single underlying
continuum f rom local tof oreign
to
global (indicating
an increasingdegree
of remotenessf rom
native culture) should not be obtained. This
assumption
was
tested by imposing
monotonic constraintson the
quantif ica-
tion of the
categoriesby
item (Gif i 1990). Imposing
the mo-
notonic constraint led toa substantial decrease in f it f rom
.857 to.664.
Imposing
a linear constraint f urther decreased
the f it to.640. Thus, the three
categories
of local, f oreign,
and
global appear
toconstitute unique
constructsthat should
be treated separately,
rather than beingplaced
on a continu-
um. These results
provide
f urther evidence
regarding
the va-
lidity
of
distinguishingamongLCCP, FCCP, and GCCP.
The resultsof the MCA analysisprovide support
f or the
convergent validity
of the itemsselected tomeasure culture
positioning. Thus, a sum measure wascreated on the basis
of the extent towhich similar consumer culture
positioning
elementswere
present
in a
given
advertisement. In
particu-
lar, advertisementswith three or more similar identif iers
(out of f ive) were classif ied as
emphasizing
that
approach.
Table 1 liststhe overall
f requencies
f or
type
of consumer
culture
positioning
based on the sum score. More than 85%
of the advertisementshad a dominant cultural
positioning
and were classif ied asGCCP, LCCP, or FCCP.
Employing
the sum score measures, an additional check
on the measures' discriminant validity
wasundertaken. Sim-
ple
correlationswere calculated between the number of con-
sumer culture
positioning
identif iers f ound in each
advertisement f or each of the three dimensions
(e.g.,
Adver-
tisement 33
might
have three
global identif iers, one
f oreign,
and one local). Aswe
expected,
the
relationship
between the
total number of local and
global
itemswas
negative (r
=
-.77, p
< .001). It wasalso
negative
f or local and
f oreign
items(r
=
-.57, p
<
.001).
At the same time, the correlation
between
global
and
f oreign
itemswasnot
signif icant (r
=
-.03, n.s.).
All three correlationswere also
signif icantly
be-
low 1.0
(ps
< .0001).
Given these results, LCCPand GCCPare
meaningf ul
as
separate
individual brand
positioning
constructs. Use of the
sum measuresf or GCCPand LCCPtheref ore is
justif ied.
The resultsf or the FCCPmeasure are
encouraging
in that
the
imposition
of monotonic constraintsand the correlations
indicate that FCCPisa
meaningf ul separate
construct. How-
8A cluster analysis
on the
category quantif icationsdepicted
in
Figure
I revealed f our clusters. One cluster consisted of the f ive
global categories,
and a second cluster contained the f ive local cat-
egories.
The f ive
f oreign categories
were divided in twoclusters.
The category "f oreign" (items1, 2, and 5) composed one cluster,
and the
f oreign categories
of items3 and 4 were the other cluster.
The f ormer itemsdealt with the brand, whereasthe latter dealt with
theme and characters.
Global Consumer Culture / 81
FIGURE 1
Results of Multiple Correspondence Analysis: Consumer Culture Positioning
Measure
Dimension 1
G
=
coded asglobal
F = coded asf oreign
L =
coded aslocal
G1
G2
G4 G5
C3
I I
-2
-3.0 -2.0
I I
-
-1.0
Dimension 2
---T- . . I . I I I I I I I
I
1 1.0 2.0 3.0
L2
L
-2 L5
-1.0
Scale Itemsby
N umber:
1. Spokesperson appearance
2. Theme
3. Pronunciation of brand
name
4. Visual display
of brand
name
5. Brand logodesign
-2.0 -
-3.0 -
TABLE 1
Consumer Culture Positioning by Country
Country
United
States Thailand Korea India Germany
N etherlands France Total
Culture
Positioning
Strategy
LCCP 177 81 133 102 84 81 90 748
(88.5) (40.5) (66.5) (85.0) (45.4) (46.0) (48.4) (59.0)
GCCP 11 83 44 12 60 38 36 284
(5.5) (41.5) (22.0) (10.0) (32.4) (21.6) (19.4) (22.4)
FCCP 1 13 4 1 11 15 3 48
(.5) (6.5) (2.0) (.8) (5.9) (8.5) (1.6) (3.8)
N odominant 11 23 19 5 30 42 57 187
consumer (5.5) (11.5) (9.5) (4.2) (16.5) (23.9) (30.6) (14.8)
culture
positioning
Total 200 200 200 120 185 176 186 1267
N ote: Percentages are in parentheses.
82 / Journal of
Marketing, January
1999
3.0 -
2.0
Fl
F2
F4
F3
F5
1.0 -
ever, the
graphical MCA resultsare lessclear-cut than f or
the other twoconstructs. This
may
be due tothe small num-
ber of FCCPadvertisements(48 total) in this
sample,
which
rendersthe resultsf or FCCPlessstable (cf . Gif i 1990). Re-
sults
involving
the FCCPconstruct are, theref ore, viewed as
strictly exploratory.
Relative
Frequency
of GCCP
H2
statesthat LCCPwould be
employed
more
f requently
than either of the other two
strategies.
This
hypothesisre-
ceived
strongsupport. Overall, LCCPwasused in 59% of
the advertisements, versus22.4% f or GCCPand 3.8% f or
FCCP. The dif f erence in
f requency
of occurrence
among
the
three consumer culture positioningstrategies
was highly
signif icant [X2(2)
=
704.62, p
< .001]. Analysisof the f re-
quency
of use of LCCP, GCCP, and FCCPf or each
country
supported
thisbasic conclusion (see Table 1 f or the f requen-
cies). In six of seven countries, signif icantly
more adver-
tisements
employed LCCPthan either GCCPor FCCP
(p
<
.001). Only
in Thailand wasthe
percentage
of advertise-
ments
using
LCCPnot
signif icantly greater.
Consumer Culture
Positioning
in the United States
H3
statesthat GCCPwould be identif ied in f ewer television
advertisementsin the United Statesthan in other countries.
Chi-square analysisindeed revealed a
signif icant associa-
tion between
country (United Statesversusother countries)
and consumer culture
positioning(GCCPversusLCCP,
FCCP, or nodominant
positioning): X2(l)
=
39.07, p
< .001.
Only
5.5% of the advertisementsin the U.S.
sample
were
f ound touse GCCPversus, on
average,
25.6% in the other
countries(see Table 1). In line with
H4,
88.5% of the adver-
tisementsin the U.S. sample employed LCCPversusan av-
erage of 53.5% in the other countries
[X2(I)
=
85.25, p
<
.001]. The
only country where the percentage
of GCCPand
LCCPadvertisementswasclose tothe United StateswasIn-
dia (GCCP: 10%, LCCP: 85%).9
Advertising
Content Dif f erences
H5
proposes
that advertisements
employing
GCCPwould
use sof t-sell messages
more f requently
than hard-sell ones.
Whereas56.3% of the GCCPadvertisementsemployed
a
sof t-sell
approach,
43.7%
employed
hard-sell. Thisdif f er-
ence is
signif icant
in the
predicted
direction and provides
support
f or
H5 [X2(l)
=
4.33,
p
<
.05].
Product
Category
Dif f erences
Table 2
provides
a
general
overview of the
f requencies
of
the three
types
of consumer culture positioning
f or the dif -
f erent
product typesdistinguished.
Thistable
provides
the
9It ispossible that the dif f erence in the use of GCCPin the Unit-
ed Statesversusthe other countriesisdue todif f erencesin the rel-
ative
f requency
of
product types
acrosscountriesrather than the
intrinsic dif f erencessuggested
in thisstudy. Theref ore, we exam-
ined whether
H3
alsowassupported
when we controlled f or
prod-
uct
type usinglogit modeling.
The
dependent
variable waswhether
an advertisement used GCCP, and the
country
involved (the Unit-
ed States[= 1]
versusthe other countries[= 0])
and the
product
types
were included as
independent dummy
variables. Three
prod-
uct-type
dummieswere created: f ood, high-tech durables, and ser-
vices, with personal care, nondurables, and low-tech durables
serving
asbaselines. H3 predicts
a
signif icant negative
ef f ect of the
country dummy,
which wasindeed the case
(p
< .001). We
per-
f ormed the same analysis
f or
H4, using
LCCPrather than GCCPas
the
dependent
variable.
H4 predicts
that the
country dummy
is
pos-
itive and signif icant,
which wasalsothe case
(p
< .001). Thus, con-
trollingf or product type,
the same conclusionswere reached.
TABLE 2
Product
Type by Consumer Culture Positioning
Product Type
Low-Tech High-Tech
Food Personal Household Consumer Consumer Consumer
N ondurables N ondurables N ondurables Durables Durables Service Other
Culture
Positioning
Strategy
LCCP 275 185 85 68 36 81 18
(63.1) (58.3) (63.0) (53.6) (34.3) (72.3) (51.4)
GCCP 81 76 32 32 35 18 10
(18.6) (24.0) (23.7) (25.2) (33.3) (16.1) (28.6)
FCCP 25 11 2 6 1 2 1
(5.7) (3.5) (1.5) (4.7) (1.0) (1.8) (2.9)
N odominant 55 45 16 21 33 11 6
consumer
(12.6) (14.2) (11.8) (16.5) (31.4) (9.8) (17.1)
culture
positioning
Total 436 317 135 127 105 112 35
N ote: Percentagesare in
parentheses.
Global Consumer Culture / 83
relevant inf ormation f or
testingH6-H8.
A
signif icant associ-
ation wasf ound between the use of GCCP(versusany
oth-
er
positioningstrategy, including
no dominant culture
positioning) and the type of good involved
[X2(2)
=
11.64, p
<
.01].
AsTable 2 shows, GCCPwasused in 18.6% of the
f ood advertisements, 24.2% of the advertisementsf or
household, personal care, and low-tech durable consumer
products, and 33.3% of the advertisementsf or
high-tech
consumer durables. Thus, H6 is
supported. However, 63.1%
of the f ood advertisements; 58.4% of the advertisementsf or
household, personal care, and low-tech consumer durables;
and 34.3% of the advertisementsf or
high-tech
durablesused
LCCP. The dif f erence in
percentages
was
again signif icant
[X2(2)
=
28.86,
p
<
.001],
in
support
of
H7. Finally,
in
sup-
port
of H8, LCCPwasused
relatively
more of ten in adver-
tisementsf or services (72.3%) than in those f or
goods
[57.9%;
X2(1)
=
8.71,
p
< .01].
Discussion and
Implications
Although
scholarsagree
that the
perception
of a brand as
global enhances
equity (Kapf erer 1992; Shocker, Srivastava,
and Ruekert 1994), ef f ortsto
identif y pathwaysthrough
which such associationsdif f use have been limited. In this
study,
we
conceptualized
a theoretical f ramework in which
the advent of
global
consumer culturesgives
rise to
global
signs(i.e., language,
aesthetic
systems,
and
story themes)
and
hypothesized
that these
signs
would be used in advertis-
ing
toassociate certain brandswith
global
consumer culture
through
a
process
of
meaning
transf er (McCracken 1993).
Applying
thisf ramework, we
proposed
and validated a
new measure of GCCPin television advertising(HI).
It en-
ables
managers
and researchersto
distinguish
GCCPf rom
twoother
types
of consumer culture
positioning,
that is,
LCCPand FCCP. Support
wasf ound f or
predictionsregard-
ing
the overall use of GCCPversusLCCP
(H2),
the use of
GCCPand LCCPin U.S.
advertising
(H3
and
H4),
the use of
GCCPin
conjunction
with hard or sof t salesthemes
(H5),
and the use of GCCPand LCCPacross
product categories
(H6-H8). These resultsacquire
added value f rom the nature
of the data used (a
random
sample
of television advertise-
mentsf rom diverse countries) and the nature of the
analyses
conducted on the data (such asthe MCA used totest the dis-
criminant
validity
of GCCP, FCCP, and LCCP, aswell asthe
additional test of the robustnessof the measurement model;
see Footnote 4).
Previousresearch has
given
substantial attention tocom-
parative analyses
of
advertising
content-f or
example,
in-
f ormation level, humor use, and materialistic themes. Yet
f ew
comparative
studieshave examined strategic,
brand-
related issuessuch as
positioning. Furthermore, todate, a
f ramework that
supportsanalysis
of cultural content in tele-
vision
advertising(asopposed
tocultural ef f ectson adver-
tising content) and relates that content to alternative
positioningstrategies
hasbeen
missing.
Asan initial test of
the culture-based brand
positioningconcept grounded
in
semiotics
theory, thisstudy
is
encouraging.
Managerial Implications
A
key strategic
issue f or managersinvolvesidentif ication of
country, consumer
segment,
and
product category f actors
that f avor the use of GCCP, FCCP, or LCCP. For example,
the
manager
of a beer brand
employing
GCCPin
many na-
tional markets
might analyze competitive advertising
in a
newly targeted country
and conclude that none of the brands
already in that market usesFCCP. If the f oreign culture his-
torically
tied tothe beer brand hasa
positive image among
consumersin the targeted country, the manager might
choose to
employ
FCCPinitially (cf . Leclerc, Schmitt, and
Dube 1994). If
so,
brand
advertising
would emphasize
aes-
thetic, spokesperson,
and thematic
signs
associated with a
specif ic f oreign country.
At some f uture date, the
manager
could determine whether a shif t toGCCP(or even LCCP) is
warranted.
It is
possible
that GCCP
might
work better than LCCPin
marketsthat are characterized by
lower levelsof economic
development.
Thiscould be the case because consumersin
these markets
may
admire the "economic center" and be-
lieve that
production technologies
in their own countriesare
less advanced
(Appadurai 1990). This is consistent with
some of the research on
country-of -origin
ef f ects(cf . Hes-
lop
and
Papadopoulos1993, p. 45). In line with this, Fried-
man (1990) and other cultural
anthropologistsreport
that
ownership
of brandsf rom the West increasesthe owner's
statusin
many developing
countries. Theref ore, tangible
and
thematic
signs
that connote enhanced statusf rom GCCP
brand
ownership may
achieve
meaning
transf er more ef f ec-
tively
f or consumersin
developing
countrieswhoare
prone
toref erence
group inf luence, such as
teenagers(Bearden
and Etzel 1982; Park and
Lessig1977).
Longitudinal
trendsin
aggregate
market behaviorsalso
might
af f ect
perceptions
of
positioningstrategies.
For ex-
ample,
asthe
quality
of local
goodsimproves
and
imported
goods
lose
scarcity value, markets
initially f avoring
GCCP
brands
may
turn inward and f avor LCCPbrands
(cf .
Etten-
son 1993). Firms
using
GCCPthusmust track itsef f ective-
ness, because
changing
market sentiments
may suggest
alternative
positioningstrategies.
Thisf ramework can be used f or other
analyses
aswell.
According
to
previous
work
regarding
brand
positioning
(Park, Jaworski, and Maclnnis1986; Roth 1992, 1995a),
it
is
possible
that certain brandsare
sending
mixed
messages
totheir
target
market
by communicatingmultiple
consumer
culture identitiesin their
advertising.
That is, advertisements
employing
toomuch breadth
(e.g.,
one FCCPelement, two
GCCPelements, and twoLCCPelements) may
conf use con-
sumersand/or create
negative
brand attitudes.
Managers
could theref ore benef it
by using
the f ramework
developed
herein toexamine
previous
communication
strategies
toen-
sure
they
err on the side of
depth
rather than breadth.
In termsof the tactical
question-how
best tocommuni-
cate GCCPin situationsin which it is
strategically
the best
positioningoption-we
of f er the
f ollowing hypothesis,
based on
theory
discussed
previously regardingparticipa-
tion in
global experience:
GCCPexecutionsshould accom-
plish meaning
transf er more
ef f ectively
when
they (1)
f eature the idea that
people
all over the world consume the
84 / Journal of
Marketing, January
1999
advertised brand (e.g., Benetton) and (2) appeal tocertain
human universalsor
depict
consumer
segmentsthat share
similar attitudes, lif estyles,
and
aspirations
around the world
(e.g., Sony).
The f irst idea
might
be communicated by providing
ev-
idence of consumersin several diverse cultures
consuming
the advertised brand, the second through depiction
of rele-
vant
symbolism-laden
visual
signs(such aslaptop-wielding
business
people;
cf . Caudle 1994). Some locally
based mar-
keters, f ightingglobal brands, have
begun
touse GCCPto
imply
tolocal consumersthat their
products
are "world-
class" f or
quality
and
acceptability. Thus, in the Indian
market, advertisingf or local brandssuch asVideocon (con-
sumer durables),
Amrutanjan
(pain reliever), and Kenstar
(appliances) shows data on
exportsor visualsof
f oreign
consumers
consuming
their
products. Advertising
in the
N etherlandsf or Brand, a well-known local beer, portrays
a
U.S.
setting
and uses
English.
The use of GCCP
apparently
isnot limited tomultinational brands.
Limitations and Future Research Directions
Similar to
any study,
thisone haslimitations. First, the mea-
suresused toassess
positioningtypesmay
benef it f rom f ur-
ther ref inement-f or
example,
identif ication of additional
coding
measuressuch ascolor scheme and aesthetic style
or
alternative
weighting
schemes. Second, our coderswere lo-
cal consumers; however, it is
possible
that
they interpreted
advertising
content dif f erently
than "ordinary" consumersin
their countries. Additional research could use
larger samples
of
ordinary
consumerstovalidate our f indings. Third, de-
spite attempts
tocontrol f or
potential
conf ounds(such as
that between
product
and
positioningtype;
see Footnote 9),
some
may remain, such asthe
possibility
that multinational
advertisersin some countriesalsomay
have the
largest
share
of voice. Because multinational advertisersof ten use local
brand names, partialing
out thisf actor would be
challeng-
ing,
but f urther research should investigate
methodsof do-
ingso. In a similar vein, though
the correlation between
GCCPand
global
brand standardization is
likely
tobe
posi-
tive, the
strength
of that
relationship
is unclear. Thiscer-
tainly represents
an
interestingempirical question
f or
additional research. Fourth, because of our
sample
size and
theoretic f ocus, we did not model
higher
order interactions.
Further research should consider these aswell.
There are several other
potentially
f ruitf ul avenuesf or
additional research and
theory development. First, more de-
tailed semiotic analysisof the signsassociated with GCCP,
FCCP, and LCCPmight prove
worthwhile. As we noted,
Robertson (1987a, p. 38) def inesglobalization asthe
"crys-
tallization of the entire world asa
single place." By impli-
cation, showing
that consumersall over the world consume
a
particular
brand may be one
recurring
GCCP
sign-f or
ex-
ample,
a direct visual
image
in individual advertisements
(e.g.,
Benetton's"United Colorsof Benetton"). Other the-
matic
signs
used tosymbolize
GCCP
might
include
appeals
to"f reedom," "individual
rights,"
or
"democracy,"
which
Appadurai (1990) argues
constitute the
emergingglobal
ideoscape.
In addition, there may
be a
variety
of aesthetic
(color, complexity, and sof orth), spokespersons(sportsf ig-
ures, actors, models, and sof orth), and
place signs(soccer
stadiums, modern urban centers, and sof orth) associated
with GCCP(cf . Caudle 1994).
Second, f urther research could involve identif yingwhich
consumer
segments
are most
responsive
toGCCPstrategies.
Aswe noted
previously,
Hannerz (1990) suggests
that
glob-
al
cosmopolitansperceive
themselvesasless
provincial
and
more competent
with
regard
to
f oreign
cultures. These con-
sumersare of ten
younger,
more educated, and lessethnocen-
tric. Thus, tangible
aswell asthematic
signs
that
specif ically
connote international and/or intercultural
competence
and
control may
be
particularly
ef f ective in
accomplishing
mean-
ing
transf er f or this
group.
In
contrast, signs
that are rich in
local culture
meaning(e.g.,
traditional clothing) may
achieve
meaningtransf er more ef f ectively
f or consumerswhoare
higher
in ethnocentrism (Shimp
and Sharma 1987). In sum-
mary, understanding
the ef f ectivenessof dif f erent
types
of
positioning
in dif f erent countriesmay require
the
analysis
of
complex, higher
order interactionsthat involve
product type,
country,
and characteristicsof the
target segment.10
A f inal area f or f uture theoretic
development
involves
managerial
use of GCCP, FCCP, and LCCP.
Surveys
of lo-
cal and multinational brand
managers
could
begin
toaddress
these issues.
Building
on Roth's
(1992, 1995a) work, man-
agerial reports
would
help
determine whether the ef f ective-
nessof
depth
versusbreadth
strategies
f or GCCP, FCCP, and
LCCPalso
vary by target
market and other macrolevel f ac-
tors. Over time, such research will enhance the
competitive
toolsthat brand
managers
can
apply
tothe
global
market-
place.
l1We thank a reviewer f or this
suggestion.
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