Metals Glossary

Term Definition

Acid Steel Steel produced in a furnace with an acid lining, i.e.

consisting of a siliceous refractory and under a
siliceous

slag. With an acid slag, carbon, silicon and
manganese

only are removed so that the pig iron must not
contain

sulphur and phosphorus in percentages
exceeding those

permissible for the specification being made. Most
steel

manufactured today is in furnaces with basic
linings.

Air!ardening Steel
Sometimes referred to as selfhardening steel. A
steel

that becomes fully hardened when cooled in air
from
above its critical point and does not re"uire rapid
"uenching by oil or water. The ris# of distortion is

greatly reduced by air hardening. !igh Speed
Steel was
one of the earliest examples of this type of steel.

Allotropy
The property possessed by certain elements to
exist in

two or more distinct forms that are chemically
identical
but have different physical properties. $n the case
of iron

the crystal structure has one form at room
temperature

and another at high temperature. When heated
above

%&' deg ( the atomic structure changes from
body centered

cubic to face centered cubic but reverts again
when

cooled. The allotropy of iron modifies the solubility
of
carbon, and it is because of this that steel can be
hardened.

Alloy Steel
A steel to which one or more alloying elements
other
than carbon have been deliberately added )e.g.

chromium, nic#el, molybdenum* to achieve a
particular
physical property.

Alpha $ron
The body centered cubic form of iron which, in
pure iron,
exists up to %&' deg (.

Annealing
!eating steel to, and holding at a suitable
temperature,
followed by relatively slow cooling. The purpose of

annealing may be to remove stresses, to soften
the

steel, to improve machinability, to improve cold
wor#ing

properties, to obtain a desired structure. The
annealing

process usually involves allowing the steel to cool
slowly
in the furnace.

Arc +urnace
A steel melting furnace in which heat is generated
by an

arc between graphite electrodes and the metal.
,oth

carbon and alloy steels are produced in electric
arc

furnaces and scrap rather than molten metal is
used as

the base material. +urnaces with capacities up to
-''
tons are now in use.

Austempering
.uenching from a temperature above the
transformation
range to a temperature above the upper limit of

martensite formation, and holding at this
temperature
until the austenite is completely transformed to the
desired intermediate structure, for the purpose of
conferring certain mechanical properties.

Austenite
The solid solution of carbon in gamma )face
centered
cubic* iron.

Austenitic Steels Steels containing high percentages of certain
alloying

elements such as manganese and nic#el which
are

austenitic at room temperature and cannot be
hardened

by normal heattreatment but do wor# harden.
They are

also nonmagnetic. Typical examples of austenitic
steels

include the &/0/ stainless steels and &12
manganese
steel.

, (hemical symbol for ,oron.

,ainite
An acicular aggregate of ferrite and carbide
particles

formed when austenite is transformed on cooling
at

temperatures in the intermediate )-''13' deg (*
range,
i.e. above the martensite and below the pearlite
range.

,alanced Steel Steels in which the deoxidisation is controlled to

produce an intermediate structure between a
rimmed

and #illed steel. Sometimes referred to as semi
#illed

steels, they possess uniform properties
throughout the

ingot and amongst their applications are boiler
plate
and structural sections.

,ase Metal
A metal which oxidises when heated in air, e.g.
lead,

copper, tin, 4inc, as opposed to noble metals such
as
gold and platinum.

,asic Steel Steel produced in a furnace in which the hearth
consists of a basic refractory such as dolomite or

magnesite, as opposed to steel melted in a
furnace
with an acid lining. The basic process permits the
removal of sulphur and phosphorous and in this

respect is superior. 5resent day ,6S and electric
arc
furnaces use basic linings.

,e (hemical symbol for ,eryllium.

,end Test
,ending tests are carried out to ensure that a
metal
has sufficient ductility to stand bending without
fracturing. A standard specimen is bent through a

specified arc and in the case of strip, the direction
of
grain flow is noted and whether the bend is with or
across the grain.

,essemer 5rocess A method of producing steel, first introduced in the
last century, where air is blown under pressure
through molten iron to remove the impurities by

oxidation. The development of the process has led
to
the present day ,asic 6xygen Steel ma#ing plants

that account for bul# production of commercial
"uality
steels in the 78.

,i (hemical symbol for ,ismuth.

,illet
A section of steel used for rolling into bars, rods
and
sections. $t can be a product of the ingot route, or
increasingly today produced directly by continuous
casting.

,last +urnace A tall, cylindrical, refractory lined furnace for the
production of pig iron or hot metal for direct
conversion into steel.

,loom A large s"uare section of steel intermediate in the

rolling process between an ingot and a billet.
,looms
are now also being produced by the continuous
casting process eliminating the necessity of first
producing an ingot.

,oron Steels The addition of boron in the range '.'''3'.''32
to

certain steels increases the hardenability. A range
of

boron steels is now listed in the current ,S %9'
and
are widely used for the production of cold headed
fastenings.

,ra4ing
,ra4ing is a method of :oining metal parts together
by

fusing a layer of brass between the ad:oining
surfaces.

A red heat is necessary and a flux is used to
protect
the metal from oxidation.

,right Annealing
An annealing process that is carried out in a
controlled

atmosphere furnace or vacuum in order that
oxidation
is reduced to a minimum and the surface remains
relatively bright.

,right Drawing
The process of drawing hot rolled steel through a
die

to impart close dimensional tolerances, a bright,
scale

free surface, and improved mechanical properties.
The
product is termed bright steel.

,rinell !ardness Test The ,rinell hardness test for steel, involves
impressing
a ball &' mm diameter, of hard steel or tungsten
carbide, with a loading of ;''' #ilograms into the
steel surface. The hardness of the steel is then

determined by measurement of the indentation.
+or

steels with a hardness over 3'' ,!< the =ic#ers
test
is more reliable.

( (hemical symbol for (arbon.

(a (hemical symbol for (alcium.

(alcium $n the form of calcium silicide acts as a deoxidi4er
and degasifier when added to steel. >ecent
developments have found that carbon and alloy

steels modified with small amounts of calcium
show
improved machinability and longer tool life.
Transverse ductility and toughness are also
enhanced.

(arbon (arbon is an essential element in steel, it is added
in specific amounts to control the hardness and
strength of the material. $n general, increased
carbon content reduces ductility but increases
tensile strength and the ability of the steel to
harden when cooled rapidly from elevated
temperatures.

(arbon Steel A steel whose properties are determined primarily
by the amount of carbon present. Apart from iron
and carbon, manganese up to &.32 may be
present as well as residual amounts of alloying
elements such as nic#el, chromium, molybdenum,
etc. $t is when one or more alloying elements are
added in sufficient amount that it is classed as an
alloy steel.

(arbo<itriding A casehardening process in which steel
components are heated in an atmosphere
containing both carbon and nitrogen.

(arburising The introduction of carbon into the surface layer of
a steel that has a low carbon content. The process
is carried out by heating the components in a solid
li"uid, or gaseous carbon containing medium. The
depth of penetration of carbon into the surface is
controlled by the time and temperature of the
treatment. After carburising it is necessary to
harden the components by heating to a suitable
temperature and "uenching.

(ase!ardening The process of hardening the surface of steel
while leaving the interior unchanged. ,oth carbon
and alloy steels are suitable for casehardening
providing their carbon content is low, usually up to
a maximum of '.-2. (omponents sub:ect to this
process, particularly in the case of alloy steels,
have a hard, wearresistant surface with a tough
core.

(ast $ron A definition can be applied that (ast $ron is an
alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon is in
excess of the amount that can be retained in solid
solution in austenite at the eutectic temperature.
(arbon is usually present in the range of &./2 to
1.32, in addition, silicon, manganese, sulphur and
phosphorus are contained in varying amounts.
=arious types of cast iron are covered by a ,ritish

Standard classification and includes grey,
malleable
and white irons. ?lements such as nic#el,

chromium, molybdenum, vanadium can be added
to
produce alloy cast irons.

(ast Steel A term originally applied to crucible steel and
sometimes today used to describe tool steels. The
term is misleading and is falling into misuse. $t can
also be applied to steel castings made by pouring
molten steel into a mold but which are not sub:ect
to further forging or rolling.

(b (hemical symbol for (olumbium.

(e (hemical symbol for (erium.

(ementite An iron carbide )+e;(* constituent of steel. $t is

hard, brittle and crystalline. Steel which has
cooled

slowly from a high temperature contains ferrite
and
pearlite in relative proportions varying with the
chemical composition of the steel. 5earlite is a
lamellar structure of ferrite and cementite.

(harpy Test A test to measure the impact properties of steel. A

prepared test piece, usually notched, is bro#en by
a
swinging pendulum. The energy consumed in
brea#ing the test piece is measured in @oules. The

more brittle the steel the lower the impact
strength.
$4od is a similar and more widely used impact test
in this country. ,oth are "uoted in the current
edition of ,S %9'.

(hromium When used as an alloying element, chromium
increases the hardenability of steel and in
association with high carbon gives resistance to
wear and abrasion. (hromium has an important
effect on corrosion resistance and is present in
stainless steels in amounts of &-2 to -'2. $t is
also used in heatresisting steels and high duty
cast irons.

(o (hemical symbol for (obalt.

(obalt An alloying element used in tool, magnet and heat
resisting steels. Together with tungsten and

molybdenum, cobalt is used to form the super
high

speed steels. $t improves the red hardness value
of
the steel, that is, it enables the steel to resist
softening at a high temperature or in the case of a
cutting tool to hold its edge under severe
conditions.

(oefficient of ?xpansion The ratio of change in length, area, or volume per
degree to the corresponding value at a standard
temperature.

(ogging An intermediate rolling process when a hot ingot is
reduced to a bloom or slab in a cogging mill.

(old Drawing
The process of reducing the cross sectional area
of
wire, bar or tube by drawing the material through a
die without any preheating. (old drawing is used
for the production of bright steel bar in round
s"uare, hexagonal and flat section. The process

changes the mechanical properties of the steel
and
the finished product is accurate to si4e, free from
scale with a bright surface finish.

(old Wor#ing Altering the shape or si4e of a metal by plastic
deformation. 5rocesses include rolling, drawing,
pressing, spinning, extruding and heading, it is
carried out below the recrystallisation point usually

at room temperature. !ardness and tensile
strength
are increased with the degree of cold wor# while
ductility and impact values are lowered. The cold
rolling and cold drawing of steel significantly
improves surface finish.

(ontact (orrosion When two dissimiliar metals are in contact without
a protective barrier between them and they are in
the presence of li"uid, an electrolytic cell is
created. The degree of corrosion is dependent on
the area in contact and the electropotential
voltage of the metals concerned. The less noble of
the metals is liable to be attac#ed, i.e. 4inc will act

as a protector of steel in sea water whereas
copper
or brass will attac# the steel in the same
environment.

(ontinuous (asting A method of producing blooms, billets and slabs in
long lengths using water cooled molds. The
castings are continuously withdrawn through the
bottom of the caster while the teeming of the
metal is proceeding. The need for primary and

intermediate mills and the storage and use of
large
numbers of ingot molds is eliminated. The
continuous casting process is also used in the
production of cast iron, aluminium and copper
alloys.

(ontrolled Atmosphere A gas or mixture of gases in which steel is heated

to produce or maintain a specific surface
condition.

(ontrolled atmosphere furnaces are widely used
in
the heat treatment of steel as scaling and

decarburisation of components is minimised by
this
process.

(ore $n the case of steel this refers to a component that

has been casehardened where the centre is
softer
than the hard surface layer or case. $t can also be

applied to the central part of a rolled rimming
steel.

(orrosion +atigue +atigue that arises when alternating or repeated

stress combines with corrosion. The severity of
the
action depends on the range and fre"uency of the
stress, the nature of the corroding condition and
the time under stress.

(r (hemical symbol for (hromium.

(reep The form of plastic deformation that ta#es place in
steel held for long periods at high temperature.
Methods of creep testing involve the determination
of strain0time curves under constant tensile load
and at constant temperature.
ate
(ritical (ooling > The slowest rate of cooling from the hardening
temperature which will produce the fully hardened
martensitic condition.

(ritical 5oint This generally refers to a temperature at which
some chemical or physical change ta#es place.
These transformations cause evolution of heat on
cooling or absorption of heat on heating and
appear as discontinuities or arrest points in the

heating and cooling curves. The temperatures
vary
with the carbon content of the steel and the rate of
cooling.

(ritical Temperature The temperature at which some phase change
occurs in a metal during heating or cooling, i.e. the
temperature at which an arrest or critical point is
shown on heating or cooling curves.

(rystalline +racture
A type of fracture that appears bright and
glittering,
it having formed along the cleavage planes of the
individual crystals. <ormally an indication that
brittle fracture has occurred.

(u (hemical symbol for (opper.

(yanide !ardening A process of introducing carbon and nitrogen into
the surface of steel by heating it to a suitable

temperature in a molten bath of sodium cyanide,
or

a mixture of sodium and potassium cyanide,
diluted
with sodium carbonate and "uenching in oil or
water. This process is used where a thin case and
high hardness are re"uired.

Decalescence A term used in reference to the absorption of
heat without a corresponding increase in
temperature, when steel is heated through the
critical points )phase changes*.

Decarburisation The loss of carbon from the surface of steel as
a result of heating in a carbon wea#
atmosphere. During the rolling of steel hot
surfaces are exposed to the decarburising
effects of oxygen in the atmosphere and as a
result the surface is depleted of carbon. $n
steels where the components are to be
subse"uently heat treated it is necessary to
remove the decarburised surface by machining.

Delta $ron When pure or practically carbonfree iron is
cooled from above its melting point it solidifies
at about &3;3 deg ( as delta iron having a
bodycentred cubic lattice structure, which
persists down to about &1'' deg (. 6n further
cooling it undergoes an allotropic change to
gamma iron which has a facecentred cubic
lattice and is nonmagnetic.

Deoxidation ?lements such as silicon and aluminium when
added to molten steel react to form stable
oxides and reduce the amount of dissolved
oxygen. The solubility of oxygen in steel is
reduced as temperature is lowered during
solidification and the excess oxygen combines
to form carbon monoxide. $f the molten metal
is not deoxidised the effervescence produced
by the evolution of carbon monoxide during
solidification would result in blow holes and
porosity. Steel treated in this way is termed,
A8illed SteelA.

Descaling $t is necessary to remove the scale from hot
rolled bars or coil before bright drawing. This is
normally carried out by shot blasting or pic#ling
in acid. 6ther methods of descaling steel
products include sand blasting, flame
descaling and tumbling.

Deseaming A process of burning out defective areas on
the surface of ingots, blooms or billets. The
condition of the surface is such that it can then
be rolled or forged into a satisfactory product.

Diamond 5yramid
!ardness This test, more commonly #nown as the
Test =ic#ers test, finds greater use in the laboratory
than the wor#shop. $t employs a pyramid
shaped diamond with an included angle of
&;Bo which is impressed into the specimen
using loads of 3 to &-' #g ma#ing a small
s"uare impression. This test is used for
finished or polished components because the
impression can be very small. The diamond
pyramid hardness number is obtained from a
calculation based on measuring the diagonals
of the impressions in the steel.

Die The term die is most commonly used in
tooling, i.e. press tools Apunch and dieA but
there are many other types of die, e.g. thread
cutting dies, forming dies, forging dies,
diecasting dies, etc. The term when applied to
steel often refers to drawing dies through
which hot rolled wire and bar are drawn to
produce the finish and dimensional accuracy
that is re"uired for bright steel.

Dislocation A discontinuity in the crystal lattice of a metal.
The movement of dislocations under stress
may be used to explain slip, creep, plastic
yielding, etc.

Dolomite A natural carbonate of calcium and magnesium
generally used as a flux in blast furnaces.

Drawing The process of pulling metal wire, rods, or bars
through a die with the effect of altering the
si4e, finish and mechanical properties. $n the
7SA, it is a term used for tempering.

Drop +orging An operation in which a metal shape is formed
by forcing hot metal into impressions formed in
solid bloc#s of hardened alloy steel, the
forging dies. The dies are made in halves, one
attached to the rising and falling bloc# of the
drop forge and the other to the stationary
anvil. Drop forgings are widely used in the
automotive industry for cran#shafts, stubaxles,
gears, etc.

Ductility The property of metal which permits it to be
reduced in cross sectional area without
fracture. $n a tensile test, ductile metals show
considerable elongation eventually failing by
nec#ing, with conse"uent rapid increase in
local stresses.

Dye 5enetrant
$nspection A method for detecting surface porosity or
crac#s in metal. The part to be inspected is
cleaned and coated with a dye which
penetrates any flaws that may be present. The
surface is wiped clean and coated with a white
powder. The powder absorbs the dye held in
the defects indicating their location.

?lastic Cimit The maximum stress that can be applied to a
metal without producing permanent deformation.
When external forces act upon a material they
tend to form internal stresses within it which
cause deformation. $f the stresses are not too
great the material will return to its original shape
and dimension when the external stress is
removed.

?lasticity The property which enables a material to return
to its original shape and dimension.

?lectrical Steels Steels which are characterised by their magnetic
properties and are intended for the manufacture
of electrical circuits. They are supplied in the
form of cold rolled sheet or strip, generally less
than -mm thic# and up to &3''mm wide. Drain
orientated steels have preferential magnetic
properties in the direction of rolling and non
grain orientated steels have similar magnetic
properties both transversely and in the direction
of rolling.

?lectroslag >efining A specialised steel ma#ing process in which a
rolled or a cast ingot in the form of an electrode
is remelted in a water cooled copper mold. The
melting is activated by resistive heat generated
in a conductive slag. The resulting product has a
similar basic chemical composition to the original
ingot, but is characterised by high purity and low
inclusion content. Typical applications include
high integrity components for the aerospace
industry.

?levated Temperature A process of drawing steel bars at elevated
Drawing
temperatures )normally -3';'' deg (* which
under
optimum conditions produce steels that have
higher tensile and yield strengths than those cold
drawn with the same degree of reduction. The
process is little used in the 7nited 8ingdom.

?longation A test to measure the ductility of steel. When a
material is tested for tensile strength it elongates
a certain amount before fracture ta#es place.
The two pieces are placed together and the
amount of extension is measured against mar#s
made before starting the test and is expressed
as a percentage of the original gauge length.

?nd .uench Test More commonly referred to as @ominy Test it is
used to determine the hardening ability of steel.

?"uiaxed (rystals (rystals, each of which has axes approximately
e"ual in length. These are normally present in
the centre of a steel ingot.

?"uilibrium A diagram constructed from thermal and other
data showing the limits of composition and
temperature within which the various
constituents or phases of alloys are stable.

?tching Treatment of a prepared metal surface with acid
or other chemical reagent which, by differential
attac#, reveals the structure.

?utectic A mixture of two or more constituents which
solidify simultaneously out of the li"uid at a
minimum free4ing point.

?utectoid A mixture of two or more constituents which
forms on cooling from a solid solution and
transforms on heating at a constant minimum
temperature. A eutectoid steel contains
approximately './;2 carbon.

?xtrusion The production of a section by forcing a billet to
flow through a die. 6ften used for producing
complex sections, the process is used with both
hot and cold metal. Seamless tubes are
produced by forcing a hot billet to flow through a
die over a mandrel positioned centrally in the
die.

+ (hemical symbol for +luorine.

+ace (entred (ubic An arrangement of atoms in crystals in which the
Cattice
atomic centres are disposed in space in such a
way
that one atom is located at each of the corners of
the cube and one at the centre of each face. Steel
in the facecentred cubic arrangement is termed
austenite.

+atigue The effect on metal of repeated cycles of stress.
The insidious feature of fatigue failure is that there
is no obvious warning, a crac# forms without
appreciable deformation of structure ma#ing it
difficult to detect the presence of growing crac#s.

+ractures usually start from small nic#s or
scratches
or fillets which cause a localised concentration of
stress. +ailure can be influenced by a number of
factors including si4e, shape and design of the
component, condition of the surface or operating
environment.

+atigue Cimit The maximum value of the applied alternating
stress which a test piece can stand indefinitely.

+atigue Testing +atigue tests are made with the ob:ect of
determining the relationship between the stress
range and the number of times it can be applied
before causing failure. Testing machines are used
for applying cyclically varying stresses and cover
tension, compression, torsion and bending or a
combination of these stresses.

+e (hemical symbol for $ron.

+errite
The solid solution of carbon in bodycentered
cubic
iron, a constituent of carbon steels.

+erritic Steel
A term usually applied to a group of stainless
steels
with a chromium content in the range of &-&/o

and whose structure consists largely of ferrite.
Such

steels possess good ductility and are easily
wor#ed
but do not respond to any hardening or tempering
processes. Types of applications include
automotive trim and architectural cladding.

+erro Alloys Alloys of iron with chromium, manganese, silicon,
tungsten, molybdenum or vanadium. 7sed in
steelma#ing as a means of introducing these
alloying elements into the cast or as deoxidisers.

+ettling The removal of sand adhering to castings by
hammering, tumbling or shot blasting.

+in
$n rolling mill practice a fin is a pro:ection
extending
from the side of rolled sections. $t causes
considerable trouble and is the result of overfill.
The fin, formed when the bar or shape is fed

through one pass, is li#ely to be rolled bac# into
the
bar at the next pass. $t is rarely encountered in
modern rolling mills.

+lame !ardening A surface hardening process in which heat is
applied by a high temperature flame followed by
"uenching :ets of water. $t is usually applied to
medium to large si4e components such as large
gears, sproc#ets, slide ways of machine tools,
bearing surfaces of shafts and axles, etc. Steels

most suited have a carbon content within the
range
'.1''.332.

+lash A fin that arises from metal in excess of that
re"uired to fill the final impression in a forging die
and is exuded from the parting line between the
diesE similarly it can arise at the mold :oint in a
casting.

+orging A process of wor#ing metal to a finished shape by
hammering or pressing and is primarily a AhotA
operation. $t is applied to the production of shapes
either impossible or too costly to ma#e by other
methods or needing properties not obtainable by
casting. (ategories of forgings include !ammer,
5ress, Drop or Stamping.

+racture
+ractures are often described by the appearance
of
the surface of the brea# in a piece of steel.
(rystalline is bright and glittering, failure having
developed along the cleavage planes of individual
crystals and can be typical of brittle material. A
sil#y fracture has a smooth dull grain indicative of
ductile material such as a mild steel. $n tensile
testing fractures are described by shape, e.g. cup
and cone.

+reecutting Steels Steels which have had additions made to improve
machinability. The most common additives are
sulphur and lead, other elements used include
tellurium, selenium and bismuth.

Da (hemical symbol for Dallium.

Dalvanic Action When iron and steel are sub:ect to conditions of
a"ueous corrosion the incidence and rate at which
the corrosion ta#es place will alter if the steel is
coupled with other metals or alloys that are also
exposed to the electrolyte. (opper, brass, bron4e,
lead and nic#el are more AnobleA and act as
auxiliary cathodes to the steel and accelerate its
anodic dissolution, that is, its corrosion.
Magnesium, 4inc and 4incbase alloy are nearly
always less noble and tend to divert the attac#
from the steel to themselves. The galvanic

relationship of various metals is an important
factor
affecting corrosion.

Damma $ron The allotropic form of iron existing between the

temperature %&' deg ( and &1'' deg ( is #nown
as

Damma $ron. $t has a face centred cubic lattice
and

is nonmagnetic. Damma iron containing carbon
or
other elements in solution is #nown as austenite.

Das (arburising A heat treatment method used in the case
hardening of steel. (arbon is absorbed into the
outer layers of the components by heating in a
current of gas, rich in carbon compounds. The

process is more versatile than some other
methods
as the depth of the case and the limiting carbon
content of the case can be controlled by the
composition of the atmosphere, the dew point and
the temperature.

Dauge Cength 7sed in the mechanical testing of steel, it is the
length mar#ed on the parallel portion of a tensile
test piece from which the elongation is measured.

Dauge 5late An alloy tool steel supplied in flat and s"uare
section with the surfaces ground to close limits. $t

is also #nown as Dround +lat Stoc# and is used
for
the manufacturing of gauges, punches, dies, :igs,
templates etc.

De (hemical symbol for Dermanium.

Drain Si4e (ontrol When a steel is austenitised by heating to above
the critical range, time is re"uired for the
production of a homogeneous structure during
which there is a tendency towards grain growth.
Although subse"uent hot and cold wor#ing affect
the grain si4e, it is originally controlled at the steel
ma#ing stage by the addition ofaluminium.

Drain Si4e Measurement Drain si4e is normally "uantified by a numbering
system. (oarse &3 and fine 3/. The number is
derived from the formula <F-n& where n is the

number of grains per s"uare inch at a
magnification
of &'' diameters. Drain si4e has an important
effect on physical properties. +or service at
ordinary temperatures it is generally considered
that fine grained steels give a bettercombination of
strength and toughness, whereas coarse grained
steels have better machinability.

Draphitising An annealing process applied to cast iron and
steels with a high carbon and high silicon content
by which the combined carbon is wholly or in part
transformed to graphitic or free carbon.

Drey $ron
Also #nown as fla#e iron on account of all or part
of
the carbon content being in the form of graphite
distributed through the metal as fla#es.

Drinding A machining processG )a* to shape components
that are too hard to be machined by conventional
methods such as hardened tool steels and case or
induction hardened components. )b* to obtain a
high degree of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish on a component.

Drinding (rac#s
(rac#s can arise from incorrect grinding and
appear
in the form of a networ#. They are caused by the
generation of high heat and rapid cooling in the
area of contact and they mostly occur when
grinding fully hardened material such as tool steel.

! (hemical symbol for !ydrogen.

!ard Metal +acing
A method of increasing the wear resistance of a
metal

by the deposition of a hard protective coating.
Alloys

such as Stellite or a metallic carbide are most
often
used for the coating.

!ard Metals A group of materials more commonly #nown as

cemented carbides. They consist of mixtures of
one or
more of the finely divided carbides of tungsten,
titanium, tantalum and vanadium embedded in a

matrix of cobalt or nic#el by sintering. Widely used
for

cutting tools where for many applications they
have
replaced conventional high speed steels.

!ardenability The property that determines the depth and
distribution of hardness when steel is heated to a

given temperature and then "uenched )more
precisely
it may be defined as an inverse measure of the

severity of cooling conditions necessary to
produce on
continuous cooling a martensitic structure in a
previously austeniti4ed steel i.e. to avoid

transformations in the pearlitic and bainitic
ranges*.
The lower the cooling rate to avoid these
transformations, the greater the hardenability. The
critical cooling rate is largely a function of the
composition of the steel. $n general the higher the
carbon content, the greater the hardenability, while
alloying elements such as nic#el, chromium,

manganese and molybdenum increase the depth
of
hardening for a given ruling section.

!ardening
$ncreasing the hardness of steel by heat
treatment.

This normally implies heating the steel to a
re"uired

temperature and "uenching in a suitable medium,
e.g.
oil or water.

!ardness The hardness of steel is generally determined by
testing its resistance to deformation. A number of

methods are employed including ,rinell, =ic#ers
and
>oc#well. The steel to be tested is indented by a
hardened steel ball or diamond under a given load

and the si4e of the impression is then measured.
+or
steel there is an empirical relationship between
hardness and tensile strength and the hardness
number is often used as a guide to the tensile

strength, e.g. --% ,rinell F 99-<0mm- )3'
tons0s".in*.

!eat
$n steel ma#ing terms this is often used to define
the
batch or cast produced from a single melting
operation.

!eat Treatment A process where solid steel or components

manufactured from steel are sub:ect to treatment
by

heating to obtain re"uired properties, e.g.
softening,

normalising, stress relieving, hardening. !eating
for

the purpose of hotwor#ing as in the case of rolling
or
forging is excluded from this definition.

!igh Speed Steel
The term Hhigh speed steelI was derived from the
fact
that it is capable of cutting metal at a much higher

rate than carbon tool steel and continues to cut
and

retain its hardness even when the point of the tool
is
heated to a low red temperature. Tungsten is the
ma:or alloying element but it is also combined with
molybdenum, vanadium and cobalt in varying

amounts. Although replaced by cemented
carbides for
many applications it is still widely used for the

manufacture of taps, dies, twist drills, reamers,
saw
blades and other cutting tools.

!oo#eIs Caw This states that Awithin the limits of elasticity the
strain produced by a stress of any one #ind is
proportional to the stressA. The stress at which a

material ceases to obey !oo#eIs Caw is #nown as
the
limit of proportionality.

!ot .uenching (ooling in a medium, the temperature of which is
substantially higher than room temperature.

!ot Wor# The rolling, forging or extruding of a metal at a
temperature above its recrystallisation point.

!ydrogen
An undesirable impurity if present in steel and a
cause
of fine hairline crac#s especially in alloy steels.

Modern vacuum treatment eliminates this
problem.
Steel
!yper?utectoid
A steel that contains more than './;2 carbon
which
with appropriate heat treatment consists of
pearlite
and cementite.

!ypo?utectoid Steel A steel that contains less than './;2 carbon and

which in annealed condition has a structure of
ferrite
and pearlite.

$ (hemical symbol for $odine.

$mpact Test A test designed to give information on how a
specimen of a #nown material will respond to a
suddenly applied stress, e.g. shoc#. The test
ascertains whether the material is tough or
brittle. A notched test piece is normally
employed and the two methods in general use
are either the $4od or (harpy test. The result is
usually reported as the energy in ft.lbs. or 8@.
re"uired to fracture the test piece.

$n (hemical symbol for $ndium.

$nclusion (ount A method of assessing the number and si4e of
nonmetallic inclusions present in metal.

$nclusions 7sually nonmetallic particles contained in
metal. $n steel they may consist of simple or
complex oxides, sulphides, silicates and
sometimes nitrides of iron, manganese, silicon,
aluminium and other elements. $n general they
are detrimental to mechanical properties but
much depends on the number, their si4e,
shape and distribution.

$nduction !ardening A widely used process for the surface
hardening of steel. The components are
heated by means of an alternating magnetic
field to a temperature within or above the
transformation range followed by immediate
"uenching. The core of the component remains
unaffected by the treatment and its physical
properties are those of the bar from which it
was machined, while the hardness of the case
can be within the range ;903/ >c. (arbon and
alloy steels with a carbon content in the range
'.1'0'.132 are most suitable for this process.

$ngot The mass of metal that results from casting
molten steel into a mold. An ingot is usually
rectangular in shape and is subse"uently rolled
into blooms and billets for rods, bars and
sections and slabs for plates, sheet and strip.
With the increasing use of the continuous
casting process the ingot route is less used as
the molten steel is now directly cast into a
bloom or billet.

$ngot Mold The receptacle into which molten steel is
poured to form an ingot. After solidification the
steel is suitable for subse"uent wor#ing, i.e.
rolling or forging.

$ntercrystalline (orrosion (hromiumnic#el austenitic stainless steels are
prone to this form of corrosion when they are
welded and subse"uently in contact with
certain types of corrosive media. When heated
within a temperature range of 13'/'' deg (
precipitation of the chromium carbides ta#es
place at the grain boundaries in the area of the
weld and these areas no longer have the
protection of the chromium on the peripheries
of the grains. This type of corrosion is also
#nown as Weld Decay and $ntergranular
(orrosion. The most common way to avoid the
problem is to select a grade of steel that is
very low in carbon i.e. '.';2 or less, or one
that is stabilised with niobium or titanium.

$nterrupted .uenching >apid cooling to a selected temperature by
"uenching in a suitable medium, usually molten
salt, holding at the temperature for an
appropriate time and then cooling to room
temperature. This process is used to minimise
the ris# of distortion.

$ron The term iron, as used in the chemical or
scientific sense of the word, refers to the
chemical element iron or pure iron and is the
chief constituent of all commercial iron and
steel.

$sothermal Annealing !eating to and holding at a temperature above
the transformation range, then cooling to and
holding at a suitable temperature until the
austenite to pearlite change is complete.

$sothermal
Transformation Also #nown as the Time Temperature
(urve Transformation (urve. $f a small piece of steel
is heated sufficiently slowly for it to become
austenitic and then plunged into a salt bath
and held at a constant temperature below the
upper critical point for a definite time followed
by rapid "uenching, it is possible by
examination to determine the extent to which
the transformation of the austenite has
occurred. ,y ta#ing a number of specimens of
the same steel and treating them in the same
way, but varying the holding temperature and
time the behavior of the steel with time and
temperature can be studied. The information
obtained can be plotted as timetemperature
transformation curves which is useful in heat
treatment practice, particularly for
martempering and austempering.

$4od $mpact Test A test specimen, usually of s"uare crossed
section is notched and held between a pair of
:aws, to be bro#en by a swinging or falling
weight. When the pendulum of the $4od testing
machine is released it swings with a downward
movement and when it reaches the vertical the
hammer ma#es contact with the specimen
which is bro#en by the force of the blow. The
hammer continues its upward motion but the
energy absorbed in brea#ing the test piece
reduces its momentum. A graduated scale
enables a reading to be ta#en of the energy
used to fracture the test piece. To obtain a
representative result the average of three tests
is used and to ensure that the results conform
to those of the steel specification the test
specimens should meet the standard
dimensions laid down in ,S &;&.

@ominy Test
A method for determining the hardenability of
steel. The @ominy
test is covered by ,S 11;9G&%/9. A standard test
piece -3mm x

&''mm is heated to a predetermined temperature
and

"uenched by a :et of water sprayed onto one end.
When the

specimen is cold, hardness measurements are
made at intervals

along the test piece from the "uenched end and
the results are

plotted on a standard chart from which is derived
the

hardenability curve. ,S %9' contains hardenability
curves for

many of the steels in the Standard. 5roperly
carried out, this

test will illustrate the effect of mass upon a chosen
steel when

heat treated and indicate if the steel is of a
shallow, medium or
deep hardening type.

@oule
A unit of energy. 6ne :oule is e"ual to the energy
expended in

one second by one ampere against the resistance
of one ohm.

$n the mechanical testing of steel it is the unit used
in the
(harpy = notch impact test.

8 (hemical symbol for potassium.


A method of producing steel from molten iron,
using
8aldo 5rocess an inclined rotating converter and a water cooled

oxygen lance inserted through the converter
mouth.

6riginating in Sweden, this process is no longer in
use
in the 78.

8illed Steel
The term indicates that the steel has been
completely

deoxidised by the addition of an agent such as
silicon
or aluminium, before casting, so that there is
practically no evolution of gas during solidification.
8illed steels are characterised by a high degree of
chemical homogeneity and freedom from porosity.

8noop !ardness Test A micro hardness test in which an elongated
pyramidical diamond is pressed into the surface.

Ca (hemical symbol for Canthanum.

Cap
A defect appearing as a seam on a rolled bar.
Caps

are rolled over pieces of material that arise when
a
bar is given a pass through the rolls after a sharp
overfill or fin has been formed, causing the
protrusion to be rolled into the surface of the
product. The presence of oxides usually prevents
the lap welding to the original bar surface, so that
in subse"uent cold wor#ing it is carried through as
a longitudinal crac#.

CD 5rocess An oxygen steel ma#ing process named after the
towns in Austria, Cin4 and Donawit4, where it was
first developed. $t is a modified ,essemer process,
steel is produced in a solid bottom converter by

in:ection of oxygen into the molten iron bath from
a
water cooled lance inserted through the converter
mouth. 5resent day ,6S )basic oxygen
steelma#ing* plants are developments of the CD
5rocess.

Ceaded Steels When added to steel, lead does not go into
solution but exists in a very finely divided state
along the grain boundaries. $t greatly assists
machinability as it acts as a lubricant between the
steel and the tool face. Cead is normally added in

amounts between '.&3'.;32 and when
combined
with similar amounts of sulphur, optimum

machinability is attained as in such steel as ,S
%9'
-;'M'9 5b.

Ci (hemical symbol for Cithium.

Cimiting >ange of The greatest range of stress that a metal can
Stress
withstand for an indefinite number of cycles
without
failure. $f exceeded, the metal fractures after a
certain number of cycles, which decrease as the
range of stress increases.

Cimiting >uling Section
The maximum diameter of cross section of a bar
or
component in which certain specified mechanical
properties are achieved after heat treatment.

Cimits A term used to determine a minimum and
maximum. $n a mechanism, it should denote the
minimum and maximum si4es for each part,
between which the parts will function properly in
con:unction with each other and outside of which
they will not. The words AlimitsA and AtolerancesA
are often interchanged, AtoleranceA represents the
difference between the minimum and maximum
limits.

Cimits of 5roportionality The stress )load divided by original area of cross
section of the test piece* at which the strain
)elongation per unit of gauge length* ceases to be
proportional to the corresponding stress. $t is

usually determined from a loadelongation
diagram,
obtained by plotting extensometer readings and is
the stress at which the loadelongation line ceases
to be straight.

Ci"uid (arburising A widely used method of casehardening steel that
eliminates scaling and the tendency to
decarburisation and results in clean components.
Sodium cyanide is the common media for this
process, usually heated within the range of
%''%;' deg (. $t is advisable to preheat the

components in neutral salts to avoid a
temperature

drop resulting from immersing cold components
into

the cyanide. After carburising, either single
"uench

hardening or refining and hardening and
tempering
is carried out.

Machinability Simply defined as a measure of the ease with
which a metal can be machined satisfactorily.

Macrostructure The general crystalline structure of a metal and
the distribution of impurities seen on a polished
or etched surface by either the na#ed eye or
under low magnification of less than x&'.

Magnetic (rac#
Detection The bar or component to be tested is
magnetised by passing a heavy current through
it or by ma#ing it the core of a coil through
which a heavy current is passed. (rac#s or
inclusions cause the magnetic flux to brea# the
surface forming free magnetic poles. When the
component is sprayed with a suspension of
finely divided magnetic particles they collect at
the free poles to visibly show the presence of
defects.

Malleability $t can be defined as the property of a metal to
be deformed by compression without crac#ing or
rupturing. The load may be applied slowly or
suddenly and will determine whether the
material will be suitable for forging or rolling into
thin sheet.

Manganese 6ne of the most important constituents of steel
in which it fulfils a number of functions. $t acts
as a mild deoxidising agent. $t combines with
the sulphur present to form globular inclusions
of Manganese Sulphide which are beneficial to
machining. $t increases tensile strength and the
hardenability of steel.

Martempering A heat treatment involving austenitisation
followed by step "uenching, at a rate fast
enough to avoid the formation of ferrite, pearlite
or bainite to a temperature slightly above the Ms
point. Soa#ing must be long enough to avoid
the formation of bainite. The advantage of
martempering is the reduction of thermal
stresses compared to normal "uenching. This
prevents crac#ing and minimises distortion.

Martensite The hard constituent produced when steel is
cooled from the hardening temperature at a
speed greater than its critical cooling rate.
Martensite is an acicular phase when seen in
the microstructure of steel.

Mass ?ffect A term used to signify the effect of si4e and
shape during heat treatment, since it is the rate
of cooling of a piece of steel which determines
the properties resulting from the hardening and
"uenching process.

Matrix The mass or principal constituent )e.g. iron in
the case of steel* in which other constituents
are embedded.

Maximum Stress $n the testing of the strength of steel a sample
is machined into a standard test piece and is
stretched in a tensile testing machine until it
brea#s. The results are expressed in <0mm- and
is the value of the maximum load reached in the
test divided by the original cross sectional area
of the specimen.

Mc.uaid ?!< Drain
Si4e A method of assessing grain si4e. $t consists of
Test a test piece at %-9 deg ( for / hours by slow
cooling and subse"uent microscopical
examination. The grain si4e is measured at x&''
magnification and compared to standard charts,
the figures range from <o. & very coarse, to
<o. / very fine.

Meehanite A trade name applied to a certain type of cast
iron.

Melting 5oint The temperature at which a solid begins to
li"uefy.

Mg (hemical symbol for Magnesium.

Micron A unit of length e"ual to one millionth of a
metre )'.''&mm*.

Microstructure The structure that is observed when a polished
and etched specimen of metal is viewed in an
optical microscope at magnifications in range of
approximately x-3 to x&3''.

Mn (hemical symbol for Manganese.

Mo (hemical symbol for Molybdenum.

Modulus of ?lasticity When a material is sub:ected to an external load
it becomes distorted or strained. With metals,
provided the loading is not too great, they return
to their original dimensions when the load is
removed, i.e. they are elastic. Within the limits
of elasticity, the ratio of the linear stress to the
linear strain is termed the modulus of elasticity
or more commonly #nown as JoungIs Modulus.

Molybdenum $ts use as an alloying element in steel increases
hardenability and in low alloy steels reduces the
ris# of temper brittleness. When added to
stainless steels it increases their resistance to
corrosion. $t is also used in high speed steels.

< (hemical symbol for <itrogen.

<a (hemical symbol for Sodium.

<b (hemical symbol for <iobium.

<i (hemical symbol for <ic#el.

<ic#el 6ne of the most widely used alloying elements in
steel. $n amounts '.3'2 to 3.''2 its use in alloy

steels increases the toughness and tensile
strength
without detrimental effect on the ductility. <ic#el

also increases the hardenability, thus permitting
the

steel to be oilhardened instead of water
"uenched.
$n larger "uantities, /.''2 and upwards, nic#el is
the constituent, together with chromium, of many
corrosion resistant and stainless austenitic steels.

<iobium Also #nown as columbium. <iobium is a strong
carbide forming element which is added to certain
&/0/2 chromiumnic#el stainless steels as a

stabiliser to prevent intergranular corrosion
arising
from welding.

<itriding A case hardening process that depends on the
absorption of nitrogen into the steel. All machining,

stress relieving, as well as hardening and
tempering
are normally carried out before nitriding. The parts
are heated in a special container through which

ammonia gas is allowed to pass. The ammonia
splits
into hydrogen and nitrogen and the nitrogen
reacts
with the steel penetrating the surface to form
nitrides. <itriding steels offer many advantagesG a
much higher surface hardness is obtainable when
compared with casehardening steelsE they are
extremely resistant to abrasion and have a high
fatigue strength.

<itrogen <itrogen is a gas that forms approximately 9%2 by

volume or 992 by weight of the atmosphere. $t
can
combine with many metals to form nitrides and is
thus applied to the casehardening of steel, the
usual source for this purpose being ammonia.

<oble Metals Metals such as gold, silver and platinum which are
resistant to corrosion by all but the most powerful
acids.

<on Destructive Those forms of testing that do not result in
Testing
permanent damage or deformation to the part
being
tested. Typical examples are magnetic crac#
detection, ultrasonic inspection, K>ay inspection
and gamma radiography.

<on Magnetic Steels
Austenitic steels such as the &12 manganese
steels
and the ;'; type &/0/2 chromiumnic#el stainless
steels.

<ormalising A heat treatment process that has the ob:ect of

relieving internal stresses, refining the grain si4e
and
improving the mechanical properties. The steel is

heated to /''%'' deg ( according to analysis,
held at
temperature to allow a full soa# and cooled in still
air.

<otched ,ar Test
A test to determine the resistance of a material to
a
suddenly applied stress, i.e. shoc#. A notched test

piece is employed in an $4od or (harpy machine
and
the results are recorded in ft.lbs. or @oules.

6 (hemical symbol for 6xygen.

6cclusion A term applied, in the case of metals, to the
absorption or entrapment of gases.

6il !ardening Steel 7sed to describe tool or alloy steels where oil is
used as the "uenching medium in the hardening
process.

6pen !earth +urnace Developed in the middle of the last century, the
open hearth or SiemensMartins process, as it is

#nown, accounted for a ma:or proportion of 78
steel

production until the early &%9'Is. +or economic
and

"uality reasons it has been replaced by the
?lectric
Arc +urnace and the ,asic 6xygen Steelma#ing

process. There are no open hearth furnaces in
use

in ,ritain today but they are still in use in >ussia
and
?astern ?urope.

6range 5eel ?ffect An effect that arises on the surface of steel sheets
when they are stretched beyond their elastic limit.

6re An ore is a material that contains a metal in such
"uantities that it can be mined and wor#ed
commercially to extract that metal. The metal is

usually contained in chemical combination with
some
other element in addition to various impurities.

6s (hemical symbol for 6smium.

6verheating +ailure of tools and components in heat treatment

can arise through overheating. This may be
caused
due to "uenching from a temperature too high for

the type of steel involved. 6verheating is
evidenced
by crac#ing, graincoarseness, erratic surface
hardness and pitting.

6xidation A common form of chemical reaction which is the
combining of oxygen with various elements and
compounds. The corrosion of metals is a form of
oxidation, rust on iron for example is iron oxide.

6xyAcetylene Welding A process for :oining two pieces of metal in which
the re"uired high temperature is obtained by the

combustion of acetylene gas and oxygen. The
gases
are thoroughly mixed in the no44le or tip of the
welding torch to ensure perfect combustion. The

weld may be formed directly between two
ad:oining
surfaces, but usually metal from a welding rod is
fused in between the surfaces of the :oint.

6xygen 6xygen is one of the chief constituents of the
atmosphere of which it forms approximately one
fifth. $t is odorless and invisible. Although oxygen
itself does not burn it is extremely efficient in
supporting combustion, nearly all other chemical

elements combine with it under evolution of heat.
$t
has many uses in industry and is essential to the
,6S ),asic 6xygen Steelma#ing 5rocess*.

5 (hemical symbol for 5hosphorus.

5ar#erising A chemical treatment applied to ferrous metals to

improve their corrosion resistance. The process is
based

on a manganese phosphate solution which
produces a

fairly thic# coating. This can subse"uently be
painted or

impregnated with oil. 5atenting A heat treatment
process

often applied to high carbon wire. The steel is
heated to

a suitable temperature well above the
transformation

range, followed by cooling in air or a bath of
molten lead

or salt. A structure is produced suitable for
subse"uent

cold drawing and which will give the desired
mechanical
properties in the finished state.

5d (hemical symbol for 5alladium.

5earlite
A lamellar constituent of steel consisting of
alternate

layers of ferrite )alphairon* and cementite )iron
(arbide

+e;(* and is formed on cooling austenite at 9-;
deg (. This

produces a tough structure and is responsible for
the
mechanical properties of unhardened steel.

5h (hemical symbol for Cead.

p! =alue
A method of expressing differences in the acidity
or
al#alinity of a solution. A figure of 9 is regarded as

neutral, figures below this indicate the decree of
acidity
and above al#alinity.

5hosphorus
An element that forms '.&-2 of the earthIs crust,
chiefly

in the form of phosphates. $ts presence in steel is
usually

regarded as an undesirable impurity due to its
embrittling

effect, for this reason its content in most steels is
limited
to a maximum of '.'3'2.

5ic#ling
A process to chemically remove scale or oxide
from steel

to obtain a clean surface. When applied to bars or
coils

prior to bright drawing, the steel is immersed in a
bath of

dilute sulphuric acid heated to a temperature of
around

/' deg (. An inhibitor is added to prevent attac#
and pitting

of the cleaned metal. After pic#ling, a washing
process

ta#es place followed by immersion in a limewater
bath to

neutralise any remaining acid. +or environmental
reasons
shot blasting has largely replaced pic#ling.

5ig $ron
The product of the blast furnace. The term was
derived

from the method of casting the bars of the pig iron
in

depressions or molds formed in the sand floor
ad:acent
to the furnace. These were connected to a runner

)#nown as a sow* and when filled with metal the
runner

and the numerous smaller molds were supposed
to

resemble a litter of suc#ling pigs, hence the term
pig
iron.

5inch 5ass
A term applied when, after annealing, sheet or
strip is

lightly rolled with the ob:ect of preventing stretcher
lines
or #in#s on subse"uent cold wor#ing.

5ipe
A defect that arises during the solidification of
steel in

the ingot mold. As steel contracts on solidification
a

central cavity forms in the upper portion of the
ingot, if

this is not completely removed before rolling into
bars a

central defect #nown as ApipeA results. The ris# of
piping

is considerably reduced on continuously cast steel
due to

molten steel being available to fill any shrin#age
cavity.

5oissonIs >atio
$f a s"uare bar is stressed in a testing machine in
the

direction of its length so that the length increases,
there
is a contraction in each opposite direction, which

produces a decrease in the thic#ness of the bar.
The

ratio between the contraction at right angles to a
stress

and the direct extension is called the 5oissonIs
ratio. $ts
value in steel is in the order of '.-/.

5ot .uenching
.uenching carburised parts directly from the
carburising
pot or box.

5owder Metallurgy A method of producing components by pressing or

molding metal powders which may be
simultaneously or
subse"uently heated to produce a coherent mass.

5re!eating
7sed in the hardening process. Tools are pre
heated
before heating to the final temperature, this is
particularly important in tools of complex shape to

prevent distortion or crac#ing. 5reheating
reduces the

time of exposure to the hardening temperature
and helps
to minimise scaling and decarburisation.

5ro:ection Welding
A welding process that uses small pro:ections on
one or

both components of the weld to localise the heat
and

pressure, the pro:ections collapse when the weld
is
made.

5roof Stress
The stress that will cause a specified small,
permanent

extension of a tensile test piece. (ommonly the
stress to

produce '.-2 extension is "uoted in <0mm- for
steel.

This value approximates to the yield stress in
materials
not exhibiting a definite yield point.

.uenching
>apid cooling from a high temperature by
immersion in a

li"uid bath of oil or water. Molten salts may also be
used.

.uenching (rac#
A fracture, often termed a hardening crac#, which
arises

from thermal stresses induced during rapid
cooling.

>a (hemical symbol for >adium.

>adiography A method of nondestructive testing. $nternal
examination of a metallic structure or component
is carried out by exposing it to a beam of K>ay
or gamma radiation. $nternal defects can be
seen on a screen or recorded on film.

>b (hemical symbol for >ubidium.

>e (hemical symbol for >henium.

>ecrystallisation The rearrangement of crystals in cold wor#ed
metal brought about by heating so that the
deformed crystals are absorbed by newlyformed
crystals and the effects of wor# hardening are
removed. Also occurs when steel is heated
through the transformation range and when steel
is hot wor#ed.

>ed !ardness A term sometimes associated with high speed
steel because it has the property of retaining
sufficient hardness for cutting metals even when
heated to a temperature high enough to cause a
dull redness. The tungsten content has a
significant influence on this property.

>eduction of area The percentage decrease in the crosssectional
area of a tensile test piece caused by wasting or
nec#ing of the specimen. $t is expressed as a
percentage of the original area of the test piece
and is a measure of ductility.

>efining )a* The removal of impurities and metallic oxides
from the molten bath by the reaction of the slag
and other additions. )b* A heat treatment
process with the ob:ect of refining or ma#ing the
grain si4e of the steel uniform.

>esidual Stress The stress which exists in an elastic solid body
in the absence of, or in addition to, the stresses
caused by an external load. Such stresses can
arise from deformation during cold wor#ing such
as cold drawing or stamping, in welding from
weld metal shrin#age, and in changes in volume
due to thermal expansion.

>h (hemical symbol for >hodium.

>oc#well !ardness
Testing A method for testing the hardness of metals by
determining the depth of penetration of a steel
ball or a diamond spheroconical indentor. The
value is read from a dial and is an arbitrary
number related to the depth of penetration. +or
testing hard steels, a spheroconical diamond is
used with a &3' #g load, the result is read from
the blac# scale on the dial and is prefixed with
the letter (. A hardened tool steel would
typically give a reading of B->c. +or softer
metals Scale , is used with a &0&BA diameter
steel ball and a standard load of &'' #gs.

>olling The process of shaping metal by passing it
between rolls revolving at the same peripheral
speed and in opposite directions. $n steel there
are a number of different types of rolling mill for
processing the ingot to its finished shape. These
are variously #nown as (ogging mills, Slabbing
mills, ,illet mills, ,ar mills and Strip mills, which
produce plate, sections, bars, sheet and strip.
(old rolling of previously hot rolled strip is
carried out to produce strip that is accurate to
si4e and with a smooth bright polished surface.

>olling Cap A fault arising from the overfilling or mis
alignment of rolls, the result is a bulge on the
bar which is rolled into the metal and is lapped
over. $t remains throughout subse"uent wor#ing
and appears as a longitudinal crac#.

>u (hemical symbol for >uthenium.

>uling Section More accurately termed limiting ruling section.
6ne of the most important factors associated
with the choice of steel for a given purpose is to
ensure that the desired mechanical properties
are obtained throughout the section when the
material has been heat treated. The limiting
ruling section determines the maximum diameter
or crosssection of a bar or component in which
the specified properties can be achieved by a
given heat treatment. The analysis of the steel
also has an important bearing on this.

S (hemical symbol for Sulphur.

Salt ,ath
A method of heating steel using a bath of molten
salts.

Salt baths give uniform heating and prevent
oxidation,

they are used for hardening, tempering or
"uenching. The

type of salt used depends on the temperature
range
re"uired. +or hardening, sodium cyanide, sodium

carbonate and sodium chloride are in common
use.

Sb (hemical symbol for Antimony.

Scale
The oxidised surface of steel produced during hot
wor#ing,

as in rolling, and by exposure to air or steam at
elevated
temperature.

Scarfing
Also termed deseaming. $t is a process for burning
out

defective areas on the surface of ingots or semi
finished

products such as billets so that the product is
suitable for
subse"uent rolling or forging.

Scrap
$t forms the basic raw material for ma#ing steel by
the

electric arc process. Steel offers ecological
advantages as

it can be recycled enabling the discarded car of
today to

appear as part of a new model tomorrow. Scrap is
sorted

and graded before use and the necessary
elements are

added during the steel ma#ing process to achieve
the
desired specifications.

Se
(hemical symbol for Selenium. Seams A surface
defect
caused during the steel ma#ing process. Seams
are

generally formed from blow holes in the ingot, non
metallic

inclusions, or stresses arising during the
solidification

stage. They appear as longitudinal discontinuities
in the
bar.
Secondary
!ardness
An increase in hardness which sometimes occurs
when

hardened steel is reheated. $t can be caused by
the

transformation of retained austenite to martensite
or by
the precipitation of alloy carbides.

Segregation
A term applied to the concentration and partial
separation

of one or more elements from solution during
solidification

of li"uid steel in an ingot mold. Sulphur and
phosphorus

tend to segregate to a greater extent than other
elements

which can have a particular adverse effect on
machinability

in high sulphur freecutting steels. Modern steel
ma#ing

and continuous casting have largely overcome
this
problem.

Selenium
An element that closely resembles sulphur in its
properties.

The main use in steel is as a freecutting additive
but due

to high cost its use is limited to stainless steel.
6ne of the

benefits being the ability to obtain a very good
surface
finish on machined components.

SD $ron
An abbreviation for Spheroidal Draphite (ast $ron.
As the

name implies, graphite is present in spheroidal
form

instead of fla#es and compared with Drey (ast
$ron it has

higher mechanical strength, ductility and
increased shoc#
resistance.

Shearing Test
The test applied to metal to determine the stress
re"uired
to fracture it across its section.

Sherardi4ing A process developed in ,ritain in &%'1 by Sherard

(owper(oles. $t is a method of producing a
protective
4inc coating on iron and steel products.

Shore
An instrument that measures the hardness of a
sample in
Scleroscope
arbitrary terms of elasticity. A diamond tipped
hammer is

allowed to fall freely down a graduated glass tube
on to

the sample under test. The hardness is measured
by the

height of the rebound. $n another form the
rebounding

hammer actuates the pointer of a scale so that the
height
of the rebound is recorded.

Spinning
The formation of sheet metal blan#s into hollow
circular

shapes. This is carried out on a lathe with forming
tools

which service to press and shape the metal.
Annealing

may be needed during and0or after the operation
to
remove the effects of wor# hardening.

Spot Welding
A process for :oining steel sheets. The two parts
are held
between electrodes and the heat generated at the

interface between the sheets causes local welding
when
pressure is applied.

Spring Steel The steels used for spring ma#ing depend on the

application and type of spring. They range from
plain
carbon grades in the range '.32 to &.''2 (. to
(hromium, (hromium=anadium,

<ic#el(hromiumMolybdenum, SilicoManganese
and

SiliconManganese(hromiumMolybdenum
types. +ull
details can be found in ,S399'.

Stabilisation
A term applied to a number of processesG a* A
type of heat

treatment to relieve internal stressesG b* The
retarding or

prevention of a particular reaction by the addition
of a

stabilising elementE c* A thermal and0or
mechanical

treatment given to magnetic material in order to
increase

the permanency of its magnetic properties or
condition.

Stainless Steel
(an be defined as a group of corrosion resisting
steels

containing a minimum &'2 chromium and in
which varying

amounts of nic#el, molybdenum, titanium, niobium
as well

as other elements may be present. An
?nglishman, !arry

,rearley, is generally ac#nowledged to be the
pioneer who
developed stainless steels for commercial use.

Steel
Denerally defined as a metallic product whose
principal
element is iron and where the carbon content is
not more

than -2. )The presence of large "uantities of
carbide

forming elements may modify the upper limit of
the carbon
content.*

Strain Ageing The gradual changes in physical and mechanical

properties, in particular hardness and tensile
strength,

which ta#es place following cold rolling or
deformation. At

atmospheric temperatures, this may ta#e place
over a

number of wee#s but can be accelerated by
heating.

Strain !ardening
The loss of ductility and gain in hardness resulting
from
strain ageing.

Stress >elieving
A heat treatment including heating and soa#ing at
a

suitable temperature )e.g. B''B3' deg (*
followed by cooling

at an appropriate rate in order to reduce internal
stresses

without substantially modifying the steelIs
structure. This

treatment may be used to relieve stresses induced
by
machining, "uenching, welding or cold wor#ing.

Stress Strain
A graph in which stress )load divided by the
original cross
(urve
sectional area of the test piece* is plotted against
strain

)the extension divided by the length over which it
is
measured*.

Sub(ritical
!eating to, and holding at, some point below the
critical
Annealing
temperature. Subse"uent cooling may be in air.
This form

of heat treatment has a variety of uses depending
on the

temperature and specification of the steel, its
purpose is
often to soften the material.

Sub4ero
A low temperature treatment carried out after
"uenching
Treatment
on hardened steel to transform the retained
austenite into

martensite. $t involves immersing the component
in a bath

of solid carbon dioxide at a temperature of minus
9'/' deg (.

Sulphur
Denerally regarded as an impurity in steel as it
can have

detrimental effects on strength, ductility and
weldability as

well as producing hot and cold shortness. $ts
content in
most steels is limited to a maximum of '.'3'2.
Sulphur is

beneficial to machining and is added to freecutting
steels

in amounts up to '.;32 with the manganese
content
increased to overcome any detrimental effects.

Surface
A method of hardening the surface of steel to
increase its
!ardening
wear resistance. Depending on the analysis of the
steel,
the following treatments can be employedG

(asehardening, <itriding, induction hardening,
+lame
hardening.

Swaging
A method of forming or reducing steel or other
metals to a

desired shape by a series of blows rapidly applied
by dies

or hammers. The process is applied to wires, rods
and

tubes and can be used for a variety of pointing,
tapering,
si4ing and reducing operations.

Swarf
The particles of metal arising from machining or
grinding

operations, much of it finds its way to the steel
ma#er for
remelting.

Ta (hemical symbol for Tantalum.

Tantalum A rare metal of silver white color having
excellent corrosion resistance and a high
melting point. $t is widely used for chemical
process e"uipment and specialised
aerospace and nuclear applications.

Te (hemical symbol for Tellurium.

Tellurium $ts main use in the steel industry is as an
additive in leadbearing freecutting steels to
further improve their machinability. $ts
presence in the steel is either within the
manganese sulphide particles, where it is
partially soluble, or as particles combined
with lead or manganese. +or certain
applications it offers significant improvements
in machinability but the added cost is a factor
that should be ta#en into account.

Temper A term to which a number of definitions can
be applied. These includeG a* The operation
of temperingE b* The degree of hardness left
in a steel bar after "uenching and temperingE
c* The grading of the hardness of low carbon
cold rolled strip, e.g. !ard, !alf !ard,
.uarter !ard, S#in 5assed, SoftE d* An
indication of the amount of carbon present in
a tool steel, e.g. ra4or temper, file temper,
die temper, etc.

Temper ,rittleness The loss in impact resistance that is present
in some low and medium carbon alloy steels
when tempered in the range of ;3' deg (
B'' deg (. $t is revealed by the notched bar
impact test but not the tensile test.

Temper (olors ,efore the use of instruments such as
pyrometers, colors were used to :udge
temperatures when hardening and tempering.
+or example, on carbon tool steel where the
tempering range may typically be from -'' deg (
to ;3' deg (, the colors change with the rise in
temperature giving Cight Straw at around

-&' deg (, 5urple at -93 deg (, and Drey at ;;'
deg (.
The practice still continues in wor#shops
where controlled heat treatment facilities are
not available.

Temper >olling A light pass given to annealed cold rolled
strip to prevent the formation of #in#s and
stretcher strain mar#ings on subse"uent cold
wor#ing. Also termed 5inch pass and S#in
pass.

Tempering A heat treatment applied to ferrous products
after hardening. $t consists of heating the
steel to some temperature below the
transformation range and holding for a
suitable time at the temperature, followed by
cooling at a suitable rate. The ob:ect of
tempering is to decrease hardness and
increase toughness to produce the desired
combination of mechanical properties.

Tensile Strength The maximum load applied in brea#ing a
tensile test piece divided by the original
crosssectional area of the test piece.
6riginally "uoted as tons0s".in. it is now
measured as <ewtons0s".mm. Also termed
Maximum Stress and 7ltimate Tensile Stress.

Tensile Test A standard test piece is gripped at either end
by suitable apparatus in a testing machine
which slowly exerts an axial pull so that the
steel is stretched until it brea#s. The test
provides information on proof stress, yield
point, tensile strength, elongation and
reduction of area.

Thomas 5rocess The (ontinental name for the basic ,essemer
steel ma#ing process, now superseded by
modern day ,6S plants.

Ti (hemical symbol for Titanium.

Time Temperature An isothermal transformation diagram
Transformation (urve showing the relationship between
temperature and the time ta#en for the
decomposition of austenite when the
transformation occurs at constant
temperature.

Tin When present in steel it is an undesirable
impurity which gives rise to temper
brittleness. When used as a coating on steel,
it has a good resistance to corrosion for many
applications.

Titanium Small amounts added to steel contribute to
its soundness and give a finer grain si4e. $n
austenitic stainless steels it acts as a carbide
stabiliser and is used to prevent
intercrystalline corrosion, commonly termed
Aweld decayA. Titanium carbide is also used
with tungsten carbide in the manufacture of
hard metal tools.

Tolerances The amount of variation permitted on
dimensions or surfaces. The tolerance is
e"ual to the difference between the maximum
and minimum limits of any specified
dimension.

Tool Steel A generic term applied to a wide range of
steels, both plain carbon and alloy. $t
includes steels suitable for various types of
cutting tools, press tools, hot and cold
heading dies, molds for plastics and die
casting, extrusion tools, hand tools, etc.

Torsional Strength The resistance of a bar to twisting. (losely
related to its shear strength.

Toughness The ability of a metal to rapidly distribute
within itself both the stress and strain caused
by a suddenly applied load, or more simply
expressed, the ability of a material to
withstand shoc# loading. $t is the exact
opposite of AbrittlenessA which carries the
implication of sudden failure. A brittle
material has little resistance to failure once
the elastic limit has been reached.

Transformation >ange The temperature range within which austenite
forms and ferrite or carbide progressively
dissolves while ferrous alloys are being
heated. Also the temperature range within
which austenite decomposes to form ferrite
and carbide on cooling.

Transformation
Temperature The temperature at which a change in phase
occurs or the limiting temperature of a
transformation range. These critical points
are denoted by symbols, e.g. Ac&E the
temperature at which austenite begins to
form on heating. There are &- principal
temperatures to which symbols are applied.

Transition Temperature The temperature at which a transition from
ductile to brittle fracture ta#es place in steel.
$t is usually determined by ma#ing a series of
(harpy impact tests at various temperatures,
the transition temperature is usually ta#en as
the point where 3'2 of the fracture is brittle.

Transverse Strength A measurement of strength when the load is
applied across the longitudinal flow of the
grain of a metal. (ertain impurities such as
sulphur have a detrimental effect on the
transverse strength. This can be minimised by
the inclusion modification process.

Transverse Test A test ta#en at right angles to the principal
direction of rolling or forging.

TTT (urve An abbreviation of Time Temperature
Transformation (urve.

Tufftriding A form of surface hardening, the process
involves nitrogen but does not achieve the
hardness of conventional nitriding.

Tungsten When used as an alloying element it
increases the strength of steel at normal and
elevated temperatures. $ts Ared hardnessA
value ma#es it suitable for cutting tools as it
enables the tool edge to be maintained at
high temperatures. $n con:unction with other
alloying elements it finds applications in heat
resisting and other severe service conditions.

7 (hemical symbol for 7ranium.

7ltimate Analysis
$n chemistry, this is a "uantitative analysis in
which
percentages of all elements in the substance are
determined.
7ltimate Tensile
Strength The highest load applied in brea#ing a tensile test

piece divided by the original crosssectional area
of
the test piece.

7ltrasonic $nspection
A means of locating defects in steel. When
acoustic
energy in the ultrasonic range is passed through
steel, the sound waves tend to travel in straight
lines, rather than diffusing in all directions as they
do in the audible range. $f there is a defect in the
path of the beam it will cause a reflection of some
of the energy, depleting the energy transmitted.
This casts an acoustic shadow which can be
monitored by a detector placed opposite the

transducer or energy source. $f the acoustic
energy
is introduced as a very short burst, then the
reflected energy coming bac# to the originating
transducer can also be used to show the si4e and
depth of the defect. 7ltrasonic techni"ues can be
used to detect deeply located defects or those

contained in the surface layer. S#ill and
experience

are re"uired in interpreting the results portrayed
on
the cathode ray tube.

7n#illed Steel Steel which has been insufficiently deoxidised and
evolves gas during solidification with the formation
of blowholes.

7psetting Wor#ing a piece of steel so that its length is

shortened and its crosssectional area is
increased.
$ts effect is to increase ductility in the radial and
tangential directions.

7ranium A white malleable metal which is softer than steel.

$ts specific gravity is &/.9, it melts at a
temperature
of -1'' deg (.

= (hemical symbol for =anadium.
=acuum Arc
>emelting
A process used for producing advanced steels to
the
most demanding and critical specifications,

particularly in such areas as aerospace
applications.
The steel is first produced to a very close analysis
and the resulting ingot is slowly remelted in a
=acuum Arc >emelting furnace for up to &1 hours.
Such steels are, by necessity, expensive to
manufacture.

=acuum Degassing A ladle of molten metal is placed within a chamber
which is then evacuated. This reduces the gas
content, particularly hydrogen, as well as reducing
nonmetallic inclusions. Modern secondary steel

ma#ing processes using =acuum Arc Degassing
units
that include automated stirring and control of
temperature and chemical analysis, ensure a
consistent and high "uality product.

=anadium
Steels containing vanadium have a much finer
grain
structure than steels of similar composition without
vanadium. $t raises the temperature at which grain

coarsening sets in and increases hardenability
where

it is in solution in the austenite prior to "uenching.
$t
also lessens softening on tempering and confers

secondary hardness on high speed steels.
=anadium
is used in nitriding, heat resisting, tool and spring
steels in con:unction with other alloying elements.

=ic#ers !ardness Test A method of determining the hardness of steel
whereby a diamond pyramid is pressed into the

polished surface of the specimen and the
diagonals
of the impression are measured with a microscope
fitted with a micrometer eye piece. The rate of

application and duration are automatically
controlled
and the load can be varied.

W (hemical symbol for Tungsten, from wolfram.

Welding
The process of :oining together two pieces of
metal
so that bonding accompanied by appreciable
interatomic penetration ta#es place at their original
boundary surfaces. The boundaries more or less
disappear at the weld, and integrating crystals
develop across them. Welding is carried out by the
use of heat or pressure or both and with or without
added metal. There are many types of welding
including Metal Arc, Atomic !ydrogen, Submerged
Arc, >esistance ,utt, +lash, Spot, Stitch, Stud and
5ro:ection.

Whis#ers Thin hairli#e growths on metal that are barely

visible to the na#ed eye, they are stronger than
the
metals from which they are formed, probably
because they are free from defects.

White Annealing A heat treatment process carried out on pic#led
steel with the ob:ective of eliminating the hydrogen
that has entered the steel during the pic#ling
operation and thus removing any tendency to
hydrogen embrittlement.

Widmanstatten Structure A microstructure resulting when steels are cooled
at a critical rate from extremely high temperatures.
$t consists of ferrite and pearlite and has a

crosshatched appearance due to the ferrite
having
formed along certain crystallographic planes.

Wolfram The alternative name for tungsten.

Woody +racture A fracture that is fibrous or woody in appearance
due to the elongation of the individual grains. This
may be accentuated by the presence of slag or by
a banded structure. $t is grey and dull and is
characteristic of ductile but nonhomogeneous
material such as wrought iron.

Wor# !ardening
The increase in hardness and strength produced
by
cold plastic deformation or mechanical wor#ing.

Wrought $ron A commercial iron that has little use today and has
been replaced by mild steel. $t was commonly
produced by the puddling process. The
temperatures employed in its production are too
low to render it fluid, it is heated until it forms a
pasty mass then it is s"uee4ed or forged. The
process does not lend itself to removal of
impurities so it contains an appreciable "uantity of
slag. $t will not respond to any heat treatment
designed to increase the hardness or strength.

K>ay (rystallography
Kray photographs of metals are a means of
providing

information which in many cases cannot be
obtained

by microscopic methods. The lines produced by
each
element, or phase are characteristic, and their

general pattern enables the crystalline structure to
be
identified. The scale of the pattern can be used to
determine accurately the si4e of the unit cell and,

therefore, the distance apart of the individual
atoms.

+rom the relative intensity of the lines it is possible
to

deduce the distribution throughout the unit cell,
the
various types of atoms in an alloy or the degree of
preferred orientation in the material.

Jield 5oint
(an be defined as the point where a tensile test
piece

begins to extend permanently. $f the load is
reduced to

4ero, the test piece will not return to its original
length.

Jield Strength The stress at which general plastic elongation of
the test

piece ta#es place. This point is well defined in
hardened

and tempered or annealed structures but can be ill
defined
in Aas drawnA structures.

JoungIs Modulus
Within the limits of elasticity, the ratio of the linear
stress

to the linear strain is termed the modulus of
elasticity or

JoungIs Modulus and may be written JoungIs
Modulus, or

? F)Stress0Strain* $t is this property that
determines how

much a bar will sag under its own weight or under
a
loading when used as a beam within its limit of

proportionality. +or steel, JoungIs Modulus is of
the order
of -'3''' <0mm-.

Linc
Linc is a metallic chemical element, it has a white
color with a

bluish tinge. $t has a high resistance to
atmospheric corrosion and

a ma:or use is as a protective coating for iron and
steel sheet and

wire. Dalvanised sheets are a prime example. The
melting point
of 4inc is 1&% deg (.

Lirconium Acts as a deoxidising element in steel and
combines with sulphur.

Ln (hemical symbol for Linc.

Lr (hemical symbol for Lirconium.