Capacitor

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the electronic component. For the physical phenomenon, see capacitance. For an overview
of various kinds of capacitors, see types of capacitor.
Capacitor

Modern capacitors, by a cm ruler
Type Passive
Invented Ewald Georg von Kleist (October 1745)
Electronic symbol



A typical electrolytic capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical componentused to
store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least
two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists
of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric fielddevelops across the
dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is
stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance,
measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference
between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence
capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount ofleakage current and also has an electric field strength
limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an
undesired inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowingalternating current to
pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune radios to
particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
Contents
1 History
2 Theory of operation
o 2.1 Energy storage
o 2.2 Current-voltage relation
o 2.3 DC circuits
o 2.4 AC circuits
o 2.5 Parallel plate model
o 2.6 Networks
3 Non-ideal behaviour
o 3.1 Breakdown voltage
o 3.2 Equivalent circuit
o 3.3 Ripple current
o 3.4 Capacitance instability
o 3.5 Current and voltage reversal
4 Capacitor types
o 4.1 Dielectric materials
o 4.2 Structure
5 Capacitor markings
o 5.1 Example
6 Applications
o 6.1 Energy storage
o 6.2 Pulsed power and weapons
o 6.3 Power conditioning
6.3.1 Power factor correction
o 6.4 Supression and coupling
6.4.1 Signal coupling
6.4.2 Decoupling
6.4.3 Noise filters and snubbers
o 6.5 Motor starters
o 6.6 Signal processing
6.6.1 Tuned circuits
o 6.7 Sensing
7 Hazards and safety
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links
[edit]History


Battery of four Leyden jars in Museum Boerhaave, Leiden, the Netherlands.
In October 1745, Ewald Georg von Kleist of Pomerania in Germany found that charge could be stored by
connecting a high-voltage electrostatic generator by a wire to a volume of water in a hand-held glass jar.
[1]
Von
Kleist's hand and the water acted as conductors, and the jar as a dielectric (although details of the mechanism
were incorrectly identified at the time). Von Kleist found, after removing the generator, that touching the wire
resulted in a painful spark. In a letter describing the experiment, he said "I would not take a second shock for
the kingdom of France."
[2]
The following year, the Dutch physicist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented a similar
capacitor, which was named the Leyden jar, after the University of Leiden where he worked.
[3]

Daniel Gralath was the first to combine several jars in parallel into a "battery" to increase the charge storage
capacity. Benjamin Franklin investigated the Leyden jar and "proved" that the charge was stored on the glass,
not in the water as others had assumed. He also adopted the term "battery",
[4][5]
(denoting the increasing of
power with a row of similar units as in a battery of cannon), subsequently applied to clusters of electrochemical
cells.
[6]
Leyden jars were later made by coating the inside and outside of jars with metal foil, leaving a space at
the mouth to prevent arcing between the foils.
[citation needed]
The earliest unit of capacitance was the 'jar',
equivalent to about 1 nanofarad.
[citation needed]

Leyden jars or more powerful devices employing flat glass plates alternating with foil conductors were used
exclusively up until about 1900, when the invention of wireless (radio) created a demand for standard
capacitors, and the steady move to higher frequencies required capacitors with lower inductance. A more
compact construction began to be used of a flexible dielectric sheet such as oiled paper sandwiched between
sheets of metal foil, rolled or folded into a small package.
Early capacitors were also known as condensers, a term that is still occasionally used today. The term was first
used for this purpose byAlessandro Volta in 1782, with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density
of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.
[7]

[edit]Theory of operation
Main article: Capacitance


Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.


A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.
[8]
The non-conductive region is
called thedielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric mediums
are glass, air, paper,vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the
conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing
surfaces,
[9]
and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that
one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.
[10]

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is
wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge Q on each conductor to the
voltage V between them:
[8]


Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this
case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

[edit]Energy storage
Work must be done by an external influence to "move" charge between the conductors in a capacitor.
When the external influence is removed the charge separation persists in the electric field and energy
is stored to be released when the charge is allowed to return to itsequilibrium position. The work done
in establishing the electric field, and hence the amount of energy stored, is given by:
[11]


[edit]Current-voltage relation
The current i(t) through any component in an electric circuit is defined as the rate of flow of a
charge q(t) passing through it, but actual charges, electrons, cannot pass through the dielectric
layer of a capacitor, rather an electron accumulates on the negative plate for each one that
leaves the positive plate, resulting in an electron depletion and consequent positive charge on
one electrode that is equal and opposite to the accumulated negative charge on the other. Thus
the charge on the electrodes is equal to the integral of the current as well as proportional to the
voltage as discussed above. As with any antiderivative, a constant of integration is added to
represent the initial voltage v (t
0
). This is the integral form of the capacitor equation,
[12]

.
Taking the derivative of this, and multiplying by C, yields the derivative form,
[13]

.
The dual of the capacitor is the inductor, which stores energy in the magnetic field rather
than the electric field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current and
voltage in the capacitor equations and replacing C with the inductance L.
[edit]DC circuits
See also: RC circuit


A simple resistor-capacitor circuit demonstrates charging of a capacitor.
A series circuit containing only a resistor, a capacitor, a switch and a constant DC
source of voltage V
0
is known as a charging circuit.
[14]
If the capacitor is initially
uncharged while the switch is open, and the switch is closed at t = 0, it follows
from Kirchhoff's voltage law that

Taking the derivative and multiplying by C, gives a first-order differential equation,

At t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero and the voltage across the
resistor is V
0
. The initial current is then i (0) =V
0
/R. With this assumption, the
differential equation yields


where
0
= RC is the time constant of the system.
As the capacitor reaches equilibrium with the source voltage, the
voltage across the resistor and the current through the entire
circuit decay exponentially. The case of discharging a charged
capacitor likewise demonstrates exponential decay, but with the initial
capacitor voltage replacing V
0
and the final voltage being zero.
[edit]AC circuits
See also: reactance (electronics) and electrical impedance#Deriving
the device specific impedances
Impedance, the vector sum of reactance and resistance, describes
the phase difference and the ratio of amplitudes between sinusoidally
varying voltage and sinusoidally varying current at a given
frequency. Fourier analysis allows any signal to be constructed from
a spectrum of frequencies, whence the circuit's reaction to the various
frequencies may be found. The reactance and impedance of a
capacitor are respectively


where j is the imaginary unit and is the angular
frequency of the sinusoidal signal. The - j phase indicates
that the AC voltage V = Z I lags the AC current by 90: the
positive current phase corresponds to increasing voltage as
the capacitor charges; zero current corresponds to
instantaneous constant voltage, etc.
Impedance decreases with increasing capacitance and
increasing frequency. This implies that a higher-frequency
signal or a larger capacitor results in a lower voltage
amplitude per current amplitudean AC "short circuit" or AC
coupling. Conversely, for very low frequencies, the reactance
will be high, so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit in
AC analysisthose frequencies have been "filtered out".
Capacitors are different from resistors and inductors in that
the impedance is inversely proportional to the defining
characteristic, i.e.capacitance.
[edit]Parallel plate model


Dielectric is placed between two conducting plates, each of area A and with a separation of d.
The simplest capacitor consists of two parallel conductive
plates separated by a dielectric withpermittivity (such as
air). The model may also be used to make qualitative
predictions for other device geometries. The plates are
considered to extend uniformly over an area A and a charge
density = Q/A exists on their surface. Assuming that the
width of the plates is much greater than their separation d,
the electric field near the centre of the device will be uniform
with the magnitude E = /. The voltage is defined as the line
integral of the electric field between the plates

Solving this for C = Q/V reveals that capacitance
increases with area and decreases with separation
.
The capacitance is therefore greatest in devices
made from materials with a high permittivity, large
plate area, and small distance between plates.
However solving for maximum energy storage
using U
d
as the dielectric strength per distance and
capacitor voltage at the capacitor's breakdown
voltage limit V = V
bd
= U
d
d.

we see that the maximum energy is a function
of dielectric volume, permittivity, and dielectric
strength per distance. So increasing the plate
area while decreasing the separation between
the plates while maintaining the same volume
has no change on the amount of energy the
capacitor can store. Care must be taken when
increasing the plate separation so that the
above assumption of the distance between
plates being much smaller than the area of the
plates is still valid for these equations to be
accurate.


Several capacitors in parallel.
[edit]Networks
See also: Series and parallel circuits
For capacitors in parallel
Capacitors in a parallel configuration each have the same applied voltage. Their capacitances add up.
Charge is apportioned among them by size. Using the schematic diagram to visualize parallel plates, it
is apparent that each capacitor contributes to the total surface area.

For capacitors in series


Several capacitors in series.
Connected in series, the schematic diagram reveals that the separation distance, not the plate area,
adds up. The capacitors each store instantaneous charge build-up equal to that of every other
capacitor in the series. The total voltage difference from end to end is apportioned to each capacitor
according to the inverse of its capacitance. The entire series acts as a capacitor smaller than any of its
components.

Capacitors are combined in series to achieve a higher working voltage, for example for smoothing a
high voltage power supply. The voltage ratings, which are based on plate separation, add up, if
capacitance and leakage currents for each capacitor are identical. In such an application, on occasion
series strings are connected in parallel, forming a matrix. The goal is to maximize the energy storage
of the network without overloading any capacitor.

This paragraph needs
attention from an
expert on the subject.
See the talk page for
details.WikiProject
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the Electronics
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Series connection is also sometimes used to adapt polarized electrolytic capacitors for bipolar AC use.
Two polarized electrolytic capacitors are connected back to back to form a bipolar capacitor with half
the capacitance. The anode film can only withstand a small reverse voltage however.
[15]
This
arrangement can lead to premature failure as the anode film is broken down during the reverse-
conduction phase and partially rebuilt during the forward phase.
[16]
A non-polarized electrolytic
capacitor has both plates anodized so that it can withstand rated voltage in both directions; such
capacitors have about half the capacitance per unit volume of polarized capacitors.
[edit]Non-ideal
behaviour
Capacitors deviate
from the ideal
capacitor equation
in a number of
ways. Some of
these, such as
leakage current and
parasitic effects are
linear, or can be
assumed to be
linear, and can be
dealt with by adding
virtual components
to the equivalent
circuit of the
capacitor. The
usual methods
of network
analysis can then
be applied. In other
cases, such as with
breakdown voltage,
the effect is non-
linear and normal
(i.e., linear) network
analysis cannot be
used, the effect
must be dealt with
separately. There is
yet another group,
which may be linear
but invalidate the
assumption in the
analysis that
capacitance is a
constant. Such an
example is
temperature
dependence.
Finally, combined
parasitic effects
such as inherent
inductance,
resistance, or
dielectric losses
can exhibit non-
uniform behavior at
variable
frequencies of
operation.
[edit]Breakdown
voltage
Main
article: Breakdown
voltage
Above a particular
electric field, known
as the dielectric
strength E
ds
, the
dielectric in a
capacitor becomes
conductive. The
voltage at which
this occurs is called
the breakdown
voltage of the
device, and is given
by the product of
the dielectric
strength and the
separation between
the conductors,
[17]

Vbd = Edsd
The maximum
energy that
can be stored
safely in a
capacitor is
limited by the
breakdown
voltage. Due to
the scaling of
capacitance
and
breakdown
voltage with
dielectric
thickness, all
capacitors
made with a
particular
dielectric have
approximately
equal
maximum ener
gy density, to
the extent that
the dielectric
dominates
their volume.
[18]

For air
dielectric
capacitors the
breakdown
field strength is
of the order 2
to 5 MV/m;
for mica the
breakdown is
100 to 300
MV/m, for oil
15 to 25 MV/m,
and can be
much less
when other
materials are
used for the
dielectric.
[19]
Th
e dielectric is
used in very
thin layers and
so absolute
breakdown
voltage of
capacitors is
limited. Typical
ratings for
capacitors
used for
general electro
nics applicatio
ns range from
a few volts to 1
kV. As the
voltage
increases, the
dielectric must
be thicker,
making high-
voltage
capacitors
larger per
capacitance
than those
rated for lower
voltages. The
breakdown
voltage is
critically
affected by
factors such as
the geometry
of the
capacitor
conductive
parts; sharp
edges or
points increase
the electric
field strength
at that point
and can lead
to a local
breakdown.
Once this
starts to
happen, the
breakdown
quickly tracks
through the
dielectric until
it reaches the
opposite plate,
leaving carbon
behind causing
a short
circuit.
[20]

The usual
breakdown
route is that
the field
strength
becomes large
enough to pull
electrons in the
dielectric from
their atoms
thus causing
conduction.
Other
scenarios are
possible, such
as impurities in
the dielectric,
and, if the
dielectric is of
a crystalline
nature,
imperfections
in the crystal
structure can
result in
an avalanche
breakdown as
seen in semi-
conductor
devices.
Breakdown
voltage is also
affected by
pressure,
humidity and
temperature.
[21]

[edit]Equivalent
circuit


Two different circuit
models of a real
capacitor
An ideal
capacitor only
stores and
releases
electrical
energy, without
dissipating
any. In reality,
all capacitors
have
imperfections
within the
capacitor's
material that
create
resistance.
This is
specified as
the equivalent
series
resistance or E
SR of a
component.
This adds a
real
component to
the
impedance:

As
frequency
approache
s infinity,
the
capacitive
impedanc
e (or
reactance)
approache
s zero and
the ESR
becomes
significant.
As the
reactance
becomes
negligible,
power
dissipation
approache
s P
RMS
= V
RMS
/R
ESR
.
Similarly
to ESR,
the
capacitor's
leads
add equiv
alent
series
inductanc
e or ESL t
o the
componen
t. This is
usually
significant
only at
relatively
high
frequencie
s. As
inductive
reactance
is positive
and
increases
with
frequency,
above a
certain
frequency
capacitanc
e will be
canceled
by
inductanc
e. High-
frequency
engineerin
g involves
accountin
g for the
inductanc
e of all
connectio
ns and
componen
ts.
If the
conductor
s are
separated
by a
material
with a
small
conductivit
y rather
than a
perfect
dielectric,
then a
small
leakage
current
flows
directly
between
them. The
capacitor
therefore
has a
finite
parallel
resistance
,
[10]
and
slowly
discharge
s over
time (time
may vary
greatly
depending
on the
capacitor
material
and
quality).
[edit]Ripple
current
Ripple
current is
the AC
componen
t of an
applied
source
(often
a switched
-mode
power
supply)
(whose
frequency
may be
constant
or
varying).
Some
types of
capacitors
,
primarily t
antalum a
nd
aluminium
electrolytic
capacitors
, usually
have a
rating for
maximum
ripple
current.
Ripple
current
causes
heat to be
generated
within the
capacitor
due to the
current
flow
across the
slightly
resistive
plates in
the
capacitor.
The
equivalent
series
resistance
(ESR) is
the
amount of
external
series
resistance
one would
add to a
perfect
capacitor
to model
this. ESR
does not
exactly
equal the
actual
resistance
of the
plates.
Tanta
lum
electr
olytic
capac
itors
are
limite
d by
ripple
curre
nt
and
gener
ally
have
the
highe
st
ESR
rating
s in
the
capac
itor
family
.
Exce
eding
their
ripple
limits
tends
to
result
in
explo
sive
failure
.
Alumi
nium
electr
olytic
capac
itors,
the
most
comm
on
type
of
electr
olytic,
suffer
a
large
short
ening
of life
expec
tancy
if
rated
ripple
curre
nt is
excee
ded.
Cera
mic
capac
itors
gener
ally
have
no
ripple
curre
nt
limitat
ion
and
have
some
of the
lowes
t ESR
rating
s.
[edit]Capacit
ance
instability
The
capacitanc
e of
certain
capacitors
decreases
as the
componen
t ages. In
ceramic
capacitors
, this is
caused by
degradatio
n of the
dielectric.
The type
of
dielectric,
ambient
operating
and
storage
temperatu
res are the
most
significant
aging
factors,
while the
operating
voltage
has a
smaller
effect. The
aging
process
may be
reversed
by heating
the
componen
t above
the Curie
point.
Aging is
fastest
near the
beginning
of life of
the
componen
t, and the
device
stabilizes
over
time.
[22]
El
ectrolytic
capacitors
age as
the electro
lyte
evaporate
s. In
contrast
with
ceramic
capacitors
, this
occurs
towards
the end of
life of the
componen
t.
Temperat
ure
dependen
ce of
capacitanc
e is
usually
expressed
in parts
per million
(ppm) per
C. It can
usually be
taken as a
broadly
linear
function
but can be
noticeably
non-linear
at the
temperatu
re
extremes.
The
temperatu
re
coefficient
can be
either
positive or
negative,
sometime
s even
amongst
different
samples
of the
same
type. In
other
words, the
spread in
the range
of
temperatu
re
coefficient
s can
encompas
s zero.
See the
data sheet
in the
leakage
current
section
above for
an
example.
Capacitors
,
especially
ceramic
capacitors
, and older
designs
such as
paper
capacitors
, can
absorb
sound
waves
resulting
in
a microph
oniceffect.
Vibration
moves the
plates,
causing
the
capacitanc
e to vary,
in turn
inducing
AC
current.
Some
dielectrics
also
generatepi
ezoelectric
ity. The
resulting
interferenc
e is
especially
problemati
c in audio
application
s,
potentially
causing
feedback
or
unintende
d
recording.
In the
reverse
microphon
ic effect,
the
varying
electric
field
between
the
capacitor
plates
exerts a
physical
force,
moving
them as a
speaker.
This can
generate
audible
sound, but
drains
energy
and
stresses
the
dielectric
and the
electrolyte
, if any.
[edit]Current
and
voltage
reversal
Current
reversal
occurs
when the
flow of
current
changes
direction.
Voltage
reversal is
the
change of
polarity in
a circuit.
Reversal
is
generally
described
as the
percentag
e of the
maximum
rated
voltage
that
reverses
polarity. In
DC
circuits
this will
usually be
less than
100%,
(often in
the range
of 0 to
90%),
whereas
AC circuits
experienc
e 100%
reversal.
In DC
circuits
and
pulsed
circuits,
current
and
voltage
reversal
are
affected
by
the dampi
ng of the
system.
Voltage
reversal is
encounter
ed inRLC
circuits tha
t
are under-
damped.
The
current
and
voltage
reverse
direction,
forming
a harmoni
c
oscillator b
etween
the induct
ance and
capacitanc
e. The
current
and
voltage
will tend to
oscillate
and may
reverse
direction
several
times, with
each peak
being
lower than
the
previous,
until the
system
reaches
an
equilibriu
m. This is
often
referred to
as ringing.
In
compariso
n, critically
damped or
over-
dampedsy
stems
usually do
not
experienc
e a
voltage
reversal.
Reversal
is also
encounter
ed in AC
circuits,
where the
peak
current will
be equal
in each
direction.
For
maximum
life,
capacitors
usually
need to be
able to
handle the
maximum
amount of
reversal
that a
system
will
experienc
e. An AC
circuit will
experienc
e 100%
voltage
reversal,
while
under-
damped
DC
circuits will
experienc
e less
than
100%.
Reversal
creates
excess
electric
fields in
the
dielectric,
causes
excess
heating of
both the
dielectric
and the
conductor
s, and can
dramatical
ly shorten
the life-
expectanc
y of the
capacitor.
Reversal
ratings will
often
affect the
design
considerat
ions for
the
capacitor,
from the
choice of
dielectric
materials
and
voltage
ratings to
the types
of internal
connectio
ns
used.
[23]

[edit]Capaci
tor types
Main
article: Ty
pes of
capacitor
Practical
capacitors
are
available
commerci
ally in
many
different
forms. The
type of
internal
dielectric,
the
structure
of the
plates and
the device
packaging
all strongly
affect the
characteri
stics of the
capacitor,
and its
application
s.
Values
available
range
from very
low
(picofarad
range;
while
arbitrarily
low values
are in
principle
possible,
stray
(parasitic)
capacitanc
e in any
circuit is
the limiting
factor) to
about
5 kF super
capacitors
.
Above
approxima
tely 1
microfarad
electrolytic
capacitors
are
usually
used
because
of their
small size
and low
cost
compared
with other
technologi
es, unless
their
relatively
poor
stability,
life and
polarised
nature
make
them
unsuitable
. Very high
capacity
supercapa
citors use
a porous
carbon-
based
electrode
material.
[edit]Dielectr
ic
materials


Capacitor
materials.
From left:
multilayer
ceramic,
ceramic
disc,
multilayer
polyester
film, tubular
ceramic,
polystyrene
, metalized
polyester
film,
aluminum
electrolytic.
Major scale
divisions
are in
centimetres
.

Most
types of
capacitor
include a
dielectric
spacer,
which
increases
their
capacitanc
e. These
dielectrics
are most
often
insulators.
However,
low
capacitanc
e devices
are
available
with a
vacuum
between
their
plates,
which
allows
extremely
high
voltage
operation
and low
losses.Var
iable
capacitors
with their
plates
open to
the
atmospher
e were
commonly
used in
radio
tuning
circuits.
Later
designs
use
polymer
foil
dielectric
between
the
moving
and
stationary
plates,
with no
significant
air space
between
them.
In order to
maximise
the charge
that a
capacitor
can hold,
the
dielectric
material
needs to
have as
high
a permittiv
ity as
possible,
while also
having as
high
a breakdo
wn
voltage as
possible.
Several
solid
dielectrics
are
available,
including p
aper, plast
ic, glass,
mica and
ceramic m
aterials.
Paper was
used
extensivel
y in older
devices
and offers
relatively
high
voltage
performan
ce.
However,
it is
susceptibl
e to water
absorption
, and has
been
largely
replaced
by plastic
film
capacitors
. Plastics
offer
better
stability
and aging
performan
ce, which
makes
them
useful in
timer
circuits,
although
they may
be limited
to
low operat
ing
temperatu
res and
frequencie
s. Ceramic
capacitors
are
generally
small,
cheap and
useful for
high
frequency
application
s,
although
their
capacitanc
e varies
strongly
with
voltage
and they
age
poorly.
They are
broadly
categorize
d as class
1
dielectrics,
which
have
predictabl
e variation
of
capacitanc
e with
temperatu
re or class
2
dielectrics,
which can
operate at
higher
voltage.
Glass and
mica
capacitors
are
extremely
reliable,
stable and
tolerant to
high
temperatu
res and
voltages,
but are too
expensive
for most
mainstrea
m
application
s.
Electrolyti
c
capacitors
and super
capacitors
are used
to store
small and
larger
amounts
of energy,
respectivel
y, ceramic
capacitors
are often
used
in resonat
ors,
and parasi
tic
capacitanc
e occurs
in circuits
wherever
the simple
conductor-
insulator-
conductor
structure
is formed
unintentio
nally by
the
configurati
on of the
circuit
layout.
Electrolyti
c
capacitors
use
an alumin
um or tant
alum plate
with an
oxide
dielectric
layer. The
second
electrode
is a
liquid elect
rolyte,
connected
to the
circuit by
another
foil plate.
Electrolyti
c
capacitors
offer very
high
capacitanc
e but
suffer from
poor
tolerances
, high
instability,
gradual
loss of
capacitanc
e
especially
when
subjected
to heat,
and high
leakage
current. P
oor quality
capacitors
may leak
electrolyte
, which is
harmful to
printed
circuit
boards.
The
conductivit
y of the
electrolyte
drops at
low
temperatu
res, which
increases
equivalent
series
resistance
. While
widely
used for
power-
supply
conditionin
g, poor
high-
frequency
characteri
stics make
them
unsuitable
for many
application
s.
Electrolyti
c
capacitors
will self-
degrade if
unused for
a period
(around a
year), and
when full
power is
applied
may short
circuit,
permanent
ly
damaging
the
capacitor
and
usually
blowing a
fuse or
causing
arcing in
rectifier
tubes.
They can
be
restored
before use
(and
damage)
by
gradually
applying
the
operating
voltage,
often done
on
antique va
cuum
tube equip
ment over
a period of
30
minutes
by using a
variable
transforme
r to supply
AC power.
Unfortunat
ely, the
use of this
technique
may be
less
satisfactor
y for some
solid state
equipment
, which
may be
damaged
by
operation
below its
normal
power
range,
requiring
that the
power
supply first
be
isolated
from the
consumin
g circuits.
Such
remedies
may not
be
applicable
to modern
high-
frequency
power
supplies
as these
produce
full output
voltage
even with
reduced
input.
Tantalum
capacitors
offer
better
frequency
and
temperatu
re
characteri
stics than
aluminum,
but
higher diel
ectric
absorption
and
leakage.
[24
]
OS-
CON (or
OC-CON)
capacitors
are a
polymeriz
ed organic
semicond
uctor
solid-
electrolyte
type that
offer
longer life
at higher
cost than
standard
electrolytic
capacitors
.
Several
other
types of
capacitor
are
available
for
specialist
application
s.
Supercap
acitors
store large
amounts
of energy.
Supercap
acitors
made from
carbon aer
ogel,
carbon
nanotubes
, or highly
porous
electrode
materials,
offer
extremely
high
capacitanc
e (up to 5
kF as of
2010) and
can be
used in
some
application
s instead
of recharg
eable
batteries.
Alternating
current ca
pacitors
are
specificall
y
designed
to work on
line
(mains)
voltage
AC power
circuits.
They are
commonly
used
in electric
motor circ
uits and
are often
designed
to handle
large
currents,
so they
tend to be
physically
large.
They are
usually
ruggedly
packaged,
often in
metal
cases that
can be
easily
grounded/
earthed.
They also
are
designed
with direct
current br
eakdown
voltages
of at least
five times
the
maximum
AC
voltage.
[edit]Structu
re


Capacitor
packages: SMD c
eramic at top left;
SMD tantalum at
bottom
left; through-
hole tantalum at
top right; through-
hole electrolytic at
bottom right.
Major scale
divisions are cm.
The
arrangem
ent of
plates and
dielectric
has many
variations
depending
on the
desired
ratings of
the
capacitor.
For small
values of
capacitanc
e
(microfara
ds and
less),
ceramic
disks use
metallic
coatings,
with wire
leads
bonded to
the
coating.
Larger
values can
be made
by multiple
stacks of
plates and
disks.
Larger
value
capacitors
usually
use a
metal foil
or metal
film layer
deposited
on the
surface of
a dielectric
film to
make the
plates,
and a
dielectric
film of
impregnat
ed paper o
r plastic
these are
rolled up
to save
space. To
reduce the
series
resistance
and
inductanc
e for long
plates, the
plates and
dielectric
are
staggered
so that
connectio
n is made
at the
common
edge of
the rolled-
up plates,
not at the
ends of
the foil or
metalized
film strips
that
comprise
the plates.
The
assembly
is encased
to prevent
moisture
entering
the
dielectric
early radio
equipment
used a
cardboard
tube
sealed
with wax.
Modern
paper or
film
dielectric
capacitors
are dipped
in a hard
thermopla
stic. Large
capacitors
for high-
voltage
use may
have the
roll form
compress
ed to fit
into a
rectangula
r metal
case, with
bolted
terminals
and
bushings
for
connectio
ns. The
dielectric
in larger
capacitors
is often
impregnat
ed with a
liquid to
improve
its
properties.


Several
axial-lead
electrolytic
capacitors.
Capacitors
may have
their
connectin
g leads
arranged
in many
configurati
ons, for
example
axially or
radially.
"Axial"
means
that the
leads are
on a
common
axis,
typically
the axis of
the
capacitor's
cylindrical
body the
leads
extend
from
opposite
ends.
Radial
leads
might
more
accurately
be
referred to
as
tandem;
they are
rarely
actually
aligned
along radii
of the
body's
circle, so
the term is
inexact,
although
universal.
The leads
(until bent)
are
usually in
planes
parallel to
that of the
flat body
of the
capacitor,
and
extend in
the same
direction;
they are
often
parallel as
manufactu
red.
Small,
cheap
discoidal
ceramic
capacitors
have
existed
since the
1930s,
and
remain in
widesprea
d use.
Since the
1980s, sur
face
mount pac
kages for
capacitors
have been
widely
used.
These
packages
are
extremely
small and
lack
connectin
g leads,
allowing
them to be
soldered
directly
onto the
surface
of printed
circuit
boards.
Surface
mount
componen
ts avoid
undesirabl
e high-
frequency
effects
due to the
leads and
simplify
automated
assembly,
although
manual
handling is
made
difficult
due to
their small
size.
Mechanic
ally
controlled
variable
capacitors
allow the
plate
spacing to
be
adjusted,
for
example
by rotating
or sliding
a set of
movable
plates into
alignment
with a set
of
stationary
plates.
Low cost
variable
capacitors
squeeze
together
alternating
layers of
aluminum
and plastic
with
ascrew.
Electrical
control of
capacitanc
e is
achievable
with varact
ors (or
varicaps),
which
are revers
e-
biased se
miconduct
or
diodes wh
ose
depletion
region
width
varies with
applied
voltage.
They are
used
in phase-
locked
loops,
amongst
other
application
s.
[edit]Capaci
tor
markings
Most
capacitors
have
numbers
printed on
their
bodies to
indicate
their
electrical
characteri
stics.
Larger
capacitors
like
electrolytic
s usually
display the
actual
capacitanc
e together
with the
unit (for
example,
220 F).
Smaller
capacitors
like
ceramics,
however,
use a
shorthand
consisting
of three
numbers
and a
letter,
where the
numbers
show the
capacitanc
e
in pF (calc
ulated as
XY x
10
Z
for the
numbers
XYZ) and
the letter
indicates
the
tolerance
(J, K or M
for 5%,
10% and
20%
respectivel
y).
Additionall
y, the
capacitor
may show
its working
voltage,
temperatu
re and
other
relevant
characteri
stics.
[edit]Exampl
e
A
capacitor
with the
text 473K
330V on
its body
has a
capacitanc
e of 47 x
10
3
pF =
47 nF
(10%)
with a
working
voltage of
330 V.
[edit]Applica
tions
Main
article: Ap
plications
of
capacitors


This mylar-
film, oil-
filled
capacitor
has very
low
inductance
and low
resistance,
to provide
the high-
power (70
megawatt)
and high
speed (1.2
microsecon
d)
discharge
needed to
operate
a dye laser.
Capacitors
have
many
uses in
electronic
and
electrical
systems.
They are
so
common
that it is a
rare
electrical
product
that does
not
include at
least one
for some
purpose.
[edit]Energy
storage
A
capacitor
can store
electric
energy
when
disconnect
ed from its
charging
circuit, so
it can be
used like a
temporary
battery.
Capacitors
are
commonly
used in
electronic
devices to
maintain
power
supply
while
batteries
are being
changed.
(This
prevents
loss of
informatio
n in
volatile
memory.)
Conventio
nal
capacitors
provide
less than
360 joules
per
kilogram
of energy
density,
while
capacitors
using
developin
g
technologi
es could
provide
more than
2.52 kilojo
ules per
kilogram.
[2
5]

In car
audio syst
ems, large
capacitors
store
energy for
the amplifi
er to use
on
demand.
Also for
aflash
tube a
capacitor
is used to
hold
the high
voltage.
[edit]Pulsed
power and
weapons
Groups of
large,
specially
constructe
d, low-
inductanc
e high-
voltage
capacitors
(capacitor
banks) are
used to
supply
huge
pulses of
current for
many puls
ed
power app
lications.
These
includeele
ctromagne
tic
forming, M
arx
generators
,
pulsed las
ers (espec
ially TEA
lasers), pu
lse
forming
networks,
radar, fusi
on
research,
and particl
e
accelerato
rs.
Large
capacitor
banks
(reservoir)
are used
as energy
sources
for
the explod
ing-
bridgewire
detonators
or slapper
detonators
in nuclear
weapons
and other
specialty
weapons.
Experimen
tal work is
under way
using
banks of
capacitors
as power
sources
for electro
magnetic
armour an
d
electroma
gneticrailg
uns and c
oilguns.
[edit]Power
conditioni
ng


A
10 millifara
d capacitor
in an
amplifier
power
supply
Reservoir
capacitors
are used
in power
supplies w
here they
smooth
the output
of a full or
half
wave rectif
ier. They
can also
be used
in charge
pump circ
uits as the
energy
storage
element in
the
generation
of higher
voltages
than the
input
voltage.
Capacitors
are
connected
in parallel
with the
power
circuits of
most
electronic
devices
and larger
systems
(such as
factories)
to shunt
away and
conceal
current
fluctuation
s from the
primary
power
source to
provide a
"clean"
power
supply for
signal or
control
circuits.
Audio
equipment
, for
example,
uses
several
capacitors
in this
way, to
shunt
away
power line
hum
before it
gets into
the signal
circuitry.
The
capacitors
act as a
local
reserve for
the DC
power
source,
and
bypass
AC
currents
from the
power
supply.
This is
used in
car audio
application
s, when a
stiffening
capacitor
compensa
tes for the
inductanc
e and
resistance
of the
leads to
the lead-
acid car
battery.
[edit]Power
factor
correction
In electric
power
distributio
n,
capacitors
are used
for power
factor
correction.
Such
capacitors
often
come as
three
capacitors
connected
as a three
phase loa
d. Usually,
the values
of these
capacitors
are given
not in
farads but
rather as
a reactive
power in
volt-
amperes
reactive
(VAr). The
purpose is
to
counteract
inductive
loading
from
devices
like electri
c
motorsand
transmissi
on lines to
make the
load
appear to
be mostly
resistive.
Individual
motor or
lamp
loads may
have
capacitors
for power
factor
correction,
or larger
sets of
capacitors
(usually
with
automatic
switching
devices)
may be
installed at
a load
center
within a
building or
in a large
utility subs
tation.
[edit]Supres
sion and
coupling
[edit]Signal
coupling
Main
article: ca
pacitive
coupling


Polyester
film
capacitors
are
frequently
used as
coupling
capacitors.
Because
capacitors
pass AC
but block
DC signal
s (when
charged
up to the
applied dc
voltage),
they are
often used
to
separate
the AC
and DC
componen
ts of a
signal.
This
method is
known
asAC
coupling o
r
"capacitiv
e
coupling".
Here, a
large
value of
capacitanc
e, whose
value
need not
be
accurately
controlled,
but
whose rea
ctance is
small at
the signal
frequency,
is
employed.
[edit]Decoupl
ing
Main
article: de
coupling
capacitor
A
decouplin
g
capacitor
is a
capacitor
used to
protect
one part of
a circuit
from the
effect of
another,
for
instance
to
suppress
noise or
transients.
Noise
caused by
other
circuit
elements
is shunted
through
the
capacitor,
reducing
the effect
they have
on the rest
of the
circuit. It is
most
commonly
used
between
the power
supply
and
ground.
An
alternative
name
is bypass
capacitora
s it is used
to bypass
the power
supply or
other high
impedanc
e
componen
t of a
circuit.
[edit]Noise
filters and
snubbers
When an
inductive
circuit is
opened,
the current
through
the
inductanc
e
collapses
quickly,
creating a
large
voltage
across the
open
circuit of
the switch
or relay. If
the
inductanc
e is large
enough,
the energy
will
generate a
spark,
causing
the
contact
points to
oxidize,
deteriorate
, or
sometime
s weld
together,
or
destroying
a solid-
state
switch.
A snubber
capacitor
across the
newly
opened
circuit
creates a
path for
this
impulse to
bypass
the
contact
points,
thereby
preserving
their life;
these
were
commonly
found
in contact
breaker ig
nition
systems,
for
instance.
Similarly,
in smaller
scale
circuits,
the spark
may not
be enough
to damage
the switch
but will
still radiate
undesirab
le radio
frequency
interferenc
e (RFI),
which
a filter
capacitor
absorbs.
Snubber
capacitors
are
usually
employed
with a low-
value
resistor in
series, to
dissipate
energy
and
minimize
RFI. Such
resistor-
capacitor
combinati
ons are
available
in a single
package.
Capacitors
are also
used in
parallel to
interrupt
units of a
high-
voltage cir
cuit
breaker in
order to
equally
distribute
the
voltage
between
these
units. In
this case
they are
called
grading
capacitors
.
In
schematic
diagrams,
a
capacitor
used
primarily
for DC
charge
storage is
often
drawn
vertically
in circuit
diagrams
with the
lower,
more
negative,
plate
drawn as
an arc.
The
straight
plate
indicates
the
positive
terminal of
the
device, if it
is
polarized
(see electr
olytic
capacitor).
[edit]Motor
starters
Main
article: mo
tor
capacitor
In single
phase squ
irrel
cage moto
rs, the
primary
winding
within the
motor
housing is
not
capable of
starting a
rotational
motion on
the rotor,
but is
capable of
sustaining
one. To
start the
motor, a
secondary
"Start"
winding
has a
series
non-
polarized
starting
capacitor t
o
introduce
a lead in
the
sinusoidal
current.
When the
secondary
(Start)
winding is
placed at
an angle
with
respect to
the
primary(R
un)
winding, a
rotating
electric
field is
created.
The force
of the
rotational
field is not
constant,
but is
sufficient
to start the
rotor
spinning.
When the
rotor
comes
close to
operating
speed, a
centrifugal
switch (or
current-
sensitive
relay in
series with
the main
winding)
disconnect
s the
capacitor.
The start
capacitor
is typically
mounted
to the side
of the
motor
housing.
These are
called
capacitor-
start
motors,
that have
relatively
high
starting
torque.
Typically
they can
have up-to
4 times as
much
starting
torque
than a
split-
phase
motor and
are used
on
application
s such as
compress
ors,
pressure
washers
and any
small
device
requiring
high
starting
torques.
Capacitor-
run
induction
motors
have a
permanent
ly
connected
phase-
shifting
capacitor
in series
with a
second
winding.
The motor
is much
like a two-
phase
induction
motor.
Motor-
starting
capacitors
are
typically
non-
polarized
electrolytic
types,
while
running
capacitors
are
conventio
nal paper
or plastic
film
dielectric
types.
[edit]Signal
processing
The
energy
stored in a
capacitor
can be
used to
represent i
nformation
, either in
binary
form, as
in DRAMs,
or in
analogue
form, as
in analog
sampled
filters and
CCDs.
Capacitors
can be
used
in analog
circuits as
componen
ts of
integrators
or more
complex
filters and
in negativ
e
feedback l
oop
stabilizatio
n. Signal
processin
g circuits
also use
capacitors
to integrat
e a current
signal.
[edit]Tuned
circuits
Capacitors
and
inductors
are
applied
together
in tuned
circuits to
select
informatio
n in
particular
frequency
bands. For
example, r
adio
receivers r
ely on
variable
capacitors
to tune the
station
frequency.
Speakers
use
passive
analog cro
ssovers,
and
analog
equalizers
use
capacitors
to select
different
audio
bands.
The reson
ant
frequency
f of a
tuned
circuit is a
function of
the
inductanc
e (L) and
capacitanc
e (C) in
series,
and is
given by:

where
L is
in hen
ries a
nd C i
s in
farad
s.
[edit]Se
nsing
Main article: capacitive sensing
M
o
s
t
c
a
p
a
ci
t
o
r
s
a
r
e
d
e
si
g
n
e
d
t
o
m
a
i
n
t
a
i
n
a
fi
x
e
d
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