Abstract

Thermoelectricity, also called Peltier-Seebeck effect, direct conversion of heat

into electricity or electricity into heat through two related mechanisms, the
Seebeck effect and the Peltier effect.
When two metals are placed in electric contact, electrons flow out of the one
in which the electrons are less bound and into the other. The binding is
measured by the location of the so-called Fermi level of electrons in the
metal the higher the level, the lower is the binding. The Fermi level
represents the demarcation in energy within the conduction band of a metal
between the energy levels occupied by electrons and those that are
unoccupied. The energy of an electron at the Fermi level is !W relative to a
free electron outside the metal. The flow of electrons between the two
conductors in contact continues until the change in electrostatic potential
brings the Fermi levels of the two metals "W# and W$% to the same value.
This electrostatic potential is called the contact potential #$ and is given by
e#$ & W# ! W$, where e is #.' ( #)*!#+ coulomb.
Seebeck effect, production of an electromotive force "emf% and conse,uently
an electric current in a loop of material consisting of at least two dissimilar
conductors when two -unctions are maintained at different temperatures. The
conductors are commonly metals, though they need not even be solids. The
.erman physicist Thomas /ohann Seebeck discovered "#0$#% the effect. The
Seebeck effect is used to measure temperature with great sensitivity and
accuracy and to generate electric power for special applications.
Introduction
Thermoelectricity
Thermoelectricity is a two-way process. 1t can refer either to the way a
temperature difference between one side of a material and the other can
produce electricity, or to the reverse2 the way applying an electric current
through a material can create a temperature difference between its two sides,
which can be used to heat or cool things without combustion or moving parts.
The first part of the thermoelectric effect, the conversion of heat to electricity,
was discovered in #0$# by the 3stonian physicist Thomas Seebeck and was
e4plored in more detail by French physicist /ean Peltier, and it is sometimes
referred to as the Peltier-Seebeck effect.
The reverse phenomenon, where heating or cooling can be produced by
running an electric current through a material, was discovered in #05# by
William Thomson, also known as 6ord 7elvin "for whom the absolute 7elvin
temperature scale is named%, and is called the Thomson effect. The effect is
caused by charge carriers within the material "either electrons, or places
where an electron is missing, known as 8holes9% diffusing from the hotter side
to the cooler side, similarly to the way gas e4pands when it is heated. The
thermoelectric property of a material is measured in volts per 7elvin.
Thermocouple
Thermocouples are very simple and durable temperature sensors. They are
comprised of two different materials -oined at one end and separated at the
other. The separated ends are considered the output, and they generate
voltage which is proportional to the heat they are measuring or monitoring.
That is, the hotter the temperature, the higher the voltage. The fact that two
metals generate voltage is known as the Seebeck effect.
Principle Of Operation & Seebeck Effect
: thermocouple is a device made by two different wires -oined at one end,
end or measuring end. The two wires are called thermoelements or legs of
the thermocouple2 the two thermoelements are distinguished as positive and
negative ones. The other end of the thermocouple is called tail end or
reference end. The -unction end is immersed in the environment whose
temperature T$has to be measured, which can be for instance the
temperature of a furnace at about 5));<, while the tail end is held at a
different temperature T#, e.g. at ambient temperature.

The temperature vs voltage relationship is given by2
#.: null voltage is measured if the two thermoelements are made of the same
materials2 different materials are needed to make a temperature sensing
device.
$.: null voltage is measured if no temperature difference e4ists between the
tail end and the -unction end2 a temperature difference is needed to operate
the thermocouple.
=.The Seebeck coefficient is temperature dependent.
1n order to clarify the first point let us consider the following e4ample2 when a
temperature difference is applied between the two ends of a single >i wire a
voltage drop is developed across the wire itself. The end of the wire at the
highest temperature, T$, is called hot end, while the end at the lowest
temperature, T#, is called cold end.
When a voltmeter, with <u connection wires, is used to measure the voltage
drop across the >i wire, two -unctions need to be made at the hot and cold
ends between the <u wire and the >i wire assuming that the voltmeter is at
room temperature T
#
, one of the <u wires of the voltmeter will e4perience
along it the same temperature drop from T$ to T# the >i wire is e4periencing.
1n the attempt to measure the voltage drop on the >i wire a >i-<u
thermocouple has been made and so the measured voltage is in reality the
voltage drop along the >i wire plus the voltage drop along the <u wire.
The 3mf along a single thermoelement cannot be measured2 the 3mf
measured at the tail end is the sum of the voltage drop along each of the
thermoelements. :s two thermoelements are needed, the temperature
measurement with thermocouples is a differential measurement.
The temperature measurement with thermocouples is also a differential
measurement because two different temperatures, T# and T$, are involved.
The desired temperature is the one at the -unction end, T$. 1n order to have a
useful transducer for measurement, a monotonic 3mf versus -unction end
temperature T$ relationship is needed, so that for each temperature at the
-unction end a uni,ue voltage is produced at the tail end.
:s e4plained before, a thermocouple consists of two different metals. This
implies that the Seebeck coefficient contains information for both metals.
Therefore, the Seebeck coefficient we are actually measuring is the relative
Seebeck coefficient.
?S& ?@A?T. Bere, S is the relative Seebeck coefficient.
To find the absolute Seebeck coefficient the metalAalloy, should be paired with
a material whose absolute Sc is ). The only materials whose absolute Sc is )
are superconductors. Cr one can also use copper whose absolute Sc is
already known.
Therefore, the e,uation becomes
S"sample%-S"copper%& ?@A?T
Experiment

Overview
Two thermocouples were made, Drass-1ron and Drass-<opper. The
thermocouples were made from commercially available wires of brass,
copper and iron by gas welding the tips of the wires to create two -unctions.
>o other substance was used during gas welding. The contact of the two
metals is -ust by fusing the tips of two wires.
The setup was designed for measuring the Seebeck effect. 1nitially, for
obtaining pilot readings one end of the thermocouple was kept at room
temperature and the other was e4posed to direct heating from a bunsen
burner and voltage was measured across the ends. The direct heating
resulted in breaking of the -unction and the setup was improvised by
accommodating a water bath in which the -unction would be immersed.
Setup
To characteriEe a thermocouple, its response is to be measured over a wide
range of temperatures. The obtained values of temperature and the voltage
produced can be used for calculating the Seebeck coefficient. 3ach
thermocouple was characteriEed by heating and cooling processes both.
Cne end of the thermocouple was placed in an ice bath and the other end
was placed in a water bath. The -unctions were completely immersed in the
iceAwater bath and werenFt touching the surface of the enamel mug used. :n
ice bath is used instead of e4posing the other end to room temperature
because the -unction is in pro4imity to the bunsen burner and thus its
temperature varies very rapidly due to convection of heat.
The temperature of the heat bath"water bath% is measured using a
thermometer and the temperature of the ice bath is measured using a digital
thermometer, which is again a --k type thermocouple. : digital voltemeter is
connected across the two e4posed FendsF of the thermocouple across which
the voltage is to be measured.
!rass"Iron thermocouple

Hot Process
Hot
Junction(Celsius
)
Cold
Junction(Celsius
)
Voltage
Difference(V)
S=V/T (V K^(-))
!"^(-#)
21 -6 0.255 9.44
25 -5.7 0.294 9.57
30 -5.5 0.339 9.54
35 -5.5 0.387 9.55
40 -5.5 0.430 9.45
45 -5.6 0.488 9.64
50 -5.6 0.540 9.71
55 -5.6 0.590 9.73
60 -5.6 0.621 9.46
65 -5.6 0.670 9.49
70 -5.6 0.713 9.43
75 -5.6 0.746 9.25
80 -5.6 0.812 9.48
85 -5.6 0.864 9.53
90 -5.6 0.900 9.41
#old Process
Hot
Junction(Celsius
)
Cold
Junction(Celsius
)
Voltage
Difference(V)
S$=V/T (V K^(-
))
!"^(-#)
85 -5.8 0.887 9.76
80 -5.8 0.849 9.89
75 -5.8 0.802 9.92
70 -5.8 0.749 9.88
65 -5.7 0.706 9.98
60 -5.7 0.652 9.92
55 -5.7 0.597 9.83
50 -5.7 0.556 9.98
45 -5.7 0.502 9.90
40 -5.7 0.446 9.75
35 -5.8 0.391 9.58
30 -5.7 0.339 9.49
25 -5.7 0.294 9.57
20 -5.8 0.246 9.53
=).G H).0 5).G ').G G).G 0).0 +).0
$G=).G H).5 5).' ').' G).' 0).' +).'
)
).#
).$
).=
).H
).5
).'
).G
).0
).+
#
Beating
<ooling
Temperature Iiff
@
o
l
t
a
g
e
Calculations
Jean S form hot process& +.5#$mvA<& =H.'+v/K
Jean SF from cold process& +.G0mvA<& =5.'Gv/K
S(Iron)= S(Sample)-S(Brass)= 5.83v/K
S(Brass) !s o"#a!ne$ %rom Brass-&opper #'ermo(o)ple.
!rass"#opper thermocouple
$ot Process
Hot
Junction(Celsius
)
Cold
Junction(Celsius
)
Voltage
Difference(%V)
S=V/T (V K^(-))
!"^(-#)
25 -5.8 0.064 2.07
30 -5.5 0.073 2.05
35 -5.6 0.082 2.01
40 -5.5 0.1 2.19
45 -5.7 0.11 2.16
50 -5.7 0.128 2.29
55 -5.7 0.138 2.27
60 -5.7 0.154 2.34
65 -5.6 0.157 2.22
70 -5.6 0.18 2.38
75 -5.7 0.194 2.40
80 -5.7 0.204 2.38
85 -5.7 0.221 2.43
90 -5.7 0.230 2.40
95 -5.7 0.253 2.51
#old Process
Hot
Junction(Celsi
us)
Cold
Junction(Celsi
us)
Voltage
Difference(%V)
S$=V/T (V K^(-
))
!"^(-#)
-5.6 88 0.228 2.43
-5.6 85 0.221 2.43
-5.6 80 0.209 2.44
-5.6 75 0.197 2.44
-5.5 70 0.175 2.31
-5.5 65 0.166 2.35
-5.5 60 0.155 2.36
-5.6 55 0.145 2.39
-5.5 50 0.135 2.43
-5.4 45 0.127 2.57
-4.7 40 0.109 2.43
-4.6 35 0.095 2.39
-4.6 30 0.080 2.31
-4.6 25 0.062 2.09

05.' G).5 55.5 H).G
=).0 H5.' 55.G '5.G G5.' 05.' +5.G #)).G
)
).)5
).#
).#5
).$
).$5
Bot Process
<ooling
Temperature Iiff "<%
@
o
l
t
a
g
e
"
m
v
%
#alculations
*ean S %rom 'o# pro(ess= 2.30 mv/& = 8.38v/K
*ean S+ %rom (ol$ pro(ess= 2.38mv/&= 8.68v/K
See"e(, &oe%%!(!en# o% &opper= 2.7v/K
See"e(,("rass)= S(mean)-S((opper)= 5.83v/K
Effect Of %a&netic 'ields On Thermocouples
&'er'ie(
The e4perimental setup was almost the same as the one used in the previous
part here, one of the -unctions is kept in a water bath"-unction to be heated%
and the other -unction is kept at room temperature. The latter -unction, the
one kept at room temperature is kept between two coils in which the direction
of the currents is the same. The coils are kept one above the other and
connected to constant voltage-current sources and the -unction tip is in the
gap between the coils so as to e4perience the ma4imum field strength.
Experiment
3ach of the coils were connected to different constant voltage-current
sources, disregarding the minor fluctuations, it is assumed that the strength of
the magnetic fields was constant in each of the coils and they were acting the
same direction.
The water bath was gradually heated and temperature at regular intervals
was measured.
Observations
In #'e presen(e o% ma-ne#!( %!el$
Te%)erature &f Hot
Junction (C)
Temperature Of (unction
In %a&netic 'ield )#*
Voltage(V)
29.7 31 -0.02
30.2 35 -0.058
31.4 40 -0.04
31.3 45 -0.022
31.8 50 -0.011
31.6 55 -0.003
33 60 0.007
32.6 65 0.025
33 70 0.033
33 75 0.033
34.3 80 0.033
33.6 85 0.033
33.6 90 0.033
In #'e a"sen(e o% ma-ne#!( %!el$s
Te%)erature &f Hot
Junction (C)
Temperature Of (unction
In %a&netic 'ield )#*
Voltage(V)
30 26.5 0.004
35 27.6 0.011
40 27.8 0.019
45 29.4 0.001
52 33.3 0.037
58 35 0.050
60 35.5 0.058
65 34 0.060
70 33.5 0.060
77 34.2 0.070
80 34.8 0.078
I# !s seen #'a#. !n #'e presen(e o% ma-ne#!( %!el$s #'e !n!#!al vol#a-e
$evelope$ !s ne-a#!ve as (ompare$ #o #'e !n!#!al $evelope$ vol#a-e !n #'e
a"sen(e o% #'e %!el$. /'!s (an "e a##r!")#e$ #o ma-ne#!( %or(e a(#!n- on #'e
#'ermal ele(#rons 0'!(' !s -rea#er #'an #'e #'ermoele(#r!( %or(e #'e
ele(#rons e1per!en(e. 2a#er on. 0'en #'e #empera#)re $!%%eren(e !n(reases
more n)m"er o% ele(#rons -a!n ener-3 an$ move #o0ar$s #'e (ol$er
4)n(#!on ")# #'e n)m"er !s (ompara#!vel3 less as !n #'e a"sen(e o%
ma-ne#!( %!el$s. 5lso. 0'en #'e ma-ne#!( %!el$ 0as s0!#('e$ o%% #'e
vol#a-e $!%%eren(e !n(rease$ s)$$enl3 #o 0.045m6.
!iblio&raphy
Thermocouple reference tables- Kniversity of :riEona
Cregon State Kniversity Leport
Theory Cf Thermometry- Lobin. 3. Dentley
www.its.org "1nternational Thermoelectric Society%