Jurnal Utama

Why people stay: Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover
Mitchell, Terence R;Holtom, Brooks C;Lee, Thomas W;Sablynski, Chris

J;Erez, Miriam Academy of Management Journal; Dec !!"; ##, $; %ro&'est
()* ""!
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2001 Mitchell, Haltom, LeeSablynski, and Erez 1103
Tra+itional ,ttit'+e Mo+els
The research in-esti)atin) the tra+itional atti t'+e.
+ri-en (rocess an+ its com(onent (arts has been
e/tensi-e* 0Maertz an+ Cam(ion 1"2234 an+ Hom
an+ 5ri66eth 1"2274 (ro-i+e e/cellent re-ie8s*9 The
t8o most 6re:'ently teste+ attit'+inal constr'cts
ha-e been ;ob satis6action an+ or)anizational
commitment* <n )eneral, em(irical res'lts s'))est
satis6action an+ commitment ha-e consistent,
statistically si)ni6icant, an+ ne)ati-e relationshi(s
8ith t'rno-er 0e*)*, Jaros, "22=9* Some o6 the
c'rrent research, moreo-er, mo+i6ies tra+itional at .
tit'+inal meas'res or intro+'ces ne8 attit'+e con.
str'cts* >or e/am(le, <r-in), Coleman, an+ Coo(er
0"22=9 (ro-i+e+ a ne8 meas're o6 occ'(ational
commitment, an+ Shore an+ Tetrick 0"22"9 +e-el .
o(e+ an+ teste+ a ne8 meas're o6 (ercei-e+ or)an.
izational s'((ort* ?ther researchers ha-e s'))este+
that ;'stice (erce(tions 0,:'ino, 5ri66eth, ,llen, @
Horn, "22=9 an+ b'rno't 0Wri)ht @ Cro(anzano,
"2239 in6l'ence these attit'+es, 8hich in t'rn a66ect
t'rno-er* When consi+ere+ to)ether, this bo+y o6
research e/(an+s aca+emic 'n+erstan+in) o6 8hich
attit'+es lea+ to t'rno-er as 8ell as the ca'ses o6
these attit'+es*
The tra+itional attit'+e mo+el also s'))ests that
ne)ati-e attit'+es combine 8ith ;ob search to (re.
+ict lea-in) 0Bla', "22A9* ?6 co'rse, 8hether a
search is s'ccess6'l or not (artly +e(en+s on the
;ob market* Bretz, Bo'+rea', an+ J'+)e 0"22#9
6o'n+ that ;ob search is 6re:'ently 'ns'ccess6'l* <n
a++ition, 5erhart 0"22!9 concl'+e+ that (erce(.
tions o6 the ;ob market 0)eneral (erce(tion o6 ;ob
o((ort'nities9 (re+icte+ t'rno-er b't that search
8as not as im(ortant* Carsten an+ S(ector 0"23=9
6o'n+ that the attit'+e.t'rno-er relationshi( 8as
hi)her 8hen 'nem(loyment rates 8ere lo8 0;obs
8ere a-ailable9 rather than hi)h* Th's, most o6 the
tra+itional mo+els o6 t'rno-er 0e*)*, Horn @ 5ri6 .
6eth, "227; March @ Simon, "273; Mobley, "2==;
%rice @ M'eller, "23"; Steers @ Mo8+ay, "23"9,
incl'+e t8o ma;or cate)ories o6 (re+ictor
-ariables, one em(hasizin) ;ob attit'+es 0like
satis6action an+ commitment9 an+ one em(hasizin)
ease o6 mo-ement 0re6lecte+ in (ercei-e+
alternati-es an+ ;ob search beha-ior9*
,ltho')h m'ch o6 the research +escribe+ abo-e
has sho8n si)ni6icant res'lts, the 6in+in)s are mo+.
est, at best* <n their :'antitati-e re-ie8s, 6or e/am.
(le, Horn an+ 5ri66eth 0"2279 an+ 5ri66eth an+ col .
lea)'es 0!!!9 re(orte+ that attit'+inal -ariables
control only abo't # to 7 (ercent o6 the -ariance in
t'rno-er* Steel an+ 5ri66eth 0"2329 an+ 5ri66eth et
al* 0!!!9 re(orte+ e-en 8eaker 6in+in)s 6or the
e66ect on lea-in) o6 (ercei-e+ o((ort'nities b't
sli)htly stron)er res'lts 6or the e66ect o6 intention
to search* <n their narrati-e re-ie8, Maertz an+
Cam(ion 0"2239 concl'+e+ that, altho')h the links
amon) attit'+e, (ercei-e+ alternati-e, search, an+
t'rno-er are consistent b't 8eak, many other
meanin)6'l to(ics ha-e been ne)lecte+*
Di66erent Directions
, n'mber o6 researchers ha-e attem(te+ to break
a8ay 6rom the attit'+es an+ alternati-es mo+el
)enerally (rescribe+ by the theorists mentione+
abo-e* >or e/am(le, H'linB s 0"22"9 8ork on a
)eneral 8ith+ra8al constr'ct has broa+ene+
'n+erstan+in) o6 both the (re+ictors o6 an+ the
criteria 6or or)anizational attachment 0s'ch as
lateness an+ absences9* Barrick an+ Mo'nt 0"22$9
an+ Chan 0"22$9, moreo-er, ha-e s'ccess6'lly
in-esti)ate+ the e66ect o6 in+i-i+'al +i66erences
0s'ch as consci entio'sness9 on t'rno-er* Ho8e-er,
the 6o'n+ations 6or ;ob embe++e+ness are three
other sets o6 i+eas that ha-e emer)e+ 6rom this
)ro8in) literat're*
on !ork factors" >irst, a bo+y o6 em(irical re.
search s'))ests that many o66.the.;ob 6actors are
im(ortant 6or attachment* The ori)inal t'rno-er
mo+els o6 %rice an+ M'eller 0"23"9, Steers an+
Mo8+ay 0"23"9, an+ Mobley 0"239 incl'+e s'ch
Cnon8orkC in6l'ences as 6amily attachments an+
con6licts bet8een 8ork an+ 6amily roles* More re.
cent research on Cs(illo-erC mo+els e/(lains ho8
6amily an+ 8ork li6e are relate+ 0Marshall, Cha+.
8ick, # Marshall, "229* Cohen 0"2279, 6or e/am.
(le, sho8s ho8 non8ork commitments like 6amily,
hobbies, an+ ch'rch in6l'ence ;ob attit'+es an+
attachment* Lee an+ Ma'rer 0"2229, moreo-er,
6o'n+ that ha-in) chil+ren at home an+ a s(o'se
8ere better (re+ictors o6 lea-in) a ;ob than or)ani .
zational commitment*
$ther organization focused %redictors" Secon+, a
-ariety o6 6actors ha-e been em(irically associ ate+
8ith retention that are not attit'+inal b't or .
)anizational* <n+'cements to stay can +eri-e 6rom
8orkin) 8ith )ro'(s or on certain (ro;ects that
create ty(es o6 commitment other than the attrac.
tion a (erson has 6or his or her ;ob or or)anization*
>or e/am(le, many com(anies 'se teams to in+'ce
attachments 0Cohen @ Bailey, "22=9* Reichers
0"2379 labele+ these attachments Cconstit'ent com.
mitmentsC an+ incl'+es attachment to 'nions,
teams, an+ other 8ork.relate+ )ro'(s*
e! turno&er theory" Thir+, in research on the
'n6ol+in) mo+el o6 t'rno-er 0Lee @ Mitchell, "22#;
Lee, Mitchell, Holtom, McDaniel, @ Hill, "2229, the
cite+ a'thors +escribe +i66erent 8ays (eo(le +eci+e
to lea-e or)anizations, i+enti6yin) 6o'r +istinct
(aths* >rom o'r (ers(ecti-e, the interestin) (oints
are that many (eo(le 8ho lea-e 0"9 are relati-ely
satis6ie+ 8ith their ;obs, 09 +onBt search 6or other
;obs be6ore lea-in), an+ 0A9 lea-e beca'se o6 some
sort o6 (reci(itatin) e-ent 08hich Lee an+ col .
lea)'es call a shock9 rather than beca'se o6 a ne).
ati-e attit'+e* <n a++ition, the content or iss'es
in-ol-e+ 8ith shocks 6re:'ently occ'r o66 the ;ob;
a s(o'se relocatin) is an e/am(le* Th's, these
res'lts (ro-i+e cl'es as to 8hy the attit'+e.search
mo+els only (re+ict mo+estly 8ell 8ho lea-es
;obs* <n many cases, ne)ati-e attit'+es or ;ob
search are sim(ly not associate+ 8ith lea-in)
0Cam(ion, "22"9* Collecti-ely, these +i66erent an+
nontra+itional i+eas hel(e+ 's to +e-elo( the ;ob
embe++e+ness constr'ct*
J?B EMBEDDEDDESSE , DEW C?DSTRFCT
Job embe++e+ness re(resents a broa+ constella.
tion o6 in6l'ences on em(loyee retention* T8o re.
search.relate+ i+eas that hel( e/(lain the core o6
this constr'ct are embe++e+ 6i)'res an+ 6iel+ the.
ory 0Le8in, "27"9* Embe++e+ 6i)'res, 8hich are
ima)es 'se+ in a (sycholo)ical test, are immerse+
in their back)ro'n+s* ,ttache+ to their back.
)ro'n+s an+ har+ to se(arate 6rom them, embe++e+
6i)'res become (art o6 the s'rro'n+in)s* >iel+ the.
ory (resents a similar -ision, the i+ea that (eo(le
ha-e a (erce(t'al li6e s(ace in 8hich the as(ects o6
their li-es are re(resente+ an+ connecte+* These
connections can be 6e8 or many an+ close or +is.
tant* Dra8in) on these i+eas, 8e can +escribe ;ob
embe++e+ness as like a net or a 8eb in 8hich an
in+i-i+'al can become st'ck* ?ne 8ho is hi)hly
embe++e+ has many links that are close to)ether
0not hi)hly +i66erentiate+9* Moreo-er, the content
o6 the (arts may -ary consi+erably, s'))estin) that
one can be enmeshe+ or embe++e+ in many differ'
ent 8ays* <t is this o-erall le-el o6 embe++e+ness,
rather than s(eci6ic elements o6 embe++e+ness, that
is o'r central 6oc's*
The critical as(ects o6 ;ob embe++e+ness are 0"9
the e/tent to 8hich (eo(le ha-e links to other
(eo(le or acti-ities, 09 the e/tent to 8hich their
;obs an+ comm'nities are similar to or 6it 8ith the
other as(ects in their li6e s(aces, an+, 0A9 the ease
8ith 8hich links can be brokenG8hat they 8o'l+
)i-e '( i6 they le6t, es(ecially i6 they ha+ to (hys .
ical l y mo-e to other ci ti es or homes* We l abel e+
these t hree +i mensions Cli nks, C C6it , C an+ Csacri .
6ice,C an+ they are im(ortant both on an+ o66 the
;ob* This three.by.t8o matri/ s'))ests si/ +imen.
sionsE links, 6it, an+ sacri6ice associate+ 8ith an
in+i-i+'alBs or)anization an+ 8ith his or her com.
m'nity*
Li nks
Links are characterize+ as 6ormal or in6ormal
connections bet8een a (erson an+ instit'tions or
other (eo(le* Embe++e+ness s'))ests that a n'mber
o6 stran+s connect an em(loyee an+ his or her
6amily in a social, (sycholo)ical, an+ 6inancial 8eb
that incl'+es 8ork an+ non8ork 6rien+s, )ro'(s,
an+ the comm'nity an+ the (hysical en-ironment in
8hich he or she li-es* The hi)her the n'mber o6
links bet8een the (erson acr+ the 8eb, the more
she or he is bo'n+ to ;ob an+ or)anization* We
reco)nize that certain links may be more im(ortant
than others an+ that these +i66erences may be
(o('lation.s(eci6ic* Ho8e-er, )i-en o'r broa+
conce(t'alization, 8e +e6ine links broa+ly as
+iscernable connections*
, -ariety o6 research streams s'))est that there is
normati-e (ress're to stay on a ;ob, +eri-in) 6rom
6amily, 8ork team members, an+ other collea)'es
0Maertz, Ste-ens, Cam(ion, @ >ernan+ez, "22$;
%resthol+t, Lane, @ Mathe8s, "23=9* ?BReilly,
Cal+8ell, an+ Barnett 0"2329 'se+ the term Csocial
inte)rationC to +escribe the at.8ork (art o6 the link.
in) (rocess* >'rthermore, a st'+y by ,belson
0"23=9 assesse+ -ariables relate+ to both on. an+
o66.the.;ob links* He 6o'n+ that bein) ol+er, bein)
marrie+, ha-in) more ten're, an+ ha-in) chil+ren
re:'irin) care 8ere all associate+ 8ith an em(loy.
eeBs bein) more likely to stay than to lea-e* Cohen
0"2279, moreo-er, s(eci6ically mentione+ hobbies
an+ ch'rch.relate+ acti-ities as 6actors that can in.
6l'ence commitment* Th's, (eo(le ha-e many links
amon) the -ario's as(ects o6 their li-es* Lea-in)
their ;obs an+ (erha(s their homes can se-er or
re:'ire the rearran)ement o6 some o6 these links*
> i t
>it is +e6ine+ as an em(loyeeBs (ercei-e+ com.
(atibility or com6ort 8ith an or)anization an+ 8ith
his or her en-ironment* ,ccor+in) to o'r theory, an
em(loyeeBs (ersonal -al'es, career )oals, an+ (lans
6or the 6't're m'st 6it 8ith the lar)er cor(orate
c'lt're an+ the +eman+s o6 his or her imme+iate ;ob
0;ob kno8le+)e* skills, an+ abilities9* <n a++i tion, a
(erson 8ill consi+er ho8 8ell he or she 6its the
comm'nity an+ s'rro'n+in) en-ironment* We (osit
that the better the 6it, the hi)her the likelihoo+ that
an em(loyee 8ill 6eel (ro6essionally an+ (er sonally
tie+ to an or)anization*
<n st'+yin) -ol'ntary t'rno-er, 6or e/am(le,
?BReilly, Chatman, an+ Cal+8ell 0"22"9 6o'n+ that
Cmis6itsC terminate+ sli)htly 6aster than C6its,C b't
only a6ter ! months o6 ten're* Chatman 0"22"9
later re(orte+ that 8hen or)anizational entry (ro.
""!# Academy of Management Journal December
+'ce+ (oor (erson.or)anization 6it, em(loyees
8ere likely to lea-e an or)anization* Chan 0"22$9
s'))este+ that ha-in) oneBs (ersonal attrib'tes 6it
8ith oneBs ;ob may +ecrease t'rno-er, an+ Hil .
lano-a, Bernar+in, Johnson, an+ Dahm's 0"22#9
6o'n+ that lack o6 ;ob com(atibility (re+icte+ t'rn.
o-er* Cable an+ J'+)e 0"22$9, Cable an+ %arsons
0"2229, an+ Werbel an+ 5illilan+ 0"2229 re(orte+
that (eo(le select ;obs on the basis o6 -al'e
con)r'ence an+ that em(loyers try to hire on that
basis* Many socialization (ractices 6ollo8 similar
(rocesses* More s(eci6ically, initial ;ob choice an+
socialization are relate+ to (ercei-e+ 6it, 8hich in
t'rn a66ects t'rno-er*
Th's, a (ersonBs 6it 8ith ;ob an+ or)anization
relates to attachments to the or)anization* We be.
lie-e that there are similar comm'nity +imensions
o6 6it as 8ell* The 8eather, amenities, an+ )eneral
c'lt're o6 the location in 8hich one resi+es are
6'rther e/am(les* <n a++ition, o't+oor acti-ities
0s'ch as 6ishin) an+ skiin)9, (olitical an+ reli)io's
climates, an+ entertainment acti-ities 0colle)e or
(ro6essional s(orts, m'sic, theater9 -ary +ramati .
cally by re)ion an+ location, Most im(ortant, these
assessments o6 6it may be in+e(en+ent o6 ;ob or
or)anization 6it 0C< lo-e <BM, < hate De8 IorkC9*
Relocation 8o'l+ ob-io'sly re:'ire a recalibration
o6 6it, b't e-en a ne8 ;ob 8itho't relocation co'l+
+ist'rb an em(loyeeBs )eneral (atterns, 8ith, 6or
instance, ne8 8ork ho'rs or a +i66erent comm'te*
Sacrifice
Sacri6ice ca(t'res the (ercei-e+ cost o6 material
or (sycholo)ical bene6its that may be 6or6eite+ by
lea-in) a ;ob* >or e/am(le, lea-in) an or)anization
im(lies (ersonal losses like )i-in) '( collea)'es,
interestin) (ro;ects, or (erks* The more an em.
(loyee 8o'l+ )i-e '( 8hen lea-in), the more +i6 .
6ic'lt it 8ill be 6or him or her to se-er em(loyment
8ith the or)anization 0Sha8, Delery, Jenkins, @
5'(ta, "2239* Tho')h com(arable salary an+ ben.
e6its may be easily 6o'n+ in an en-ironment o6 lo8
'nem(loyment, the s8itchin) costs, s'ch as ne8
health care or (ension (lans, are real an+ rele-ant*
Moreo-er, non(ortable bene6its, like stock o(tions
or +e6ine+ bene6it (ensions, may in-ol-e sacri6ices*
These latter 6actors ha-e been sho8n to be relate+
to t'rno-er 05'(ta @ Jenkins, "23!9*
Less -isible, b't still im(ortant (otential sacri .
6ices inc'rre+ thro')h lea-in) an or)anization in.
cl'+e o((ort'nities 6or ;ob stability an+ a+-ance.
ment 0Sha8 et al*, "2239* <n a++ition, -ario's
a+-anta)es accr'e to an in+i-i+'al 8ho stays* Time
in rank can +etermine yo'r or+er in (ickin) an
o66ice* Sabbaticals are )rante+ a6ter si/ years o6
em(loyment at many 'ni-ersities* Takin) a ne8 ;ob
means )i-in) '( these accr'e+ a+-anta)es*
Comm'nity sacri6ices 0as 8ell as links an+ 6it to
some e/tent9 are mostly an iss'e i6 one has to relo.
cate* Lea-in) a comm'nity that is attracti-e an+
sa6e an+ in 8hich one is like+ or res(ecte+ can be
har+* ?ne mi)ht ha-e to )i-e '( the 6ootball tickets
or ballet seats that took ! years o6 seniority to
obtain* ?6 co'rse, one can chan)e ;obs b't stay in
the same home* B't e-en then, -ario's con-e.
niences, like an easy comm'te or the ability to be
home at certain times o8in) to 6le/time may be lost
by chan)in) ;obs* %erks that a66ect an em(loyeeBs
(ri-ate li6e, s'ch as +ay care or -ehicles (ro-i+e+
by the com(any, may also +isa((ear* ,ltho')h o66 .
the.;ob embe++e+ness may be more cr'cial 8hen
relocation is in-ol-e+, 8e s's(ect it 8ill be im(or .
tant e-en 6or sit'ations only re:'irin) a chan)e in
;obs* <n a++ition, i6 (eo(le are embe++e+, they may
remo-e ;ob alternati-es that re:'ire relocation 6rom
the set o6 ;ob o(tions they consi+er*
CONSTRUCT CO!"R#SONS
<n o'r (re-io's section, 8e cite+ some o6 the
research that s'((orte+ i+eas incor(orate+ into o'r
si/ ;ob embe++e+ness +imensions* Ho8e-er, it is
also im(ortant that 8e +i66erentiate ;ob embe++e+.
ness 6rom similar constr'cts an+ meas'res alrea+y
in the literat're* We 8ill start at the o-erall embe+.
+e+ness le-el an+ (ro)ress to a +isc'ssion o6 the
si/ +imensions*
The term Cembe++e+nessC has been 'se+ in the
sociolo)ical literat're to e/(lain the (rocess by
8hich social relations in6l'ence an+ constrain eco.
nomic action 05rano-etter, "237; Fzzi, "22$, "22=9*
The i+ea o6 social net8orks as a constraint is similar
to o'r Cst'cknessC i+ea* Ho8e-er, the sociolo)istsB
'se o6 the constr'ct is 6ar broa+er than o'rs in terms
o6 the 'nits o6 analysis an+ the +e(en+ent -ariables*
Whereas sociolo)ists 6oc's on in+i-i+'als, )ro'(s,
an+ or)anizations an+ a 8i+e -ariety o6 economic
actions, 8e 6oc's more narro8ly on in+i-i+'als
stayin) on their ;obs*
"ttitudinal Competitors: Organi$ational
Commitment and %ob Satisfaction
Horn an+ 5ri66eth 0"2279 an+ 5ri66eth an+ col .
lea)'es 0!!!9 re(orte+ meta.analyses o6 the main
(re+ictors o6 t'rno-er* Job satis6action 0$= sam(les;
#,7$$ s'b;ects9 an+ or)anizational commitment 0$=
sam(les; =,7#! s'b;ects9 are by 6ar the main
attit'+inal -ariables researche+* <n contrast, ;ob in.
-ol-ement is thir+, 8ith "$ sam(les an+ =,$$$ s'b.
!!" Mitchell, Haltom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez ""!7
;ects* ,ll three are si)ni6icantly relate+ to retention,
altho')h in-ol-ement has 6ar 8eaker relationshi(s*
The (roblem 8ith makin) com(arisons bet8een
or)anizational commitment an+ ;ob embe++e+ness
is that there are n'mero's +e6initions an+ mea.
s'res o6 or)anizational commitment in the litera.
t're* Ho8e-er, the ,llen an+ Meyer 0"22!9 three.
+imensional mo+el 08ith a66ecti-e, contin'ance,
an+ normati-e +imensions9 is the most c'rrent an+
8i+ely 'se+* Th's, 8e 'se it 6or com(arison ('r .
(oses*
<nitially, it is im(ortant to (oint o't that or)ani .
zational commitment is concerne+ 8ith or)aniza.
tional iss'es* Th's, hal6 o6 the ;ob embe++e+ness
constr'ct is sim(ly not co-ere+ by or)anizational
commitment* ,lso, t8o o6 the 6actors, a66ecti-e an+
normati-e commitment, are conce(t'ally :'ite +i6.
6erent 6rom ;ob embe++e+ness* ,66ecti-e commit .
ment re6lects oneB s likin) 6or a ;ob an+ emotional
attachment to an or)anization* <n other 8or+s, (eo.
(le stay beca'se o6 their (ositi-e a66ect an+ 6eelin)s
abo't their or)anizations* Some o6 o'r on.the.;ob
6actors, s'ch as 6it, may re6lect some (ositi-e a66ect
to8ar+ ;obs, b't they may also re6lect a relati-ely
nona66ecti-e ;'+)ment* %eo(le may stay s(eci6i.
cally beca'se they ha-e 6o'n+ or create+ niches in
their or)anizations that match their nee+s an+ tal .
ents* Cable an+ %arsons s'))este+ that (erson.
or)anization 6it Cre(resents a co)niti-e belie6 rather
than an emotional res(onseC 0"222E #9* Th's, o'r
embe++e+ness constr'ct is not as a66ect.+ri-en as
the ,llen an+ Meyer 0"22!9 or)anizational commit .
ment constr'ct*
<n a++ition, the normati-e commitment +imen.
sion o6 the ,llen an+ Meyer mo+el s(rin)s 6rom a
sense o6 obli)ation* %eo(le stay beca'se they 6eel
they o')ht to* ,ltho')h some o6 o'r or)anizational
links may increase a sense o6 obli)ation 06or in.
stance, to co8orkers9, other links 8e meas're+, like
the sheer n'mber o6 teams or committees an em.
(loyee 8orks 8ith, are not (art o6 their constr'ct*
<n contrast, the contin'ance commitment +imen.
sion has some as(ects that are 6airly similar con.
ce(t'ally to o'r or)anization.relate+ sacri6ice +i .
mension* Ftilizin) BeckerBs 0"2$!9 i+ea o6 si+e bets,
,llen an+ Meyer +e6ine+ contin'ance commitment
as Cthe ma)nit'+e an+Jor n'mber o6 in-estments
0or si+e.bets9 in+i-i+'als make an+ a (ercei-e+
lack o6 alternati-esC 0"22!E #9* These si+e bets in.
cl'+e thin)s like ;ob e66ort, 6rien+shi(s, s(eci6ic
skills +e-elo(e+, an+ C(olitical +ealsC 0Jaros, Jer .
mier, Koehler, @ Sincich, "22A9*
<tems incl'+e+ in ,llen an+ MeyerBs 0"22!9 con.
tin'ance commitment meas're are similar at a )en.
eral le-el to items that 8e 'se+ to assess or)aniza.
tion.relate+ sacri6ice* >or instance, one o6 their
items is C<t 8o'l+ be -ery har+ 6or me to lea-e my
or)anization ri)ht no8, e-en i6 < 8ante+ toC9* Ho8.
e-er, there are also 6o'r items assessin) the (er .
cei-e+ lack o6 alternati-es in ,llen an+ MeyerBs
meas're 0s'ch as C< 6eel that < ha-e too 6e8 o(tions
to consi+er lea-in) my or)anizationC9* ?'r items
6or or)anization.relate+ sacri6ice +i66er in t8o ma.
;or 8ays 6rom those 6or contin'ance commitment*
>irst, 8e incl'+e no items assessin) ;ob alterna.
ti-es* We see that as a se(arate constr'ct that
sho'l+ be meas're+ se(arately* Secon+, instea+ o6
;'st 'sin) )eneral items, 8e assess s(eci6ic entities
that (eo(le 6eel they 8o'l+ ha-e to )i-e '( i6 they
le6t their ;obs 06or instance, 6ree+om, retirement
bene6its, (erks, com(ensation, health care, an+ (ro.
motional o((ort'nities9* Th's, o'r meas're is more
s(eci6ic an+ incl'+es elements not ty(ically in.
cl'+e+ in the si+e bet i+ea*
, similar (ers(ecti-e emer)es in a re-ie8 o6 the
;ob satis6action constr'ct an+ meas'res* >irst, the
6oc's o6 ;ob satis6action is on.the.;ob, not o66.the.
;ob, concerns* Secon+, there are m'lti(le meas'res o6
;ob satis6action 0s'ch as the Job Descri(ti-e <n+e/
an+ the Minnesota Satis6action &'estionnaire9, an+
most ha-e m'lti(le +imensions* These +imensions
incl'+e attrib'tes o6 an em(loyeeBs 8ork en-iron.
ment, s'(er-ision, co8orkers, an+ (ay 05ri66eth et
al*, !!!9* ?r)anization.relate+ sacri6ice is meant to
6oc's on 8hat (eo(le 8o'l+ C)i-e '(C i6 they le6t
their ;obs* <t +oes not incl'+e items assessin) a66ec.
ti-e reactions to the 8ork itsel6, s'(er-isors, or
co8orkers*
Donetheless, 8e +o incl'+e items on com(ensa.
tion an+ bene6its 0health care an+ retirement9*
Th's, or)anization.relate+ sacri6ice has some con.
ce(t'al similarity to com(ensation satis6action*
Heneman an+ Sch8abBs 0"2379 %ay Satis6action
&'estionnaire 0%S&9 is the most 6re:'ently 'se+
instr'ment in c'rrent com(ensation research* ,l .
tho')h it +oes incl'+e satis6action 8ith (ay an+
bene6its, the %S& also incl'+es items re6errin) to
raises, the (ay str'ct're 0+istrib'tion9 in an
or)anization, an+ the (roce+'res in-ol-e+ 8ith
(ay a+ministration* Th's, the %S& incl'+es
constr'cts an+ items that are not conce(t'alize+ as
(art o6 ;ob embe++e+ness*
<n s'mmary, or)anizational commitment an+ ;ob
satis6action ha-e some similarities to an+ some
+i66erences 6rom ;ob embe++e+ness* These t8o
8ell.researche+ ;ob attit'+es +o assess on.the.;ob
+imensions* B't their content is a66ecti-e an+,
altho')h some o6 their s'b+imensions ha-e some
similarity 8ith or)anization.relate+ sacri6ice, ;ob
embe++e+ness +i66ers 6rom these 8ell.kno8n ;ob
attit'+es in si)ni6icant 8ays*
""!$ Academy of Management Journal December
Other Constructs Similar to %ob &mbeddedness
'imensions
Besi+es ;ob satis6action an+ or)anizational com.
mitment, other s(eci6ic constr'cts ha-e some o-er .
la( 8ith ;ob embe++e+ness +imensions* >or e/am.
(le, both the cost o6 :'ittin) an+ ;ob in-estment
constr'cts ha-e as(ects resemblin) or)anization.
relate+ sacri6ice* Cost o6 :'ittin) 8as (art o6 Mob.
leyBs early 0"2==9 mo+el an+ 8as meant to re6lect
March an+ SimonBs 0"2739 (ercei-e+.ease.o6.mo-e.
ment conce(t* Mobley 0"2==, "239 incl'+e+, as
costs o6 :'ittin), thin)s like the Closs o6 seniority,
-este+ bene6its an+ the likeC 0"2==E A39, 8hich
combine 8ith the Ce/(ecte+ 'tilityC o6 search* The
research on the cost o6 :'ittin) 0e*)*, Hom,
5ri66eth, @ Sellaro, "23#; Horn @ H'lin, "23"9
incl'+es three )eneral items 0one is C<t is easy 6or
me to lea-e my (resent ;obC9 as 8ell as meas'res o6
the cost o6 searchin)* Like the contin'ance
commitment i+ea, cost o6 :'ittin) is )eneral an+
incl'+es search items; or)anization.relate+
sacri6ice, ho8e-er, assesses s(eci6ic thin)s to be
)i-en '( an+ +oes not incl'+e search*
The ;ob in-estments i+ea comes 6rom the 8ork o6
>arrell an+ R'sb'lt 0"23"; R'sb'lt @ >arrell, "23A9*
They +e-elo(e+ a commitment mo+el to (re+ict
t'rno-er in 8hich ;ob in-estments is one o6 the 6o'r
main 6actors 08ith ;ob re8ar+s, ;ob costs, an+ alter .
nati-e :'ality9 contrib'tin) to commitment* Con.
ce(t'ally, ;ob in-estments incl'+e thin)s that are
Cintrinsic to the ;ob 0e*)*, years o6 ser-ice, non.
(ortable trainin), non.-este+ (ortions o6 retirement
(ro)ramsC 0R'sb'lt @ >arrell, "23AE #A"9 an+ re.
so'rces that are e/ternal b't tie+ to the ;ob, s'ch as
6rien+s at 8ork, ho'sin) arran)ements, an+ other
e/traneo's bene6its* They ha+ ! items assessin)
these s(eci6ic contrib'tors to commitment, b't the
meas're they 'se+ em(irically ha+ only A )eneral
items 0C<n )eneral, ho8 m'ch ha-e yo' in-este+ in
this ;obLC C,ll thin)s consi+ere+, to 8hat e/tent are
there acti-itiesJe-entsJ(ersonsJob;ects associate+
8ith yo'r ;ob that yo' 8o'l+ lose i6 yo' 8ere to
lea-eLC an+ CHo8 m'ch +oes yo'r in-estment in this
;ob com(are to 8hat most (eo(le ha-e in-este+ in
their ;obsLC9* The i+ea o6 losin) thin)s as a res'lt o6
lea-in) is -ery similar to o'r or)anization.relate+
sacri6ice constr'ct, an+ many o6 their s(eci6ic items
0s'ch as home o8nershi(, s(o'sal em(loyment, an+
comm'nity ties9 re6lect o'r comm'nity.relate+
sacri6ice an+ links.to.comm'nity +imensions*
Ho8e-er, ;ob in-estments, as meas're+ by the A
items abo-e, incl'+es elements not in or)anization.
relate+ sacri6ice as 8ell as a relati-e com(arison i+ea
0their thir+ item9 that a((ears to in-oke e:'ity or
6airness ;'+)ments* <n short, the
meas're they 'se+ is more )eneral than or)aniza.
tion.relate+ sacri6ice, 8hich meas'res s(eci6ic 6ac.
tors an em(loyee 8o'l+ ha-e to )i-e '( by lea-in)*
<n a++ition, R'sb'lt an+ >arrell see the ;ob in-est .
mentsGt'rno-er relationshi( as me+iate+ by com.
mitment, 8hile 8e make no s'ch claim*
There are also t8o constr'cts that (artially o-er .
la( 8ith o'r 6it.to.or)anization +imension* The 8ork
o6 Schnei+er 0"23=9, Chatman 0"2329, an+ Kristo6
0"22$9 +isc'sses the i+ea o6 (erson.or)ani zation 6it*
More recently, (erson.;ob 6it has been researche+ by
Saks an+ ,sh6orth 0"22=9 an+ Werbel an+ 5illilan+
0"2229* <n )eneral, these constr'cts re6er to
com(atibility, +escribe+ as the Ccon)r'ence o6 the
(ersonality traits, belie6s an+ -al'es o6 in+i -i+'al
(ersons 8ith the c'lt're, strate)ic nee+s, norms an+
-al'es o6 or)anizationsC 0Detemeyer, Boles, McKee,
@ McM'rrian, "22=E 339 6or (erson.or)anization 6it
an+ the con)r'ence o6 kno8le+)e, skills, an+
abilities 0KS,9 8ith oneBs ;ob 6or (erson.;ob 6it* The
meas'res incl'+e items like CTo 8hat e/tent are the
-al'es o6 the or)anization similar to yo'r o8n
-al'esLC 0Saks & ,sh6orth, "22=9*
?'r +imension o6 6it to or)anization incor(orates
a n'mber o6 the se(arate 6it i+eas 6rom this litera.
t're* ?'r items ask ho8 8ell em(loyees (ercei-e
they 6it 8ith their co8orkers, )ro'(s, ;obs, com(a.
nies, an+ c'lt'res* <n a++ition, since there is con.
6'sion in the literat're abo't the bases o6 6it, 8ith
(ersonality, -al'es, nee+s, an+ )oals all i+enti6ie+
as bases 0Kristo6, "22$9, 8e sim(ly aske+ 6or an
o-erall 6it (erce(tion 8itho't re6errin) to nee+s, as
is a((arent in the abo-e items* Th's, o'r constr'ct
is more encom(assin) than the se(arate 6it con.
str'cts in the literat're*
The secon+ constr'ct that may a((ear similar to
6it to or)anization is or)anizational i+entity 0see
Whetten @ 5o+6rey, "2239* Fn6ort'nately, there is
little a)reement on the +e6inition o6 this constr'ct
0,lbert, "2239, 8ith both macro 0or)anization9 an+
micro 0in+i-i+'al9 re6erents 'se+* ,t the in+i-i+'al
le-el, or)anizational i+entity comes 6rom the social
i+entity literat're an+ re6ers to Ca (ercei-e+ one.
ness 8ith an or)anization an+ the e/(erience o6 the
or)anizationBs s'ccesses an+ 6ail'res as oneBs o8nC
0Mael @ ,sh6orth, "22E "!A9* <n +oin) research on
schools, Mael an+ ,sh6orth 0"229 'se+ items like
CWhen someone criticizes 1name o6 school4 it 6eels
like a (ersonal ins'ltC an+ CThis schoolBs s'ccesses
are my s'ccesses*C
We think that or)anizational i+entity is 6'n+a.
mentally +i66erent 6rom 6it to or)anization* <n
(artic'lar, or)anizational i+entity in-ol-es a 6ar
broa+er an+ +ee(er i+ea than 6it* ,sh6orth 0"2239,
6or e/am(le, sai+ it in-ol-es the 6'sion o6 sel6 an+
or)anization* 5ioia 0"2239 ar)'e+ that it is 6'n+a.
2001 Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez 1107
mental to the conce(tion o6 h'manity* <n contrast, 8e see
6it as assessin) +e)ree o6 similarity on a 6e8 s(eci6ic
+imensions*
There is also one constr'ct that is some8hat simi
Ear to o'r i+ea o6 links to or)anization* Reichers
+e6ine+ constit'ency commitment as Ca (rocess o6
i+enti6ication 8ith the )oals o6 an or)anizationBs
m'lti(le constit'enciesC 0"237E #$79* Research 's.
in) this conce(t asks CHo8 attache+ are yo' to the
6ollo8in) (eo(le an+ )ro'(s 0to( mana)ement, s'.
(er-isor an+ 8ork )ro'(LC 0Becker, "22; H'nt @
Mor)an, "22#9* <n o'r conce(t'alization, links to
or)anization instea+ 6oc'ses only on attachments
that +e-elo( o-er time on the ;ob an+ that embe+
someone* We assess the len)th o6 time em(loyees
ha-e been in their ;obs an+ or)anizations, alon)
8ith the n'mbers o6 co8orkers, teams, an+ com.
mittees 8ith 8hich they are in-ol-e+* Ho8e-er, 8e
+o not assess attachment to to( mana)ement or an
em(loyeeBs i+enti6ication 8ith the )oals o6 -ario's
)ro'(s* These are se(arate conce(ts*
>inally, there are constr'cts an+ meas'res that ha-e
some similarity 8ith o'r links to comm'nity* %rice
an+ M'eller 0"23"9 s'))este+ that kinshi(
res(onsibilities may limit em(loyeesB ease o6 mo-e.
ment* They sa8 the -ariable as re6lectin) Cobli)a.
tions to relati-es in the comm'nityC an+ 'se+ items
assessin) marital stat's an+ the n'mbers o6 chil +ren
an+ relati-es in a comm'nity 0Ble)en, M'eller, @
%rice, "2339* We sho'l+ a++ that in-esti)ators
intereste+ in relocation 0Miller, "2=$9 or in e/(atri .
ates lea-in) ;ob assi)nments, sit'ations in 8hich an
em(loyee chan)es ;ob an+ location b't stays 8ith the
same or)anization, ha-e also (ointe+ to 6amily
entan)lements as im(ortant 0Sha66er @ Harrison,
"2239* >or e/am(le, Miller 0"2=$9, S(itz 0"23$9, an+
T'rban, Cam(ion, an+ Eyrin) 0"229 all s'))este+
that relocation is se-erely a66ecte+ i6 a s(o'se 0or
6amily member9 +oes not 8ant to mo-e* T'rban an+
collea)'es 0"229 'se+ the kinshi( res(onsibility
meas're in their research, as +i+ Sha66er an+ Har .
rison 0"2239*
The kinshi( res(onsibility i+ea is -ery similar to
o'r 1inks to comm'nity, both conce(t'ally an+
em(irically* Ho8e-er, o'r conce(t an+ meas're
are broa+er* 5oin) beyon+ kinshi(, 8e 6oc's on a
-ariety o6 other links that inhibit chan)in) ;obs or
mo-in), s'ch as home o8nershi(, ha-in) close
6rien+s li-in) nearby, an+ links 8ith or)anizations
in the comm'nity*
Tile last constr'ct 8e 8ill mention is s'b;ecti-e
norm* ,;zen an+ >ishbeinBs 0"2==9 attit'+e mo+el
s'))ests that beha-iors are in6l'ence+ by the e/tent
to 8hich CothersC think an in+i-i+'al sho'l+ en)a)e
in those beha-iors an+ the (ersonBs moti-ation to
com(ly 8ith these e/(ectations* , 6e8 research
ers 0e*)*, Horn @ H'lin, "23"; Horn et al*, "23#;
%arker @ Dyer, "2=$9, ha-e 'se+ these i+eas to
(re+ict t'rno-er, com(osin) items like CMost o6 the
(eo(le 8hose o(inion < res(ect, think < sho'l+
lea-e my (resent ;obC 0De8man, "2=#9* <n many
cases, the s'b;ect res(on+s to these :'estions 8ith
res(ect to -ario's re6erence )ro'(s 0s'ch as 6rien+s,
6amily, an+ em(loyer9*
Links to comm'nity is +i66erent in a -ariety o6
8ays* <t re6ers to links other than those 8ith
(eo(le, s'ch as o8nin) a home or belon)in) to a
comm'nity or)anization* ,lso, links to comm'nity
only re6ers to o66.the.;ob links, 8hile s'b;ecti-e
norm re6ers to both (eo(le 8ho are on an+ those
8ho are o66 the ;ob* <n a++ition, links to
comm'nity only assesses the e/istence o6 links
0o'r 8eb, or Cst'cknessC i+ea9, not 8hether 6amily
or 6rien+s 8ant the 6ocal (erson to :'it her or his
;ob* %eo(le may 6eel constraine+ sim(ly by ha-in)
the (ersonal links an+ connections, in+e(en+ent o6
ho8 other (eo(le 6eel*
<n s'mmary, there are clearly i+eas in the litera.
t're that are similar to the +imensions o6 ;ob em.
be++e+ness* Ho8e-er, there are also im(ortant +i6 .
6erences* Job embe++e+ness is broa+er than any o6
the constr'cts +isc'sse+ in the literat're* <t in.
cl'+es an assessment o6 some 6actors both on an+
o66 the ;ob that are not meas're+ else8here* <n
a++ition, its constit'ent +imensions are less a66ec .
ti-e than most o6 the constr'cts that +ominate this
literat'reE Links are clearly nona66ecti-e, an+ 6it
an+ sacri6ice are only in+irectly or secon+arily a6 .
6ecti-e* <n s'm, at the constr'ct le-el, ;ob embe+.
+e+ness is conce(t'ally 'ni:'e in the t'rno-er lit .
erat're*
S'mmary an+ Hy(otheses
Job embe++e+ness is concei-e+ as a key me+iat .
in) constr'ct bet8een s(eci6ic on.the.;ob an+ o66.
the.;ob 6actors an+ em(loyee retention* <t re(re.
sents a 6oc's on the acc'm'late+, )enerally
nona66ecti-e, reasons 8hy an em(loyee 8o'l+ not
lea-e a ;ob, 8hich com(rise a sort o6 st'ckness,
inertia, or bias to8ar+ the stat's :'o* Each o6 the
three +imensionsG6it, links, an+ sacri6iceGhas an
or)anizational an+ a comm'nity com(onent*
Tho')h both Cor)anizationC an+ Ccomm'nityC are
abstractions that are socially constr'cte+, they ca(.
t're +omains in 8hich (eo(le can be embe++e+*
,lso, the e66ects o6 these si/ +i66erent 6actors may
-ary across (eo(le, ;obs, an+ s'ch circ'mstances as
an em(loyeeBs a)e or an em(loyin) or)anizationBs
size* %eo(le can become embe++e+ in many 8ays;
the (rocess may systematically -ary by occ'(ation
or (ersonality* <n s'm, o'r 6oc's is more on the
1108 Academy of Management Journal December
totality o6 embe++in) 6orces that kee( a (erson on
a ;ob than on the ne)ati-e attit'+es that (rom(t the
(erson to lea-e the ;ob* >rom this (ers(ecti-e, ;ob
embe++e+ness may be seen as a hi)her.or+er a))re .
)ate o6 6orces 6or retention* This o-erall 6oc's on
the 6actors that lea+ to em(loyee retention )a-e
rise to the 6ollo8in) hy(othesesE
Hy%othesis (" Job embeddedness is negati&ely
correlated !ith em%loyee intent to lea&e and
subse)uent &oluntary turno&er"
Hy%othesis *" Job embeddedness im%ro&es the
%rediction of &oluntary turno&er, going abo&e
and beyond that accounted for by +ob satisfac'
tion and organizational commitment"
Hy%othesis ," Job embeddedness accounts for
%rediction of &oluntary turno&er that is abo&e
and beyond that accounted for by %ercei&ed
alternati&es and +ob search"
Hy%othesis -" Job embeddedness accounts for
the %rediction of &oluntary turno&er that is
abo&e and beyond that accounted for by &ari '
ables re%resenting the desirability of mo&ement
.+ob satisfaction and organizational com'
mitment/ and &ariables re%resenting ease of
mo&ement .%ercei&ed alternati&es and +ob
search/"
&T(O'S
Overvie) and Samples
?'r )eneral research strate)y 8as to assess (er .
sonal characteristics, ;ob satis6action, or)aniza.
tional commitment, ;ob embe++e+ness, ;ob search,
(ercei-e+ alternati-es, an+ intent to lea-e in an
initial +ata collection 0time "9 an+ to assess act'al
t'rno-er in a secon+ +ata collection 0time 9* We
contacte+, -isite+, an+ )aine+ access to +ata 6rom
t8o or)anizations that o(erate+ in en-ironments
characterize+ by relati-ely hi)h t'rno-er* The 6irst
or)anization 8as a re)ional )rocery store chain, an+
the secon+ 8as a comm'nity.base+ hos(ital* The
labor market 8as e/ce(tionally ti)ht 6or both
or)anizations, 8ith 'nem(loyment 8ell belo8 7
(ercent* Th's, the t8o or)anizations st'+ie+ 8ere
similar in terms o6 their t'rno-er, b't the ty(es o6
(eo(le they em(loye+ +i66ere+ s'bstantially, )i-en
in+'stry +i66erences*
Grocery store respondents. S'r-eys 8ere +is.
trib'te+ to =!! ran+omly selecte+ )rocery store
em(loyees 6rom ei)ht stores in March "223* Sel6.
a++resse+, stam(e+ en-elo(es 8ere (ro-i+e+ 6or
the ret'rn o6 com(lete+ s'r-eys, an+ the con6i+en.
tiality o6 com(lete+ s'r-eys 8as )'arantee+ to all
res(on+ents* We sent 6ollo8.'( letters to remin+
em(loyees to (artici(ate* Fltimately, the ret'rn o6
A s'r-eys yiel+e+ a res(onse rate o6 AA*"
(ercent* Beca'se 77 res(on+ents +i+ not i+enti6y
themsel-es, 6or o'r analyses o6 t'rno-er 8e 'se+
only "== s'r-eys*
The a-era)e a)e o6 res(on+ents 8as A=*7= years
0s*+* M "A*!9; == (ercent 8ere 8omen, an+ A3
(ercent 8ere marrie+* They ha+ 8orke+ in their
c'rrent (ositions 6or an a-era)e $*"7 years 0s*+* M
$*339, 6or the or)anization 6or an a-era)e =*!! years
0s*+* M =*29, an+ in the in+'stry 6or 2*2# years 0s*+*
M 3*3#9* To test 6or res(onse bias, 8e obtaine+ basic
in6ormation abo't the s'r-ey (o('lation 6rom the
or)anization* We com(are+ the "== res(on+ents 8ho
(ro-i+e+ their names on the :'estionnaire to the
remainin) 7A em(loyees 8ho recei-e+ :'es.
tionnaires* The Cnonres(on+entsC th's incl'+e+
some 8ho res(on+e+ to the s'r-ey 8itho't +isclos.
in) their names* The res(on+ents 8ere not +i66er ent
6rom the nonres(on+ents in terms o6 a)e, ten're
8ith the 6irm, an+ ;ob le-el* Ho8e-er, res(on+ents
+i+ a((ear to +i66er 6rom nonres(on+ents in terms o6
)en+er .t 0 A*3A, % 1 *!"9, 8ith 8omen ret'rnin)
the s'r-ey at a hi)her rate than men* Conse:'ently,
)en+er 8as 'se+ as a control -ariable thro')ho't the
analyses* Moreo-er, the res(onse rates 6rom
+i66erent stores a((eare+ to be hi)hly similar 0/
M
2*A", n*s*9* So the -ario's store sam(les a((eare+ to
be 6airly similar to the (o('lation o6 em(loyees in
+emo)ra(hic attrib'tes*
Hospital respondents. S'r-eys 8ere maile+ to a
ran+om sam(le o6 7!! em(loyees o6 the hos(ital in
J'ne "223; "7! 8ere n'rses, an+ the other A7! 8ere
6rom a+ministration, maintenance, a+mittin), the
ca6eteria, an+ s(ecial ser-ices* Sel6.a++resse+,
stam(e+ en-elo(es 8ere a)ain (ro-i+e+* Con6i+en.
tiality 8as )'arantee+ in a letter sent in a+-ance o6
the s'r-ey* We also sent 6ollo8.'( letters to remin+
em(loyees to (artici(ate* The hos(ital em(loyees
ret'rne+ A s'r-eys, a res(onse rate o6 #$*# (er .
cent* Ho8e-er, beca'se not all res(on+ents i+enti .
6ie+ themsel-es, 6or calc'lations in-ol-in) t'rno-er
8e analyze+ !3 s'r-eys*
The a-era)e a)e o6 the hos(ital res(on+ents 8as
#A*"! years 0s*+* M "!*"9; 3# (ercent 8ere 8omen,
an+ $! (ercent 8ere marrie+* They ha+ 8orke+ in
their c'rrent (ositions 6or an a-era)e $* years
0s*+* M $*A29, 6or the or)anization 6or an a-era)e
=*2 years 0s*+* M =*"39, an+ in the in+'stry 6or an
a-era)e "$*3 years 0s*+* M "!*#"9* To test 6or re.
s(onse bias, 8e com(are+ the !3 res(on+ents 8ho
(ro-i+e+ their names on the :'estionnaire to the
other 2#! em(loyees o6 the hos(ital* The re.
s(on+ents 8ere not +i66erent 6rom nonres(on+ents
in terms o6 )en+er, ten're 8ith the or)anization,
2001 Mitchell, Haltom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez 1109
job level, or job type. Thus, sample
respondents are fairly similar to the
population of employees with respect to
their major demographic attributes.
Measures
Personal characteristics. For both the
grocery store and hospital samples, we
measured age, gender, marital status,
job level, and tenure in job,
organization, and industry. Simple, fll
intheblan! "uestions were used.
Job embeddedness. The items used to
assess embeddedness came from four
sources. First, there were obvious
demographic and descriptive items
available to assess marital state,
number of children, house ownership,
years at one#s job, and so forth. Second,
items from traditional attitudinal
measures were modifed for our
purposes, especially for job ft $for
instance, %My job utilizes my s!ills and
abilities well%& and jobrelated sacrifce
$%The benefts are good on this job%&.
Third, we met wee!ly for over a year to
discuss this construct, clarify its
components, and generate items.
Fourth, in '( preliminary interviews at
two grocery stores from the
participating chain and in (' interviews
at the hospital, we pretested the
relevance of the items and generated
additional ones. )one of the **
employees who were interviewed
participated in the survey. +ur initial
"uestionnaire $used at the grocery
store& had ,' items that were written to
assess our si- dimensions $lin!s, ft, and
sacrifce, on and o. the job&. Some used
a /i!erttype format and others had yes,
no, or fllintheblan! response options.
0t the hospital, we had si- additional
items based on our interviews and on
deliberation that occurred after the data
were gathered at the grocery stores.
Three of these items were added to
lin!s to community, and three were
added to ft to organization. The fnal
set of items is shown in the 0ppendi-.
Job satisfaction. 0mong the grocery
cler!s, we used Spector#s $(112& 3ob
Satisfaction Survey, a *4item measure
specifcally applicable to service
organizations. To assess overall job
satisfaction, an averaged composite of
all *4 items was used $a 5 .1'&, and for
the facets of job satisfaction, Spector#s
subscales were used $a#s 5 .6,, pay7 .
22, promotion7 .66, supervision7 .28,
benefts7 .6', contingent rewards7 .9*,
operating conditions7 .4*, cowor!ers7 .
68, nature of wor!7 .29,
communication&. 0mong the hospital
employees, management#s concerns
about "uestionnaire length did not
allow use of Spector#s scale. :nstead,
we measured overall satisfaction with
an averaged composite $a 5 .69& of the
following three items; %0ll in all, : am
satisfed with my job.% %:n general, :
don#t li!e my job
1110 Academy of Management Journal <ecember
$reversescored&.% 0nd %:n general, : li!e
wor!ing here.%
Organizational commitment. To assess
overall organizational commitment, we
averaged ratings on all items of Meyer
and 0llen#s $(112& threedimensional
measure $a 5 .6,, store, and .62, hos
pital&. For the three dimensions, Meyer
and 0llen#s subscales were used. For
the grocery and hospital employees,
respectively, alphas were .64 and .61
for a.ective commitment, .69 and .6(
for calculative commitment, and .2(
and .6( for normative commitment.
Job alternatives. These two items were
adapted from /ee and Mowday $(162&;
%=hat is the probability that you can
fnd an acceptable alternative to your
job>% and %:f you search for an
alternative job within a year, what are
the chances you can fnd an acceptable
job>% These items were averaged to re
?ect perceived alternatives $a 5 .1*,
both samples& and had a fvepoint
response format. 0lthough this
measure has been used in previous
research, it su.ers from two
limitations noted by Steel and @ri.eth
$(161&; =ith only two items, it is some
what simplistic, and when analyses are
conducted within a sample, the
variance is limited. Aoth of these
problems may inhibit the measure#s
relationship with turnover.
Job search behavior index. =e used
Bopelman, Covenpor, and Millsap#s
$(11'& tenitem scale to measure actual
search activity. :t includes "uestions
such as %<uring the past year have you
(& revised your resume, '& sent copies
of your resume to a prospective
employer, *& read the classifed
advertisements in the newspaper, ,&
gone on a job interview, and 9& tal!ed
to friends or relatives about getting a
new job> The response format is
yesDno, and the alphas were .68 and .6'
for the two samples.
Intentions to leave. Three items were
adapted from Eorn et al. $(16,&; %<o
you intend to leave the organization in
the ne-t (' months>,% %Eow strongly
do you feel about leaving the
organization within the ne-t ('
months>,% and %Eow li!ely is it that you
will leave the organization in the ne-t
(' months>% 0n averaged composite
was used in the analysis $a 5 .19 and .
12&.
Voluntary turnover. Aoth organizations
provided a list of all voluntary and
involuntary leavers for a ('month
period following each survey ad
ministration. Maertz and Fampion
defned voluntary turnover incidents as
%:nstances wherein management agrees
that the employee had the physical
opportunity to continue employment
with the company, at the time of
termination% $(116; 98&. To confrm
that their leaving had been voluntary,
we attempted to contact all leavers.
Aecause some of
them ha+ also le6t their localities, 8e 8ere only
able to contact "7 o6 the ! )rocery chain
-ol'ntary lea-ers* Ho8e-er, this (ro-e+ to be an
im(ortant check on the re(ortin) system, as A o6
these lea-ers inter-ie8e+ in+icate+ that their
+e(art'res 8ere some8hat less than -ol'ntary*
0They 6elt (ress're to lea-e b't 8ere not 6ire+*9 To
be conser-ati-e, 8e omitte+ these A (eo(le an+ all
the in-ol'ntary lea-ers 6rom the analyses* <n the
hos(ital sam(le, 8e 8ere able to contact ! o6 =
-ol'ntary lea-ers, each o6 8hom re(orte+ lea-in)
-ol'ntarily* Th's, the (.-al'es 8ere a((ro/imately
"! (ercent 6or )rocery em(loyees 0total -ol'ntary
lea-ers o't o6 sel6.i+enti6ie+ res(on+ent sam(le9
an+ "A (ercent 6or hos(ital em(loyees*
RESFLTS
De-elo(ment o6 Job Embe++e+ness
Job embe++e+ness is an a))re)ate 6orme+ 6rom si/
+imensions 0La8, Won), @ Mobley, "2239* More
s(eci6ically, its in+icators are ca'ses o6 embe++e+.
ness an+ not re6lections 0MacCall'm @ Bro8ne,
"22A9* The s'r-ey instr'ment meas'res three ca'sal
Gnot e66ectGin+icators o6 the +imensions 6or
embe++e+nessE 6it, links, an+ sacri6ice* Dote that o'r
constr'ct is not a latent 6actor that in6l'ences e66ect
in+icators* %'t another 8ay, 8e +o not -ie8 bein)
embe++e+ as ca'sin) a (erson to )o o't an+ )et
marrie+, b'y a ho'se, or increase links 8ith his or
her or)anization* Rather, those acti-ities ca'se the
(erson to become embe++e+* <n a (ath +ia)ram,
ca'sal arro8s 8o'l+ )o 6rom the ca'sal in+icators
0items9 to the si/ +imensions an+ 6rom the +imen.
sions to the a))re)ate constr'ct 0La8 et al*, "2239*
<n a++ition, it sho'l+ be note+ that ;ob embe+.
+e+ness is not a 'ni6ie+ constr'ctGit is a m'lti .
+imensional a))re)ate o6 the on. an+ o66.the.;ob
6orces that mi)ht kee( someone at a ;ob* We +i+ not
e/(ect the si/ +imensions to be hi)hly correlate+
8ith one another 0altho')h some mi)ht be9* >or
e/am(le, 8e ha+ no reason to belie-e that on.the.
;ob links 8o'l+ be relate+ to o66.the.;ob sacri6ice or
that on.the.;ob 6it 8o'l+ be relate+ to o66.the.;ob
links*
?n the basis o6 o'r +e6inition o6 the constr'ct
an+ its constit'ent (arts, 8e 6irst assi)ne+ each o6
the s'r-ey :'estions to one o6 the si/ embe++e+.
ness +imensions* >or the +ata )athere+ 6rom the
)rocery store em(loyees, 8e then con+'cte+ an
e/(loratory 6actor analysis on the items in each o6
the si/ +imensions to assess 8hether the items
8ithin each +imension 8ere reasonably correlate+*
Thir+, 8e calc'late+ al(ha reliabilities 6or each
+imension, not beca'se they 8ere (artic'larly
-ali+ 6or ca'sal in+icators, b't sim(ly to obtain
some e-i+ence that the items 8ithin a +imension
8ere internally consistent 0Bollen @ Lenno/,
"22"9* The ,((en+i/ s'mmarizes the 6inal set o6
items +eri-e+ 6rom these 6actor analyses an+
re(orts the al(has 6or the t8o sam(les* >o'rth, 8e
create+ an a-era)e+ com(osite -ariable 6or each
+imension* The n'mber o6 items (er +imension
ran)e+ 6rom three to ten* >inally, 8e create+ an
a))re)ate meas're o6 embe++e+ness by com('tin)
the mean o6 the si/ +imensions 0a mean o6 means9*
Th's, the com(osite e:'ally 8ei)hts the in6l'ence
o6 the +istinct +imensions* >or the hos(ital
em(loyees, 8e re(eate+ the basic (rocess*
Ho8e-er, as note+ in the Meas'res section, at the
hos(ital 8e a++e+ si/ items to the :'estionnaire
an+ com(osites 0sho8n in the ,((en+i/9* The al(ha
reliability 0'sin) all the items9 6or this o-erall
meas're 8as *37 6or the )rocery em(loyees an+ *3=
6or the hos(ital em(loyees* Tables " an+ sho8 the
means, stan+ar+ +e-iations, an+ correlations 6or all
-ariables in this st'+y*
Descri(ti-e <n6ormation
The correlations sho8 that embe++e+ness is re.
late+ to com(lementary 8ork.relate+ constr'cts*
Embe++e+ness is (ositi-ely, si)ni6icantly, an+
mo+erately correlate+ 8ith ;ob satis6action 0rBs M *#A
an+ *7=, )rocery an+ hos(ital, both % 1 *!"9 an+
or)anizational commitment 0rBs M *## an+ *7#, % 1 *
!"9* ,s 6'rther e-i+ence o6 con-er)ent -ali+ity, 6it
to or)anizationGthe +imension hy(othesize+ to be
most closely relate+ to the abo-e.mentione+ a66ec.
ti-e meas'resGis (ositi-ely an+ stron)ly correlate+
8ith ;ob satis6action .r2s 0 *7 an+ *=, % 1 *!"9 an+
or)anizational commitment 0rBs M *73 an+ *7, % 1 *
!"9* ,lso, embe++e+ness is ne)ati-ely relate+ to ;ob
search .r2s 0 *# an+ *2, % 1 *!"9 an+ ;ob
alternati-es .r2s 0 *", % 1 *"!, an+ *!=, n*s*9, as
8e e/(ecte+* The more (eo(le are embe++e+, the
less they search an+ the lo8er the (robability they
(ercei-e alternati-es* <n+icati-e o6 +iscriminant
-ali+ity an+ as e/(ecte+, the none66ecti-e
+imensions o6 embe++e+ness a((ear only 8eakly
relate+ to the tra+itional meas'res o6 em(loyee
attachment* >or e/am(le, or)anizational links is not
hi)hly correlate+ 8ith ;ob satis6action 0rBs M *!A
an+ *"!, n*s*9 or or)anizational commit ment 0rBs M *
"7, % N *!7, an+ *3, ( N *!"9* ,lso as e/(ecte+, the
comm'nity.base+ s'b+imensions o6 embe++e+ness
e/hibit )enerally lo!er correlations 8ith o-erall ;ob
satis6action an+ o-erall or)anizational commitment
than their or)anization.base+ co'nter(arts* <n s'm,
+ata 6rom these t8o sam(les
!!" Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez """"
TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations, Grocery Store Chain'
Gariable Mean s.d. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
1. Goluntary turnover 0.10 0.30
2. :ntent to leave 2.32 1.24 .30**
3. 3ob satisfaction 3.18 0.52 -.22** -.40"*
4. +rganizational
commitment
3.09 0.50 -.22** -.55** .46**
5. 3ob alternatives 3.47 1.20 .23** .32** -.09 .44*"
6. 3ob search behavior 3.31 2.66 .16** .43** -.30** -.,(HH .*4HH
7. 3ob embeddedness
2.62 0.40 -.24** -.41** .43** .44** -.12 -.24"*
8. Fit to community 3.98 0.62 -.02 -.09 .19" .07 .08 -.03 .66**
9. Fit to organization 3.51 0.62 -.18** -.53** .52** .58** -.17** -.32"* .58** .19"
10. /in!s to community -0.04 0.85 -.18" -.12 .04 .08 -.02 -.12 .63** .28" .13 *
11. /in!s to organization 1.27 0.60 -.11 -.14* .03 .15* -.11 -.06
.,*HH
.08 .08 .22**
12. Fommunity-related
3.78 0.69
.11
.12 .17** .14* -.04 .01 .67** .66*" .13* .26** .19**
sacrifce
13. +rganizationrelated 3.23 0.66 -.22** -.51** .65** .58** -.20** -.32** .78** .15* .63** .12 .01 .14*
sacrifce
14. 3ob embeddedness, 2.67 0.44 .14* .14* .17** .13* .02 -.03 .56** .85** .19'" A7*" .20** .88**
community
15. 3ob embeddedness, 2.57 0.55 -.24** -.57** .60** .64** -.22** -.34** .74** .20** .79*" .23** .49** .21**
organization
16. 3ob satisfaction, pay 2.90 0.89 -.34** -.29** .64** .32** -.18** -.26** .38** .21** .23** .12 .08 .22**
17. 3ob satisfaction, 2.71 0.76 -.11 -.26** .67** .30** -.08 -.19** .27" -.01 .36" .01 .10 .05
promotion
18. 3ob satisfaction, 3.63 0.95 .06 .22** .67** .26** .03 -.15* .22** .11 .36** .02 .05 .01
supervision
19. 3ob satisfaction, 3.42 0.67 .09 .26*" .50" .18** .02 -.17*" .32** .18** .24** .01 -.01 .19"*
fringe benefts
20. 3ob satisfaction,
contingent
2.80 0.88 .14* .24** .81** .36** .06 -.23*" .32** .13* .,8HH -.01 .06 .13*
rewards
21. 3ob satisfaction, 3.12 0.66 .02 .12 .56** .22** .06 -.14* -.03 -.03 .23** -.25"* -.25** -.06
operating conditions
cowor!ers
3.55 0.67 -.33" -.35** .63** .25** -.02 -.20** .43"* .27" .41" .17** .09
.',%%
23. 3ob satisfaction, nature 3.64 0.76 -.19** -.48** .64** .50*" -.14* -.30** .52** .24** .53*" .24** .09 .28""
of the wor!
communication
2.87 0.82 -.01 -.17** .74** .28" -.01 -.10 .12 .02 .34** -.15* -.08 -.02
25. +rganizational
commitment,
2.85 0.75 -.17" -.49*" .67** .76"
.21** -.36** .42** .07 .61"* .01 .17** .11

a.ective
26. +rganizational
commitment,
3.27 0.81 .18** .28"* .01 .66** -.48** -.16* .18** .01 .19** .08 .11 .02
continuance
27. +rganizational 3.13 0.55 .10 .41** .35*" .71** -.19** -.38** .33** .09 .45** .09 -.01 .18**
normative
n = (22 for column 1 (turnover); n ranges from 219 to 232 for all other variables. Column 1 reports point-biserial
correlations; all other columns report product-moment correlations.
* p < .89
*" p < .01
indicated evidence of convergent and
discriminant validity for job
embeddedness.
Tests of Hypotheses
Eypothesis ( posits that
embeddedness will be negatively
correlated with employees# intentions
to leave and with turnover. 0s noted in
Tables ( and ', the productmoment
correlations in the two samples
between embeddedness and intentions
to leave are
.41 and -.47 (p < !1", and

the pointbiserial correlations between
embeddedness and voluntary turnover
are -.24 and .'9 (p I .8(&.
These results suggest that a negative
relationship e-ists between being
embedded in an organization and
intentions to leave as well as between
embeddment and actual voluntary
leaving. Eypothesis ( is supported
across both samples.
Eypothesis 2 asserts that job
embeddedness will improve the
prediction of voluntary turnover, aug
menting prediction attributable to job
satisfaction and organizational
commitment. Tables * and , present
the results when turnover is logistically
regressed onto the overall aggregated
measures. 0mong grocery employees,
job embeddedness signifcantly
improves the prediction of turnover
1112 Academy of Management Journal December
2001 Mitchell, Haltom. Lee, Sablynski, and Erez 1113
T"*+& ,
Continued
13 14 15 16 17 18 1 20 21 22 23 24 25
26
.
16!
.
.26!!
.
53**
.22** .42**
.
48**
.02 .46*" .48**
.
26"
.07 .32" .13* .30**
.
55"
.18" .37** .43** .29** .16*
.
50**
.11 .47** .51** .55" .57" .26**
.
32**
-.10 .17** .22** .26** .34"* .18** .37**
.
37**
.27** .40** .31** .26** .44** .27** .40** .22**
.
46**
.27** .55** .36** .35** .35*" .25** .39*" .23" .48**
.
38!!
#.05 .34!! .28!! .43!! .52!! .22!! .56!! .53!" .38!! . 41"
.
5"!
.11 .68!! .36"" .45!! .44!! .31!! .55!! .35!! . 36" .54!" .54!!
.
24**
.04 .24** .11 .01 -.05 -.03 -.02 -.08 .02 .11 -.15* .11
.
40""
.15* .43*" .22** .19** .17** .12 .24" .24** .15" .46** .25" .52** .15*
0,/
2
M *73, % N *!7; Wal+ statistic M *7#, % N *!7;
(se'+o (artial r 0 .*!39, a6ter the e66ects o6 )en+er,
;ob satis6action, an+ or)anizational commitment are
controlle+ 0Table A9* ,mon) hos(ital em(loyees, ;ob
embe++e+ness also si)ni6icantly im(ro-es
(re+iction o6 t'rno-er 8ith the same -ariables con.
trolle+ 0!/
2
M 7*2, % 1 *!"; Wal+ statistic M #*27, %
N *!"; (se'+o (artial r 0 *"#; Table #9* <n s'm,
Hy(othesis is s'((orte+ in both sam(les*
Dote that the (.-al'es re(orte+ abo-e are one.
taile+ 0chi.s:'are (Bs +i-i+e+ by t8o9* ?ne mi)ht
le)itimately ask 8hether tests o6 im(ro-ement in
chi.s:'are sho'l+ be one.taile+* Beca'se chi.
s:'are is +eri-e+ 8ith s:'are+ -al'es, +irectional .
ity cannot be rea+ily +etermine+ -ia this test sta.
tistic 0that is, +irectionality is Cs:'are+ a8ayC9* <n
res(onse, 8e note that o'r conce(t o6 ;ob embe+.
+e+ness clearly s(eci6ies a +irection 0the more em.
be++e+ness, the less t'rno-er9* <n a++ition, +irec.
tionality is also e/(licitly in+icate+ by e/(onential
b an+ +irectly teste+ 8ith the Wal+ statistic* Th's,
there is a theoretical basis and an em(irical reason
to ;'sti6y o'r +irectional inter(retation o6 chi.
s:'are*
Hy(othesis A hol+s that ;ob embe++e+ness 8ill
im(ro-e (re+iction o6 -ol'ntary t'rno-er, )oin)
abo-e an+ beyon+ (ercei-e+ alternati-es an+ ;ob
search as a (re+ictor* ,mon) the )rocery store em.
(loyees, ;ob embe++e+ness si)ni6icantly im(ro-es
(re+iction o6 t'rno-er 0FB M $*"3, % 1 *!"; Wal+
statistic M 7*$7, % 1 *!"; (se'+o (artial r M .*!9
a6ter the e66ects o6 )en+er, (ercei-e+ alternati-es,
an+ ;ob search are controlle+ 0Table A9* ,mon) the
hos(ital em(loyees, ;ob embe++e+ness si)ni6i.
TABLE #
$es%lts of Lo&istic $e&ression Analysis of 'ol%ntary Turnover among @rocery =or!ersa
Hypothesis ( Hypothesis # Hypothesis )
'aria*le b +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r b +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r b +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r
@ender 0.85 0.07 .00 1.14 0.05 .00 1.10 0.02 .00
3ob satisfaction 0.45 1.95
t
.00 0.23 5.21** -.19
+rganizational
commitment
0.44 1.91
1
.08 1.07 0.01 .00
3ob alternatives 2.23 4.99** .18 2.51 5.54** .20
3ob search 1.00 0.00 .00 0.94 0.25 .00
3ob embeddedness 0.28 2.54* -.08 0.16 5.65** -.20 0.27 2.31
1
-.06
0-
2
2.58* 6.18** 2.37
t
Galues of b above (.8 indicate a positive e.ect, values at (.8 indicate no e.ect, and values below
(.8 indicate a negative e.ect.
t
p<.10
*p .05
** p .8(
+netailed
tests.
TABLE )
$es%lts of Lo&istic $e&ression of Analysis 'ol%ntary T%rnover a-on& Hospital +or.ersa
Hypothesis ( Hypothesis # Hypothesis )
'aria*le b +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r * +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r b +ald
Statistic
,se%do
,artial r
@ender 1.43 0.42 .00 1.50 0.53 .00 1.45 0.43 .00
3ob satisfaction 0.50 4.55*
.13 0.53 3.15* -.09

+rganizational
commitment
1.99 1.52 .00 3.25 3.28* .10
3ob alternatives 0.97 0.01 .00 1.21 0.59 .00
3ob search 1.34 10.62*** .25 1.32 8.47** .22
3ob embeddedness
0.19 4.95** -.14 0.22 6.76** -.18 0.18 5.20** -.16
0-
2
5.29** 2.*4HH 9.42HH
a
Galues of b above (.8 indicate a positive e.ect, values at (.8 indicate no e.ect, and values below (.8
indicate a negative e.ect.
*p .05
** p .01
***p
.88(
+netailed tests.
cantly improves prediction as well $0&>
5 2.*4, p < .8(7 =ald statistic 5 /0/, p <
.8(7 pseudo partial r 5 .(6& after
gender, perceived alternatives, and job
search are controlled $Table ,&. Thus,
Eypothesis * is supported in both
samples.
Eypothesis , states that job
embeddedness will improve prediction
of turnover, augmenting prediction
achieved with job satisfaction and
organizational commitment $that is,
perceived desirability of movement&
and perceived alternatives and job
search $that is, perceived ease of
movement&. 0mong the grocery
wor!ers, job embeddedness marginally
improved prediction $0-
2
5 '.*2, p I .
847 =ald statistic 5 '.*(, p < .847
pseudo partial r = .84& with gender and
the perceived desirability and
perceived ease of movement controlled
for $Table *&. 0mong the hospital
wor!ers, job embed
2001 Mitchell, Haltom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez 1115
dedness signifcantly improved
prediction $0 5 1/0, p < .8(7 =ald
statistic 5 1(!, p < .01; pseudo partial
r = .(4& with these variables
controlled $Table ,&. :n sum,
Eypothesis , is largely supported.
D2SC3SS245
The current study is uni"ue in that it
develops and tests a new
organizational attachment construct;
job embeddedness. :t is important to
emphasize that embeddedness was
conceptualized specifically as
re?ecting the totality of forces that
constrain people from leaving their
current employment. :t captures those
factors that embed and !eep an
employee in her or his present
position. 0lthough other ideas,
constructs, and measures
hel(e+ to sha(e o'r thinkin) 0an+ ha-e some em.
(irical associations 8ith (arts o6 embe++e+ness9,
;ob embe++e+ness, es(ecially its o66.the.;ob com.
(onents, re(resents a ne8 (ers(ecti-e on 8hy (eo(le
stay on their ;obs*
The em(irical research 8e ha-e (resente+ (ro.
-i+es some initial s'((ort 6or ;ob embe++e+ness* <n
t8o se(arate in-esti)ations, 8e +emonstrate+ that
(eo(le 8ho are embe++e+ in their ;obs ha-e less
intent to lea-e an+ +o not lea-e as rea+ily as those
8ho are not embe++e+ 0Hy(othesis "9* <n a++ition,
each o6 the si/ com(onents o6 embe++e+ness 8as
si)ni6icantly relate+ to t'rno-er in at least one o6
the sam(les 0see Tables " an+ 9* These +ata s'))est
that o'r em(hasis on some o66.the.;ob an+ none6.
6ecti-e ca'ses o6 t'rno-er has some (re+icti-e -a.
li+ity* The +ata also sho8 that ;ob embe++e+ness
a++s to the (re+iction o6 t'rno-er attrib'table to
stan+ar+ meas'res o6 ;ob satis6action an+ or)aniza.
tional commitment 0Hy(othesis 9 an+ to that at .
trib'table to (ercei-e+ ;ob alternati-es an+ ;ob
search beha-iors 0Hy(othesis A9*
Job embe++e+ness also )oes beyon+ a combina.
tion o6 meas'res o6 the (ercei-e+ +esirability an+
ease o6 mo-ement 0;ob satis6action, or)anizational
commitment an+ ;ob alternati-es, ;ob search9 in
(re+ictin) t'rno-er* Th's, ;ob embe++e+ness as.
sesses ne8 an+ meanin)6'l -ariance in t'rno-er
that is in e/cess o6 that (re+icte+ by the ma;or
-ariables incl'+e+ in almost all the ma;or mo+els
o6 t'rno-er 0Hy(othesis #9* ?'r em(irical 6in+in)s
sho8 that ;ob embe++e+ness com(lements an+ e/.
ten+s researchersB 'n+erstan+in) o6 the antece+ents
to lea-in) 0an+ stayin)9*
We are (lease+ 8ith these initial res'lts b't
8o'l+ hasten to (oint o't that there are many 'n.
ans8ere+ :'estions* Sch8ab note+ t8o +eca+es a)o
that Cconstr'ct -ali+ity is o6ten a se:'ential
(rocessC 0"23!E "!9 an+ that Cinitial constr'ct -al .
i+ation 8ill likely lea+ to mo+i6ication o6 the in.
str'ment an+ (erha(s in the in-esti)atorBs +e6ini tion
o6 the constr'ctC 0"23!E "!9* More recently,
Hanisch, H'lin, an+ Rozno8ski state+, in a +isc's.
sion o6 t'rno-er research, that Cit takes time to
conce(t'alize im(ortant constr'cts, re6ine them,
acc'rately assess them, an+ then st'+y the antece+.
ents an+ conse:'ences o6 these constr'ctsC 0"223E
#$#9*
These :'otes (oint to some o6 the limitations in o'r
8ork* >irst, t'rno-er st'+ies 'sin) act'al t'rno-er as
the criterion 0instea+ o6 intent to lea-e9 take a lon)
time to con+'ct, 's'ally abo't t8o to three years* The
research re(orte+ here commence+ in "227* Since
then, ne8 i+eas an+ research ha-e a((eare+ in the
literat're* >or e/am(le, the recent 8ork on
socialization 0Cable @ J'+)e, "22$; Cable @
%arsons, "2229 s'))ests that socialization (ractices
may be hi)hly relate+ to or)anizational 6it, an+
8ork by Barrick an+ Mo'nt 0"22$9 an+ by Chan
0"22$9 s'))ests that conscientio'sness may mo+er.
ate the relationshi( bet8een embe++e+ness an+
t'rno-er* These chan)es nee+ to be incor(orate+ in
6't're 8ork* Secon+, the ;ob embe++e+ness con.
str'ct is 'n+er +e-elo(ment* >or e/am(le, 8e a++e+
some items in the secon+ st'+y re(orte+ here, an+
more chan)es may occ'r in the 6't're* B't ne8
constr'cts are al8ays e-ol-in)* >or e/am(le, t8o
(o('lar meas'res o6 ;ob satis6action, the Job
Descri(ti-e <n+e/ an+ the <n+e/ o6 ?r)anizational
Reactions, ha-e chan)e+ s'bstantially o-er the
years 0D'nham, Smith, @ Brackb'rn, "2==; <ronson,
Smith, Brannick, 5ibson, @ %a'l, "2329* Moreo-er,
it is im(ortant to (oint o't that, to the e/tent to
8hich the reliability an+ -ali+ity o6 ;ob
embe++e+ness is increase+ thro')h s'bse:'ent re.
search an+ +e-elo(ment, the res'lts (resente+ here
may be conser-ati-e* Thir+, 8e clearly +i+ not test
;ob embe++e+ness a)ainst all (ossible com(etitors*
We starte+ 8ith the t8o most 6re:'ently researche+
attit'+es 0;ob satis6action an+ or)anizational com.
mitment9 an+ the t8o -ariables most 6re:'ently
cite+ as re6lectin) e/ternal 6orces 6or lea-in)
0search an+ alternati-es9* ,++itional 8ork is nee+e+
to see ho8 embe++e+ness com(lements an+
s'((lements other -ariables in the literat're*
Some em(irical an+ conce(t'al iss'es also clearly
nee+ 6'rther attention* <n terms o6 em(irical 8ork,
8e see three ma;or research +irections* >irst, as
mentione+ abo-e, the items com(osin) o'r si/
+imensions nee+ a++itional +e-elo(ment; some
items may nee+ to be +ro((e+ an+ others a++e+* >or
e/am(le, a (otentially im(ortant or)anizational
6actor that 8e +o not no8 incl'+e is the relationshi(
an em(loyee has 8ith his or her s'(er-isor* Ha-in)
a )reat boss may be har+ to )i-e '( 0a sacri6ice
6actor9* ,nother e/am(le is that items re6lectin)
(olitical or reli)io's ties sho'l+ (erha(s be a++e+ to
the links.to.comm'nity +imension*
, secon+ +irection concerns ho8 8e +eci+e+ to
incl'+e or e/cl'+e items* Since ;ob embe++e+ness is
concei-e+ o6 as a hetero)eneo's totality o6 6orces,
many o6 8hich may be in+e(en+ent, hi)h al(has
8ithin the si/ s'b+imensions an+ hi)h correlations
across +imensions sho'l+ not necessarily be e/.
(ecte+* , )lobal meas're o6 o-erall embe++e+ness
0s'ch as CHo8 st'ck +o yo' 6eel in yo'r ;obLC9 an+
)lobal meas'res o6 the s'b+imensions as 8ell may
be 8hat 8e nee+ to +eci+e 8hether )i-en items an+
s'b+imensions are acce(table* >or 6o'r o6 the si/
s'b+imensions 06it an+ sacri6ice on an+ o66 the ;ob9,
8e incl'+e+ a sin)le )eneral item 06or 6it to or)ani .
zation, it 8as C< 6eel like < am a )oo+ match 6or the
"""$ Academy of Management Journal December
com(anyC9* Ho8e-er, these sin)le items are (oten.
tially 'nreliable* Moreo-er, both links +imensions
ha-e no s'mmary item* Ha-in) reliable an+ -ali+
)lobal estimates o6 o-erall embe++e+ness an+ the
si/ s'b+imensions 8o'l+ hel( in any 6't're item
analysis*
, thir+ research +irection relates to o'r res'lts
8ith these t8o sam(les* ,t the time that 8e +esi)ne+
these st'+ies, "22=.23 cens's +ata in+icate+ abo't
"7 (ercent o6 (eo(le relocate+ 0mo-e+9 8hen they
chan)e+ ;obs* <n a++ition, some o6 o'r (re-io's
research at a hos(ital s'))este+ abo't ! (ercent o6
the (eo(le 8ho le6t ha+ relocate+* There6ore, 8e
trie+ to 6in+ o't 8hether those 8ho :'it in o'r
sam(les ha+ le6t their areas* Do one 8e reache+ ha+
relocate+ 0A o6 the )rocery clerks an+ # o6 the
hos(ital 8orkers 8ere no lon)er at their liste+ (hone
n'mbersE they may ha-e mo-e+ b't 8e +o not kno8
6or s're9* These +ata are im(ortant beca'se o'r o66.
the.;ob +imensions assess iss'es that mi)ht be most
salient 6or (eo(le consi+erin) alternati-es that
in-ol-e+ mo-in)* Ho8e-er, it is im(ortant to note
that i6 the (eo(le 8e +i+nBt reach ha+ in+ee+ mo-e+,
the (ercenta)es 0A o6 "7,# o6 =9 in o'r st'+ies
8o'l+ 6it national norms* <n a++ition, beca'se ;ob
embe++e+ness correlates si)ni6icantly 8ith search
beha-iors 0G *# an+ G*2, % 1 *!", in the t8o
sam(les9, it can be in6erre+ that hi)hly embe++e+
(eo(le search less* >or both stayers an+ lea-ers, 8e
cannot tell the n'mber o6 a-ailable alternati-es that
8ere (asse+ o-er or +iscar+e+ beca'se they in-ol-e+
mo-in)* To the e/tent that mo-in) 8as not an o(tion
6or these em(loyees, the res'lts 8e (resent are likely
to be conser-ati-e* Embe++e+ness may ha-e e-en
stron)er e66ects 6or (eo(le in (ro6essions in 8hich
chan)in) ;obs 's'ally in-ol-es chan)in) locations
0s'ch as aca+emics9*
There is conce(t'al 8ork to be +one as 8ell* We
reco)nize that other constr'cts control (art o6 the
-ariance in t'rno-er* More s(eci6ically, the Wal+
statistics re(orte+ in Tables A an+ # clearly sho8
that ;ob satis6action, or)anizational commitment,
;ob search, an+ (ercei-e+ alternati-es control -ari .
ance in t'rno-er that is not controlle+ by ;ob em.
be++e+ness* We ne-er en-isione+ ;ob embe++e+.
ness as re(lacin) those other constr'cts* What is
nee+e+, then, is a better 'n+erstan+in) o6 the con.
str'ct s(ace that these -ariables ha-e in common
an+ o6 8here they +i66er*
Job embe++e+ness may also be relate+ to other
+e(en+ent -ariables* ,ltho')h it 8as +esi)ne+ s(e.
ci6ically to (re+ict 8hy (eo(le stay on a ;ob 0an+ in
that sense, its ('r(ose is +i66erent 6rom those o6
other constr'cts, s'ch as ;ob satis6action an+ or)an.
izational i+entity9, ;ob embe++e+ness may also (re.
+ict -ariables that are similarly bene6icial to or)an
izations* %eo(le 8ho are more embe++e+, 6or
e/am(le, may be absent less, 8ork har+er, (er6orm
better, an+ en)a)e in more or)anizational citizen.
shi( beha-iors than (eo(le 8ho are less embe++e+*
These :'estions merit 6'rther research*
, 6inal conce(t'al iss'e that nee+s attention is
8hether ;ob embe++e+ness co'l+ act'ally
6acilitate lea-in)* There are t8o rather in+irect
8ays this co'l+ ha((en* >irst, (eo(le ha-in) many
links are likely C8ell net8orke+*C Stron)
net8orks, es(ecially o66.the.;ob, mi)ht lea+ to
'nsolicite+ ;ob o66ers or kno8le+)e abo't other
(ositions* ,lso, bein) hi)hly embe++e+ at 8ork
mi)ht lea+ to 8ork.6amily role con6licts, an+ s'ch
con6licts mi)ht res'lt in t'rno-er* Th's, altho')h
;ob embe++e+ness 6oc'ses on ho8 st'ck
em(loyees are in their c'rrent sit'ations, s'ch
st'ckness mi)ht res'lt in secon+ary circ'mstances
that e-ent'ally ca'se them to lea-e*
, more )eneral critical :'estion is 8hy research.
ers an+ others sho'l+ care abo't embe++e+ness*
Ho8 im(ortant is itL What +oes it a++ to the liter .
at're an+ to o'r 'n+erstan+in) o6 lea-in) an+ stay.
in)L ?b-io'sly, one ar)'ment 6or its im(ortance is
the statistical 6in+in)s that s'((ort the hy(otheses*
Ho8e-er, one co'l+ ar)'e that these increments are
not terribly lar)e an+ may not be lar)e eno')h to
8arrant the 'se o6 a ne8 constr'ct an+ a ne8
meas're*
We think there are at least three reasons, besi+es
the +ata, that s'((ort its conce(t'al -al'e* >irst, ;ob
embe++e+ness ca(t'res some theoretical i+eas
0s'((orte+ by recent research9 that o66.the.;ob an+
nona66ecti-e 6actors can in6l'ence t'rno-er* Th's,
the embe++e+ness constr'ct re6lects some c'rrent
thinkin) abo't retention* <t a++s coherence 0or clar.
ity9 to the e/tensi-e list o6 8ork an+ non8ork 6ac.
tors that create 6orces 6or stayin) on a ;ob*
Secon+, thinkin) abo't ;ob embe++e+ness is :'ite
+i66erent 6rom thinkin) abo't increasin) satis6action
or commitment* That is, the le-ers or 6actors that
researchers, as 8ell as mana)ers, nee+ 6or mana)in)
t'rno-er are conce%tually -ery +i66erent* >or
e/am(le, links to or)anization can be increase+ by
makin) (eo(le mentors an+ ('ttin) them on lon).
term (ro;ects* Links an+ 6it to comm'nity can be
in6l'ence+ by (ro-i+in) reso'rces an+ s'((ort 6or
comm'nity acti-ities an+ in-ol-ement* ?n. an+ o66.
the.;ob (erks linke+ to lon)e-ity can increase
sacri6ice iss'es* Th's, ;ob embe++e+ness (oints
theory, research, and (ractice in some ne8 +irec.
tions*
Thir+, other a((roaches 0e*)*, Lee @ Mitchell,
"22#9 ha-e s'))este+ that many (eo(le lea-e their
;obs 6or reasons other than +issatis6action 0shocks,
or s(eci6ic e-ents, are a key e/am(le9 an+ many
2001 Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez 1117
(eo(le lea-e 8itho't +oin) a ;ob search* Bein) less
embe++e+ +oes not ('sh an em(loyee to lea-e a ;ob
as +issatis6action +oes 06or instance, someone can
ha-e a lo8 le-el o6 embe++e+ness b't be satis6ie+
8ith a ;ob9* What lo8 le-els o6 embe++e+ness may
+o is make em(loyees s'sce(tible to shocks an+
+issatis6action.i6 they occ'r, it is easier to search
an+Jor lea-e* Th's, 'n+erstan+in) ho8 embe++e+.
ness mi)ht +e6lect shocks an+ +iminish ;ob search
may increase 'n+erstan+in) o6 t'rno-er*
<n s'mmary, 8e belie-e that this st'+y makes an
im(ortant contrib'tion to the or)anizational attach .
ment literat're* <t s'))ests some ne8 an+ intri)'.
in) 8ays to think abo't em(loyee retention* ,((ar .
ently, bein) embe++e+ in an or)anization an+ a
comm'nity is associate+ 8ith re+'ce+ intent to
lea-e an+ re+'ce+ act'al lea-in)* These 6in+in)s
a((ear to s'((ort the c'rrent em(hasis in the aca.
+emic an+ (o('lar (ress on the nee+ 6or or)aniza .
tions to be concerne+ 8ith em(loyeesB li-es both on
an+ o66 the ;ob* <t also s'))ests that a 6oc's on
money an+ ;ob satis6action as the le-ers 6or reten.
tion may be too limite+* Many non6inancial an+
nonattit'+inal 6actors (lace (eo(le in net8orks o6
6orces that kee( them in their ;obs* >'rther ('rs'it
o6 these i+eas 8ill, 8e ho(e, increase 'n+erstan+.
in) o6 8hy (eo(le stay, 8hy they lea-e, an+ ho8
those actions can be in6l'ence+*
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%ress*
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3AE #3$#2"*
,%%EDD<O
Res'lts o6 >actor ,nalysis o6 Job Embe++e+ness <temsB
>it to Comm'nity aBs M *=3, *=2
< really lo-e the (lace 8here < li-e 0*==* *=#9* The
8eather 8here < li-e is s'itable 6or me 0*7A, *729* This
comm'nity is a )oo+ match 6or me 0*3#, *3=9* < think o6
the comm'nity 8here < li-e as home 0*3!, *3!9* The
area 8here < li-e o66ers the leis're acti-ities that < like
0*=!, *$29*
>it to ?r)anization aBs M *=7, *3$
b
Both or)anizationsE < like the members o6 my 8ork
)ro'( 0*7=, *7A9* My co8orkers are similar to me 0*7"P#!9*
My ;ob 'tilizes my skills an+ talents 8ell 0*=, *3!9* < 6eel
like < am a )oo+ match 6or this com(any 0*3!, *39* < 6it
8ith the com(anyBs c'lt're 0*=, *=9* < like the a'thority
an+ res(onsibility < ha-e at this com(any 0*$=, *=#9*
Hos(ital onlyE My -al'es are com(atible 8ith the or.
)anizationBs -al'es 0*$39* < can reach my (ro6essional )oals
8orkin) 6or this or)anization 0*==9* < 6eel )oo+ abo't my
(ro6essional )ro8th an+ +e-elo(ment 0*$29*
Links to Comm'nityQ aBs M *==, *7!
b
Both or)anizationsE ,re yo' c'rrently marrie+L 0*2A* *
2A9* <6 yo' are marrie+, +oes yo'r s(o'se 8ork o'tsi+e
the homeL 0*33, *2"9* Do yo' o8n the home yo' li-e inL
0*$=, *$79*
Hos(ital onlyE My 6amily roots are in this comm'nity
0*!$9* Ho8 many 6amily members li-e nearbyL 0*!=9* Ho8
many o6 yo'r close 6rien+s li-e nearbyL 0*"A9*
The 6actor loa+in)s 6or the t8o sam(les 0)rocery,
hos(ital9 are in (arentheses a6ter the items, 8ith the
)rocery sam(le loa+in) 6irst, then the hos(ital sam(le
loa+in)* ,l(has a((ear in the same or+er*
h
With a++itional items sho8n*
<tems ".A 6or links to comm'nity an+ links to or)an
ization 8ere stan+ar+ize+ be6ore bein) analyze+ or

bein) incl'+e+ in any com(osites*
Links to ?r)anizationQ aBs M *$7, *$
Ho8 lon) ha-e yo' been in yo'r (resent (ositionL
0*$7, *A9* Ho8 lon) ha-e yo' 8orke+ 6or this com(anyL
0*=, *#$9* Ho8 lon) ha-e yo' 8orke+ in the
1)roceryJhos(ital9 in+'stryL 0*3A, *A=9* Ho8 many
co8orkers +o yo' interact 8ith re)'larlyL 0*#!, *7$9* Ho8
many co8orkers are hi)hly +e(en+ent on yo'L 0*#, *7=9*
Ho8 many 8ork teams are yo' onL 0*A=, *=A9* Ho8 many
8ork committees are yo' onL 0*73, *3"9*
Comm'nity.Relate+ Sacri6ice aBs M *$", *72
Lea-in) this comm'nity 8o'l+ be -ery har+ 0*=3, *3A9*
%eo(le res(ect me a lot in my comm'nity 0*3!, *=$9* My
nei)hborhoo+ is sa6e 0*$3* *379*
?r)anization.Relate+ Sacri6ice aBs M *3, *3
< ha-e a lot o6 6ree+om on this ;ob to +eci+e ho8 to
('rs'e my )oals 0*7$, *#29* The (erks on this ;ob are
o'tstan+in) 0*=A, *=79* < 6eel that (eo(le at 8ork res(ect
me a )reat +eal 0*#=, *#79* < 8o'l+ sacri6ice a lot i6 < le6t
this ;ob 0*7$, *7$9* My (romotional o((ort'nities are e/.
cellent here 0*=#, *$39* < am 8ell com(ensate+ 6or my
le-el o6 (er6ormance 0*$, *729* The bene6its are )oo+ on
this ;ob 0*$", *=#9* The health.care bene6its (ro-i+e+ by
this or)anization are e/cellent 0*73, *$=9* The retirement
bene6its (ro-i+e+ by this or)anization are e/cellent 0*$!,
*$!9* The (ros(ects 6or contin'in) em(loyment 8ith this
com(any are e/cellent 0*=!, *$79*
Terence R* Mitchell .trniAlu"!ashington"edu / is the E+.
8ar+ E* Carlson %ro6essor o6 B'siness ,+ministration
an+ a (ro6essor o6 (sycholo)y at the Fni-ersity o6 Wash.
in)ton* He earne+ his %h*D* in social (sycholo)y at the
Fni-ersity o6 <llinois* His c'rrent research interests in.
cl'+e em(loyee t'rno-er, em(loyee moti-ation, an+ +e.
cision makin)*
Brooks C* Holtom .brooks"holtomAmar)uette"edu / is an
assistant (ro6essor o6 or)anizational beha-ior at Mar:'e.
tte Fni-ersity* He earne+ his %h*D* at the Fni-ersity o6
Washin)ton* His (rimary research interests incl'+e or .
)anizational attachment an+ alternati-e 8ork arran)e .
ments*
Thomas W* Lee .orcasAu"!ashington"edu / is a (ro6essor
o6 h'man reso'rce mana)ement an+ or)anizational
beha-ior at the Fni-ersity o6 Washin)ton* He earne+ his
%h*D* in or)anizational st'+ies at the Fni-ersity o6
?re)on* His c'rrent research interests incl'+e em(loyee
t'rno-er, sta66in), an+ :'alitati-e an+ :'antitati-e
metho+s*
Chris J* Sablynski .chrissabBu"!ashington"edu / is a
+octoral st'+ent in the h'man reso'rce mana)ement an+
or)anizational beha-ior (ro)ram at the Fni-ersity o6
Washin)ton* His research interests incl'+e em(loyee
t'rno-er an+ +ys6'nctional beha-ior in or)anizations*
Miriam Erez .MerezAle"Cechnion"ac+5/ is a (ro6essor in
or)anizational beha-ior* She hol+s the Men+es >rance
Chair in Mana)ement an+ Economics at the >ac'lty o6
<n+'strial En)ineerin) an+ Mana)ement, Technion<srael
<nstit'te o6 Technolo)y*
!!" Mitchell, Holtom, Lee, Sablynski, and Erez """

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Why people stay: Using job embeddedness to predict voluntary turnover

Mitchell, Terence R;Holtom, Brooks C;Lee, Thomas W;Sablynski, Chris

.21 -.36 .42** .07 .61"* .01 .17** .11

.41 and -.47 (p < !1", and

.13 0.53 3.15* -.09

#7* 5reen8ich, CTE J,<

ization 8ere stan+ar+ize+ be6ore bein) analyze+ or

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