Pavement Engineering

Stress and Strain in flexible Pavements

1
Flexible pavements
Flexible pavements were classified by a
pavement structure having a relatively thin
asphalt wearingcoursewithlayersof granular
base and subbase being used to protect the
subgradefrombeingoverstressed.
This type of pavement design was primarily
based upon empiricism or experience, with
theory playing only a subordinate role in the
procedure.
2
Flexible pavements
However, the recent design and construction
changes brought about primarily by heavier
wheel loads, higher traffic levels and the
recognition of various independent distress
modes contributingto pavement failure (such
as rutting, shoving and cracking) have led to
the introduction and increased use of
stabilizedbaseandsubbasematerial.
3
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
The simplest wayto characterize thebehavior of
a flexible pavement under wheel loads is to
consider it asahomogeneoushalf-space.
A half-space has an infinitely large area and an
infinitedepthwithatopplaneonwhichtheloads
areapplied.
Theoriginal Boussinesq (1885) theorywas based
onaconcentratedloadappliedonanelastichalf -
space. The stresses, strains, and deflections due
to a concentrated load can be integrated to
obtainthoseduetoacircular loadedarea.
4
HOMOGENEOUS MASS
The theory can be used to determine the
stresses , strains, and deflections in the
subgrade if the modulus ratio between the
pavement and the subgrade is close to unity,
as exemplifiedbyathinasphalt surfaceanda
thingranular base.
5
Stress
Force per unit area
Units: MPa, psi, ksi
Types: bearing, shearing , axial
P
A
s =
Load
Area
=
6
Strain
Ratio of deformation caused by load to the original
length of material
Units: Dimensionless
Change in Length
Original Length
e =
DL
L
=
7
Deflection (D)
Change in length.
Deformation.
Units: mmor linear
D
Components of stress
under axisymetric
loading
9
Figure shows a homogeneous
half-spacesubjectedtoacircular
load with a radius a and a
uniformpressureq.
The half-space has an elastic
modulusEandaPoissonratiov.
A small cylindrical element with
center at adistance z belowthe
surface and r from the axis of
symmetryisshown.
Because of axisymmetry, there
are only three normal stresses,
and
z
,
r
,
t
, and one shear
stress,
rz
, whichisequal to
zr
.
Thesestressesarefunctionsof q,
r/a, andz/a.
Stresses at a point
Fromtheory it can be shown that at a given
point withinanylayer, 9stressesexist.
These stresses are comprised of 3 normal
stresses (
z
,
r
,
t
) actingperpendicular to the
element faceand
6shearingstresses
acting parallel to the face. Static equilibrium
conditions on the element show that the
shear stresses actingon intersectingfaces are
equal. Thus
(
10
Solutionbycharts
11
Foster and Ahlvin (1954)
resented charts for
determining vertical
stress
z
, radial stress
r
,
tangential stress
t
, shear
stress
rz
, and vertical
eflection w, as shown in
Figures.
Theloadisappliedover a
circular areawitharadius
aandanintensityq.
BecausethePoissonratio
has little effect on
stresses and deflection
Foster and Ahlvin
assumed the half space
to be imcompressible
withaPoissonratioof 0.5
12
13
14
15
Stresses at a point
16
After the stresses are obtained fromthe charts, the strains
canbeobtainedfrom
If the contact area consists of two
circles, thestressesandstrainscan
becomputedbysuperposition.
InapplyingBoussinesq'ssolutions, it isusuallyassumed
that the pavement above the subgrade has no
deformation, sothedeflectiononthepavement surface
isequal tothat onthetopof thesubgrade.
Solutions at Axis of Symmetry
17
When the load is applied over a single circular loaded area,
themost critical stress, strain, anddeflectionoccur under the
center of the circular area on the axis of symmetry, where

rz
=0and
r
=
t
, so
z
=
r
aretheprincipal stresses.
Flexible plate
The load applied from tire to pavement is similar to a
flexible plate with a radius a and a uniformpressure q.
The stresses beneath the center of the plate can be
determinedfrom
Solutions at Axis of Symmetry
18
Note that
z
, is independent of E and v, and
z
, is
independent of E. FromfollowingEqwecanget
The vertical deflection w can be determined
from
19
When v =0 .5, above Eq. can be simplified to
On the surface of the half-space, z =0 ; from Eq.
Rigid Plate
All the above analyses are based on the assumption
that theloadis appliedonaflexibleplate, suchas a
rubber tire.
If the load is applied on a rigid plate, such as that
used in a plate loading test, the deflection is the
same at all points on the plate , but the pressure
distributionunder theplateisnot uniform.
20
Differences between flexible and rigid plates.
The pressure distribution under a rigid plate can be expressed as (Ullidtz,1987 )
21
inwhichr isthedistancefromcenter tothepoint wherepressure
istobedeterminedandqistheaveragepressure, whichisequal
tothetotal loaddividedbythearea.
Thesmallest pressureisat thecenter andequal toone-half of the
averagepressure. Thepressureat theedgeof theplateisinfinity.
By integrating the point load over the area , it can be
shown that the deflection of the plate is
A comparison of with above Eq. indicates that the surface
deflection under a rigid plate is only 79%of that under the
center of auniformlydistributedload.
Thisisreasonablebecausethepressureunder therigidplate
is smaller near the center of the loaded area but greater
near theedge
Nonlinear mass
Boussinesq's solutions are based on the assumption
that the material that constitutes the half-space is
linear elastic. It iswell knownthat subgradesoilsare
not elastic and undergo permanent deformation
under stationaryloads.
However, under the repeated application of moving
traffic loads, most of the deformations are
recoverableandcanbeconsideredelastic.
22
Iterative Method To show the effect of nonlinearity of
granular materials on vertical stresses anddeflections, Huang
(1968a) divided the half-space into seven layers, as shown in
Figure,
Nonlinear mass
23
After the stresses are obtained, the elastic modulus of each layer is
determined from
inwhich isthestressinvariant, or thesumof
threenormal stresses; Eistheelasticmodulus
under thegivenstressinvariant; E
0
istheinitial
elastic modulus, or the modulus when the
stressinvariant iszero ; and isasoil constant
indicating the increas in elastic modulus per
unit increaseinstressinvariant .
Note that the stress invariant should include
both the effects of the applied load and the
geostaticstresses; it canbeexpressedas
24
25
in which
z,

r
and
t
, 0 r, and at are the
vertical, radial, and tangential stresses due to
loading ; y is the unit weight of soil ; z is the
distance below ground surface at which the
stress invariant is computed; and Ko is the
coefficient of earthpressureat rest.
Approximate Method
One approximate method to analyze a nonlinear
half-space is to divide it into a number of layers
and determine the stresses at the mid height of
each layer by Boussinesq's equations based on
linear theory.
26
Example
Figureshowsaflexiblepavement surfacesubjectedto
twocircular loads, each10in. indiameter andspaced
at 20in. oncenters. Thepressureonthecircular area
is 50psi. Determine the vertical stress, strain and
deflectionat point A, whichislocated10in. belowthe
center of onecircle. (E=10,000psi anda Poissonratio
=0.5).
27
Layered system concept
28
Layredsystem
Generally the analytical solution to the state
of stress or strain has several assumptions.
Theyare:
The material properties of each layer are
homogeneous, that isthepropertyat point Ai
isthesameat point Bi
Each layer has finite thickness except for the
lower layer, and all are infinite in the lateral
directions
29
Layredsystem
Each layer is isotropic, that is, the propertyat
aspecificpoint suchasAi isthesameinevery
directionor orientation
Full friction is developed between layers at
eachinterface
Surfaceshearingforces arenot present at the
surface
The stress solutions are characterized by two
material properties for each layer. They are
PoissonsratioandtheelasticmodulusE.
30
Two Layer system
31
Two Layer system
Typical flexiblepavementsarecomposedof layers
so that the moduli of elasticity decrease with
depth.
In the solution of the two layer problem,
certainessential assumptionsaremade:
The materials in the layers are assumed to be
homogeneous, isotropicandelastic.
The surface layer is assumed to be infinite in
extent in the lateral direction but of finite
depth, whereas the underlyinglayer is infinite
inboththehorizontal andvertical direction.
the layers are in continuous contact and that
thesurfacelayer isfreeof shearingandnormal
stressesoutsidetheloadedarea.
32
Two Layer system
Stress and deflection values as obtained by
Burmister are dependent upon the strength
ratioof thelayers, E
1
/E
2
,
whereE1andE2aremoduli of thereinforcing
andsubgradelayersrespectively
33
The vertical stress values under the center of a
circular plate for the two-layer system
34
Vertical stress distribution in a two - layer system . (After Burmister (1958) .)
35
Vertical interface stresses for two-layer systems . (After Huang (1969b) . )
36
Vertical surface deflections for two-layer systems. (After
Burmister (1943) )
Vertical surface deflection
Vertical Surface Deflection Vertical surface
deflections have been used as a criterion of
pavement design.
Above Figure can be used to determine the
surface deflections for two-layer systems. The
deflectionis expressedinterms of thedeflection
factor F
2
by
37
Vertical surface deflection
38
The deflection factor is a function of E
1
/E
2
and
h
1
/a. For a homogeneous half-space with h
1
la =
0, F
2
=1, soaboveEq. isidentical toEq.
when v =0 .5 . If the load is applied
by a rigid plate, then, from Eq ,
Vertical interface deflection
The vertical interface deflection has also been
usedasadesigncriterion.
39
Following Figure can be used to determine the
vertical interface deflection in a two-layer system
(Huang, 1969c) .
The deflection is expressed in terms of the
deflectionfactor Fby
40
Vertical interface deflections for two-layer systems . (After Huang (1969c) .)
Interface deflection factor Chart
Numbers on curves indicate offset distances in radii.41
Interface deflection factor Chart
Numbers on curves indicate offset distances in radii.42
Interface deflection factor Chart
Numbers on curves indicate offset distances in radii.
43
Total Surface Deflection
44
Critical tensile strain
Thetensilestrains at thebottomof asphalt layer have
been used as a design criterion to prevent fatigue
cracking.
Twotypesof principal strainscouldbeconsidered.
One is the overall principal strain based on all six
components of normal and shear stresses . The other,
whichismorepopular, isthehorizontal principal strain
based on the horizontal normal and shear stresses
only.
The overall principal strain is slightly greater than the
horizontal principal strain, so the use of overall
principal strainisonthesafeside.
45
Huang (1973a) developed charts for
determining the critical tensile strain at the
bottomof layer 1for atwo-layer system. The
critical tensile strain is the overall strain and
canbedeterminedfrom
46
in which e is the critical tensile strain and F
e
is the
strain factor, which can be determined from the
charts.
Single wheel
Following Figure
presents the strain
factor for a two-
layer systemunder
a circular loaded
area.
In most cases, the
critical tensile
strain occurs under
the center of the
loaded area where
the shear stress is
zero.
47
However, when both h
1
/a andE
1
/E
2
aresmall,
the critical tensile strain occurs at some
distance fromthe center, as the predominant
effect of theshear stress.
Under such situations, the principal tensile
strainsat theradial distances0, 0.5a, a, and1
.5a fromthe center were computed, and the
critical value was obtained and plotted in
aboveFigure.
48
Dual wheels
Becausethestrainfactor for dual wheelswitha
contact radius a andadual spacingS
d
depends
on S
d
/a in addition to E
1
/E
2
and hi /a, themost
direct method is to present charts similar to
aboveFigure, onefor eachvalueof S
d
/a.
49
Three layer System
Burmisters work provided analytical
expression for stresses and displacements in
three-layer systems.
50
The representative three-layer pavement
structure along with the stresses that can be
solved by stress factor values provided is
showninfigure:
51
Three layer pavement system
52
Solutions for the five stresses
53
Vertical stress solutions have been obtained
by Peattieand are shown in graphical form:
54
Three-Layer Vertical Stress Factor (ZZ1)
55
Three-Layer Vertical Stress Factor (ZZ2)
56
The horizontal stress solutions have been
obtained from Jones and are shown in tabular
form:
57
Three-Layer Horizontal Stress Factor
58
The stress values are all along the axis of
symmetryof asingleload.
It shouldbenotedthat thefiguresandthetables
havebeendevelopedfor =0.5for all layers.
Thesignconventionispositivefor compression.
While interpolation of the stress factor is
necessary for many problem solutions, no
extrapolationisallowed.
59
Both the vertical stress (graphical solutions)
and the tabular solutions for the horizontal
stresses use the following parameters.
k
1
or K1 =E
1
/E
2
k
2
or K2=E
2
/E
1
a
1
or A =a/h
2
H=h
1
/h
2
60
Vertical Stresses
The vertical stresses can be obtained by the
diagrams above. From these diagrams, a stress
factor value (ZZ1 or ZZ2) is obtained for the
particular K1, K2, A and H values of the
pavement system.
The stresses are then:
61
Horizontal stresses
62