Computer Network Sol

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Solution of Selected Exercises from the End of
Chapter
Exercise
s
Chapter 1 - Introduction And
Overview
1.1 List ten industries that depend on computer networking.
1.2 Provide a brief history of the Internet describing when and how it was started.
1.3 List the layers in the TP!IP model" and give a brief e#planation of each.
Answer: The TCP/IP consists of 5 layers. The layers and their short
explanation is as follows:
Layer 1: Physical: Protocols in the Physical layer specify
details about the underlyin trans!ission !ediu! and the
associated hardware.
Layer ": #etwor$ Interface Protocols in the #etwor$ Interface layer
specify details about co!!unication between hiher layers of
protocols and the underlyin networ$.
Layer %: Internet: Protocols in the Internet layer for! the funda!ental basis for
the
Internet. Layer % protocols specify co!!unication between two
co!puters across the Internet
Layer &: Transport: Protocols in the Transport layer pro'ide for
co!!unication fro! an application prora! on one co!puter to
an application prora! on another.
Layer 5: Application: Protocols in the top layer of the TCP/IP stac$
specify how a
pair o applications interact when they co!!unicate.
1.$ %hat is a protocol suite" and what is the advantage of a suite&
Answer: protocols are desined in co!plete( cooperati'e sets called
suites or fa!ilies( instead of creatin each protocol in isolation. )ach
protocol in a suite handles one aspect of co!!unication* toether( the
protocols in a suite co'er all aspects of co!!unication. The entire suite
is desined to allow the protocols to wor$ toether e+ciently.
1.' (escribe the TP!IP layering model" and e#plain how it was derived.
1.) Provide reasons for Internet growth in recent years.
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1.* %hat is interoperability" and why is it especially important in the Internet&
1.+ ,ccording to the te#t" is it possible to develop Internet applications without
understanding the architecture of the Internet and the technologies& -upport
your answer.
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Answer: ,es( possible to write code that co!!unicates o'er a networ$(
without understandin the hardware and software technoloies that are
used to transfer data fro! one application to another. -owe'er(
$nowlede of the underlyin networ$ syste! allows a prora!!er to
write better code.
1.. To what aspects of networking does data communications refer&
Answer: .ata co!!unications refers to the study of low/le'el !echanis!s
and technoloies used to send infor!ation across a physical
co!!unication !ediu!( such as a wire( radio wa'e( or liht bea!.
1.1/ %hat is a communication protocol& onceptually" what two aspects
of communication does a protocol specify&
Answer: A co!!unication protocol refer to a speci0cation for networ$
co!!unication. 1a2or aspects of a protocol are syntax 3for!at4 and
se!antics 3!eanin4 of the protocol.
1.11 List ma0or standardi1ation organi1ations that create standards for
data communications and computer networking.
Answer: 5arious national and international orani6ations are in'ol'ed in
standardi6ation of co!!unications and networ$in ser'ices. To list few:
International 7rani6ation for 8tandardi6ation 3I874
International Teleco!!unications 9nion( Teleco!!unication 8tandardi6ation
8ector
3IT9/T4
Institute of )lectrical and )lectronics )nineers 3I)))4
Internet )nineerin Tas$ :orce 3I)T:4
1.12 2ive a brief e#plain of the layers in the I-3 3pen -ystem Interconnection model.
Answer: I87 78I !odel consists of ; layers( na!ely:
Layer ;: Application
Layer <: Presentation
Layer 5: 8ession
Layer &: Transport
Layer %: #etwor$
Layer ": .ata Lin$
Layer 1: Physical
=eader is expected to 0nd out short explanation of each layer.
1.13 %hat is packet4switching" and why is packet switching relevant to the Internet&
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Answer: Pac$et switchin di'ides data into s!all bloc$s( called pac$ets(
and includes an identi0cation of the intended recipient in each pac$et.
Pac$et switchin chaned networ$in in a funda!ental way( and
pro'ided the basis for the !odern Internet. Pac$et switchin allows
!ultiple senders to trans!it data o'er a shared networ$.
1.1$ 5#plain how headers are added and removed as data passes through a
layered model.
Answer: each layer on the sendin co!puter prepends extra infor!ation
onto the pac$et* the correspondin protocol layer on the recei'in
co!puter re!o'es and uses the extra infor!ation.
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Chapter - 2 Internet Trends
2.1 (escribe the evolution in audio that has occurred in the Internet.
Answer: The trend in audio processin has been as follows:
Alert 8ounds -u!an 5oice Audi Clips -ih/:idelity Audio
2.2 ,ssume that one hundred million new computers are added to the Internet
each year. If computers are added at a uniform rate" how much time elapses
between two successive additions&
2.3 (escribe Internet applications that you use regularly that were not available to
your parents when they were your age.
2.$ %hy was sharing of computational resources important in the 1.)/s&
2.' %hat shift in Internet use occurred when the %orld %ide %eb first appeared&
2.) The plot in 6igure 2.1 shows that Internet growth did not start until after 1..'.
%hy is the figure misleading&
Answer: =esearchers co!puters wor$in for the Ad'anced =esearch
Pro2ects Aency 3A=PA4 of 98 .epart!ent of .efense 3.o.4 needed
powerful and co!puters were incredibly expensi'e. The A=PA budet was
insu+cient to fund !any co!puters. The A=PA planned to interconnect
all co!puters with a data networ$ and de'ise software that would allow
a researcher to use whiche'er co!puter was best suited to perfor! a
i'en tas$.
2.* List the steps in the transition in graphics presentation from the early Internet
to the current Internet.
Answer: The trend in the raphic presentation has been
as follows: Text >raphic I!aes 5ideo Clips :ull/
1otion 5ideo
2.+ %hat Internet technology is the telephone system using&
Answer: 8o!e current telephone syste!s uses 5oice/7'er IP
technoloy. =eader is encouraed to refer to later chapters for details.
2.. 5#tend the plot in 6igure 2.2" and estimate how many computers will be
connected to the Internet by 2/2/.
2.1/ %hat impact is Internet technology having on the cable television industry&
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2.11 List four new Internet applications" and tell the groups for which each is important.
2.12 %hy is the switch from wired Internet access to wireless Internet access significant&
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Chapter 3 - Internet Applications And etwor!
"ro#rammin#
3.2 %hat are the two basic communication paradigms used in the Internet&
Answer: There are 'arious approaches( but accordin to textboo$( we can
specify the! as 8trea! Paradi! and 1essae Paradi!.
3.12 2ive si# characteristics of Internet stream communication.
Answer: Characteristics of Internet strea! co!!unication can be listed as follows:
Connection/oriented
1/to/1 co!!unication
8e?uence of indi'idual bytes
Arbitrary lenth transfer
9sed for !ulti!edia applications
@uilt on 9.P protocol
3.$ 2ive si# characteristics of Internet message communication.
Answer: Characteristics of Internet !essae co!!unication can be listed as follows:
Connectionless
1any/to/!any co!!unication
8e?uence of indi'idual !essaes
)ach !essae li!ited to <& Abytes
9sed by !ost applications
@uilt on TCP protocol
3.13 If a sender uses the stream paradigm and always sends 1/2$ bytes at a time"
what si1e blocks can the Internet deliver to a receiver&
Answer: strea! paradi! does not pro'ide any uarantees for bloc$
si6es( so all depends on indi'idual transfer.
3.) If a sender wants to have copies of each data block being sent to three
recipients" which paradigm should the sender choose&
Answer: The !essae paradi! is suitable for such transfer( since it
allows !any/to/ !any co!!unication
3.21 %hat are the three surprising aspects of the Internet7s message delivery semantics&
Answer: The InternetBs !essae deli'ery has the followin undesirable
characteristics:
1essaes can be lost
1essaes can be duplicated
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1essaes can be deli'ered out/of/order
3.1. 2ive the general algorithm that a connection4oriented system uses.
Answer: The interaction between two connection/oriented parties can be
su!!ari6ed as:
8ettin/up connection between two parties
)xchane infor!ation
Ter!inate the connection
3.2' %hen two applications communicate over the Internet" which one is the server&
Answer: The application that waits for so!e other applications to
contact is called ser'er( and the application that contact other one is
called client.
3.1$ ompare and contrast a client and server application by
summari1ing characteristics of each.
3.' %hat is the di8erence between a server and a server4class computer&
Answer: The ser'er ter! refers to a prora! that waits passi'ely for co!!unication(
and not to the co!puter on which it executes. -owe'er( when a co!puter
is dedicated to runnin one or !ore ser'er prora!s( the co!puter itself
is so!eti!es called a ser'er. -ardware 'endors contribute to the
confusion because they classify co!puters that ha'e fast CP9s( lare
!e!ories( and powerful operatin syste!s as ser'er !achines.
3.2/ an data 9ow from a client to a server& 5#plain.
Answer: ,es( data !ay Cow in both directions 3clientser'er and ser'er client4.
3.1' List the possible combinations of clients and servers a given computer can run.
3.* an all computers run multiple services e8ectively& %hy or why not&
3.22 %hat two identifiers are used to specify a particular server&
Answer: A particular ser'er is identi0ed by the followin identi0ers:
An identifier for the co!puter on which a ser'er runs 3IP Address4
An identifier for a particular ser'ice on the co!puter 3Port #u!ber4
3.+ List the steps a client uses to contact a server after a user specifies a domain
name for the server.
Answer: The steps that a client uses to contact a ser'er can be su!!ari6ed as
follows:
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8tart after ser'er is already runnin
7btain ser'er na!e fro! user
9se .#8 to translate na!e to IP address
8pecify that the ser'ice uses port #
Contact ser'er and
interact
recording, or li(e%ise. )or in'or&ation regarding per&ission*s+, %rite to, Rigts and Per&issions -epart&ent, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 0./01.
Chapter $ - Traditional Internet
Applications
$.1 %hat does a browser cache" and why is caching used&
Answer: A browser sa'es the Last/1odi0ed date infor!ation alon with
the cached copy. Cachin pro'ides an i!portant opti!i6ation for web
access because users tend to 'isit the sa!e web sites repeatedly.
$.2 %hat are the characteristics of -:TP&
Answer: The followin can be i'en as !a2or characteristics of 81TP
:ollows a strea! paradi!
9ses textual control !essaes
7nly transfers text !essaes
Allows a sender to specify recipientsB na!es and chec$ each na!e
8ends one copy of a i'en !essae
$.3 True or false; a multi4national company can choose to divide its domain name
hierarchy in such a way that the company has a domain name server in 5urope"
one in ,sia" and one in <orth ,merica.
Answer: 7ne of the !ain features of the .o!ain #a!e 8yste! 3.#84 is
autono!y. The .#8 is desined to allow each orani6ation to assin
na!es to co!puters or to chane those na!es without infor!in a
central authority. )ach orani6ation is free to choose the details of its
ser'ers. A lare orani6ation that runs its own ser'er can choose to place
all na!es for the orani6ation in a sinle physical ser'er( or can choose to
di'ide its na!es a!on !ultiple ser'ers.
$.$ =ow does >:L allow an application to specify fields such as a name and address&
Answer: D1L does not assin any !eanin to tas( ta na!es can be
created as needed. In particular( ta na!es can be selected to !a$e
data easy to parse or access. If two co!panies aree to exchane
corporate telephone directories( they can de0ne an D1L for!at that
has data ite!s such as an e!ployeeBs na!e( phone nu!ber( and oEice.
$.' %hat details does an application protocol specify&
Answer: An application protocol !ay specify the followin details:
The syntax and se!antics of !essaes that can be exchaned
Fhether the client or ser'er initiates interaction
Actions to be ta$en if an error arises
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-ow the two sides $now when to ter!inate co!!unication
$.) (oes the I(<, standard re?uire changes in (<- servers& in (<- clients& 5#plain.
Answer: #o( instead of !odifyin the underlyin .#8( I.#A uses A8CII to
store all na!es. That is( when i'en a do!ain na!e that contains a non/
A8CII character( I.#A translates the na!e into a se?uence of A8CII
characters( and stores the result in the .#8. :or the clients 3the latest
'ersions of the widely/used browsers( :irefox and Internet )xplorer4 can
accept and display non/A8CII do!ain na!es because they each
i!ple!ent I.#A.
$.* %hat are the four =TTP re?uest types" and when is each used&
Answer: The four co!!on -TTP re?uest types and their usae can be i'en as
follows:
>)T: =e?uests a docu!ent* ser'er responds by sendin status
infor!ation followed by a copy of the docu!ent
-)A.: =e?uests status infor!ation* ser'er responds by sendin
status infor!ation( but does not send a copy of the docu!ent
P78T: 8ends data to a ser'er* the ser'er appends the data to a speci0ed ite!
P9T 8ends data to a ser'er* the ser'er uses the data to
co!pletely replace the speci0ed ite!
$.+ %hat are the two main email access protocols&
Answer: Two !a2or e!ail access protocols are:
Post 7Eice Protocol 3P7P4
Internet 1ail Access Protocol 3I1AP4
$.. %here is an email access protocol used&
Answer: An e!ail access protocol is used for users to access their
!ailboxes( either to send or to recei'e e!ail !essaes.
$.1/ %hy is a protocol for a standardi1ed service documented independent of
an implementation&
$.11 -earch the web to find out about iterative (<- lookup. @nder what
circumstances is iterative lookup used&
$.12 an a browser use transfer protocols other than =TTP& 5#plain.
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$.13 (escribe the steps a browser takes to determine whether to use an item
from its cache.
Answer: A browser sa'es the Last/1odi0ed date infor!ation alon with
the cached copy. @efore it uses a docu!ent fro! the local cache( a
browser !a$es a -)A. re?uest to the ser'er and co!pares the Last/
1odi0ed date of the ser'erBs copy to the Last/1odi0ed date on the
cached copy. If the cached 'ersion is stale( the browser downloads the
new 'ersion. Alorith! &.1 su!!ari6es cachin.
$.1$ =ow does an 6TP server know the port number to use for a data connection&
Answer: @efore !a$in a re?uest to the ser'er( a client allocates a
protocol port on its local operatin syste! and sends the port nu!ber to
the ser'er. The client binds to the port to await a connection( and then
trans!its a P7=T co!!and o'er the control connection to infor! the
ser'er about the port nu!ber bein used.
$.1' %hat are the two key aspects of application protocols" and what does
each include&
Answer: Application/layer protocols specify two aspects of
interaction are i'en below:
.ata =epresentation: 8yntax of data ite!s that are exchaned( speci0c for!
used durin transfer( translation of inteers( characters( and
0les between co!puters
.ata Transfer: Interaction between client and ser'er( !essae
syntax and se!antics( 'alid and in'alid exchane error handlin(
ter!ination of interaction
$.1) %hat is the overall purpose of the (omain <ame -ystem&
Answer: The o'erall purpose of .o!ain #a!e 8yste! 3.#84to pro'ide
a ser'ice that !aps hu!an/readable sy!bolic na!es to co!puter
addresses.
$.1* %hy was :I:5 invented&
Answer: 1ulti/purpose Internet 1ail )xtensions 31I1)4 standard allows
the transfer of non/text data in a !essae. 1I1) specifies how a binary
0le can be encoded into printable characters( included in a !essae(
and decoded by the recei'er.
$.1+ 2ive e#amples of web protocols that illustrate each of the two aspects of
an application protocol.
$.1. an -:TP transfer an email message that contains a period on a line by itself&
%hy or why not&
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$.2/ True or false; a web server must have a domain name that begins with
www. 5#plain.
Answer: :alse. An arbitrary co!puter can run a web ser'er( e'en if the
co!puterBs do!ain na!e does not contain www. :urther!ore( a
co!puter that has a do!ain na!e beinnin with www is not re?uired to
run a web ser'er. 9sin the 0rst label in a do!ain na!e to denote a
ser'ice 3e..( www4 is !erely a con'ention to help hu!ans.
$.21 True or false; a (<- server can return a di8erent IP address for a given
name" depending on whether the lookup specifies email or web service.
5#plain.
Answer: ,es( a corporation !ay decide to use the na!e corporation.co!
for both web and e!ail ser'ices. Fith the .#8( it is possible for the
corporation to di'ide the wor$load between separate co!puters by
!appin type A loo$ups to one co!puter and type 1D loo$ups to another.
$.22 -ummari1e the characteristics of =T:L.
Answer: -T1L has the followin eneral characteristics:
9ses a textual representation
.escribes paes that contain !ulti!edia
:ollows a declarati'e rather than procedural paradi!
Pro'ides !ar$up speci0cations instead of for!attin
Per!its a hyperlin$ to be e!bedded in an arbitrary ob2ect
Allows a docu!ent to include !etadata
$.23 %hen does a domain name server send a re?uest to an authoritative server
and when does it answer the re?uest without sending to the authoritative server&
$.2$ %hat are the four parts of a @AL" and what punctuation is used to separate
the parts&
Answer: The 9=L into four co!ponents: a protocol( a co!puter na!e(
a docu!ent na!e( and para!eters. The co!puter na!e and protocol
port are used to for! a connection to the ser'er on which the pae
resides. And the docu!ent na!e and para!eters are used to re?uest
a speci0c pae.
$.2' =ow does a browser know whether an =TTP re?uest is syntactically
incorrect or whether the referenced item does not e#ist&
$.2) %hen a user re?uests an 6TP directory listing" how many TP
connections are formed& 5#plain.
Answer: :TP uses two types of connections to perfor! its functionality( na!ely
A control connection is reser'ed for co!!ands. )ach ti!e the
ser'er needs to download or upload a 0le( the ser'er opens a new
connection.
A data connection is used to transfer 0les.
$.2* List the three types of protocols used with email" and describe
each.
Answer: Three !a2or type of protocols bein used with
e!ail are:
Transfer: A protocol used to !o'e a copy of an e!ail !essae
fro! one co!puter to another
Access: A protocol that allows a user to access their !ailbox and to
'iew or send e!ail !essaes
=epresentation A protocol that speci0es the for!at of an e!ail
!essae when stored on dis$
$.2+ True or false; when a user runs an 6TP application" the application acts as
both a client and server. 5#plain your answer.
Answer: True( An :TP !ay in'ert the client/ser'er relationship for data
connections. That is( when openin a data connection( the client acts li$e
a ser'er 3i.e.( waits for the data connection4 and the ser'er acts li$e a
client 3i.e.( initiates the data connection4.
$.2. ,ssuming I-3 has assigned < country codes" how many top4level domains
e#ist&
$.3/ ,ccording to the original email paradigm" could a user receive email if the
user7s computer did not run an email server& 5#plain.
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PART II
%ata
Communications
Chapter & - Overview of %ata
Communications
'.1 %hat are the conceptual pieces of a data communications system&
A communication can be a simple or a complex one depending on the technology, the need and the
environment being deployed. A complex communication system involving many parties and different types of
services may involve the following conceptual pieces:
Information Sources
Source Encoder and Source Decoder
Encryptor and Decryptor
hannel Encoder and hannel Decoder
!ultiplexor and Demultiplexor
!odulator and Demodulator
"hysical hannel and #ransmission
'.2 %hich piece of a data communications system prevents transmission errors
from corrupting data&
#he channel encoder and decoder parts of a communication system are responsible for protecting against
possible errors during transmission.
'.3 %hat three disciplines are involved in data communications&
Data communication involves concepts from physics, mathematics, and electrical engineering.
'.$ %hat are the motivations for data communications&
#he following ideas provide motivation for data communications and help define the scope:
#he sources of information can be of arbitrary types
#ransmission uses a physical system
!ultiple sources of information can share the underlying medium
'.' %hich piece of a data communications system handles analog input&
#he input to a communication system is first handled by source encoder, which receives information and
transforms into a format that is suitable for further processing for transmission.
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Chapter '- Information Sources and
Si#nals
).1 %hen shown a graph of a sine wave" what is the ?uickest way to
determine whether the phase is 1ero&
).2 2ive three e#amples of information sources other than computers.
).3 %hy are sine waves fundamental to data communications&
Sine waves are especially important in information sources because natural phenomena produce sine waves.
).$ %hy is an analog signal used to appro#imate a digital signal&
$rom an engineering perspective, $ourier%s result is impractical for digital signals because accurate
representation of a digital signal re&uires an infinite set of sine waves instead an approximate conversion of a
signal from digital to analog can be used. So engineers build e&uipment to generate analog waves that closely
approximate the digital signal
).' (escribe the di8erence between lossy and lossless compressions" and tell
when each might be used.
'ossy compression is generally used with data that a human consumes, such as an image, a segment
of video, or an audio file. #he (ey idea is that the compression only needs to preserve details to the
level of human perception. #hat is, a change is acceptable if humans cannot detect the change.
'ossless compression preserves the original data without any change. #hus, lossless compression can be used
for documents or in any situation where data must be preserved exactly.
).) If the ma#imum fre?uency audible to a human ear is 2/"/// =1" at what rate
must the analog signal from a microphone be sampled when converting it to
digital&
#he sampling rate ) * + f
max
, so the signal should be sampled at *x*,,,,, ) -,,,,, ./
).* %hat does 6ourier analysis of a composite wave produce&
0ith $ourier analysis, it is possible to decompose a composite signal into its constituent parts, a set of sine
functions, each with a fre&uency, amplitude, and phase.
).+ %hat is the analog bandwidth of a signal&
Analog bandwidth of signal can be defined as to be the difference between the highest and lowest fre&uencies
of the constituent parts 1i.e., the highest and lowest fre&uencies obtained by $ourier analysis2
).. <ame a common household device that emits an aperiodic signal.
).1/ 3n a fre?uency domain graph" what does the y4a#is represent&
A fre&uency domain graph shows a set of simple sine waves that constitute a composite function. #he y3axis
gives the amplitude, and the x3axis gives the fre&uency.
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).11 %hy do some coding techni?ues use multiple signal elements to represent a
single bit&
).12 Is bandwidth easier to compute from a time domain or fre?uency
domain representation& %hy&
It is easier to compute bandwidth from a fre&uency3domain representation
).13 %hat time elapses between samples for the P: encoding used in the
telephone system&
In commercial "! used telephone system 4,,, samples5s and each sample is represented by 4 bits.
#herefore, data generation rate is 6-,,,, bits5s. So time elapsed between samples can be calculated as 75rate )
756-,,,, s.
).1$ -uppose an engineer increases the number of possible signal levels from
two to four. =ow many more bits can be sent in the same amount of time&
5#plain.
#he number of levels that can be represented by n bits is given by *
n
. So if number of levels changes from *
-, it means number of bits goes from 7 *
).1' -tate and describe the four fundamental characteristics of a sine wave.
#here are four important characteristics of signals that relate to sine waves:
$re&uency: the number of oscillations per unit time 1usually seconds2
Amplitude: the difference between the maximum and minimum signal heights
"hase: how far the start of the sine wave is shifted from a reference time
0avelength: the length of a cycle as a signal propagates across a medium
).1) %hat is the bandwidth of a digital signal& 5#plain.
According to the definition of analog bandwidth, a digital signal has infinite bandwidth because $ourier
analysis of a digital signal produces an infinite set of sine waves with fre&uencies that grow to infinity.
).1* %hat aspect of a signal does the :anchester 5ncoding use to represent a bit&
!anchester Encoding uses bit timing and transitions. It specifies that a 7 corresponds to a transition from ,
volts to a positive voltage level. orrespondingly, a , corresponds to a transition from a positive voltage level
to /ero. $urthermore, the transitions occur in the 8middle9 of the time slot allocated to a bit.
).1+ %hen converting an analog signal to digital" what step follows sampling&
After sampling, the samples are matched to &uanti/ation levels.
).1. %hen is a wave classified as simple&
A signal is classified as simple when consist of a single sine wave that cannot be decomposed further.
).2/ %hat is the definition of baud&
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:aud is defined as the number of times that a signal can change per second
).21 %hat is a synchroni1ation error&
If a receiver misses the exact5precise start5stop point of a signal, a mismatch in interpretation produce errors.
Such errors are called synchroni/ation error.
).22 %hat is the chief advantage of a (i8erential :anchester 5ncoding&
#he most important property of differential encoding is that the encoding wor(s correctly even if the two
wires carrying the signal are accidentally reversed.
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Chapter ( - Transmission )edia
*.1 List the three forms of optical Bber" and give the general properties of each.
#here are three forms of optical fibers that provide a choice between performance and cost:
!ultimode 3 Step Index: #he least expensive, and is used when performance is unimportant. #he
boundary between the fiber and the cladding is abrupt which causes light to reflect fre&uently.
#herefore, dispersion is high.
!ultimode 3 ;raded Index: Slightly more expensive than the step index fiber. It has the advantage of
ma(ing the density of the fiber increase near the edge5 It reduces reflection and lowers dispersion.
Single !ode: #he most expensive, and provides the least dispersion. #he fiber has a smaller diameter
and other properties that help reduce reflection. It is used for long distances and higher bit rates.
*.2 If a telephone system can be created with a signal4to4noise ratio of $/ dC and
an analog bandwidth of 3/// =1" how many bits per second could be
transmitted&
6irst we should convert $/ dC to a real number" namely if $/ D 1/ log1/ -!< -!< D
1/"///
<sing the Shannon%s capacity expression
) : log
*
17 = S5>2 ) ?,,,, log
*
17= 7,,,,,2 ) to be determined by reader
*.3 %hat is the di8erence between guided and unguided transmission&
0e use the terms guided and unguided transmission to distinguish between physical media such as copper
wiring or optical fibers that provide a specific path 1guided2 and a radio transmission that travels in all
directions through free space 1unguided2 . Informally, engineers use the terms wired and wireless.
*.$ %hat are the three energy types used when classifying physical media
according to energy used&
#hree types of energy used when classifying physical media are electrical, electromechanical 1radio2, and light
*.' %hat is dispersion&
In optics, dispersion is the phenomenon in which the phase velocity of a wave depends on its fre&uency.
!edia having such a property are termed dispersive media.
*.) %hat is propagation delay&
"ropagation delay can be defined as the time re&uired for a signal to traverse 1travel from one end to the
other end2 the medium
*.* %hat is the appro#imate conical angle that can be used with InfraAed technology&
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*.+ If a system has an input power level of .///" and an output power level of
3///" what is the di8erence when e#pressed in dC&
Decibel is expressed as 7, log
7,
1"
out
5"
in
2 7, log
7,
1?,,,,5@,,,,2 )
*.. %hat happens when noise encounters a metal ob0ect&
0hen it hits metal, electromagnetic radiation induces a small signal. Aandom noise can interfere with signals
used for communication. !etals absorb radiation, metal acts as a shield. "lacing metal between a source of
noise and a communication medium can prevent noise from interfering with communication.
*.1/ (raw a diagram that illustrates the cross section of a coa#ial cable.
*.11 5#plain how twisted pair cable reduces the e8ect of noise.
Aeader is encouraged to analy/e $ig.B.* a2 and b2 and interpret
*.12 If you are installing computer network wiring in a new house" what
category of twisted pair cable would you choose& %hy&
>owadays, the trend is using wireless rather than cabled solutions, but depend on &uality of service and cost
limitations an appropriate category of twisted pair cable
*.13 an laser communication be used from a moving vehicle& 5#plain.
*.1$ If two signal levels are used" what is the data rate that can be sent over a
coa#ial cable that has an analog bandwidth of ).2 :=1&
<sing the D ) * : log
*
C relationship, D ) *D6.*Dlog
*
* ) *D6.*D7 ) 7*.- !bps
*.1' %hat is the chief disadvantage of optical fiber as opposed to copper wiring&
Eptical fibers are less suitable for bending or pulling, also needs speciali/ed e&uipment and highly &ualified
technicians to install5maintain
*.1) %hat light sources and sensors are used with optical fibers&
'ight sources and sensors that are used with optical fibers are:
#ransmission: 'ight Emitting Diode 1'ED2 or InFection 'aser Diode 1I'D2
Aeception: photo3sensitive cell or photodiode
*.1* %hat are the two broad categories of wireless communications&
0ireless technologies can be classified into two broad categories as follows:
#errestrial: ommunication uses e&uipment such as radio or microwave transmitters that is
relatively close to the earth%s surface.
>on3terrestrial: Some of the e&uipment used in communication is outside the earth%s atmosphere
1e.g., a satellite in orbit around the earth2.
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*.1+ If messages are sent from 5urope to the @nited -tates using a 253 satellite"
how long will it take for a message to be sent and a reply to be received&
#he speed of a signal can be approximated as 1v2 ) ?x7,4 m5s. #he relation between #ime, Distance and
Speed is given by: #ime ) Distance 5 Speed. So, the time ta(en for a signal to travel between Europe and <SA
depends on the distance between the points5location being used. Aeader is encouraged to find out the closest
and farthest points between two continents and calculate the time re&uired to ma(e a complete round trip.
*.1. List the three types of communications satellites" and give the
characteristics of each.
!aFor categori/ation of communication satellites:
'ow Earth Erbit 1'EE2:
!edium Earth Erbit 1!EE2
;eostationary Earth Erbit 1;EE2
Aeader expected to write a paragraph for the characteristics of each
*.2/ =ow many 253 satellites are needed to reach all populated areas on the earth&
#heoretically ? 1three2 satellites suffice to cover the whole surface of the earth, but in practice many more are
used to cover and delivery &uality service
*.21 If a system has an average power level of 1//" an average noise level of 33.33"
and a bandwidth of 1// :=1" what is the e8ective limit on channel capacity&
Shannon theorem specify the maximum data rate that could be achieved over a transmission system that
experiences noise:
) : log
*
17 = S5>2
where is the effective limit on the channel capacity in bits per second, : is the bandwidth, and S5> is the
signal3to3noise ratio.
<sing the formulae, we can calculate for the above given values: ) 7,,,,,,,,,, D log
*
17 = 7,,5??.??2 )
7,,,,,,,,,, D log
*
- ) *,,,,,,,,,, ) *,, !bps
*.22 %hat is the relationship between bandwidth" signal levels" and data rate&
If a transmission system uses C possible signal levels and has an analog bandwidth :, >y&uist%s #heorem
states that the maximum data rate in bits per second, D, is:
D ) * : log
*
C
*.23 %hat three types of wiring are used to reduce interference form noise&
#here are three forms of wiring that help reduce interference from electrical noise, these are namely:
<nshielded #wisted "air 1<#"2
oaxial able
Shielded #wisted "air 1S#"2
*.2$ 5#plain why light does not leave an optical fiber when the fiber is bent into an arc.
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*.2' %hy might low4fre?uency electromagnetic radiation be used for
communications& 5#plain.
Ch * - +elia,ilit- And Channel Codin#
+.1 List and e#plain the three main sources of transmission errors.
#here are three main categories of transmission errors:
Interference: Electromagnetic radiation emitted from devices such as electric motors and
bac(ground cosmic radiation cause noise that can disturb radio transmissions and signals traveling
across wires.
Distortion: 0ires have properties of capacitance and inductance that bloc( signals at some
fre&uencies while admitting signals at other fre&uencies. All physical systems distort signals. As a
pulse travels along an optical fiber, the pulse disperses.
Attenuation. As a signal passes across a medium, the signal becomes wea(er. Signals on wires or
optical fibers become wea(er over long distances, Fust as a radio signal becomes wea(er with
distance.
+.2 =ow do transmission errors e8ect data&
#ransmission errors can effect data in different ways, namely it can create single3bit errors, burst errors,
and5or erasures.
+.3 %hat does an ideal channel coding scheme achieve&
+.$ %hat are the characteristics of a A&
A codes have many mathematical and usage characteristics, but we can mention the following ones:
Arbitary message length
Excellent error detection
$ast hardware implementation
+.' (efine the concept of =amming distance.
#he .amming distance is defined as the number of differences in a given two strings of n bits each 1i.e., the
number of bits that must be changed to transform one bit string to the other2.
+.) List and e#plain the function of the two hardware building blocks used to implement
A computation.
+.* =ow does one compute the minimum number of bit changes that can
transform a valid codeword into another valid codeword&
#his is related to .amming distance. 0e define minimum .amming distance, which is minimum among the
.amming distance between each and every pair of codeword. !inimum .amming distance the minimum
number of errors that can change a valid codeword into an invalid one 1error2
+.+ ompute the =amming distance for the following pairs; E////" ///1F" E/1/1"
///1F" E1111" 1//1F" and E ///1" 111/F.
#he .amming distance for the following pairs is:
1,,,,, ,,,72 ) 7
1,7,7, ,,,72 ) 7
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17777, 7,,72 ) *
1 ,,,7, 777,2 ) -
+.. In a burst error" how is burst length measured&
$or a burst error, the burst si/e, or length, is defined as the number of bits from the start of the corruption to
the end of the corruption.
+.1/ 2ive an e#ample of a block error code used with character data.
+.11 %hat is a codeword" and how is it used in forward error correction&
0e can define the set of all possible messages to be a set of datawords, and define the set of all possible
encoded versions to be a set of codewords. So each possible code se&uence is considered to be a codeword.
+.12 5#plain the concept of code rate. Is a high code rate or low code rate desirable&
ode rate can be defines as the ratio of a dataword si/e to the codeword si/e. !athematically, the code rate,
A, for an 1 n, ( 2 error coding scheme is given as:
A ) (5n, where ( is the number of information bits, and n is the number of bits in a codeword.
+.13 2enerate a A, parity matri# for a E2/" 12F coding of the dataword 1///11/11111.
7 , , , 7
7 7 , 7 7
7 7 7 7 ,
7 , 7 , ,
+.1$ -how the division of 1//1/1/1/1/ by 1/1/1.
+.1' 5#press the two values in the previous e#ercise as polynomials.
X
10
+ X
7
+ X
5
+ X
3
+ X
X
4
+ X

+ 1
+.1) %rite a computer program that implements the E*"$F cyclic redundancy code in
6igure +.11.
+.1* %rite a computer program that computes a 1)4bit Internet checksum.
+.1+ %hat can a A, scheme achieve that a single parity bit scheme cannot&
AA can correct single bit errors. .owever, single parity bit can only detect single 1or odd2 number of errors.
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Ch . - Transmission )odes
..1 %hat are the advantages of parallel transmission& %hat is the chief disadvantage&
A parallel mode of transmission has two chief advantages:
.igh speed: :ecause it can send > bits at the same time, a parallel interface can operate > times
faster than an e&uivalent serial interface.
!atch to underlying hardware: Internally, computer and communication hardware uses parallel
circuitry. #hus, a parallel interface matches the internal hardware well.
#he main disadvantage of parallel transmission is number of cables re&uired, for long distance
communication, this is an important consideration.
..2 (escribe the di8erence between serial and parallel transmission.
#ransmission modes can be divided into two fundamental categories:
Serial: one bit is sent at a time
"arallel: multiple bits are sent at the same time
..3 %hen using a synchronous transmission scheme" what happens when a sender
does not have data to send&
#o insure that the sender and receiver stay synchroni/ed, a frame starts with a special se&uence of bits.
$urthermore, most synchronous systems include a special idle se!uence 1or idle "#te2 that is transmitted when
the sender has no data to send
..$ %hat is the chief characteristic of asynchronous transmission&
Asynchronous transmission can occur at any time, with an arbitrary delay between the transmission of two
data items, it allows the physical medium to be idle for an arbitrary time between two transmissions.
..' %hich type Eor typesF of serial transmission is appropriate for video
transmission& 6or a keyboard connection to a computer&
..) @se the %eb to find the definition of the (5 and (T5 pinouts used on a (C4
2' connector. =int; pins 2 and 3 are transmit or receive. 3n a (5 type
connector" does pin 2 transmit or receive&
..* Is a modem classiBed as (T5 or (5&
A modem is classified as Data ommunications E&uipment 1DE2
..+ %hen transmitting a 324bit 27s complement integer in big4endian order" when
is the sign bit transmitted&
Engineers use the term little$endian to describe a system that sends the 'eas Significant :it 1'S:2 first,
and the term "ig$endian to describe a system that sends the !ost Significant :it 1!S:2 first. According to the
definition given, for a ?*3bit *%s complement integer in big3endian order, the sign bit, namely !S:.
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... %hat is a start bit" and with which type of serial transmission is a start bit used&
Some systems use extra bits allow the receiver%s hardware to synchroni/e with the incoming signal. In some
asynchronous systems, the extra bits are (nown as a %rea&"leG in others, the extra bits are (nown as start "its.
..1/ %hen two humans hold a conversation" do they use simple#" half4duple#" or
full4 duple# transmission&
It depends, but most appropriate type of communication between two reasonable human being would be half3
duplex.
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Chapter 1/ - )odulation And )odems
1/.1 -earch the %eb and find a constellation diagram for 32 G,:. =ow many
points are defined in each ?uadrant&
1/.2 List the three basic types of analog modulation.
#hree maFor categories of analog modulation are:
Amplitude !odulation 1A!2
$re&uency !odulation 1$!2
"hase !odulation 1"!F
1/.3 In phase shift keying" is it possible to have a phase shift of ./ degree&
of 2*/ degree& of 3)/ degree& (raw an e#ample to e#plain your answer.
1/.$ %hen using amplitude modulation" does it make sense for a 1 =1 carrier
to be modulated by a 2 =1 sine wave& %hy or why not&
In modulation generally the idea is to carry a low3fre&uency signal with a high3fre&uency carrier signal. So, it
will not be appropriate to modulate a 7 ./ carrier with a * ./ sine wave.
1/.' @sing -hannon7s Theorem" e#plain why practical amplitude modulation
systems keep the carrier near ma#imum strength.
1/.) ,ssuming a signal4to4noise ratio of 3/ dC" what is the ma#imum data rate
that can be achieved for the dialup bandwidth illustrated in 6igure 1/.11&
#he bandwidth of the system is ?,,, H 6,, ) *,-,, ./. Since, S5> is given, we%ll use Shannon%s capacity
expression ) : log
*
17 = S5>2. 0e should convert ?, d: to real value, which means S5> ) 7,,,,.
So ) *,-,, log
*
17 = 7,,,,2 ) the result to be determined by the reader
1/.* %hat is the di8erence between shift keying and modulation&
Instead of modulation that is proportional to a continuous signal, digital schemes use discrete values. #o
distinguish between analog and digital modulation, we use the term shift 'e#ing (&eaning a"ru%t changes)
rather than modulation 1continuous, smooth changes2.
1/.+ 6igure 1/.. shows a full4duple# configuration with four wires" two of which are
used to transmit in each direction. ,rgue that it should be possible to use three
wires instead.
1/.. In the previous ?uestion" why are four wires preferable&
#he number of wires being used will determine the speed and mode of operation, namely a system being half3
duplex or full3duplex. So depending on the speed re&uired and5or mode of operation *3wire or -3wire cabling
is used.
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Chapter 11 - )ultiplexin# And
%emultiplexin#
0Channeli1atio
n2
11.1 In a hierarchical 6(: system" e#plain how a high4capacity channel is divided
into sub4channels.
11.2 -uppose < users compete using a statistical T(: system" and suppose the
underlying physical transport can send H bits per second. %hat is the minimum
and ma#imum data rate that an individual user can e#perience&
If we neglect the overhead generated by statistical #D!, a system will have two possibilities:
!inimum: If all channels have e&ual data then the rate will be C5> bps
!aximum: If only one channel active and the others are passive, then rate will be C bps
11.3 2ive an e#ample of multiple#ing in a non4electronic communication system.
xing 1D!2
11.$ =ow does 6(: use electromagnetic radiation&
In $D!, a set of radio stations can transmit electromagnetic signals simultaneously without interference
provided they each use a separate channel 1i.e., carrier fre&uency2
11.' In a hierarchical T(: system" at what bit rate does the output of a given
level need to operate& E5#press the answer in terms of the number and bit rate
of inputs.F
#he bit rate can be calculated ) >umber of input lines x bit rate of individual line = framing bits
11.) Is a T(: system re?uired to use round4robin service&
Some #D! systems use a round3robin service while some others may not use round3robin, variations exist,
based on the need.
11.* %hat are the four basic types of multiple#ing&
#here are four basic approaches to multiplexing that each have a set of variations
and implementations.
$re&uency Division !ultiplexing 1$D!2
0avelength Division !ultiplexing 10D!2
#ime Division !ultiplexing 1#D!2
ode Division !ultiple
11.+ 5#plain how a range of fre?uencies can be used to increase data rate.
#o increase the overall data rate, a sender divides the fre&uency range of the channel into C carriers, and
sends 7 5C of the data over each carrier.
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11.. %hat is a guard band&
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$or proper communication without interference, we should choose a set of carrier fre&uencies with a gap
between them (nown as a guard band. #he guard band reduces or eliminates the possible interference
between neighboring carrier signals.
11.1/ -uppose an 3412 circuit is twenty percent the cost of an 34$+ circuit.
%hat multiple#ing technology can an I-P use to lower the cost of sending data at
the 34$+ rate. 5#plain.
An IS" may use inverse multiplexing, which can utili/e - x E37*, which will cost I 4, of a E3-4, assuming
no cost for e&uipment at the multiplexing5demultiplexing.
11.11 3f the four basic multiple#ing techni?ues" is (: always the best& 5#plain.
In terms of resource utili/ation 1speed, channel2 D! is the best, but in terms of complexity in
implementation and getting the system up and running may not be optimum solution.
11.12 ,n 6(: system may assign each channel a range of fre?uencies. @sing a
range is essential when which type of modulation is used for each carrier&
A range of fre&uencies may be used in $D! for increasing data rate or increasing immunity against
noise5inference.
11.13 %hat is the key mechanism used to combine or separate wavelengths of light in a
%(: system&
"risms form the basis of optical multiplexing and demultiplexing. A multiplexor accepts beams of light of
various wavelengths and uses a prism to combine them into a single beamG a demultiplexor uses a prism to
separate the wavelengths.
11.1$ 5#plain why framing and synchroni1ation are important in a T(: system.
#D! re&uires that a demultiplexor stays synchroni/ed with the multiplexor. :ecause a demultiplexor cannot
tell where a slot begins, a slight difference in the cloc(s used to time bits can cause a demultiplexor to
misinterpret the bit stream. #o prevent misinterpretation, #D! used in the phone system includes an extra
framing channel as input. Instead of ta(ing a complete slot, framing inserts a single bit in the stream on each
round.
11.1' -earch the %eb to find the length of a chip se?uence used in (:,
phone systems.
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Chapte 12 - Access And Interconnection Technolo#ies
12.1 If a customer intends to receive more data than they receive" which forms of (-L
would be appropriate&
In this case ADS' would be more appropriate choice
12.2 %hy would a service provider choose =ybrid 6iber oa# instead of 6iber To The
Premises&
It depends on the existing infrastructure or cost related issues. Each case should be considered on its own
circumstances
12.3 %hy did the designers of the -ynchronous (igital =ierarchy choose unusual
values for data rates instead of e#act powers of ten&
12.$ Two neighbors" who live on the same street" both use ,(-L service" but
measurements show that one subscriber can download at appro#imately 1.' :bps
and the other can download at 2./ :bps. 5#plain.
ADS' is adaptive. #hat is, when a pair of ADS' modems are powered on, they probe the line between them to
find its characteristics, and then agree to communicate using techni&ues that are optimal for the line. 0hen
ADS' starts, both ends probe the available fre&uencies to determine which fre&uencies wor( well and which
experience interference. Also, the two ends assess the signal &uality at each fre&uency, and use the &uality to
select a modulation scheme. If a particular fre&uency has a high signal3to3noise ratio, ADS' selects a
modulation scheme that encodes many bits per baudG if the &uality on a given fre&uency is low, ADS' selects
a modulation scheme that encodes fewer bits per baud.
12.' %hat is an access technology&
Internet access technology refers to a data communications system that connects an Internet subscriber
1typically a private residence or business2 to an Internet Service "rovider 1IS"2, such as a telephone company
or cable company.
12.) 5#plain how the si1e of a -3<5T frame is computed.
Digital telephony ta(es 4,,,, "! samples per second, which means that a sample is ta(en every 7*J K
seconds. SE>E# uses the time to define frame si/e. $or example, at the S#S37 transmission rate of J7.4-,
!bps, exactly 6-4, bits are transferred in 7*J K seconds, which means that a frame consists of 47, each being
43 bit octet.
12.* 2ive e#amples of narrowband and broadband access technologies.
#he following can be given as examples of narrowband access technologies:
Dialup telephone connections
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'eased circuit using modems
$ractional #7 data circuits
ISD> and other telco data services
#he following can be given as examples of broadband access technologies:
DS' technologies
able modem technologies
0ireless access technologies
Data circuits at #7 speed or higher
12.+ %hat is the advantage of %i:,> access technology compared to satellite&
%hat is the advantage of satellite&
0hen two system are compared we should consider data rate, speed5delay, cost and other performance
issues. Aeader is expected to evaluate and compare them.
12.. %hy do service providers distinguish between upstream and
downstream communication&
A typical residential subscriber receives much more information than the subscriber transmits, Internet
access technologies are designed to transfer more data in one direction than the other. #he networ(ing
industry uses the term downstream to refer to data traveling from an IS" to a subscriber, and upstream to
refer to data traveling from a subscriber to an IS".
12.1/ Telephone companies once promoted I-(< as a high4speed access
technology. %hy has use of I-(< declined&
0hen ISD> was first proposed, 7*4 Cbps seemed much faster than dialup modems. So telephone companies
promoted the technology a lot. :ut, the newer local loop technologies provide higher data rates at lower cost,
relegating ISD> to a few special cases. :ecause the speed5&uality offered by ISD> stayed behind some other
newer technologies, it%s almost abandoned.
12.11 If you had a choice between (-L and cable modem" which would provide
the highest potential data rate&
In theory, a cable system can support data rates of J* !bps downstream and J7* Cbps upstream. In practice,
the rate can be much less. $irst, the data rate of a cable modem only pertains to communication between the
local cable office and the subscriber%s site. Second, the bandwidth is shared among a set of > subscribers,
where the si/e of the set is controlled by the cable provider. $rom a subscriber%s point of view, sharing the
bandwidth with other subscribers can be a disadvantage because the effective data rate available to each
individual subscriber varies over time. In the worst case, if > subscribers share a single fre&uency, the amount
of capacity available to an individual subscriber will be 7 5>. DS' provide constant or near3constant service.
So the decision of selecting DS' or cable modem will depend on the type of application5environment.
12.12 If someone shows you a copper cable and claims that it is an I3412
circuitJ" what error have they made& %hat is the correct name they should have
used&
It%s an error of reference to wrong type of media. Synchronous #ransport Signal 1S#S2 standards refer to the
electrical signals used in the digital circuit interface 1i.e., over copper2, while the Eptical arrier 1E2
standards refer to the optical signals that propagate across the fiber.
12.13 If you lease a T1 circuit" what e?uipment will be installed between the circuit
and a computer at your site&
12.1$ %hat type of multiple#ing does ,(-L use&
ADS' uses a scheme (nown as Discrete !ulti #one modulation 1D!#2 that combines fre&uency division
multiplexing and inverse multiplexing techni&ues.
12.1' @se the %eb to find the appro#imate si1e of a movie on (K(. =ow long
does it take to download a movie over a T1 line& 3ver a T3 line& EIgnore
overhead.F
12.1) %hy is a splitter used with (-L&
'ifting a receiver can generate noise that interferes with DS' signals. #o provide complete isolation, ADS'
uses an $D! device (nown as a splitter that divides the bandwidth by passing low fre&uencies to one output
and high fre&uencies to another.
12.1* %here is a head4end modem located& , tail4end modem&
An access technology re&uires a pair of modems, with one at the subscriber%s site and one at the provider%s
site. #he industry uses the term head3end modem to refer to a modem used at the central office, and the term
tail3end modem to refer to a modem used at the subscriber%s location.
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"A+T
III
"ac!et Switchin# and etwor! Technolo#ies
Chapter 13 - 3ocal Area etwor!s4 "ac!ets5 6rames5 And
Topolo#ie
s
7?.7 What is circuit switching, and what are its chief characteristics?
#he term circuit switching refers to a communication mechanism that establishes a path between a sender and
receiver with guaranteed isolation from paths used by other pairs of senders and receivers. ircuit switching
is usually associated with telephone technology because a telephone system provides a dedicated connection
between two telephones. #he circuit switching has the following main characteristics:
"oint3to3point communication
Separate steps for circuit creation, use, and termination
"erformance e&uivalent to an isolated physical path
7?.* What are the characteristics of LANs, MANs, and WANs?
#here are lots of details that can be said and discussed for categori/ation of networ( types based on
geography, few points are highlighted below:
'ocal Area >etwor( 1'A>2: 'east expensiveG spans a single room or a single building
!etropolitan Area >etwor( 1!A>2 !edium expenseG spans a maFor city or a metroplex
0ide Area >etwor( 10A>2 !ost expensiveG spans sites in multiple cities
7?.? Name the two sublayers of Layer 2 rotocols defined by !""", and gi#e the urose of each$
#he 'ayer * protocols defined by IEEE defines two sub3layers as mentioned below:
'ogical 'in( ontrol 1''2 Addressing and demultiplexing
!edia Access ontrol 1!A2 Access to shared media
7?.- !n a circuit%switched networ&, can multile circuits share a single otical fiber? "'lain$
It%s possible. Since the circuit switching means that the communication between two parties is not affected in
any way by communication among other parties, even if all communication is multiplexed over a common
medium. In particular, circuit switching must provide the illusion of an isolated path for each pair of
communicating entities.
7?.J (i#e a definition of the term frame$
In a pac(et3switched networ(, each fra&e corresponds to a pac(et processed at data lin( layer.
7?.6 What is a oint%to%oint networ&?
#he term %oint$to$%oint refers to a communication mechanism that connects exactly two communicating
entities.
7?.B Write a air of comuter rograms, one that accets a data file as inut and roduces a byte stuffed #ersion of
the file according to the maing in )igure *+$*2, and another that remo#es byte stuffing$ ,how that your rograms
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interoerate with those written by others$
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7?.4 -an the wires of a ring networ& be arranged in a straight line .e$g$, down a hallway/? "'lain$
#he name ring arises because one can imagine the computers and the cables connecting them arranged in a
circle as .owever, in practice, the cables in a ring networ( do not form a circle. Instead, they run along
hallways or rise vertically from one floor of a building to another.
7?.@ What are the four basic LAN toologies?
#he four basic 'A> topologies are star, ring, mesh and bus
7?.7, !n a ac&et switching system, how does a sender transfer a large file?
#he pac(et switching system re&uires a sender to divide each message into bloc(s of data that are (nown as
%ac'ets. #he si/e of a pac(et variesG each pac(et switching technology defines a maximum pac(et si/e. So, a
large file will be divided into smaller pieces and sent.
7?.77 !f someone wanted to broadcast a coy of a #ideo resentation, is a circuit switching system or a ac&et
switching referable? Why?
"ac(et switching has the characteristic of establishing arbitrary, asynchronous communication means that
can allow a sender to communicate with one recipient or multiple recipients. Also, a given recipient can
receive messages from one sender or multiple senders.
7?.7* 0efine unicast, multicast, and broadcast addresses$ "'lain the meaning of each$
#hree categories of communication types are listed and described below:
<nicast: <ni&uely identifies a single computer, and specifies that only the identified computer should
receive a copy of the pac(et
:roadcast: orresponds to all computers, and specifies that each computer on the networ( should
receive a copy of the pac(et
!ulticast: Identifies a subset of the computers on a given networ(, and specifies that each computer
in the subset should receive a copy of the pac(et
7?.7? Why is byte stuffing needed?
0hat happens if the payload of a frame includes one or more bytes with control values5characters, such as
EE#, SE., which can be mista(en an actual control characterL #he solution lies with using a techni&ue
(nown as "#te stuffing that allows transmission of arbitrary data without confusion. So each such case is
replaced with a matching se&uence which try to eliminate the confusion.
7?.7- (i#en an !""" MA- address, how can one tell if the address refers to unicast?
In the -43bit IEEE !A address one bit determine the type of connection. #he value of the bit at position 4
specifies type of communicationG , 1unicast2 7 1multicast2
7?.7J 1ow does a comuter attached to a shared LAN decide whether to accet a ac&et?
'A> transmits pac(ets over a shared medium. In a typical 'A>, each computer on the 'A> monitors the
shared medium, extracts a copy of each pac(et, and then examines the address in the pac(et to determine
whether the pac(et should be processed or ignored.
7?.76 What term is used to describe the metadata that accomanies a ac&et?
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#he header is used to describe metadata that contains information used to process the frame. In particular, a
header usually contains an address that specifies the intended recipient.
7?.7B !n a mesh networ&, how many connections are re2uired among 23 comuters?
#he expression to calculate number of connections in a mesh networ( is given by 1n
*
3n25*. So for *,
computers then number of connections re&uired will be ) 1*,
*
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Chapter 1$ - The IEEE )AC Su,-3a-er
7-.7 "'lain the three basic aroaches used to arbitrate access to a shared medium$
#he three basic approaches used to arbitrate access to a shared medium are:
ontrolled access protocols
Aandom access protocols
hanneli/ation protocols
7-.* Why is -,MA4-A needed in a wireless networ&?
In wireless networ(s there is a hidden ter&inal*station %ro"le&, where some stations may not see5detect the
transmission between some other parties. #o ensure that all stations share the transmission media correctly,
wireless 'A>s use a modified access protocol (nown as +arrier ,ense -ulti%le Access .ith +ollision
A/oidance 1+,-A*+A2. Instead of depending on all other computers to receive all transmissions, the
S!A5A used with wireless 'A>s triggers a brief transmission from the intended receiver before
transmitting a pac(et. #he idea is that if both the sender and receiver transmit a message, all computers
within range of either will (now a pac(et transmission is beginning.
7-.? "'lain olling and the two general olling olicies$
#he %olling uses a centrali/ed controller, which cycles through stations on the networ( and gives each an
opportunity to transmit a pac(et
7-.- !n the Aloha rotocol, what haens if two stations attemt simultaneous transmission on the inbound
fre2uency, and how is the roblem handled?
If two stations simultaneously attempt to transmit on the inbound fre&uency, the signals will interfere and the
two transmissions will be garbled. 0e use the term collision, and say that the two transmitted pac(ets collide
in the medium. #he protocol handles a collision by re&uiring a sender to retrans&it each lost pac(et.
7-.J What is binary e'onential bac&off?
Doubling the range of the random delay after each collision is (nown as "inar# e0%onential "ac'off. In
essence, exponential bac(off means that an Ethernet can recover &uic(ly after a collision, because each
computer agrees to wait longer times between attempts when the cable becomes busy. Even in the unli(ely
event that two or more computers choose delays that are approximately e&ual, exponential bac(off
guarantees that contention for the cable will be reduced after a few collisions.
7-.6 (i#e an e'amle of a networ& that uses dynamic channel allocation$
7-.B List the three main tyes of channeli5ation and the characteristics of each$
#he three types of channeli/ation are
$re&uency division multiple access 1$D!A2G onsists of a mechanism that allows independent
stations to choose carrier fre&uencies that will not conflict with the carriers used by other stations.
#ime division multiple access 1#D!A2G Each active participant is assigned a se&uence number from
7 to >, and stations transmit in order 7, *, ?, ... >.
ode division multiplexingG Allows multiple stations to transmit at the same time by encoding each
transmission with some mathematically proven strategy.
7-.4 !n a reser#ation system, how does a controller form a list of stations that will transmit in a gi#en round?
A reser/ation system, often used with satellite transmission, employs a two3step process in which each round
of pac(et transmissions is planned in advance. In the first step, each potential sender specifies whether they
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have a pac(et to send during the next round and the controller transmits a list of the stations that will be
transmitting. In the second step, stations use the list to (now when they should transmit
7-.@ "'and the acronym -,MA4-0, and e'lain each art$
#he acronym S!A5D stands for +arrier ,ense -ulti$Access with +ollision Detection, which means the
following:
+arrier ,ense: Instead of allowing a station to transmit whenever a pac(et becomes ready, Ethernet
re&uires each station to monitor the cable to detect whether another transmission is already in
progress.
-ulti%le Access: #he system allows multiple users5hosts to ma(e use of a common5shared media
+ollision Detection. A collision can occur if two stations wait for a transmission to stop, find the cable
idle, and both start transmitting.
7-.7, Why does -,MA4-0 use a random delay? .1int6 thin& of many identical comuters on a networ&$/
Aandomi/ation is used to avoid having multiple stations transmit simultaneously as soon as the cable is
idle. #hat is, the standard specifies a maximum delay, d, and re&uires each station to choose a random delay
less than d after a collision occurs. In most cases, when two stations each choose a random value, the station
that chooses the smallest delay will proceed to send a pac(et and the networ( will return to normal operation.
7-.77 What is a to&en, and how are to&ens used to control networ& access?
A special control message is called a to'en. In a to(en passing system, when no station has any pac(ets to
send, the to(en circulates among all stations continuously. 0hen a station captures the to(en, it sends its
data, and when transmission completed, it releases the to(en.
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Chapter 1& - 7ired 3A Technolo#- 0Ethernet And */2832
7J.7 What is an "thernet hub, and what wiring is used with a hub?
An electronic device that serves as the central interconnection is (nown as a hu". .ubs were available in a
variety of si/es, with the cost proportional to si/e$ #he hubs are becoming old3fashioned, and being replaced
with switches.
7J.* 1ow large is the ma'imum "thernet frame, including the -7-?
According to $ig. 7J.7 a conventional Ethernet frame has the following fields:
.eader: 7- bytes 1fixed2
"ayload: -637J,, bytes 1there is a minimum frame si/e because of collision detection2
A: - bytes 1fixed2
Accordingly an Ethernet frame will be maximum 7J74 bytes and minimum 6- bytes
7J.? What category of twisted air wiring is needed for a *3 Mbs networ&? *33 Mbs? *333 Mbs?
#he three maFor categories of Ethernet and their wiring is listed below:
7, !bps: 7,:ase# 1Ethernet2 ategory J
7,, !bps: 7,,:ase# 1Ethernet $ast2 ategory JE
7 ;bps: 7,,,:ase# 1;igabit Ethernet2 ategory 6
7J.- 1ow can a recei#er tell whether an "thernet frame uses the 832$+ standard?
#o (eep the two versions of Ethernet compatible, a convention is used:
If bytes 7?37- of an Ethernet frame contain a numeric value less than 7J,,, the field is interpreted as a pac(et
length and the 4,*.? standard appliesG otherwise, the field is interpreted as a type field and the original
Ethernet standard applies.
7J.J 1ow did a comuter attach to a 9hic&net "thernet?
.ardware used with #hic(net was divided into two maFor parts:
#ransceiver: A networ( interface card 1>I2 handled the digital aspects of communication, and a
separate electronic device called a transcei/er connected to the Ethernet cable and handled carrier
detection, conversion of bits into appropriate voltages for transmission, and conversion of incoming
signals to bits.
A<I: A physical cable (nown as an Attach&ent 1nit Interface 1A1I2 connected a transceiver to a >I
in a computer. A transceiver was usually remote from a computer.
7J.6 1ow were comuters attached to a 9hinnet "thernet?
#hinnet Ethernet 1formally named 102ase2 uses a thinner coaxial cable that was more flexible than
#hic(net. #he wiring scheme differed dramatically from #hic(net. Instead of using A<I connections between
a computer and a transceiver, #hinnet integrates a transceiver directly on the >I, and runs a coaxial cable
from one computer to another.
7J.B Which style of "thernet wiring re2uires more hysical wires in an office building?
.ub5switch type of Ethernet wiring re&uires more physical wires, but gradually 'A> wiring is being replaced
with wireless options available
7J.4 1ow is the tye field in the "thernet header used?
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#he type field in an Ethernet frame provides multiplexing and demultiplexing that allows a given computer to
have multiple protocols operating simultaneously.
7J.@ Loo& u switches and hubs on the Web$ !f you were offered a switch or hub that oerated at the same bit rate
for the same rice, which would you choose? Why?
7J.7, !n an 832$+ "thernet frame, what is the ma'imum ayload si5e?
#he 4,*.? Ethernet ma(es use of 43bytes of the original5conventional Ethernet for 3ogical 3in' +ontrol * ,u"$
4etwor' Attach&ent 5oint (33+ * ,4A52 header instead of extending5increasing the header. #his is for sa(e of
bac(ward compatibility. So the maximum pay load is reduced from 7J,, bytes to 7-@* bytes.
7J.77 When it is used, where is an LL-4,NA: header laced?
0hen it is used, ''5S>A" header is placed after the original header, in the beginning of the payload area.
7J.7* (i#e an e'amle of a networ& with differing hysical and logical toologies$
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Chapter 1' - 7ireless etwor!in# Technolo#ies
76.7 What is the Wi%)i Alliance?
0i3fi Alliance is a group of vendors who build wireless e&uipment. It is a non3profit organi/ation that tests
and certifies wireless e&uipment using the 4,*.77 standards.
76.* What features are controllable in a software radio?
$eatures that can be controlled in a software programmable radio are:
$re&uency: #he exact set of fre&uencies used at a given time
"ower: #he amount of power the transmitter emits
!odulation: #he signal and channel coding and modulation
!ultiplexing: Any combination of D!A, #D!A, $D!A and others
Signal Direction: Antennas can be tuned for a specific direction
!A "rotocol: All aspects of framing and !A addressing
76.? Name three wireless :AN technologies, and gi#e a short descrition of each$
ategori/ation of "ersonal Area >etwor( 1"A>2 technologies and their short description can be given as
follows:
:luetooth : ommunication over a short distance between a small peripheral device such as a
headset or mouse
and a system such as a cell phone or a computer
InfraAed: 'ine3of3sight communication between a small device, often a hand3held controller, and a
nearby system such as a computer or entertainment center
IS!: ommunication using fre&uencies set aside for Industrial wireless Scientific and !edical
devices, an environment where electromagnetic interference may be present
76.- What are the three bloc&s of fre2uencies used by wireless LANs and :ANs?
#he following range of fre&uencies are allocated for the usage of 'A>s and IS! applications without paying
license fee:
Aange of @,* 3 @*4 !./
Aange of *.- 3 *.-4* ;./
Aange of J.B*J H J.4J, ;./
76.J (i#e the numeric refi' !""" standards use for Wi%)i networ&s$
IEEE standards use the following common notation for 0i3$i networ(s
IEEE 4,*.77
IEEE 4,*.77a
IEEE 4,*.77g
IEEE 4,*.77g
$ew others also being developed
76.6 9o what does a cell tower connect?
ellular systems were originally designed to provide voice services to mobile customers. ellular systems are
being used to provide data services and Internet connectivity. Each cell contains a tower, and a group of
1usually adFacent2 cells is connected to a !obile Switching enter. #he center trac(s a mobile user, and
manages handoff as the user passes from one cell to another.
76.B What is 7)!0, and where is it used?
Aadio $re&uency Identification 1A$ID2 technology uses an interesting form of wireless communication to
create a mechanism whereby a small tag contains identification information that a receiver can 8pull9 from
the tag. A$ID mostly used for inventory control, sensors, passports, and other applications.
76.4 List three sread sectrum techni2ues, and gi#e a general descrition of each$
ommon spread spectrum techni&ues and their general description is given below:
DSSS 1Direct Se&uence Spread Spectrum2: Similar to D!A where a sender multiplies the outgoing
data by a se&uence to form multiple fre&uencies and the receiver multiplies by the same se&uence to
decode
$.SS 1$re&uency .opping Spread Spectrum 2: A sender uses a se&uence of fre&uencies to transmit
data, and a receiver uses the same se&uence of fre&uencies to extract data
E$D! 1Erthogonal $re&uency Division !ultiplexing 2: A fre&uency division multiplexing scheme
where the transmission band is divided into many carriers in such a way that the carriers do not
interfere
76.@ Name the four generations of cellular technology, and describe each$
#he telecommunications industry divides cellular technologies into four generations that are labeled 7;, *;,
?;, and -;, with intermediate versions labeled *.J; and ?.J;. #he generations can be characteri/ed as
follows:
7;: #he first generation began in the latter 7@B,s, and extended through the 7@4,s. #he systems,
which were originally called cellular mobile radio telephones, used analog signals to carry voice.
*; and *.J;: #he second generation began in the early 7@@,s and continues to be used. #he main
distinction between 7; and *; arises because *; uses digital signals to carry voice. #he label *.J; is
used for systems that extend a *; system to include some ?; features.
?; and ?.J;: #he third generation began in the *,,,s, and focuses on the addition of higher3speed
data services. A ?; system offers download rates of -,, Cbps to * !bps, and is intended to support
applications such as web browsing and photo sharing. ?; allows a single telephone to roam across
>orth America, Mapan, and Europe.
-;: #he fourth generation began around *,,4, and focuses on support for real3time multimedia, such
as a television program or high3speed video download. In addition, -; phones include multiple
connection technologies, such as 0i3$i and satelliteG at any time, the phone automatically chooses the
best connection technology available
76.7, What is a ;,A9 satellite?
A maFor change in satellite occurred with the emergence of a technology (nown as a Nery Small Aperture
#erminal 1NSA#2 that uses dishes less than three meters in diameter. A typical NSA# antenna is less than one
meter in diameter.
76.77 Name the three chief fre2uency bands used by communication satellites, and gi#e the effect of weather on
each$
!aFor fre&uency bands used by communication satellites and the effect of weather on each of them is given as
follows:
:and: !edium
Cu :and: !oderate
Ca :and: Severe
76.7* Why is a satellite dish shaed in the form of a arabola?
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#he parabolic shape means that electromagnetic energy arriving from a distant satellite is reflected to a single
focus point. :y aiming the dish at a satellite and placing a detector at the focus point, a designer can
guarantee that a strong signal is received.
76.7? List the !""" standards that ha#e been roosed or created for wireless LANs$
#he &uestion needs to be clarified further. :ut, the point is IEEE has created many wireless networ(ing
standards that handle various types of communication. Each standard specifies a fre&uency range, the
modulation and multiplexing to be used, and a data rate. $igure 76.6 lists the maFor standards that have been
created or proposed, and gives a brief description of each. In *,,B, IEEE 8rolled up9 many of the existing
4,*.77 standards into a single document (nown as 4,*.773*,,B. #he document describes basics, and has an
appendix for each variant.
76.7- What are ,!), and 0!),, and why are they needed?
#he wireless standard defines timing parameters as follows:
SI$S 1Short Inter3$rame Space2 of 7, Ksec
DI$S 1Distributed Inter3$rame Space2 of J, Ksec
#he SI$S parameter defines how long a receiving station waits before sending an AC or other responseG the
DI$S parameter, which is e&ual to SI$S plus two Slot #imes, defines how long a channel must be idle before a
station can attempt transmission.
76.7J Why do most wireless LANs use an infrastructure aroach rather than an ad hoc aroach?
In practice few ad hoc networ(s exist. Instead, an organi/ation or service provider deploys a set of access
points, and each wireless host communicates through one of the access points. #he wired connections that
extend to access points usually consist of twisted pair Ethernet.
76.76 1ow many satellites are used in (:,, and how accurate is a (:, system?
;"S uses *- total satellites orbit the earth, arranged in six orbital planes. Accuracy of ;"S systems differs,
and ranges between *3*, meters 1military versions have higher accuracy2
76.7B Why must a wireless comuter associate with a secific base station?
If a pair of access points is too close together, an overlap will exist in which a wireless host can reach both
access points. $urthermore, most wireless 'A>s connect to the Internet. #o handle overlap, 4,*.77 networ(s
re&uire a wireless host to associate with a single access point. #hat is, a wireless host sends frames to a
particular access point, which forwards the frames across the networ(.
76.7@ An 832$** header contains two destination addresses$ "'lain the urose of each$
An 4,*.77 header contains two destination addresses as follows:
Destination 7: A" or wireless computer%s !A
Destination *: Aouter%s !A address
76.*, Name the two tyes of WiMA< technologies, and describe the urose of each$
#wo main versions of 0i!AO are being developed that differ in their overall approach, namely:
$ixed 0i!AO: Aefers to systems built using IEEE standard 4,*.763*,,-, which is informally called
4,*.76d. It is designed to provide connections between a service provider and a fixed location, rather
than between a provider and a cell phone.
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!obile 0i!AO: Aefers to systems built according to standard 4,*.76e3*,,J, which is informally
abbreviated 4,*.76e. #he technology offers handoff among access points, which means a mobile
0i!AO system can be used with portable devices such as laptop computers or cell phones.
76.*7 (i#e the characteristics of =W> technology$
<ltra 0ideband 1<0:2 communication utili/es spreading data across many fre&uencies re&uires less power
to reach the same distance. #he (ey characteristics of <0: are:
<ses wide spectrum of fre&uencies
onsumes very low power
Short distance 1* to 7, meters2
Signal permeates obstacles such as walls
Data rate of 77, at 7, meters, and up to J,, !bps at * meters
IEEE unable to resolve disputes and form a single standard
76.** What is a cell cluster, and how does a designer use clusters?
In cellular communication interference can be minimi/ed if an adFacent pair of cells do not use the same
fre&uency. #o implement the principle, cellular planners employ a cluster approach in which a
small pattern of cells is replicated.
76.*? !n addition to osition, what does (:, ro#ide?
In addition to position5location information, ;"S provides time synchroni/ation that is used in some
communication networ(s
76.*- What is (,M, and what standards does it comrise?
#he 6lo"al ,#ste& for -o"ile +o&&unications 16,-2 is created as a system that was intended as a worldwide
standard. It comprise many standards and usages, so the &uestion needs to be clarified for a precise answer.
76.*J Loo& u ?)0M on the Web, and gi#e a one%aragrah descrition in your own words$
76.*6 0oes it ma&e sense to use !r0A for alications such as file transfer? Why or why not?
76.*B What are the third%generation cellular technologies that use code%di#ision multile'ing?
#hird3generation cellular technologies that use D!A can be classified as:
0D!A 1<!#S = .SD"A2
D!A *,,, 1ENDE = ENDN2
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Chapter 1( - 3A Extensions4 6i,er )odems5
+epeaters5 9rid#es5 and Switches
7B.7 -an a bridge connect a Wi%)i networ& to an "thernet? -an a switch? Why or why not?
7B.* (i#e a recise statement of conditions under which an adati#e bridge will forward a ac&et$
0hen a frame arrives from a given segment, the bridge extracts the source address from the header, and
adds the address to a list of computers attached to the segment. #he bridge must then extract the !A
destination address from the frame, and use the address to determine whether to forward the frame using
forwarding table.
7B.? -onsult the Web to find a descrition of the sanning tree algorithm, and write a comuter rogram that
simulates bridges forming a sanning tree$
7B.- 0o comuters on a bridged "thernet recei#e sanning tree ac&ets? "'lain$
Ethernet bridges communicate among themselves. omputer on the bridged Ethernet are not aware of the
spanning tree.
7B.J When bridging is used with a satellite lin&, two bridges are tyically used, one on each side$ "'lain why$
7B.6 When an otical fiber is used to e'tend a connection to a LAN, what additional de#ices are needed?
$iber modems are re&uired to extend a 'A> connection with fiber optic cable
7B.B !f a tele#ision set ro#ides a wired e'tension for a remote infrared sensor, what technology is li&ely used?
7B.4 -onsider a ac&et sent on a bridged LAN to a none'istent address$ Across how many segments will bridges
forward the ac&et?
7B.@ ,uose a networ& contains three "thernet segments oerating at *33 Mbs connected by two bridges and that
each segment contains one comuter$ !f two comuters send to a third, what is the ma'imum data rate a gi#en
sender can achie#e? 9he minimum?
En a Ethernet 'A> only one station at a time can be active. So, the maximum rate that can be achieved is 7,,
!bps, the minimum , !bps 1no transmission2
7B.7, Write a comuter rogram that simulates a bridge function$ Let two files of data simulate frames transmitted
on two segments to which the bridge attaches$ Assume that each simulated frame contains a source and destination
address$ 9o erform the simulation, read a frame from the first file, then a frame from the second file, and so on$ )or
each frame, dislay whether the bridge will forward a coy of the frame to the other LAN segment$
7B.77 "'tend the rogram in the re#ious e'ercise to simulate a ;LAN switch$ 1a#e the rogram begin by reading
configuration information that secifies a set of hosts and a set of #irtual LANs to which they should be attached$
-reate a file of frames that each secify the comuter sending the frame .i$e$, the ort on the switch o#er which the
frame arri#es/ and a destination address$ ,how how each frame is forwarded$
7B.7* According to )igure *@$A, can two comuters attached to a switched LAN transmit ac&ets simultaneously?
"'lain$
If the figure is analy/ed carefully, it can be seen that, two computers pair of computers can communicate
simultaneously without effecting each other.
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7B.7? "'tend )igure *@$A to ha#e fi#e orts$
7B.7- !n the re#ious e'ercise, write an e2uation that gi#es the number of simulated bridges needed as a function of
the number of orts$
7B.7J !f two comuters are connected on a bridged networ&, are changes re2uired in addressing or in alications?
"'lain$
omputers and applications running on the computers attached to a bridged networ( are not aware of the
fact they are connected through a bridge. >o changes are re&uired on them.
7B.76 =se a networ& analy5er to obser#e traffic on a bridged "thernet$ What do you obser#e after a bridge reboots?
In satellite lin(s there is long delays between two points. Aeader is encouraged to elaborate on this point.
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Chapter 1* - 7A Technolo#ies And %-namic +outin#
74.7 What are the two concetual arts of a WAN address?
onceptually, hierarchical addressing divides each address into two parts: 1site, computer at the site2. In
practice, instead of a identifying a site, each pac(et switch is assigned a uni&ue number, which means that the
first part of an address identifies a pac(et switch and the second part identifies a specific computer.
74.* What are the concetual arts of a traditional ac&et switch, and to what does it connect?
A pac(et switch consists of a small computer system with a processor, memory, and I5E devices used to send
and receive pac(ets. Early pac(et switches were constructed from conventional computersG the pac(et
switches used in the highest3speed 0A>s re&uire special3purpose hardware. A pac(et switch, the device
provides local connections for computers at the site as well as connections for data circuits that lead to other
sites.
74.? What benefit does dynamic routing offer?
Dynamic routing builds an initial forwarding table when a the router bootsG the program then alters the
table as conditions in the networ( change. Dynamic routing allows a large networ( with redundant
connections to handle occasional hardware failures.
74.- What is a routing loo?
In a routing loo% situation, each pac(et switch thin(s the next pac(et switch in the set is the shortest
path to a particular destination. As a result, a pac(et can circulate among the pac(et switches indefinitely
74.J When comuter rograms running on two ac&et switches e'change distance%#ector information, the rograms
must agree on a message format$ -reate a secification for an unambiguous message format$ 1int6 consider
differences in the way comuters reresent information$
74.6 Write a comuter rogram that imlements 0iB&straCs algorithm for finding shortest aths in a grah$
74.B !nto what two concetual ieces is a modern ac&et switch di#ided?
#he &uestion can be interpreted differently. :ut, if we assume the functional bloc(s of a pac(et switch, most
0A>s separate a pac(et switch into two parts: a 'ayer * switch that connects local computers and a 'ayer ?
router that connects to other sites.
74.4 "'lain the store and forward aradigm$
#o perform store and forward processing, a pac(et switch "uffers pac(ets in memory. #he store operation
occurs when a pac(et arrives: I5E hardware inside the pac(et switch places a copy of the pac(et in memory.
#he forward operation occurs once a pac(et has arrived and is waiting in memory. #he processor examines
the pac(et, determines its destination, and sends the pac(et over the I5E interface that leads to the
destination.
74.@ )igure *8$D shows how addresses can be assigned to comuters that connect to a ac&et switch$ ,uose the
hardware for one of the interfaces on a switch fails and a networ& administrator mo#es a comuterCs connection to
an unused interface$ Will the new configuration wor& correctly? Why or why not?
74.7, Write a comuter rogram that ta&es as inut a forwarding table and a series of ac&ets, and generates as
outut a statement of how each ac&et should be forwarded$ 7emember to handle ac&ets that ha#e an incorrect
address$
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74.77 -onsider a WAN with two ac&et switches$ Assume each switch has a forwarding table entry for each local
address .i$e$, the address of each comuter that attaches to the switch/ lus a default entry that oints to the other
switch$ =nder what circumstances will the scheme wor&? =nder what circumstances will the scheme fail?
74.7* What are the two basic aroaches used to erform a distributed route comutation, and how does each wor&?
#here are two basic approaches used to perform distributed route computation:
'in(3State Aouting 1'SA2, which uses DiF(stra%s algorithm: In 'SA routing, pac(et switches
periodically send messages across the networ( that carry the status of a lin( between two pac(et
switches. Each status message is broadcast to all switches. Every switch runs software that collects
incoming status messages and uses them to build a graph of the networ(.
Distance3Nector Aouting 1DNA2, which uses another approach: Each lin( in the networ( is assigned a
weight, and the distance to a destination between two pac(et switches is defined to be the sum of
weights along the path between the two. In DNA scheme, a router send a complete list of destinations
and the current cost of reaching each networ( that can be reached.
In both 'SA and DNA schemes pac(et switches to exchange messages periodically.
74.7? When a ac&et switch recei#es a distance%#ector message from a neighbor, will the switchCs forwarding table
always change? "'lain$
$orwarding table will change only when newly advertised values are better 1shorter2 than existing routes. So
forwarding table for router may remain stable as long as no changes in the networ( topology and no changes
cost to reach them.
74.7- -an a comuter use an "thernet interface to communicate with a WAN? "'lain$
74.76 !f a WAN connects N sites, what is the minimum number of digital circuits needed? What is the ma'imum
number that can be resent?
74.7J "'tend the re#ious e'ercise by imlementing a comuter rogram that uses the secified message format$
1a#e another student imlement a rogram from the same secification, and see if they interoerate correctly$
Chapter 1. - etwor!in# Technolo#ies "ast And "resent
7@.* What is ,?N"9?
#he term ,#nchronous 7%tical 4E8wor' 1,74E82 in >orth America, is (nown as the ,#nchronous Digital
9ierarch# 1,D92 in Europe. SE>E# uses time3division multiplexing to multiplex the circuits onto an
underlying fiber. SE>E# permits a physical ring to be constructed with the purpose of providing
redundancy. A device (nown as an Add$Dro% -ulti%le0or is used to connect a site to a SE>E# ring. #he term
arises because the Add3Drop !ultiplexor either inserts or terminates a set of data circuits that each connect
to another Add3Drop !ultiplexor on the ring. SE>E# specifies details such as how data is framed, how
lower3capacity circuits are multiplexed into a high3capacity circuit, and how synchronous cloc( information
is sent along with data. SE>E# and the associated #D! hierarchy was originally designed as a system to
carry digital voice telephone calls.
7@.J >y why name does a consumer &now 0?-,!, technology?
7@.? Which would you e'ect to ha#e smaller delay, ;,A9 technology or WiMA< technology? Why?
#he 0i!AO technology has smaller delay than NSA#, since in NSA# a satellite is used as a relay point,
which has a long distance to travel for a complete round3trip, while in 0i!AO communication is limited
within a limited location.
7@.4 Which comany was well%&nown for a to&en ring technology?
I:! chose to create a to(en passing 'A> technology that was (nown as I2- 8o'en :ing.
7@.- What technology o#ershadowed and e#entually edged out )00!?
#he high cost and special expertise needed to install fiber discouraged most organi/ations from replacing
copper wiring. As wor( on $ast Ethernet progressed, $DDI proponents created a version of $DDI called
DDI that ran over copper wiring. <ltimately, Ethernet proved to have lower cost, and $DDI technologies
vanished.
7@.7 What technology has relaced "thernet hubs?
Ethernet switches replaced hubs, and N'A> switches replaced switches.
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"A+T I: Internetwor!in#
;sin# TC"<I"
Chapter 2/ - Internetwor!in#4 Concepts5
Architecture5 and
"rotocol
s
*,.7 !n the E%layer reference model used with the 9-:4!: !nternet rotocols, what is the urose of each of the fi#e
layers?
#he J3layers of #"5I" and their purpose is given as follows:
'ayer 7 1"hysical2: "rotocols in the "hysical layer specify details about the underlying transmission
medium and the associated hardware.
'ayer * 1>etwor( Interface2: "rotocols in the >etwor( Interface layer specify details about
communication between higher layers of protocols and the underlying networ(.
'ayer ? 1Internet2: "rotocols in the Internet layer form the fundamental basis for the Internet. 'ayer
? protocols specify communication between two computers across the Internet
'ayer - 1#ransport2: "rotocols in the #ransport layer provide for communication from an
application program on one computer to an application program on another.
'ayer J 1Application2: "rotocols in the top layer of the #"5I" stac( specify how a pair o
applications interact when they communicate.
*,.* Will the !nternet be relaced by a single networ&ing technology? Why or why not?
Incompatibilities ma(e it impossible to form a large networ( merely by interconnecting the wires among
networ(s. #he beauty of the Internet is interconnection of wide range of technologies from various
manufacturers. Diversity of the products and solutions is a richness instead of limitation as long as they all
adopt the same set of protocols.
*,.? =sers #iew the !nternet as a single networ&$ What is the reality, and to what does a userCs comuter attach?
Internet is a /irtual networ' system because the communication system is an abstraction. #hat is, although a
combination of hardware and software provides the illusion of a uniform networ( system, no such networ(
exists. Internet protocol software hides the details of physical networ( connections, physical addresses, and
routing information. >either users nor application programs are aware of the underlying physical networ(s
or the routers that connect them. Internet software provides the appearance of a single, seamless
communication system to which many user computers attach. #he system offers universal service: each
computer is assigned an address, and any computer can send a pac(et to any other computer.
*,.- What is the chief difficulty in ro#iding uni#ersal ser#ice?
#he main difficulty in providing universal service is incompatibilities among networ( hardware, frames, and
addresses prevent a bridged networ( from including arbitrary technologies.
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*,.J What are the two reasons an organi5ation does not use a single router to connect all its networ&s?
An organi/ation seldom uses a single router to connect all of its networ(s. #here are two maFor reasons:
:ecause the router must forward each pac(et, the processor in a given router is insufficient to handle
the traffic passing among an arbitrary number of networ(s.
Aedundancy improves internet reliability. #o avoid a single point of failure, protocol software
continuously monitors internet connections and instructs routers to send traffic along alternative
paths when a networ( or router fails.
*,.6 !f a gi#en router can connect to at most K networ&s, how many routers, R, are re2uired to connect N networ&s?
Write an e2uation that gi#es R in terms of N and K$
A router re&uire an interface of each networ( to be connected. Since > networ(s to be connected by a router
having C, then number of routers re&uired will be >5C.
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Chapter 21- I"4 Internet Addressin#
*7.7 What does the !nternet address hierarchy allow a local manager to do?
It allows a local manager to divide the networ( into subnetwor(s for better management in terms of security,
traffic segregation.
*7.* ,uose you are an !,: that owns a 4 22 address bloc&$ -an you accommodate re2uests from si' customers
who need addresses for F, *E, 23, D*, *28, and 2A3 comuters, resecti#ely? !f so, how? !f not, e'lain why$
If an IS" owns 5** address bloc(, then number of addresses available will be *
?*3**
) *
7,
) 7,*-
0e should loo( at the distribution of these available addresses in a very efficient way. $or example, if we
want to assign a bloc( for *6, addresses, *
4
) *J6 is less and *
@
)J7* is a lot 1lots of addresses are wasted2. #he
reader is expected to analy/e the situation accordingly and answer the remaining of the &uestion.
*7.? Write a comuter rogram that reads as inut a networ& refi' in -!07 notation and a re2uest for a number of
hosts$ Assume the re2uest has been gi#en to the !,: that owns the refi', and assign a -!07 refi' that
accommodates the re2uest without wasting addresses$
*7.- -an a host ha#e more than one !: address? "'lain$
Pes. A host computer with multiple networ( connections is said to be &ulti$ho&ed. !ulti3homing is
sometimes used to increase reliability. >amely, if one networ( fails, the host can still reach the Internet
through the second connection. Also multi3homing may be used to increase performance connections to
multiple networ(s can ma(e it possible to send traffic directly and avoid routers, which are sometimes
congested.
*7.J -ould !: be redesigned to use hardware addresses instead of the +2%bit addresses it currently uses? Why or why
not?
!A adresses can not be used, because the Internet can include multiple networ( technologies and each
technology can define its own !A addresses. :ut if the Internet were to be designed from the beginning, for
sure so many things would be different, probably much easier. :t because of bac(ward compatibility and
various tries by different companies made the system complicated.
*7.6 !n the original classful address scheme, was it ossible to determine the class of an address from the address
itself? "'lain$
Pes, since in the classful addressing scheme initial bit1s2 gives indication about the class being used.
*7.B !f an !,: assigned you a 428 address bloc&, how many comuters could you assign an address?
0hen an organi/ation is assigned 5*4 IDA address, it means *4 bits out of ?* bits are fixed, so ?*3*4 ) - bits
available for user space. So number of users *
-
3* ) -, since the all ,s and all 7s address are having special use
and can%t be assigned to a user.
*7.4 ,uose you are an !,: with a 4 2D address bloc&$ "'lain whether you accommodate a re2uest from a
customer who needs addresses for 2EE comuters$ .1int6 consider the secial addresses$/
$or 5*- address bloc(, number of available addresses will be *
?*3*-
) *
4
) *J6. .owever, a suffix with all ,s
address is reserved for networ( ID and a suffix with all 7s address is reserved for broadcast address, so
number of addresses that can be assigned to computers5hosts will be *J6 3* ) *J-.
*7.@ Write a comuter rogram that reads an address in -!07 notation and rints the resulting address and mas& in
binary$
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*7.7, What is a >er&eley broadcast address?
#he <niversity of alifornia at :er(eley developed and distributed an early implementation of #"5I"
protocols as part of :SD <>IO. #he :SD implementation contained a nonstandard feature that has affected
many subse&uent implementations. Instead of using a host suffix of all ones to represent a directed broadcast
address, the :er(eley implementation uses a host suffix that contains all /eroes 1i.e., identical to the networ(
address2. #he address form is (nown informally as 2er'ele# "roadcast.
*7.77 Write a comuter rogram that accets a dotted decimal address as inut and dislays a string of +2 bits$
*7.7* 1ow many !: addresses are assigned to a router? "'lain$
#he number of I" addresses assigned to a router depends on the number of networ(s connected to the router.
:ut a router at least should have two I" addresses 1one to internal networ(, the other one for external
connection2
*7.7? Write a comuter rogram that reads an !: address in dotted decimal form and determines whether the address
is a multicast address$
*7.7- Write a comuter rogram that translates between -!07 slash notation and an e2ui#alent dotted decimal
#alue$
*7.7J ,uose you are an !,: that owns a 4 22 address bloc&$ ,how the -!07 allocation you would use to allocate
address bloc&s to four customers who need addresses for A3 comuters each$
#he 5** address bloc( can be assigned as follows:
ddd.ddd.ddd.,,5*6
ddd.ddd.ddd.,75*6
ddd.ddd.ddd.7,5*6
ddd.ddd.ddd.775*6
*7.76 !s the -!07 refi' *$2$+$D 4 2F #alid? Why or why not?
*7.7B !f an !,: offers a 4 *@ address bloc& for N dollars er month and a 4 *A address bloc& for *$E N dollars er
month, which has the cheaest cost er comuter?
>umber of addresses in 57B bloc( *
?*37B
) *
7J
"rice per address: *
7J
5> ) *
7J
5>
>umber of addresses in 576 bloc( *
?*376
) *
76
"rice per address: *
76
57.J> ) *x*
7J
57.J> ) 7.??x*
7J
5>
So 576 address bloc( will be cheaper in comparison with the price given for 57B bloc(.
*7.74 Write a comuter rogram that reads a +2%bit host address and a +2%bit mas& in -!07 notation and tells
whether the address is one of the secial addresses$
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Chapter 22- %ata#ram
6orwardin#
**.? What are the two basic communication aradigms that designers consider when designing an internet?
#wo basic communication paradigms that designers consider when designing an internet are:
+onnection$oriented service
+onnectionless service
**.- !f a datagram contains one 8%bit data #alue and no header otions, what #alues will be found in header fields H.
LEN and TOTAL LENGTH?
.. 'E> indicated header in ?*3&uantities, since no options, then this value will be J. #he #E#A' 'E>;#.
indicated the number of bytes in a datagram including the header. #his means Jx- bytes = 7 143bits2 ) *7
bytes
**.J Write a rogram to e'tract all fields from an !: datagram header$ :rint the #alues in he'adecimal or dotted
decimal as aroriate$
**.77 Write a comuter rogram to e'tract the source and destination addresses from an !: datagram, and rint them
in dotted decimal notation$
**.7* Write a comuter rogram that ta&es as inut an !: forwarding table as in )igure 22$+b and a se2uence of
destination addresses$ )or each destination address, search the table se2uentially to find the correct ne't ho, and
outut the results$
**.7? 1ow does the !nternet design accommodate heterogeneous networ&s that each ha#e their own ac&et format?
#o overcome heterogeneity, the Internet "rotocol defines a pac(et format that is independent of the
underlying hardware. #he result is a uni/ersal, /irtual pac(et that can be transferred across the underlying
hardware intact. #he Internet pac(et format is not tied directly to any hardware. #he underlying hardware
does not understand or recogni/e an Internet pac(et.
**.7B What is the ma'imum length of an !: datagram?
In the current version of the Internet "rotocol 1I" version -2, a datagram can contain at most 6- C 16JJ?J2
octets, including the header.
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Chapter 23 - Support "rotocols And
Technolo#ies
*?.7 ,uose a user secified a directed broadcast address as a destination for ing$ What results are ossible?
"'lain$
*?.* "'and )igure 2+$*+ to show the maings that will be used if a third alication also attemts to reach the
same web ser#er$
*?.? When a router uses a forwarding table to loo& u a ne't%ho address, the result is an !: address$ What must
haen before the datagram can be sent?
Each router along the path uses the destination I" address in the datagram to select a next3hop address,
encapsulates the datagram in a hardware frame, and transmits the frame across one networ(. A crucial step
of the forwarding process re&uires a translation: forwarding uses I" addresses, and a frame transmitted
across a physical networ( must contain the !A address of the next hop.
*?.- What is the chief urose of NA9?
4etwor' Address 8ranslation 14A82 technology provides trans%arent communication in the sense that a host at
the site appears to have a normal Internet connection, and a host in the Internet always appears to receive
communication from a single computer rather than from one of many computers that may exist at the site.
*?.J When using a wireless router, what are the ossible !: addresses that can be assigned to hosts?
*?.6 1ow many resonses does a comuter e'ect to recei#e when it broadcasts an A7: re2uest? "'lain$
AA" message is broadcasted to all stations5nodes on a 'A> networ(, but the response is only one that comes
from only one station. #he station that I" address matches the I" address being loo(ed for through the
broadcast message responds.
*?.B (i#en an "thernet frame, what fields does a host need to e'amine to determine whether the frame contains an
!-M: message?
I!" uses I" to transport each error message: when a router has an I!" message to send, it creates an I"
datagram and encapsulates the I!" message in the datagram. #he I!" message is placed in the payload
area of the I" datagram, and then datagram is encapsulated in a frame. So an Ethernet frame should be
chec(ed for I" and then within I" we should chec( the field type to determine if it contains an I!"
message.
*?.4 As an alternati#e to 01-:, de#ise a distributed algorithm that imlements a bidding scheme$ Assume that one
coy of the algorithm will run on each comuter, and ha#e the algorithm assign each comuter a uni2ue host
address$
*?.@ 9o otimi5e reassembly, some #ersions of the Linu' oerating system send the last fragment of an !: datagram
first, and then send the remaining fragments in order$ "'lain why sending the last fragment first does not wor& well
with NA:9$
*?.7, ,uose a comuter recei#es two A7: relies for a single re2uest$ 9he first rely claims that the MA-
address is M1, and the second rely claims that the MA- address is M2$ 1ow does A7: handle the relies?
*?.77 What is the chief difference between >??9: and 01-:?
#he main difference is that the :EE#" protocol re&uired manual administration. So before a computer
could use :EE#" to obtain an address, a networ( administrator had to configure a :EE#" server to (now
the computer%s I" address.
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*?.7* What term is used to describe the maing between a rotocol address and a hardware address?
#ranslation from a computer%s I" address to an e&uivalent hardware address is (nown as address resolution,
and an I" address is said to be resol/ed to the correct !A address. #he #"5I" protocol being used for this
is called Address Aesolution "rotocol 1AA"2. Address resolution is local to a networ(.
*?.7? Ma&e a list of the &ey networ& information that can be configured when a comuter boots$
*?.7- ,ome networ& alications defer configuration until a ser#ice is needed$ )or e'amle, a comuter can wait
until a user attemts to rint a document before the software searches for a#ailable rinters$ What is the chief
ad#antage of deferred configuration? 9he chief disad#antage?
*?.7J 1ow many octets does an A7: message occuy when used with !: and "thernet addresses?
According to $ig *?.? an AA" message has B3lines of each being ?*3bit 1- bytes or octets2, therefore, number
of octets in an AA" can be determined as Bx- ) *4 octets
*?.76 Many NA9 de#ices choose the *3$3$3$3 48 address bloc& from )igure 2+$*3 because it ro#ides the most
generality$ "'lain why$
:ecause 7,.,.,., 54 address bloc( is a lass A bloc( which has the largest number set of I" addresses
*?.7B What crucial information used by NA:9 is not a#ailable in most !: fragments?
In addition to (eeping a table of source and destination addresses, >A"# uses port numbers to associate each
datagram with a #" or <D" flow. #hat is, instead of stopping at the I"3layer, >A"# operates on transport3
layer headers. Entries in the translation table used by >A"# contain a -3tuple of source and destination I"
addresses and protocol port numbers.
*?.74 1ow does a comuter &now whether an arri#ing frame contains an !: datagram or an A7: message?
#he t#%e field in the frame header specifies that the frame contains an AA" message. A sender must assign the
appropriate value to the type field before transmitting the frame, and a receiver must examine the type field
in each incoming frame. Ethernet uses type field 00;0< to denote an AA" message.
*?.7@ What tyes of addresses are used in layers below A7:?
AA" forms a conceptual boundary in the protocol stac(G layers above AA" use I" addresses, and layers
below AA" use !A addresses.
*?.*, !f a datagram has an incorrect #alue in one of the header fields, which !-M: error message will be recei#ed?
I!" will issue 8"arameter "roblem9 1Q 7*2 error message
*?.*7 01-: ermits a ser#er to be located on a remote networ&$ 1ow can the comuter send 01-: messages to a
ser#er on another networ&?
D." does not re&uire each individual networ( to have a server. Instead, a D9+5 rela# agent forwards
re&uests and responses between a client and the server. At least one relay agent must be present on each
networ(, and the relay agent must be configured with the address of the appropriate D." server. 0hen the
server responds, the relay agent forwards the response to the client
*?.** !n )igure 2+$**, the !,: has assigned one !: address to the site$ Which is the assigned address?
#he I" address of the site is connected through the >A# is 7*4.*7,.*-.6
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*?.*? -reate a NA:9 translation table for a case where three comuters at a site ha#e 9-: connections to three
searate web ser#ers in the !nternet$
*?.*- When does Algorithm 2+$* create a new entry in an A7: cache?
In AA", the receiver extracts the sender%s address binding when it receives a message and updates the cache
if the cache already contains an entry for the sender. If the message was a re&uest and target is the
station5node in &uestion, then a new entry will be added to the AA" cache.
*?.*J A7: only ermits address resolution to occur on a single networ&$ 0oes it ma&e sense to send an A7: re2uest
to a remote ser#er in an !: datagram? Why or why not?
*?.*6 ,ome #ersions of the traceroute rogram send !-M: messages and others send =0: messages$ "'eriment
with the #ersion on your comuter to determine which it sends$
*?.*B !f a routing loo e'ists, which !-M: error message will be sent? "'lain the rocess$
#he 8i&e E0ceeded or Destination 1nreacha"le messages may be issued to report an error when a datagram
cannot be delivered successfully. A destination address is unreachable if no route exists to the addressG a
datagram times out if either the ##' count in the header expires or fragments of the datagram do not arrive
before the reassembly timer expires.
*?.*4 -an A7: be used on a networ& that does not ro#ide broadcast? Why or why not?
Chapter 2$ - The 6uture I"
0I"v'2
*-.7 What is the fragmentable art of an !:#A datagram?
$ragmentable part of an I"v6 datagram can include data as well as headers.
*-.* What is the rimary moti#ation for a change from !:#D to !:#A?
#he primary motivation for defining a new version of I" arose from the address space limitation. Since larger
addresses are necessary to accommodate continued growth of the Internet.
*-.? "'tend the rogram in the re#ious e'ercise to imlement 5ero comression$
*-.- 1ow large is the smallest !:#A datagram header?
I"v6 datagram header consists of a base header = /ero or more extension header. Since, smallest header is
being as(ed, we assume /ero extension header and consider I"v6 will have only base header. If we loo( at
I"v6 header format in $ig. *-.?, it shows that 7,x- bytes ) -, bytes.
*-.J What is the hourglass model of !nternet communication?
>etwor(ing professionals say that Internet communication follows an hourglass &odel, and that I" lies at the
position where the hourglass is thin. It means I" lies at the center of Internet communication, all applications
use I", and I" runs over all underlying networ( technologies.
*-.6 Write a comuter rogram that reads a *28%bit binary number and rints the number in colon he' notation$
*-.B List the maBor features of !:#A, and gi#e a short descrition of each$
#he maFor features in I"v6 can be grouped into five broad categories:
Address ,i=e: Each I"v6 address contains 7*4 bits.
9eader >or&at: #he I"v6 datagram header is completely different than the I"v- header. Almost
every field in the header has been changedG some have been replaced.
E0tension 9eaders: I"v6 encodes information into separate headers. A datagram consists of the base
I"v6 header followed by /ero or more extension headers, followed by data.
,u%%ort >or :eal$8i&e 8raffic: I"v6 includes a mechanism that allows a sender and receiver to
establish a high3&uality path through the underlying networ( and to associate datagrams with that
path.
E0tensi"le 5rotocol: I"v6 does not specify all possible protocol features. I"v6 provides a scheme that
allows a sender to add additional information to a datagram.
*-.4 What does the NEXT HEADER field secify in an !:#A datagram header?
#he 4EX8 9EADE: field is used to specify the type of information that follows the current header. $or
example, if the datagram includes an extension header, the 4EX8 9EADE: field specifies the type of the
extension header. If no extension header exists, the 4EX8 9EADE: field specifies the type of data being
carried in the payload.
*-.@ List the three !:#A address tyes, and gi#e a brief e'lanation of each$
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#he I"v6 address has thefollowing types:
<nicast: #he address corresponds to a single computer. A datagram sent to the address is routed
along a shortest path to the computer.
!ulticast: #he address corresponds to a set of computers, and membership in the set can change at
any time. I"v6 delivers one copy of the datagram to each member of the set.
Anycast: #he address corresponds to a set of computers that share a common prefix. A datagram
sent to the address is delivered to exactly one of the computers
*-.7, Why does !:#A use searate e'tension headers instead of fields in a single, fi'ed header?
#he extension scheme ma(es I"v6 more flexible than I"v-, and means that new features can be added to the
design as needed. #his allows a sender to add additional information to a datagram.
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*J.7 (i#en an "thernet frame, what fields must be e'amined to determine whether the frame carries a =0:
message?
#ype field of an Ethernet frame should be examined to determine whether the frame carries an I", and then
loo( at protocol field of the I" datagram. Se&uential examination of fields is needed.
*J.* 0o alications need to e'change =0: control messages before e'changing data? "'lain$
<D" uses a connectionless communication paradigm, which means that an application using <D" does not
need to preestablish communication before sending data, nor does the application need to inform the networ(
when finished. Instead, an application can generate and send data at any time.
*J.? !f an alication uses =0: to send an 8G byte message across an "thernet, how many frames will tra#erse the
networ&?
*J.- What endoint #alues must be secified by an alication that engages in *%to%* communication? !n *%to%
many? !n many%to%*?
Endpoint values that must be specified by an application are given as follows for different cases:
In 73to37 communication, an application specifies the local port number, remote I" address, and
remote protocol port numberG <D" only passes the application messages that arrive from the
specified sender.
In 73to3many communication, an application specifies the local port number, and remote protocol
port numberG <D" passes the application all messages that arrive from the specified sender.
In many3to37 communication, the application specifies the local port number, but informs <D" that
the remote endpoint can be any system. <D" then passes the application all messages that arrive for
the specified port.
*J.J What is the concetual difference between !: and end%to%end rotocols?
I" is incapable of supporting multiple applications because fields in the datagram header only identify
computers. #hat is, from I"%s point of view, the source and destination fields in a datagram identify a host
computerG an I" address does not contain additional bits to identify an application program on the host. 0e
say that I" treats a computer as an end%oint of communication. In contrast, transport3layer protocols are
(nown as end$to$end %rotocols because a transport protocol allows an individual application program to be an
endpoint of communication.
*J.6 What haens if a =0: message containing a ayload of *E33 data bytes is sent across an "thernet?
Aecall from chapter 7J that, the Ethernet payload is in the range of -637J,, bytes 1there is a minimum frame
si/e because of collision detection2. If a <D" message containing 7J,, bytes to be sent across an Ethernet,
then it will be divided into two frames. #he reader is encouraged to wor( out the si/e of each frame. "lease
note the minimum si/e of an Ethernet frame.
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*J.B List the features of =0:$
<D" has the following features:
End$to$end. <D" is a transport protocol that can distinguish among multiple application programs
running on a given computer.
+onnectionless. #he interface that <D" supplies to applications follows a connectionless paradigm.
-essage$oriented. An application that uses <D" sends and receives individual messages.
2est$effort. <D" offers applications the same best3effort delivery semantics as I".
Ar"itrar# Interaction. <D" allows an application to send to many other applications, receive from
many other applications, or communicate with exactly one other application.
7%erating ,#ste& Inde%endent. <D" provides a means of identifying application programs that does
not depend on identifiers used by the local operating system.
*J.4 -alculate the si5e of the largest ossible =0: message$ .1int6 the entire =0: message must fit in an !:
datagram$/
#heoretically, the maximum allowable I" pac(et si/e 1including header2 is 6JJ?J bytes. #he normal 1without
options2 I" header is Jx- bytes. #he <D. header is *x- ) 4 bytes. #he total number of bytes used for header
will be I" header = <D" header ) *,=4 ) *4 bytes. So the maximum <D" payload will be 6JJ?J 3 *4) 6JJ,B
bytes.
*J.@ What is a seudo header, and when is one used?
#o allow <D" to verify that messages reach the correct destination without incurring the overhead of
additional header fields, <D" extends the chec(sum. 0hen computing the chec(sum, <D" software includes
a %seudo header that contains the source, destination, and type 1i.e. "AE#E2 fields from the I" datagram and
a <D" datagram length. So, the sender computes a chec(sum as if the <D" header contained extra fields.
*J.7, What are the semantics of =0:?
<D" provides applications with exactly the same best3effort delivery semantics as I", which means messages
can be:
'ost
Duplicated
Delayed
Delivered out3of3order
orrupted
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Service
*6.* Assume that messages sent between two rograms can be lost, dulicated, delayed, or deli#ered out of order$
0esign a rotocol that reliably allows the two rograms to agree to communicate$ (i#e your design to someone, and
see if they can find a se2uence of loss, dulication, and delay that ma&es the rotocol fail$
*6.- When using a sliding window of si5e N, how many ac&ets can be sent without re2uiring a single A-G to be
recei#ed?
If the si/e of the window is >, then it means a sender can transmit up to > pac(ets without waiting for an
AC, as long as other controls are in place.
*6.J 1ow does 9-: handle ac&et loss?
#o handle pac(et loss, transport protocols use %ositi/e ac'nowledge&ent with retrans&ission. 0henever a
frame arrives intact, the receiving protocol software sends a small ac'nowledge&ent 1A+?2 message that
reports successful reception. #he sender ta(es responsibility for ensuring that each pac(et is transferred
successfully. 0henever it sends a pac(et, the sending3side protocol software starts a timer. If an AC arrives
before the timer expires, the software cancels the timerG if the timer expires before an AC arrives, the
software sends another copy of the pac(et and starts the timer again. #he action of sending a second copy is
(nown as retrans&itting, and the copy is commonly called a retrans&ission.
*6.B What layers of a rotocol stac& are used on a router? A host?
In order to perform re&uired function, a router ma(e use of layer 7 1physical2, layer 1data lin( or interface2 *
and layer ? 1networ( layer2 of a protocol stac(. A host ma(e use of all layers of a protocol stac(, including
application layer.
*6.@ What are the techni2ues a transort rotocol uses?
A transport protocol uses various techni&ues, such as:
<ses parity bits, a chec(sum, or a cyclic redundancy chec( 1A2 for tac(ling transmission errors
<ses se&uencing to handle duplicates and out3of3order delivery
<ses retransmission to handle lost pac(ets
<ses some techni&ues to avoid replay
<ses flow control to prevent data overrun
<ses techni&ues to avoid congestion
*6.77 List the features of 9-:$

$eatures of #" can be listed as follows:
+onnection 7rientation. #" provides connection3oriented service in which an application must first
re&uest a connection to a destination, and then use the connection to transfer data.
5oint$8o$5oint +o&&unication. Each #" connection has exactly two endpoints.
+o&%lete :elia"ilit#. #" guarantees that the data sent across a connection will be delivered exactly
as sent, complete and in order.
>ull Du%le0 +o&&unication. A #" connection allows data to flow in either direction, and allows
either application program to send data at any time.
,trea& Interface. #" provides a stream interface in which an application sends a continuous
se&uence of octets across a connection.
:elia"le +onnection ,tartu%. #" allows two applications to reliably start communication.
6raceful +onnection ,hutdown. :efore closing a connection, #" insures that all data has been
delivered and that both sides have agreed to shut down the connection.
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*6.7* What are the main roblems a transort rotocol must sol#e to achie#e reliable transfer?
An end3to3end transport protocol must be carefully designed to achieve efficient, reliable transfer. #he maFor
problems are:
1nrelia"le +o&&unication. !essages sent across the Internet can be lost, duplicated, corrupted,
delayed, or delivered out of order.
End ,#ste& :e"oot. At any time during communication, either of the two end systems might crash
and reboot.
9eterogeneous End ,#ste&s. A powerful sender can generate data so fast that it overruns a slow
receiver.
+ongestion In 8he Internet. If senders aggressively transmit data, intermediate switches and routers
can become overrun with pac(ets, analogous to a congested highway.
*6.76 Why does a sto%and%go rotocol ha#e esecially low throughut o#er a ("? satellite channel that oerates at
two megabits er second?
In case of using a satellite channel, there is a long delay for round3trip. So a sender needs to wait long time to
get a confirmation 1AC2 for a transmitted pac(et.
*6.7B "'tend the diagrams in )igure 2A$+ to show the transmission of si'teen successi#e ac&ets$
*6.74 What is the chief cause of ac&et delay and loss in the !nternet?
#he main cause of pac(et delay and loss in the Internet is congestion.
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Chapter 2( - Internet +outin# And +outin# "rotocols
*B.- List the characteristics of 7!:$
AI" has the following characteristics:
:outing .ithin An Autono&ous ,#ste&. AI" is designed as an I;" used to pass information among
routers within an AS
9o% +ount -etric. AI" measures distance in networ( ho%s, where each networ( between the source
and destination counts as a single hopG AI" counts a directly connected networ( as one hop away.
1nrelia"le 8rans%ort. AI" uses <D" to transfer messages among routers.
2roadcast 7r -ulticast Deli/er#. AI" is intended for use over 'A> technologies that support
broadcast or multicast 1e.g., Ethernet2.
,u%%ort >or +ID: And ,u"netting. AI" version * includes an address mas( with each destination
address.
,u%%ort >or Default :oute 5ro%agation. In addition to specifying explicit destinations, AI" allows a
router to advertise a default route.
Distance @ector Algorith&. AI" uses the distance$/ector approach
5assi/e @ersion >or 9osts. AI" allows a host to listen passively and update its forwarding table. "assive AI" is
useful on networ(s where a host selects among multiple routers.
*B.J List the two broad categories of !nternet routing, and e'lain each$
I" routing can be partitioned into two broad categories:
Static routing: #he term static routing characteri/es an approach that creates a forwarding table
when the system starts and does not change entries unless an administrator manually alters them.
Dynamic routing: #he term dynamic routing characteri/es an approach in which route propagation
software runs on the system and continuously updates the forwarding table to insure that each
datagram follows an optimum route. #he software communicates with other systems to learn
optimum routes to each destination, and continually chec(s for networ( failures that cause routes to
change.
*B.6 List and e'lain the characteristics of >(:$
#he :;" has the following characteristics:
:outing A&ong A,. :ecause it is intended for use as an Exterior ;ateway "rotocol, :;" provides
routing information at the AS level. #hat is, all routes are given as a path of AS.
5ro/ision >or 5olicies. :;" allows the sender and receiver to enforce policies. In particular, a
manager can configure :;" to restrict which routes :;" advertises to outsiders.
>acilities >or 8ransit :outing. :;" classifies each AS transit system if it agrees to pass traffic
through to another AS, or as a stu" system if it does not. #he classification allows :;" to distinguish
between IS"s and other AS. :;" allows a corporation to classify itself as a stub even if it is &ulti$
ho&ed
:elia"le 8rans%ort. :;" uses #" for all communication. #hat is, a :;" program on a router in one
AS forms a #" connection to a :;" program on a router in another AS, and then sends data
across the connection. #" ensures that the data arrives in the correct order and that no data is
missing.
*B.B ,uose that all routers in the !nternet contain a default routeH show that a routing loo must e'ist$
*B.7* What two entries are needed in the forwarding table of a tyical host?
A typical host forwarding table has the entries for the networ(1s2 that can be reached and the mas( being
used.
*B.7? ,uose a router in an organi5ation uses a routing rotocol to declare that a gi#en destination is ten hos away
when the destination is only three hos away$ !s the declaration necessarily an error? "'lain$
>o, it%s not necessarily an error. It%s usually used for reliability. In case the shortest path to destination is not
available, then an alternative longer route may be used.
*B.7- List and e'lain the two tyes of !nternet routing rotocols$
All Internet routing protocols fall into one of two categories:
Interior ;ateway "rotocols 1I;"s2: #he routers within an AS use an Interior 6atewa# 5rotocol 1I652
to exchange routing information. Several I;"s are availableG each AS is free to choose its own I;".
An I;" is easy to install and operate, but an I;" may limit the si/e or routing complexity of an AS.
Exterior ;ateway "rotocols 1E;"s2: A router in one AS uses an E0terior 6atewa# 5rotocol 1E652 to
exchange routing information with a router in another AS. E;"s are usually more complex to install
and operate than I;"s, but E;"s offer more flexibility and lower overhead 1i.e., less traffic2. An
E;" can implement %olic# constraints that allow a system manager to determine exactly what
information is released outside the organi/ation.
*B.7J When a router recei#es a 7!: message, how does the router di#ide each !: address into a refi' and suffi'?
*B.*, Where is >(: used?
#he 2order 6atewa# 5rotocol 12652 is used as Exterior ;ateway "rotocol in the Internet, the protocol has
survived three maFor revisions. Nersion - is the current standard, and is officially abbreviated 265$4.
*B.*7 What tye of routing algorithm does 7!: emloy, and where is 7!: used?
AI" is an Interior ;ateway "rotocol that uses a distance vector algorithm to propagate routing information.
*B.*? What is the e'ected conse2uence when a router ad#ertises routes to a gi#en destination?
*B.*- What is an autonomous system?
0e use the term Autono&ous ,#ste& 1A,2 to capture the concept of groups of routers. An AS is a contiguous
set of networ(s and routers all under control of one administrative authority. #here is no exact meaning for
ad&inistrati/e authorit# (the term is sufficiently flexible to accommodate many possibilities, but normally it
means an organi/ation, company or an IS"2.
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Other Aspects of Computer
etwor!in#
Chapter 2* - etwor! "erformance 0=oS and
%i>Serv2
*4.7 Which of delay or throughut ro#ides the most fundamental limit on erformance? Why?
*4.* !f two users create a chat session o#er the !nternet, what category of Io, will they be using?
*4.? "'lain why !,:s count the number of ac&ets recei#ed er unit time instead of merely the number of bytes
recei#ed er unit time$
#he capacity of switches and routers is measured in pac(ets per second. A router or switch performs next3
hop forwarding once per pac(et, the computational effort expended is proportional to the number of pac(ets
processed rather than the number of bits in a pac(et.
*4.- List and describe the three rimary measures of networ& erformance$
"rimary measures of networ( performance are the following:
'atency 1delay2: #he time re&uired to transfer data across a networ(
#hroughput 1capacity2: #he amount of data that can be transferred per unit time
Mitter 1variability2: #he changes in delay that occur and the duration of the changes
*4.J "stimate the comutational ower needed to imlement fine%grain Io, in the core of the !nternet6 assume a *3
(bs lin& deli#ering *333 byte ac&ets and N arithmetic oerations er ac&et, and calculate the number of
oerations a rocessor needs to erform er second$
*4.6 :ro#ide an e'lanation of delay and throughut in terms of bits being transmitted$
#hroughput is a measure of capacity, not speed. #hroughput specifies how many bits can enter the networ(
per unit time, measures networ( capacity. "ropagation delay specifies the time a single bit remains in transit
in a networ(.
*4.B -omare the throughut of a *33 Mbs networ& and a * (bs networ&$
In terms of speed or capacity obviously, a 7 ;bps will be faster than a 7,, !bps. .owever, we should loo( at
the number of users on each networ( in order to ma(e a meaningful comparison
*4.4 :rofessionals sometimes refer to a J&neeK in the delay cur#e$ 9o understand what they mean, lot the effecti#e
delay for #alues of utili5ation between 0 and 0.95$ -an you find a #alue of utili5ation for which the cur#e aears to
increase sharly?
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*4.@ (i#e fi#e tyes of delay along with an e'lanation of each$
#he following can be given as types of delay:
"ropagation Delay: #he time re&uired for a signal to travel across a transmission medium
Access Delay: #he time needed to obtain access to a transmission medium 1e.g., a cable2
Switching Delay: #he time re&uired to forward a pac(et
Rueuing Delay: #he time a pac(et spends in the memory of a switch or router waiting to be selected
for transmission
Server Delay: #he time re&uired for a server to respond to a re&uest and send a response
*4.7, (i#e e'amles of rocessing that ma&e goodut less than the channel caacity$
#he goodput rate is less than the capacity of the hardware because protocols impose overhead. Some networ(
capacity is not available to user data because protocols:
Send pac(et headers, trailers, and control information
Impose a limit on the window si/e 1receive buffer2
<se protocols to resolve names and addresses
<se a handsha(e to initiate and terminate communication
Aeduce the transmission rate when congestion is detected
Aetransmit lost pac(ets
*4.77 1ow does M:L, forwarding differ from con#entional !: forwarding?
-ulti5rotocol 3a"el ,witching 1-53,2 is a connection3oriented communication mechanism built on top of I".
At one end of a path, each datagram is encapsulated in an !"'S header and inFected into the !"'S pathG at
the other end, each datagram is extracted, the !"'S header is removed, and the datagram is forwarded to its
destination. #he I" forwarding is connectionless, each pac(et is forwarded individually.
*4.7* What are the two tyes of Io,?
#he two types of Ruality of Service 1RoS2 and their short explanation are as follows:
$ine3;rain: A provider allows a customer to state specific RoS re&uirements for a given instance of
communicationG a customer ma(es a re&uest each time a flow is created
oarse3;rain: A provider specifies a few broad classes of service that are each suitable for one type
of trafficG a customer must fit all traffic into the classes
*4.7? -onsider a web browser$ What tye of Io, would be aroriate for a tyical flow where the browser
downloads a web age? Why?
*4.7- "'lain the four stes used to imlement Io,$
lassification And "olicing: 0hen a pac(et arrives, a router classifies the pac(et by assigning the
pac(et a flow identifier. Ence an identifier has been assigned, the router performs policing, which
means that the router verifies that the pac(et does not violate parameters for the flow.
$orwarding omputation: 0hen computing a next3hop, a router or switch can use the flow
identifier.
Eutput Rueuing: !ost implementations of RoS create a set of &ueues for each output port.
#raffic Scheduling: A traffic scheduler implements the RoS policies by selecting a pac(et to send
whenever a port is idle.
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*4.7J 1ow can throughut be measured?
#hroughput is a measure of the rate at which data can be sent through the networ(, specified in bits per
second 1bps2. #hroughput can be measured several ways, one must be careful to specify
exactly what has been measured. #here are several possibilities:
apacity of a single channel
Aggregate capacity of all channels
#heoretical capacity of the underlying hardware
Effective data rate achieved by an application 1goodput2
*4.76 =se pi! to measure networ& latency to local and distant sites$ What is the minimum and ma'imum !nternet
delay you can find?
*4.7B Would you e'ect access delays to be longer on a LAN or on a WAN? Iueuing delays? Why?
*4.74 !f your !,: uses lea&y buc&et to schedule ac&et transmission, will your throughut be higher with large
ac&ets or small ac&ets? "'lain$
*4.7@ What is 0iff,er#?
#he IE#$ created Differentiated ,er/ices 1Diff,er/2 to define a coarse3grain RoS mechanism. #he DiffServ
effort produced a definition of how classes can be specified and how the 8A5E 7> ,E:@I+E field in an I"v-
or I"v6 header can be used to specify the class of a datagram.
*4.*, !f one ings !: address *2@$3$3$*, the latency is e'tremely low$ "'lain$
:ecause it a local host address. So all delay types 1if any2 involved are minimal
*4.*7 What is Bitter, and what are the two aroaches used to o#ercome Bitter?
Nariance in delay is (nown as a networ(%s Bitter and it is an important measure in real3time voice and video.
*4.** Why is measurement of networ& erformance difficult?
!easuring networ( performance can be difficult for four reasons:
Aoutes can be asymmetric
onditions change rapidly
!easurement can affect performance
#raffic is bursty
*4.*? 0ownload a coy of the rogram ttcp and use it to measure throughut on a local "thernet$ What is the
goodut? "stimate the lin& utili5ation achie#ed$
*4.*- What name is used for the form of throughut that is the most meaningful to a user?
<sers typically assess the effecti/e data rate that an application achieves by measuring the amount of data
transferred per unit timeG the term good%ut is sometimes used to describe the measure.
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*4.*J 1ow much data can be Jin flightK between a sending ground station, a satellite, and a recei#ing station? 9o
find out, comute the delay%throughut roduct for a ("? satellite networ& that oerates at + Mbs$ Assume that
the satellite orbits at 23,333 miles abo#e the earth, and that radio transmissions roagate at the seed of light$
:its present in a networ( ) D x #, where D is delay and # is throughput measured in bits per second #he
delay in ;EE satellite networ( is the time traveled from a source 1transmitter2 to a destination 1receiver2.
#he distance traveled by signal is * times distance of a ;EE from the earth, which is *x*,,,,, )
-,,,,, miles. #he time ta(en to travel this distance, t ) distance5speed. 0e can assume throughput # as ?
!bps, assuming the bandwidth is fully utili/ed without any congestion or pac(et3drops. Aeader is encouraged
to utili/e these facts5numbers and calculate the number of bits present in the networ(
*4.*6 1ow does data traffic differ from #oice traffic?
Data traffic is bursty, while voice traffic is normally in a smooth aggregate form
*4.*B List the four main categories of Io, that were deri#ed from A9M, and gi#e the meaning of each$
A#! specifies the following four types of RoS categories:
:A 1onstant :it Aate2: Data enters the flow at a fixed rate, such as data from a digiti/ed voice call
entering at exactly 6- Cbps
N:A 1Nariable :it Aate2: Data enters the flow at a variable rate within specified statistical bounds
A:A 1Available :it Aate2: #he flow agrees to use whatever data rate is available at a given time
<:A 1<nspecified :it Aate2: >o bit rate is specified for the flow
*4.*4 What four arameters are used to characteri5e a ;>7 flow?
N:A as(s users to specify the following:
Sustained :it Aate 1S:A2
"ea( :it Aate 1":A2
Sustained :urst Si/e 1S:S2
"ea( :urst Si/e 1":S2
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Chapter 2. - )ultimedia And I" Telephon- 0:oI"2
*@.7 >ecause it tra#els in =0:, an 79: message can be dulicated$ 0oes a recei#er need to &ee a coy of all
re#iously recei#ed messages to determine whether an incoming message is a dulicate? Why or why not?
A receiver does not need to (eep a copy of all previously received messages to determine if an incoming
message is a duplicate. Since, each pac(et includes a ,EC1E4+E 41-2E:G the se&uence is incremented by
one for each pac(et. As with #", a sender chooses a random starting se&uence to help avoid replay
problems.
*@.* !f #oice is con#erted to digital form using :-M, how many bits of data will be roduced in one%half second?
#he commercial "! used in digital telephony uses 6-,,, bps. So reader is encouraged to calculate data
produced in one3half second.
*@.? When 1$+2+ is used to send data along with audio or #ideo, which transort rotocol is used?
$or the data #" transport protocol is used, however, for real3time traffic 1audio5video2 <D" is used.
*@.- Loo& u the e*AD$ara domain$ Which organi5ation is resonsible for the domain?
*@.J "'lain how a Bitter buffer ermits the laybac& of an audio stream e#en if the !nternet introduces Bitter$
#he implementation of a Fitter buffer is straightforward. A receiver maintains a list of data items, and uses
timestamps to order the list. :efore it begins playbac(, a receiver delays for d time units, which means the
data being played is d time units behind the data that is arriving. #hus, if a given pac(et is delayed less than
d, the contents of the pac(et will be placed in the buffer before it is needed for playbac(. In other words,
items are inserted into a Fitter buffer with some variation in rate, but the playbac( process extracts data from
a Fitter buffer at a fixed rate.
*@.6 0efine multimedia data$ What are the two techni2ues used to o#ercome Bitter?
0e use the term &ulti&edia to refer to data that contains audio or video, and may include text. #he phrase
real$ti&e &ulti&edia refers to multimedia data that must be reproduced at exactly the same rate that it was
captured. #o overcome Fitter and achieve smooth playbac( of real3time data, two chief techni&ues are
employed:
8i&esta&%s. A sender provides a timestamp for each piece of data. A receiver uses the timestamps to
handle out3of order pac(ets and to display the data in the correct time se&uence.
Ditter 2uffer. #o accommodate Fitter 1i.e., small variances in delay2, a receiver buffers data and delays
playbac(.
*@.B !f an 79: message is interceted as it tra#els across the !nternet, can the timestam field be interreted? !f so,
how? !f not, why not?
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*@.4 Which asects of !: telehony does 1$+2+ handle?
#he 9.33 standard consists of a set of protocols that wor( together to handle all aspects of telephone
communication, such as:
.andles all aspects of a digital telephone call
Includes signaling to set up and manage the call
Allows the transmission of video and data while a call is in progress
Sends binary messages that are defined by A,4.1 and encoded using 2asic Encoding :ules 12E:2
Incorporates protocols for security
<ses a special hardware unit (nown as a -ulti%oint +ontrol 1nit to support conference calls
Defines servers to handle tas(s such as address resolution , authenticationE authori=ation, accounting,
and features, such as call forwarding
*@.@ 79: contains a comanion rotocol &nown as the Rea"#Time $otro" %rotoco" .RT$%/ that allows a recei#er to
reort the 2uality of messages recei#ed to a sender$ 1ow can adati#e #ideo encoding use the status of recei#ed
messages?
*@.7, What are the si' basic methods used with ,!:?
#he SI" protocol ma(es use of the following method:
I>NI#E 1Session creation2: an endpoint is invited to participate in the session
AC 1Ac(nowledgment2: response to I>NI#E
:PE 1Session termination2: call is ended
A>E': "ending re&uest cancellation 1no effect if re&uest has been completed2
AE;IS#EA: Aegistration of user%s location
E"#IE>S: Ruery to determine capabilities of called party
*@.77 -onsider the oeration of an !: telehone and an analog telehone$ Which would be better during time of
war? Why?
*@.7* 7ead the 7)- about ,!:, and modify )igure 2F$F to show the messages e'changed when call forwarding
occurs$ 1int6 loo& at ,!: re&irectio messages$
*@.7? What are the uroses of the "N=M and 97!: rotocols?
#he IE#$ has proposed two protocols that correspond to the mappings needed for the two subproblems:
E><! 1short for E.76- ><!bers2 solves the problem of converting an E.76- telephone number into
a <niform Aesource Identifier 1<AI2.
#AI" 1#elephone Aouting over I"2 solves the problem of finding a user in an integrated networ(. A location
server or other networ( element can use #AI" to advertise routes.
*@.7- "'tend the re#ious e'ercise$ "stimate the si5e .in octets/ of an !: datagram that carries one%2uarter of a
second of audio encoded in :-M, laced in an 79: ac&et, and encasulated in =0:$ 1int6 7)- *88F defines the
si5e of an 79: header$
#he commercial "! produces 6-,,,,5- bps ) 76,,,, bps. 0e assume all these information bits are sent as a
single pac(et5datagram. A#" protocol adds -x?* ) 7*4 bits. #he <D" adds *x?* ) 6- bits. And the I" adds
Jx?* ) 76, bits. So, the resulting I" datagram si/e will be 76,,,, = 7*4 = 6- = 76, bps.
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Chapter 3/ - etwor! Securit-
?,.* Name the techni2ue used in security attac&s$
#here are numerous techni&ues used in security attac(s and experts use different terminology to describe
them. According to textboo( we can list the following problems:
0iretapping: !a(ing a copy of pac(ets as they traverse a networ( to obtain information
Aeplay: Sending pac(ets captured from a previous session
:uffer overflow: Sending more data than a receiver expects in order to store values in variables
beyond the buffer
Address Spoofing: $a(ing the I" source address in a pac(et to tric( a receiver into processing the
pac(et
>ame Spoofing: <sing a misspelling of a well3(nown name or poisoning a name server with an
incorrect binding
DoS and DDoS: $looding a site with pac(ets to prevent the site from successfully conducting normal
business
SP> flood: Sending a stream of random #" SP> segments to exhaust a receiver%s set of #"
connections. #his can be considered a sub3category of DoS and DDoS attac(s
Cey :rea(ing: Automatically guessing a decryption (ey or a password to gain unauthori/ed access to
data
"ort Scanning: Attempting to connect to each possible protocol port on a host to find a vulnerability
"ac(et interception: Aemoving a pac(et from the Internet which allows substitution and man3in3the
middle attac(s
?,.? List the maBor security roblems on the !nternet, and gi#e a short descrition of each$
#here are numerous problems exist and experts use different terminology to describe them. According to
textboo( we can list the following problems:
"hishing: !as&uerading as a well3(nown site such as a ban( to obtain a user%s personal information,
typically an account number and access code
!isrepresentation: !a(ing false or exaggerated claims about goods or services, or delivering fa(e or
inferior products
Scams: Narious forms of tric(ery intended to deceive naive users into investing money or abetting a
crime
Denial of Service: Intentionally bloc(ing a particular Internet site to prevent or hinder business
activities and commerce
'oss of ontrol: An intruder gains control of a computer system and uses the system to perpetrate a
crime
'oss of Data: 'oss of intellectual property or other valuable proprietary business information
?,.- Why is deri#ing a security olicy difficult?
Security policies are complex because they involve human behavior as well as computer and networ(
facilities. Assessing the costs and benefits of various security policies also adds complexity. In particular, a
security policy cannot be defined unless an organi/ation understands the value of its information.
?,.77 0o, attac&s often send 9-: ,LN segments$ -an an attac&er also create a 0o, attac& by sending 9-: data
segments? "'lain$
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?,.7* List and describe the eight basic security techni2ues$
#here are various security techni&ues5technologies being used, such as:
.ashing Data integrity
Encryption "rivacy
Digital Signatures !essage authentication
Digital ertificates Sender authentication
$irewalls Site integrity
Intrusion Detection Systems Site integrity
Deep "ac(et Inspection S ontent Scanning Site integrity
Nirtual "rivate >etwor(s 1N">s2 Data privacy as well as site integrity
?,.74 ,uose an attac&er finds a way to store an arbitrary binding in your local 0N, ser#er$ 1ow can the attac&er
use such a wea&ness to obtain your ban& account information?
In doing so an attac(er can direct a user from a legitimate address 1correct ban( address2 to an
incorrect5fa(e address and when the user enters personal5account information, they can be captured5stored
and later be used to access user%s actual ban( account to ma(e transaction.
?,.7@ !f a assword contains eight uer and lower%case letters and digits, how many ossible asswords might an
attac&er need to try to gain access?
#he issue here is total number of characters in the set and the number of characters being used. Since the
password being mentioned consists of uppercase 1*6 possibilities2, lowercase 1*6 possibilities and digits 17,
possibilities2, the reader is encouraged to calculate the possibility of matching 4 characters out of 6*
1*6=*6=7,2.
?,.*, ,uose a comany de#ises a security olicy which secifies that only 17 ersonnel are authori5ed to see
ayroll files$ What tye of mechanism is needed to imlement the olicy? "'lain$
Chapter 31 - etwor! )ana#ement 0S)"2
?7.7 What is a rotocol analy5er?
A %ac'et anal#=er, also called a %rotocol anal#=er, captures and displays pac(ets or statistics about pac(ets
?7.* (i#e an e'amle of a rotocol mechanism that hides an error$
$or example, routing protocols bypass failures and intermittent pac(et loss can go unnoticed because #"
automatically retransmits.
?7.? 7ead about how A,N$* encodes names and #alues$ Write a comuter rogram to encode and decode A,N$*
names such as the name assigned to ip'Recei(e)$
?7.- !f a user comlains that they cannot access a gi#en ser#ice, which asects of )-A:, could the comlaint
otentially in#ol#e?
#his is related to 8$ault Detection and orrection9, but also it may involve directly or indirectly
8onfiguration and Eperation9 aspects of $A"S.
?7.J A,N$* defines the e'act format of an integer$ Why doesnCt the A,N$* standard merely state that each integer is
a +2%bit #alue?
AS>.7 uses a combination of length and value for each obFect being transferred to accommodate large values
without wasting space on every transfer,. #o encode an integer, AS>.7 sends a pair of values: a length, 3,
followed by 3 octets that contain the integer. #o permit encoding of arbitrarily large integers, AS>.7 also
allows the length to occupy more than one octetG extended lengths normally are not needed for the integers
used with S>!".
?7.6 What does a flow analysis tool hel a manager understand?
$low analysis tools, such as a >et$low analy/er, also help a manager spot trends. Instead of merely reporting
on overall traffic, a flow analy/er can help a manager spot changes in specific types of traffic.
?7.B 0ownload free ,NM: manager software, and attemt to contact a de#ice such as a rinter$
?7.4 What are the two basic oerations that ,NM: uses?
#he S>!" protocol uses a fetch$store %aradig& in which there are two basic operations: fetch, used to obtain
a value from a device, and store, used to set a value in a device. Each obFect that can be fetched or stored is
given a uni&ue nameG a command that specifies a fetch or store operation must specify the name of the obFect.
?7.@ !f a firewall malfunctions, which asect of )-A:, does the situation fall under? Why?
#his is related to 8onfiguration and Eperation9 aspects of $A"S. :ecause the configurations must be
consistent across all devices and as new e&uipment and services are added or policies
change, a networ( manager must consider all configurations to insure the entire networ(
implements the changes correctly.
?7.7, What is the chief ad#antage of aending inde' information to a name instead of using a con#entional array
that is inde'ed by integers?
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?7.77 !t has been argued that one should not use a networ& to debug a roblem in the networ&$ Why does ,NM: use
the same networ& that it is debugging?
<sing an application protocol for networ( management, such as S>!", wor(s well for two reasons. $irst, in
cases where a special hardware failure prevents communication, a manager can communicate with devices
that remain functional, and use success or failure to help locate the problem. Second, using conventional
transport protocols means a manager%s pac(ets will be subFect to the same conditions as normal traffic. #hus,
if delays are high, a manager will find out immediately.
?7.7* )ind two e'amles of manageable elements other than those listed in )igure +*$2$
?7.7? Write a rogram that reads an arbitrarily large integer in decimal, encodes the integer into the format
illustrated in )igure +*$+, and rints the result$
?7.7- What terms does networ& management software use instead of c"iet and )er(er?
#o avoid confusion between application programs that users invo(e and applicationsthat are reserved for
networ( managers, networ( management systems avoid the terms client and ser/er. Instead, the client
application that runs on the manager%s computer is called a &anager, and a server that runs on a networ(
device is called an agent
?7.7J 0oes ,NM: define a name for each ossible M!> #ariable? "'lain$
Each obFect to which S>!" has access must be defined and given a uni&ue name. ollectively, the set of all
obFects S>!" can access is (nown as a -anage&ent Infor&ation 2ase 1-I22. #he S>!" standard only
specifies the message format and describes how messages are encoded. A separate standard specifies !I:
variables along with the meaning of fetch and store operations on each variable. Separate standards
documents specify !I: variables for each type of device.
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Chapter 32 - Trends In etwor!in# Technolo#ies And ;ses
?*.7 (i#e e'amles of new networ&ing trends for business$
?*.* "'lain how content caching ermits the !nternet to scale$
?*.? Why are cellular telehone ro#iders esecially interested in !:#A?
Some cellular operators, especially in Asia, see I"v6 as a way to allow I" addressing on cell
phones, but operators also have the option of devising a layer * addressing scheme.
?*.- A web site with N hysical ser#ers may not be able to rocess N times as many re2uests er second because
shared resources can imose a bottlenec&$ Name two resources that are shared$
#he load balancer which greets incoming re&uests is shared between all the bac(bone servers, also a database
server may be shared between them.
?*.J Where is a load balancer used?
A load balancer allows a site to have multiple computers each running an identical web server, and
distributes incoming re&uests among the physical servers. So if a server has many users connected to it, in
order to improve performance a load balancer can be used to distribute load over multiple servers.
?*.6 !n addition to ermitting scaling, ser#er #irtuali5ation may also allow a site to sa#e energy during times when
the load is low .e$g$, on a wee&end/$ "'lain how$
Instead of separate physical computers to be used as standalone servers, server virtuali/ation allows multiple
services to be run on a single computer proving multiple services. So energy and other benefits such as
management, licensing, and costs can be substantial.
?*.B 0oes a distributed data center aroach ma&e sense for a business in which each web re2uest re2uires access to
a central database? Why or why not?
?*.4 What does digital #ideo offer users?
<sing I" for video creates interesting opportunities, such as:
#N and the Internet converge, ma(ing it easy to watch television programs on a computer or use a
digital television as a computer display.
I" ma(es it easier to deploy onde&and video, in which a user can access content when desired,
control playbac( with pause and rewind functions, and capture live content for later viewing.
?*.@ Name three e'amles of social networ& alications$
#here are numerous social networ( examples, such as $aceboo(, !yspace, and Pou#ube
?*.7, With what general use is eer%to%eer comuting often associated?
Some of the most widely3(nown p*p systems have been created to allow the sharing
of music files.
?*.77 1ow are the !nternet and cellular telehone systems con#erging?
It is expected that cellular phones will soon be converted away from other protocols to I". In particular, once
cellular carriers begin to use 0i!AO, the entire system will be I", meaning that cellular service and the
Internet have converged.
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?*.7* When otical fiber is used to deli#er data to a home or business, how much faster can data be sent than with
0,L or a cable modem?
Aeader is encouraged to search for the latest technology being used for optical fiber as well as DS' and5or
cable modem for a meaningful comparison between them.
?*.7? Name two technologies used to increase the seed of routers and switches$
hip vendors offer various solutions to increase the speed of router and switches, such as:
A solution is use of multi3core "<s that each contain several processors. Ene approach distributes
incoming pac(ets among the 4 cores, which means that one core only handles 1*4 of the pac(ets.
Another option is use of networ' %rocessors. 0e can thin( of a networ( processor as a fast "< that
includes multiple cores plus special instructions to handle common pac(et processing tas(s at high
speed.
?*.7- Where are sensor networ&s being used?
#here a numerous applications for sensors. Sensors are being used to measure the environment 1e.g., monitor
air and water &uality or gather weather information2, trac( the movements of wild animals, help farmers
monitor crops, monitor people in office buildings, and assess traffic on highways. Sensors can also be used in
residential buildings. It is already possible to install sensors that measure temperature and humidity, or
monitor a home for dangers such as smo(e and carbon monoxide.
?*.7J What technologies are being used to ro#ide remote access to #illages?
Ad hoc networ(ing can be used in rural areas and developing countries. In the <S, farmers are using ad hoc
technology to connect rural farms to the Internet. Each farmer sets up a wireless station 1usually on a tall
building, such as a silo2, and the stations agree to forward pac(ets, as needed. In developing countries, ad hoc
networ(s are used as an inexpensive way to provide Internet access to an entire village.
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*6.77 List the features of 9-:$

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