Computer Concepts

Unit- 1st COMPUTER ORGANISATION CAM (MBA-1st Sem)
COMPUTER CONCEPTS
INTRODUCTION
No other technology has made such a rapid growth and change in science and technology in
a short duration of time as the computer technology. Computers have a become a part and parcel
of every human beings life. One can imagine the power and position of computers by looking
into the statements “By the year 2099, there will be no clear distinction between humans and
machines, we will have merged". Within the next 20 years, computers will be powerful like our
human brain.
Though computers by themselves have no intelligence and do not have the ability to learn,
they have created situations that make us feel as if computers are better than human beings. In
some ways, computers are fast, store large volumes of data and are more efficient than human
beings. Computers are largely self-directing i.e. they have the ability to follow the set of
instructions given to them (of course, by human beings!)Without human interaction.
With limited intelligence, limited language capability (understands only programming

languages) computers continue to dominate in the field of science and technology.
The computers have emerged as a result of countless ideas inventions and developments
made by different people throughout this century.
OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit you should be able understand computer capabilities, functional
blocks of a computer the difference between data and information, speed and accuracy
capabilities. How data is manipulated.
1 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

NEED FOR COMPUTER LITERACY
A few decades ago, a few computers in existence were very huge and expensive; they were
usually used for scientific purposes and thus had little impact on the lives of common people;
only a few people had the knowledge of computer capabilities and limitations.
But over the period the scenario has changed. Millions of computers ranging from small
micro-sized units to super-computers are found in offices, factories, schools, homes, hospitals,
banks, retail stores and almost everywhere.
Let us take a few examples and look at the use of computers

a) Travel arrangements for a trip:
An efficient computer controlled airline reservations system keeps track of available
seats and quickly records the reservation.
b) You went to a hospital for physical checkup:
If the exam is for insurance purposes, your medical history and the doctors finding
will be forwarded to the insurance company where they are stored in a large computer
data bank.
c) Visit to a supermarket:
When you go to a supermarket you can find several computers, which read the codes
(like bar code) on the products and prepares the cash bills within a few minutes.
There is no need for the customer to wait for a long time to get his bill.
By looking at the typical sample examples listed above, the presence of computers in your
daily life cannot be ignored or under estimated.
Computers can have both good and bad effects on the individuals.
Computer applications will expand greatly in the years to come. There will be vast potential
for widespread benefits as well as undesirable side effects. Educated citizens should not rely
solely on computer specialists to prevent the possible dangers and bring about the positive
potential. Rather, citizens should learn about computers so that they can reap the benefits and
they can insist the designers of ill-conceived computer systems to assume the responsibility for
effects these systems have on people.

The following are the areas of knowledge required for computer literacy:
1. Computers themselves: You should understand the organization, capabilities and

limitations of the various machines or hardware that make up a modern computer
system.
2. What computers do: You should be familiar with some of the most common
applications of computers in today's society.
3. How computers are put to work: You need to know the analysis, design and
program preparation procedures that must be carried out in order to produce
software. Basic knowledge of hardware is also very essential.
4. The social impact of computers at work: Finally you should know how
individuals and organizations may be affected by present and future computer
applications.
COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION
Let’s take a look at our computer definition. A computer is a fast and accurate symbol
manipulating system that is organized to accept, store, process and produce results under the
direction of a stored program of instructions.
This section explains the computer is a system and how a computer system is organized.
Organization of computers input devices, Keyboard, mouse and classification of Computers.

THE SYSTEM CONCEPT
The system is a group of integrated parts that have the common purpose of achieving same
objectives. The following characteristics are important:
1. A group of parts: A system has more than one element. A steel ball is not a system
but it might be part of a bearing assembly that could be combined with other
components to produce an irrigation system.
2. Integrated parts: A logical relationship must exist between the parts of a system,
mechanical and electronic systems such as washing machines and video games have
components that work together. And a personal management system may consist of
integrated procedures for recruiting training and evaluating employees.
3. Common purpose of achieving objectives: The system is designed to accomplish
one or more objectives; all system elements should be controlled so that the goal is
achieved. Totally automated systems have highly controlled operations, systems
operated by people sometimes get out of control.
A computer is a group of integrated parts that have the common purpose of
performing the operations called for in the program being executed it is also a system.
Any system may be comprised of smaller systems or subsystems. A subsystem
is a smaller system contained within a larger one. The component parts found in most
computer system ex: printers are systems in a way and computers in small may be
considered subsystems in larger super systems such as air traffic control system.
ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
Input central output

Devices processing unit devices
Fig. 1 Overview of Processing

The figure above shows the basic organization of computer system. The system included
input, processing and output devices. Let us see each component of the system in more details.
INPUT DEVICES
Computer systems use many devices for input purposes. Some allow direct human/ machine
communication. The keyboard of a workstation connected directly to or online to a computer:
Devices that read data magnetically recorded on specially coated plastic tapes or floppy plastic
disks are popular. Regardless of the type of device used, all are components for interpretation
and communication between people and computer systems.
KEYBOARD
Is the friendliest input device through which data programs are keyed in and certain
commands to software can be given from the keyboard.
The keyboard consists key switches there is one key switch for each letter, symbol number
etc. much like a typewriter when a key is pressed, the key switch is activated. The keyboard has
an electronic circuit to determine which key has been pressed. Then the 8-bit binary code is
generated and sent to the computers. The binary code may be an ASCII (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange), EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded - Decimal Interchange
Code) or Hex code.
Computer Keyboard

Keyboards are classified into two types depending on the number of keys present in them.
a) Ordinary Keyboard: consists of 86 keys.
b) Extended Keyboards: consists of 101 keys ( Windows ready )
Keyboards are of two types based on the fashion of data transfer.
a) Serial Keyboard: It sends the data, bit by bit in a serial fashion and the computer
converts the data into a parallel type.
b) Parallel Keyboard: It sends the data as a byte in parallel form, the bits are sent
simultaneously on different lines (wires).
Mouse: A mouse is a graphical input device the term mouse is used because of its shape.
The mouse has two or three buttons on its top. The function of each button is defined by the
software. The mouse also has a small rotating ball at the bottom. When the mouse is moved on
a rubber pad, the ball rolls whose movement is converted into an electrical signal and seat to the
CPU on the CPU this movement is interpreted and displayed on the screen of the monitor (CRT)
in the form of movement of the arrow mark. This movement of arrow mark is used to
highlight the graphical index on the screen. When a desired command shown on the screen is
approached by the arrow mark due to the movement of the ball in the mouse the click button is
pressed to highlight the same.

There are 2 methods by which a mouse is connected to a computer serial interface and
parallel interface.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
The heart of any computer system is the CPU. Three main sections are generally located
within computers of all sizes.
a) The Primary Storage Section: This section is used for four purposes.
1. Data are fed into an input storage area where they are held until ready to be
processed.
2. A working storage space that holds the data being processor and the
intermediate results of such processing.
3. An output storage area holds the finished results of the processing operations
until they can be released.
4. In addition to these data-related purposes, the primary storage section, also
certain program storage area that holds the processing instructions.
In addition to primary memory storage or main memory section most
computers also have secondary storage capabilities ( like hard disk, floppy
disk )
b) The arithmetic – logic section:
All calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the
arithmetic – logic section of the unit are temporarily placed in a designated working
storage area until needed at a later time data may thus move from primary storage to the
secondary storage many times before the processing is finished. Once completed, the
final results are released to an output storage section and from there to an output device.

c) Control Section :
The control section maintains order and directs the operation of the entire system.
Although it does not perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a
central nervous system for the other components of the computer. At the beginning of
processing, the first program instruction is selected and fed into the control section from
the program storage area. There it is interpreted, and from their signals are sent to other
components to execute the necessary actions.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Output devices: - Like the input devices, output devices are instruments of interpretation
and communication between humans and the computer system. Printer is Considered as output
device.
All input/output and secondary storage units are sometimes called peripheral devices.
COMPUTER LIMITATIONS
Computers although they are very useful, they have some limitations.
i) Programs must be reliable:
As a machine, the computers do what it's programmed to do and nothing else. This doesn’t
mean that it must be stupid clever programs can be written to direct the computers to store the
results of previous decisions. But a seemingly flawless program that has operated without a
problem for months can suddenly produce non-sense. A reliable program that’s supplied with
incorrect data may also produce non-sense.
ii) Application logic must be understood:
The computer can only process applications which can be expressed in a finite number of
steps leading to a previously defined goal. Each step must be specifically and clearly define, if
the steps in the problem solution cannot be precisely stated, the job cannot be done. The
computer may not be of much help to people in areas where qualitative material or evaluation is
important.

For example, The market decision may be of a qualitative nature because sales volume data
may rest on future social, political, technological and economical events. However, the
computer can let the manager know how the product will fare under assumed price, cost and
sales volume condition.
iii) Applications must be suitable:
Writing programs is a human task it can be time consuming and expensive. Thus, non-
recurring jobs are often not efficient areas for business data processing applications. Rather as a
general rule its most economical to prepare business programs for large-volume, repetitive
applications such as payrolls that will be used many times.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are classified by the type of data they are designed to process. Data may be
obtained either as a result of counting or through the use of same measuring instrument. Data
that are obtained by counting are called discrete data; examples of discrete data are total number
of students in a classroom. Data that must be obtained through measurement are called
continuous data. For example, of continuous data is the speed of an automobile measure by
speedometer or the temperature of a patient as measured by a thermometer.
DIGITAL COMPUTER is a counting device that operates on discrete data. It operates by

directly counting members (or digits) that represent numerals, letters or other special symbols.
Just as digital watches directly count off the seconds and minutes in an hour, digital processors
also count discrete values to achieve the desired output results.
In contrast to digital processors, however, there are also analog machines that do not
compute directly with numbers. They deal with variables that are measured along a continuo
scale and are recorded to some predetermined degree of accuracy. Temperature for example
may be measured to the nearest tenth of a degree on the Celsius scale, voltage may be measured
to the nearest of hundredth of a volt. A service station petrol pump may contain analog
processor.
ANALOG COMPUTERS may be accurate to within 0.1 percent of the correct value. But
digital computers can obtain whatever degree of accuracy is required simply by calculating

additional places to the right of the decimal point. For example; A pi(π ) has a value of 3.1416.
Actually the true value of pi is 3.14159.... (This number could go on for pages)
Desirable features of analog and digital machines are sometimes combined to create a hybrid
computing system in a hospital intensive-care unit, for example analog devices may measure a
patient’s heart function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may then be
convicted into members and supplied to a digital component in the system.
Classification of computers based on their size, cost & configuration.
In this category computers are classified as micro-computers, mini computers, main frame
computers, home computers and super computers.
MICRO COMPUTERS:
A Micro computer is the smallest general-purpose processing system that can execute
program instructions to perform a wide variety of tasks.
The important features of micro computers are:

1. Micro computers are known as home computers, personal computers, desktop
computers and small business computers.
2. These are small, low-cost digital computer with a micro processor as its CPU, a
memory unit an input device and an output device.
3. The word length of a micro-computer lies in the range of 8-32 bits.
4. CPU’s are in a single chip
5. Storage capacity is small
6. Applications include general-purpose calculations, industrial control, office
automation etc.
PERSONAL COMPUTERS (PC’S):
Personal computers are micro-computers for general-purpose computations. These are

classified as PC, PC/XT, PC/AT and super AT (or super micro) based on their cost and

configuration. All these types contain a CPU, RAM, ROM, CRT display, Keyboard and
secondary memory.
Features:
1. PC is the simplest and cheapest type of computer and it uses an INTEL 8088 ( micro
processor chip) as CPU, 640 KB, RAM, 8KB ROM ( ROM can be extended up to 64
KB) and floppy disk as secondary memory; processing speed of a PC lies in the range
1-5 MIPS ( micro-instructions per second )
2. PC/XT (Personal computer extended technology) contains hard disk, floppy disk
drives (360/1.2 MB), Intel 8088 CPU, 640 KB RAM and 8 KB ROM. This is costlier
than a PC because of the hard disk it contains. PC/XT is a single user system.
Processing speed of a PC lies in the range 1-5 MIPS and hard disk capacity lies in the
range 20-80 MB.
3. PC/AT (Personal computer advanced technology) contains. Intel 80286 as CPU, 640
KB RAM (expandable to 4 MB), 64 KB ROM (expandable to 128 KB), hard disk
drive and floppy disk drive (360 KB/1.2 MB), its CPU is powerful than the CPU of
PC/XT and four to five terminals can be connected to it to make it multiuser.
Processing speed of PC/AT lies in the range 1-5 MIPS and hard disk capacity lies in
the range 20-80 MB.
4. Super AT (or super micros) uses a 32-bit CPU, Intel 80386 & 80486. The RAM
capacity of super macros lies in the range 2-8 MB in 80386 CPU can be extended up
to 32 MB and in case of 80486 up to 64 MB. The hard disk capacity of super macro
lies in the range 200 –800 MB. The processor speed of 80386 CPU lies in the range
3-5 MIPS and that of 80486 CPU is 12 MIPS to 25 MHz clock UNIX is used as
operating system.
The processing speed of home computers and microcomputers for industrial control is
less than 1 MIPS. Home computers are used for entertainment, basic education and
home management and income tax calculation, investment analysis etc.

MINI COMPUTERS:
The salient features are:-

1. The word length is 32 bits and their processing speed lies in the range 10-30 MIPS.
2. RAM capacity lies in the range 8 MB – 96 MB ( in same it can be extended up to
128-256 MB)
3. The hard disk capacity lies in the range 380 MB – 2GB ( gig bytes)
4. Most mini-computers use Motorola 68030 and 68040 CPU.
The Minicomputers which are faster and more powerful than microcomputers can support
upped 64 or even 100 terminals and some minicomputers are Uni. Processor and some others are
multi processor systems. These are used for payroll preparation and scientific computation,
multi-user and interactive applications in college universities research organizations, industries,
sophisticated real time (industrial) control, interactive engineering design work etc..
Examples of mini computers are:
 IBMAS/400/B60
 VAX8842(VAX stands for Virtual address)
 Extension - VAX computers are manufactured by Digital Data

Corporation)
 WIPRO S – 68030V & S-6833V built around 68030 CPU
 WIPRO LANDMARK 860 ( a super mini) built around Intel i860-CPU
 HP 9000 series 800 ( super mini) built around Hewlett Pacard’s VLSI
RISC processors
 HCL magnum built around 68030 CPU and 68040 CPU.

MAIN-FRAME COMPUTERS
The mainframe computers are faster and more powerful than mini computers. These
computers are used where large amount of data are to be processed or very complex calculations
are to be made and these tasks are beyond the computing capacity of mini computers.
The main features are:
 The word length may be 48, 60 or 64 bits.
 Memory capacity range is 64-256 MB and hard disk capacity is 1000 MB

– 10 GB or more.
 Processing speed lies in the range 30-100 MIPS.
The mainframe computers are used in research organizations, large industries, business
organizations, government organizations, banks and airline reservations etc.
Example: IBM 4300 series
 IBM 308X series
 Latest model IBM 3090 series
 IBM 9000 series
 HP 9000 series 8705/400
 HP 9000 model 8705/300
SUPERCOMPUTERS:
The salient features are:

1. Their word length is 64-96 bits; memory capacity is 256 MB & more; hard disk
capacity 1000 MB and more
2. Processing speed lies in the range of 400 MIPS – 10000 MIPS. In a single machine
cycle tow 64 – bit data can be added

Super computers are much faster and more powerful than mainframe computers. Super
computers are specially designed to maximize the number of FLOPS ( Floating Point Operations
Per Second). Their FLOPS rating is usually more than igiga flops per second. A super computer
contains a number of CPU’s which operate in parallel and make it faster. They are used for
massive data processing & solving very sophisticated problems.
They are used for weather forecasting weapons research and development, rocket
launching, seismology, atomic, nuclear and plasnia physics.
Example:-
 CRAY – X – MP/14, X-MP/24 & X-MP/48
 CRAY – MP, CRAYZ, CRAY3, CRAY Y-MPC
 ETA 10 ( Developed by control data Corporation )
 SX – 2 (Developed by Nippon Electric Corporation, Japan)
 SX – 3R ( 25.6 GIGA FLOPS )
 HITACS – 300 ( 32 GIGA FLOPS, HITACHI MAKE )
COMPUTER CAPABILITIES
Most people are aware that a computer is a machine that can perform arithmetic
operations, but it is much more than just an arithmetic number crunching device. It is also a
machine that can choose copy, move compare and perform various non-arithmetic operations on
many alphabetic, numeric and other symbols that humans use to represent things. The computer
manipulates these symbols in the desired way through a sequence of instructions, called a
program.
A program is a detailed set of human instructions that directs the computer to function in
a specific way to produce a desired result. Electrical or electromechanical components are
known as hardware.

• SPEED AND ACCURACY CAPABILITIES:
A computer works one step at a time. It can add, subtract, compare digits and, letters, move
and copy numbers and letters. There's nothing profound in these operations. What's significant
is the computer speed. This speed is measured as milliseconds, microseconds, nanoseconds and
pico seconds (Recent study says computer speed is being doubled every six months).
The speed required for computers to execute a basic operation like addition varies from a
few microseconds for the smallest machines to 80 nano seconds or less for the larger ones.
Thus, the slowest computers can perform hundreds of thousands of additions in a second
while the largest systems can compute several million additions in the same period.
In addition to being very fast, computers are also very accurate. It is estimated that you or I
would make one error in every 500 to 1,000 operations with a calculator. But the circuits in a
computer require no human interaction between processing operations and have no mechanical
parts to wear out and malfunction. Thus these circuits can perform hundreds of thousands (or
millions) or operations every second and can run errorless for hours and days together at a time.
Beyond this, computers also have built-in self-checking capabilities that permit them to
monitor the accuracy of their internal operations.
If the input data are correct and relevant, and if the program of processing the instructions is
reliable, then the computer can generally be expected to produce accurate output. The phrase
“Garbage in, Garbage-out" or GIGO is used often by people who work with computers to
illustrate the importance of input data and correct instruction.
• DATA MANIPULATING CAPABILITY:
The first computers were built to manipulate numbers in order to solve arithmetic
problems. Along with numbers we also use alphabets and different symbols in our daily life.
Luckily, early computer experts made the important discovery that a machine that can accept,
store and process numbers can also manipulate non-numeric symbols. Manipulating these
familiar symbols is possible if an identifying code number is assigned to the symbol to be stored
and processed. Thus, the letter A can be represented by a code, as can the letter B, the addition

symbol and so on. Of course, one must give the computer instructions for it to manipulate the
coded and stored symbols in a desired way.
• DATA - VERSUS - INFORMATION:
The word “data" is the plural of datum, which means fact. Data then, are facts or raw
material of information. Data are represented by symbols.
Information is data arranged in ordered or useful form. That is information is relevant

knowledge produced as output of data processing operations and acquired by people to enhance
understanding and to achieve specific goals.
The following schematic representation shows you the processing of raw data to provide
information:
Data Raw data Data Information End user decisions

input processing and actions
Collection
• DATA PROCESSING ACTIVITIES:
Data processing consists of gathering the raw data input, evaluating and bringing order to it
and placing it in proper perspective so that useful information is produced. All data processing,
whether done by hand or computer system consists or three basic activities: capturing the input
data, manipulating the data and managing the output results.
i) Capturing the input data:

Data must be originated in some form and verified for accuracy prior to further processing.
They may initially be recorded on paper source documents and then converted into a machine
- usable form processing or they may be captured directly in paperless machine-readable
form.
ii) Manipulating the data:

One or more of the following operation may have to be performed on the data that is
collected.
1. Classifying: Organizing items with like characteristics into groups or classes is called
classifying. Data taken from a materiel stores sales bill for example, may be classified by
product sold, Sales department sales person, or any other classification useful for store
management. Classifying is usually accomplished by assigning pre-determined
abbreviation codes to the items being arranged. The three types of codes used are
numeric, alphabetic and alphanumeric.
2. Sorting: Usually it’s easier to work with data if they are arranged in a logical sequence.
For example: include first to last, biggest to smallest oldest to newest. Arranging
classified data in such a sequence is called sorting.
3. Calculating: Arithmetic manipulations of the data is called calculating. For example: In
calculating a sales person's pay, the hours worked multiplied by the hourly wage rate
gives the total earnings. Payroll deductions such as taxes are then calculated and
subtracted from total earnings to arrive at the sales person's take-home pay.
4. Summarizing: Reducing masses of data to a more concise and usable form is called
summarizing.
Example: the general manager of a retail store is interested only in a summary of the total
sales of each department. A summary report would give only total sales information.
Department managers may want more detailed information such as the total sales of each
department broken down into sales by product type and by sales person.
• MANAGING THE OUTPUT RESULTS:
Once the data have been captured and manipulated, one or more operations may be needed.
i) Storing and retrieving: Retaining data for future reference in storing, storage
media such as paper ( in sheet, punched card or punched tape form), microfilm, or
magnetic disks and tapes are generally used.
Recovering stored data and / or information is the retrieving activity. One slow
approach is for people to search file cabinets. A much faster method is to use

electronic enquiry devices that are connected directly to a computer and mass
storage unit containing the data.
ii) Communicating and reproducing: Transferring data from one location or
operation to another for use or for further processing is data communication a
process that continues until information in a usable form, reaches the final user.
Some times of course, its necessary to copy or duplicate data. This reproduction
activity may be done by hand or by machine.
COMPUTER CONCEPTS
There's nothing new about the data processing steps just stated above. They have been
performed down through the ages, first by hand, and then by machine assisted manual and
electromechanical punched card methods and now by computers.
The four functions which follow are all that a computer can perform but they also include
most data processing steps:
i) Input / Output operation: A computer can accept data (input) from and supply
processed data (output) to a wide range of input/ output devices. Such devices as
keyboards and display screens make human - machine communication possible.
Multiple output documents may be reproduced by printers.
ii) Calculation operations: The circuits in a computer are designed to permit
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
iii) Logic/ Comparison operation: The computer also has the ability to perform
certain logic operations. For example, when two numbers represented by the
symbols A and B are compared, there are only 3 possible outcomes:
1) A is equal to B ( A=B);
2) A is greater than B (A>B) or
3) A is less than B (A<B).

The computer is able to perform a simple comparison and then, depending on the
result, follow a predetermined branch or course of action in the completion of that
part of A and B work (see figure below)
A is
Compared
With B
A<B A>B
A=B
Fig 1 Possible outcome when A is compared with B
This comparison ability makes it possible to classify item A is having or not

having the characteristic of B. This simple ability to compare is an important
computer property because more sophisticated questions can be answered by
using combinations of comparison decisions.
iv) Storage and retrieval operations: Both data and program instructions are stored
internally in a computer. Storing both data and instructions in same memory is
known as stored program concept or John Von Neumann Concept. And once
stored, both may be quickly called or retrieved for use. The time required for data
to be retrieved is measured in micro-or nanoseconds.
v)
TYPICAL PERSONAL COMPUTER CHARACTERISTICS
Some of the major characteristics of a typical personal computer are summarized below.
This should give a glimpse of a desktop computer and introduce you to some of the terms used
with personal computer.

FEATURE TYPICAL BRIEF DESCRIPTION

CPU type 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, The CPU determines how
Pentium-I, II, III much memory the system
can address, what kind of
software it can run, and
how fast it can go
Bus type PC Bus (8-bit ISA), AT Bus The bus determines what
(16-bit ISA), Proprietary kind expansion circuit
32-bit Micro Channel, boards will work in the
EISA, Local or VESA bus, machine. Most buses are
PC-Card, PCI incompatible with the
others (exception: EISA
bus computers can use ISA
cards), which makes it
important that you know
which kinds of boards
you’re buying
BIOS American Megatrends, Inc BIOS (Basic Input/Output
manufacturer (AMI), IBM, Compaq, System) are the low-level
Phoneix, Award system software that
determines how
compatible your computer
is.
CPU Speed 4.77 MHz (PC speed) upto Megahertz (MHz) is a
200 MHz rough measure of system
speed. All other things
being equal, a 10 MHz
machine is faster than a 5
MHz machine. (All other
things generally aren’t
equal)
Video board Monochrome Adapter The video board affects
(MDA), Color/Graphics what kind of software you
Adapter (CGA), Enhanced can run and how quickly
Graphics Adapter (EGA), data can get on the screen.
Video Graphics Array It can be easily changed,
(VGA) 8514 Adapter, and the oldest PC can use
Extended Graphics Array anything from a
(XGA), Diamond Viper monochrome board up to a
ATI Mach 32. VGA or 8514. Changing
video boards may require
updating software to use
those video boards. Video
boards vary by the number
of colors and pixels (the

dots on the screen) that

they can display. Most
important in modern video
boards, however, is
whether they hold video
data as a simple “Dumb
frame buffer” which
requires that the CPU must
do all the video work, or
contain circuitry that can
help with the grunt work of
graphical screens: boards
like that are said to be
“bitblitter” boards.
Parallel port Unidirectional, Bi- The parallel port acts as
directional, EPP (Enhanced the basic interface for
Parallel Port) printers. In its simplest
form, it’s unidirectional.
More modern parallel ports
may support bi-directional
data flow, or may even
support higher speeds of
data transportation, known
as an Enhanced Parallel
Port, usually abbreviated
EPP. Bi-directional
parallel ports are more and
more essential in order to
support newer printers,
which work their best
when teamed with a bi-
directional or, better, EPP
port.
Serial port UART 8250, 16450, 16550 The UART is the main
chip around which a serial
port or internal modem is
built. The 16550 UART is
the fastest of the lot, and is
essential for high speed
communications and
communications in
multitasking environments.
Amount of 640K - whatever There are several kinds of
memory memory or RAM (Random
Access Memory)
conventional, extended,

and expanded. They all

solve different problems.
Some software won’t run
without a particular
amount of one or more of
these kinds of memory.
Most PCs come with 64 or
128 MB of RAM.
System Clock / Built on motherboard or Again, not terribly

Calendar added on expansion board. important. Machines with
built in clocks usually have
DIS support to directly
read from or modify the
time and date. Others must
run a separate program.
Hard disk ST506/412, ESDI, SCSI, What method does the hard
interface IDE, EIDE disk controller (a circuit
card in the system) use to
talk to the hard disk? This
affects speed and can be
easily changed in most
systems. Modern systems
use IDE or SCSI; SCSI is
preferable for its
flexibility.
Hard disk MFM, RLL, ARLL How much data is
encoding scheme squeezed on to the area on
disk called a track? These
methods are used to
squeeze more data onto a
hard disk, and can easily
be changed.
Keyboard type XT-type, AT-type IBM originally put a
keyboard control chip in
the keyboard for the PC
and XT. They moved it to
the motherboard for the
AT, so you’ve got to know
which kind of keyboard
interface you’ve got. Most
clone keyboards have a
switch allowing them to
swing both ways.
Floppies 5.25 inch 360 K, 1.2MB, What kind of floppies will

supported 720K (Unusual); 3.5 – inch your machine support?

720K, 1.44 MB, 2.88MB This can be changed fairly
easily.
Number of 3-10 The more, the merrier.
expansion slots Many bit-name computers
only sport three expansion
slots; look instead for the
eight-slot models.
Configuration Switches configuration Computers won’t work
method (CMOS) memory until you tell them about
themselves, or configure
them. It’s done with either
physical switches or
software.
Number of 8 or 16 Affects the number and
interrupts (IRQ type of expansion boards
levels) supported in a system.
Number of DMA 4 or 8 Affects the number and
(Direct Memory type of expansion boards
Access) channels in a system.
supported
Sound Card 8 or 16 bit FM, MIDI, Sound boards support
and/or wavetable Audio music and sound
interface reproduction on your PC,
but music and sound are
represented in either an 8-
bit or a 16-bit format. 16-
bit is better, but takes more
space. The sounds are
recorded and reproduced
either with FM synthesis,
MIDI control, or
wavetables. Additionally,
a sound card in
combination with a CD-
ROM can play music on
your PC, with the right
audio interface cable.
SCSI host SCSI-I or SCSI-II single SCSI is a kind of universal
adapter ended or differential; hardware interface that
normal, fast, wide, or allows you to put hard
fast/wide disks, CD-ROMs, tape
drives, optical drives, and
scanners onto your
machine with a minimum
of hookup trouble. SCSI is

still an evolving standard,

but with many choices
Most PCs don’t have
SCSI, but most could
benefit from adding SCSI;
all you need is the SCSI
host adapter board and
some software.
LAN board Ethernet, Token Ring and Local area networks
ARCNet (LANs) allow PCs to
communicate with one
another, share data and
printers. Each PC on a
LAN needs a LAN
transceiver card, and there
are three types: Ethernet,
Token Ring, and ARCNet.
Ethernet is the most
common. Most businesses
have LANs, and more and
more homes are adding
LANs as they acquire PCs.
CD-ROM Drive Spin speed (internal or support CD-ROM disks,
external) SCSI, IDE or which can hold almost 700
proprietary interface MB of data. More and
more software ships solely
on CD-ROM, making this
item a necessity. They
vary largely by whether
they’re internal or external,
and how quickly they can
transfer data to a PC.
Transfer speeds range from
150K/s (“single spin”),
300K/s (“double spin”),
450 K/s (“triple spin”), to
600 K/s (“quad spin”), 900
K/s (“six speed”). 1200
K/s (“eight speed”, 1500
K/s (“ten speed”) CD-
ROM interface either by
way of IDE or a SCSI host
adapter or by way of a
proprietary adapter.
Printer Control Epson codes, HPPCL Printer control languages
language (Laser jet commands) Post tell your printer how to

Script others. underline words, put

pictures on the page, and
change typefaces.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
SPEED
The computer was invented as a high-speed calculator. This has led to many scientific projects
which were previously impossible. The control of the moon landing would not have been
feasible without computers, and neither would today's more scientific approach to weather
prediction. If we want tomorrow's forecast today (and not in six months time) meteorologists can
use the computer to perform quickly the necessary calculations and analyses. When making
flight reservations we want to know well in advance of take-off that a seat will be available - if it
is not, then we have time to make other arrangements. The ability to get answers fast enough so
that one has time to take action on them (or to make alternative plans, as in the case of airline
reservations) makes real-time computing possible.
Electrical pulses travel at incredible speeds and, because the computer is electronic, its internal
speed is virtually instantaneous. We do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds. Our
units of speed are the microsecond (millionths), the nanosecond (thousand0millionths) and
latterly even the picoseconds (million-millionths). A powerful computer is capable of adding
together two 18-digit numbers in 300 to 400 nanoseconds.
STAGE
The speed with which computers can process large quantities of information has led to the
generation of new information on a vast scale, in other words, the computer has compounded the
information 'explosion'. How can people cope with it? We can't, but computers can. But where
do they keep it all?

As a human acquires new knowledge, the brain subconsciously selects what it feels to be
important and worth retaining in its memory, and relegates unimportant details to the back of the
mind or just forgets them. In computers, the internal memory of the CPU is only large enough to
retain a certain amount of information. It is therefore, impossible to store inside the computer the
records, for example, of every Premium Bond and the names and address of their owners. All of
this data is stored outside of the memory of the CPU, on auxiliary or secondary storage devices.
Small sections of the total data can be accessed very quickly by the CPU and brought into the
main, internal memory, as and when required for processing.
The internal memory (in CPU) is built up in 1 K or K modules, where K equals 1024 storage
locations. Babbage's Analytical Engine would have been capable of holding 1000 numbers, each
of 50 digits. Computers come in many sizes. Many small micro-computers have an 8 K or 16 K
store whilst 'super computers', such as the CDS CYBER 205 may have up to 1024 K stores (i.e.
1024 * 1024 locations).
ACCURACY
In spite of misleading newspaper headlines, the computer's accuracy is consistently high. Errors
in the machinery can occur but, due to increased efficiency in error-detecting techniques, these
seldom lead to false results. Almost without exception, the errors in computing are due to human
rather than to technological weaknesses, i.e. to imprecise thinking by the programmer, or to
inaccurate data, or to poorly designed systems.
VERSATILITY
Computers seem capable of performing almost any task, provided that the task can be reduced to
series of logical steps. For example, a task such as preparing a payroll or controlling the flow of
traffic can be broken down into a logical sequence of operations, whereas comparing the tones of
a turner with a Vermeer cannot. Yet the computer itself has only limited ability and, in the final
analysis, actually performs only four basic operations:
It exchanges information with the outside world via I/O devices,
It transfers data internally within the CUP,

It performs the basic arithmetical operations,
It performs operations of comparison.
In one sense, then, the computer is not versatile because it is limited to four basic functions. Yet,
because so many daily activities can be reduced to interplay between these functions, it appears
that computers are highly ingenious. Programming is the craft or reducing a given problem into
interplay between these few operations.
AUTOMATION
A computer is much more than an adding machine, calculator or check-out till, all of which
require human operators to press the necessary keys for the operations to be performed. Once a
program is in the computer's memory, the individual instructions are then transferred, one after
the other, to the control unit for execution. The CPU follows these instructions until it meets a
last instruction which says 'stop program execution'. When Babbage claimed that his Analytical
Engine would be automatic, he meant that once the process had begun, it would continue without
the need for human intervention until completion.
DILIGENCE
Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of tiredness and lack of
concentration. If 3 million calculations have to be performed, it will perform the 3 millionth with
exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first. This factory may cause those whose jobs are
highly repetitive to regard the computer as a threat. But to those who rely on a continuous
standard of output, e.g., quality control in the refining of oil and other chemical processes, the
computer will be seen as a considerable help.
COMPUTER LIMITATIONS
1. It must be check and repair from time to time.

2. It cannot function alone without help from human
3. It cannot think on its own
4. It only understand computer language to execute command
Although above limitation are important, but a part of them following are also
several other limitations of computers.
PROGRAMMED BY HUMAN:
Though computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately but it is

programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer is nothing.
A program is a set of instructions. Computer only follows these instructions. If the
instructions are not accurate the working of computer will not accurate.
THINKING:
The computer cannot think itself. The concept of artificial intelligence shows that
the computer can think. But still this concept is dependent on set of instructions
provided by the human beings.
SELF CARE:
A Computer cannot care itself like a human. A computer is dependent still to

human beings for this purpose.
RETRIEVAL OF MEMORY:
A computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A human being's
mind does not follow this rule. A human mind can think randomly which a
computer machine cannot.
FEELINGS:
One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer can not feel about
some like a human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations. Human
can feel, think and caring but a computer machine itself cannot. A computer cannot
take place of human because computer is always dependent of human.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers exist in a wide range of sizes and power. The smallest are embedded
within the circuitry of appliances, such as televisions and wrist watches. These
computers are typically preprogrammed for a specific task, such as tuning to a
particular television frequency or keeping accurate time.
PROGRAMMABLE COMPUTERS
Vary enormously in their computational power, speed, memory, and physical size.
The smallest of these computers can be held in one hand and are called personal
digital assistants (PDAs). They are used as notepads, scheduling systems, and
address books; if equipped with a cellular phone, they can connect to worldwide
computer networks to exchange information regardless of location.
LAPTOP COMPUTERS AND PCS
Are typically used in businesses and at home to communicate on computer

networks, for word processing, to track finances, and to play games. They have
large amounts of internal memory to store hundreds of programs and documents.
They are equipped with a keyboard; a mouse, trackball, or other pointing device;
and a video display monitor or liquid crystal display (LCD) to display information.
Laptop computers usually have similar hardware and software as PCs, but they are
more compact and have flat, lightweight LCDs instead of video display monitors.
WORKSTATIONS
Are similar to personal computers but having greater memory and more extensive
mathematical abilities, and they are connected to other workstations or personal
computers to exchange data. They are typically found in scientific, industrial, and
business environments that require high levels of computational abilities.
MAINFRAME COMPUTERS
Have more memory, speed, and capabilities than workstations and are usually
shared by multiple users through a series of interconnected computers. They
control businesses and industrial facilities and are used for scientific research. The
most powerful mainframe computers, called supercomputers, process complex and
time-consuming calculations, such as those used to create weather predictions.
They are used by the largest businesses, scientific institutions, and the military.
Some supercomputers have many sets of CPUs. These computers break a task into
small pieces, and each CPU processes a portion of the task to increase overall
speed and efficiency. Such computers are called parallel processors.
DEFINITIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
1) Also known as an "OS," this is the software that communicates with computer
hardware on the most basic level. Without an operating system, no software
programs can run. The OS is what allocates memory, processes tasks, accesses

disks and peripherials, and serves as the user interface. With an operating system,
like Windows, the Mac OS, or Linux, developers can write code using a standard
programming interface (known as an API). Without an operating system,
programmers would have to write about ten times as much code to get the same
results. Of course, some computer geniuses have to program the operating system
itself.
2) The most important program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose

computer must have an operating system to run other programs. Operating
systems perform basic tasks, such as recognizing input from the keyboard,
sending output to the display screen, keeping track of files and directories on the
disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and
powers. It is like a traffic cop -- it makes sure that different program and users
running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is
also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the
system.
3) OS is a control program that controls execution of programs to prevent errors and

improper use of the computer.
As such there is No universally accepted definition of operating system.

The one program running at all times on the computer is the kernel. Everything else is
either a system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program
OPERATING SYSTEMS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS:
✦ MULTI-USER: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time.
Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
✦ MULTIPROCESSING: Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
✦ MULTITASKING: Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
✦ MULTITHREADING: Allows different parts of a single program to run

concurrently.
✦ REAL TIME: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems,

such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

OPERATING SYSTEM GOALS:
 Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier.

 Make the computer system convenient to use.
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
 OS is a resource allocator.
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use.
MULTIPROGRAMMING:
The simultaneous execution of two or more programs by a single CPU, usually achieved
by carrying out several instructions from one program, and then rapidly switching to the
next one.
Multiprogramming is needed for efficiency because:
 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times.
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has
one to execute.
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory.
 One job selected and run via job scheduling.
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job.
MULTITASKING:
The ability of an operating system to run two or more tasks at once. With one processor
you will not normally have more than one task using the processor at a given moment in
time, but the tasks will be scheduled so that they can all appear to be running at the same

time and do not interfere with one another. A task can be a program (e.g., the Windows
Calculator) or an instance of a program (e.g., opening the Windows Calculator multiple
times).Multitasking is the apparent simultaneous performance of two or more tasks by
a computer's central processing unit.
TIME-SHARING
Is an approach to interactive computing in which a single computer is used to provide

apparently simultaneous interactive general-purpose computing to multiple users by
sharing processor time. Because early mainframe computers were extremely expensive, it
was not possible to allow a single user exclusive access to the machine for interactive
use. But because computers in interactive use often spend much of their time idly waiting
for user input, it was suggested that multiple users could share a machine by using one
user's idle time to service other users. Similarly, small slices of time spent waiting for
disk, tape, or network input could be granted to other users. Computers capable of
providing time-sharing services would usually operate in batch mode overnight.
These solutions alone were not sufficient to build a fully functional time-sharing system.
In order to provide smooth service to multiple users, a time-sharing system needed a way
to deal with multiple processes that did not frequently pause for input/output. This
required a hardware interrupt system capable of pausing a running process, and giving
processor time to another process.
MEMORY & STORAGE DEVICES

INTRODUCTION
Memory of a computer deals with storage of information. The secondary storage devices,
which retain information in the absence of electrical power, are also discussed.
TYPES OF MEMORY
The memory is used for storing information. It is classified into two groups
1)Primary memory
2)Secondary memory
PRIMARY MEMORY:
Is generally termed as computer’s memory, the main memory. The primary or internal storage is
a most essential part of all computers. The internal storage area is made up of several small
storage areas called locations or cells. Each of these locations can store a fined number of bits
called word length of that particular storage unit. Each location or word has a built in and unique
number assigned to it. This number which is used to identify the location is called the address of
the location.
The primary memory actually functions when the computer operates and is present in the
computer in two different forms RAM & ROM.
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM):
The primary storage is generally referred to as random access memory (RAM) because one
can select and use any location of this memory to directly store and retrieve data instructions.
Every location of the memory is easily accessed and time taken in each case is same.

The facility of read/write from a RAM chip entitles it to call read/write memory. When the
power is switched off, the information stored in RAM is lost.
READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM):
In this memory storage information is permanently stored. The information contained in can
only be read and not written fresh information into it. When power is switched off the
information stored inside a ROM is not erased, ROM memories are also known as field stores,
permanent stores or dead stores.
CACHE MEMORY:
A very high speed memory used to increase the speed of processing is employed between
CPU and main memory whose access time is close to the processing speed of the CPU. This
type of memory is called a high-speed buffer or cache memory. However, cache memory is not
addressable by the user of the computer system.
Cache memory makes the main memory of the computer appear to be faster and larger than
what it really is. The cache memory is normally very small due to its high cost of construction,
cache memory improves the memory transfer rate and also increases the processor space.
ACCESSING METHODS OF STORAGE DEVICES
The memory of a computer is not actually concentrated in one place, Storage devices are
scattered throughout the machine. For instance, the operation registers are flip flop registers
which are used in the arithmetic and control units of the computer.

The storage devices are used to introduce information to the computer from the “ outside
world” and to store results from the computer. The procedures for locating information may be
divided into two classes:
1. Random access storage devices and
2. Sequential access storage devices.
A RANDOM ACCESS STORAGE DEVICES : is one in which any location in the device
may be selected at random access to the information stored in direct and approximately equal
access time is required for each location.
A SEQUENTIAL ACCESS STORAGE DEVICE: is one in which the arrival at the

location desired may be preceded by sequencing through other locations, so that access time
varies according to location.
For example, if we try to read a word stored on a real of magnetic type and the piece of tape on
which the word is stored is near the center of the reel, it is necessary to sequence through all the
intervening tape before the word can be read.
Another way to subdivide storage devices is according to whether they are static or dynamic
A static storage: is one in which the information does not change position example flip
flop, tape are of static storage devices.
A dynamic storage: Devices are devices in which the information stored is continually
changing position. Circulating register utilizing change coupled device (CCD) delay lines are
example of dynamic storage devices.
SEQUENTIALLY ACCESSED DEVICES:
Punched paper tape: The paper tapes normally 1 inch (2.54 cms) wide are available in
rolls of different length. Data is coded on the paper tape in the form of punched hole
combinations, The length of the tape may be kept as required by the user. The information is
recorded as holes punched in rows across the width of the tape.
Each row represents one character. The maximum numbers of holes per row is known as
number of channels on the tape. An eight-channel tape is generally used in computers.
A line of sprocket holes in the middle of the tape is provided for the purpose of feeding the
tape through the tape punching and reading device.

Disadvantages
i) Less numbers of characters can only be stored.

ii) The paper tape media gets easily torn.
Advantages
i) Storage capacity of paper tape is unlimited

ii) Cost per bit stored is very low
MAGNETIC TAPE:
This is most popular storage device for large data that are sequentially accessed and
processed magnetic tape is a half-inch (1.27-cm) wide plastic ribbon, which is coated on the side
with an iron oxide material which can be magnetized. The tape ribbon is housed in a cassette.
The computer tape can be erased and reused indefinitely. The stored data on the tape gets
automatically erased as and when fresh data, is recorded in the same area of the tape.
RECORDING OF INFORMATION: Information in binary is recorded on the tape as

invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots on the iron oxide side of the tape. 0 of the binary
is represented by a non-magnetized spot and 1 is represented by the magnetized spot on the tape.
The tape is divided into horizontal rows called channels or tracks and into vertical columns
called frames. Each character of the information is recorded per frame based on the code of the
computer.
DATA TRANSFER RATE: The product of tape density and tape speed is known as the
data transfer rate of the magnetic tape. The number of frames per inch length of the tape is
called tape density. The tape density of a magnetic tape is expressed in characters per inch (CPI)
or bytes per inch. The tape speed is measured in inches per sec. Data transfer rate of a magnetic
tape may even exceed 1 million bytes per second.

ADVANTAGES OF MAGNETIC STORAGE:
1. The storage capacity of a magnetic tape is unlimited.

2. It possesses high data density
3. Its cost is much less than other data storage devices
4. Its rate of data transfer is high
5. It is very easy to handle magnetic tapes
6. It is very easy to transfer information from one place to another.
DRAW-BACKS OF MAGNETIC TAPES:
1. As magnetic tape is a sequential access devices, the data recorded on tape cannot be
addressed directly. The data item at the end of the tape will require abnormal access
time because all the characters before the data item need by processed. This is why
magnetic tape device is not found suitable in case data is frequently required to be
accessed at random.
2. It is not possible to interpret, the stored data to know the content of the information.
3. Dust free environment is needed for magnetic tapes and the reel containers.
a) TAPE CASSETTES: A high quality digital cassette similar in appearance to the home
cassettes.
b) CARTRIDGES: The large cassette which contains long strips of magnetic tape is called
cartridge. It is very convenient to mount the tape there is proper protection against dirt and
contamination.
Both cassettes and cartridges have low data transfer rate, i,e , less than 10,000 bytes/sec.

RANDOM ACCESS DEVICES:
MAGNETIC DISK:
It is a thin, circular metal coated on both sides with a magnetic material similar to a
gramophone record. A number of magnetic disks mounted about half-an-inch apart from each
other on a central shaft which may rotate at speed of 2400 or more revolutions per minute
(RPM), consists a disk pack. Magnetic disk packs are the most popular medium for direct access
secondary storage.
Information is stored on both sides of the disks except the upper surface of the top disk and
lower surface of the lower disk. Each face of the disk is divided into a number of invisible
concentric circles called tracks. A set of corresponding tracks in all the surfaces is called a
cylinder. Each track is sub divided into sectors.
Information is recorded on the tracks of a disk surface in the form of minute magnetic spots.
The magnetized spot represents a 1-bit and non-magnetized spot represents a 0-bit.
The information stored on a disk can be read a number of items and reading operation is
non-destructive. To write a new data, the previously stored data has to be erased. The storage
capacity of a disk pack primarily depends on the number of disks it contains. The storage
capacity also depends on the track per inch of surface and the number of bits per inch of track.
MAGNETIC DRUM:
Magnetic drum is also a direct access storage device that can be used for both sequential and
random processing. It is basically a cylinder with a magnetizable outer surface. A motor rotates
the cylinder on its axis at a rapid speed but constant rate. The surface of the drum is divided onto
a number of tracks upon which data is stored as magnetized spots similar to that of a disk. Data
is stored on the magnetizable surface of the cylinder as minute magnetized spots arranged in
binary form in the series of parallel circular tracks. Recording of data on the rotating drum and
reading data from the drum is achieved by a set of secondary read/write heads positioned very

near to the drum surface. Writing a new data on the drum erases the previously stored data
simultaneously at that location. Data once recorded on the drum remains intact until it is erased.
The drum rotates at a speed of few hundred to few thousand rotations per minute and its
access times are fast. Random access is possible to select any particular track of the drum but
once this track is identified, the data is recorded or retrieved sequentially. To reduce the access
time, sometime heads are divided into two sets. Heads are positioned diametrically opposite i.e
for a drum of 20 track 40 heads is provided.
As compared to magnetic disks, data transfer rates are faster. Due to limited storage
capacity, use of magnetic drum storage is on decline.
WINCHESTER DISK:
Winchester disk are also used as a storage device. In this unit, disks are permanently housed
and hermetically sealed in contamination free containers. The disks are coated with a special
lubricant which minimizes the friction between the read/write heads and the disk surface
.Computers using these sealed housings are said to employ Winchester technology. The
Winchester technology enables greater precision of alignment, an increase in the number of
tracks on the disk surface and a higher storage density per track.
Winchester disks are fast and highly valuable and low priced compared with conventional
hard disk drives. They are available in sizes varying form 5.25” to 14” in diameter and there
capacities are 10,12 and 20 megabytes. Dual disk drive doubles the capacity. Winchester disks
are used in large computers.
FLOPPY DISK:
A floppy disk is a circular Mylar disk coated and magnetically sensitive film. Since the
thickness of the Mylar disk is only a few thousandth of an inch it is named as floppy. The floppy
diskette is coated with a magnetic material and enclosed in a protective jacket. The floppy disks
are used for backup of files and to transfer files from one computer to another computer
Floppy diskettes can be classified as Single and double sided.

If only one side of the diskette is used to store information such a diskette is called as a
single sided disk. If both the side of the diskette is used to store information such a diskette is
called as a double-sided disk.
The diskette surface is logically divided into a fixed number of tracks (concentric circles).
Data can be read and written on the specified tracks and not in between the tracks. Each track is
divided into a number of sectors. The number of sectors in a track depends on the size.
User’s label
Write Protect notch

Manufacturers
Labs
Clamping hole
Index hole
Head slot
Fig 5.1 Floppy Disk

A read/write head contacts the disk through the head slot to read from or write to the disk. It
is designed such that it can move both forward and backward.
The outermost track is numbered as track 0. The subsequent tracks are numbered
sequentially. The Index hole is used as a reference point to indicate the beginning of a track.
There is a facility to use a diskette only for reading previously stored information and to
prevent any attempt to write new information on it through the write protect notch. If this notch
is open writing on the diskette is permitted.
Advantages of floppy disks are:
 They are very cheap compared with other storage
 They greatly enhance the on-line storage capacity
 They are also convenient off-line storage medium
 The floppy disks generally available in market are of 3½, 5¼ or 8-inch

diameter size.

APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS
Corporate computing has revolutionized the business environment with the

computer - assistance of many time-consuming, complex tasks such as accounting,
inventory control, customer databases, shipping control, and financial analysis.
Today’s desktop computers are versatile and relatively inexpensive. They have
replaced the typewriter and, in many cases, the personal assistant for word-
processing and organizational services. Networking of all the company’s desktop
computers allows access to and storage of the full range of company resources and
information, reducing paperwork and increasing the productive flow of
information. The links included herein relate to business and corporate computing.
Marketing is the process by which goods are sold and purchased. The aim of
marketing is to acquire, retain, and satisfy customers. Modern marketing has
evolved into a complex and diverse field. This field includes a wide variety of
special functions such as advertising, mail-order business, public relations,
retailing and merchandising, sales, market research, and pricing of goods.
Businesses, and particularly the marketing aspect of businesses, rely a great deal
on the use of computers. Computers play a significant role in inventory control,
processing and handling orders, communication between satellite companies in an
organization, design and production of goods, manufacturing, product and market
analysis, advertising, producing the company newsletter, and in some cases,
complete control of company operations. In today's extremely competitive business
environment businesses are searching for ways to improve profitability and to
maintain their position in the marketplace. As competition becomes more intense
the formula for success becomes more difficult. Two particular things have greatly
aided companies in their quests to accomplish these goals. They are the innovative
software products and the World Wide Web. More and more manufacturing
businesses are integrating some aspects of production, including inventory
tracking, scheduling, and marketing. This idea, known as computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM), speeds processing of orders, adds to effective materials
management, and creates considerable cost savings. In addition to designing and
manufacturing a product, a company must be effectively able to advertise, market,
and sell its product. Much of what passes for business is nothing more than making

connections with other people. What if you could pass out your business card to
thousands, maybe millions of potential clients.
COMPUTER LANGUAGES
MACHINE LANGUAGE
A computer understands information composed of only zeros and ones hence it uses binary
digits for its operation. A program written in the form of 0’s and 1’s is called machine language
program. There is a specific binary code for each instruction. For eg: to add the contents of
register A and register B, the binary code is 10000000 for Intel 8085 microprocessors. The
binary code for certain operations differs from computer to computer.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Writing programs in machine language is very difficult, tiresome and boring job for a
programmer, it is error phone. To solve this problem and to facilitate programmer easily
understandable languages have been developed. Assembly language is one of them. Programs
can easily be written in alphanumeric symbols instead of Zeros & Ones meaningful and easily
remarkable symbols are selected for this purpose.
Example: ADD, for addition, SUB for subtraction CMP for comparison.
Such symbols are called mnemonics. A program written in mnemonics is called assembly
language program.
ASSEMBLER
A program which translates an assembly language program into a machine language

program is called an assembler.

Assembly language  Assembler  Machine language

(Source Program) (Object program)
Disadvantages
1. Programming is difficult and time consuming
2. The assembly language is machine oriented i.e the programmer must have the
knowledge of the hardware of the computer
3. The program written in assembly language for one computer cannot be run on another
computer.
HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
A High level language is one which is expressed in terms of simple English like language.
In computing, a high-level programming language is a programming language with strong

abstraction from the details of the computer. In comparison to low-level programming languages,
it may use natural language elements, be easier to use, or be more portable across platforms.
Such languages hide the details of CPU operations such as memory access models and
management of scope.
This greater abstraction and hiding of details is generally intended to make the language user-
friendly, as it includes concepts from the problem domain instead of those of the machine used.
A high level language isolates the execution semantics of computer architecture from the
specification of the program, making the process of developing a program simpler and more
understandable with respect to a low-level language. The amount of abstraction provided defines
how 'high-level' a programming language is.
The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül,
created by Konrad Zuse. However, it was not implemented in his time and his original
contributions were isolated from other developments
The instructions written in high level language are called statements. The statements more
clearly resemble English Mathematics as compared to mnemonics.
Example:
BASIC, PASCAL, FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, LISP, ADA, SNOBOL

Advantages
1. They are easier to learn as compared to assembly languages.
2. They make programs easier and faster to write
3. Provide better documentation.
4. The programmers does not have limitations to use a single type of machine.
5. Programs are portable i.e. they will run on any computer
Many high level languages have been developed, some are for general purpose and some for
special purposes.
Example:
PASCAL, PL/1, ADA AND C are general purpose languages.
COBOL is for business purposes
PROLOG is for logical reasoning
BASIC for new comers
SNOBOL for text processing
SOURCE LANGUAGE AND OBJECT LANGUAGE
The language in which a programmer writes programs is called source language. It may be
high-level or assembly language. The language in which the computer works is called object
language or machine language.
COMPILER
A program which translates high-level languages into a machine language program is called
compiler. For example, WATFOR (FORTRAN compiler), TURBO PASCAL compiler.
INTERPRETER
An interpreter is a program which translates statements of a high level language program

into machine code.

In translates one statement of the program at a time. It reads one statement of a high-level
language program translates it into machine code and executes it. Then it goes to the next
statement.
On the other hand a compiler translates the whole program into machine code-
High –level Compiler Machine

Language or Interpreter language
(Source (Object
Program) program)
QUESTION/ ANSWER KEYS
State True or False:

1. Machine language is one which is expressed in terms of 0's & 1's.
2. Assembly Language is one which is expressed in terms of mnemonics
3. Compiler is a software which converts machine language to high level
Language.
4. Fortran is a low level language.
Answers :
1. True 2. True 3. False 4. False.
QUESTION/ ANSWER KEY
1. A _____________________ is a fast and accurate electronic ( or data)

manipulating system that will accept and store input data, process them and produce
output results.

2. _________________________ are facts or informational raw materials

represented by symbols
3. Arranging classified data in a predetermined sequence to facilitate processing is
called ______________________.
4. The word " data" is the plural of datum which means __________________.
Answers:
1. Computer 2. Data 3. Sorting 4. Fact
Mark True or False

True False
1. Electrical or electromechanical components are known as hardware.
2. A Program is considered as hardware
3. Keyboard is considered as output device
Answers:
1. True 2. False 3. False
Prepared By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.)

Al-Falah School of Engineering & Technology, Dhauj, Faridabad

Computer Concepts

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Unit- 1st COMPUTER ORGANISATION CAM (MBA-1st Sem)

With limited intelligence, limited language capability (understands only programming

1 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

NEED FOR COMPUTER LITERACY

Let us take a few examples and look at the use of computers

2 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

1. Computers themselves: You should understand the organization, capabilities and

COMPUTER SYSTEM ORGANIZATION

3 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

THE SYSTEM CONCEPT

ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Input central output

Fig. 1 Overview of Processing

4 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

5 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

Keyboards are of two types based on the fashion of data transfer.

6 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

7 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

i) Programs must be reliable:

ii) Application logic must be understood:

8 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

iii) Applications must be suitable:

DIGITAL COMPUTER is a counting device that operates on discrete data. It operates by

9 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

Classification of computers based on their size, cost & configuration.

The important features of micro computers are:

PERSONAL COMPUTERS (PC’S):

Personal computers are micro-computers for general-purpose computations. These are

10 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

11 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

The salient features are:-

Examples of mini computers are:

 VAX8842(VAX stands for Virtual address)

 Extension - VAX computers are manufactured by Digital Data

 WIPRO S – 68030V & S-6833V built around 68030 CPU

 WIPRO LANDMARK 860 ( a super mini) built around Intel i860-CPU

 HCL magnum built around 68030 CPU and 68040 CPU.

12 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

The main features are:

 The word length may be 48, 60 or 64 bits.

 Memory capacity range is 64-256 MB and hard disk capacity is 1000 MB

 Processing speed lies in the range 30-100 MIPS.

Example: IBM 4300 series

 IBM 308X series

 Latest model IBM 3090 series

 IBM 9000 series

 HP 9000 series 8705/400

 HP 9000 model 8705/300

The salient features are:

13 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

 CRAY – X – MP/14, X-MP/24 & X-MP/48

 CRAY – MP, CRAYZ, CRAY3, CRAY Y-MPC

 ETA 10 ( Developed by control data Corporation )

 SX – 2 (Developed by Nippon Electric Corporation, Japan)

 SX – 3R ( 25.6 GIGA FLOPS )

 HITACS – 300 ( 32 GIGA FLOPS, HITACHI MAKE )

14 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

• SPEED AND ACCURACY CAPABILITIES:

• DATA MANIPULATING CAPABILITY:

15 Prep. By MOHAMMAD DANISH (Lecturer, CSE Deptt.) AFSET , MBA

• DATA - VERSUS - INFORMATION: