Professional Documents
Culture Documents
, Akira Ogawa
, Yosef Shiloh
, Katsuyuki Tamai
*Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Department of Molecular and Human
Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030;
Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Sackler School of Medicine,
Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel; and
Medical and Biological Laboratories Co., Ina, Nagano 396-0002, Japan
Edited by Bert Vogelstein, Johns Hopkins Oncology Center, Baltimore, MD, and approved July 11, 2000 (received for review January 24, 2000)
The protein kinase Chk2, the mammalian homolog of the budding
yeast Rad53 and ssion yeast Cds1 checkpoint kinases, is phos-
phorylated and activated in response to DNA damage by ionizing
radiation (IR), UV irradiation, and replication blocks by hydroxyu-
rea (HU). Phosphorylation and activation of Chk2 are ataxia telan-
giectasia-mutated (ATM) dependent in response to IR, whereas
Chk2 phosphorylation is ATM-independent when cells are exposed
to UV or HU. Here we show that in vitro, ATM phosphorylates the
Ser-GlnThr-Gln (SQTQ) cluster domain (SCD) on Chk2, which
contains seven SQTQ motifs, and Thr68 is the major in vitro
phosphorylation site by ATM. ATM- and Rad3-related also phos-
phorylates Thr68 in addition to Thr26 and Ser50, which are not
phosphorylated to a signicant extent by ATM in vitro. In vivo,
Thr68 is phosphorylated in an ATM-dependent manner in response
to IR, but not in response to UV or HU. Substitution of Thr68 with
Ala reduced the extent of phosphorylation and activation of Chk2
in response to IR, and mutation of all seven SQTQ motifs blocked
all phosphorylation and activation of Chk2 after IR. These results
suggest that in vivo, Chk2 is directly phosphorylated by ATM in
response toIRandthat Chk2 is regulatedby phosphorylationof the
SCD.
D
NA damage activates a response pathway that arrests the
cell cycle to provide time for repair of damage and induces
the transcription of genes that facilitate repair (1). Defects in this
DNAdamage response pathway can result in genomic instability,
a mutagenic condition leading to cancer predisposition (2). Key
regulators of the DNA damage response pathway are the phos-
phoinositide kinase homologs ataxia telangiectasia-mutated
(ATM) and ATM- and Rad3-related (ATR), the protein kinases
Chk1 and Chk2, and the tumor suppressor protein p53 (1, 3).
ATM controls cell cycle arrest in G
1
and G
2
. Control of G
2
arrest
by ATM is thought to involve maintenance of Cdc2 in a
tyrosine-phosphorylated state (1), but precisely how ATM reg-
ulates Cdc2 has been unclear. Recently, Chk2, the mammalian
homolog of the budding yeast Rad53 and fission yeast Cds1
checkpoint kinases (46), was cloned and found to link ATMand
Cdc2 (7, 8). In response to ionizing radiation (IR), Chk2 is
rapidly phosphorylated and activated in an ATM-dependent
manner, and in vitro, Chk2 phosphorylates Cdc25C on Ser216 (7,
8), which interferes with Cdc25Cs ability to activate Cdc2 (9). In
Chk2
/
mouse embryonic stem cells, maintenance of G2 arrest
and reduced Cdc2 kinase activity in response to IR is defective
(10). These results suggested a model in which ATM controls G
2
arrest in part by activating Chk2.
The functional role of ATR and Chk1 in the checkpoint
pathway is not fully understood. Overexpression of ATR par-
tially suppresses cells lacking ATM, and overexpression of a
kinase-defective ATR mutant in wild-type cells abrogates G
2
M
arrest after exposure to IR (11) and increases sensitivity of cells
to IR and UV (12), suggesting an overlapping function between
ATM and ATR. Chk1 is modified in response to DNA damage
and can phosphorylate Ser216 on Cdc25C in vitro (13). Recently,
ATR
/
blastocyst cells were found to die with chromosome
fragmentation, implying an essential role for ATR in the DNA
replication checkpoint (14), and mouse embryonic stem cells
lacking Chk1 have a defective G
2
M DNA damage checkpoint
(15). Furthermore, in response to UV, HU, and IR, Chk1 is
found to be phosphorylated on Ser345, and the phosphorylation
in response to UV is ATR dependent (15). ATR and Chk1
disruptions both lead to peri-implantation embryonic lethality in
mice (1416). Thus, Chk1 is regulated by ATR (15).
ATM-dependent G1 arrest in response to IR is achieved by
activation of p53 (17), which acts as a sequence-specific DNA-
binding transcription factor to induce transcription of the Cdk
inhibitor p21
CIP1/WAF1
(18, 19). Activation of p53 in response to
DNA damage is accomplished by both increasing its protein
levels and by increasing its transcriptional activity. The increase
in p53 levels in response to DNA damage is caused by decreased
degradation of p53, and phosphorylation of Ser20 on p53 is
required for the decrease in p53 degradation (2022). Recently,
Chk2 was found to phosphorylate Ser20 on p53 in vitro (10, 23,
24), and we have found that Chk2 is required for increased
stability of p53 in response to IR (10), providing a possible
mechanism for regulation of p53 stability by Chk2.
Transcriptional activation of p53 is mediated by acetylation
and phosphorylation of p53. Acetylation of p53 by histone
acetyltransferases CBPp300, which function as a coactivator
for p53-mediated transcription (25, 26), is shown to enhance
sequence-specific DNA binding of p53 (27). Phosphorylation
of Ser15 on p53 was found to increase the interaction with
CBPp300 and acetylation of p53 (28). ATM phosphorylates
Ser15 in vitro, and in response to IR, Ser15 is phosphorylated
in an ATM-dependent manner, suggesting that Ser15 is phos-
phorylated by ATM in vivo (29, 30). However, Ser15 is
phosphorylated in an ATM-independent manner when cells
are exposed to UV, indicating that a kinase distinct from ATM
phosphorylates Ser15. A candidate kinase is ATR, which
phosphorylates Ser15 in vitro, and overexpression of kinase
dead ATR interferes with phosphorylation of Ser15 after
exposure of cells to IR or UV (31).
ATM-dependent phosphorylation of Chk2 is seen only when
cells are damaged by IR. Chk2 is phosphorylated in an ATM-
independent manner in response to UV or HU (7, 8, 3234).
Thus, Chk2 phosphorylation parallels p53 phosphorylation on
Ser15. These results prompted us to examine Chk2 phosphory-
lation by ATM and ATR. In this study we report that Chk2 is
phosphorylated on Thr68 by both ATM and ATR in vitro, and
that Thr68 is phosphorylated in an ATM-dependent manner in
This paper was submitted directly (Track II) to the PNAS ofce.
Abbreviations: IR, ionizing radiation; HU, hydroxyurea; GST, glutathione S-transferase;
SQTQ, Ser-GlnThr-Gln; SCD, SQTQ cluster domain; MEF cells, mouse embryonic bro-
blast cells; WT, wild type; KD, kinase dead; ATM, ataxia telangiectasia-mutated; ATR, ATM-
and Rad3-related.