Writing essays

by Johnson, S. — last modified 25 June 2007 15:42

Study guide

Essays are a particular form of writing, with their own structure and
conventions. This guide explains the conventions of the essay and shows you how to
write clear, well structured essays that communicate effectively with the reader.

Other useful guides: Planning Essays; Referencing & Bibliographies; Avoiding

Plagiarism.

The key elements

A good essay takes the reader into account by clearly presenting material in a way
that is logical, coherent and easy to follow. Before you begin to write your essay, you
need to select and order your material in the form of an essay plan. Refer to the
guide Planning Essays for information on preparation and planning. When you have
an effective essay plan you are free to concentrate on the expression of your ideas and
information. You can learn to guide your reader by being aware of how to use the key
elements of an essay. This guide shows you how to make the best use of:

• the introduction;
• paragraphs;
• evidence;
• the conclusion.

This guide uses the following essay question as an example:

Examine and compare the nature and development of the tragic figures of
Macbeth and Dr Faustus in their respective plays.

The introduction
The introduction is a signpost for your reader, showing how you intend to answer the
question. You will need to show your understanding of the key issues and indicate the
main areas your essay will cover. One possible structure for an introduction is shown
below.

• Begin with a general point about the central issue

Dr Faustus and Macbeth are both plays which show their respective
playwrights at the pinnacle of their careers.
• Use the words of the title to show your understanding of the question
When comparing the nature of the two plays' respective heroes, both parallels
and contrasts can be found.
• Show what your essay structure will be
In the first section of this essay, the role of the tragic hero will be considered
 ... The second section of this essay will examine the ... Finally, a comparison
will be made of the development of the two ...
• Make a link to the first point
In examining the characters' tragic qualities, a useful starting point is
Aristotle’s definition of tragedy...

The use of paragraphs

Your essay plan should show clearly what the main sections of your essay will be and
which points will be including in each section. Ordering your points in each section
should also take place at the planning stage. You now need to use paragraphs to take
your reader step by step through each section. Each paragraph you write should
express clearly one point or one aspect of a point. Your paragraphs should link
together to provide the reader with a sense of logical progression. The example below
shows how a paragraph can have its own internal structure which:

• introduces the paragraph's point;

• presents and comments on evidence;
• makes a link to the next paragraph.

Figure 1: Sample paragraph

The use of evidence and/or examples

You should use evidence to illustrate and support your points. Evidence may be the
opinion of an expert or the results of a study or experiment. It may be written or in
diagram format. Use the evidence to:

• add authority to your point;

• add credibility to your argument;
• add interest to your discussion.

Whenever you refer to someone else's ideas or opinion you must acknowledge
your source through referencing. It may be in the form of a quotation:
Gardner believes that Faustus' inability to change is, "a human
representation of the inability of the fallen angels to turn back from their
damnation." ²

or you may paraphrase or summarise an opinion or idea:

Faustus' inability to change can be seen as the same inability that the
fallen angels have, but represented in human terms (Gardner, 1982).

There are two main ways of referencing your evidence:

• the use of a number referring to a note at the end of the essay or bottom of the
page (as in the first example);
• the inclusion of the author and date of publication in the body of the essay
with the full details included in your bibliography (as in the second example).

At the end of your essay you must include a bibliography which lists all the books you
have consulted in writing your essay, whether or not you have referred to them in
your essay. A bibliography should include the details of author, title, date, place or
publication, publisher and edition for each book.

Gardner, H. (1982) The Tragedy of Damnation. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Most departments have their own preferred style of referencing and bibliographies.
Check your department handbook for details. For further guidance, refer to the

The conclusion
The conclusion is another signpost to your reader. It gives you the opportunity to:

• use the words of the title to show you have answered the question;
• remind the reader of what has been covered;
• show the overall significance of the material;
• provide an overall assessment of theories or arguments, summarising your
own view point.

An example of an effective concluding paragraph is shown below.

• Brief recap

The characters of Macbeth and Faustus are very similar in many

respects; they both willingly follow a path that leads to their damnation,
for example.

• Reference to the larger issue

The differences lie in the development of the characters in what are

essentially two different types of plays.
 • Evaluation of the main arguments

As has been shown, the character of Macbeth has a nadir from which he
ascends at the conclusion of the play. This is in keeping with Aristotle's
definition of tragedy. For Faustus however, there is no such ascension.
This fits the style of the morality play: the erring Faustus must be seen to
be humbled at his end for the morality to be effective.

• Highlighting the most important aspects

It is this strong element of morality in Dr Faustus which ultimately

divides the two plays.

Drafting your essay

Planning your material before you begin writing should reduce the need for drafting.
Whether or not your department requires all essays to be word processed, learning to
write essays on a computer has many advantages. It enables you to easily make
amendments and changes to your work without the need to rewrite whole parts of the
essay. If you find it necessary to make a first draft by hand, then write each section on
a separate piece of paper, so that changes can be made easily.

Don't try to make significant changes to the sequence of your material through
redrafting. Go right back to the planning stages and revise your original essay plan or
make a new one. Remember that just as the essay question should be your focus in the
planning stages, you can regularly refer to the question in the writing of your essay.
Use the essay question to check that you are keeping to the point and that all your
material is relevant to answering the question.

Editing your essay

It is often difficult to edit your own writing. Read your work aloud, carefully adhering
to the pauses of the punctuation you have used. This will help you identify problems
with clarity of expression or sentence structure. Spell checks on computers are useful,
but be aware that they don't identify an inappropriate use of a correctly spelt word.
Have a break from your essay (preferably overnight) to make the final check more
effective.

Presentation
Your department will have its own guidelines for the presentation of essays which
may include word-processing. Check your departmental handbook for details. The
Computer Centre and the University book shop have written guides on using the
University's word-processing packages.

Feedback
The feedback and comments you receive with your marked work are an invaluable aid
to identifying the strengths and weaknesses in your written work. By rereading your
essay in the light of this feedback you can see the areas you want to develop and then
decide on a strategy for improvement. To develop your writing skills further you can:

• discuss your essay with your tutor;

• share your experience with other students;
• attend a Student Learning Centre workshop or individual consultation.

Summary
• Select and order your material in an essay plan before you begin writing.
• Guide your reader by making the best use of the introduction and conclusion.
• Use paragraphs to present your points in a clear, linked sequence.
• Use evidence to support and illustrate your points. Be sure to acknowledge all
your sources.
• Make use of essay plans to reduce the need for redrafting.
• Check your handbook or ask your tutor for the department's guidelines to
referencing, bibliographies and presentation.
• Take a break before checking your essay and read your work aloud to check
your expression and sentence structure.
• Make the most of feedback to plan your strategy for improving your writing
skills.
Planning essays
by Johnson, S. — last modified 08 October 2007 10:06

Study guide

A good essay plan makes the most of your essay material by helping you to organise
the content of the essay before you begin writing. This guide shows you the key steps
in preparing and planning an essay effectively.

Other useful guides: Writing Essays; Thought Mapping; Referencing and

Bibliographies.

Using essay plans

Being organised before you begin writing your essay will make the writing process
quicker and easier. Good preparation and planning gives you a clear overview of your
material so you can see the best way to organise your points. This guide presents four
main steps to planning your essay:

• planning ahead;
• analysing the question;
• selecting material;
• organising your material.

Why an essay?
Essay writing gives you a chance to:

• explore a specific subject area in depth;

• select relevant material;
• explain theories and concepts;
• evaluate arguments;
• express and support your own views and opinions.

Before you begin

Check your department's guidelines. There may be information about:

• how long the essay should be;

• what the deadline is;
• relevant assessment criteria;
• requirements for presentation, referencing and bibliographies.

Planning ahead
Choose your title as soon a possible. The availability of journals, books and other
resources may affect your choice of title. Plan ahead to ensure you can use the
resources you need in time. Make an action plan or 'to do list' for:

• finding relevant resources;

• reading and making notes from articles on short loan;
• obtaining items through inter-library loan;
• using computer facilities.

Look at how much time you have before the deadline so you can see what can be
realistically done.

Refer to the Guide Organising your time for more information on action planning.

Analysing the question

Before you can begin to select material for your essay, you need to make sure that you
understand the exact requirements of the question. The following method of title
analysis encourages you to break the question down into clearly identifiable elements
so that you can accurately see what the question requires.

Analysing an essay title

Selecting the material

Use your analysis of the question as a focus for the selection of materials. Begin with
the basic reading:

• lecture notes;
• handouts;
• relevant chapters in core texts.

When you understand the basics you can then select more detailed and specific texts.
This may be in the form of journal articles or texts referred to by your lecturer. You
can also follow up useful references in handouts or core texts to widen your reading.
 • Be selective, use the techniques described in Improving your reading skills to
identify relevant material for your essay.
• Use the essay question as a focus for note taking.
• Be sure to record only information that is directly relevant to your essay
question. This will save you time and make your notes easier to organise in an
essay plan.

Organising your material

All essays need a structure that is logical and coherent. An essay plan gives you a
quick way of trying out different structures. One way of making an essay plan is to
list your main points in keywords and phrases and organise them under main
headings. This gives you an overview of your points so you can decide which should
be included and what is the most logical sequence for them.

An example of a linear essay plan using key words and phrases

Index cards can be useful in essay planning. Write the keyword or phrase for each
point on a separate index card. Use the cards to group and order the points. Number
the cards sequentially when you are happy with the order of your points.

You may wish to use diagrams for essay planning. This method is described in the
guide: Thought Mapping.
 An example of a non-linear essay plan using key words and phrases

Find your preferred style

Experiment with different styles of planning essays and use the method that you find
most useful. Make as many essay plans as you need to find the best sequence for your
material. By separating the planning stage from the writing stage you will be better
able to write an essay that is well organised and clearly expressed. The guide Writing
essays explores the key elements of an essay and shows you how to use these
elements effectively.

Summary
• Make an action plan or 'to do list' as early as possible.
• Analyse the essay question before you begin making notes.
• Be selective in your reading.
• Record only information that is directly relevant to your essay question.
• Use essay plans to create a clear and logical sequence for your material before
you begin to write.
Avoiding plagiarism
by Johnson, S. — last modified 22 August 2007 14:29

Study guide

This guide aims to help you to understand what plagiarism is in the context of
academic work and offers guidance on how to avoid it.

Other useful guides: References & Bibliographies; Effective Note Making. Or view
the interactive tutorial.

What is plagiarism?
In all aspects of academic study and research, thoughts and ideas inevitably build on
those of other writers or researchers - this is a legitimate and indeed essential part of
the academic process. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines plagiarism as
the taking and using as one's own ... the thoughts, writings, or inventions of
another. In an academic context, plagiarism implies a deliberate act on the part of the
writer or researcher to use the work, ideas or expressions of others as if they were his
or her own.

Deliberate plagiarism, therefore, is academic cheating, and the university has a very
firm view on this: anyone found to have deliberately copied or plagiarised the work of
others is severely penalised. The University regulation concerning academic
dishonesty is included in the Undergraduate (p.11) and Postgraduate (section A:14)
Regulations; most departmental handbooks also include a statement of the
University's policy in respect of academic dishonesty.

Deliberate plagiarism with a clear intention to cheat is, however, far less common
than plagiarism committed through misunderstanding or even carelessness. These
latter types of plagiarism may occur if:

• you fail to acknowledge fully the sources of knowledge and ideas that you use
in your work;
• you incorporate the words of others into your writing as if they were your
own;
• you 'string together' ideas or facts taken from others without presenting your
own viewpoint.

Many students, particularly those at the beginning of their courses, are unclear about
how to use the work of others in a way that does not constitute plagiarism. This leaflet
has been written to give guidance on how to avoid plagiarism and at the same time
produce work of better quality.

Fully reference and acknowledge the work of others

Understanding how to use and appropriately acknowledge your debt to the work of
others is an essential step in learning how to avoid plagiarism.

Make sure that when you are reading or researching for any written work or
presentation, you include in your notes, or on any photocopies, the full reference
details (see the Student Learning Centre guide: Referencing & Bibliographies) of each
source that you use. This will ensure that you have all the information you need to
acknowledge your sources fully when you come to use this material in your own
work.

When you write down the precise words of a writer, or even of a lecturer, make sure
that you mark clearly in your notes that you have included an exact quotation, and add
the relevant page number to the other reference details (this includes the citation of
sources on the Web, and online discussion lists/mail bases/databases). This will
ensure that when you go back to your notes at a later date you will be able distinguish
your own words from those of your sources. An appropriate sentence or phrase quoted
from an expert in the field can be used with great effect within an essay or
dissertation, but it needs to be fully referenced and clearly distinguished from your
own words.

The paragraph below is taken word for word, fully referenced, from an article by
Peter Scott in a book on the future of higher education and is used here as a source for
a hypothetical essay on the topic of Higher Education in the 1990s.

Widening access to higher education is no longer conceived... as a crusade

to help the educationally and socially deprived, to reach out into the
depths of Britain's democracy (and, incidentally, to save departments and
institutions from threatened closure!). Instead it is seen in much less
heroic terms, as the careful management of burgeoning demand mainly,
but not exclusively, from standard school leavers and other conventional
sources (Scott 1991 p.57).

Scott, P. 1991: Access: an overview. In T. Schuller (ed.) The Future of

Higher Education. Buckingham: SRHE & Open University Press, pp. 55-
60.

The paragraph below, from the essay returned by student A, has clearly been
plagiarised. Although the wording has been changed slightly, the words are
essentially those of Scott and not of the student writer; there is no reference to the
original source.

The driving force behind Britain's move towards a mass higher education
system is no longer conceived as a crusade to help the educationally and
socially deprived. It has become a way of meeting the demand from
standard level student leavers and other conventional sources.

Student A's plagiarism may not have been deliberate but the result of poor note taking
which did not distinguish between the student's own words and ideas and those of
other writers. Such plagiarism would nonetheless be taken very seriously. The
paragraph below from student B's essay is not plagiarised.

The early 1990s saw considerable changes in the organisation of Higher

Education in Britain, as it moved from an elite to a mass education
system. At this time, the Editor of the Times Higher Education
Supplement was Peter Scott, whose job placed him in a unique position to
take a broad, and well informed, overview of these changes. He viewed
the move to mass education as 'the careful management of burgeoning
demand mainly, but not exclusively, from standard school leavers and
other conventional sources' and not, as others might have seen it ' as a
crusade to help the educationally and socially deprived, and to reach out
into the depths of British democracy' (Scott 1991 p.57).

Student B chose to include quotations to make a particular point, but these have been
fully referenced. The quotations are included within a paragraph, which clearly shows
the personal stamp and contribution of the student writer. This is seen in, for example,
the comment on the background to Scott's viewpoint (as editor of the Times Higher)
and the suggestion that his view is not universally held ('and not as others might have
characterised it'). Student B might then go on to discuss, and give his opinion of, these
other views, making sure that appropriate references were included.

For more information on note taking and on referencing your sources in written work,
read the Student Learning Centre guides: Effective Note Making and Referencing &
Bibliographies.

Use your own words and develop your own writing

style
Many students, particularly when they first start writing, find it difficult to develop
their own writing style. When you are reading and researching for a piece of written
work, try to use your own words in your notes to summarise your reading, and include
your own ideas and comments on each text that you read. As you practise and
establish your writing style, you will become more confident about expressing your
thoughts and ideas in your own way.

If your first language is not English, and you are not yet completely fluent, it can be
very tempting to borrow a well expressed sentence or even a paragraph from another
writer. However, this is plagiarism, and lecturers would much prefer to receive a piece
of work in your own, if imperfect, style than to read chunks of text in perfect English
that are clearly taken from another writer.

Organise and structure your work in your own way

Taking notes that paraphrase the views and opinions of the authors that you read is
often the first stage of the research undertaken for any piece of written work.
However, if your own writing consists largely of a string of paraphrases from a
number of different writers, or an almost exact copy of the sequence of another
writer's ideas and the logic of his/her argument, you may be seen to be plagiarising,
even if you acknowledge the sources of your information. This type of plagiarism is
probably the most common that is found in undergraduate work.

Examples

Two further 'extracts' from hypothetical essays illustrate this point. In this example the
essay topic is about the value of different types of assessment procedures. Student C
has read a number of books on his topic, and in the paragraphs below he has quoted
some of them in his discussion of examinations. In these examples the sources quoted
have been invented for illustrative purposes, and so reference details have not been
included.

An experiment carried out by Smith (1997) showed that students do better

in exams that contribute to their final grade than in those that are merely
'pass and proceed'; this showed that motivation is an important factor in
improving students' examination performance. Patel (1995) believes that
students should be given past papers to increase their confidence, but
Jones (1998) thinks that this can lead to students revising only those
topics that come up regularly. Essay-type questions are better than
short-answer questions because they test creative thinking and not just
memory (McPherson, 1997)

Student C's writing is essentially a string of facts, ideas and opinions from others and
there is very little evidence of his own contribution to the topic. He seems only to be
passing on the views of others without any critical analysis of the arguments or
evidence presented by his sources. Although he has referenced his sources, he has
effectively plagiarised their ideas. This type of plagiarism though not at all desirable,
is not deliberate academic cheating, as there is no attempt here to claim the ideas as
his own. However, Student C would not get a very good grade for his essay. Now
consider the extract from Student D's essay:

Recent published research on the effectiveness of examinations as an

assessment technique has highlighted the importance of motivation as a
driving force (for example, Patel, 1995; Smith, 1997; Jones 1998). Patel
and Jones disagree about whether or not past papers can be useful in
helping students, but I would agree with Patel that without some clear
examples of at least the types of questions that are likely to be asked,
students are not able to plan an effective revision strategy. What is
important, though, is not just the context in which examinations are used,
but the format of the examinations themselves. McPherson (1997) argued
against short-answer questions, which he saw as only capable of testing
memory and not creative thinking. In his criticism of this type of
examination, he has failed to acknowledge the importance of providing
opportunities for students to develop a wider range of written
communication skills than those developed by essay writing. The ability
to write briefly and effectively is a very valuable skill for future
employment; discursive essays are a form of writing that is very rarely
used in the world of work.

Student D has used the same sources, but has provided a much more sophisticated
analysis, and, while building on the work of her sources, has taken the ideas and
discussion forward. Her own contribution to the topic is very clear in this piece.
Student D will undoubtedly have gained a much higher grade for her work than
Student C.

Don't be afraid to express your own views

Many students are hesitant about expressing their own opinion, particularly if it
contradicts the views of 'experts'. Work that is published and printed in books and
learned journals is not necessarily always right nor the very last word on a topic. In
the humanities and social sciences in particular, much academic writing is based on
informed opinion rather than indisputable fact. Do not be afraid to have your own
views on a subject. What is important is that your views should be informed, clearly
expressed and based on careful consideration and knowledge of both the relevant facts
and of the views of those who are acknowledged to have expertise on the topic.

It may be much more difficult for science students to have new ideas or make original
contributions to their subject in the early stages of their scientific education. What you
can show in your writing is that you are aware of all the relevant information, and
have a full knowledge and understanding of the scientific principles that underpin the
experiments that you write up or the reports that you complete. When you carry out an
experiment, the method you use is perhaps unlikely to be your own, and you may well
need to acknowledge the source of the particular methodology you employ. However,
the results that you obtain when you carry out the experiment are your own, and in
their analysis and interpretation you can make your own contribution.

Other forms of plagiarism

Don't forget that plagiarism can occur not only in your use of text but also in
accompanying illustrations, maps and tables. Make sure that in the captions to these
you fully reference and acknowledge any material or ideas taken from a source that is
not your own. Minor changes, rewording or redrawing may be enough to avoid
infringing copyright, but not to avoid the charge of plagiarism. Remember that you
also need to take steps to avoid plagiarism in an oral presentation by making
appropriate acknowledgements to the authors you quote, either in your talk or in the
OHPs that you use.

Further information
If you are still unclear about what is and isn't plagiarism, you can talk to your lecturer
or personal tutor, or visit the Student Learning Centre in College House. Your
departmental student handbook may also give you further guidance.
Referencing & bibliographies
by Johnson, S. — last modified 21 August 2007 12:25

Study guide

This brief study guide aims to help you to understand why you should include
references to the information sources that you use to underpin your writing. It
explains the main principles of accurately referencing such sources in your work.

Other useful guides: Effective Note Making, Avoiding Plagiarism.

Why reference?
When you are writing an essay, report, dissertation or any other form of academic
writing, your own thoughts and ideas inevitably build on those of other writers,
researchers or teachers. It is essential that you acknowledge your debt to the sources
of data, research and ideas on which you have drawn by including references to, and
full details of, these sources in your work. Referencing your work allows the reader:

• to distinguish your own ideas and findings from those you have drawn from
the work of others;
• to follow up in more detail the ideas or facts that you have referred to.

Before you write

Whenever you read or research material for your writing, make sure that you include
in your notes, or on any photocopied material, the full publication details of each
relevant text that you read. These details should include:

• surname(s) and initial(s) of the author(s);

• the date of publication;
• the title of the text;
• if it is a paper, the title of the journal and volume number;
• if it is a chapter of an edited book, the book's title and editor(s)
the publisher and place of publication*;
• the first and last page numbers if it is a journal article or a chapter in an edited
book.

For particularly important points, or for parts of texts that you might wish to quote
word for word, also include in your notes the specific page reference.

* Please note that the publisher of a book should not be confused with the printer. The
publisher's name is normally on a book's main title page, and often on the book's spine
too.

When to use references

Your source should be acknowledged every time the point that you make, or the data
or other information that you use, is substantially that of another writer and not your
own. As a very rough guide, while the introduction and the conclusions to your
writing might be largely based on your own ideas, within the main body of your
report, essay or dissertation, you would expect to be drawing on, and thus referencing
your debt to, the work of others in each main section or paragraph. Look at the ways
in which your sources use references in their own work, and for further guidance
consult the companion guide Avoiding Plagiarism.

Referencing styles
There are many different referencing conventions in common use. Each department
will have its own preferred format, and every journal or book editor has a set of 'house
rules'. This guide aims to explain the general principles by giving details of the two
most commonly used formats, the 'author, date' system and footnotes or endnotes.
Once you have understood the principles common to all referencing systems you
should be able to apply the specific rules set by your own department.

How to reference using the 'author, date' system

In the 'author, date' system (often referred to as the 'Harvard' system) very brief details
of the source from which a discussion point or piece of factual information is drawn
are included in the text. Full details of the source are then given in a reference list or
bibliography at the end of the text. This allows the writer to fully acknowledge her/his
sources, without significantly interrupting the flow of the writing.

1. Citing your source within the text

As the name suggests, the citation in the text normally includes the name(s) (surname
only) of the author(s) and the date of the publication. This information is usually
included in brackets at the most appropriate point in the text.

The seminars that are often a part of humanities courses can provide
opportunities for students to develop the communication and
interpersonal skills that are valued by employers (Lyon, 1992).

The text reference above indicates to the reader that the point being made draws on a
work by Lyon, published in 1992. An alternative format is shown in the example
below.

Knapper and Cropley (1991: p. 44) believe that the willingness of adults to
learn is affected by their attitudes, values and self-image and that their
capacity to learn depends greatly on their study skills.

Note that in this example reference has been made to a specific point within a very
long text (in this instance a book) and so a page number has been added. This gives
the reader the opportunity to find the particular place in the text where the point
referred to is made. You should always include the page number when you include a
passage of direct quotation from another writer's work.
When a publication has several authors, it is usual to give the surname of the first
author followed by et al. (an abbreviation of the Latin for 'and the others') although
for works with just two authors both names may be given, as in the example above.

Do not forget that you should also include reference to the source of any tables of
data, diagrams or maps that you include in your work. If you have included a
straight copy of a table or figure, then it is usual to add a reference to the table or
figure caption thus:

Figure 1: The continuum of influences on learning (from Knapper and

Cropley, 1991: p. 43).

Even if you have reorganised a table of data, or redrawn a figure, you should still
acknowledge its source:

Table 1: Type of work entered by humanities graduates (data from Lyon,

1992: Table 8.5).

You may need to cite an unpublished idea or discussion point from an oral
presentation, such as a lecture. The format for the text citation is normally exactly the
same as for a published work and should give the speaker's name and the date of the
presentation.

Recent research on the origins of early man has challenged the views
expressed in many of the standard textbooks (Barker, 1996).

If the idea or information that you wish to cite has been told to you personally,
perhaps in a discussion with a lecturer or a tutor, it is normal to reference the point as
shown in the example below.

The experience of the Student Learning Centre at Leicester is that many

students are anxious to improve their writing skills, and are keen to seek
help and guidance (Maria Lorenzini, pers. comm.).

'Pers. comm.' stands for personal communication; no further information is usually

required.

2. Reference lists/ bibliographies

When using the 'author, date' system, the brief references included in the text must be
followed up with full publication details, usually as an alphabetical reference list or
bibliography at the end of your piece of work. The examples given below are used to
indicate the main principles.

Book references

The simplest format, for a book reference, is given first; it is the full reference for one
of the works quoted in the examples above.
Knapper, C.K. and Cropley, A. 1991: Lifelong Learning and Higher
Education. London: Croom Helm.

The reference above includes:

• the surnames and forenames or initials of both the authors;

• the date of publication;
• the book title;
• the place of publication;
• the name of the publisher.

The title of the book should be formatted to distinguish it from the other details; in the
example above it is italicised, but it could be in bold, underlined or in inverted
commas. When multi-authored works have been quoted, it is important to include the
names of all the authors, even when the text reference used was et al.

Papers or articles within an edited book

A reference to a paper or article within an edited book should in addition include:

• the editor and the title of the book;

• the first and last page numbers of the article or paper.

Lyon, E.S. 1992: Humanities graduates in the labour market. In H.

Eggins (ed.), Arts Graduates, their Skills and their Employment. London:
The Falmer Press, pp. 123-143.

Journal articles

Journal articles must also include:

• the name and volume number of the journal;

• the first and last page numbers of the article.

The publisher and place of publication are not normally required for journals.

Pask, G. 1979: Styles and strategies of learning. British Journal of

Educational Psychology, 46, pp. 128-148.

Note that in the last two references above, it is the book title and the journal name that
are italicised, not the title of the paper or article. The name highlighted should always
be the name under which the work will have been filed on the library shelves or
referenced in any indexing system. It is often the name which is written on the spine
of the volume, and if you remember this it may be easier for you to remember which
is the appropriate title to highlight.
Other types of publications

The three examples above cover the most common publication types. You may also
wish to refer to other types of publications, including PhD dissertations, translated
works, newspaper articles, dictionary or encyclopaedia entries or legal or historical
texts. The same general principles apply to the referencing of all published sources,
but for specific conventions consult your departmental handbook or your tutor, or
look at the more detailed reference books listed in the Further reading section of this
guide.

Referencing web pages

The internet is increasingly used as a source of information and it is just as important

to reference internet sources as it is to reference printed sources. Information on the
internet changes rapidly and web pages move or are sometimes inaccessible meaning
it can often be difficult to validate or even find information cited from the
internet. When referencing web pages it is helpful to include details that will help
other people check or follow up the information. A suggested format is to include the
author of the information (this may be an individual, group or organisation), the date
the page was put on the internet (most web pages have a date at the bottom of the
page), the title, the http:// address, and the date you accessed the web page (in case the
information has been subsequently modified). A format for referencing web pages is
given below.

University of Leicester Standing Committee of Deans (6/8/2002) Internet

code of practice and guide to legislation. Accessed 8/8/02
http://www.le.ac.uk/committees/deans/codecode.html

Referencing lectures

Full references to unpublished oral presentations, such as lectures, usually include the
speaker's name, the date of the lecture, the name of the lecture or of the lecture series,
and the location:

Barker, G. 1996 (7 October): The Archaeology of Europe, Lecture 1.

University of Leicester.

Please note that in contrast to the format used for the published sources given in the
first three examples above, the formatting of references for unpublished sources does
not include italics, as there is no publication title to highlight.

Formatting references

If you look carefully at all the examples of full references given above, you will see
that there is a consistency in the ways in which punctuation and capitalisation have
been used. There are many other ways in which references can be formatted - look at
the books and articles you read for other examples and at any guidelines in your
course handbooks. The only rule governing formatting is the rule of consistency.
How to reference using footnotes or endnotes
Some academic disciplines prefer to use footnotes (notes at the foot of the page) or
endnotes (notes at the end of the work) to reference their writing. Although this
method differs in style from the 'author, date' system, its purpose - to acknowledge the
source of ideas, data or quotations without undue interruption to the flow of the
writing - is the same.

Footnote or endnote markers, usually a sequential series of numbers either in

brackets or slightly above the line of writing or printing (superscript), are placed at the
appropriate point in the text. This is normally where you would insert the author and
date if you were using the 'author, date' system described above.

Employers are not just looking for high academic achievement and have
identified competencies that distinguish the high performers from the
average graduate.¹ This view has been supported by an early study that
demonstrated that graduates employed in the industrial and commercial
sectors were as likely to have lower second and third class degrees as
firsts and upper seconds.²

Full details of the reference are then given at the bottom of the relevant page or, if
endnotes are preferred, in numerical order at the end of the writing. Rules for the
formatting of the detailed references follow the same principles as for the reference
lists for the 'author, date' system.

1. Moore, K. 1992: National Westminster Bank plc. In H. Eggins (ed.),

Arts Graduates, their Skills and their Employment. London: The Falmer
Press, pp. 24-26.

2. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. 1970: Six Years After. Sheffield:
Higher Education Research Unit, Sheffield University,
p. 40.

NB. The reference to 'p.40' at the end of note 2 above implies that the specific point
referred to is to be found on page 40 of the book referenced.

If the same source needs to be referred to several times, on second or subsequent

occasions, a shortened reference may be used.

Studies of women's employment patterns have demonstrated the

relationship between marital status and employment sector. ³
-------------------------
3. Kelsall et al. 1970 (as n.2 above).

In this example, the footnote refers the reader to the full reference to be found in
footnote 2.

In some academic disciplines, footnotes and endnotes are not only used for references,
but also to contain elaborations or explanations of points made in the main text. If you
are unsure about how to use footnotes or endnotes in your work, consult your
departmental guidelines or personal tutor.

Finally
Whichever referencing system you use, you should check carefully to make sure that:

• you have included in your reference list/bibliography, footnotes or endnotes

full details of all the sources referred to in your text;
• you have used punctuation and text formatting, such as italics, capitals, and
bold text, in a consistent manner in your reference lists or footnotes.

Further reading
More detailed discussion of referencing conventions is to be found in the following
publications:

• Berry, R. 2004: The Research Project: How to Write It. London and New
York: Routledge.
• Gash, S. 1999: Effective Literature Searching for Students (second edition).
Aldershot: Gower.
• Gibaldi, J. 2004: MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers (sixth
edition). New York: The Modern Language Association of America.
• Watson, G. 1987: Writing a Thesis: a Guide to Long Essays and Dissertations.
London: Longman.

There are also software programs, for example, Endnote and Refworks that are
designed to manage references. They include the facility to incorporate 'author, date'
insertions within your text, and to format reference lists automatically.
Using paragraphs
by Johnson, S. — last modified 21 August 2007 15:31

Study guide

This guide explains how to make effective use of paragraphs in your writing. The
function and features of a paragraph are explained, together with guidelines for using
paragraphs to create a clear and coherent written structure.

Other useful guides: Using the Comma, Sentence Structure.

What is a paragraph?
Writing of any length requires subdivision into a number of points or stages, and
these stages are expressed in a paragraph. Paragraphs, whether denoted by a new line
and an indentation or a line break, provide a structure for your writing. The end of a
paragraph represents a significant pause in the flow of the writing. This pause is a
signpost to the reader, indicating that the writing is about to move on to a different
stage. Each paragraph should deal with one idea or aspect of an idea, and it should be
clear to the reader what this main idea is.

How long should a paragraph be?

There is no absolute rule: very short or long paragraphs can work when used by an
experienced writer. However, as a guideline, paragraphs should usually be no less that
2 or 3 sentences long and there should be 2 or 3 paragraphs per page of A4. The
length of a paragraph depends on the idea being treated, but if a paragraph is shorter
than 2 or 3 sentences, check to see if it is not really part of the previous or next
paragraph. If your paragraph is longer than half a page, check to see if the idea
would be better explained in two or more paragraphs.

When do I start a new paragraph?

Start a new paragraph for each new point or stage in your writing. When you begin a
paragraph you should always be aware of the main idea being expressed in that
paragraph. Be alert to digressions or details that belong either in a different paragraph
or need a paragraph of their own.

How do I write a paragraph?

A paragraph can have an internal structure with an introduction, main body and
conclusion in the same way as an essay The example below shows a paragraph
which:

• introduces the paragraph's main point;

• develops and supports the point;
 • shows the significance of the point made.

The previous example showed one style of paragraph. It is a useful rule always to
have three stages in a paragraph: introduction, development and conclusion.

The introduction
The introduction makes the purpose of the paragraph clear so the reader can read the
paragraph with this purpose in mind. It is usually necessary to show the place the
paragraph has in the structure of the piece as a whole. This can be done with just a
word (Nevertheless, However, Furthermore) or it may need a phrase (Another point to
consider is....). In an essay, this might mean showing how the main idea of the
paragraph answers the essay question. In some cases when the paragraph begins a
new section, it may be necessary to write a separate paragraph which explains how
the following section relates to the piece as a whole.

The development
The body of the paragraph should develop the idea that has been introduced at the
beginning of the paragraph. This can be done by:

• redefining the idea;

• giving examples;
• commenting on evidence;
• showing implications or consequences;
• examining opposing ideas.

The conclusion
The end of the paragraph can show the significance of the point, link back to the
beginning of the paragraph, comment on the implications of the point as a whole, or
make a link to the next paragraph. It is important not to end the paragraph with a
digression or irrelevant detail. Each sentence in the paragraph should be part of the
internal structure.

Another example of a paragraph using this three part structure is given below.
Summary
Paragraphs provide a structure for your writing which enables the reader to identify
and follow the developing stages in your treatment of the material. Remember that
paragraphs should have their own internal structure whilst fitting into the larger
structure of the whole piece of writing. Be clear what the main idea for each
paragraph is, deal with it as fully as is necessary for your purpose, but be alert to
digression or irrelevancies. Check your own use of paragraphs by reading the first
sentence to see if it outlines the paragraph's main idea. The effective use of
paragraphs can be seen in writing when the reader can gain an overview of the content
by reading the first sentence of each paragraph.
 Critical analysis

“Be more critical! More analysis needed! That’s what my tutors say about my
essays. I’m not really sure what they mean.”

“I thought I had written a really good assignment this time. I did so much
reading and preparation for it, but my tutor’s feedback is ‘not enough
argument.’ I’m not sure what to do now. I mean, I’m not an argumentative
person - and I don’t really want to be.”

One of the most important skills you will need to learn as a student, whatever your
discipline is the ability to think critically and objectively about an issue and to present
a well-constructed argument. Critical and analytical-thinking skills such as these will
be essential to most aspects of your study, whether you are listening to lectures,
contributing to seminars, or reading about your subject. Here, we will be focusing
mainly on critical analysis for written work, as nothing gains or loses marks more for
most student assignments than the quality of your written argument.

Argument here doesn’t mean disagreement or unpleasantness. It simply means

presenting a strong case to support a point of view. You don’t have to be an
argumentative person to do this: on the contrary, good critical writing means using
reasons and evidence to support your stand point.

The first rule is: Identify the focus of the assignment

Good critical analysis isn’t simply about writing. Before you start any assignment,
you need to be clear about your focus. At university, this usually means thinking
critically about the requirements of the essay, report, or of the seminar or workshop
topic.

“I always ask myself why the lecturers have set this particular essay? Why
this particular wording? What is it that they are expecting us to read? Usually,

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 there is an underlying set of ideas or theories or problems or texts that they
expect us to cover as part of our background reading for the essay.”

The essay title or assignment brief will have been written with certain expectations in
mind. You can try asking your lecturers about these expectations- and they may
even give you some clues. However, at this level of study, you are usually expected
to demonstrate that you can think these through for yourself.

“For me, critical analysis begins with the essay title. I try to work out which key
debates or conflicts of opinion it refers to. I check through the main journals
for my subject for any relevant academic debates that have been running over
the last few years. That way I know I am up to date.”

The second rule is: Identify your own point of view

The second consideration for critical analysis, and which is especially important for
preparing student assignments, is to be clear about your own perspective. What
exactly is your own position on the subject? This may change as you work through
the assignment, but you should keep asking yourself this question as you study for
the assignment, to help clarify your thinking and direct your research.

It may take some time to arrive at your final position. Along the way, it may seem that
there is good evidence to support many alternative points of view. You may feel that
everything you read sounds right – or that nothing sounds right. However, at some
point, you have to decide what position you are going to take up for yourself. If this
isn’t clear in your mind, then your writing will lack clarity and direction.

“I imagine I have only fifteen seconds to state my argument for a radio

audience. If I can’t say it clearly without rambling, then I’m not ready to start
writing.”

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 “The best trick for me is to sum up my main argument in a single sentence. I
find this clears my head. I print out the sentence and tape it to the front of my
computer where I can see it all the time I am writing that assignment. If I can’t
sum up what I want to say clearly and simply, it usually means I haven’t really
worked out my position clearly enough.”

“I always used to sit on the fence and concluded my essays by saying that
there were ‘some positive and some negative points about each school of
thought’. My essays ended up being vague because I wouldn’t make a
decision one way or the other. Now, I imagine I’m like a lawyer– I decide
which theory or point of view I would prefer to defend in court, and why, and
take that as my own position for the purpose of the essay.”

The third rule is: Consider how you’ll persuade other people of your point of
view

From the point of view of critical thinking, the aim of an argument is to persuade your
reader of your position, your conclusion. Your point of view needs to be presented as
a well-reasoned argument that leads to a conclusion based on evidence. Critical
writing is really a line of reasoning, a set of reasons, presented in the most
convincing and logical order, to support a conclusion.
The third consideration in producing an assignment based on good critical analysis is
to identify convincing reasons to support your conclusion – reasons that would
persuade your readers or listeners- whether these are your tutors, fellow students or
other people.

“I tend to work out my reasons in writing. It’s like arguing with myself. Before I
start my final draft, I go back over what I have written, and draw up a list of the
reasons that support my conclusion, and those that undermine it. Then I mull
it all over for a while, seeing whether the reasons are good enough. Do they
really support my conclusion? Would they convince anyone else but me?”

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The fourth rule? Find the proof

You may be able to list lots of reasons that support your conclusion - but are those
reasons well founded? A good argument is based on solid evidence. So the fourth
consideration is to identify and evaluate the available evidence to see if it really does
support your point of view.

Although it is good to start out with an idea of what you want to say, you will not be
able to finalise your position until you have done some research. You will need to
read around the subject, using reputable sources, such as articles from the best-
known journals for your subject. Don’t just use general textbooks - make sure the
authors you read are the leading ones for your field of study. Find out what they think
about the subject- what are their theories? Whose views are they attacking? What
research has been done on the subject? Are there different schools of thought about
this subject? If so, what makes any of these convincing?

You need to make sure that you have evidence that supports your conclusion. You
also need to know of any arguments against your point of view. What evidence are
these based on? Why are these alternative arguments less convincing?

Clearly, good critical writing also depends upon good critical reading skills. Even if an
author presents an argument that seems compelling, it is important not to accept
what is said without making a few checks first. Don’t take the results of research at
face value.

“When I’m reading for my college work, it’s as if I’m having a discussion with
someone – I’m always asking questions:
- how do I know that’s true - isn’t that just an opinion?
Or: that’s interesting. I wonder if this would still be true if the survey was
bigger?
Or: what if he’d used a different sample of people?
Or even: so what?”

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 “I’ve always enjoyed looking for where there may be gaps in the evidence, a
bit like trying to work out the plot in a crime thriller, but for some reason, I
always did this in my head, as you would if you were just reading a novel.
When it came to writing the essay, I just described what each theorist said, or
what was in each book, to prove I’d read them, I suppose. Now I realise I had
missed out all the best bits! My lecturers didn’t want to know much about
what other theorists said, they wanted to know what I thought of them – in
other words, all the evaluation I had done in my head.”

This evaluation of the evidence is exactly the kind of thing your tutor will be looking
for as part of your critical analysis - so don’t just do it in your head - write it down. For
example, if you think that a piece of research is based on interviews with too narrow
a range of people, write that down. If you think the results of a piece of research
might have been very different if they had taken a broader range of conditions into
consideration, note down a few examples of what you mean.

The fifth rule is: Engage in debate

The fifth consideration for critical analysis is to engage actively in debate with
different points of view- both those that adopt a similar to your position to yours and
those that are different. Most essays, reports, and seminar sessions are designed to
enable you to engage in such a dialogue – or debate - with well-known schools of
thought, major theories or leading pieces of research in your subject. These are
opportunities for you to read, reflect, question, and evaluate; to weigh up the
arguments and identify their strengths and weaknesses. The books and articles you
are recommended are likely to point out some of the major issues to help you, and
you can refer to these within your own argument.

“By the time I’ve read three or four articles, I can be totally confused. I might
think the first thing I read is absolutely spot on; then I read an article that says
the first article was flawed, and I agree with the reasons they give. Then the

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 third article argues that the second person was wrong in the way they
criticised the first – and that sounds convincing too, and so on. In the end, I’m
not sure what I think.”

Many students say they find that it is hard to decide between conflicting theories,
arguments and evidence, and that they don’t have a clear conclusion for their own
essay. It is important to remember that academic debates aren’t usually clear-cut
about right or wrong, and that new research leads to a continually changing picture.
As a student, you need to weigh up the evidence to date – and make a decision
about which seems the most convincing for now – or the circumstances in which a
particular argument would be true.
It may seem frustrating when there are many points of view and when these are
based on different types of evidence. However, it is often easier to produce a better
assignment when there is an opportunity to address complex issues or subjects that
are hotly disputed.

“I like it when we are given subjects that are contentious, because then you
can really sound out different ways of looking at the issues, and show how
you have evaluated one person’s views against another. If the subject is too
easy, there is nothing to get your teeth into.”

The sixth rule is: Structure your argument

“Apparently, I had all the right arguments and evidence, but the way I
presented it, hopping from point to point, nobody could tell.”

“If you organise your argument clearly for seminars, people listen. If it jumps
about and sounds muddled, then people just switch off.”

Once you have engaged in critical debate with the issues, you have finalised your
position, you’ve identified good reasons based to support your conclusion, then the
next step is to consider how you will organise your reasons and evidence into a clear

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 structure. You want your argument to persuade your reader or listener. The aim is to
do this through the strength of your argument, by the way you present your position,
your reasons, your evidence, in a clear and logical way, and not through resorting to
forceful or emotive language.

Student assignments usually include critical analysis of complex material at some

depth- so some thought needs to be given about how to present that material in a
way that helps the reader to see the point and to follow the argument. You need to
think through your argument from the point of view of your reader or listener – what
order will make most sense for them? Is each point clearly linked to the one that
came before? Does everything you are saying build towards your final conclusion,
helping your reader or listener to understand the position you have adopted for the
assignment?

“I usually sort out my ideas by writing them out first. When I am sure of the
key argument, I cut and paste my text until I think I have a logical order. Then
I print it out and highlight all the key reasons in yellow, and my conclusion in
red. If I can’t find the key reasons to highlight, which does happen (!) then I
know I need to write these out more clearly.”

The assignment you hand in will be the last stage of a process of critical analysis.
Remember that your tutor will be looking for evidence of your active engagement with
the topic. Make sure that your final version captures something of your process of
critical dialogue with the subject.

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