Gene Flow Study

GENE FLOW IN ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES.
A STUDY ON STATUS, IMPACT AND TRENDS

Editors: Anne Valle Zrate, Katinka Musavaya and Cornelia Schfer

Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, Germany

Editors
A. Valle Zrate, K. Musavaya, C. Schfer
Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim,
70593 Stuttgart, Germany

Authors
Global study: A. Valle Zrate, C. Schfer, K. Musavaya, M. Mergenthaler, R. Roessler,
H. Momm, C. Gall
Global gene flow of sheep: C. Schfer, A. Valle Zrate
Global gene flow of goats: E. Alandia Robles, C. Gall, A. Valle Zrate
Global gene flow of cattle: M. Mergenthaler, H. Momm, A. Valle Zrate
Global gene flow of pigs: K. Musavaya, M. Mergenthaler, A. Valle Zrate
Case studies:
The worldwide gene flow of the improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from Israel:
T. Rummel, A. Valle Zrate and E. Gootwine
History and worldwide development of Anglo Nubian goats and their impacts in smallholder
farms in Bolivia: A. Stemmer, C. Gall, A. Valle Zrate
Boran and Tuli cattle breeds - origin, worldwide transfer, utilisation and the issue of access
and benefit sharing: S. Homann, J.H. Maritz, C.G. Hlsebusch, K. Meyn,
A. Valle Zrate
Impact of the use of exotic compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic development and
biodiversity in Vietnam: L.T.T. Huyen, R. Roessler, U. Lemke, A. Valle Zrate

Language
M. Hill

TABLE OF CONTENTS I

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables III
List of figures III
List of tables, figures and boxes in background information III
Abbreviations VI
Executive Summary 1
1 Introduction 15
1.1 Objectives 15
1.2 Material and Methods 15
1.3 Scope 16
1.3.1 Global study 16
1.3.2 Case studies 17
2 General features of gene flow 18
2.1 Gene flow during domestication and breed formation 18
2.2 Influence of breeding methods in further development and spread of breeds 20
2.3 Influence of technology and global mobility on the dissemination of genetic
material 22
2.4 Gene flow indicated by Country Reports 23
3 Main findings of global study 25
3.1 Global gene flow of sheep 25
3.2 Global gene flow of goats 31
3.3 Global gene flow of cattle 35
3.4 Global gene flow of pigs 42
4 Main findings of case studies 49
4.1 The worldwide gene flow of the improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep
from Israel 49
4.2 History and worldwide development of Anglo Nubian goats and their impacts
in smallholder farms in Bolivia 53
4.3 Boran and Tuli cattle breeds - origin, worldwide transfer, utilisation and the
issue of Access and Benefit Sharing 56
4.4 Impact of the use of exotic compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic
development and biodiversity in Vietnam 60
II TABLE OF CONTENTS

5 Analysis of driving factors and impacts 63
5.1 Main factors affecting gene flow 63
5.1.1 Breeding and trade organisations 63
5.1.2 Regulations 68
5.1.3 Foreign aid and development projects 71
5.1.4 Research and commercial interests in specific genes 77
5.1.5 Suitability of breeds for prevailing production systems 79
5.2 Impact of gene flow on economic development and poverty reduction 87
5.3 Impact of gene flow on biodiversity 89
5.4 Limitations of the study 91
5.5 Need for further action 93
6 References 95
7 Contact Addresses 105
7.1 Authors 105
7.2 Advisory panel 106
7.3 Resource persons 107
8 Acknowledgements 112
9 Annex 115
9.1 Background information 115
9.2 Global gene flow of sheep 191
9.3 Global gene flow of goats 229
9.4 Global gene flow of cattle 241
9.5 Global gene flow of pigs 281
from Israel 305
in smallholder farms in Bolivia 359
issue of Access and Benefit Sharing 395
development and biodiversity in Vietnam 459

LIST OF TABLES III

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Earliest evidence of domestication 19
Table 2: HPI projects with small ruminants in Asia (1985-1997) 73
Table 3: Number of goats distributed by HPI in India (1995-1997) 74
Table 4: Sahiwal crosses with other cattle breeds in Kenya 86

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Distribution of wild ancestors of major domestic mammals in Western Asia 18
Figure 2: Historical development of breeding methods and impact on gene flow 20
Figure 3: Historical overview on Awassi and Assaf breeding in Israel 50
Figure 4: World wide gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep
from Israel 51
Figure 5: Gene flow of the Anglo Nubian goat 54
Figure 6: Worldwide transfers of Unimproved and Improved Boran cattle breeding
material from Eastern and Southern Africa 57
Figure 7: Worldwide transfers of Tuli cattle breeding material from Southern Africa 57
Figure 8: Performance of Bos indicus, Bos taurus and their crosses in the tropics
from two review studies 84

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES IN BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A 1: Advisory panel 119
A 2: Development of the Merino breed in Europe 119
A 3: Current gene flow in sheep indicated by selected export and import records and
records on introduction of foreign genetic material 121
A 4: Composite sheep breeds, number of foundation breeds and the year of origin or
year recognised by country of origin 122
A 5: ICAR Report of the working group on milk recording scheme 128
A 6: Changes in sheep breed composition in the USA 132
A 7: Country Report excerpts for sheep 133
A 8: Country Report excerpts for goats 136
A 9: Possible introduction routes of cattle from West to South, Southeast, East and
Northeast Asia, with centres of domestication 139
A 10: Possible introduction routes of cattle into North, West and northeastern Africa 139
IV LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES IN BACKGROUND INFORMATION

A 11: Possible introduction routes of cattle into the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia and probable centres of domestication for Bos (bibos) spp. 140
A 12: Cattle migration after the 16th century 141
A 13: Total Simmental population per country** in the early 1990s 141
A 14: German Simmental export to Turkey 142
A 15: EU heifer export by origin and year 142
A 16: Annual EU heifer export by destination 1993-2003 143
A 17: Annual EU heifer import and export 1998-2002 144
A 18: EU heifer import by destination and year 144
A 19: Annual EU heifer import by origin 1993-2003 145
A 20: German Simmental export by year 145
A 21: Introduction of the Simmental breed to different environments 146
A 22: Crosses of Simmental with local cattle breeds 147
A 23: German Simmental export to Balkan countries 1998-2002 147
A 24: Semen export of industrialised countries by origin in 1991 148
A 25: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (%) 148
A 26: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (number of doses) 149
A 27: Semen import of developed countries by origin in 1991 151
A 28: EU semen import by origin in 2003 152
A 29: Semen imports and exports by breed group and region in 1991 153
A 30: Semen imports to developing countries in 1991 by breed, breed group and
destination 153
A 31: Annual semen imports and exports of EU in 2002/2003 154
A 32: German semen import (doses) by year and origin 154
A 33: US Brahman export by destination and year 155
A 34: Brazilian Simmental embryo import by origin 1986-1993 155
A 35: Brazilian Simmental semen import by origin 1972-1993 156
A 36: Brazilian semen doses sold in 2002 by breed 156
A 37: Israeli Holstein export by country and time period 157
A 38: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developed countries in 1991 157
A 39: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developing countries in 1991 158
A 40: Use of AI by breed group and region for developed countries in 1991 158
A 41: Use of AI by breed group and region for developing countries in 1991 159
A 42: Share of bull breeds used in Botswana from 1987 to 1995 159
A 43: Australian beef cattle registrations by breed 160
LIST OF TABLES, FIGURES AND BOXES IN BACKGROUND INFORMATION V

A 44: Number of breeders by breeds in South Africa in July 2003 161
A 45: Ratio of utilisation of the Simmental breed in different countries for milk and
beef 161
A 46: Examples of absorption of local cattle by imported breeds 162
A 47: Holsteins and Sahiwals contribution to composite breeds 162
A 48: Performance of the Holstein breed in different environments 163
A 49: Country Report excerpts for cattle 164
A 50: Annual EU breeding pig import and export 1992-2003 172
A 51: Imported pig breeds during the 1970s into different countries 173
A 52: State of the pig genetic resource utilisation in Uruguay 174
A 53: Country Report excerpts for pigs 175
A 54: Information from the World Watch List of Domestic Animal Diversity 182

VI ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
ADT Projekt Specialised consulting enterprise that focuses on planning and
implementing international agricultural projects (Germany)
AI Artificial insemination
ASPS Agriculture Sector Programme Support
BC before Christ
BMPIB Bone morphogenetic protein IB receptor
BMZ German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development
BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
CAE Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis
COMTRADE Commodity Trade Statistics Database (United Nations)
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
DAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
e.g. for example
ET Embryo Transfer
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FARM-Africa Food and Agricultural Research Management Organisation (UK)
FMD Foot-and-Mouth disease
GDR former German Democratic Republic
GmbH Gesellschaft mit beschrnkter Haftung (limited liability company)
GTZ Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit
HPI Heifer Project International
i.e. that is
ICAR International Committee for Animal Recording
IFAD International Fund For Agricultural Development
ISCCD International Scheme for Coordination of Dairy Development
N North
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
No. number
NW Northwest
OIE Office International des Epizooties
PIC Pig Improvement Company Limited (UK)
ABBREVIATIONS VII

PPR Peste des Petits Ruminants
PrP Prion Protein Gene Locus
S South
SE South-east
SR-CRSP Small Ruminant-Collaborative Research Support Program (USA)
TSE Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
WTO World Trade Organisation

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The objective of this gene flow study was to describe the magnitude and direction of
movement of genetic material of the four major farm animal species cattle, pigs, goats, and
sheep over time. Determining factors for these movements should be identified and
impacts on economic development and poverty reduction as well as biodiversity in
developing countries should be determined on selected examples. No attempts were made
to generalise conclusions from sketchy information, but to describe the state of the art
avoiding biases. Needs for further actions were to be derived.
Historical accounts of the spread of species and breeds are scarce. There is no overview on
the current exchange of livestock genetic resources among most countries and within and
among regions. The discussion on advantages and disadvantages of gene flow for different
stakeholders is controversial. The issue of benefit sharing raised by some stakeholders
additionally feeds the political discussion. Therefore, this study intends to provide
scientifically founded information for decision makers in the discussion on global gene
flow and its impacts. It is certainly not suitable to conclude this discussion.
The objectives were approached by conducting separate global studies and case studies for
each species.
The global studies attempted to understand the historic development and current status of
global gene flow in each species. They considered the influence of domestication, breed
formation, human migration, breeding methods, technological developments and global
mobility on gene flow. Ancestry and historic gene flow were shown for the main
mammalian species. Specific breeds were chosen to highlight typical developments. In
cattle, the Holstein and Simmental breed were used as examples for Bos taurus, and the
Sahiwal and Brahman breed as examples for Bos indicus. Ovis aries was represented by
examples from Merino and Hair sheep breeds, Capra hircus by examples from Boer and
Angora goats and Sus scrofa subspecies by examples from a breeding company and
occasionally from Large White and Duroc. References to other breeds were only made
where appropriate. The current status was indicated by exports and imports of genetic
material, and influences of foreign genetic material on existing breeds. Results of both
parts were depicted for regional clusters. Where information on representative countries
was not available, this was noted along with the available information.
The case studies examined specific aspects of gene flow. The Improved Awassi and Assaf
sheep breeds from Israel were used to depict the historic development and current status of
gene flow of these particular breeds, and to summarise their global impacts. The goat case
study depicts the history and global development of the Anglo Nubian breed and focuses in
its impact study on smallholder farms in Bolivia. The cattle case study gives the origin,
global transfer and uses of the Boran and Tuli breeds, focussing on access and benefit
sharing. The pig case study includes the impact of exotic pig breeds in Vietnam on socio-
economic development and biodiversity.
For the historic development, information came mainly from publications and
communication with experts. Data for evaluating the current status were obtained from the
Eurostat statistic database, Country Reports on the State of Animal Genetic Resources,
2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

breeding organisations, regional experts and publications. The case studies particularly
depended on information from regional experts and organisations.
Historical development
The majority of the world population of cattle, pig, sheep and goats are found in
developing countries, all of them greatly diverse. The development and diversification
started after domestication with the spread of domestic animals during the human
migrations of the Neolithic transition. The influence of migration and colonisation on
penetration of the Old and New worlds is depicted in regional clusters.
Breeding societies formed in 18th century Britain intensified gene flow of purebred
animals and diversified new breeds further. In the second half of the 20th century, better
global mobility had increased gene flow and complicated its routes. Freight costs,
veterinary restrictions, welfare considerations, and exchange and inflation rates have
become the main restrictions of gene flow. On the other hand, developing and using
biotechnology has increased gene flow substantially.
Differences in the success biotechnology are responsible for different gene flows within
the four species investigated. The highest intensity of gene flow is found in dairy cattle
semen exchange. The high degree of commercialisation and international competition in
the pig sector causes an intensive exchange of pig breeding stock, while comparatively
little gene flow is seen in sheep and particularly goats. Differences in the commonplace use
of biotechniques between developing and developed countries reflect differences in the
access to international genetic resources. In general, the degree of breeding organisation,
market power and ability to meet international veterinary and welfare standards limit the
supply of animal genetic resources for international markets.
Current status
Although the current gene flow of all four species is an intensive global exchange, the level
varies greatly between the species depending on developments during the last century and
the international interest in the trade of the respective breeding products. As mentioned
above, it is greatest in cattle, followed by pigs, sheep and finally goats. However, the main
stream of gene flow is from developed countries; only in rarely does gene flow originate
from developing countries. Destinations are developing and developed countries likewise
as both display a significant demand for improved genetic resources. In general, where
gene flow takes place, new breeds contribute to diversity by adding to existing breeds and
by creating new breed groups and synthetic breeds. The loss of genetic diversity is reported
when gene flow completely replaces local breeds with imported breeds.
Impact assessments in global terms were not possible for any of the species due to the
limited sources of information. However, in analysing the historic development and the
current status of gene flow, main factors affecting it were identified.
Breeding and trade organisations
Countries of origin of gene flow have generally improved breeds as the result of an
advanced breeding organisation at their disposal. The high level of breeding and trade
organisation in developed countries gives them a considerable advantage over developing
countries in exploiting and spreading their genetic resources. In rarer cases, where unique
genetic resources with desired genes or traits exist independent of the level of breeding
organisation, gene flow originates also from developing countries. Here, important source
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3

countries demand control over unique genotypes to ensure their market position and long-
term benefits. The commercialisation and concentration process in the pig sector developed
strong breeding enterprises in developing countries as well. At the same time, unifying
national breeding programmes and companies tends to decrease variability in the genetic
resources exchanged globally. With increasing commercialisation, gene flow also becomes
less traceable as single company transactions have greater impact.
In cattle breeding, differences in the AI coverage between developed and developing
countries give great differences in access to exogenous gene flow. In general, access to
improved genetic material is not dependant on breeding organisations as both developed
and developing countries are in demand for improved breeds. However, the potential
impact of gene flow in a country increases with increasing degree of breeding organisation.
As there are many other factors affecting gene flow, such as governmental interventions
and subsidies, it was not possible to identify a relationship between level of breeding
organisation and success of gene flow.
Regulations
Breeding and trade regulations direct and control gene flow. High hygiene standards
increase the opportunity of a country to export and globally market its genetic resources.
At the same time, such standards hinder gene flow imports and therefore access to foreign
genetic resources. Strict import and export regulations may lead to counterproductive
illegal transfers of animals.
Additionally, governmental policies are the main influence on breeding activities and gene
flow. Regulations in trade and breeding include market-regulating subsidies, and other
governmental activities influence gene flow by importing selected breeds as part of
national plans or projects.
Research and commercial interests in specific genes
Interest in specific genes affects gene flow by prompting the flow of these genes from their
countries of origin to all areas where a commercial or research interest exists. General
interests focus on reducing production costs and improving product quality. Serving
consumer preferences plays an important role in this context. Breeds from countries with
traditional production systems move into the centre of interest as they harbour alleles lost
in countries with intensive production systems.
Foreign aid and development projects
Foreign aid and development projects like national development projects can start or
prevent gene flow depending on whether crossbreeding or replacing indigenous stock is
promoted, or genetically improving local breeds. A widespread approach to increase the
national output from animal production in developing countries is to introduce improved
temperate breeds for pure- and crossbreeding purposes, starting significant gene flow.
However, due to complex reasons, such as genotype-environment interactions and local
socio-economic conditions, efforts varied in their success. The suitability of the introduced
breeds to climate is a prerequisite for the success of a project and the sustainable impact of
gene flow. Compared to commercial activities, the impact of gene flow started by
development projects has generally been low. New approaches focused on procuring
improved breeds of similar climates, or dual-purpose breeds, or crossbreeds of exotic and
local breeds. Funding improvements to local breeds is a modern activity resulting from
4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

failures to establish exotic breeds. However, impact expectations are also limited due to the
low amount of funding.
Suitability of breeds
The suitability of imported breeds for prevailing production systems and environments
determines their impact on existing breeds. If they are suitable, gene flow establishes new
genotypes in existing livestock populations, either by coexisting with the existing breeds or
by replacing by direct interference or market competition.
Small and large ruminants depend strongly on their production environment, so the
prevailing production conditions largely determine the breeding or production purpose and
the suitability of breeds and breeding methods. A second determinant is the climate zone
for which the imported breed is meant. There are distinct breeds and breed groups suitable
for diverse purposes in the different ecozones. In commercial pig production, the
environment is more often shaped according to the needs of the pigs so adaptability
problems are often reduced.
The worldwide gene flow of the improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from
Israel
In Israel, within-breed selection in the unimproved sheep started at the beginning of the
20th century by Jewish sheep breeders, resulting in the formation of the Improved Awassi
strain. To improve its prolificacy, the Improved Awassi was crossed in the 1960s with the
East Friesian Milk sheep that was imported from Germany, resulting in the formation of
the Assaf with improved prolificacy. Today, the Assaf has nearly replaced the Improved
Awassi in Israels intensive dairy sheep sector. Recently, the Booroola gene, a major gene
coding high prolificacy, was introgressed by crossbreeding to the Improved Awassi and the
Assaf resulting in two new strains, the Afec Awassi and the Afec Assaf, respectively.
The detailed review of gene flow of the Improved Awassi breed from Israel showed that
since its start in 1965, 28 transfers to 15 different countries are documented, with
summarised monetary transfers over $2 million. Totally, 5,433 lambs, 1,100 doses of
frozen semen and 143 embryos of the Improved Awassi have been exported from Israel.
While only 9 of these 28 transfers have been part of development aid projects, the majority
represent commercial transfers between private sheep farmers or government institutions
and Kibutzim in Israel. Improved Awassi breeding material was transferred to Southern
and Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Australia. The transfers to the tropical countries
Burma, Ethiopia and India were part of development projects. In the Middle East, a total of
1,113 Improved Awassi lambs have been exported to Jordan, Iran, Abu Dhabi and to
Turkey, where most of them were used to improve local stocks of unimproved Awassi.
Unofficial transfers to secondary destinations could not be traced accurately.
The gene flow of the Assaf started in 1977. 687 lambs, 11,354 doses of semen and 260
embryos, for a total price of $333,040, have been exported from Israel in 10 transfers to 7
different countries. Only 2 transfers were part of development aid, while the majority were
commercial imports. The main stream of the gene flow of the Assaf breed of sheep went to
the Iberian Peninsular. In these countries the Assaf is today the dominant dairy sheep
breed, numbering over 1.2 million pure- and crossbreds. Besides those two countries, the
Assaf has been transferred to Peru, Jordan and Abu Dhabi, but with much less effect on the
sheep production sector. From Portugal, Assaf breeding material was exported to the
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5

United Kingdom and Italy. No Assaf breeding material has been transferred to Eastern
Europe, Central Asia, Australia or New Zealand.
History and worldwide development of Anglo Nubian goats and their impacts in
smallholder farms in Bolivia
The Anglo Nubian is an example of a breed developed by combining genetic resources
from different parts of the world joining performance and adaptation to tropical conditions.
It is a dual-purpose goat used for milk and meat production. Herdbooks of the Anglo
Nubian are kept in Britain, the USA, Canada and Australia. The countries of the South
with purebred or crossbred Anglo Nubians have no such official records and information
on numbers is scarce or non-existent.
The initial crossbreeding, which led to the formation of the Anglo Nubian breed took place
during the latter half of the 19th century. In 1910, the Anglo Nubian was recognised as a
breed in England and registry began.
Anglo Nubians were exported for the first time from Britain to the USA in 1909, reaching
a total of about 30 goats up to 1950. Here, Anglo Nubians were bred and selected without
any further crossbreeding with other breeds.
In Canada, a breeding programme was established in 1921, based on imports of Anglo
Nubians from Britain. Offspring were imported into the USA and continued to have a great
impact on Anglo Nubians there until the late 1940s.
From the USA Anglo Nubians were exported to Puerto Rico and Latin America as early as
the 1940s. Later on, Anglo Nubians were exported from Britain and the USA in several
development efforts in Latin America, Africa and Asia. In some countries, Anglo Nubians
continue to be kept as purebreds (Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, several Caribbean
states, Egypt, Israel, Oman, India, Bangladesh, The Philippines, Mauritius and Malaysia)
although numbers are sometimes so small that it is difficult to preserve the population
(Venezuela, Ecuador, Thailand). More widespread is the use of the Anglo Nubian in
crossbreeding.
In some countries, like Cuba, imported Anglo Nubians together with other specialised
breeds caused a decline in number of the local Criollo goat.
In Bolivia, goats are mainly kept in the inter-Andean valleys at altitudes ranging from
1,000 to 3,000 meters altitude. Anglo Nubian goats were imported to Bolivia in the late
1960s up to the present. Animals originated in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay or the USA;
semen was introduced from Germany. There have also been exchanges between different
parts of the country. Anglo Nubians were introduced in the regions with a tradition in goat
keeping, namely the departments of Cochabamba, Tarija, Chuquisaca, Potosi, and some
parts of Santa Cruz. The majority of imports and exchanges within Bolivia were planned
and handled by development agencies (6 cases), non-governmental organisations (3 cases)
and universities (2 cases) while only in a few cases did individual goat owners imported
Anglo Nubians. Introduction was successful in intensive or semi-intensive production
systems, whereas no benefits were observed in semi-extensive and extensive production
systems. Here, in cases of persistence of the breed, it could often not make use of its
production potential and was therefore not superior to Criollo goats.
However, introducing Anglo Nubians in intensive production systems had positive side
effects through improved pasture and herd management. The impact of the introduction
6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

and promotion of the Anglo Nubian in Bolivia on the local goat population in
predominantly very extensive production conditions was largely unsuccessful and
unsustainable. The focus on Anglo Nubians in development projects and research resulted
in a waste of resources invested and limited the allocation of resources for Criollo goat
improvement but did not cause direct damage. Only in exceptional cases, under more
intensive management conditions, positive economic and environmental effects could be
stated.
Boran and Tuli cattle breeds - origin, worldwide transfer, utilisation and the issue of
access and benefit sharing
African indigenous cattle breeds, particularly the Boran and the Tuli, have received
increasing interest in the past as a source of genetic diversity with potential to improve
cattle production in sub-/tropical environments worldwide. In this context, controversy has
arisen about conservation-through-utilisation strategies and access and benefit sharing.
The Boran (Bos indicus) is a major cattle breed in eastern Africa, originating in the Borana
rangelands in southern Ethiopia. The Tuli cattle (Bos taurus) descend from a small nucleus
herd of yellow Ngwato cattle in Zimbabwe. Both breeds have evolved under harsh arid and
semi-arid range conditions, and out of the local herders indigenous breeding and selection
strategies. In Kenya, rapid breeding of the Boran cattle was started by British settlers,
leading to the formation of the Improved Boran. In Zimbabwe, the Tuli were further
developed at government breeding and research stations from the early 20th century.
Breeding organisations were founded in the regions of origin, and research and breeding
programmes were set up to improve beef production while maintaining adaptability to
environmental constraints. Boran cattle showed high fertility and production in low-input
environments, while Tuli cattle also showed high fertility and excellent beef quality, but
produced comparatively better in high-input environments.
Because of their adaptability and productivity in tropical conditions, Boran and Tuli cattle
attracted the interest of livestock scientists and the international beef industry. In 1988, in
order to add breeding options to composite crossbreed populations for industrial beef
production, Australian researchers - collaborating with a consortium of Australian beef
producers - imported the first Boran and Tuli embryos from Zambia and Zimbabwe. In
1991, Boran and Tuli embryos were exported from Australia to research stations in
Nebraska and Texas, USA, where the largest germplasm programmes on beef cattle in the
world were undertaken. The breeds also found their way into the Australian, American,
and South American beef industries through various other channels.
The majority of documented transfers of Boran and Tuli genetic material represent
commercial transfers between government research stations and private enterprises and
among international business partners. The Tuli appears to have been better accepted
among beef producers in Australia and America than the Boran. However, comprehensive
data about the current population and the contribution of both breeds in crossbreeding
schemes or in the formation of composite breeds are scarce. From the few available
figures, the population of these breeds in these countries is small. Given the overall size of
the beef industry, with 94.9 million head of beef cattle in the USA and 26.4 million head in
Australia in 2004, the likely contribution of Boran and Tuli cattle to the sector appears
insignificant. However, the study shows that a demand exists for genetic material with
adaptive traits and special traits of beef quality.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7

In Africa, Boran and Tuli cattle were used systematically to a considerable extent for
commercial ranch development, but not for local or regional livestock improvement
schemes. Today, Boran and Tuli cattle are said to face genetic dilution in their areas of
origin, although they are still used - particularly the Improved Boran in Kenya - for
commercial beef production.
Some Non-Governmental Organisations argue that the Boran and Tuli were exploited by
networks of institutions, business companies and individuals, without sufficient
compensation to the original breeders. They have raised a controversial debate on access
and benefit sharing agreements, which is dominated by three main issues: Whether or not a
prior informed consent existed before the initial transfers from Africa into Australia;
whether or not the call for additional compensatory payments to the original breeders is
justified; and how big the impact of Boran and Tuli genetic material on the Australian and
North American beef sector actually was.
The first two issues are ethical rather than scientific, and have to be politically resolved.
The actual contribution of the Boran and Tuli to upgrading the Australian and American
beef sector appears to be negligible. It did not nearly meet the high expectations which
triggered the operation, and the actual use of Boran and Tuli cattle in the Australian and
American beef sector is limited to singular cases. Prior informed consent should be more
carefully looked for in future transactions to avoid a posteriori claims.
Impact of the use of exotic compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic
development and biodiversity in Vietnam
This case study focuses on the formation and distribution of the main indigenous pig
breeds and crossbreds in Vietnam, the introduction of high performance breeds and their
impact on biodiversity, and the suitability of different breeds for different environments.
Vietnam owns a wide variety of local pig breeds across different regions of the country. At
present, exotic and crossbred pigs dominate, while local pigs make up only 26% of the
national pig herd, mostly in uplands, rural and remote areas. The decentralised Vietnamese
breeding system, the less developed central coordination and the common use of AI have
all supported the spread of exotic pigs in Vietnam, especially at the smallholder level
which makes up 80 to 95% of Vietnamese pig production.
Smallholder pig production includes different intensity levels. In contrast with large-scale
commercial pig production, they can be characterised as low-input systems. Local pigs
yield lower reproductive and growth performances. Performance data in literature are
rarely comparable, as local breeds were usually investigated in low-input extensive
farming conditions, while exotic pigs or crossbreds are often tested under improved
conditions or on station.
The influx of exotic breeds had a strong impact on local pig populations. Today, 10 of 14
local pig breeds are in vulnerable or critical state or face extinction, and all of them show
declining populations. The main Vietnamese institution conducting conservation programs
does this only for a limited number of pig breeds. The long-term sustainability of those
programs is questionable.
The significant genetic distinctions both between Vietnamese breeds and between
Vietnamese and European breeds have been shown. Local breeds are a source of promising
8 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

alleles, which might be significant for future genetic improvement and of unpredictable
economic value.
Local pig breeds are a significant component of the Vietnamese and worldwide
biodiversity, and are still important for resource-poor farmers in Vietnam, who depend on
them to ensure their livelihoods. The dominance of high-yielding exotic breeds will
increase in intensified production systems. Local breeds will only contribute to worldwide
biodiversity if their competitiveness to exotics is proved for production systems under
development and/or if favourable adaptation traits are proved and the controlling alleles
identified. Investigations are under way to define local pig breeds, characterise them, and
compare their performances under standardised conditions.
Impact on economic development and poverty reduction
From the main findings, the following conclusions are made about the impact of gene flow
on economic development and poverty reduction.
Developing countries display a demand for new breeds of all four species to increase
productivity of farming. With biotechnology and better transport, genetic resources have
become readily available and accessible across the globe. However, the quantity of genetic
material transferred is not important to the success of gene flow. Instead it is its suitability
to the new environments, economies, cultures and societies.
If the introduced improved breeds are suitable for the prevailing conditions and production
systems, gene flow contributes significantly to the countrys economy and reduces poverty
by improving on-farm productivity. This may include increased red meat production as
reported for pigs, sheep, goats and beef cattle. The importance of gene flow for economic
development is particularly evident where the local breeds have a low production potential
and so cannot be quickly improved through within-breed selection. On the other hand, as
imported gene flow often involves specialised and concentrated production the poorer rural
population may not benefit from it.
The greater the success of the introduced breed, the greater the threat of losing biodiversity
in the national population. Many marginal areas, such as deserts, scrublands and
mountainous areas, can only be exploited by locally adapted breeds. If these breeds die out,
it will no longer be possible to use large areas to produce food at least not in extensive
production systems, operated by sizeable numbers of poor livestock keepers. Beside
negative environmental impact and the national economic loss, the livelihoods of the
farmers and pastoralists of these resource-poor areas are directly threatened as they rely on
these local genetic resources and do often not have an alternative to make a living.
If the new breeds add to the diversity of national populations, gene flow offers the chance
to quickly adapt to new production options. Particularly, in rapidly developing parts of the
world, gene flow vitally enhances production to meet the populations growing demand for
red meat. Production can be further improved if this development goes hand in hand with a
change from extensive to intensive production systems. These intensive production units
will compete through the market with extensive production systems, so threatening the
livelihoods of smallholders. The negative effects for smallholders are more severe the
more the production systems of exotic and local genetic resources differ, and the more
concentrated and commercial the production of the exotic genotypes is. The pressure of
market competition rises if governments help to establish large-scale livestock production
through laws and incentives that exclude smallholders. However, it is a political decision
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9

how national resources are allocated and whether or not efforts are made to ensure poor
farmers participate in the development process on or off their farms. Left to survival
strategies, they are better off with their local breeds than without them. To get out of
poverty, relying on local breeds will hardly ever suffice. Restricting access to advanced
technology, here specifically access to high performing exotic breeds, is likely to hinder
self-sustained development. However, protecting the developing local breeding
organisations and avoiding hidden subsidies to exotic competitors may help local livestock
breeders to participate in economic development. Measures to counteract concentration in
the breeding organisations and the trends to monopolise access to genetic resources may
also help. The choice of technology, here the access to breeds and genetic material, cannot
replace political decisions.
Gene flow may also contribute to niche market production, permitting or even encouraging
the use of foreign breeds with characters specific to local market preferences. Niche
markets provide a promising chance to survive, particularly in sheep farming which
otherwise faces severe reductions or even lost profitability. On the other hand, native
genetic resources may contribute as much to niche market production or other production
purposes which also conserves national genetic resources.
A particular importance of gene flow is given when livestock populations are reduced, for
example after wars. When effective breeding work is limited and the basis to restore and
develop future populations is lost, gene flow is the only chance to rebuild the stock from
imported genetic material. However, a decision has to be made whether the rebuilding
should introduce high performance breeds from temperate climates or local breeds from
neighbouring regions.
If the imported breeds are unsuitable for prevailing production systems, the impact of this
gene flow on population composition is theoretically self-limiting. However, the economic
losses for smallholders can be severe, if development projects or governments continue to
promote or subsidise these genotypes. The losses are caused by diluting or replacing the
indigenous genetic resources suitable for the smallholder production system. There is also
an indirect loss as genetic resources are wasted that could be used later in suitable genetic
improvements.
Impact of gene flow on biodiversity
The influx of high performing genotypes into existing breeds has always been an important
component in developing and improving breeds. In the history of all species investigated,
gene flow has contributed significantly to diversity. In population genetics migration is an
important source of genetic variability.
The growing global need for improved animal productivity has led to an increased demand
for improved genotypes. With the biotechnology and global transport developed since the
mid 20th century, foreign genetic resources are readily available across the globe. Current
gene flow is dominated by source countries with advanced breeding structures, mainly
developed countries, so that gene flow is north to north and north to south. At the same
time, animals from developed countries increasingly belong to a small number of
genetically narrow, high performance breeds with similar breeding goals and hybrids
developed over the last two centuries and strongly influenced by controlled research-
funded breeding programmes. They have been selected for high yields and require
standardised conditions and high inputs to exploit their genetic potential. The international
10 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

exchange of genetic material from a decreasing number of sires increasingly loses genetic
variation with global impacts for developed and developing countries. The global gene
flow of a relatively few breeds is significant for all species under study. Biodiversity is
now recognised as relevant to global politics, and has been too long neglected in research
and its economic relevance underestimated.
The impact of this gene transfer on biodiversity depends mainly on the breeds suitability
to its new production environments and can be measured in changes to the national
population composition. If they are suitable and the new breeds add to existing genotypes,
then biodiversity increases. If new genotypes replace existing breeds, biodiversity is lost.
Examples for both situations are numerous for all species and in general they are examples
of national economic development. Whether the improved breeds co-exist with or replace
the native breeds after gene flow depends on various factors. One factor is the production
system that the introduced genotype is meant for. In developing countries, where extensive
smallholder production systems prevail, dilution or replacement, mainly through
crossbreeding, are likely where the new genotypes are suitable, are available, and are
adopted by the local breeders. Then, developing smallholder livelihoods can conflict with
improving biodiversity and it may not be adequate to require poor farmers in developing
countries to bear the costs for conservation of global biodiversity.
More often, these introduced genotypes require more intensive production environments
and therefore add to the more extensively managed local breeds. However, by competing
through the local markets, intensive production units can threaten traditional production
systems, and with them the local genetic resources. The more commercial and concentrated
the sector is the greater the threat of losing biodiversity, a general rule which can be
observed in other sectors likewise.
According to data collected by the FAO, 18 % of the 740 farm animal breeds that were
recorded as extinct were breeds from the South, although the percentage may be
underestimated as data collection started later and is more difficult in developing countries.
However, among the breeds at risk, including the status endangered and critical, 60% are
from the South and this proportion is expected to increase. The figures differ greatly
between sources and between species and their reliability is further weakened by the great
number of breeds with unknown status. However, if the risk factors change of
husbandry, expansion of large-scale intensive livestock production or people giving up
herding or farming are taken into account, then the South could become the hotspot of
breed loss of the 21st century.
Niche market production using local breeds to serve specific local consumer preferences
may counter these losses. Careful production system analysis is therefore demanded to
evaluate the impact of gene flow on biodiversity, as well as to determine whether
conserving local breeds is in the interest of local farmers. In Europe we can see a re-
orientation towards the use of local breeds, due to a new price system based on eco-tourism
and conserving natural environments.
Niche market production using foreign breeds with specific attributes to serve local market
preferences are also examples of the benefits of biodiversity by transferring unique
genotypes. The utilisation of major genes is in this context of particular interest.
Developing composite sheep populations from a combination of endangered and
established breeds may result in financial benefits and simultaneously conserve domestic
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 11

animal diversity of the gene pool, although not of breeds. However, these are singular
cases and are not meant to suggest that an overall model solution is to align the global
interest to conserve biodiversity with the interests of local farmers to quickly increase
production. In general, if global gene flows that reduce biodiversity are to be counteracted,
creating incentives for smallholders in developing countries such as paying to conserve
global biodiversity through local genetic resources may be more promising than imposing
restrictions.
If the introduced breeds are not suitable, as mentioned above, the impact on biodiversity is
theoretically limited. However, if the introduction is promoted or even subsidised through
development projects or governments, or crossbreeding is indiscriminate over a long time
and in considerable quantities, existing breeds will be affected. The effect is generally
negative as the native and adapted breeds are diluted. However, over a long adaptation
time, these new genotypes can also contribute to biodiversity by developing new breeds or
traits. In Latin America for example, introducing unsuitable wool sheep breeds from Spain
led eventually to the well adapted Chiapas sheep, now considered native.
Apart from the main streams of gene flow of high-yielding breeds from developed
countries, gene flow takes place from all countries which possess unique genotypes. High-
yielding breeds formed in developed countries depended on foreign genetic material. For
example the European and North American commercial pig breeds were heavily
influenced by genetic material from Asia. Research and commercial interests focus at such
genotypes of current and future importance.
Global transfer of genotypes generally contributes to biodiversity, if these genotypes are
threatened in their native countries. By making use of their typical adaptability to marginal
production environments, valuable genetic resources from developed countries can be
conserved as well as developing economies in developing countries by genetically
improving local breeds.
Limitations of the study
The most limiting factor of the study was the information available on current gene flow.
Countries with highly organised breeding structures were expected to have statistical data
bases on breeding stock transfer and changes in national population composition.
However, only Europe had available statistics in the form of the Eurostat statistic database
and then gene flow records were limited. First of all, the records did not include breed
details so that the influence of single breeds could not be interpreted. It was also unclear
whether these records reflected true volumes of animal transfer, for example whether
transfers for development projects were included. Furthermore, only the exchange of
purebreeding stock was recorded. Purebreeding statistics are however not important where
hybrids play a vital role, particularly in pig breeding. Additionally, with increasing
commercialisation, export and import statistics are less able to depict gene flow and
company figures would be more suitable. However international breeding companies tend
to restrict access to this information at least to up-to-date figures. In commercial breeding,
transfer figures underestimate the gene flow when a few animals are multiplied in national
centres, as the case in commercial pig breeding.
Apart from cattle, data on the exchange of other breeding products, such as semen and
embryos, were even more difficult to obtain and in general lacking. Additionally, there

may be big gaps between what has been transferred and what has been successfully
utilised.
Another major methodological restriction is that the availability and quality of information
on transfers varies considerably between countries and extrapolating from one well
documented situation to cover the many information gaps is not possible.
Official national statistics were available via the FAO on the exchange of live animals but
these were not exclusively for breeding. The country reports in some cases included
necessary information. However, if country reports included data on animal transfers, the
usual focus was on imports not exports. Exports could only be traced indirectly as imports
into other countries. Therefore, an important source of recorded information on gene flow
was generally left out. This was particularly bad for developing countries, where records of
animal movements rarely existed and country reports, if they existed, did not contain the
desired details. In general country reports differed considerably in quantity and quality and
no standard format exists which would allow such information to be compared. Export data
from developed countries could have closed that information gap.
The latter limitation throws light on the lack of information about gene flow from
developing countries, particularly South to South movements which would have been
interesting.
A major constraint is that the size and number of transfers does not generally predict its
genetic or economic impact. Transactions are, with very exceptions, impossible to follow
up. There were examples for all species where massive transfers had very little long-term
effect, and where the transfer of a few animals had major impacts on global gene flow.
These examples however only become evident retrospectively as changes to national
population composition, making this indicator of gene flow an important tool in the study.
It was used especially in the global study but relied mainly on the Country Reports which,
as mentioned above, were limited in quantity and quality. Additionally, a major limitation
of the country reports on changes in national population composition was put forward in
the pig case study. According to more updated sources it appears that the Vietnamese
country report did not realise the full influence of exotic genotypes on local genotypes, and
only reported where both were directly interfering. So the impact of the exotic genotypes
on the local populations was underestimated.
With the increase of global mobility and biotechnology, gene flow has increased and has
become more complicated and even more difficult to follow up. This puts severe
limitations on the global studies. The Awassi case study showed in an illustrative example
how this limitation could be overcome in particular, detailed case studies. But it also
showed what effort it takes to collect the necessary information to assemble a nearly
complete picture of gene flow for one particular breed from one particular regional source.
The study as a whole therefore had to refrain from quantifying global gene flow. It was
shown that gene flow is a very complex and dynamic process with many factors varying
the possible impacts from case to case. The impact evaluation of global gene flow on
economic development and biodiversity as treated in chapter 8.3 and 8.4 therefore make
very general and qualitative conclusions and do not measure overall global gene flow. The
study analyses selected aspects of gene flow and is meant to provide scientifically-founded
information for decision makers in the current discussion on global gene flow and its
impacts. It may help to understand the complexity of the situation and may prevent

decision makers from implementing oversimplified programmes. The study is certainly not
suitable to conclude this discussion.
Need for further action
The discussion on gene flow can only be fruitful if the impact of gene flow can be suitably
evaluated. It has been stated above that global evaluation is doubtful and that global
interpretations will be possible only if serious status and impact studies in each country add
to the global picture. With the limitations of the data bases accessed in this study, further
actions are needed to improve the information on current gene flow in a standardised
comparable format for each species and country if a global valuation is intended.
As improving data quality and quantity in developed as well as developing countries,
particularly import and export figures, are not realistic in the near future the focus should
be to derive reliable data on national population composition changes. This calls for
frequent census studies at breed and genotype level. This approach, which for most
countries is challenging enough, would avoid the time consuming tracing of complex gene
flow routes and instead starts right at evaluating the genetic impact and can be more easily
connected to collateral impacts on biodiversity and economic development for different
groups of society. Many weaknesses could be minimised, such as the different values put
on national genetic resources by different stakeholders. Case studies then need to provide
additional information on the impact evaluation for very specific countries or regions as
well as on the organisational structures and mechanisms influencing the impact.
Each country, based on its evaluation of the national situation, can then make use of gene
flow control mechanisms to improve the situation. One has to be aware that indigenous
genetic resources are a source of adaptability to specific changes in the economic and
natural environment. Conserving these resources secures the national as well as global
adaptability to changing future animal production conditions, and secures the livelihoods
of animal holders who for the time being depend on these resources. Future animal
production has to cope with developing countries biodiversity and reduce poverty.
Concepts which serve both by securing or even improving smallholder livelihoods in
marginal areas using their indigenous genetic resources should be heavily weighted. These
concepts need to identify and evaluate the genetic distance between breeds as well as the
genetic potential, performance and other uses and non-use values in different production
systems. What is more, biodiversity impacts must be taken into account when conditions of
gene flow are evaluated.
Exotic breeds are currently introduced for various reasons. If the genetic potential of the
local breed is low, economic development calls for introducing suitable higher performing
breeds. Suitability requires reasonable selection of imported breeds, comparative
performance evaluation of different pure- and crossbred genotypes, and evaluation of
natural, economic, social and cultural framework conditions, before selecting a genotype
and breeding system. Conserving national genetic resources by crossbreeding can be
considered as well as using foreign breeds which are under threat in their country of origin.
Such approaches should preferably be carried out on-farm closely involved with the
livestock keepers. However, if conserving indigenous genetic resources conflicts with
economic development and poverty reduction, conservation cannot be carried out at the
expenses of local livestock keepers. Conservation then has to be treated separately but
alongside economic development, supported by appropriate funding.

Herders and farmers must be closely involved in decision making, and appropriate system
analysis must be developed for smallholder production systems in developing countries.
Based on its central importance to reduce poverty and conserve biodiversity in marginal
areas, community based management of animal genetic resources and indigenous
knowledge has to be fostered.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes are in global demand. Gene flow is too
complicated to find routes after the event, in whatever quantity. Gene flow should
therefore be considered case by case, and recording practices and access and benefit
sharing agreements put in place in advance, rather than retrospectively attempting to
measure and exploit the transfers. The apparent lack of prior informed consent is one of the
major discussion points in the case of the Boran and Tuli genetic resources transfer, as
detailed in the case study.
Finally it has to be concluded that without local breeding organisations, actively including
smallholders in the breeding work is impossible over the long run. Instead, international
breeding companies are ready to do that job. As already observed in cattle and pig
breeding, a two-level structure is emerging: modern and traditional. What is more, as the
demand for meat and milk in developing countries is expected to double in the next two
decades, a new livestock revolution is expected. In the long run, this rapid expansion of
intensive production may put traditional production under increasing pressure. However,
the importance of animal husbandry for the livelihoods of smallholders, particularly in
marginal regions, cannot be overestimated. If regional structural changes do not allow
these groups to find new incomes, then breeding should be organised and payments to
conserve natural environments and farm animal diversity should be considered world wide.

INTRODUCTION 15

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objectives
The objective of this study is to describe the magnitude and direction of movement of
genetic resources of the four major farm animal species: cattle, pigs, sheep and goats.
Determining factors for these movements should be identified, along with their impacts on
economic development, poverty reduction and biodiversity in developing countries.
Necessary further actions were to be derived where results permitted.
Historical accounts of the spread of species and breeds are scarce and subjective and
include hardly any quantities. There is no overview on the current exchange of livestock
genetic resources between most countries or within and among regions. Such a background
document is needed to draft sound policies and sustainable programmes, and to conserve
livestock genetic resources for future breeding requirements of nations, regions and the
globe.
The discussion on advantages and disadvantages of gene flow for different stakeholders is
controversial. Some studies argue that gene flow from developed countries has done more
harm than good and that a variety of livestock breeds have been heavily reduced (Matthias
and Mundy, 2005). In other studies, genetic resource loss in developing countries due to
gene flow could not be proved, and gene flows importance for economic development is
stressed (Gibson and Pullin, 2005). The issue of benefit sharing, raised by stakeholders,
feeds the political discussion (Sansthan and Khler-Rolefson, 2005). Therefore, this study
intends to provide scientifically founded information for decision makers in the discussion
on global gene flow and its impacts. It is certainly not suitable to conclude this discussion.
Direct beneficiaries may be political decision makers, particularly in developing countries,
and relevant international bodies and donor institutions. Intermediate beneficiaries may be
farmers, pastoralists and breeders, whose interests must be considered in international
discussions on regulating access to genetic resources and related benefit sharing.
This study will be incorporated into the The State of the Worlds Animal Genetic
Resources for Food and Agriculture of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) as
one of the thematic studies. It will also contribute to the Global Strategy for the
Management of Animal Genetic Resources by FAO.
1.2 Material and Methods
The study has been implemented by the Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and
Subtropics of the University of Hohenheim and commissioned by the Federal Ministry for
Economic Co-operation and Development (BMZ) and German Technical Co-operation
(GTZ). The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) acted as a support agency. An
advisory panel composed of international scientists, representatives of donor and
development agencies, the private sector and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs)
closely accompanied the study (Annex 9.1 A 1). Feedback was provided in meetings, and
by reports and e-mail advice throughout the study.
National and international statistical data were analysed and literature reviewed. For
specific information on breeds, breeding organisations were included. The intermediate
analysis results were used to interview national and international experts. Further prepared
16 INTRODUCTION

excerpts of gene flow and relevant contents of 114 Country Reports on animal genetic
resources were incorporated, supplemented by expert advice when interpreting results
(Annex 9.1 A 1).
Initial reviews of available information identified information sources, uninformative
sources and information gaps. Only data from the Eurostat statistical database of the
European Union was used in detail. It showed from the perspective of Europe which
countries and regions mainly exchanged breeding animals and when. However, as breed
information was not included, and there is little international data on important export
nations like USA and Australia, conclusions are only possible for limited areas. Additional
breed information was obtained from breeding organisations. Extensive statistics from
developing countries were not available.
The Country Reports differ strongly in amount and quality of information. Comparable
quantities could not be obtained for global coverage of exchange of breeding animals.
Typical country report excerpts were used to illustrate trends.
1.3 Scope
The objectives were approached by conducting a separate global study and case study for
each of the selected species.
1.3.1 Global study
The global studies attempted to understand the historic development and current status of
global gene flow in each species. They considered the influence of domestication, breed
formation, human migration, breeding methods, technological developments and global
mobility on gene flow.
Specific breeds were chosen to highlight typical developments of each species. References
to other breeds were only made where appropriate.
In cattle, breeds with Bos taurus ancestry and the Holstein and Simmental breeds were
used to compare the typical dairy cattle situation with dual-purpose cattle. The Sahiwal and
Brahman breed were chosen to depict the development of Bos indicus breeds due to their
importance in the tropic ecozone.
Ovis aries was represented by examples from Merino and Hair sheep breeds. The Merino
breed was chosen as the outstanding historical example for the global spread of a breed due
to the global demand for uniform fine wool fleeces. The double coated hair sheep breeds
on the other hand serve as an example of breeds which are the result of thousands of years
of adapting to their extreme production environments in which other sheep breeds rarely
survive.
Globally important examples of descendents of the Capra hircus goat breed are the Boer
meat goat and the Angora fibre-producing breed.
Sus scrofa subspecies are represented by the Large White and Duroc breed. The Large
White includes very diverse types induced by its particularly high adaptability to wide-
ranging conditions, including temperate as well as tropical regions. The Duroc is a meat-
type pig with excellent adaptability and good combination characteristics, which has led to
its wide spread to the tropics replacing local populations.
INTRODUCTION 17

The current status of gene flow was indicated by exports and imports of genetic material,
and influences of foreign genetic material on existing breeds. To represent global coverage,
results for regional clusters were based on countries that were identified as typical for each
region. Where information on representative countries was not available, this was noted
along with the available information.
1.3.2 Case studies
Four selected case studies analysed in depth the typical aspects and effects of gene flow.
Case studies were selected where such aspects could be shown and where regional
information was available. The case studies are conducted from the perspective of tropical
and subtropical countries.
The improved Awassi and Assaf breeds from Israel were used to depict the historic
development and current status of gene flow of a breed improved by within-breed
selection. It follows up population developments in destination countries to conclude on
their global impact.
The goat case study depicts the historic global development of the Anglo Nubian breed and
focuses on the impact of introducing a high performance breed to extensive smallholdings,
specifically smallholder farms in Bolivia.
The cattle case study depicts the origin, global transfer and utilisation of the improved
local breeds Boran and Tuli. It focuses on its transfer to developed countries, the role of
breeding organisations and the issue of access and benefit sharing.
The pig case study depicts the impact of imported high performance pig breeds in Vietnam
on socio-economic development and biodiversity.

18 GENERAL FEATURES OF GENE FLOW

2.1 Gene flow during domestication and breed formation
Animals were first transferred by humans during domestication. Figure 1 gives the initial
distribution of wild ancestors of domesticated mammal species.
Figure 1: Distribution of wild ancestors of major domestic mammals in Western Asia

(a) cattle, (b) sheep, (c) goats, (d) pigs, (e) overlap of ranges of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs
Source: adapted from Reed (1984)
The far-reaching changes evoked by men between wild and domesticated species are the
defined properties of domestication, i.e. taming, breeding in captivity, selecting for certain
traits. Domestication is generally considered to have taken place in Neolithic times, with
the primary centre in Western Asia.
Domestication time frames and centres vary significantly from one source to another.
Sheep are believed to have been domesticated about 9000 - 7500 BC, with the original
centre in the Aralo-Caspian steppe (Zeuner, 1963). A second centre probably came up
around 7000 - 6000 BC in Greece and East Europe (Ludwig, 1997). However, the origin of
domesticated sheep is not fully clear.
The goat was domesticated well before 7000 BC, although there is no solid agreement on
their origin. The slopes of the Zagros mountains on the borders of present day Iran and Iraq
seem to play a central role (Mason, 1981). From the west Asian domestication area, goat
husbandry was spread out to west and east by the nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists
and the sedentary agriculturists (Nozawa, 1983).
The first domesticated cattle appear on the Southern Anatolian plateau in Turkey about
6400 BC, and in Greece and Macedonia around the same time (Payne and Hodges, 1997),
GENERAL FEATURES OF GENE FLOW 19

after sheep and goats. It is believed that cattle were domesticated independently in at least
two distinct centres, one in western Asia (Bos taurus and Bos indicus) and the other in
Southeast Asia (Bos (bibos) spp.).
Conflicting theories exist about the centres of pig domestication. The earliest remains of
domesticated pigs were found in Southeast Anatolia and were dated 7000 BC (Epstein and
Bichard, 1984). Table 1 summarises references on first evidences of different domesticated
species.
Table 1: Earliest evidence of domestication
Species Subspecies Time (BC) Location Country
Sheep Ovis orientalis 8900 Zawi Chemi
Shanidar
NW Iran
3

Goats Capra hircus 8000 Tepe Asiab NW Iran
3

Cattle Bos primigenius 6400 Catal Huyuk S. Anatolia,
Turkey
3

Pigs Sus scrofa 6500
2
Qualat Jarmo N. Iraq
4

Sus scrofa
chirodonta
About 5000 Hemudu Zhejiang, SE
China
1

Sources: Zhimin (1991)
1
; Bknyi (1974)
2
; Clutton-Brock (1981); Payne and Hodges (1997)
3
; Zeuner
(1963)
4
; Zhong (1976)
As we assume that domestication was not a one-time-one-place event, gene flow would
have been between different places of early domestication efforts and also between the
domestic animals and the wild ones (Payne and Hodges, 1997; Payne and Wilson, 1999).
The genetic make-up of each and every breed or population depends largely upon the
genetic make-up of its founder group. This foundation group in turn depends upon the
selection pressures it had encountered and the genetic make-up of its own founder group.
As tribes of people migrated across the globe, they took samples of their livestock with
them to their new homes. In each location the people and their livestock would adapt to
their new environment through natural selection, either by the survival of those individuals
genetically suited or an in-built ability to adapt to that environment. A sample of this
population would then be taken with the next human migration to be the founders of a new
community in a slightly different situation. The migration of people and livestock was not
generally in one continuous direction. In most regions livestock was fairly continuously
exchanged between communities. When breeds arose, through mutation or trade, with
better survival or production characteristics than those in the local population, more of
their progeny survived and the enhanced characteristics became common or even fixed
within the group. Thus, other than geographically isolated situations, a gradual inflow of
genes has modified every population that exists today (Henson, 1992).
In the course of domestication and breed formation, a vast number of variations have
developed to meet the many human needs over the millenniums so far. The third global
inventory of domesticated breeds by the FAO found 6,379 breeds of 30 species (Scherf,
2000). However, in vast regions of the world many undefined breeds still exist, of which
some might not be considered a distinct breed but still with broad characteristic variations.

Knowledge about breed development - at least for prehistorical times - is highly
fragmentary. Nevertheless bone remnants and cultural-historic documents allow us to
make some assumptions about early breed formation. The existence of landraces is
assumed in all early advanced civilisations like the Egyptian, Roman and Chinese
civilisations, but also in Mediaeval Europe. For further details of early breeding history
refer to Rhrs (1994). Prehistoric breeds were developed through artificial selection
strongly accompanied by natural selection. Local breeds were particularly adapted to their
specific natural environmental conditions. Moreover, so-called culture breeds may have
developed before the industrial age, favourably predisposing breeds for the cultural
economic and environmental conditions. Small, independent breeding units run by single
farmers, landholders, or local communities contributed to genetic variation.
Unintentionally this kept genetic resources safe.
2.2 Influence of breeding methods in further development and spread of breeds
Two apparent breeding methods can be distinguished: (1) breeding with little investments
and (2) breeding with increasing investments. Figure 2 depicts the historical development
of breeding methods and their impact on gene flow.
Figure 2: Historical development of breeding methods and impact on gene flow
Time Prehistory Modern times
Breeding
methods
Influence on
gene flow
Gene flow
Spontaneous breeding with
little investments
Rather little
gene resource enhancing
Planned breeding with
increasing investments
Increasingly strong
gene resource depleting

Spontaneous breeding was predominant in prehistory - and probably partly overlapped
with domestication. Spontaneous breeding assumes that the breeder has some idea of a
breeding goal, but does not have a definite plan to pursue it. The breeder is characterised
by the so-called breeders eye, requiring only natural mating and subjective perceptions
of phenotypes. The breeds produced by early breeding methods remained confined to the
breeding unit and its immediate vicinity, unless caught up in early animal movements.
This breeding method gradually disappeared when planned breeding efforts grew along
with industrialisation. These new approaches are generally ascribed to British breeders in
the middle of the 18th century. Breeding goals were defined and decisions based on the
breeding goal and the mating procedure were applied. The British pedigree breeders
approach typically involved little technical input, instead choosing monofactorial traits as
the breed standard depending on show ring or sale performance, and then breeding to type.
Tight upgrading rules such as closed herdbooks or many generations of upgrading into the
herdbook narrowed the genetic variability. The early work of the British breed societies
standardised breeds using strong formal criteria. Consequently, an increase of the
frequency of desired alleles could be achieved, but restricted pedigree registration rules led

to narrowing gene ressources with impact on the whole New and English speaking world.
Through the sale of registered pedigree animals from the middle of the 19th century, gene
flow became more and more commercial. In the long period of the 19th and 20th century
breed associations evolved and a legislation and governmental involvement in breeding
developed based entirely on phenotypic traits and mass selection.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, plan-supported breeding developed with the
accumulation of scientific insights. Selection programmes included objective animal
performance recording, computing population genetic programmes, reproductive
biotechnology and genome analysis. The result was increased investments. Commercial
gene flow has made use of semen since the 1960s, embryos since the 1980s, and sexed
embryos since the mid 1990s. Where profit allows highly developed breeding methods,
gene resource depletion tends to be greater, for example in cattle and pigs, and less so for
beef cattle, meat and wool sheep and meat and dairy goats. Complementing selectively
developing breeds, systematic crossbreeding methods have developed to incorporate
improved breeding material with, or even replace, original breeds.
In developing countries, the biological potential is characterised by large numbers of
animals with low production. Natural selection for fitness and hardiness reflects the
sociologically founded principle of increasing flock size rather than productivity per
animal. Therefore, most farm animals in the tropics and subtropics are diverse unimproved
local landraces characterised by low production and high adaptability to adverse
environmental conditions (Horst, 1999a). Additionally, need for cost-extensive and
subsistence production systems in developing countries create totally different conditions
for breeding strategies and breeding organisation.
Developing a breeding strategy generally involves two phases. The first identifies selection
criteria according to phenotypic, genetic and economic relevance, and estimates breeding
values, and develops and implements breeding programmes. The second organises
breeding structure, tests performance and manages data. For many reasons, applications of
modern breeding methods in the tropics and subtropics are limited. Horst (1999b) and Gall
(1999) give a detailed summary for these reasons.
In developing selection programmes, for instance, identifying selection criteria requires
economic evaluation of traits and evaluating genetic potential under adverse production
conditions. The success of selection programmes within local populations may be limited
because of the low genetic potential of the breed.
Breeding work in developing countries is often restricted by few or no breeding
organisations due to lack of finances or skills. Therefore, systematic breeding activities in
developing countries are often limited to institutional or larger private farms. Small herds
of institutional farms have too few animals for meaningful comparisons, and the
production environment may differ greatly compared to the traditionally managed flocks
(Gatenby, 1986). Activities on station are influenced by withdrawal of governments from
the sector. Generally, institutional farms lack continuity in their policies and staff, which is
unacceptable in a purebreeding programme especially for animals with long generation
intervals. Since efficient breeding work and performance testing in smallholder farming
systems is even more difficult for most species, developing countries generally face
considerable difficulties to improve populations and distribute breeding progress.

Due to these difficulties, crossbreeding programmes have become more popular. To
improve breeds, globally available improved genetic material must be available to
developing countries. However, the suitability of the imported breed for improving the
local breed has to be carefully evaluated under local conditions.
Systematic imports of improved genetic material includes the exchange of tropical and
subtropical breeds which themselves have already been improved under similar climatic
conditions. Here, examples exist from countries with well organised breeding structures
such as Israel, South Africa and Australia. China, the Gulf States, Brazil, Central America,
and the Caribbean Islands may also qualify.
Importing improved exotic breeds of European or North American origin promises greater
improvements of single traits due to the higher difference in performance potentials
between the exotic and local breed. Disadvantages are the acclimatisation risk for the
exotic breed and genotype x environmental interactions, particularly reproduction and
fitness traits. After all, importing high-yielding breeds requires a high level of management
including feed and hygiene, to avoid performance depression, reproduction disorders or
even physical degeneration. Since these requirements cannot be met in many developing
countries, imported exotic breeds are preferably used in combination crossing or
commercial crossings, to control the preferred exotic gene level and make use of heterosis
(Horst and Reh, 1999). Under improving production conditions, replacing the local breed
by systematically increasing the exotic gene proportion is another breeding strategy. In
general, the diversity and dynamic of possible crossbreeding systems provides sustainable
breeding strategies adapted to the local conditions.
Due to the underdeveloped breeding structure in developing countries, integrating breeding
progress into production is often attempted by disseminating improved sires to local
breeders. However, the sustainable success greatly depends on an organisational
programme to stabilise the appropriate gene proportion and the availability and ability of
the local farmers to carry out breeding work.
material
Since the middle of the 19th century, gene flow has become more and more commercial
through the sale of registered pedigree animals. However, international trade in live
animals has many limitations. Veterinary barriers prohibit the free access to breeding
material, and the climate and diseases at destination are often not suitable for certain
breeds. Animal welfare rules limit the distance of surface transportation. Transportation
costs subdivide the world market, particularly for high-yielding dairy cattle breed exports,
into three zones on basis of origin: Europe, North America and Oceania.
Biotechnology in animal breeding permits, among other things, the creation of several
tradable breeding products. In practice, these include semen and embryos and to a lesser
extent sexed semen and embryos. Other possibilities are oocytes, body cells, sections of
genetic information and clones (Polge, 1985). Compared to live animals these products 1)
have a long shelf life by deep-freezing, making production and delivery independent from
each other, 2) can be more easily reproduced thus securing a defined genetic supply, 3) are
simple and cheap to transport thus reaching distant markets 4) are able to overcome
veterinary barriers more easily, and 5) overcome some environmental and animal disease
problems at destination in the case of exotic breeds intended for crossbreeding.

Improved communications, global mobility and international business integration
combined with advances in biotechnology have helped to develop a genuine world market
for animal breeding products. The spread of artificial insemination (AI) and to a lesser
extent of embryo transfer (ET) have substantially contributed to increased transfer of
genetic resources to geographically distant locations. Even if these technologies are
uneconomical as routine operations, as is sometimes the case in beef cattle, sheep and
goats, they are nevertheless helpful and are used for international transfers. In the case of
pig semen, however, the unresolved problem of freezing imposes a constraint. Worldwide
transparency in animal breeding is being improved through the standardising work of the
International Committee for Animal Recording (ICAR) and the better comparability of
breeding values developed by its subsidiary, Interbull. So far, the main emphasis has been
on dairy cattle breeds of the temperate zone.
For developing countries, new biotechnology and global mobility offers easier access to
genetic products of exotic breeds and offers easier transfer of genetic progress in regions
with poor infrastructure or underdeveloped breeding organisations. It starts with
introducing improved sires from nucleus flocks into the field via AI and and occasionally
may be supported by reproduction technologies such as ET and hormonal synchronisation.
2.4 Gene flow indicated by Country Reports
The Country Reports on Animal Genetic Resources are official government reports
endorsed by each countrys national government. The reports describe the animal genetic
resources of a country, analyse and report on the state of these resources and capacities to
manage them, draw lessons from past experiences and identify problems and priorities
(FAO, 2001). FAO uses the country reports as an input to the first The State of the Worlds
Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
165 countries have agreed to compile a Country Report before the end of 2004. The
following overview is based on excerpts relevant to gene flow through FAO commissioned
consultants who analysed the country reports. Altogether 90 excerpts were made available
to the authors by FAO until December 2004.
Since the description of gene flow is not a primary objective of the country reports the
content relevant to this study differs significantly between the reports available. Annexes A
7, A 8, A 49 and A 53 show the sources of the 90 Country Report excerpts. The 55
underlined country reports had gene flow relevant information used in the compilations
arranged in the chapters of the single species.
Interpreting this analysis should be done with caution, since the information is not from a
standardised source and often the sample is not representative. The narrative background is
printed in full length in Annexes A 7, A 8, A 49 and A 53.
About a third of the country reports contained information to single aspects of gene flow.
The quality of this information differs strongly between country reports, from simple lists
of breeds used in the country to detailed tables stating the date and number of individual
animals or portions of semen imported.
Generally the information regarding gene flow into the countries is better and more
extensive than that about indigenous genetic material leaving. In the excerpts available
only a few negative effects of importing exotic genetic material are mentioned. Of the

points mentioned, the most important are replacement of indigenous breeds and failure of
the exotic stock to adapt to local climatic and disease conditions.

MAIN FINDINGS OF GLOBAL STUDY 25

3 MAIN FINDINGS OF GLOBAL STUDY
In the following chapters the main findings of the global study are summarised by species.
The extended versions of the global study for sheep, goats, cattle and pigs are found in the
Annex chapters 9.2 to 9.5.
The global study facilitated an overview over gene flow for each species. It illustrated the
historical development of gene flow from the point of domestication, the influence of
human migration and the development of breeding methods, modern breeding technologies
and greater mobility on changes in quantity and on impact of gene flow. Finally it shows
the current situation as far as it can be reconstructed on the bases of quantitative
information. Due to the complexity of global flows, model breeds and breed groups serve
as a red line through the global study.
3.1 Global gene flow of sheep
The objective of the global gene flow study in sheep was to understand the magnitude and
direction of movement of sheep genetic resources, to analyse the main factors affecting
sheep gene flow and to conclude on its impacts on biodiversity and economic development
in the destination countries. Limitations of the study and need for further actions are
derived.
The study consists of two parts: historic development, and current gene flow. We chose
Merino and Hair Sheep breeds to highlight typical developments. References to other
sheep breeds are only made where appropriate.
We sourced data from the Eurostat statistic database, Country Reports on the State of
Animal Genetic Resources, and from reports and publications from breeding organisations
and regional experts.
We show the influence of domestication on sheep diversity by summarising breed
formation, human migration, and breeding methods. The depiction of the current status of
gene flow focuses on exports and imports and indicators for foreign genetic material
following regional clusters.
Historic development of gene flow
The world sheep population is about one third in developed and two thirds in developing
countries (FAO, 2004a). With at least 1,747 known sheep breeds in the world, sheep
breeds are impressively diverse (DAD-IS, 2004). This diversification has been driven by
factors affecting breed formation, the occurrence of the characteristic wool fleece, the
occurrence of the fat tail and the adaptation to a very broad range of environmental
conditions (Haring, 1984). Among all domestic animals, sheep show the strongest relation
to their production environment.
Tribal migrations during the Neolithic transition are regarded as the biggest catalyst of
gene flow after domestication. Sheep with favourable characteristics were traded and
replaced breeds in other regions. This development is clustered into the regions of Europe,
Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Oceania.

The global spread of the Merino breed is an example of successfully replacing existing
breeds. Hair sheep breeds of subtropical and particularly tropical climates represent those
which have successfully resisted attempts to replace them.
The history of the Merino breed shows that international gene flow has contributed
significantly to diversification, and is an important tool for reacting quickly to changes in
breeding goals based on changing production conditions. International gene flow starts
where an international demand for a breed or its specific character appears. A suitable
outstanding gene resource is required, which is often the result of successful breeding via
genetic improvement. The importance of organised breeding is reflected by past global
demand for temperate sheep breeds, in particular British breeds.
For developing countries, examples of successful and unsuccessful international gene flow
show that where the new breed is suitable to prevailing production conditions, international
gene flow contributes to diversity. It was also shown that intensifying breeding work in
developing countries influences the demand for, and success of, international gene flow.
It has become evident that global mobility has increased and routes of international gene
flow are complicated. Genetic transfer technologies such as AI and ET are less important
where sheep live on extensive systems and so receive little attention. AI in sheep has had
an important impact where using fresh semen is practical, such as todays dairy sheep
breeding programmes. There is no doubt that new techniques, which produce high
conception rates and inseminate less invasively, could have a major impact on spreading
genetic improvement in the sheep industries of many countries (Simm, 1998).
Current status of gene flow
Genetic resource exchanges are now intensive and complicated across the globe. The re-
orientation from wool to meat and the search for niche production has started gene flow
into wool producing countries. Gene flow is regarded as an appropriate tool to respond to
quick changes in breeding goals. The new market economies in Central and Eastern
Europe show a similar development. The intention to improve local breeds starts gene flow
in most parts of the world, including developing countries. Main countries of origin appear
to be Australia, New Zealand, North America, the UK and France. In rarer cases gene flow
starts from developing countries. Where gene flow takes place, new breeds contribute to
diversity by adding to existing sheep breeds and by creating new breed groups and
synthetic breeds. Genetic diversity is lost when local breeds are completely replaced by
imported breeds. It is not possible to assess the global impact on the limited information
available. Even assessments of single countries contradict each other.
Breeding organisations
Countries of origin of gene flow generally have improved breeds as the result of advanced
breeding organisations. In rare cases, genetic resources with desired genes or traits - in
sheep mainly prolificacy, disease resistance, and adaptability - exist independently of
breeding organisation. Then gene flow also comes from developing countries (for example
the prolific Dman sheep from Morocco, the prolific Javanese thin-tailed and Javanese fat-
tailed sheep of Indonesia, and hair sheep breeds of various origin).
Access to improved genetic material does not depend on breeding organisations. Both
developed and developing countries are in demand for new breeds. Developing breeding

organisations in developing countries will not necessary reduce the demand for foreign
breeds.
Although breeding organisation influences the impact of gene flow in the destination
country, it was not possible to identify a relation between organisation and impact.
Regulations
Breeding regulations direct and control gene flow. High hygiene standards increase the
opportunity to export genetic resources from a country, and to globally market them. At the
same time, because less other countries will have similar hygiene standards, access to
foreign genetic resources is reduced. Note that strict import and export regulations may
lead to counter-productive illegal transfers of animals.
Foreign aid and development projects can start or stop gene flow, depending on whether
the aim is to replace indigenous stock or to genetically improve local breeds. If the
suitability of imported stock for the production systems was taken into account,
development programmes imported tropical and subtropical genetic material rather than
temperate (for example developing and spreading the Dorper breed, and importing
improved tropical hair sheep breeds into Southeast Asia).
Research and commercial interest in specific genes
With more possibilities for genetic change and relatively easy imports into new
populations, identifying major genes is a main aim for both research and commerce.
Breeds from countries with traditional sheep production systems move into the centre of
interest as their genetic diversity is greater than in countries with intensive sheep farming.
It has been shown that the interest in identified breeds goes far beyond their national
importance (for example the Indian Garole breed, the Barbados Blackbelly from the
Americas, the Moroccan Dman or Greek Chios sheep).
Suitability of breeds for prevailing production systems
If introduced breeds are suitable for the prevailing environments and production systems,
gene flow contributes significantly to improving productivity of sheep farming. At the
same time, sustainably establishing suitable foreign genotypes in local populations
threatens local breeds either directly or through market competition. Compared to cattle
and pigs, there are more sheep breeds, less extinct breeds and less fat-tail-risk breeds. Only
goats have lower extinction rates (3%). However sheep breed variety is deteriorating, as
the extinction rate since 1995 has more than doubled and the percentage of breeds not at
risk has decreased. The high numbers of breeds with unknown status and, at the same time,
the increasing number of recorded breeds suggest these figures may not be certain.
Impact on economic development and reducing poverty
If introduced improved breeds are suitable for the prevailing environments and production
systems, gene flow contributes significantly to the economic development and poverty
reduction by improving productivity. Gene flow is particularly important for economic
development where the low production potential of the local breeds prevents quick
improvements through within-breed selection.
Local sheep genetic resources are however important for resource-poor farmers who
depend on local breeds, adapted to their production systems, for their livelihoods. Such

farmers are often left out of improvement processes, particularly in remote mountainous
regions.
If the new breeds add to the diversity of national populations, gene flow offers the ability
to quickly adapt to new production possibilities. Particularly, in rapidly developing parts of
the world, gene flow can enhance production to meet the populations growing demand for
sheep meat, especially if accompanied by a change from extensive to intensive production
systems. Market competition of intensive production units with extensive production
systems also threatens the livelihoods of smallholders. The negative effects for
smallholders are more severe the more the production systems of exotic and native genetic
resources differ.
Gene flow may also contribute to producing for niche markets, permitting and even
encouraging the use of accessible foreign breeds that have characteristics suitable for local
markets. This can give farmers, particularly sheep farmers, a chance to survive when
otherwise facing severe reduction or complete loss of profitability. On the other hand,
native genetic resources may contribute as much to production for niche markets, and so
helps to conserve national genetic resources.
Gene flow is particularly important when populations are reducing, or after a rapid decline
such as after wars. When effective breeding work is difficult, and the base to restore and
develop future populations is lost, gene flow is the only chance to rebuild the stock by
importing genetic material.
If the imported breeds are not suitable for the prevailing production systems, the impact on
population composition is theoretically self-limiting. However, the economic losses for
smallholders can be severe but temporary unless development projects or governments
continue to promote or subsidise unsuitable genotypes. The losses are caused by diluting or
replacing the indigenous genetic resources suitable for the smallholder production system.
Impacts on biodiversity
The influx of foreign genotypes into existing breeds has always been important to develop
and improve sheep breeds. In the history of sheep, gene flow has contributed significantly
to diversity. At the same time, improved genetic resources have always interfered with
local resources. Current sheep gene flow is dominated by relatively few breeds from
developed countries. However, due to the relatively rare use of biotechnology in sheep, the
little attention paid to sheep production and the strong relationship between sheep breeds
and their production environments, the impact on biodiversity is considered less severe
than in other species.
The impact of this gene transfer on biodiversity mainly depends on the suitability of the
breeds to their new production environment, and can be measured as changes to the
national population composition. If the new breeds are suitable and add to existing
genotypes, then biodiversity increases. If new genotypes replace existing breeds,
biodiversity is lost.
Whether new breeds co-existence with or replace native breeds depends on various factors.
One is the prevalence of the production system which the introduced genotype is meant
for. In developing countries, where extensive small holdings prevail, dilution or
replacement is likely if the new genotypes are suitable, are available, and are adopted by
the local breeders. More often, the introduced genotypes require more intensive production

environments and therefore add to the more extensively managed local breeds. However,
local market competition from intensive production units can put traditional production
systems under threat and with them the local genetic resources. The more commercial the
sector, the greater the threat of lost biodiversity. Producing for niche markets using local
breeds to serve specific local consumer preferences may reduce this loss. Careful
production system analysis is required to predict the impact of gene flow on biodiversity.
While unsuitable breeds can have several negative effects, as given above, after a long time
of adaptation these new genotypes may contribute to biodiversity by developing new
breeds or traits. In Latin America for example, introducing unsuitable wool sheep breeds
from Spain led to the now native and well adapted Chiapas sheep.
As well as the main stream of gene flow from developed countries, both developed and
developing countries which control some unique genotypes also export genetic resources.
Global transfer of these genotypes generally contributes to biodiversity, particularly if they
are threatened in their native countries. Horst and Reh (1999) give examples for some
old European breeds, increasingly under threat in their native country, that are being
crossbred in the tropics. By making use of their typical adaptability to marginal production
environments, valuable genetic resources from developed countries can be conserved, as
well as economic development in developing countries by improving local breeds.
Producing for local niche markets using foreign breeds with suitable attributes are also
examples of the benefits of biodiversity from transferred unique genotypes. Shrestha
(2005) even points at developing composite populations from endangered and established
sheep breeds, which may result in financial benefits and simultaneously conserve domestic
animal diversity.
The most limiting factor of the global sheep study was the information available for current
gene flow. Only for Europe is there an available statistical data base on breeding stock
transfer and changes in national population composition, the Eurostat database. The
records allowed only limited interpretation for gene flow. First of all, records did not
include breeds, so that interpreting the influence of single breeds was not possible. It was
also unclear whether these records reflected true volumes of animal transfer, such as
whether animal transfers for development projects were included. Data on the exchange of
other breeding products, such as semen and embryos were very limited.
To gain information of the desired quality covering the different regions of the world, six
breeding organisations and 21 experts from 12 countries were contacted. Only three
contacts replied, and no statistics were made available. Official national statistics on live
animal transfers were available via the FAO, but these transfers were not exclusively for
breeding. In some cases, country reports included necessary information. However, if
country reports included sheep transfer data, the usual focus was on imports rather than
exports. Exports could only be traced indirectly as imports into other countries. Therefore,
an important information source of gene flow was generally left out. This was particularly
negative for developing countries, where records of animal movements rarely exist and
country reports, if they exist, rarely contain the desired details. Export data from developed
countries could have supplied that missing data. This means there is little information
about gene flow from developing countries, particularly from South to South movements
which would have been interesting.

Increased global mobility has made gene flow more complicated and single transactions
impossible to follow up, which also put severe limits on the global study. The example of
the Booroola gene shows how the transfer of a few animals had major impacts on global
gene flow. The Awassi case study demonstrated the effort it takes to collect the necessary
information to assemble a nearly complete picture of gene flow for one particular breed.
The study as a whole therefore cannot quantify gene flow on a global scope. It was shown
that gene flow is a very complex and dynamic process with many factors varying the
possible impacts from case to case. The impact evaluation of global gene flow on
economic development and biodiversity in chapters 5.2 and 5.3 therefore had very general
and qualitative conclusions, and refrained from an overall evaluation of global gene flow
particularly its impact on biodiversity. The study objectively analyses possible aspects of
gene flow and is meant to provide scientifically based information for decision makers in
the discussion on global gene flow and its impacts. The study is certainly not suitable to
finish this discussion.
evaluated. It has been stated above that global evaluation may not be possible, and that
global interpretations are possible only if serious impact studies in each country add to the
global picture. With the limited data bases available, further actions are needed to improve
the records kept about current gene flow. Improving data quality and quantity in developed
and developing countries, particularly import and export figures, is not realistic in the near
future. Therefore the focus should be to derive reliable data on national population
composition changes, which calls for frequent census studies at breed genotype level. This
approach, which for most countries is challenging enough, would avoid the time
consuming tracing of complex gene flow routes and instead starts right at evaluating
impacts on biodiversity and economic development. Additionally, many weaknesses of the
current information base could be reduced, such as the different comprehension of the
status of national genetic resources by different groups.
Each country, based on its national evaluation, should subsequently make use of the
identified control mechanisms of gene flow to or from the country to improve the situation.
One has to be aware that indigenous genetic resources are a source of adaptability for
specific environmental challenges. Conserving these resources secures the national as
much as global adaptability to different future production conditions and secures the
livelihoods of animal holders who depend on these resources. In developing countries
biodiversity and poverty reduction are two main claims future animal production has to
deal with. Concepts which serve both claims at the same time by preserving or even
improving smallholder livelihoods in marginal areas based on their indigenous genetic
resources, should be rated highly. From these concepts derive the need to further identify
and evaluate the genetic resources to determine their genetic distance to other breeds, their
genetic potential and performance in different production systems and their risk status.
What is more, biodiversity impacts must be taken into account when framework conditions
are evaluated.
Exotic breeds are currently being introduced for various reasons. If the genetic potential of
the local breed is low, economic development calls for introducing suitable exotic breeds.
Suitable requires responsibly selecting imported breeds, comparing performance of

different pure- and crossbred genotypes, and evaluating natural, economic, social and
cultural conditions. Conserving national genetic resources through crossbreeding systems
can be considered, as well as the use of foreign breeds which are under threat at their
country of origin. Such approaches should preferably be carried out on farm with farmer
participation. However, if conserving indigenous genetic resources conflicts with
economic development and poverty reduction, which can be the case, conservation cannot
be carried out at the expense of animal producers. Conservation then has to be treated
separately from but alongside economic development.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes are in global demand. Based on the
depicted complexity of gene flow, we conclude that once a genetic resource has been
transferred, in whatever quantity, it is difficult to follow up the routes of gene flow. Gene
flows should therefore be individually considered and recorded from the beginning rather
than retrospectively.
3.2 Global gene flow of goats
The objective of the global gene flow study was to understand the magnitude and direction
of movement of goat genetic resources, the main factors affecting it and its impact on
biodiversity and economic development in the countries of destination. Limitations of the
study and further actions are derived.
The study consists of two parts: historical development, and current gene flow. Boer goats
and Angora goats were chosen to highlight typical developments.
Material came from the Eurostat statistic database, Country Reports on the State of Animal
Genetic Resources, and reports and publications from breeding organisations and regional
experts. Information on the current gene flow in goats was scarce and less comparable
between countries than that of other domestic livestock species.
Historical development
The majority of goat breeds are found in the tropics and subtropics. Historically, gene flow
in goats starts with human migration, and breeds were formed based on regional clusters of
human populations.
Breeding organisations in the 19th and 20th centuries in England started an intensive gene
flow of purebred goats for pure- and crossbreeding, leading to a diversity of goat breeds all
over the world. In many countries, crossbreeding created new breeds. The outstanding
example is the development of dairy breeds of Central Europe. Even in within-breed
selection strategies, occasional introductions maintained an intermittent gene flow. Other
breeds were formed mainly by importing pure stock or absorptive crossing. Breeds were
often improved using genetic resources from outside the breeding area. This has happened
in most improved breeds, fibre and dairy breeds in particular. In the 20th century, new
biotechnologies (AI with deep-frozen semen and ET) increased global mobility of breeding
products, disseminating and establishing new goat breeds around the world but to a far
lower extent compared to cattle and even sheep.
Current status of gene flow
In developed countries, gene flow is currently driven by two main factors. Firstly, rare
peculiar breeds some with special characteristics are moved from their home areas for
niche markets or pets, for example the African Dwarf goat in some European countries.

And secondly, promoted awareness of the potential of goat farming, for fibre, milk or
meat, combined with unreliable profits in other livestock has led to imports of improved
breeding stock to increase national stocks. One example is the introduction of the South
African Boer goat to New Zealand.
The available information for gene flow into developing countries reports the transfer of
breeding material of a few improved breeds such as Boer, Anglo Nubian and Saanen goats
originally from countries with advanced breeding organisations. Occasionally, the imports
come from other developing countries which already possess improved breeding material
for example the transfer of Toggenburg and Saanen goats from Kenya to Tanzania.
The following main factors affecting gene flow were identified:
Breeding and trade organisations affecting gene flow
Not all countries have breeders organisations that actively work to improve goat genetics,
due to socio-economic conditions. Nevertheless, in countries where breeders organisations
are absent individual breeders may import breeding stock, but they are often restricted by
regulatory difficulties. Private firms specialising in international livestock trade may help
greatly, but goats lack the critical mass of profits to attract international firms to engage in
their trade. However, breeders organisations from Britain, USA, France, Australia, South
Africa and Germany have occasionally been engaged in such transactions.
Restriction of goat gene flow by animal health regulations
In order to prevent the introduction of major contagious diseases, governments tend to
restrict livestock imports, particularly from other continents. These restrictions give
countries which are free of certain diseases, in general developed countries, an advantage
for exports but may exclude affected countries, in general developing countries, as sources.
Various examples are given where gene flow is restricted by health regulations. As the
animal health situation is constantly changing, so do the regulations on movement and
import of livestock. The trend is towards severer restrictions.
Foreign aid and development co-operation
Over the past decades an increasing number of programmes have been started by
governments, local and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and
international donor agencies to promote or incorporate goat production in smallholder
households to enhance regional development and reduce poverty. Examples from
publications and project reports are given to illustrate the gene transfers. The gene flow is
characterised mainly by the transfer of improved meat and/or milk breeds from developed
countries. In rare cases, improved breeding material is transferred from one developing
country to another. Experience also shows that development projects that are supported by
governmental policies have a greater impact on the spread of specific breeds.
Suitability of goat breeds for prevailing production systems
The general adaptability of the goat enables it to be reared in both highly intensive and
extensive production systems. In highly intensive production systems, there are the high-
yielding, highly prolific and regularly breeding dairy types. At the other end of the
spectrum, one can find all over the world many low performing breeds who excel by
adapting to harsh environments, resisting diseases, and thriving under low-input systems.

Examples were given of successes and failures of goat transfers, depending on their fit to
environmental conditions and systems of goat keeping.
Developing countries display a demand for new breeds to increase productivity of goat
farming or establish new systems, mainly dairy. With new biotechnology and increased
mobility, goat genetic resources have become readily available globally.
If introduced improved breeds are suitable to the prevailing environments and production
systems, gene flow contributes significantly to the economic development of intensive and
extensive production systems by improving productivity, i.e. increasing milk and/or meat
yields. The importance of gene flow for economic development is particularly evident
where the low production potential of the local breeds prevent quick improvements
through within-breed selection.
However, the greater the success of the introduced breed is, the greater the threat of losing
biodiversity in the national population. Extensive goat farms in remote mountainous
regions are however often not included in improvement processes, so these resource-poor
farmers depend on local genetic resources and their adaptation for their livelihoods.
Gene flow offers the chance to quickly adapt to new production opportunities. Particularly,
in rapidly developing parts of the world, gene flow can enhance production to meet the
growing demand for red meat. Then the development often goes hand in hand with a
change from extensive to intensive production systems. Market competition between these
intensive production units and extensive production systems can exclude smallholders
from access to markets.
Gene flow may also contribute to developing niche market products permitting and even
encouraging the use of foreign breeds that have specific characters suitable to local market
preferences. An example is the production with Angora goats in countries like Denmark.
Gene flow is particularly important when goat populations are reduced, for example after
wars. When there is no opportunity for effective breeding and the basis for restorating and
developing future populations is lost, imported genetic material is the only chance for
rebuilding stock. The choice of genetic material may be local breeds of neighbouring
countries or exotic high-yielding stock depending on the production conditions of the
region.
If imported breeds are not suitable to the prevailing production systems, the impact on
population composition is theoretically self-determined. However, the economic losses for
smallholders can be severe, particularly if the introduction of these new genotypes is
promoted or even subsidised through development projects or governments.
Impact on biodiversity
The influx of foreign genotypes into existing breeds has always been an important
component in developing and improving goat breeds, and gene flow has contributed
significantly to goat diversification. The growing global need for improved productivity of
animal production has lead to an increased demand for improved genotypes. With the
development of biotechnology and global mobility since the second half of the last century,
foreign genetic resources are globally readily available. Current gene flow is dominated by
source countries with advanced breeding structures, mainly developed countries, and a

small number of high performance breeds. However, due to the little attention paid to goat
farming, the impact of global gene flow on biodiversity is less severe compared to other
farm animal species.
In general, the impact of gene flow on biodiversity mainly depends on the suitability of the
breeds to their new production environments. If they are suitable and the new breeds add to
existing genotypes in a controlled way, then biodiversity is increased. If new genotypes
replace existing breeds, biodiversity is lost. Examples of both situations are well known.
Whether replacement takes place after improved breeds are introduced depends on various
factors. One is the prevalence of the production system which the introduced genotype is
meant for. In developing countries, where extensive smallholder goat farms prevail,
replacement mainly through crossbreeding are likely when the new genotypes are suitable
and available. More often, these introduced genotypes require more intensive production
environments and therefore may be established side by side with the more extensively
managed local breeds. Careful production system analysis will be needed to predict the
impact of gene flow on biodiversity.
If the introduced breeds are not suitable, the impact on biodiversity is theoretically limited.
However, if the introduction is promoted or even subsidised through development projects
or governments, or if indiscriminate crossing takes place particularly over time and in
considerable quantities, existing breeds can deteriorate. However, over a long time of
adaptation, these new genotypes may also contribute to biodiversity through developing of
new breeds or traits.
Apart from the main stream of gene flow of high-yielding breeds from developed
countries, gene flow takes place from developed and developing countries, which control
some unique genotypes (Boer, Nubians). Many goat breeds in developed countries have
been formed from foreign genetic material (e.g. Anglo Nubians).
The most limiting factor of the study was the information available for current gene flow in
goats. Only in Europe was a statistic database (Eurostat) available and even there, the
records allowed only limited interpretation with regard to gene flow. First of all, records
were not made at breed level, so the influence of single breeds could not be followed. It
was also unclear how the records reflected true volumes of animal transfer, and whether
development project transfers were included. Data on the exchange of other breeding
products, such as semen and embryos, were in general lacking.
Country Report excerpts are less extensive regarding goat transfers compared to other
species, and generally focus on exports rather than imports. The content varied greatly
between the available reports and many excerpts did not mention goats at all. This made it
particularly hard to find information on gene flow into developing countries. Here records
of animal movements are rare and country reports do not contain the desired details. The
latter limitation shows the lack of information of gene flow from developing countries,
particularly from South to South, which would have been interesting to examine.
With this extremely limited information on current goat gene flow, the study had to refrain
from quantifying gene flow globally. It is known that gene flow is a very complex and
dynamic process with many factors varying the possible impacts from case to case. The
impact evaluation of global gene flow on economic development and biodiversity, as

treated in chapter 5.2 and 5.3, therefore needed to conclude very generally and
theoretically.
The discussion on gene flow can only be fruitful if its impact can be suitably evaluated. It
has been stated above that global evaluation is doubtful and that global interpretations
become possible only if serious impact studies are available. Further actions are needed to
improve the information status on current gene flow.
It is unlikely that data quality and quantity in developed or developing countries,
particularly import and export figures will improve significantly in the near future. So the
focus should be to derive reliable data on national population composition changes, which
calls for regular census studies of breeds and genotypes. This approach, which for most
countries is a challenging enough task, would avoid the time consuming tracing of
complex gene flow routes and instead starts right at evaluating impact. Additionally, many
weaknesses could be minimised, such as the different values put on national genetic
resources by different groups.
Each country should subsequently make use of the identified control mechanisms of gene
flow to or from the country. One has to be aware that indigenous genetic resources are a
source of adaptability for specific environmental challenges. Conserving these resources
secures the livelihoods of animal holders who depend on these resources. In developing
countries biodiversity and poverty reduction are two main - often opposite - claims which
future animal production has to deal with. Concepts which serve both claims at the same
time by preserving or even improving smallholder livelihoods in marginal areas based on
their indigenous genetic resources, should be valued very highly. From these concepts
derive the need to identify and evaluate goat genetic resources for genetic distance to other
breeds, their genetic potential and performance in different production systems and their
risk status. What is more, there is also the need to take biodiversity impacts into account
when framework conditions are evaluated.
Improved breeds are currently being transferred for various reasons. To claim suitability,
imported breeds must be selected by evaluating performance of different pure- and
crossbred genotypes against the natural, economic, social and cultural framework
conditions. Such approaches should preferably be carried out on a farm with farmer
participation. However, if conserving indigenous genetic resources and economic
development and poverty reduction contradict each other, conservation efforts cannot be
carried out at the expenses of animal producers. Conservation then must be treated
separately but parallel to economic development.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes may be in global demand. Based on
the depicted complexity of gene flow, we conclude that it is difficult to find the routes of
gene flow after the event, in whatever quantity. Gene flow should therefore be individually
considered and recording practices put in place in advance, rather than retrospectively
attempting to measure the transfer.
3.3 Global gene flow of cattle
The objectives of the global gene flow study in cattle were to understand the magnitude
and direction of movement of cattle genetic resources, to analyse the main factors that
affect cattle gene flow and to determine its impacts on biodiversity and economic

development in the destination countries. Limitations of the study and necessary further
actions are derived.
The study consists of two parts: the historic development and the current status of gene
flow. As typical examples for Bos taurus, we chose the Holstein and Simmental breeds,
and for Bos indicus we chose the Brahman and Sahiwal breeds.
Data was sourced from the Eurostat statistic database, Country Reports on the State of
Animal Genetic Resources, and from reports and publications from regional experts and
breeding organisations, especially the breeding organisations of Simmental, Holstein and
Zebu breeds.
We summarise how historically domestication, breed formation, human migration, and
breeding methods have influenced cattle diversity. The chapter on current gene flow
summarises export and import data and indicators for foreign genetic material introduced
to clusters of regions.
Historic development
Historic gene flow shows that domestic cattle ancestors and their dissemination in the old
and new world contributed to the development and diversity of current domestic cattle
breeds. During the Neolithic transition, migrating tribes took along their animals and so
affected gene flow in cattle early in history. Occasionally, migration also made wild cattle
extinct. In the course of time, local strains developed through natural selection that were
adapted to their environments. In the new world, settlers brought cattle with them to create
living conditions similar to their homeland and to insure against food deficiencies.
A source of significant gene flow is cattle trading. This is demonstrated by centuries of
established trading houses, empires, and long trade routes by land and sea.
Breed societies were formed in 18th century Britain, and pedigree breeding spread to
continental Europe and the New and English speaking worlds. This decreased genetic
variety by forming breeds on formal criteria. Early breed selection focused on
conformation, and productivity advances were limited. Only later did selection for
performance and genetic evaluation lead to more rapid productivity increases.
Cattle selection is based on utility or market requirements and the climate. The influence of
the Black and White breed on dairy cattle in the temperate zone is considered the most
significant event in cattle gene flow. It absorbed and displaced other temperate zone dairy
and dual-purpose breeds, heavily impacted gene flow and reduced genetic resources. At the
same time, the few top bulls and top lines decreased genetic variety within the breed.
Successfully expanding purebred Holstein into the dry tropics and subtropics and failures
by introducing them to the humid tropics showed that gene flow can establish breeds or
breed groups when suited to prevailing production requirements. As many efforts to
establish purebred temperate dairy breeds in the humid tropics have failed, dairy breeders
there now focus on forming composite taurine-zebuine cattle for milk. The global
influence of the Brahman and Sahiwal breeds is reviewed in this context. The spread of the
Simmental breed is an example of a globally influential dual-purpose breed, mainly for
beef.
Gene flow of specialised beef breeds has been less intense than dairy or dual-purpose
breeds, as reproduction is mainly by natural service and there is not yet sufficient
knowledge about the comparative efficiency of breeds kept on natural pasture. However, as

an exception of the rule considerable numbres of Brahman and Hereford have been spread
around the world.
Major restrictions to the international live animal gene flow are identified. However,
successful use of biotechnology and global mobility has proved to be more striking in
cattle than other species. The international gene flow in cattle increased substantially after
the technique of deep-freezing bull semen was widely adopted in the 1960s. Techniques to
deep-freeze bovine embryos from 1980s onwards never attained comparable importance as
a vehicle for gene flow. Major differences in the commonplace use of this biotechnology
are seen between developed and developing countries and between dairy cattle, dual-
purpose, and beef cattle breeds.
Current status
First, information on selected cattle exports and imports of live animals and semen were
compiled for the regional clusters Europe, North America, South America, Asia and the
Middle East. For Europe, information was sourced from the Eurostat statistic database. For
other regions, no database was accessible and information was taken from publications of
breeding organisations and from communication with regional experts.
Gene flow is currently a considerable global exchange of live animals and semen. The
main origins are developed countries, with North America and Europe as major players
due to their advanced breeding and trading organisations. International gene flow starts due
to quick reactions to market opportunities and changing production purposes, and the
general need to improve local genetic resources. Destinations of gene flow are therefore
developed and developing countries alike. The largest inflows are reported across Europe,
followed by Western Asia.
Exchanges of breeding stock or semen vary in quantity and impact. The current dairy cattle
semen trade is the most intensive and is quite different compared to other livestock species.
Examples are given of impacts of international gene flow on national breed composition,
and on introducing foreign genetic material into existing breeds. However, the impact
study could not quantify the effects, as the information base was extremely limited.
Common impacts were: reduced proportions of existing breeds in national cattle
composition in favour of imported breeds, and increased foreign blood shares in existing
breeds. In some cases, continuous gene flow into local breeds finally replaced them.
According to information from selected Country Reports, many breeds were being
replaced in Western and Northern Europe, some replaced in Africa, Eastern and Southern
Europe and Latin America. The new breeds were Holstein, Simmental and Brahman.
Breeding and trade organisations
The current situation in cattle semen trade - particularly dairy cattle semen - is fostered
through the high level of breeding and trade organisation in developed countries, which
gives them an indiscriminate advantage over developing countries with regard to
exploitation, and dissemination of their genetic resources. At the same time, cattle breeding
and trade organisations have experienced a remarkably strong concentration process in the
last decades. The international exchange of genetic material from a decreasing number of
sires has resulted in an increasing loss of genetic variation with global impacts for
developed and developing countries. The in general lower AI coverage in developing
countries causes disadvantages also in the access to exogenous gene flow although with

considerable variability between countries and regions. As AI coverage in developing
countries is increasing, gene flow of temperate breeds increases parallely.
Regulations
Cattle breeding products are mainly transferred by a few international breeding companies,
making transport of any magnitude and distance technically possible. As live animals
transfers face restrictions by veterinary regulations and welfare considerations, the great
success of biotechnology in cattle has created tremendous possibilities in international
gene flow.
In general, high hygiene standards of a country permit almost unlimited exports to all parts
of the world, while it prevents stock being introduced from countries with lower hygiene
standards. The emergence of BSE and the outbreak of Foot-and-Mouth disease in Europe
in the late 1990s for example have influenced the exchange of breeding animals, but also
semen and embryos for years.
In the cattle sector, government policies have been the main influence on breeding and
gene flow. Regulations in trade and breeding legislation of cattle are generally market-
regulating subsidies. Other government activities influence gene flow by importing
selected breeds as part of national plans or projects.
Research and commercial interests in specific genes
Interest in specific genes affects gene flow by prompting the transfer of these genes from
their countries of origin to those places where the commercial or research interest exists. In
cattle, interests lie in identifying gene markers to reduce production costs, improve product
quality, marbling of beef, parasite resistance and feed efficiency.
Cattle, particularly dairy cattle, have always attracted more interest than other species.
Subsequently, foreign aid and development projects are numerous in this sector. A
widespread attempt to increase the national output from animal production in developing
countries was to introduce improved temperate breeds for pure- and crossbreeding, so
starting gene flow considerably larger than in other species. However, due to complex
reasons such as genotype-environment interactions and socio-economic prevalence,
success varied.
The introduced breeds must be suited to the climate for projects to be successful, and for
the impact of the gene flow to be sustained. Looking at projects that introduced improved
breeds into the most difficult production environment, the humid tropics, we can see the
correlation between suitability and success. Additionally, stable politics and socio-
economic factors have been identified as important for a projects success.
The suitability of imported breeds for prevailing production systems determines their
impact on existing breeds. In cattle more than in other species, the prevailing production
conditions, especially the climate, decide over the breeding or production purpose.
The spread of the Holstein breed is a vivid example of the global impact of a single-
purpose high-yielding dairy breed suitable for the whole range of temperate, dry tropical
and subtropical zones where the production conditions favour dairy production. Efforts to
introduce Holstein cattle into the humid tropics have generally failed.

Many breeds are suitable for diverse purposes in the different ecozones: While B. taurus
breeds from Britain and from the European continent are suitable for the temperate zone,
B. taurus x B. indicus crosses, Zebu breeds, Sanga breeds and other indigenous breeds are
suitable for the hotter areas.
Productive dairy cattle for the humid tropics require some taurine blood with a high gene
frequency for milk combined with a Zebu breed for adaptability. In the tropical and
subtropical zone of Asia breeding emphasises crossbreeding for milk production but there
is also some development of beef.
When cattle producers need multi-purpose cattle or if product prices do not justify costly
inputs, other breeds and breeding methods are used. Here, the Sahiwal (Zebu) and its
crosses with temperate zone dairy and dual-purpose breeds are useful.
The Simmental breed was originally dual-purpose and has proved its suitability under
various production systems and climates. The use varies from country to country
depending on milk prices and the milk-beef-price ratio. In Central and Eastern Europe the
breed is used as a genuine dual-purpose breed. In the New World and Northwest Europe it
is mainly used for beef. Simmental genetic material has been used in crossbreeding for
industrial crosses, to develop new composite breeds, and to upgrade local cattle breeds.
Simbra became the most widely distributed synthetic breed to which Simmental has made
substantial contributions. The Brahman, adapted to hot climates due to its superior
thermoregulation, and the Santa Gertrudis breeds had the most influence on beef cattle
breeding in the tropical and subtropical zones of the New World. But they were found to
be poor subsistence milk suppliers for pastoral herdsmen.
The lack of genotype-environment interaction evaluations led to the foundation of the
International Bull Evaluation Service (Interbull) to avoid sires of temperate origin being
genetically overestimated when used in tropical and subtropical countries.
Developing countries are in demand for improved dairy and multiple-purpose breeds to
increase productivity of farming. Based on the good global access to cattle genetic
resources, gene flow of dairy cattle breeds is the most extensive global exchange of genetic
resources compared to other cattle breeds and pigs, sheep and goats.
If the introduced improved breeds are suited to prevailing environments and production
conditions, gene flow contributes significantly to developing the economy and reducing
poverty by improving productivity and thus milk and red meat production. Gene flow is
particularly important for economic development where the low production potential of the
local breeds does not allow quick improvements using within-breed selection. Local
genetic resources are however important for resource-poor farmers who depend on them
and their adaptation to their production systems for their livelihoods, as they are often not
included in improvements.
Introducing foreign genotypes into existing breeds has always been important to develop
and improve cattle breeds. In the history of cattle, gene flow has contributed significantly
to diversity. The growing global need for improved animal productivity has increased
demand for improved genotypes. Based on the current good global access to cattle genetic
resources, current cattle gene flow is dominated by source countries with advanced

breeding structures, mainly developed countries, with the main gene flows north to north
and north to south. At the same time, animals from developed countries increasingly
belong to a small number of high performance breeds selected over the last two centuries
and strongly influenced by controlled science-funded breeding programs. They give high
yields but require standard conditions and high inputs to exploit their potential. The global
gene flow of relatively few numbers of breeds is significant and most evident in dairy
cattle breeding.
The impact of this gene transfer on biodiversity depends mainly on the suitability of the
breeds to their new production environment, and is measurable in changes to the national
population composition. If the breeds are suitable and the new breeds add to existing
genotypes, then biodiversity increases. If the new genotypes replace existing breeds,
biodiversity is lost. Examples for both situations are numerous in cattle transfer. Whether
the new breeds co-exist with or replace native breeds depends on various factors, such as
the prevalence of the production system, which the new breed is meant for.
In developing countries, where in general extensive smallholder production systems
prevail, dilution or replacement, mainly through crossbreeding, are likely where the new
genotypes are suitable for, available to and adopted by the local breeders. Then, economic
development of the smallholders livelihoods may conflict with increasing biodiversity.
More often, these introduced genotypes require intensive production environments and
therefore add to the extensively managed local breeds. However, through local market
competition intensive production units threaten traditional production systems - the
livelihoods of smallholder farmers - and with them the local genetic resources. The more
commercial the sector is the greater the threat of lost biodiversity. Therefore, dairy cattle
breed diversity possibly faces the most severe threat compared to other cattle breeds or
small ruminants. Niche market production using local breeds to serve specific local
consumer preferences that may preserve diversity is less important in cattle production
compared to sheep and goats.
Apart from the main stream of high-yielding breeds from developed countries, gene flow
takes place from both developed and developing countries, which control some unique
genotypes. Global transfer of these genotypes generally contributes to biodiversity,
particularly if they are threatened in their native countries.
The information base of current cattle gene flow, particularly dairy cattle, was much better
compared to the other species. Nevertheless, it was limited. Countries with highly
organised cattle breeding structures were expected to have statistical databases on breeding
stock transfer and changes in national population composition. However, only Europe had
such records available and accessible in the form of the Eurostat statistic database.
Furthermore, the records allowed only limited interpretation of gene flow. Records did not
include breed details so the influence of single breeds could not be determined. It was also
unclear how these records reflected true volumes of animal transfer, for example whether
animal transfers for development projects were included. Only the exchange of
purebreeding stock was recorded. With commercialisation, export and import statistics are
inadequate to depict gene flow, and company figures would be more suitable. As
international breeding companies restrict access to their information, this information was
in general limited.

The FAO gave official national statistics on the exchange of live animals but the exchanges
were not exclusively for breeding. In some cases country reports included the necessary
information, but when they did the usual focus was on imports not exports. Exports could
only be traced indirectly as imports into other countries. Therefore, an important source of
recorded information on gene flow was generally left out. This was particularly negative
for developing countries, where records of animal movements rarely exist and country
reports, if they do exist, do not contain the desired details. Export data from developed
countries could have supplied that missing data. This means there is little information
about gene flow from developing countries particularly South to South movements, which
would have been interesting.
In general single transactions are impossible to follow up. However, there were examples
for all species where the transfer of a few animals had major impacts on global gene flow.
These examples become clear only retrospectively through changes to national population
composition. This indicator of gene flow is an important tool in the study. One information
source were the Country Reports on animal genetic resources. The information content
varied greatly between the available reports.
With increasing global mobility and biotechnology, cattle gene flow in particular has
increased and become more complicated, putting severe limits on the global study. The
study had to refrain from quantifying cattle gene flow on a global scale and from
concluding on any other than a very general sense.
Considering the limited data available to this study, further actions are needed to improve
the information available about current cattle gene flow. Due to the importance of
international breeding and trade organisations in cattle gene flow, the quantity of
information recorded was satisfactory. However, the accessibility and the quality of data
must be improved considerably for satisfactory impact evaluation studies in future.
Improving data quality and quantity, including import and export figures, in developing
countries particularly, is not realistic in the near future. Therefore the focus should be to
derive reliable data on national population composition changes, which calls for frequent
census studies of breeds and genotypes. This approach, which for most countries is
challenging enough, would avoid the time consuming tracing of complex gene flow routes
and instead starts right at evaluating impacts on biodiversity and economic development.
Additionally, many weaknesses of the current information base could be reduced such as
the different comprehension of the status of national genetic resources by different groups.
Each country should, after its evaluation of the national situation, control gene flow to
improve the situation.
In developing countries biodiversity and poverty reduction are two main aims animal
production has to deal with. Concepts, which serve both at the same time, by preserving or
even improving smallholder livelihoods in marginal areas based on their indigenous
genetic resources, should be rated highly. Further identification and evaluation of genetic
resources is required, to measure genetic distance to other breeds, their genetic potential
and performance in different production systems and their risk status, although much work
has already been done in cattle compared to other species. Biodiversity impacts should be
taken into account when evaluating framework conditions.

Developing suitable breeds requires responsibly selecting imported breeds, comparing
performance of different pure- and crossbred genotypes, and evaluating the natural,
economic, social and cultural conditions. Conservation has to be treated separately but
alongside economic development. Conserving national genetic resources through
crossbreeding can be considered as well as using foreign breeds, which are under threat at
their country of origin. Such approaches should preferably be carried out on farm with
farmer participation.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes are in global demand. Given the
complexity of gene flow, once a genetic resource has been transferred in whatever quantity
it is difficult to follow up the routes for global exchanges. The control of gene flow should
therefore be individually considered and recorded from the beginning and not
retrospectively.
3.4 Global gene flow of pigs
The objective of the global gene flow study in pigs was to understand the magnitude and
direction of movement of pig genetic resources, to analyse main factors effecting pig gene
flow and to conclude on its impacts on biodiversity and economic development in the
countries of destination. Limitations of the study and need for further actions are derived.
The study consists of two parts, the historic development and the current status of gene
flow. The Large White and Duroc breed have been chosen to highlight typical
developments.
Material from various sources has been used. Data was sourced from the Eurostat statistic
database for the exchange of purebred pigs, from Country Reports on the State of Animal
Genetic Resources, and from reports and publications from regional experts and breeding
organisations. Considered that crossbred animals have gained increasing importance, the
trade with breeding pigs cannot be quantified easily. Commercial companies dominate the
exchange market of some major countries and details are normally confidential.
Information on the current status of gene flow was therefore largely based on interviews
with Dr. Maurice Bichard, a senior expert and a retired leading scientist of the former Pig
Improvement Company Limited (PIC), and Mr. David Steane who provided additional
information for Southeast Asia. Isolated statistics of Southeast Asia and Canada were
additionally used to fill information gaps.
With regard to the historic development, influences of domestication, breed formation,
human migration, and breeding methods on the diversification of pigs are summarised. The
depiction of the current status of gene flow focuses on selected export and import
information and on indicators for the introduction of foreign genetic material characterised
for regional clusters.
Historic development
Although conflicting theories exist about the domestication of pigs, it is evident that
domestication initiated historic gene flow in pigs and human migration and colonisation
activities continued the global dissemination of pig breeds. The formation of breed
societies in the 18th century in Britain pushed the development of pig breeds and distinct
types based on pigs imported from China and Indo-China.

In the 1930s Mendelian genetics was combined with statistical methods to produce a
theoretical basis for animal improvement. This methodology took gradually over from
traditional methods as the driving force for pig improvement. Additionally, a general trend
to more concentrated pig production was observed worldwide.
Since the 1970s, profound changes in pig production influenced gene flow significantly.
Technical changes led to an increased professionalism and through increased investment
demands to an increased commercialisation. As the whole production chain increased in
scale, organisational changes have been driven by increased competition. Gene flow since
then has been characterised by a new dimension in internationalisation and liberalisation.
The expression and expansion of hybrid breeding in pigs reflects on the degree of
commercialisation in pig gene flow with increased tendencies to monopolisation. Breeding
pigs worldwide are today mainly distributed by a few international breeding companies,
particularly in the case of hybrid pigs. While in the past developed countries contributed
most to the dissemination of genetic material, nowadays there are strong breeding
enterprises also e.g. in Thailand, the Philippines and China.
In the second half of the 20th century increased global mobility has intensified and
complicated the routes of transfer of breeding stock. Freight costs, veterinary restrictions,
welfare considerations and exchange and inflation rates are the main restriction. Although
international breeding companies strongly utilise all biotechnological methods, until today,
mainly live breeding pigs are transferred. In this development, source countries of gene
flow were those which controlled some unique genotypes, and then those which emerged
quickly from the old, conservative breed-society and government-dominated structures.
The formation of commercial pig breeds in Europe and North America depended heavily
on the introduction of foreign genetic material from Asia and soon after their establishment
they replaced indigenous breeds. The other way round, Asian countries have imported pigs
of European origin for crossbreeding. In the first four decades after World War II all
countries in the Americas, in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Thailand, and Singapore were strongly
influenced by breeds from the USA. Similarly, purebred stock from Britain went to the old
commonwealth countries Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Kenya, and Zimbabwe.
Current status
Current gene flow in pigs is more than in other species driven by growing international
competition of breeding companies. The complex organisation of international breeding
companies complicates the routes of gene flow and makes it difficult to follow up impacts.
The main planned gene flow takes place from Europe and North America into developing
countries of the South. Export quantities are difficult to estimate, mainly because almost all
companies are primarily focused on providing breeding stock for their home country.
Generally commercial companies sell relatively few high-priced pigs to an overseas
customer. As in recent years the market for breeding stock has become more difficult
within their home countries, the national companies have taken increasing interest in
exports.
Apart from the main planned flows from Europe and North America into developing
countries of the South, there is unplanned "leakage" or gene flow from primary customers
to neighbouring countries. Although the main pig gene flow is expected to take place in
commercial production, there is a continuous trend to replace local breeds with exotics.

In the analysis of the historic development and the current status of gene flow three main
factors affecting gene flow were identified:
1. Breeding organisations
In pig breeding, the impact of changes in breeding and trade organisation on gene flow is
most evident. With the involvement of new production areas in Latin America, Southeast
Asia, and Eastern Europe and the exponential growth of the North American agro-industry
in combination with trade liberalisation, a situation of increased competition and
commercialisation occurred in the sector. The competition created the necessity to
increased quality, diversity and quantity of genetic products. This development called for
corresponding breeding programmes and the advanced use of biotechnology. Under the
economic pressure of reduced profit margins, and to secure breeding progress and sale
volumes, the concentration level rose. An increased tendency to monopolisation was
observed with leading positions of those countries which most quickly had emerged from
the old, conservative breed-society and government-dominated structures, giving Europe
and North America unattainable advantages over the rest of the world. However, nowadays
there are strong breeding enterprises e.g. in Thailand, the Philippines and China. In
consequence, national pig breeding programmes as well as pig breeding companies are
becoming increasingly similar in their structures.
With regard to gene flow, the numbers of breeds used in the commercial pig breeding
programmes is reduced to a few world wide and their genetic variation is considerably
reduced. Increasing concentration has lead to the increased inflow of these breeds into
many parts of the world. The development of hybrid breeding leads to the control of gene
flow through the commercial companies. As in general main pig gene flow takes place in
commercial production, there is a continuous trend of replacement of traditional breeds
through the competition of commercial and traditional pig production in the national
market. On the other hand, unique germplasm from Asian breeds plays a vital role in
commercial pig breeding companies of European and North American origin. In
conclusion, important source countries need the control over unique genotypes to ensure
their market position.
In pig breeding it becomes evident that with the increasing degree of commercialisation
gene flow becomes less traceable through export and import. Single company transactions
are impossible to follow up but may have high impacts.
2. Regulations
As dissemination of breeding pigs is mainly facilitated by few international breeding
companies particularly for hybrid pigs, technically transport of any magnitude and distance
has become possible. Practically, gene flow faces restrictive challenges through veterinary
regulations and welfare considerations as still mainly only breeding animals are
transferred. Strict health regulations also force franchises of the big international pig
breeding companies to utilise existing breeds. Strict health regulations have on the other
hand prevented countries to benefit from international progress.
3. Research and commercial interests
As in the pig sector, consumers preferences play an important role there is a potential
demand for specific genes to serve these preferences. Some examples of Taihu imports by
France, The Netherlands, the UK and USA fall under this category but no commercial

impact has been stated so far. Some interest in Vietnamese pot-bellied pigs as pets has
been reported.
In general, not much information was accessible on foreign aid and development projects
and their impacts on the pig sector. In the case of Vietnam, as reported in detail in the case
study, exotic breeds have been promoted and imported in the frame of governmental
strategies on an intensive scale and the impact of these state-run breeding stations has been
considerable with regard to gene flow. In national development projects and breed
distribution projects the distribution has been executed. Additionally, the Vietnamese
research and educational system supported the use of exotic breeds and crossbreds
inclusively advanced management techniques and the promotion of the use of AI through
the building of AI stations. Since the late 1980s with the start of the open door policy,
additionally governmental and non-governmental organisations have played a role in
introduction and distribution of higher-yielding pig genotypes in smaller and bigger
projects. In consequence, most indigenous breeds show declining population trends and the
majority of breeds is in a vulnerable or critical state, even facing extinction. Only a small
number of breeding centres and research institutes keeps local breeds for crossbreeding and
conservation. Due to the non-centralised breeding organisation in Vietnam, neither genetic
improvement nor breed replacement and conservation are uniform across regions.
In commercial pig production, the environment is normally shaped according to the needs
of the pigs. Adaptability problems are therefore in most cases reduced. Therefore, in breed
comparisons of indigenous with exotic breeds and their crossbreds, the exotic genotypes
hold the leading rankings. Subsequently, commercial pig stock even in tropical and
subtropical climates, principally exists of commercial hybrids but also exotic purebreeding
lines.
However, genotypes from temperate regions and their crosses face severe problems when
confronted with traditional management conditions in developing countries. Furthermore
to avoid loss of heterosis in consecutive generations continual inflow of exotic germplasm
is necessary which makes the success of crossbreeding schemes at small-scale level
doubtful. Institutional, organisational and technical support are required for these
crossbreeding schemes not to fail. In case of no further access to exotic breeds, the impact
of punctual crossbreeding on the local populations vanished from generation to generation.
With regard to the high degree of commercialisation and competition of international pig
production, the impact of gene flow on economic development is different from other farm
animal sectors. Economic development of pig breeding and production is taking place
where developing countries have managed to participate in the international competition,
as for examples the case with strong breeding enterprises in Thailand, the Philippines and
China.
In commercial pig production, suitability of the imported genotypes to traditional
management conditions in developing countries are of minor importance. As mentioned
above the success of crossbreeding schemes at small-scale level are doubtful. Local genetic
resources are therefore important for resource-poor farmers who depend on local breeds

and their adaptation to their production systems for their livelihoods. Through market
competition of intensive production units with extensive production systems, the
livelihoods of smallholders are under threat. As production systems of exotic and native
genetic resources differ most and the degree of commercialisation is most advanced,
negative effects for smallholders are the most severe in the pig sector.
Apart from the main stream of gene flow of high-yielding breeds from developed
countries, gene flow takes place from countries, which control some unique genotypes
displaying specific characters with regard to local market preferences. Developing
countries which are of control of a genetic resource of international demand have to be
aware of the international competition and insure the national exploitation of the resource
with regard to its economic potential.
The influx of foreign genotypes into existing breeds has always been an important
component in the development and improvement of breeds. In the history of pigs, gene
flow from various directions has contributed significantly to diversification. Current gene
flow is domineered by the high degree of commercialisation in the pig sector. Transferred
breeding pigs increasingly belong to a small number of high performance breeds and
hybrids selected for high yields requiring standardised conditions and high inputs for
exploitation of their potential developed over the last two centuries and strongly influenced
by controlled scientifically funded breeding programs. These introduced genotypes require
more intensive production environments and therefore add to the more extensively
managed local breeds. However, through competitive effects on the local markets,
intensive production units put traditional production systems under threat and with them
the local genetic resources which due to their specific adaptation local farmers depend on
for their livelihoods. The more commercial the sector is the greater the threat of loss of
biodiversity. Niche market production through local breeds serving specific local consumer
preferences may control these negative effects. Careful production system analysis is
therefore demanded to conclude on the impact of gene flow on biodiversity.
As mentioned above, apart from the main stream of gene flow of high-yielding genotypes,
gene flow takes place from countries, regardless if developed or developing, which control
some unique genotypes. The formation of some high-yielding breeds from developed
countries themselves depended on the introduction of foreign genetic material, for example
the formation of European and North American commercial pig breeds which heavily
depended on the introduction of genetic material from Asia. Research and commercial
interests point at such genotypes of current and future importance. Global transfer of these
genotypes generally contributes to biodiversity and particularly if these genotypes are
threatened in their native countries. Niche market production through foreign breeds with
specific attributes serving local market preferences are additional examples of benefits of
biodiversity through transfer of unique genotypes.
The most limiting factor of the study was the information basis of current gene flow. From
countries with highly organised breeding structures statistical data bases on breeding stock
transfer and changes in national population composition were expected. For Europe, such
statistic in terms of the Eurostat statistic database was available and accessible. However,
the records allowed only limited interpretation with regard to pig gene flow. First of all,

recording was not done at breed level so that necessary interpretations on the influence of
single breeds were not possible. Furthermore, only the exchange of purebred breeding
stock was recorded. Purebreeding statistics are however of minor importance in pig
breeding where hybrids play a vital role. Additionally, with increasing degree of
commercialisation of this sector, export and import statistics are less adequate to depict
gene flow but company figures would be more suitable. Due to restricted information
policy of international breeding companies this information in general lacks. In
commercialised breeding sectors as the case in the pig breeding, gene flow additionally
underestimates the global influence of single breeds when the breeds are being multiplied
in national centres. Data on the exchange of semen were in general lacking.
The Country Reports on the State of Animal Genetic Resources in some cases compiled
necessary information. However, if country reports included data on animal transfer, the
usual focus was on imports put not on exports. Exports could only be traced indirectly as
imports into other countries. Therefore, an important source of recorded information on
gene flow was generally left out. This had particularly negative consequences with regard
to information on gene flow into developing countries. Here records of animal movements
do rarely exist and country reports, if existing, cannot contain the desirable detailed
information. Export data from developed countries could principally have closed that
information gap. This throws light on the lack of information of gene flow from
developing countries particularly from South to South movements which would have
constituted an interesting aspect of gene flow if depictable.
In general it became evident that single transactions are impossible to follow up. However,
particular in the commercialised pig breeding sector, the transaction of few animals may
have major impacts on global gene flow. These examples become however only
retrospectively evident as changes of national population composition making this
indicator of gene flow an important tool in the study. Main information source were again
the Country Reports which were therefore treated with special reference in the global
study. The information content varied greatly between the available reports. Additionally, a
major limitation of the country reports with regard to information on changes in national
population composition was put forward in the pig case study. It was assumed that in the
case of Vietnam in the country report the negative influence of foreign genotypes on local
breeds were probably only realised if direct interference of both took place but that the true
picture remained underestimated according to more updated sources if there was no direct
interference.
Due to the limited information basis, the study had to restrain from quantifying pig gene
flow on a global scope. It was shown that pig gene flow is a very complex and dynamic
process with many factors varying the possible impacts from case to case. The impact
evaluation of global gene flow on economic development and biodiversity as treated above
therefore at purpose concluded at a very general and qualitative basis. The study
objectively analysis possible aspects of gene flow and is meant to provide scientifically
founded information for decision makers in the ongoing discussion on global gene flow
and its impacts. The study is certainly not suitable to finalise this discussion.
With regard to the limitations of the data bases accessed in this study, further actions are
needed to improve the information status on current pig gene flow. The accessibility of

data of the breeding companies would need considerable improvement to allow
satisfactory impact evaluation studies in future. For the improvement of data quality and
data quantity in developing countries the focus should be set at deriving reliable data on
national population composition changes which call for frequently carried out census
studies at breed respectively genotype level. This approach would avoid the time
consuming tracing of complex gene flow routes instead starts right at the impact evaluation
level with regard to biodiversity and on to economic development. Additionally, many
weaknesses of the information base could be minimised such as the different
comprehension of the status of national genetic resources through different groups.
Each country should subsequent to its evaluation of the national situation make use of the
identified control mechanisms of gene flow to or from the country to manipulate the
situation to its better.
In developing countries biodiversity and poverty reduction are two main claims future
animal production has to deal with. Concepts which serve both claims at the same time by
preserving or even improving smallholder livelihoods in marginal areas based on their
indigenous genetic resources, can therefore not be acknowledged high enough. From these
concepts derive the need for the further identification and evaluation of the genetic
resources in terms of genetic distance to other breeds, their genetic potential and
performance in different production systems and their risk status. There also derives the
need to take biodiversity impacts into account when framework conditions are evaluated.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes are in global demand. Based on the
depicted complexity of gene flow, it is concluded that once a genetic resource has been
transferred in whatever quantity it is difficult to follow up the routes of gene flow. The
control of gene flow should therefore be individually considered and instrumentalised in
advance and not in retrospective.
MAIN FINDINGS OF CASE STUDIES 49

4 MAIN FINDINGS OF CASE STUDIES
In the following chapters the main findings of the case studies are summarised. The
extended versions of the case studies are found in the Annex chapters 9.6 to 9.9.
The case studies facilitated the examination of specific aspects of gene flow. In the case of
the improves Awassi and Assaf breeds from Israel it was attempted to depict the historic
development and current status of gene flow of these particular breeds, and to conclude on
their global impacts. The goat case study depicts the history and global development of the
Anglo Nubian breed and focuses in its impact study on the specific case of smallholder
farms in Bolivia. The cattle case study is based on the depiction of the origin, global
transfer and utilisation of the Boran and Tuli breeds with special reference to the issue of
access and benefit sharing. The pig case study represents an impact study of exotic pig
breeds in Vietnam with regard to socio-economic development and biodiversity. Besides
information from databases, country reports and publications, the case studies particularly
depended on information from regional expert organisations.
from Israel
T. Rummel, A. Valle Zrate and E. Gootwine
The sheep case study depicts the development of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds in
Israel and their worldwide spread.
The information was gathered using documents from the Ministry of Agriculture of Israel
to identify destination countries and transfer stakeholders. All importing stakeholders were
contacted via e-mail and phone and informal interviews were conducted about the transfers
and about the development and current state of the breed since its import. If the direct
stakeholder of the transfer was not available for interviewing, key persons were identified
in the country and interviewed. Where published literature was available, it was used
instead of - or in addition to - personal communication.
In Israel, within-breed selection in the unimproved sheep started at the beginning of the
20th century by Jewish sheep breeders, resulting in the formation of the Improved Awassi
breed (Figure 3). The Improved Awassi differs from the unimproved Awassi mainly by its
remarkable high milk production - about 550 vs. 70 litres per lactation, respectively. To
improve its prolificacy, the Improved Awassi was crossed in the 1960s with the East
Friesian Milk sheep that was imported from Germany, resulting in the formation of the
"Assaf" with improved prolificacy of about 0.4 lambs born per lambing over the Improved
Awassi. Today, the Assaf has nearly replaced the Improved Awassi in Israels intensive
dairy sheep sector. Recently, the Booroola gene, a major gene coding high prolificacy, was
introgressed by crossbreeding to the Improved Awassi and the Assaf resulting in two new
strains, the Afec Awassi and the Afec Assaf, respectively, both with a prolificacy of about
2.0-2.4 lambs born per ewe lambing.

Figure 3: Historical overview on Awassi and Assaf breeding in Israel

The gene flow of the Improved Awassi breed of sheep from Israel started in 1965 (Figure
4). Since then, 28 transfers to 15 different countries are documented, with summarised
monetary transfers over $2 million. Totally, 5,433 lambs, 1,100 doses of frozen semen and
143 embryos of the Improved Awassi have been exported from Israel. While only 9 of
these 28 transfers have been part of development aid projects, the majority represent
commercial transfers between private sheep farmers or government institutions and
Kibutzim in Israel. Even though the biggest part of Improved Awassi breeding material,
2,944 lambs and 1,000 doses of semen, was transferred to Eastern Europe and Central Asia
(Bulgaria, Former Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and Kazakhstan), the highest numbers
of pure Improved Awassi and crossbreds with indigenous sheep are today in Spain
(150,000-200,000 sheep) and Western Australia (100,000 sheep). The transfers to the
tropical countries Burma, Ethiopia and India were part of development projects, but with
limited success. In the Middle East, a total of 1,113 Improved Awassi lambs have been
exported to Jordan, Iran, Abu Dhabi and to Turkey, where most of them were used to
improve local stocks of unimproved Awassi. The following unofficial transfers to
secondary destinations cannot be traced accurately.
The gene flow of the Assaf started in 1977 (Figure 4). 687 lambs, 11,354 doses of semen
and 260 embryos, for a total price of $333,040, have been exported from Israel in 10
transfers to 7 different countries. Only 2 transfers were part of development aid, while the
majority were commercial imports. The main stream of the gene flow of the Assaf breed of
sheep went to the Iberian Peninsular. Portugal imported 6,854 doses of frozen semen and
260 embryos in the years 1991/1992, while Spain imported 430 lambs and 4,000 doses of
semen between 1977 and 1993. In these countries the Assaf is today the dominant dairy
sheep breed, numbering over 1.2 million pure- and crossbreds. Besides the two Iberian
countries, the Assaf has been transferred to Peru, Jordan and Abu Dhabi, but with much
less effect on the sheep production sector. From Portugal, Assaf breeding material was
exported to the United Kingdom and Italy. No Assaf breeding material has been transferred
to Eastern Europe, Central Asia, Australia or New Zealand.
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Assaf
Afec
Awassi
Assaf Afec
Assaf
East Friesian Milk
Sheep, Germany
Booroola Merino,
New Zealand
Improved
rams
Hirrik ewes,
Turkey
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Assaf
Afec
Awassi
Assaf Afec
Assaf
East Friesian Milk
Sheep, Germany
Booroola Merino,
New Zealand
Improved
rams
Hirrik ewes,
Turkey


Figure 4: World wide gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from
Israel
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa

From the history and development of the Awassi of Israel, the following conclusions can
be drawn: The Improved Awassi in Israel is a successful example of within-breed
selection, without losing the adaptation of a breed to its natural environment. It also shows
the genetic potential which can slumber in indigenous breeds. Developing the Assaf breed
through crossbreeding with imported East Frisian Milk Sheep gives an example of a well
adapted composite breed. The Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines bred through introducing
the Booroola gene from New Zealand represent a very specific gene flow where only a
major gene was transferred to improve a specific trait: prolificacy. This kind of single gene
flow may dominate future breeding activities. Both the Assaf breed and the Afec lines
show the impact of economic pressure on sheep breeding. The social structure of the
agricultural sector in Israel, dominated by co-operative farm structures, had a decisive
impact on the formation of the Improved Awassi and Assaf. The fact that developing the
Improved Awassi breed and its later gene flow has begun by the return of the Jewish
people to Israel gives an example of the impact of human migration on gene flow in animal
genetic resources.
Looking at the gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from Israel
during the last 50 years and the development of the breeds in the different countries of
destination, the following conclusions can be drawn: In general, the gene flow of the
Improved Awassi and Assaf breed of sheep is characterised by free animal movements,
based on commercial interests, with a minimum of government involvement. With a few
exceptions, where the transfers were part of a bilateral co-operation program, the
movements of these breeds were commercial transfers with freely agreed benefits shared

by stakeholders, exporters and importers alike. In all cases animals were purchased.
Although Israel has an interest in exporting developed breeds, most of the transfers were
started by importers aiming to improve their national production systems. Development
projects, emergency aid and government institutions played a negligible role in the gene
flow of the Improved Awassi. The most successful developments of transferred Improved
Awassi and Assaf breeds were organised by private persons, breeders or companies
(Portugal, Spain, Australia, Hungary), while those organised by governmental institutions
and NGOs seem to have had less sustained impact on the national sheep sectors (Ethiopia,
India, Jordan, Iran). Concerning the geographical direction of the transfers, the case study
on the Improved Awassi breeds describes gene flows from south to north, north to south
and from south to south. In terms of numbers of animals established the emphasis was on
the south to north movement. Today the majority of Improved Awassi and Assaf stocks are
kept in European countries, north of Israel. Farmers of the Iberian Peninsular, where the
Assaf is the dominating milk sheep, had the highest benefit from the past gene flow of
Awassi and Assaf breeding material. While the south to north movement is dominated by
the Assaf breed, in the movement to the South the Improved Awassi plays the major role
(Australia). In the case of the Mediterranean countries, Improved Awassi and Assaf
imports had a serious impact on the traditional breed structure of milk sheep. With
increasing numbers of Assaf and Awassi during the past decade, the numbers of traditional
milk breeds like the Serra de Estrela in Portugal and the Churra and Castellana sheep in
Spain has decreased dramatically. But since those indigenous breeds are still not
endangered, the Awassi and Assaf can be considered as contributions to the genetic
diversity of these countries. In other places, like Australia, the transfer had no impact on
the mutton breed structure at all, but the new breed exploited a specialised market (Middle
Eastern premium fat-tail lamb market), to which no traditional breed fitted. The latter
example shows the feedback gene flows can have on the regions from which they
originate: the established Improved Awassi stock of Australia already supplies the Middle
Eastern market with premium fat-tail lamb through considerable live exports to these
countries, which will increase with growing stock numbers in Australia, and this competes
with local sheep breeders in the Middle East.
An important stimulus for the gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of
sheep was the development and spread of artificial insemination (AI) and embryo transfer
technology, creating an efficient tool to replace expensive live animal transfers and to
reduce the threat of importing foreign diseases. The rapid increase of the breed on the
Iberian Peninsula would not have been possible without those technologies. Similarly,
introducing the Improved Awassi via live animal import to Australia would probably have
been denied by the national veterinary departments, in order to prevent foreign diseases
being imported with them and threatening the national sheep production sector.
An additional aspect of gene flows in animal genetic resources can be seen in the transfers
of Improved Awassi and Assaf breeding material to Jordan and to the Palestinian
Territories. In addition to their economic benefits for the local sheep breeders, those
transfers have been part of an ongoing peace process and international co-operation.
Sharing achievements, in this case in animal production, can build confidence. But these
examples also show that politically motivated actions are often less successful than
commercial ones.

With intensive management on station, the Improved Awassi showed a higher level of
performance in most countries in milk and mutton compared to indigenous breeds. But in
several examples, especially in the tropical countries India and Ethiopia, but also in
Eastern European countries, the Improved Awassi could not maintain its level of
performance in local production systems with low input. This shows the importance of
production system analysis before introducing a foreign breed or crossbred, in order to
prevent a mismatch of breed and production system.
Gene flow of animal genetic resources often includes a flow of animal diseases. Local
breeds are often not adapted to exotic diseases. In developing countries, where the need to
raise the performance of local breeds in order to provide food is high, import regulations
and restrictions have often been insufficient, as was seen in Ethiopia. On the other hand,
government restrictions and import policies can be major obstacles to gene flow, as seen in
Portugal and Australia. In Portugal, exporting Assaf breeding material is increasingly
difficult due to tightening European laws for genetic transfers. In the case of Australia,
government restrictions and veterinary requirements increased the organisational and
monetary investments dramatically, restricting animal transfers only to people or
organisations with sufficiently high financial capital.
Examples for a lack of fit to the production environment are the attempts of introducing the
Improved Awassi to India and Romania, while the cases of Ethiopia and Britain illustrate a
lack of fit between breed and production system or environment/climate conditions.
in smallholder farms in Bolivia
A. Stemmer, C. Gall, A. Valle Zrate
The Anglo Nubian is an example of a breed developed by combining genetic resources
from different parts of the world to optimise performance and adaptation to tropical
conditions. It is a dual-purpose goat used for milk and meat production. Its origin can be
traced to Nubian goats and the Indian dairy breed Jamnapari, which may have a common
ancestor in ancient Iran. The Nubian group includes the Zaraibi, Damascus and Sudanese
Nubian. Herdbooks of the Anglo Nubian are kept in Britain, the USA, Canada and
Australia. The countries of the South with purebred or crossbred Anglo Nubians have no
such official records and information on numbers is scarce or non-existent. Information
was compiled through available project reports, literature, statistical records where
available and accessible and interviews with experts.
during the second half of the 19th century. In 1910, the Anglo Nubian was recognised as a
breed in England and registry began. Anglo Nubians were exported for the first time from
Britain to the USA in 1909 (Figure 5), reaching a total of about 30 goats up to 1950. Here,
Anglo Nubians were bred and selected without any further crossbreeding with other
breeds.
impact on Anglo Nubians there until the late 1940s. From the USA Anglo Nubians were
exported to Puerto Rico and Latin America as early as the 1940s. Later on, Anglo Nubians
were exported from Britain and the USA in several development efforts in Latin America,

Africa and Asia. In some countries, Anglo Nubians continue to be kept as purebreds
(Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, several Caribbean states, Egypt, Israel, Oman, India,
Bangladesh, The Philippines, Mauritius and Malaysia) although numbers are sometimes so
small that it is difficult to conserve the population (Venezuela, Ecuador, Thailand). More
widespread is the use of the Anglo Nubian in crossbreeding. In some countries, like Chile,
imported Anglo Nubians together with other specialised breeds caused a decline in number
of the local Criollo goat.
Figure 5: Gene flow of the Anglo Nubian goat

In Bolivia, there are no official records on the introduction of goats from outside Bolivia.
The case study is based on information compiled from project reports and personal
telephone or e-mail interviews with development workers of governmental and non-
governmental organisations, goat keepers and other experts.
Goats in Bolivia are mainly kept in the inter-Andean valleys at altitudes ranging from
1,000 to 3,000 meters. Anglo Nubian goats have been imported to Bolivia in the late 1960s
up to the present. Animals originated in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay or the USA; semen
was introduced from Germany. There have also been exchanges between different parts of
the country. Anglo Nubians were introduced in the regions with a tradition in goat keeping,
namely the departments of Cochabamba, Tarija, Chuquisaca, Potosi, and some parts of
Santa Cruz. The majority of imports and exchanges within Bolivia were planned and
handled by development agencies (6 cases), non-governmental organisations (3 cases) and
Argentina
Mexico
Venezuela
Chile
Per
Ecuador
Bolivia
Brasil
Belice
Guayana
British Caribbean
Malasia
India Bangladesh
Australia
New Zealand
USA
Oman
Ethiopia
Israel
Kenya
Great Britain High volume
Low volume
Europe
Middle East
Asia
Africa
Caribbean and
South America
Oceania
North and Central
America
Canada
Argentina
Mexico
Venezuela
Chile
Per
Ecuador
Bolivia
Brasil
Belice
Guayana
British Caribbean
Malasia
India Bangladesh
Australia
New Zealand
USA
Oman
Ethiopia
Israel
Kenya
Low volume
Europe
Middle East
Asia
Africa
Caribbean and
South America
Oceania
North and Central
America
Canada

universities (2 cases) while only in a few cases did individual goat owners import Anglo
Nubians.
Successes or failures of these introductions of Anglo Nubians to different production
systems and climates can be summarised as follows:
Anglo Nubian populations increased in intensive or semi-intensive management systems
including health care, improved housing and fodder production. These conditions are
found in institutional flocks or those managed by private entrepreneurs. In these
intensively managed goat farms, purebred Anglo Nubians have positive impacts because of
their good adaptation to the climate of the inter-Andean valleys and their high yields.
In semi-extensive management, this breed is able to survive but its production potential is
not fully realised. There are only few examples of persistent Anglo Nubian populations in
these conditions, and all of them include some access to the market so that goat owners can
sell cheeses at least during part of the year. Another prerequisite is the extension service
needed to assist goat owners with the introduced breed so that they can respond to the
higher needs of Anglo Nubians compared to the Criollo goats in terms of better housing,
parasite control and improved feeding. In extensive management, Anglo Nubians did not
last for long.
The time needed to adapt to a new environment can be very long when adult animals are
transferred from one climate to another, in some cases only the offspring of the introduced
animals adapt well. Purebreds could not be transferred to smallholding conditions without
mortalities surpassing 50% and high abortion rates. When introduction is in the form of a
slow process using young pure or halfbred bucks for breeding, results are much more
favourable. Where animals were given to goat keepers as development aid, no direct
monetary loss for the farmers was recorded. Introducing crossbreds can result in benefits to
those smallholders who are able to make use of the higher milk production by marketing
part of the cheeses produced. A possible negative impact is the greater need of the
crossbreds for improved management, which translates into higher monetary input.
The impact of introducing Anglo Nubians on the Criollo goat population has been very
limited in Bolivia. Today, Criollo goats far outnumber Anglo Nubians and crossbreds. A
negative impact on the Criollo goat population, though, can be seen in the efforts and
financing that was spent in introducing Anglo Nubians to climates and management
systems not suitable to the breed. Had the same effort been spent in their improved
breeding and management, economic impact might have been higher.
The impact of introducing Anglo Nubians on the environment was positive in those cases
where there was a simultaneous improvement of the pastures caused by rotating flocks and
building enclosures. Inputs in infrastructure and management were responded to by high
performance of the improved breed, making sense of restricting flock sizes and movements
of the animals.
The gene flow between developed countries was realised by private persons and on a
commercial basis, whereas the transfers from developed to developing countries often
involved development agencies. In the case of Bolivia, the gene flow was planned mainly
by agencies, and only in few instances by goat keepers. There were also gene flows
between countries of South America.

In Bolivia, the introduction of Anglo Nubians was met with failure when the planning was
done merely by development agencies without considering or even knowing the production
systems involved. On the other hand, careful planning and involvement of the goat keepers
themselves led to success.
Finance for introducing the Anglo Nubians came mostly from development agencies,
governmental or non-governmental. Only in few cases did private financing occur. It is
concluded that in most cases, smallholder goat keepers did not suffer financial losses due
to the introduction of Anglo Nubians, however public incentives frequently did not pay
back. The negative aspect of the transfer of Anglo Nubians lies in the effort spent
introducing and adapting a foreign breed to the conditions of Bolivia, while the local
genetic resource, the Criollo goat, has been neglected both by researchers and development
agencies. The Criollo has a high variability and production potential that can be utilised if
these animals are included in research on management and breeding improvement.
issue of Access and Benefit Sharing
S. Homann, J.H. Maritz, C.G. Hlsebusch, K. Meyn, A. Valle Zrate
cattle production in sub-/tropical environments worldwide. In this context, controversy has
arisen about conservation-through-utilisation strategies and access and benefit sharing.
The present case study attempts to describe the worldwide transfer of genetic material of
the Boran from East Africa and the Tuli from Southern Africa. The so-called Improved
Boran is the result of intensive ongoing breeding started by British settlers in Kenya from
the indigenous Boran cattle stock of southern Ethiopia, south-eastern Somalia and northern
Kenya. The Tuli evolved from indigenous Sanga cattle from Zimbabwe and eastern
Botswana, and was maintained and improved on state breeding and research stations in
Zimbabwe. Available information was gathered from the scientific literature and from the
internet. Networks involved in using and conserving cattle genetic resources were
identified and semi-structured interviews were held with key people involved in the
breeding of, research into, and utilisation and conservation of the Boran and Tuli.
The aim of this study was to give an overview of the origin and movements of the two
breeds (Figure 6 and Figure 7). Their worldwide distribution, performance and further
development in other countries are reviewed. The formation of Boran and Tuli cattle
breeders societies and their national and international networks are reviewed, as well as
government breeding and trade policies and their impact on the further development of the
breeds. Data on imported and exported germplasm as well as the current livestock
populations are quantified for each country where possible. Issues concerning the modes of
transfer of genetic material and access and benefit sharing for livestock genetic resources
are addressed.

material from Eastern and Southern Africa
Ethiopia
Kenya Uganda
Congo
Zambia
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Swaziland South Africa
Australia
USA
Mexico
Brazil
Somalia
Nigeria
Unimproved Boran
Improved Boran
North- and
South America
Eastern Africa
Southern Africa
Australia
Ethiopia
Kenya Uganda
Congo
Zambia
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Australia
USA
Mexico
Brazil
Somalia
Nigeria
Unimproved Boran Unimproved Boran
Improved Boran Improved Boran
North- and
South America
Eastern Africa
Southern Africa
Australia

Figure 7: Worldwide transfers of Tuli cattle breeding material from Southern Africa
Botswana Namibia Zimbabwe
South Africa
Australia
USA
Canada
Mexico
Argentina
Gabon
North- and South
America
Southern
Africa
Australia
Tuli
South Africa
Australia
USA
Canada
Mexico
Argentina
Gabon
North- and South
America
Southern
Africa
Australia
Tuli Tuli

rangelands in southern Ethiopia. The Tuli cattle (Bos taurus) descend from a small nucleus
strategies. In Kenya, subsequent breeding of the Boran cattle was started by British settlers,
developed at government breeding and research stations from the early 20th century.

environmental constraints. Boran cattle showed high fertility and production in low-input
produced comparatively better in high-input environments.
producers - imported the first Boran and Tuli embryos from Zambia and Zimbabwe. In
Nebraska and Texas, USA, where the largest germplasm comparison programmes on beef
cattle in the world were undertaken. The breeds also found their way into the Australian,
American, and South American beef industries through various other channels.
schemes or in the formation of composite breeds are scarce. From the few available
figures, the population of these breeds in these countries is small. Given the overall size of
the beef industry, with 94.9 million head of beef cattle in the USA and 26.4 million head in
origin, although they are still used - particularly the Improved Boran in Kenya - for
Some Non-Governmental Organisations argue that the Boran and Tuli were exploited by

From the history and development of the Boran and Tuli cattle breeds, the following
conclusions to be drawn:
Improving the Boran and Tuli cattle breeds in their African environment is an example of
successful within-breed selection and dissemination, maintaining a strong resistance to
environmental stress. It is also an example for the comparative advantage of locally
adapted breeds over imported exotic breeds.
The genetic material from the Boran and Tuli breeds - despite high expectations - does not
seem to have significantly contributed to upgrading the international beef industry,
although the actual impact cannot be quantified with the available data. However, the use
of these breeds is an example for international gene transfers and the existing demand of
industrial beef producers for new genetic material, which has particular beef quality traits
and traits of adaptation to harsh environments.
The trade in Boran and Tuli genetic material has raised awareness of the potential of
germplasm from developing countries for livestock industry sectors in developed
countries, and underlines the advantage of conserving livestock biodiversity for the future.
The example has drawn public attention back to the value of Boran and Tuli purebreds in
Africa. It has also contributed to raise awareness for adaptive traits and for beef quality
traits in cattle breeding.
Embryo transfer and artificial insemination were the prerequisite for international trade of
Boran and Tuli genetic material in that these techniques have overcome the sanitary
barriers between the African countries and Australia. They have also reduced the costs and
burden of live animal exports. This was crucial for the initial dispersion of Boran and Tuli
germplasm to the world market.
Vertical integration of multiple stakeholders - research institutions, government agencies,
beef industry and individual business people - has essentially contributed to the initial
transfer of Boran and Tuli genetic material to industrial countries as well as to their further
marketing, lobbying and evaluation. Vertical integration could likewise be applied to breed
conservation initiatives, involving local livestock keepers, breeders societies, universities,
governments and development agencies.
The transfers of Boran and Tuli genetic material are characterised by free movements with
governmental impact limited to livestock sanitary / veterinary regulations. Most transfers
are between commercial stakeholders, and freely agreed benefit sharing can be assumed.
Geographically the main streams were between Australia and America, and South Africa
as well as within Africa. The countries of origin of the Boran and Tuli breeds are not the
major players in this, however limited, business.
The issues on whether or not a prior informed consent existed before the initial transfers of
Boran and Tuli genetic material from Africa into Australia, and whether or not the call for
additional compensations to the original breeders is justified are controversial discussions.
The main positions raised in the debate over the Boran and Tuli case are speculative and
not based on sound scientific investigations. These issues are ethical, and have to be
resolved politically.
triggered the operation and the actual use of Boran and Tuli cattle in the Australian and

American beef sectors is limited to singular cases. Prior informed consent should be more
development and biodiversity in Vietnam
Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Regina Roessler, Ute Lemke, Anne Valle Zrate
This case study focuses on the distribution of the main indigenous pig breeds and
crossbreds in Vietnam, the introduction of high performance breeds and their impact on
biodiversity, and the suitability of different breeds for different environments.
Vietnam owns a wide variety of local pig breeds across different regions of the country.
The Lang Hong, Mong Cai and I breed are the product of a long deliberate breeding
history, whereas other breeds, e.g. the Meo, Co, or Soc, were not systematically bred. In
particular the I and later the Mong Cai were strongly promoted in Vietnam to replace lower
yielding local breeds. In South Vietnam, the Thuoc Nhieu, Ba Xuyen and Phu Khanh
composite breeds developed from crossbreeding local with exotic pigs. The DBI-81 and
BSI-81 were developed in North Vietnam from crossbreeding I sows with exotic boars, but
did not become widespread in national pig production. Only the Mong Cai has become
common, being now the major local sow line in Vietnam. Exotic pigs, including Large
White, Landrace, Duroc and Berkshire, have been introduced to Vietnam from American
and European countries since before the 1920s. Major driving forces were the French
Colonial Rulers (before 1954), American forces (before 1973), the socialist government
(since 1954), Vietnamese and foreign commercial companies (before 1954 and after 1986),
and developmental projects (after 1986). Gene flow now and recently is mainly a net-
inflow of exotic pigs. Current development and poverty alleviation projects at village level
usually promote exotics, and only occasionally improved Vietnamese breeds. Information
on pig gene flow to and within Vietnam is limited, due to the restricted information policy
of both international breeding companies and Vietnamese official sources, but also due to
the decentralised nature of pig breed import and distribution.
At present, exotic and crossbred pigs dominate, while local pigs make up still 26% of the
national pig herd, mostly in uplands, rural and remote areas. The decentralised structure of
the Vietnamese breeding system, the less developed central coordination and the common
use of artificial insemination have all supported the spread of exotic pigs in Vietnam,
especially at the smallholder level, which makes up 80 to 95% of Vietnamese pig
production.
commercial pig production, they can be characterised as low-input systems. Local pigs
yield lower reproductive and growth performances. Performance data in literature are
rarely comparable, as local breeds have usually been investigated in low-input extensive
farming conditions, while exotic pigs or crossbreds are mostly tested under improved
conditions or on station. Mong Cai sows under smallholder conditions yield higher
reproductive performances than exotic or crossbred pigs, implying better reproductive
performance potential of local breeds. Additionally, favourable adaptation traits (regarding
environmental/climatic factors, low-input production conditions, and susceptibility to
disease) and general robustness are described for local pig breeds, together with favourable
meat quality traits. Other, less favourable traits of local pig breeds include a high fat
content and low lean meat ratio, a low growth rate, and, apart from the Mong Cai, a low

fertility, rendering them less suitable to respond to higher inputs, unless their special
quality traits are rewarded by the consumer.
The introduction of pigs and breeds from neighbouring countries (Laos, Cambodia, China)
started probably centuries ago, as part of human migration (e.g. Thai and Hmong
migrating from China), occupation (China), and trade. The influx of breeds was an
important component in developing Vietnamese local breeds. However, information is
lacking on those early phases. The earliest confirmed information on introducing pig
breeds goes back to the 1920s.
Gene flow in the recent past and present has probably been a net-inflow of pigs. Exports
(e.g. Vietnamese potbellied pigs to western countries as pets and for scientific use) were
negligible. Before 1955 (end of French colonisation) and after 1986 (economic
liberalisation), pig imports were directed by commercial interests as the main driving force
of gene flow. From 1955 until 1986 the major driving force was the policies of the socialist
government, and after 1990 additionally foreign developmental projects, both with the
declared aim to benefit the poor farmers, but not always fulfilling their claim.
The inflow of pig breeds to Vietnam consisted of higher-yielding breeds from Europe and
America, which were introduced due to their higher performances (in the countries of
origin) to improve or replace the low yielding local breeds. Commercial imports consisted
of exotic pigs. Current development and poverty alleviation projects at village level usually
promote exotics, and only occasionally improved Vietnamese breeds.
Information on pig gene flow to and within Vietnam is limited, due to the restricted
information policy of both international breeding companies and Vietnamese official
sources, but also due to the decentralised nature of pig breed import and distribution.
The introduction of exotic pigs was supported by the decentralised nature of the
Vietnamese breeding system. Centralised coordination of breeding measures is not well
developed, and centralised measures fulfilled their aims only partly. However, the impact
of the state-run breeding stations has been considerable; and the advanced use of AI has
strongly supported the introduction of exotic genetics to the smallholder producer.
The influx of exotic breeds has positively influenced output and efficiency of pork
production in Vietnam, while the local pig populations have been reduced. Today, pigs of
various crossbreeding degrees are widely distributed. Most indigenous breeds show
declining population trends, and the majority of local breeds are in a vulnerable or critical
condition or even face extinction. Conservation measures of Vietnamese institutions follow
suitable approaches (in-situ conservation on-farm). However, due to shortcomings in set-
up and implementation, they may not successfully preserve local pig breeds. The long-term
sustainability of those programs is questionable. National decisions and the willingness to
pay for conservation programs depend on expectations for future benefits, which need to
be based on scientific proofs of the value of specific traits, and market-backed valuations
of products.
The significant genetic distinctions both between Vietnamese breeds and between
Vietnamese and European breeds have been shown. Local breeds are a source of promising
alleles, which might be significant for future genetic improvement and of unpredictable
economic value.

Local pig breeds are a significant component of the Vietnamese and worldwide
biodiversity, and are still important for resource-poor farmers in Vietnam, who depend on
them to ensure their livelihoods. The dominance of high-yielding exotic breeds will
increase in intensified production systems. Local breeds will only contribute to worldwide
biodiversity if their competitiveness to exotics is proved for production systems under
development and/or if favourable adaptation traits are proved and the controlling alleles
identified. Investigations are under way to define local pig breeds, characterise them, and
compare their performances under standardised conditions.
Research results indicate a considerable production potential of local pig breeds especially
under low-input conditions, favourable adaptation traits, and genetic peculiarities,
differentiating them from the European breeds. Local pig breeds are a significant
component of the Vietnamese and worldwide biodiversity, are important for resource-poor
farmers in Vietnam who depend on local breeds to ensure their livelihoods, and for future
breeding measures utilising e.g. favourable adaptation traits. On the other hand, exotic pigs
have become increasingly available and accessible to farmers in Vietnam and have enabled
them to produce pork with increasing efficiency. Whether pig-keeping resource-poor
smallholders in remote and mountainous regions can be integrated, or if they can set up
niche production with local pig breeds, remains to be clarified by further investigations.
Further investigations are required to define local pig breeds, further characterise their
genetic specificities, and to comparatively evaluate their performances under standardised
conditions.

ANALYSIS OF DRIVING FACTORS AND IMPACTS 63

5 ANALYSIS OF DRIVING FACTORS AND IMPACTS
5.1 Main factors affecting gene flow
Analysing global studies and case studies, we identified the following main factors that
affect gene flow. As gene flows of the four species are affected differently by these factors,
subchapters refer to them separately in the order sheep, goats, cattle and pigs.
5.1.1 Breeding and trade organisations
Breeding and trade organisations impact gene flow with breeding methods, sales strategies,
and in particular distribution channels and their competition.
For breeding, the genetic quality, targeted quantity and diversity of the breeding products
are important factors. Suitable breeding programmes require central breeding management
and laboratories to use biotechnology, which require strongly developed breeding
associations, commercial breeding enterprises or government breeding institutions.
Regional breeding organisations, aiming to be self-sufficient in a regionally closed system,
are vanishing because they cannot compete.
Concerning distribution channels, indirect channels are those where independent trade
organisations operate between breeding organisation and customer, locally or
internationally. Direct channels are those where the breeding organisations distribute their
products themselves to national and international markets. Directly controlling end sales by
the breeding organisation is particularly attractive to commercially aware organisations.
Approaches to international distribution include franchises, joint ventures and subsidiaries.
Increased sale volumes, and so increased breeding populations, leads to strategic alliances
and enterprise networks. Breeding and trade organisations tend to concentrate in order to
reduce costs, further increase genetic gain, and secure sale volumes. This concentration can
become critical if enterprises become large enough to control markets and competitive
access to those markets is difficult.
5.1.1.1 Sheep
Similarly, sheep breeding organisation influences the development of superior genetic
material through many factors. The proportional share of the worlds total number of sheep
breeds in each region as published by the FAO in the World Watch List for Domestic
Animal Diversity shows that 47.9% of the worlds sheep breeds are found in Europe
(Annex 9.1 A 54). This reflects the advanced breeding organisations of European
countries, and indicates why developed countries supply most introduced breeds. The
increasing formation of composite breeds after the 1960s studied by Shrestha (2005)
(Annex 9.1 A 4) also revealed that the foundation breeds used were almost all developed in
the western world.
The material available on current gene flow, compiled in chapter 3, indicates that there is
an influx of genetic material into many regions of the world. Almost all transferred
breeding material was reported to belong to breeds developed in countries with advanced
breeding structures. This origin was not only true for gene flow going to countries with
temperate production environments but also genetic material going to the tropical and

subtropical region. Examples were the Improved Awassi and the Dorper breed developed
in Israel and South Africa for the subtropical and tropical production environment.
Access to improved breeding material was however not limited to developed countries;
destination countries were as much developing as developed. The example of the Improved
Awassi and Assaf breed given in the case study shows that the direction of gene flow
transfer was from south to north, north to south and south to south. However, the majority
of Improved Awassi and Assaf stocks are now kept in European countries. Farmers of the
Iberian Peninsular had the most benefit from the gene flow, indicating that breeding
organisation may not limit the direction but does influence the impact.
The breeding organisation has obviously a significant influence on gene flow. The more
advanced the breeding structure of a country is, the greater the chance to develop and
spread superior breeding material, adequate trading organisation assumed. Therefore,
developed countries have an advantage over developing countries in developing and
spreading improved breeding stock. Australias Merino breeding organisation and its
dominant role in supplying superior Merino breeding material for many countries world
wide is the most striking example in the sheep sector. The Argentinean Merino for
example is genetically almost identical to the Australian Merino (Mueller, 2004).
However, gene flow from Argentinean Merino breeding stock is limited to some exchange
with other Mercosur member countries. Access to improved genetic material however does
not depend on breeding organisation. Both developed and developing countries are in
demand for new breeds. Organising breeding in developing countries will therefore not
reduce demand for foreign breeds, but on the contrary increases it. This is regarded as a
basic prerequisite to gain shares in the global market of genetic resources.
Gene flow from developing countries was observed when a superior genetic resource was
available without preceded systematic improvements. The export of the Dman sheep from
Morocco is an example. A superior genetic resource may be available in any country
without preceded systematic improvements. This has been observed in breeds with
superior prolificacy and is often based on the action of major genes. If a nation intends to
exploit this genetic resource, it has to be aware of the competition in the global genetic
material market. The gene flow of the Booroola gene is one example. Despite the fact that
Australia had placed a national moratorium, the genetic resource continued to be exploited
by other countries that already had it at their disposal. Similar acting genes for prolificacy
exist in other local populations in southern as well as northern countries, but are limited in
their distribution probably due to the lack of adequate breeding and trading organisations
for this local genetic resource.
Since the impact of trading organisation was not studied in detail for the sheep sector,
conclusions are limited. However, the Awassi case study showed that the imported breed
population was mainly affected by breeding organisation and private interests in the
genetic resource, relatively independent of the quantity of transferred breeding stock.
5.1.1.2 Goats
After successfully introducing Swiss breeds to southern Germany, the first breeder
associations were formed at the end of the 19th century. The same development can be
observed in many other European countries. Over the years, changes in economies have
stimulated changes to goat populations by breeders and breeding organisations. While

breeding activities during the 20th century tended to consolidate if not unify goat breeds, a
countermovement can be seen today: rare, peculiar breeds and some with very special
characteristics are transferred from their home areas and bred for pleasure or production.
Examples are the African Dwarf breed in several European countries or the Girgentana and
Ovambo in Germany, which are imported by hobby breeders.
In New Zealand the Goat Council was created in 1979 with the aim to promote awareness
of the potential of goat farming, particularly fibre production. The number of farmed goats
increased from an estimated 20,000 in 1980 to 2 million by 1990 (Porter, 1996). Due to the
decreasing prices of mohair and the increased demand for goat meat on the international
market, the Council encouraged livestock farmers to increase the national goat herd and
goat meat production for export. South African Boer goats have been imported since 1993
for its conformation, early maturity and superior growth rates. However, according to FAO
statistics, in the 1990s goat numbers declined to 228,000 in 1998, reaching 150,000 in
2002; goat meat production went down from a high of about 3,000 tons in 1991 to 1,300 in
2004.
Breeders organisations that play an active role in goat genetic improvements are not
present in all countries due to socio-economic situations. In countries without breeders
organisations, individual breeders may import breeding stock but they are often restricted
by regulations on stock movement (tariff and non-tariff, organisation, cost etc.). Private
firms specialising in (international) livestock trade may be of great help, but goats lack the
critical mass to attract international firms to engage in their trade.
5.1.1.3 Cattle
As stated in the global study, the current development and trade of cattle semen -
particularly dairy cattle semen - is a new and very intensive gene flow similar to that in
chicken and pigs. This is fostered through the high level of breeding and trade
organisation, whether carried out by breeding organisations as in European countries,
commercial breeding enterprises as in North America, or government breeding institutions
or related organisations as in socialist or former socialist countries. The headquarters of
internationally competitive and active organisations are almost exclusively located in
industrial countries, which gives them an advantage over developing countries to exploit
and disseminate their genetic resources.
At the same time, cattle breeding and trade organisations have concentrated remarkably in
the last decades. Narrod and Fuglie (2000) report that the USA has only a few companies
with livestock breeding programmes. The number of companies providing AI declined
from about 200 in 1950 to approximately 20 in the 1980s. In dairy and beef cattle there
were only 6 top suppliers of AI in 1996. Several breeding companies are subsidiaries of
other companies, and some are USA affiliates of European or Asian firms. Some of these
companies merged with earlier breeding companies and the original trademark names of
breeds may still be used for brand recognition. These organisations are increasingly
integrated by contracts, particularly in genetic material exchange. Many indicators show
that animal breeding, and breeding product trade, continues to concentrate and intensify.
The result is high quality breeding products, widely diverse live animal products, and cryo-
conserved semen and embryos, all available in large numbers. Ideal conditions to heavily
impact the gene flow of a single breed across the globe. In recent years breeding

companies have extended their reach from developed to developing countries. Commercial
crossbred products are provided to national breeding companies often close to urban
centres. Local genotypes are still provided by small-scale farmers.
In general, in developing countries the classic pyramid breeding structure with a wide
production sector base and the breeding sector on top is rarely established. Ideally,
livestock keepers of the production sector obtain improved genetic resources from the
breeding sector. They use the animals and produce breeding and production records which
are the data base on which the breeding sector relies to improve breeds. Because holdings
are small, lack of inputs (to realise the genetic potential of the animals) and lack of
infrastructure, this system does not usually work in developing countries. In addition,
without a livestock market paying premium prices for breeding animals (compared to
slaughter animals) there is no incentive for breeders to invest in improving sires and dams
to sell to the production sector. In this situation, breed improvement takes place only in
large estates and institution herds, and gene flow to the smallholder production sector is
small. Differences among countries are however large.
The lower AI coverage in developing countries, due to little breeding organisation, limits
access to exogenous genetic resources, again varying considerably between countries and
regions. Where AI coverage in developing countries increases, gene flow of temperate
breeds generally increases in proportion.
However, developing breeding organisations in developing countries can also help to
exploit local genetic resources. An example is the cattle breeding associations formed in
East Africa as given in the case study of Boran and Tuli. Here it is shown that breeding
associations can be a stepping stone to improve and develop a breed. Whether it is globally
marketed and distributed depends, however, on the professionalism of the breeding,
marketing, and political-economic power. Particularly national subsidies have a major
influence on the animal transfer realised.
5.1.1.4 Pigs
In pig breeding, the impact of changes in breeding practices and trade organisation on gene
flow is most evident. Drastic changes in the international pig market led to new breeding
and sales measures. New production areas in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Eastern
Europe and the rapid growth of the North American agro-industry combined with trade
liberalisation to increase competition and commercialisation. Pig breeding became
increasingly international and concentrated. Competition required increased quality,
diversity and quantity of genetic products. This called for corresponding breeding
programmes and biotechnology. Both the increased professionalism and sale volumes
fostered concentration further. Under the economic pressure of reduced profit margins, and
to secure breeding progress and sale volumes, the concentration level rose.
Countries holding leading positions, which had emerged early from the old, conservative
breed-society and government-dominated structures, saw increasing monopolisation, and
this gave Europe and North America considerable advantages over the rest of the world.
However, nowadays there are strong breeding enterprises elsewhere, such as Thailand, the
Philippines and China. Consequently, national pig breeding programmes as well as pig
breeding companies have increasingly similar structures. Nucleus flocks are being installed
which are limited in number but increasing in size and are integrating. Driving forces

behind this include reducing disease risk (Foot-and-Mouth disease, classic and African
swine fever are the most prominent) and diminishing exports when stricter trade
regulations cannot be complied with (Brascamp, 1998). The Sanitary and Phytosanitary
Measures agreement of the WTO and the OIE play a prominent role in this.
With regard to gene flow, the number of breeds used in commercial pig breeding
programmes has reduced to a few world wide, and their genetic variation is reduced
considerably causing genetic loss. Increased concentration in breeding and trade has
increased the flow of these breeds into many parts of the world. Hybrid breeding gives
control of gene flow to commercial companies by maintaining their purebreeding lines and
trading crossbred breeding stock which they exclude from further breeding. As pig imports
and distribution are decentralised, breeding is not well coordinated. Emerging economies
and developing countries can connect to international production networks - in pork
following the example set by the poultry industry.
As in general pig gene flow takes place in commercial production, traditional breeds are
tending to be replaced through competing commercial and traditional pig production in
national markets. In Vietnam for example the impact of state-run breeding stations has
been considerable and the advanced use of AI has strongly supported the introduction of
exotic breeds. At the same time, a national subsidy system supported the spread of exotics
and subsequently the replacement of local breeds (Drucker et al. 2005).
Considering socio-economic changes, imported breeding stock and breeding structures are
increasingly available to farmers and enable them to produce pork with increasing
efficiency. The question of whether resource-poor smallholders can be integrated, or if
niche production with local pig breeds can support their livelihoods, is yet to be answered.
In other regions, for example in Africa, the influence of international gene flow is very
limited.
In South America, the impact of imported breeds shows great regional differences, while in
China rapid and unpredictable changes do not yet allow conclusions on the impact of gene
flow. In developed countries on the other hand, we can see a reorientation towards local
breeds. Generally, we can conclude that breeding organisation in a country - private or
government - significantly determines the demand for gene flow into that country.
Examples are Thailand and Brazil with private breeding organisations, and Vietnam and
China with government organisations and joint ventures.
On the other hand, in the pig sector, consumer preferences play an important role in the
demand for breeds. Unique germplasm from Asian breeds is vital for commercial pig
breeding companies from Europe and North America. Major international breeding
companies need control over unique genotypes to ensure their market position.
With increasing commercialisation, pig gene flow becomes harder to trace through export
and import figures as these do not reflect the influence of exotic breeds. Here, company
records would truly depict the influence of small trade actions that greatly impact diversity.
For example, transferring a few purebreeding nucleus animals is negligible in absolute
numbers but can have a considerable impact in the country of destination.

5.1.2 Regulations
In the 19th and 20th century, in most Central European countries governments started
regulating livestock breeding and thus gene flow through laws and regulations. In order to
protect the small livestock keeper who depended on commercially provided sires, livestock
were subject to licensing. These measures gave breed development a strong push in the
early stages. Later however, the rigid dominance of government officers proved a
stumbling block to improving breeds. Similarly, the breeding organisations tended to
dominate the individual breeder by setting rigid breeding goals. It is noteworthy that in the
1950s, dairy cattle breeders turned for improved genetic material to countries where
governments did not interfere in livestock breeding (Gall, 2005).
Today, a number of instruments are available for national and/or supranational institutions
to regulate breeding and trade. These instruments include direct interventions and support,
prohibitions, orders, motivation, information, consultation and education.
Theoretically, regulations may influence gene flow differently. Positive external effects
can be enhanced by governments directly supporting breeding organisations. Supported
breeding organisations are able to increase their participation in international trade and so
gene flow is stimulated. Patent protection, seen in plant breeding, could be an alternative to
governmental support. Negative external effects can be reduced by prohibiting breeding
organisations other than particular enterprises and associations. This restricts gene flow
and supports breeding and maintaining regionally adapted breeds for purebreeding.
Furthermore this is an essential promotion of domestic farmer and breeding organisations.
The lack of market transparency is compensated by neutral and reliable consumer
information, which in turn vitalises and expands the international trade of breeding
products and gene flow.
Veterinary and welfare regulations play a significant role in restricting or enhancing gene
flow.
5.1.2.1 Sheep
The national hygiene standards of a countrys sheep breeding sector significantly affects
gene flow, via trade and breeding regulations imposed to battle transmission of
transboundary animal diseases. High hygiene standards permit an almost unlimited export
to all parts of the world while it prevents the introduction of stock of a lower hygienic
status.
Australia enjoys the rare distinction of being disease free, and so can export to virtually all
parts of the world. Governments have enforced stringent quarantine standards which have
prevented the introduction foreign genetic material, as it is vital for Australia to protect this
highly desirable status (Padbury, 2002). AI and embryo transfers are efficient alternatives
to live animal transfers that are not subject to the same restrictions. Examples include
introducing the Improved Awassi, and probably the Dorper germplasm, to Australia.
Argentina, as another example, applies very strict health protocols on germplasm trade.
The health requirements basically restrict imports from the two countries, Australia and
New Zealand (Mueller, 2004).

In Uganda an Animal Breeding Act has been in place since December 2002. Under this act
all imports and exports have to be licensed by the Ministry of Agriculture. However, illegal
transfers, especially with neighbouring countries, may even have increased because of
these regulations.
Main diseases that restrict the current movements of live sheep are FMD, PPR and recently
Scrapie.
5.1.2.2 Goats
In order to prevent the introduction of major contagious diseases governments tend to
restrict imports of livestock. This applies in particular to movement between continents.
Importing may be completely prohibited or subject to quarantine measures. Because of the
time and cost involved stock movement, both import and export, may be effectively
impossible. These restrictions give countries which are free of certain diseases an
advantage for exports but may exclude affected countries as sources for imports. However,
clean exporters may also be affected if they are held responsible for hygiene problems
which cannot be traced back to their true source, as has been observed for small ruminants
from Ethiopia. European countries encountered great difficulties importing goats from
African countries where diseases are difficult to control. As the animal health situation is
always changing so do the regulations on movement and import of livestock. The trend is
towards severer restrictions.
Australia is free of some of the major diseases, so imports are prohibited from other
continents, such as those with Foot-and-Mouth disease, Transmissible Spongiform
Encephalopathies or Bluetongue. Therefore, while Australian breeders are well positioned
to export stud livestock, semen and embryos, they suffer import restrictions. In 1959
quarantine laws banned all goat imports except from New Zealand (Porter, 1996).
Exemptions were granted only for animals passing through quarantine. However, the rigid
measures, the time involved and the risk that animals may be rejected, make this is an
expensive exercise. Boer goats had to spend up to 6 years in quarantine stations either on
offshore islands or on mainland South Australia in the late 1980s, because ruminant virus
diseases were common in Africa. While those South African goats were quarantined, some
full-blooded and crossbred Boers from New Zealand were introduced instead. Quarantine
requirements in Australia were relaxed in 1993-95 making it possible to import embryos
from Africa (Boer Goat Breeders Association of Australia, 2004).
Similarly, importing goats into the USA directly from South Africa was difficult until 1995
partly because of the USA-South Africa trade status but mainly because of animal health
regulations. A strict five year quarantine was imposed, mainly because of Foot-and-Mouth
disease. Therefore, most Angora and Boer goat imports (live animals and embryos) came
from New Zealand, Australia and Canada, or are descendants of South African animals or
embryos born in Canada, New Zealand, Australia and the USA (Cutrer, 1995; Machen,
1997; Smith, 2004).
Europe is a major source of gene flow, mainly of dairy goats. This was severely hampered
by Caprine Arthritis Encephalitis (CAE), first observed in 1980. It was eventually found in
most worldwide dairy goat populations, and countries free of CAE imposed severe
restrictions on goat imports. Only by applying rigid eradication measures were CAE-free
populations re-established and gene flow made possible again.

In recent years Scrapie is increasingly a matter of concern, not only in sheep but also in
goats, restricting live animal movements.
5.1.2.3 Cattle
Similarly to pigs, cattle breeding products are generally spread by a few international
breeding companies and, in principle, transport of any magnitude and distance is possible.
However, gene flow faces restrictions from veterinary regulations, welfare considerations
for breeding animal transfers.
As prominently seen for sheep, high hygiene standards of a country permits an almost
unlimited trade to all parts of the world, and prevents stock imports of a lower hygienic
status. For example, in the 1960s, quarantine regulations (to protect against blue-tongue
disease) in the USA, in Australia and in New Zealand limited live animal imports.
Simmental breeding animals became expensive as the high demand could be met by
neither imports nor the small national population (Daly, 1981; Sonn, 1985). Simmental
imports to these countries had to go a long way round, such as via Canada or the UK, to
reach their final destinations (Felius, 1995). BSE and Foot-and-Mouth disease in Europe in
the late 1990s has influenced the exchange of breeding animals, semen and embryos for
years as some countries refused to import from Europe. Similarly diseases and import
regulations hinder the direct export of Simmental genetic material, for example from
Southern Africa to Germany (Grupp, 2003).
In the cattle sector, government policies are the main influence on breeding and gene flow.
Regulations in cattle trade and breeding include market-regulating subsidies. Other
government plans or projects influence gene flow by importing selected breeds. For
example, in the early 1980s, the main imports of Simmental to Italy came from Austria and
Switzerland. These imports were subsidised by the exporting countries and distorted the
market, making it harder for other countries to export their breeding animals to Italy (Sonn,
1985). In Morocco a national plan to increase dairy production led to 3,865 Holstein
heifers being imported from Europe and North America in 1986-87 to private dairy farms
(Johnson et al., 1989). A government-funded project in Nigeria led to the introduction of
5000 NDama cattle from The Gambia between 1980 and 1983. They were meant as
breeding stock for multiplication and dissemination in the country (Jabbar and Diedhiou,
2003). An initiative of Honduras President in 1973 led to the introduction of mainly
Brahman breeding animals to be used by private ranchers and government AI centres
(Blench and MacDonald, 2000). One of the most important planned economy schemes
was the creation of the SMR (Holstein, Jersey, German Frisian) synthetic breed in the
former GDR with 2 million cows (Meyn, 2005). In India, as another prominent example,
the government started and supported programmes to create combination crossings in
cattle relying on a considerable influx of exotics.
5.1.2.4 Pigs
As breeding pigs are mainly disseminated by a few international breeding and trade
companies, particularly for hybrid pigs, in principle transport of any magnitude and
distance is possible. However, practically, gene flow faces restrictions from veterinary
regulations and welfare considerations. Although biotechnology can overcome some of
these restrictions, generally breeding animals are transferred while AI, as deep-frozen

semen, is used to maintain purebred lines in highly technical nucleus flocks. Animal
welfare regulations influence transport costs drastically which has led to the installation of
breeding units with multiplication systems in the destination countries.
For example pig imports into Africa is considered irrelevant to gene flow because its strict
health regulations force the big international pig breeding companies to use existing
breeds. For a further example, Australia does not export because their strict health
regulations prevented them from importing and so benefiting from the early European or
North American advances.
5.1.3 Foreign aid and development projects
Foreign aid and development projects have focussed on introducing foreign breeds from
northern to southern countries, or promoting crossbreeding efforts through appropriate
funding for animal production. Many of those projects appear to have had no long-term
impact, and so project strategies have changed. In the following chapter, the impact of
development projects and the flow of funds are described from information available in
scientific publications and project reports. The chapter is limited to examples, and there is
no full regional coverage. The authors rarely had access to project reports, and where
reports were available failures were often excluded. Therefore a balanced picture cannot be
drawn. As a general trend, major movements of exotic breeds nowadays occur rarely in
conventional development projects, but increasingly for emergency aid after natural or man
made disasters.
5.1.3.1 Sheep
The need for economic development of sheep production in developing countries has
created a demand for improved breeds to quickly increase productivity.
For a long time temperate breeds were introduced into developing countries for pure- and
crossbreeding purposes by national and international development and aid programmes
(Gatenby, 1986). Due to complex reasons, such as genotype-environment interactions and
socio-economic prevalence, these efforts were often unsuccessful. Nevertheless, foreign
genes were introduced into local sheep populations, although it is not possible to verify the
extent.
Other development programmes for tropical regions considered the strong relation between
sheep and its production environment. Examples are programmes based on importing
improved tropical hair sheep breeds into Southeast Asia for crossbreeding with local
breeds along with performance testing of all breeds under identical environments. For a
well documented example, Cameroon hair sheep were introduced to Malaysia from
Germany to be crossbred with local Longtail sheep, by a Research and Technology
Development Project of the EU (Schfer, 1998). For another, the Small Ruminant-
Collaborative Research Support Program (SR-CRSP) introduced Barbados Blackbelly and
St. Croix hair sheep into Indonesia to crossbreed with Sumatran wool breeds (chapter
2.3.3) (Gatenby et al., 1997a; 1997b; Gatenby et al., 1994; Gatenby, 1986).
Developing the Dorper breed and various related synthetic breeds is an early example of a
development program aiming to combine local hair sheep (Blackhead Persian) with

imported Dorset Horn sheep for the arid production environment. Here again the main
driving factor was the commercial interest in the breed.
During the history of sheep breeding it can be seen that sheep populations are often prone
to a dramatic decline or complete loss during and after disastrous events such as wars. In
Afghanistan for example, the effect of the war and two subsequent drought years in 1999
and 2000 led to a complete loss of almost all herds in the nomadic households in western
and southern regions. Since these nomadic people depend on their stock this meant the
complete loss of production resources. In events like this, foreign stock is imported to
quickly rebuild former population sizes. The recent emergency aid to Afghanistan tended
to import high-yielding breeds to replace the lost local stock (FAO-aktuell, 2000).
However, the sustainability of these recent projects cannot yet be forecasted.
Since 1973, indigenous animal genetic resources have been given more attention,
subjecting traditional sheep breeds to various conservation and management programmes.
These programmes affect gene flow in the sense that paying more attention to indigenous
sheep breeds can stabilise or even increase their proportion in the local sheep population.
Support programmes for indigenous sheep aim to establish resource flocks or herds. Here,
spreading the genes of the indigenous breed is given preference (Ponzoni, 1992a).
However, private farmers may resist participating in this kind of program if they have
access to superior genetic resources.
In the same context, some projects aim to improve indigenous genetic resources which
may reduce the demand to introduce foreign breeds. Mueller et al. (2002) give an example
of a large-scale genetic improvement project for the heterogeneous Corriedale population,
which was installed in the Peruvian highlands to improve living standards of the Andean
peasants by improving wool production. Corridale influence can nowadays be traced all
over the Andean countries. However, the attempt to market the wool internationally failed
completely, and farmers look for ways back to their older breeds with lower maintenance,
higher milk yield and fertility. Nimbkar et al. (2002) reported a breeding programme to
improve the Deccani sheep in India by crossbreeding it with two indigenous breeds. Arora
et al. (2002) postulated that appropriate breeding strategies could be major tools to enhance
mutton production and other sheep productivity. Indigenous breeds like Malpura,
Muzzafarnagari, Madras red and Mandya sheep improved considerably through selective
breeding. Kosgey, et al. (2002) was one of a series of authors reporting that nucleus
breeding had been proposed as a good strategy to improve livestock in developing
countries. However, most such proposed programs have never been executed because of
lack of long-term project funding.
We can conclude that foreign aid and development projects can potentially start or stop
gene flow depending on whether the aim is to replace or crossbreed indigenous stock with
imported breeds, or to genetically improve local flocks. Where the imported stock is
suitable for the production systems, development programmes tend to import tropical and
subtropical rather than temperate breeds. However, the Awassi case study showed that
commercially driven activities had far more impact than development projects. The spread
of Merino sheep to developing countries as part of projects in the 1960s and 1970s did not
bring sustainable economic benefits but did leave genetic traces in local breeds in many
parts of the world.

5.1.3.2 Goats
Over the past decades an increasing number of programmes started by government, local
and international non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and international donor
agencies have promoted or incorporated goat production in smallholder households to
reduce poverty and develop economies. A few examples from publications and project
reports illustrate the gene transfers brought about by such activities. Since information
from development agencies is rarely accessible, the study cannot achieve global coverage
or representation, but the following are considered typical cases.
In Asia, Heifer Project International (HPI) has based many of its development projects on
promoting goat husbandry. Pelant et al. (1999) list the goat types introduced to Asia
between 1985 and 1997 but do not give volumes or breed details (Table 2). The UK Food
and Agricultural Research Management Organisation (FARM-Africa) and the US Small
Ruminant Collaborative Research Support Programme (SR-CRSP) have also followed this
strategy.
In Africa and Asia, the spread of dairy and meat goats was promoted by HPI and FARM-
Africa with the pass-on the gift approach: any farmer or group receiving assistance in the
form of animals, material, and/or training, will share or pass on at least an equivalent of the
gift value to a neighbouring family or group. If animals were received, then the first female
offspring had to be passed-on to the neighbouring family or group (Pelant, 2001).
Table 2: HPI projects with small ruminants in Asia (1985-1997)
Country Year initiated Types of small ruminants
1985 Meat goats, dairy goats
Peoples Republic of China
1989 Sheep
Indonesia 1985 Meat goats
India 1986 Meat goats, dairy goats, sheep
Philippines 1986 Meat goats
Thailand 1988 Meat goats
Vietnam 1991 Meat goats
Nepal 1994 Meat goats
Bangladesh 1997 Meat goats
Democratic Republic of Korea 1997 Dairy goats
Sri Lanka 1997 Meat goats, dairy goats
Source: Pelant et al. (1999)
Since 1982, the Boer breed has been imported to Sri Lanka to upgrade the existing local
population in the dry zone. This joint development programme with Germany claims to
have had a significant impact in the five districts selected for the programme (Porter,
1996). While crossbreeds were heavier than local breeds under intensive conditions with
supplementary feeding (Jeyaruban at al., 1997), the benefits of Boer goats and their crosses
were not shown in smallholder extensive systems (Rajapaksha et al., 2001).

Experience has shown that development projects that are supported by governmental
policies had a greater impact on the spread of specific breeds. This was the case in the
Sichuan Province in China, where in 1986 HPI introduced the Yaan Dairy Goat project in
collaboration with the Yaan City Bureau of Animal Husbandry and the Yaan Breed
Improvement Station. Between 1986 and 1991, HPI provided 78 head of high quality
Saanen does and bucks. 30 went to the station maintaining a high quality nucleus, and 48
went directly to 48 families. During this period, the total number of dairy goats rose from
6,750 to over 21,000 head. Through the passing-on approach 784 goats were shared with
716 additional families by the end of 1997. The main increase was due to a private and
government-supported influx of additional dairy goats into the region, and the obvious
success of the programme. By 2001, more than 20 provinces of China and two foreign
countries had imported animals from Sichuan Province (Pelant, 2001).
In the Indian Himalayan region, local NGOs actively promoted crossbreeding goats for
milk and meat production (Chander et al., 2000). Table 3 shows more results from HPI
projects in India. However, no breed information was given nor was the projects impact
assessed by external bodies. Self-assessments of projects can rarely be disconnected from
self-interests related to image and marketing. Note also that this is only one of many small
ruminant development aid projects operating in that region over decades.
Table 3: Number of goats distributed by HPI in India (1995-1997)
1994 1995 1996 1997
No. of goats including bucks distributed 2,622 1,813 1,524 5,959
No. of families helped 811 1,030 635 2,476
No. of families receiving pass-on animals 643 1,030 635 2,308
No. of goats passed-on to date 1,938 1,820 1,475 5,223
Source: Pelant et al. (1999)
In Samoa, in 1982 an IFAD livestock development project aimed to increase smallholder
goat production. For that purpose, 372 goats, including feral goats from New Zealand and
commercially reared goats from Fiji, were imported and distributed. By 1987, 60 goat units
had been established. However, these units were not successful: there were insufficient
market opportunities for goat meat, and a social stigma was attached to farmers who reared
goats. Therefore, in 1989 the goat component of the project was abandoned (IFAD,
2004b).
In 1971 Boer goats were imported into Kenya and were crossbred with the Small East
African goat to improve meat production. In 1993 the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Makerere University of Uganda, imported 35 female and 5 male Boer goats from the
Northern Cape Province of South Africa with the same objective (Nsubuga, 1996).
However, as for many similar projects, the impact was not measurable.
In 1999 four HPI goat groups were created in northern Tanzania. Toggenburg or Saanen
does were imported from Ireland, Kenya or the USA and given to the group members; each
group also received a buck, with specific mating rules. In 1999, of the 46 original goats
reportedly 68 purebred offspring were passed on to other members. The group members

and even non-member farmers were able to benefit from the buck to upgrade their local
goats (de Haan et al., 2000).
Similarly, FARM-Africa began its Dairy Goat Development Programme in 1988 in
Ethiopia. Groups of 20 to 25 members were formed and received two local does on credit
to be repaid in kind. In order to increase the production of local goats, each group received
an imported buck of purebred dairy breeds - British Toggenburg and Anglo Nubian. Due to
the success of the project, FARM-Africa has expanded this work to Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda after a positive evaluation of project success (de Haan et al., 2000). However,
national and international research and development institutions in Ethiopia came to the
opposite conclusion, and research and promotion was redirected to local goat populations.
5.1.3.3 Cattle
Cattle, particularly dairy cattle, have always attracted more interest than other species, and
foreign aid and development projects are numerous in this sector. Well known examples
are the International Fund For Agricultural Development (IFAD) programmes, the Heifer
International programmes, the Balkan Emergency Farm Reconstruction Projects, FAOs
International Scheme for Coordination of Dairy Development (ISCCD), or FAOs
International Semen Donation Scheme. Often, to increase the national output from animal
production in developing countries, improved temperate breeds are introduced and crossed
with tropical dairy breeds. Many developing countries have sought loans from varies
sources. However, due to complex reasons, such as genotype-environment interactions and
socio-economic restrictions, efforts varied in their success.
Projects can be successful where the introduced breeds are suitable to the climate and
economies. Taking the humid tropics as an example for the most difficult climates, we can
look at a project that introduced high-yielding dairy breeds into the tropical highlands of
Kenya. Although that and the subsequent AI programme, supported by many donors,
increased sustainable national dairy production, funds went missing and the programme
collapsed finally in the 1980s (Philipsson, 2002; Meyn, 2005).
An example of unsuccessful gene transfer into the humid tropics is the 2,400 dairy cattle
introduced in the 1980s by the Philippine Government as part of an International Fund For
Agricultural Development (IFAD) Project, meant for backyard production units. Although
changes in government policy and unfavourable loan terms are given as explanations for
the projects failure (Arganosa et al., 1989; IFAD, 1988), the unsuitability of high-yielding
dairy breeds for the humid tropics has to be regarded as the major reason (Meyn, 2005).
Similar observations were made when Holstein cows were introduced to smallholdings in
Sri Lanka, Vietnam and many others.
These examples demonstrate the importance of politic stability and socio-economic factors
for the success of projects. As another example, IFAD reports of a cattle restocking project
as part of a livestock development programme in the Central African Republic in the
1990s. The objective was to raise livestock productivity and thereby alleviate herder
poverty, but the restocking was abandoned due to political instabilities. Other difficulties
concerning restocking programmes that are discussed by IFAD (2004a) are that they tend
to be politicised and that it is difficult to reach the identified target groups. In Tanzania, a
great number of heifer-in-trust-programmes by several organisations were implemented
with 700 heifers procured. Repayment levels were so low that the programmes were not

sustainable. It has been argued that the main problems are due to participants inexperience
of the transferred pregnant heifers, which generally require more management compared to
their traditional cattle (Afifi-Affat, 1998). However, it can also be argued that technical
solutions should fit prevailing local conditions and not vice versa.
Based on these problems of sustainable dairy cattle introduction, an approach was derived
to procure dual-purpose breeds and produce crossbreds of exotic and local breeds. Heifer
International has implemented projects to procure Simmental cattle in Ukraine (Heifer
International, 2004b), China (Heifer International, 2004d), Poland (Heifer International,
2004a) and Kosovo (Heifer International, 2004c). The projects were meant to improve
agricultural production and so contribute to the nutrition and income of the beneficiary
families. Emergency Farm Reconstruction Projects on the Balkan after the conflicts in this
region led to imports of Simmental breeding animals, mainly pregnant heifers (Cossee,
2003). Institutions like the World Bank, FAO, and IFAD were involved (World Bank,
2003). IFAD (1984) reports of a crossbreeding scheme in Guatemala with high shares of
Brahman compared to Brown Swiss. The recently favoured funding improvements to local
breeds began because of failures to introduce sustainable exotic breeds. However, access to
information about failures and successes of development projects is difficult as donors
protect their sources to avoid negative images and so lose funding. Nevertheless, projects
have increased gene flow mostly north to south, and have contributed to the world wide
spread of cattle breeds from North America and Europe, particularly the Holstein breed.
5.1.3.4 Pigs
In Vietnam exotic breeds have been intensively promoted and imported as part of
government strategies. The impact of these state-run breeding stations on gene flow has
been considerable, regardless of whether the genetic material stemmed from colonial times
or was exchanged with other socialist countries. National development projects and breed
distribution projects have distributed the genetic material. Additionally, the Vietnamese
research and education systems supported the use of exotic breeds and crossbreeds,
advanced management techniques, and promoted AI by building AI stations.
Since the late 1980s, with the start of the open door policy, government and non-
government organisations have helped to introduce and distribute higher-yielding pig
genotypes in both small and big projects. Consequently most indigenous breed populations
are declining and the majority of breeds are vulnerable or critical, some even facing
extinction. Only a small number of breeding centres and research institutes keep local
breeds for crossbreeding and conservation. As the breeding organisations are not
centralised in Vietnam, genetic improvement, breed replacement and conservation are not
uniform across regions (ASPS, 2002).
In some Caribbean countries, local pig populations have become virtually extinct after
massive introduction of North American breeds as part of development aid. However
similar projects in the Andean countries in the mid 1990s showed only little penetration. A
similar situation occurs in Africa with regard to the impact of European breeds. In Asia,
however, development projects have much less impact than commercial activities, creating
a totally different situation.

5.1.4 Research and commercial interests in specific genes
The interest in specific genes affects gene flow as it prompts the flow of these genes from
their countries of origin to all continents where the commercial or research interest exists.
5.1.4.1 Sheep
Research and commercial interest in specific genes in sheep can be summarised as
prolificacy, disease resistance and adaptability to certain production characteristics. The
aim is to identify these genes and to exploit their productivity potential. Major genes are of
major interest to realise quick genetic improvements, making sheep pioneers in their
research and commercial use.
Improved prolificacy has gained increased global interest since the re-orientation towards
meat production in sheep breeding. The Booroola gene as a major gene affecting
prolificacy is the best example for identifying and disseminating a specific gene through
crossbreeding, as is its global success in quickly improving prolificacy in several breeds
world wide (for details refer to the sheep global study in Annex 9.2) but also for being
rejected if not suitable under specific natural or socio-economic conditions.
Fahmy (1996) compiled information on the spread of prolificacy genes in sheep breeds. As
well as the Booroola gene, other prolificacy genes have been identified e.g. in the Chios
breed in Greece, the Dman sheep of Morocco, the Barbados Blackbelly of the Americas,
the Javanese thin-tailed and Javanese fat-tailed sheep of Indonesia, and prolific sheep of
China. Breeds with recently discovered genes for prolificacy are the Romney sheep, and
the Icelandic sheep. Less known in this respect are the Belle-Ile sheep of France, the
Bluefaced Leicester and the Teeswater of England, the Flemish Landrace of Belgium, the
Galician of Spain, the Garole of West Bengal, India, the Imeritian of the Republic of
Georgia, the Olkuska of Poland, and the St. Croix on the Virgin Islands. Davis et al. (2002)
confirmed the presence of the BMPIB receptor related to the Booroola gene in the Indian
Garole and Javanese thintail breeds. The Javanese thintail breed has gained particular
research interest because the single gene for prolificacy is segregated in the population and
so can be used to develop strains differing in reproductive performance, to exploit for
different intensities in different production systems (Ponzoni, 1992b). The Dman sheep
from Morocco is a minor breed in the country, but it has attracted attention because of its
exceptionally large litter size, early puberty, and short lambing interval. However, it
appears that in the Dman the high litter size is transmitted additively (not via a single gene
of large effect). Since the breed evolved in a very hot environment, apart from being
valuable itself, it could be useful for crossing with other breeds in similar environments
(Ponzoni, 1992b).
The global research and commercial interest in improving disease resistance and
adaptability brings tropical and subtropical sheep breeds to the centre of interest. Adapting
sheep to the tropics requires losing some fleece and improving parasite and disease
resistance to survive and reproduce under these conditions. Segregating a single major
gene responsible for expressing hair coats is an example of identifying a specific single
gene that research and commerce can use to reduce woolliness in populations of tropical
and subtropical countries. Additionally, reducing woolliness has gained interest in
temperate countries when the costs of shearing exceed the return from wool. Many tropical

hair sheep breeds also have genetic potential for a high lambing rate, and the potential for
more frequent lambing in tropical regions is apparent. (Shelton and Figueiredo, 1990).
Researchers are interested in the Djallonke hair sheep of West Africa because they are able
to survive and reproduce in trypanosomiasis affected areas (Goossens et al., 1999;
Goossens et al., 1997; Ponzoni, 1992b; Mavena, 1987). Fitzhugh and Bradfords (1983)
argue that most American hair sheep belong to the same genetic type, so this interest
extends to American hair sheep as well.
Great research interest has developed in countries with intensive production systems in the
field of resistance to helminth infections with Haemonchus contortus. This is not inherited
via a single gene, due to the increasing resistance of breeds to anthelmintics. Of particular
interest is the resistance of Djallonke (Goossens et al., 1999), Barbados Blackbelly
(Yatwinski et al., 1980), Red Maasai (Mugambi et al., 1997; Preston and Allonby, 1979),
and St. Croix hair sheep (Gamble and Zajac, 1992). Sansthan and Khler-Rohlefson(2005)
add the Javanese Thintail, the Garole, and the Florida Native to the list. The authors also
find the Javanese Thintail, Indonesian Thintail and St. Croix resistant or tolerant to Liver
Fluke, the Red Maassai resistant to Rift Valley Fever and Maedi visna, and the
Wensleydale resistant to Scrapie. In most of the cases reported, the genetic foundation of
the traits is still unclear.
Research interest has arisen in the Prion Protein Gene (PrP) for resistance to or
susceptibility for Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSE). ICAR reports PrP
genotyping in 7 countries to look for gene frequency changes after selection for preferred
allele types.
Due to the quick genetic improvements that are now feasible and their easy introduction
into new populations, identifying major genes responsible for superior individuals or
populations is given preference in sheep research and commercial interests. Improving
productivity of many breeds world wide, by introducing prolific genes or reducing
woolliness for example, is evidence of gene flow in the past. Breeds from countries with
traditional sheep production systems move into the centre of interest as their genetic
diversity is greater than in countries with intensive sheep farming. It has been shown that
interest in identified breeds goes far beyond their national importance. Exploitation exists
in the country of origin, in countries with similar production environments and globally.
5.1.4.2 Goats
There are scientific rather than commercial interests in targeting major or single genes in
goats that determine milk composition as in cattle, prolificacy as in sheep, and disease
resistance as in most domestic animal species.
With regard to disease resistance, the West African dwarf is tolerant to trypanosomiasis
and gastro-intestinal nematodes, and the Small East African to gastro-intestinal nematodes.
The research interest focuses on the commercial use of such genes.
5.1.4.3 Cattle
Marbling is a main determinant of beef prices in international trade. In Australia gene
markers have been identified to predict marbling potential. They have been commercially
marketed and patent protection has been sought. There are also efforts to identify gene

markers for parasite resistance and net feed efficiency (Allen, 2002; CSIROnline, 2004).
Interests to identify and exploit major genes determining milk composition in dairy cattle
exist. Unlike the situation in highly prolific species of poultry or sheep, major genes in
cattle cannot be exploited by conventional breeding methods of recurrent backcrossing, but
depends on the feasibility of gene transfer and the industrial process of legalising
genetically modified animals, leaving very few companies able to compete.
Disease resistance in local breeds is reported for the East African Short Horn Zebu for
Brucellosis, the Small East African Zebu for East Coast fever, the Brahman for
Haemoparasites and ticks, the Orma Boran for trypanosomiasis, and the NDama for
Cowdriosis, Dermatophilosis, gastro-intestinal parasites, ticks and trypanosomiasis
(Sansthan and Khler-Rohlefson, 2005). Research interest in disease resistance is high,
however, commercial exploitation in the near future is even more doubtful than for the
examples mentioned above. So far, many claims for disease resistance of local populations
have not been scientifically proven or specified.
5.1.4.4 Pigs
Consumer preferences play an important role in the demand for specific genes to serve
them. For example, some Taihu breeds are imported for specific fertility genes by France,
the Netherlands, the UK and USA, but no commercial use has been seen so far. Some
interest in Vietnams pot-bellied pigs as pets has been reported, and they have been used
to create experimental mini pig populations in northern countries. There has also been
recent scientific interest in Coli-receptor genes in pigs. Some indigenous livestock breeds
with genetic disease resistance are summarised by Sansthan and Khler-Rohlefson(2005).
They describe local indigenous pig breeds from Democratic Republic of Congo,
Mozambique, Angola, and Sudan that display moderate to high resistance to African swine
fever. Also, the I-pig from Vietnam that displays some (but unmeasured) resistance to
Foot-and-Mouth disease. None of these examples have been of commercial interest.
Simlarly, 9 purebreeding pigs were given by China as a gift to France, and genetic material
from trials with these pigs were spread to other European countries and the USA, mainly
for research purposes. As already mentioned in chapter 5.1.1, unique germplasm from
Asian breeds has played a vital role in commercial pig breeding programmes of European
and American companies.
5.1.5 Suitability of breeds for prevailing production systems
The suitability of introduced improved genotypes for prevailing production systems
determines the impact of the imported breeds on the existing breeds. If the new genotype is
very suitable, they often replace the local stock. If it proves unsuitable, it will eventually
disappear with virtually no impact.
Depending on the production system, optimal levels of genetic contributions from the
respective breeds and optimal breeding schemes need to be considered before
recommending gene flow plans (Cunningham and Syrstad, 1987; Cunningham, 1991;
Valle Zrate, 1996; Blake, 2004). Recommendations to promote or discourage gene flow
have been based upon genotype comparisons in place. Appropriate indicators are a key
feature to determine the suitability of genotypes for a given production system with its
natural, economic, social and cultural conditions. Usually biological or economic

efficiencies have been used. However, breed comparisons should also take farmers
preferences for certain breeds or traits into account. Determining appropriate indicators in
that case however is less developed than for biological or economic indicators, and
frameworks to analyse developing world systems are not nearly as well in place as
developed world systems (Gibson and Pullin, 2005). Indigenous breeds usually fulfil a
wider range of functions for their owners. The economic significance of non-market
functions and even non-use is being researched (Drucker et al., 2005).
5.1.5.1 Sheep
Examples of introduced foreign breeds proving unsuitable for their new production
environments are numerous in the history of sheep breeding. For many decades, many
temperate breeds introduced into the tropics or subtropics have been unsuccessful due to
genotype-environment interactions (Horst and Reh, 1999). The genetic impact of these
imports on existing breeds was therefore small.
Iniguezs review (1998) of community breeding programmes for small ruminants in the
Andean region showed that development programmes in the region tended to use exotic
germplasm indiscriminately without appropriate breed comparisons.
Another example is the widespread cross of the non-seasonal Criollo and the seasonal
Corriedale. Improved germplasm was introduced based on its merit in its place of origin,
and was not properly evaluated in breed comparisons in the region. There was therefore
little information on the suitability of the breeds for the prevailing natural and socio-
economic conditions. In Peru, some government agencies and NGOs are still distributing
purebred rams, particularly Corriedale, to upgrade Criollo/Mestizo sheep. Because
community producers were not adequately involved, most programmes only lasted while
funding was available or government commitment remained. Similar experiences with the
transfer of breeding stock to developing countries are reported in the Awassi case study.
However, there are also numerous examples where introducing improved foreign breeds
has significantly improved productivity of sheep farming when the introduced breeds are
suitable for the new production environment.
Establishing foreign genes in the local populations is regarded as proof of their suitability.
The whole history of the Merino breed is a vivid example for the global impact of an
improved breed on numerous sheep populations in the world, based on the breeds
suitability to a broad range of environments. Establishing foreign wool breeds and their
crosses in the environment of the high lands of East Africa, South America and India are
examples for the suitability of temperate breeds to environmental conditions of tropical or
subtropical countries. However, they have not always proved their fit to the socio-
economic framework. The Awassi case study shows that todays Awassi populations are
more numerous in countries where they have been exported to and fitted to the production
system than in the country of its origin.
Shrestha (2005) reviews the creation of 443 reported composite breeds or lines in 68
developed as well as developing countries of the world during the last centuries, based on
introduced foreign breeds. It proves the significant impact of foreign gene flow on
breeding directed at improving productivity of sheep husbandry. Although the impact of
the breeds was not given, many of them did not prove competitive and sustainable.
However, some examples of successfully established composite breeds, identified from the

list, support the conclusion. Developing and establishing the Dorper breed as the second
largest breed in South Africa and its popularity in many other countries is the most striking
example. The increase of the percentage of imported breeds of the total population from
4.1% to 15% from 1976 to 2000 in Poland gives another example of suitable and
sustainable gene transfer, besides reflecting the considerable impact of political and
economic framework conditions for the spread of breeds.
The growing awareness of the importance of suitability of breeds in their new production
environments has led to two consequences: one is to increasingly consider introducing
improved breeds from similar environmental conditions and production systems, and the
second is to performance test the different genotypes in the initial phase of gene transfer.
The Improved Awassi for example showed, on station with intensive management under
subtropical conditions of the destination countries, higher milk and mutton production
compared to indigenous breeds. However, under the tropical conditions of India and
Ethiopia, and the low-input production systems of Eastern European countries, the
Improved Awassi could not maintain this performance.
Schoeman (1996) gave a comparative assessment of Dorper sheep in different production
environments and systems and concluded that in the extensive areas of South Africa, the
Dorper generally had superior reproductive and growth performance to woollen and other
indigenous breeds. It also compared favourably with specialised mutton breeds. However,
the Dorper proved to be unsuitable for commercial use in the African tropics.
Literature reviewed by Schfer (1998) gives evidence of the suitability of hair sheep
crosses to tropical conditions based on performance comparisons, where possible directly
comparing with purebreds. An example of evaluating performance of hair sheep crosses,
from crossbreeding Barbados Blackbelly and St. Croix hair sheep from the USA with
Sumatran wool sheep breeds in Indonesia, is presented by Gatenby et al. (1997a and
1997b) and Gatenby et al. (1994).
Several sheep crosses were evaluated in many areas of Algeria, with breeds imported from
Europe, Australia, New Zealand and recently from the Middle East. An early crossing
between French Merino rams and Ouled Djellal ewe gave a new strain, named Taadmit,
and it now exists in the highlands. This breed has good conformation and good wool
quality. Crossing experiments carried out in some state farms indicated reproduction and
adaptation problems for the imported breeds. Growth rates were also very variable. It was
concluded that introducing imported breeds is not recommended where breeding
environments are not controlled (Benyoucef, 1992).
Changing economic conditions may also affect the suitability of the prevailing breed to the
new conditions, and subsequently may lead to re-orientating the breeding. For example the
new market economy in the former GDR led to the re-orientation from wool to meat: main
breeds were selected differently, local breeds disappeared and mutton breeds introduced.
It also has to be taken into account that shepherds may continue to keep their local breeds
despite the availability of suitable improved exotic breeds simply for tradition. This
observation has been made across continents, mostly in traditional cultures with shepherds
rather than cattle breeders who seem to be more open to new experiences.
It is concluded that if the introduced breeds are suitable for prevailing environments and
production systems, gene flow contributes significantly to improved productivity of sheep
farming through the introduced improved breeds. However, establishing suitable foreign

genotypes in local populations also threatens local breeds either through direct interference
or through market competition.
5.1.5.2 Goats
The general adaptability of the goat enables this species to be reared in both highly
intensive and very extensive production systems. In highly intensive production systems,
there are the high-yielding, highly prolific and regularly breeding dairy types: the Alpine,
Saanen, Toggenburg, Anglo Nubian and Damascus with milk yields of 800 to 1,000 litres
per lactation. At the other end of the spectrum, one can find all over the world many lower
performing breeds which excel by adapting to harsh environments, resisting diseases, and
thriving under low-input systems. In the global gene flow of goats (Annex chapter 9.3),
and particularly the Anglo Nubian case study (Annex chapter 9.7), examples are given of
successes and failures of goat transfers, depending on their fit to environments and goat
keeping systems.
Dryland grassland is susceptible to invasion by bush. Because of their feed preference for
bush, goats are widely used to control bush encroachment. Traditionally this is practised in
Mediterranean countries, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Latin America and the
southern United States. In the USA the breed used is called Spanish goat. They have
been exported from Texas to other states to manage vegetation. In California goats are
used near urban and forested areas to create firebreaks by grazing out shrubs from adjacent
land strips (Glimp, 1995). In the mid-west and north of the USA and Canada, Angora goats
were used in the 19th century to prepare new farming land by feeding on bush.
Many Mediterranean range goat production systems are located in the most difficult
environments where goats graze the especially harsh areas while other ruminants are
allotted to better pastures at the same location. This is the case of Angora goat flocks in
Turkey (El Aich et al., 1995).
Due to the great performance differences between temperate and tropical/subtropical goats,
crossbreeding is an opportunity to use these differences to develop synthetic breeds.
Examples from Kenya, Burundi, and Malaysia show it is necessary to define optimal gene
share of the exotic breed related to production purpose and production systems (Horst and
Reh, 1999).
5.1.5.3 Cattle
The spread of the Holstein breed is one of the most significant cattle gene flow events in
history and a vivid example of the global impact of this high-yielding dairy breed where
milk and beef prices favour dairy production, and where the climate is suitable. The latter
is the case in the whole temperate zone. Purebred Holstein are also expanding into the dry
tropics and subtropics and actually achieve their highest yields in Israel and California.
In the humid tropics efforts to introduce Holstein cattle have been of limited success. In a
global analysis of Holstein cattle imported to warm climate regions (30 latitude north and
south) it was stated that Holstein cows had on average 125 kg less weight, showed 30-50%
lower milk yields, displayed 10-15% longer calving intervals and had 0.5 to 1.2 lesser
calves in their lives (McDowell, 1992) compared to Holstein cows in temperate climates.
For a summary of some studies of the Holstein breed in different environments see Annex

9.1 A 48. (McDowell, 1985; Blake, 2004; Brahmia and Ben Dhia, 1990; Chagunda, 2000;
Ikiror, 2001; McDowell, 1992; Nassuns-Musoke, 2002; Syrstad, 1991).
Comparing different exotic breeds and their crosses in the tropics, it was found that the
Holstein was not necessarily superior (Rege, 1998). In a review in 1990 with the main
focus on tropical Latin America it was stated that losses in imported European dairy breeds
were generally so high that they were unable to produce sufficient replacements to
maintain herd size. A fact borne out by the need for continuous imports to keep herd sizes
of European origin constant (Vaccaro, 1983) cf. (Philipsson, 2002; Blench, 1999) makes
similar statements for European dairy breeds introduced to Africa: Even under high
management conditions these breeds could barely be sustained economically. Exceptions
are known from Kenya and South Africa, where some high-input farms produced for urban
markets (Blench, 1999) or Uganda where a Holstein population could successfully develop
over decades in a region with a suitable climate (Nakimbugwe, 2005). Local cattle are
crossed with Jersey or Holstein cattle in Zimbabwe for commercial milk production
(McDowell et al., 1996).
It has to be added that even in countries with no traditional milk production, strong
national subsidy systems may lead to the development of a national dairy production, as
for example in Vietnam. However, generally national subsidies are not maintained over the
long run and production costs rise above world market levels and undermine sustainable
dairy production as in Sri Lanka. Dairy production surviced in countries like India,
Lebanon and Syria due to maintainance of national subsidies.
When comparing the suitability of improved dairy breeds for new production systems, the
lack of genotype-environment interaction analysis led to the foundation of the International
Bull Evaluation Service (Interbull). This organisation helps to prevent temperate sires
being genetically overestimated when used in tropical and subtropical countries. Although
virtually all data come from intensive dairy systems that do not provide breed value
assessments in most developing countries, it has given importers better information for
their decisions (Smith and Banos, 1991; Banos and Sigurdsson, 1996; Zwald et al., 2003).
There are many breeds suitable for diverse purposes in the different ecozones: B. taurus
breeds from Britain and the European Continent are suitable for the temperate zone, B.
taurus x B. indicus crosses and Zebu breeds, Sanga breeds and other indigenous breeds are
suitable for subtropical areas, and specially adapted taurine breeds like NDama are
suitable for tropical environments.
Rege (1998) 80 studies of crosses of Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle breeds in the
tropics. Milk yields increased with up to 50% Bos taurus gene contribution, with a less
pronounced trend for higher contributions. If milk yield was related to calving interval
there was no clear trend at all. Age at first calving decreased with increasing shares from
Bos taurus while calving interval was lowest for halfbreds and increased again
substantially with higher taurine gene proportion. For a graphical depiction see Figure 8.
Similarly Syrstad (1991) reviewed 54 studies and further differentiated for Bos taurus
breeds and acknowledged breed differences, which were masked in the combined analyses.

Figure 8: Performance of Bos indicus, Bos taurus and their crosses in the tropics
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
0 1/8 1/4 3/8 1/2
(F1)
5/8 3/4 7/8 1
proportion of Bos taurus contribution
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Source: data from Rege (1998)
In the tropical and subtropical zone of Asia emphasis is on crossbreeding for milk
production. As many efforts to establish purebred temperate dairy breeds have failed,
India, Pakistan and Bangladesh have started crossbreeding taurindicus cattle for milk.
In India, crossbreeding with exotic cattle breeds began in the late 1800s and it became an
official policy at the turn to the 20th century. In the 1920s and 1930s European dairy cattle
breeds (Holstein, Brown Swiss, Jersey, Red Danish, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey) were
introduced and used on Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Tharparker, Gir and Harina in military farms.
Continued crossings of mainly Holstein with Sahiwal revealed that up to an exotic share of
about 63% performance levels increased - given that good management was secured.
Based on these results between 1961 and 1975 exotic breeds were imported to produce
semen which was used in countrywide crossbreeding programmes. Further crossbreeding
schemes are reported from the 1980s and 1990s with Sahiwal and Holstein to form a new
synthetic breed - the Frieswal - which was meant to be spread over the whole of India.
Similar schemes are documented using other breeds, for example Brown Swiss, for
crossbreeding in India. In the 1990s India was the largest user of crossbred cattle in Asia
(Felius, 1995; Katpatal, 1977; Mudgal and Arora, 1994; McDowell et al., 1996). Mathias
and Mundy (2005) summarise the percentage of crossbreeds with indigenous cattle in
Asian countries, and cite that Thailand with 84% crossbreeds of the total cattle population
has the highest percentage, followed by Sri Lanka (29%), Pakistan (7.5%), India (7%), and
Bangladesh (2-3%).
Crossbreeding local cattle with imported breeds (Holstein, Jersey, Sahiwal) and among
these breeds (Syed et al., 1996) and of Sahiwal with Swedish Red and White breeds is also
reported from Pakistan (Ishaq et al., 1981). Malaysia has imported large numbers of
Sahiwal x Holstein crosses from Australia and New Zealand (McDowell et al., 1996). In
some cases they were considered to be financially viable in smallholder production (Wan

Hassan et al., 1989); in other cases widespread lactation failures were reported
(Murugaiyah et al., 2001).
Madalena et al. (1990) included management intensities in their comparisons of different
crossbreds in Brazil. They found milk yields increased in above 50%-taurine-crosses in
intensive management while in low management conditions the trend was unclear. This
again underpins the importance of gene environment interactions.
The Simmental breed, originally a triple-purpose breed, has proved suitable for various
production systems and climatic conditions. The use varies from country to country due to
milk prices and the milk-beef-price ratio. While in Central and Eastern Europe it is used as
a genuine dual-purpose breed, in the New World, Northwest Europe, Africa and Latin
America it is mainly used for beef. Simmental genetic material has been used in
crossbreeding schemes either for industrial crosses, to develop new composite breeds or
upgrade local cattle breeds. Simbra became the most widely distributed synthetic breed to
which Simmental has made substantial contributions. In Southern Africa (South Africa,
Namibia, Botswana) the number of Simbra animals and Simbra breeders grew constantly
from the mid 1990s until 2003 while the numbers in the USA and Australia were roughly
constant (World Simmental Fleckvieh Federation, 2002). In Brazil the synthetic breed of
Simmental and zebu breeds is the Simbrazil.
The Brahman, adapted to hot climates due to its superior thermoregulation, and the Santa
Gertrudis (3/8 Brahman and 5/8 Shorthorn) breeds had the most influence on beef cattle
breeding in the tropical and subtropical zones of the New World (Brahman Cattle Breeders
Society South Africa, 2004; Hernandez-Ceron et al., 2004). But naturally, they were not
successful as subsistence milk suppliers for pastoral herdsmen. In the Philippines for
example, genetic improvement through a nucleus breeding programme of imported
purebred Brahman and Simbra cattle successfully reached rural village level by
crossbreeding with local cattle by AI or natural mating (Boadle et al., 1997; Loculan,
2002). In general, breeding in marginal areas which had no tradition of beef production
was made possible by introducing tropical cattle breeds such as the Brahman and its
derivates
In Latin-America, at the end of the 19th century when the British beef market was made
available by the new refrigerated ships, Criollo cattle were upgraded to British beef breeds
(Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus) or to zebu breeds from India. New crosses of
imported cattle breeds have been continuously tried out and changed with market demands,
varying management intensities and agro-ecological-regions (Bondoc et al., 1997;
Madalena, 1977; Mandibaya et al., 1999).
When cattle producers need multi-purpose cattle, or product prices do not justify costly
inputs, other breeds and breeding methods have to be used. Here, the Sahiwal and its
crosses with temperate zone dairy and dual-purpose breeds are promising.
In Kenya there has been a great number of crossing trials of Sahiwal with the local East
African Zebu and Bos taurus breeds (Table 4). From Kenya Sahiwal genetic material has
been exported to the whole continent of Africa.

Table 4: Sahiwal crosses with other cattle breeds in Kenya
Breeds crossed with Sahiwal in Kenya Source
Jersey, Frisian Meyn and Wilkins (1974)
Ayrshire Kimenye and Russell (1975)
Ayrshire Trail and Gregory (1981a)
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Simmental, Friesian Trail and Gregory (1981b)
East African Zebu Cunningham and Syrstad (1987)
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss Thorpe et al. (1994)
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Friesian Kahi et al. (1999)
Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, Friesian Kahi et al. (2000)
Friesian Mpofu and Rege (2002)
The Senepol breed was formed from 1860 onwards on the Virgin Islands from imported
NDama and Red Poll (Felius, 1995). Also in the 19th century, in India and Sri Lanka,
Taylor and Hatton cattle were developed from crossbreeding trials (Horst and Reh, 1999).
In Western Africa there were crossbreeding programmes with NDama in the second half
of the 20th century: in Cte dIvoire with Jersey imported from Great Britain (Letenneur,
1978) and Simmental from Germany (Meyn, 2005), in Sierra Leone with Sahiwal imported
from Kenya and in Togo with German Yellow to form a new synthetic - the Avtonou
(Felius, 1995). The Foula in Guinea Bissau, the Djakor and Bambey in Senegal and the
Bambara in Mali are crossing products of NDama and Fulani zebu (Felius, 1995). In
Ghana Ndagu was bred from NDama and Sokoto Gudali imported from Nigeria (Felius,
1995). The Baoul in northern Ivory Coast, in southern Mali and southwest Burkina Faso
is also supposed to have received some gene flow from NDama. The Baoul was exported
to Liberia, Gabon, Togo, Central African Republic and Zaire (Felius, 1995). All these are
examples of attempts to develop composite cattle breeds with high production and adapted
to specific conditions. Only in a few cases have the composite breeds been further
transferred and introduced to similar production conditions.
The Australian Milking Zebu was developed in Australia in the 1950s by crossing the Zebu
breeds Sahiwal and Red Sindhi with Jersey. Gene proportions ranged from 3/8 to 4/8 Zebu
and 4/8 to 5/8 Bos taurus. The Australian Milking Zebu has also spread to Southeast Asian
countries like Malaysia and Bangladesh. In Java, the Grati cattle was developed by
crossing Dutch breeds with local Madura and Banteng cattle. In Brazil, the Pitangueira
cattle is a cross of the imported Guzerat cattle from India and the Red Poll cattle with a 5/8
Bos taurus gene proportion.
Horst and Reh (1999) also summarise beef cattle breeds developed through crossbreeding
schemes. Beside the already mentioned Santa Gertrudis and Beefmaster cattle in the
Southern USA, the Brangus (5/8 Angus and 3/8 Brahman), and the Charbray (Charolais
and Brahman) also developed there. In South Africa, the Droughtmaster (1/2 Shorthorn
and 1/2 Brahman), the Braford (Hereford and Brahman) and Belmont Red (Hereford,
Shorthorn and Afrikander) is mentioned.
An example of an attempt to improve a breed and exporting it from developing to other
developing countries based on similar ecosystems and production conditions is the nucleus
breeding programme established for Criollo cattle. It led to initially successful introducing

improved Criollo cattle from Nicaragua to Mexico and from Costa Rica to several Latin
American countries. The most widespread distribution was reported in areas where milk
producers were already organised and established institutions could be used (Alba, 1978;
Felius, 1995)
5.1.5.4 Pigs
Commercial pig production differs from ruminant in that the environment is frequently
shaped to the needs of the pigs. Adaptability problems are therefore in many cases reduced.
Additionally commercially owned breeding enterprises often have regional structures in
which breeding pigs are adapted to the environment. Therefore, exotic genotypes and their
crossbreds are often better than indigenous breeds. Subsequently, commercial pig stock
even in tropical and subtropical climates, for example South America, mostly consist of
commercial hybrids and exotic purebreeding lines used as maternal stock to cross with
terminal sires to produce pork.
However, it was concluded that genotypes from temperate regions and their crosses face
severe problems with traditional feed and management in developing countries, resulting in
poor reproductive performance and high mortality. Furthermore to avoid loss of heterosis
in consecutive generations, continual inflow of exotic germplasm is necessary which
makes the success of small-scale crossbreeding schemes doubtful. Institutional,
organisational and technical support are required for these crossbreeding schemes to
succeed (Agbagha et al., 2001). In most cases breeding with exotic breeds in smallholder
conditions was neglected after the projects completed. Without further access to exotic
breeds, the impact of selective crossbreeding on the local populations vanishes from
generation to generation but already had diluted local breeds. The numerous examples of
successful breed transfers and breed combinations that give local farmers, by increasing
performance potential, opportunities to develop their production systems and livelihoods
will never be adequately summarised.
5.2 Impact of gene flow on economic development and poverty reduction
From the main findings discussed in chapter 5.1, the following conclusions are made about
the impact of gene flow on economic development and poverty reduction.
Developing countries display a demand for new breeds of all four species to increase
productivity of farming. With biotechnology and better transport, genetic resources have
become readily available and accessible across the globe. However, the quantity of genetic
material transferred is not important to the success of gene flow. Instead it is its suitability
to the new environments, economies, cultures and societies as discussed in chapter 5.1.5.
If the introduced improved breeds are suitable for the prevailing conditions and production
systems, gene flow contributes significantly to the countrys economy and reduces poverty
by improving on-farm productivity. This is true for dairy cattle but may also include
increased red meat production as reported for pigs, sheep, goats and beef cattle. The
importance of gene flow for economic development is particularly evident where the local
breeds have a low production potential and so cannot be quickly improved through within-
breed selection. When evaluating such programmes, the costs to implement selection
schemes and the relatively slow progress are often underestimated. On the other hand, as

imported gene flow often involves specialised and concentrated production the poorer rural
population may not benefit from it.
The greater the success of the introduced breed, the greater the threat of losing biodiversity
in the national population. Many marginal areas, such as deserts, scrublands and
mountainous areas, can only be exploited by locally adapted breeds. However, nobody has
ever attempted to replace local breeds by exotics under these extreme conditions.
If the new breeds add to the diversity of national populations, gene flow offers the chance
to quickly adapt to new production options. Particularly, in rapidly developing parts of the
world, gene flow vitally enhances production to meet the populations growing demand for
red meat. Milk production and marketing schemes may directly benefit smallholders.
Production can be further improved if this development goes hand in hand with a change
from extensive to intensive production systems. These intensive production units will
compete through the market with extensive production systems, so threatening the
livelihoods of smallholders. Negative effects of market competition between big units and
smallholders can arise if governments help to establish large-scale livestock production
through laws and incentives that exclude smallholders (Mathias and Mundy, 2005).
However, it is a political decision how national resources are allocated and whether or not
efforts are made to ensure poor farmers participate in the development process on or off
their farms. Left to survival strategies, they are better off with their local breeds than
without them. To get out of poverty, relying on local breeds will hardly ever suffice.
Restricting access to advanced technology, here specifically access to high performing
exotic breeds, is likely to hinder self-sustained development. However, protecting the
developing local breeding organisations and avoiding hidden subsidies to exotic
competitors may help local livestock breeders to participate in economic development.
Measures to counteract monopolisation in the breeding organisations and access to genetic
resources may also help. The choice of technology, here the access to breeds and genetic
material, cannot replace political decisions. In conclusion: if a programme cannot be
implemented to keep gene proportion of the exotic breed at appropriate level, introducing
exotics is dangerous.
Gene flow may also contribute to niche market production, permitting or even encouraging
the use of foreign breeds with characters specific to local market preferences. Niche
markets provide a promising chance to survive, particularly in sheep farming which
otherwise faces severe reductions or even lost profitability. On the other hand, native
genetic resources may contribute as much to niche market production or other production
purposes which also conserves national genetic resources. Fat-tail sheep e.g. cover a niche
market in Central Asia, where meat is produced for the Arabian market.
A particular importance of gene flow is given when livestock populations are reduced, for
example after wars. When effective breeding work is limited and the basis to restore and
develop future populations is lost, gene flow is the only chance to rebuild the stock from
imported genetic material. However, a decision has to be made whether the rebuilding
should introduce high performance breeds from temperate climates or local breeds from
neighbouring regions.
If the imported breeds are unsuitable for prevailing production systems, the impact of this
gene flow on population composition is theoretically self-limiting. However, the economic
losses for smallholders can be severe, if development projects or governments continue to

promote or subsidise these genotypes. The losses are caused by diluting or replacing the
indigenous genetic resources suitable for the smallholder production system. There is also
an indirect loss as monetary resources are wasted that could be used later in suitable
genetic improvements.
5.3 Impact of gene flow on biodiversity
The influx of high performing genotypes into existing breeds has always been an important
component in developing and improving breeds. In the history of all species investigated,
gene flow has contributed significantly to diversity. In population genetics migration is
an important source of genetic variability.
The growing global need for improved animal productivity has led to an increased demand
for improved genotypes. With biotechnology and global transport developed since the mid
20th century, foreign genetic resources are readily available across the globe. Current gene
flow is dominated by source countries with advanced breeding structures, mainly
developed countries, so that gene flow is north to north and north to south. At the same
time, animals from developed countries increasingly belong to a small number of
genetically narrow, high performance breeds with similar breeding goals and hybrids
developed over the last two centuries and strongly influenced by controlled research-
funded breeding programmes. They have been selected for high yields and require
standardised conditions and high inputs to exploit their genetic potential and homogeneity
within and between breeds has increased. The international exchange of genetic material
from a decreasing number of sires increasingly loses genetic variation (Young and
Seykora, 1996) with global impacts for developed and developing countries. The global
gene flow of a relatively few breeds is significant for all species under study. Biodiversity
is now recognised as relevant to global politics, and has been too long neglected in
research and its economic relevance underestimated (Winnacker, 2005).
The impact of this gene transfer on biodiversity depends mainly on the breeds suitability
to its new production environments and can be measured in changes to the national
population composition. If they are suitable and the new breeds add to existing genotypes,
then biodiversity increases. If new genotypes replace existing breeds, biodiversity is lost.
Examples for both situations are numerous for all species and in general they are examples
of national economic development. Whether the improved breeds co-exist with or replace
the native breeds after gene flow depends on various factors. One factor is the production
system that the introduced genotype is meant for. In developing countries, where extensive
smallholder production systems prevail, dilution or replacement, mainly through
crossbreeding, are likely where the new genotypes are suitable, are available, and are
adopted by the local breeders. Then, developing smallholder livelihoods can conflict with
improving biodiversity and it may not be adequate to require poor farmers in developing
countries to bear the costs for conservation of global biodiversity.
The more commercial and concentrated the sector is the greater the threat of losing
biodiversity, a general rule which can be observed in other sectors likewise. Semyonov and
Selkin (1989) for example summarised in their study on sheep breeds in Russia that in
many decades of effort new sheep breeds were developed by crossbreeding local coarse-
wooled sheep with fine-wooled and semi-fine-wooled sheep. However the local Voloshian,
Mikhnov, Bozakh, Karabakh, Shirvan, and Darvaz breeds had almost disappeared, and the
Fat-tailed Finewool, Georgian Semifinewool Fat-Tailed and Kuchugury were reduced to

small populations. The country reports give other specific examples where local stock was
replaced and breeds became extinct. For Africa, Eastern and Southern Europe, Western
and Northern Europe, North America, and Western Asia however the threat of sheep breed
extinction is considered low while in Latin America and Southern and Eastern Asia it is
medium. The risk status of the worlds sheep breeds recorded up to end of 1999 as
published by Scherf (2000) in the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity shows
that from a total of 1495 breeds, 181 (12%) were extinct while 656 (44%) were not at risk.
Compared to other species, the total number of breeds, the number of extinct and not at
risk breeds, indicate a better situation for sheep breeds than for cattle and pig breeds. Only
goats had lower extinction rates (3%). However, the situation for sheep is deteriorating
over time as extinction rates compared to figures from 1995 had more than doubled and the
percentage of breeds not at risk decreased. However, the high numbers of breeds with
unknown status and the still increasing number of recorded breeds shows these figures are
uncertain.
According to data collected by the FAO, 18 % of the 740 farm animal breeds that were
recorded as extinct were breeds from the South, although the percentage may be
underestimated as data collection started later and is more difficult in developing countries
(Mathias and Mundy, 2005). However, among the breeds at risk, including the status
endangered and critical, 60% are from the South and this proportion is expected to
increase. The figures differ greatly between sources and between species and their
reliability is further weakened by the great number of breeds with unknown status.
However, Mathias and Mundy (2005) conclude that if the risk factors change of
husbandry, expansion of large-scale intensive livestock production or people giving up
herding or farming are taken into account, then the South would be the hotspot of breed
loss of the 21st century.
Niche market production using local breeds to serve specific local consumer preferences
may counter these losses. Careful production system analysis is therefore demanded to
evaluate the impact of gene flow on biodiversity, as well as to determine whether
conserving local breeds is in the interest of local farmers. In Europe we can see a re-
orientation towards the use of local breeds, due to new utilities based on eco-tourism and
conserving natural environments.
If the introduced breeds are not suitable, as already mentioned above, the impact on
biodiversity is theoretically limited. However, if the introduction is promoted or even
subsidised through development projects or governments, or crossbreeding is
indiscriminate over a long time and in considerable quantities, existing breeds will be
affected. The effect is generally negative as the native and adapted breeds are diluted.
However, over a long adaptation time, these new genotypes can also contribute to
biodiversity by developing new breeds or traits. In Latin America for example, introducing
unsuitable wool sheep breeds from Spain led eventually to the well adapted Chiapas sheep,
now considered native.
Apart from the main streams of gene flow of high-yielding breeds from developed
countries, gene flow takes place from all countries which possess unique genotypes. High-
yielding breeds formed in developed countries depended on foreign genetic material. For
example the European and North American commercial pig breeds were heavily
influenced by genetic material from Asia. Research and commercial interests focus at such
genotypes of current and future importance.

Global transfer of these genotypes generally contributes to biodiversity, particularly if
these genotypes are threatened in their native countries. Horst and Reh (1999) give
examples where some old European breeds, under threat in their native country, are used
for crossbreeding in the tropics. By making use of their typical adaptability to marginal
production environments, valuable genetic resources from developed countries can be
conserved as well as developing economies in developing countries by genetically
improving local breeds.
Niche market production using foreign breeds with specific attributes to serve local market
preferences are also examples of the benefits of biodiversity by transferring unique
genotypes. The utilisation of major genes is in this context of particular interest (Horst and
Reh, 1999). Shrestha (2005) points at developing composite sheep populations from a
combination of endangered and established breeds which may result in financial benefits
and simultaneously conserve domestic animal diversity of the gene pool, although not of
breeds. However, these are singular cases and are not meant to suggest that an overall
model solution is to align the global interest to conserve biodiversity with the interests of
local farmers to quickly increase production. In general, if global gene flows that reduce
biodiversity are to be counteracted, creating incentives for smallholders in developing
countries such as paying to conserve global biodiversity through local genetic resources
may be more promising than imposing restrictions.
5.4 Limitations of the study
The most limiting factor of the study was the information available on current gene flow.
Countries with highly organised breeding structures were expected to have statistical data
bases on breeding stock transfer and changes in national population composition. The
United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database (COMTRADE) delivered unreliable
results and was therefore dropped as a source. Europe had available statistics in the form of
the Eurostat statistic database. Also these records had limited information. First of all, the
records did not include breed details so that the influence of single breeds could not be
interpreted. It was also unclear whether these records reflected true volumes of animal
transfer, for example whether transfers for development projects were included.
Furthermore, only the exchange of purebreeding stock was recorded. Purebreeding
statistics are however not important where hybrids play a vital role, particularly in pig
breeding. Additionally, with increasing commercialisation, export and import statistics are
less able to depict gene flow and company figures would be more suitable. However
international breeding companies tend to restrict access to this information at least to up-
to-date figures. In commercial breeding, transfer figures underestimate the gene flow when
a few animals are multiplied in national centres, is the case in commercial pig breeding.
Apart from cattle, data on the exchange of other breeding products, such as semen and
embryos, were even more difficult to obtain and in general lacking. Additionally, there
may be big gaps between what has been transferred and what has been successfully
utilised.
Another major methodological restriction is that the availability and quality of information
on transfers varies considerably between countries and extrapolating from one well
documented situation to cover the many information gaps is not possible.
For example, to gain information of the desired quality covering at least examples from the
different regions of the world, six breeding organisations and 21 experts from 12 countries

were contacted for the sheep global study. Only three contacts replied and no statistics
were made available. Official national statistics were available via the FAO on the
exchange of live animals but these were not exclusively for breeding. The country reports
in some cases included necessary information. However, if country reports included data
on animal transfers, the usual focus was on imports not exports. Exports could only be
traced indirectly as imports into other countries. Therefore, an important source of
recorded information on gene flow was generally left out. This was particularly bad for
developing countries, where records of animal movements rarely existed and country
reports, if they existed, did not contain the desired details. In general country reports
differed considerably in quantity and quality and no standard format exists which would
allow such information to be compared. Export data from developed countries could have
closed that information gap.
The latter limitation throws light on the lack of information about gene flow from
developing countries, particularly South to South movements which would have been
interesting.
A major constraint is that the size and number of transfers does not generally predict its
genetic or economic impact. Transactions are, with very exceptions, impossible to follow
up. The exceptions, such as the Awassi case study, cannot be generalised. There were
examples for all species where massive transfers had very little long-term effect, and where
the transfer of a few animals had major impacts on global gene flow. These examples
however only become evident retrospectively as changes to national population
composition, making this indicator of gene flow an important tool in the study. It was used
especially in the global study but relied mainly on the Country Reports which, as
mentioned above, were limited in quantity and quality. Additionally, a major limitation of
the country reports on changes in national population composition was put forward in the
pig case study. According to more updated sources it appears that the Vietnamese country
report did not realise the full influence of exotic genotypes on local genotypes, and only
reported where both were directly interfering. So the impact of the exotic genotypes on the
local populations was underestimated.
With the increase of global mobility and biotechnology, gene flow has increased and has
become more complicated and even more difficult to follow up. This puts severe
limitations on the global studies. The Awassi case study showed in an illustrative example
how this limitation could be overcome in particular, detailed case studies. But it also
showed what effort it takes to collect the necessary information to assemble a nearly
complete picture of gene flow for one particular breed from one particular regional source.
The study as a whole therefore had to refrain from quantifying global gene flow. It was
shown that gene flow is a very complex and dynamic process with many factors varying
the possible impacts from case to case. The impact evaluation of global gene flow on
economic development and biodiversity as treated in chapter 5.2 and 5.3 therefore make
very general and qualitative conclusions and do not measure overall global gene flow. The
study analyses selected aspects of gene flow and is meant to provide scientifically-founded
information for decision makers in the current discussion on global gene flow and its
impacts. It may help to understand the complexity of the situation and may prevent
decision makers from implementing oversimplified programmes. The study is certainly not
suitable to conclude this discussion.

5.5 Need for further action
evaluated. It has been stated above that global evaluation is doubtful and that global
interpretations will be possible only if serious status and impact studies in each country add
to the global picture. With the limitations of the data bases accessed in this study, further
actions are needed to improve the information on current gene flow in a standardised
comparable format for each species and country if a global valuation is intended.
As improving data quality and quantity in developed as well as developing countries,
particularly import and export figures, are not realistic in the near future the focus should
be to derive reliable data on national population composition changes. This calls for
frequent census studies at breed and genotype level. This approach, which for most
countries is challenging enough, would avoid the time consuming tracing of complex gene
flow routes and instead starts right at evaluating the genetic impact and can be more easily
connected to collateral impacts on biodiversity and economic development for different
groups of society. Many weaknesses could be minimised, such as the different values put
on national genetic resources by different stakeholders. Case studies then need to provide
additional information on the impact evaluation for very specific countries or regions as
well as on the organisational structures and mechanisms influencing the impact.
Each country, based on its evaluation of the national situation, can then make use of gene
flow control mechanisms to improve the situation. One has to be aware that indigenous
genetic resources are a source of adaptability to specific changes in the economic and
natural environment. Conserving these resources secures the national as well as global
adaptability to changing future animal production conditions, and secures the livelihoods
of animal holders who for the time being depend on these resources. Future animal
production has to maintain developing countries biodiversity and reduce poverty.
Concepts which serve both by securing or even improving smallholder livelihoods in
marginal areas using their indigenous genetic resources should be heavily weighted. These
concepts need to identify and evaluate the genetic distance between breeds as well as the
genetic potential, performance and other uses and non-use values in different production
systems. What is more, biodiversity impacts must be taken into account when conditions of
gene flow are evaluated.
Exotic breeds are currently introduced for various reasons. If the genetic potential of the
local breed is low, economic development calls for introducing suitable higher performing
breeds. Suitability requires reasonable selection of imported breeds, comparative
performance evaluation of different pure- and crossbred genotypes, and evaluation of
natural, economic, social and cultural framework conditions, before selecting a genotype
and breeding system. Conserving national genetic resources by crossbreeding can be
considered as well as using foreign breeds which are under threat in their country of origin.
Such approaches should preferably be carried out on-farm closely involved with the
livestock keepers. However, if conserving indigenous genetic resources conflicts with
economic development and poverty reduction, conservation cannot be carried out at the
expenses of local livestock keepers. Conservation then has to be treated separately but
alongside economic development, supported by appropriate funding.
Herders and farmers must be closely involved in decision making, and appropriate system
analysis must be developed for smallholder production systems in developing countries

(Gibson and Pullin, 2005). Based on its central importance to reduce poverty and conserve
biodiversity in marginal areas, community based management of animal genetic resources
and indigenous knowledge has to be fostered.
Each country has to be aware that unique genotypes are in global demand. Gene flow is too
complicated to find routes after the event, in whatever quantity. Gene flow should
therefore be considered case by case, and recording practices and access and benefit
sharing agreements put in place in advance, rather than retrospectively attempting to
measure and exploit the transfers. The apparent lack of prior informed consent is one of the
major discussion points in the case of the Boran and Tuli genetic resources transfer, as
detailed in the case study.
Finally it has to be concluded that without local breeding organisations and without
actively including smallholders in the breeding work success is impossible in the long run.
Instead, international breeding companies are ready to do that job. As already observed in
cattle and pig breeding, a two-level structure is emerging: modern and traditional. What is
more, as the demand for meat and milk in developing countries is expected to double in the
next two decades, a new livestock revolution is expected. In the long run, a rapid
expansion of intensive production may put traditional production under increasing pressure
(Mathias and Mundy, 2005). However, the importance of animal husbandry for the
livelihoods of smallholders, particularly in marginal regions, cannot be overestimated. If
regional structural changes do not allow these groups to find new incomes, then breeding
should be organised and payments to conserve natural environments and farm animal
diversity should be considered world wide.
REFERENCES 95

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CONTACT ADDRESSES 105

7 CONTACT ADDRESSES
7.1 Authors
M.Sc. Erika Alandia Robles, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany;
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3006, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: ealandia@yahoo.com
Prof. em. Dr. Christian Gall, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3170, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: gall@uni-hohenheim.de
Dr. Elisha Gootwine, Institute of Animal Science, A.R.O., The Volcani Center, P.O. Box
6, Bet Dagan 50250 Israel;
Phone: +97 (239) 683 752, Fax: +97 (239) 603 678
E-mail: gootwine@agri.gov.il
Martin Hill, Edinburgh
Phone: +44 7901 55 24 66, http://www.martinhill.me.uk
E-mail: martin@martinhill.me.uk
Dr. Sabine Homann, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
(ICRISAT), POB 776, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe;
Phone: +263 (11) 623 967, Fax: +263 (83) 8253/8307
E-mail: s.homann@cgiar.org
Dr. Christian G. Hlsebusch, Executive Manager, DITSL GmbH Witzenhausen at the
University of Kassel, Steinstrasse 19 , 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany;
Phone: +49 (0) 5542 607 29, Fax: +49 (0) 5542 607 39
E-mail: huelse@ditsl.de; huelse@uni-kassel.de
M.Sc. Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3006, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: lehuyen1973@yahoo.com
Dipl. Ing. agr. Ute Lemke, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3294, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: utelemke@uni-hohenheim.de
M.Sc. Jacobus Hendrik Maritz, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and
Subtropics, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany;
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3172, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: maritz@uni-hohenheim.de
M.Sc. Marcus Mergenthaler, Institute for Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences in
the Tropics and Subtropics (490), University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany;
Phone: +49 (711) 459 2602, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3762
E-mail: marcusm@uni-hohenheim.de
106 CONTACT ADDRESSES

Dr. Klaus Meyn, ADT Projekt GmbH, Adenauerallee 174, 53113 Bonn, Germany;
Phone: +49 (228) 914 4730, Fax: +49 (228) 914 473 1593;
E-mail: klaus.meyn@adt.de
Dr. Helmut Momm, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
Phone: +49 (711) 457 9891, Fax: +49 (711) 457 9891
E-mail: musavaya@uni-hohenheim.de
M.Sc. Katinka Musavaya, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3006, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: musavaya@uni-hohenheim.de
Dipl. Ing. agr. bio. Regina Roessler, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and
Subtropics, University of Hohenheim, 70593 Stuttgart, Germany,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 4247, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: roessler@uni-hohenheim.de
Dipl. Ing. agr. Tobias Rummel, Dorfstr. 38, 09326 Geringswalde, OT Neuwallwitz,
Germany;
Phone: +49 (3738) 271 722
Dr. Cornelia Schfer, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3006, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: c-c.schaefer@t-online.de
Dr. Angelika Stemmer, Casilla 1879, Cochabamba, Bolivia;
Phone: +59 (1) 421 8725
E-mail: caprino@albatros.cnb.net
Prof. Dr. Anne Valle Zrate, Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics,
Phone: +49 (711) 459 3170, Fax: +49 (711) 459 3290
E-mail: valle@uni-hohenheim.de

7.2 Advisory panel
Prof. Dr. John Gibson, Director, The Institute for Genetics and Bioinformatics, Hawkins
Homestead, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351, Australia;
Phone: +61 (02) 6773 2930, Fax: +61 (02) 6773 3275, Mobile: +61 (0437) 039951
E-mail: john.gibson@une.edu.au
Dr. Irene Hoffmann, Chief, Animal Production Service, Animal Production and Health
Division, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Roma, Italy;
Phone: +39 (06) 570 52796, Fax: +39 (06) 570 55749 or -53927, Mobile: 348 (870) 5309
E-mail: Irene.Hoffmann@fao.org

Annette von Lossau, Project officer, GTZ-Project "People and Biodiversity", P.O. Box
5180, 65726 Eschborn, Germany;
Phone: +49 (6196) 79 1473
E-mail: annette.lossau-von@gtz.de
Dr. Elzbieta Martyniuk, Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, Warsaw
Agricultural University, ul. Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warszawa, Poland
Phone/Fax: +48 (22) 853 09 31
E-mail: martyniuk@alpha.sggw.waw.pl
Evelyn Mathias, League for Pastoral Peoples and Endogenous Livestock Development,
Weizenfeld 4, 51467 Bergisch Gladbach, Germany;
Phone: +49 (2202) 932921, Fax: +49 (2202) 932922
E-mail: evelyn@mamud.com
Dr. Siboniso Moyo, Dept. of Livestock Production, Bevan Building, 18 Borrowdale Road,
Harare, Zimbabwe
Phone: +263 (04) 731126 or 702584
E-mail: dlpd@africaonline.co.zw
Dr. Ferdinand Schmitt, Managing Director, ADT Projekt GmbH, Adenauerallee 174,
53113 Bonn, Germany;
Phone: +49 (228) 91447 32, Fax: + 49 (228) 91447 31, Mobile:+ 49 (171) 286 1034
E-mail: ferdinand.schmitt@adt.de
7.3 Resource persons
Abdi Ahmed, Pastoral Forum Ethiopia (PFE), Panos, POB 1570 code 1110 or 1152, Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia;
Phone: +251 (11) 666363/59, Fax: +251 (11) 666361
E-mail: nabdiahmed@yahoo.com
Dr. Jock Allison, Abacus Biotech, PO Box 5585, Dunedin, New Zealand;
Phone: +64 (3) 4776375, Fax: +64 (3) 4776376, Mobile 64 (21) 363337
E-mail: jallison@abacusbio.co.nz
Arbeitsgemeinschaft sterreichischer Fleckviehzchter (AGF), Pater Werner Deibl
Strae 4, 3910 Zwettl, Austria, www.fleckvieh.at
Phone: +43 (2822) 53531-10, Fax: +43 (2822) 53531-15
E-mail: info@fleckvieh.at
Awassi Rt., 4164 BAKONSZEG, Hunyadi t 83., Hungary;
Phone: (54) 513-000/001/002, Fax: (54) 513-003, www.awassi.hu
E-mail: awassi@axelero.hu
Workneh Ayalew, ILRI-BMZ Project Manager, Animal Genetic Resources Group,
International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), POB 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
Phone: +251 (11) 6463215, Fax: +251 (11) 6461252/ 6464645
E-mail: w.ayalew@cgiar.org
M. Bass Werner, Director of DRIPAD Tarija, Avenida Defensores del Chaco s/n, zona
aeropuerto, Tarija, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 (46) 645837
E-mail: mbwerner58@hotmail.com

Dr. Maurice Bichard, The Farmhouse, Fyfield Wick, Oxon, OX13 5NB, Abingdon,
United Kingdom;
E-mail: bichard@btinternet.com
Prof. Emeritus Rigoberto Calle Escobar, Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Telf.
3495747 anexo 164., Francisco Del Castillo 573 San Antonio, Miraflores, Lima -Per;
Phone: 4473115, Fax: 2424364, Mobile: 99857639
E-mail: rigoranch@lamolina.edu.pe
F. Cautin, Administrator of SONU (Sociedad Nueva), Calle Mama Ocllu No. S-0905,
Casilla 4231, Cochabamba, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 44250562
E-mail: sonubol@supernet.com.bo
Yosef Carrasso, Sheep and Goat Division, Extension Service, Ministry of Agriculture and
Rural Development, P.O. Box 28, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel;
Phone: 97239485306, Fax: 97239485614, Mobile: 97252993656
E-mail: ykaraso@shaham.moag.gov.il
E. Chumacero, Faculty of Agronomy, University Tomas Frias, Avenida del Maestro s/n,
Potosi, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 46225414
Morn De la Ray, EMBRYO PLUS, POB 2644, BRITS, 0250, North West, South Africa
Phone: +27 (12) 250 2359, Fax: +27 (12) 250 2299, http://www.embryoplus.com
E-mail: info@embryoplus.com
Dr. Nguyen Van Dong, Pig research centre, National Institute of Animal Husbandry,
Chem, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam;
Phone: +84 (4) 938 9774, Mobile: +84 (9) 13001340
Ebru Emsen, Department of Animal Science, Ataturk University, Turkey
E-mail: eemsen@atauni.edu.tr
R. Ergueta, Formerly technician of CEDEAGRO, Mizque, Cochabamba, currently
Director of DRIPAD Cochabamba, Avenida Aroma No. 327, Cochabamba, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 44251565
E-mail: dripadcb@supernet.com.bo
Irina Florescu, Counsellor, Division for European Integration, Ministry of Agriculture,
Romania;
E-mail: irina.florescu@maa.ro
C. Foyanini, Owner of Residencial Bolivar and goat farms in Pailon and San Javier, Santa
Cruz, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 3325989
E-mail: residencialbolivar@hotmail.com
A. Fraga, Diretor Presidente, Associacao Brasileira de Criadores das Racas Simental e
Simbrasil, Rua Mario Romanelli, 23 - Bairro Gilberto Machado / Cachoeiro de Itapemirim-
ES - ECP: 29303-260, Brasil;
Phone: +28 (3521) 5666, Fax +28 (3521) 0570
E-mail: simental@simentalsimbrasil.com.br

Tezera Getahun, Executive Director, Pastoral Forum Ethiopia (PFE), Panos, POB 1570
code 1110 or 1152, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia;
Phone: +251 (11) 666363/59, Fax: +251 (11) 666361
E-mail: panos@ethionet.et and tezerag@yahoo.co.uk
Phillip Grand, Cowra Cheese, 1078 Mid Western Highway, Cowra, NSW 2794 Australia;
Phone: +61 0417479716
R. Hinojosa, National Director of Heifer International Bolivia, Avenida Moscu s/n entre 5
y 6 anillo, Santa Cruz, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 33557235
E-mail: e.arancibia@heifer-bolivia.org
O. Hinojosa, Technician of Aldeas SOS, Cochabamba, km 1 a Tiquipaya, zona Linde s/n,
Cochabamba, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 44421935
E-mail: ing_oscarhinojosa@hotmail.com
Dr. Sandor Kukovics, Research Institute for Animal Prod. and Nutrition, Geszteneys u.1.
Herceghalom, H-2053 Hungary;
Phone: +3623319133
E-mail: sandor.kukovics@atk.hu
Dr. Nurlan Malmakov, Research Institute of Sheep Breeding, Research Centre for Animal
Production and Veterinary, Mynbaevo village, Djambul District, Almaty region, 483174,
Kazakhstan;
Phone: +73272214235
E-mail: nurlan1@nursat.kz
Geoff Maynard, Mount Eugene Belmont Reds & 5 Star Senepols, "Mount Eugene",
POB1, Jambin 4702, Queensland, Australia;
Phone: +61 (7) 4996 5240, Fax: +61 (7) 4996 5316
E-mail: geoff@maynardcattleco.com.au
Ian McDougall, 48 Bath Road, Stroud GL5 3JL, United Kingdom;
Phone:+44 7855262308
E-mail: mcdougall@img171811.fsnet.co.uk
B. Mendoza, Lecturer at the National University of Loja, Ciudadela Universitaria, La
Argelia Casilla 795, Loja, Ecuador;
Phone: +593 7574054
E-mail: bmendoza@ch.pro.ec
Tafesse Mesfin, FARM-Africa Ethiopia, POB 5746, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
Phone: +251 (11) 155 26 84, Fax +251 (11) 155 21 43
E-mail: farm.ethiopia@ethionet.et
Dr. Charlotte Milne, Dorper Sheep Breeders Society of South Africa, PO Box 26, 42 Van
Reenen Street, Middelburg ECP, 5900, South Africa;
Phone: +27 (49) 842 2241, Fax: +27 (49) 842 3589
E-mail: dorperinfo@adsactive.com

Joaqun P. Mueller, INTA, Estacin Experimental Agropecuaria Bariloche. CC 277 (8400)
Bariloche, Ro Negro, Argentina;
E-mail: jmueller@bariloche.inta.gov.ar
Andrew Mushita, Commutech, POB 7232, Harare, Zimbabwe;
Phone: +263 (4) 589 256, Fax: +263 (4) 589 390
E-mail: andrew@ctdt.co.zw
Chanda Nimbkar, Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institut, Animal Husbandry Division,
P.O. Box 23, Phaltan 415523, Maharashtra, India;
E-mail: cnimbka2@pobox.une.edu.au
Ch. Papachristoforou and C. Christofides, Ministry of Agriculture, 1412 Nicosia, Cyprus;
Phone: +35722408639, Fax: +35722408656
E-mail: doagrg@cytanet.com.cy and Chr.Papachristoforou@aeinet.ari.gov.cy
Maria Norma Ribeiro, Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Federal Rural de
Pernambuco, Av. D. Manoel de Medeiros, SN, Dois Irmaos, CEP: 51171-900 Recife,
Brazil;
E-mail: mn.ribeiro@uol.com.br
Daniel Roldao, Sociedade Agricola da Herdade do Matinho, Lda. P.O. Box 22. Quinta da
Moutosa,7320 Castelo de Vide, Portugal; www.herdadematinho.pt
Phone: +351 245901145/ 245993225 / 245202202, Fax: +351 245901145,
E-mail.: herdadematinho@mail.telepac.pt, dmr2001@hotmail.com
Dr. Hermann Schulte-Coerne, Referat 322 - Tierzucht und Tierhaltung-
Bundesministerium fr Verbraucherschutz, Ernhrung und Landwirtschaft, Rochusstr. 1,
53113 Bonn, Germany;
Phone: +49 (1888) 529 3484, Fax: +49 (1888) 10 529 3484
E-mail: Hermann.Schulte-Coerne@BMVEL.Bund.de
Dr. David Steane, 99 Moo 7 Baan Rong Dua, Tha Kwang, Saraphi, Chiang Mai 50140,
Thailand;
Phone/Fax: +66 (53) 429- 918
E-mail: desteane@loxinfo.co.th
Makros Tibbo, International Livestock Research Institute ILRI Animal Genetic Resources,
PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia;
E-mail: m.tibbo@cgiar.org
Dr. Le Thi Thuy, Animal Genetic Molecular Laboratory, National Institute of Animal
Husbandry, Chem, Tu Liem, Hanoi, Vietnam;
Phone: +84 (4) 838 9165, Fax: +84 (4) 8389775
E-mail: thuy-niah@netnam.org.vn
J.L. Vaca, Lecturer at the Veterinary Faculty of University Gabriel Rene Moreno, Avenida
Centenario, Campus Universitario, Casilla 702, Santa Cruz, Bolivia;
Phone: +591 3537676
E-mail: vacajl@cotas.com.bo
Dr. John E Vercoe AM FTSE, 7 Ryan Street, Zilzie Q 4710, Australia;
Phone/Fax: +61 (7) 49387486
E-mail: jevercoe@ozemail.com.au

Jacob Wanyama, ITDG-EA (Intermediate Technology Development Group East Africa),
POB 39493, Postal Code: 00623, Nairobi, Kenya;
Phone: +254 (2) 2713540, Fax: +254 (2) 2710083
E-mail: Jacob.wanyama@itdg.or.ke
Kerstin Zander, Center for Development Research (ZEF), Walter-Flex-Strae 3, 53113
Bonn, Germany;
Phone: +49 (228) 731852
E-mail: kerstin@zander.org.uk
112 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

8 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report was written by a team of authors and editors with whom it was a pleasure to
work.
Special thanks are extended to the senior experts in our team, Prof. em. Dr. Christian Gall
and Dr. Helmut Momm, who were available at all times to write, review or assist in all
matters.
Special thanks are also extended to the advisory panel comprising of John Gibson
(University of New England, Australia), Irene Hoffmann (FAO), Annette von Lossau
(GTZ), Elzbieta Martyniuk (National Coordinator of Poland), Evelyn Mathias (League for
Pastoral Peoples), Siboniso Moyo (National Coordinator of Zimbabwe) and Ferdinand
Schmitt (ADT Projekt GmbH) for accompanying the study with vigour and expertise.
Thank you for your presence at the meetings, reading of drafts and valuable inputs
throughout the study.
We are very grateful to individual experts who read parts of the study and gave helpful
comments on the interpretation of data accumulated in the study. We would especially like
to mention Maurice Bichard, Elisha Gootwine, Klaus Meyn, David Steane and John
Vercoe.
Furthermore, we highly appreciate and acknowledge all contributions from resource
persons listed in the previous chapter for their patience to attend to our questions and
provide valuable information.
113




ANNEX 9.1

114

ANNEX 115

9 ANNEX

Annex
9.1 Background information
116 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abbreviations 118
Background information 119
A 1: Advisory panel 119
A 2: Development of the Merino breed in Europe 119
records on introduction of foreign genetic material 121
A 4: Composite sheep breeds, number of foundation breeds and the year of origin or
year recognised by country of origin 122
A 5: ICAR Report of the working group on milk recording scheme 128
A 6: Changes in sheep breed composition in the USA 132
A 7: Country Report excerpts for sheep 133
A 8: Country Report excerpts for goats 136
Northeast Asia, with centres of domestication 139
A 10: Possible introduction routes of cattle into North, West and northeastern Africa 139
A 11: Possible introduction routes of cattle into the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia and probable centres of domestication for Bos (bibos) spp. 140
A 12: Cattle migration after the 16th century 141
A 13: Total Simmental population per country** in the early 1990s 141
A 14: German Simmental export to Turkey 142
A 15: EU heifer export by origin and year 142
A 16: Annual EU heifer export by destination 1993-2003 143
A 17: Annual EU heifer import and export 1998-2002 144
A 18: EU heifer import by destination and year 144
A 19: Annual EU heifer import by origin 1993-2003 145
A 20: German Simmental export by year 145
A 21: Introduction of the Simmental breed to different environments 146
A 22: Crosses of Simmental with local cattle breeds 147
A 23: German Simmental export to Balkan countries 1998-2002 147
A 24: Semen export of industrialised countries by origin in 1991 148
A 25: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (%) 148
A 26: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (number of doses) 149
TABLE OF CONTENTS 117

A 27: Semen import of developed countries by origin in 1991 151
A 28: EU semen import by origin in 2003 152
A 29: Semen imports and exports by breed group and region in 1991 153
destination 153
A 31: Annual semen imports and exports of EU in 2002/2003 154
A 32: German semen import (doses) by year and origin 154
A 33: US Brahman export by destination and year 155
A 34: Brazilian Simmental embryo import by origin 1986-1993 155
A 35: Brazilian Simmental semen import by origin 1972-1993 156
A 36: Brazilian semen doses sold in 2002 by breed 156
A 37: Israeli Holstein export by country and time period 157
A 38: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developed countries in 1991 157
A 39: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developing countries in 1991 158
A 40: Use of AI by breed group and region for developed countries in 1991 158
A 41: Use of AI by breed group and region for developing countries in 1991 159
A 42: Share of bull breeds used in Botswana from 1987 to 1995 159
A 43: Australian beef cattle registrations by breed 160
A 44: Number of breeders by breeds in South Africa in July 2003 161
A 45: Ratio of utilisation of the Simmental breed in different countries for milk and
beef 161
A 46: Examples of absorption of local cattle by imported breeds 162
A 47: Holsteins and Sahiwals contribution to composite breeds 162
A 48: Performance of the Holstein breed in different environments 163
A 49: Country Report excerpts for cattle 164
A 50: Annual EU breeding pig import and export 1992-2003 172
A 51: Imported pig breeds during the 1970s into different countries 173
A 52: State of the pig genetic resource utilisation in Uruguay 174
A 53: Country Report excerpts for pigs 175
A 54: Information from the World Watch List of Domestic Animal Diversity 182
References background information 183
118 ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
ADT Projekt Specialised consulting enterprise that focuses on planning and
implementing international agricultural projects (Germany)
e.V. Eingetragener Verein (Incorporated society)
EU European Union
EU-15 Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland,
Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, The Netherlands, United
Kingdom
FARM-Africa Food and Agricultural Research Management Organisation (UK)
GmbH Gesellschaft mit beschrnkter Haftung (limited liability company)
GTZ Gesellschaft fr Technische Zusammenarbeit
i.e. that is
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
n.a. not applicable
No. number
UK United Kingdom
US United States
USSR Union of Socialist Soviet Republics

BACKGROUND INFORMATION 119

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
A 1: Advisory panel
Irene Hoffmann FAO, Chief, Animal Production
Service
irene.hoffmann@fao.org
Annette von Lossau GTZ, Sectoral Project "People and
Biodiversity in Rural Areas"
annette.lossau-von@gtz.de
Elzbieta Martyniuk FAO, National Coordinator of
Poland
elzbieta.martyniuk@fao.org
Evelyn Mathias NGO, League for Pastoral Peoples evelyn@mamud.com
Siboniso Moyo FAO, National Coordinator of
Zimbabwe
siboniso.moyo@fao.org
Ferdinand Schmitt ADT Projekt GmbH, Managing
Director
ferdinand.schmitt@adt.de
A 2: Development of the Merino breed in Europe
In Germany, the year 1765 marks the year of the German Merino breed when Saxony first
sought the right to buy Merino breeding stock from Spain. Then, 92 rams and 128 Merino
ewes were brought to Saxony where they were crossbred with local indigenous breeds.
Further imports of Merino breeding stock from Spain established the breed in Saxony. In
Lohmen, from 1883 to 1923, a purebred flock was kept and the combination of wool
quality with wool quantity was realised. At that time, the Merino population in Saxony
counted 2 million animals and their wool was highly demanded. At the same time, Merino
populations developed in Prussia and South Germany by introducing pure Merinos from
Spain and crossbreeding with local indigenous breeds. Later, imports from Saxony and
Austria followed (Haring, 1984).
In Austria, the Merino breed was introduced by Maria Theresa with 400 ewes brought
from Spain before 1784. Further imports followed and established the Austrian Merino
breed, which, from the Wool convent in Leipzig in 1823 onwards, was called Negretti.
In France, Spanish Merinos arrived as a gift from Spain in 1786 to Rambouillet and their
rams were crossbred with local landrace ewes to improve wool quality and quantity. The
Rambouillet breed was founded, which can still be found purebred in a flock of 130 ewes
(Strittmatter, 2003). From 1850 until today, all exports of breeding stock from this flock
have been recorded and therefore gene flow can be documented in an exemplary way
(Haring, 1984). Exports to many countries took place. Firstly, breeding stock was exported
to North America in 1850, where the largest Merino-Rambouillet population outside
France still exists (Haring, 1984). America was followed by Australia in 1863, Argentina
in 1864, Germany and Russia in 1867, Uruguay in 1869, South Africa in 1870, New
Zealand in 1873, England in 1897 and Israel in 1959 (Haring, 1984). The Merino dArles
developed in parallel in Perpignan and Arles.
Detailed on the development of the Merion breed in eastern European countries was only
120 BACKGROUND INFORMATION

available for Hungary. Hungary was for many years a major route in the Great Migration
(Fess et al., 2002). Since the movements were from East to West, it may be assumed that
most of the sheep found in Hungary were originally eastern. Merino sheep breeding began
in 1774 in Hungary when Maria Theresa bought 300 Merinos from Spain (Fess et al.,
2002). The geography of the Carpathian Basin was favourable to the spread of the Merino
breed. The local Merino breeding program commenced in 1786, when the Emperor Joseph
II removed the prohibition on private individuals bringing Spanish sheep into the country
and made their import duty free. The heyday of wool-oriented Merino sheep breeding
lasted a full 100 years, beginning in the middle of the 18th century and lasting to the
middle of the 19th century.
In the milder regions of South Africa, the South African Merino gained importance when
South Africa became the first country outside Europe to own Merinos in 1789. From then
onwards, the Merino breed spread from the well established sheep farming areas in the
Western and South-western Cape eastwards and with the Great Trek in 1834 northwards.
Within a few years the Merino breed, due to the suitable environment, had spread to all
parts of South Africa.
Then two Spanish Merino rams and four Spanish Merino ewes were donated by the Dutch
Government to the military commander, Col Jacob Gordon, at the Cape on an experimental
basis. Initially, the King of Spain had sent a number of sheep from his famous Escoriale
Merino Stud as a gift to the house of Orange. But since the Merino could not adjust to the
high rainfall in the Netherlands, they were sent to the Cape. Here, Col Gordon realised the
potential of the breed and kept it pure. By 1830, wool sheep farming in the Western and
South-western Cape was already well established. The next expansion went eastwards and
the 1820 settlers played an important role in extending and developing the Merino flocks in
South Africa. In 1834 the Great Trek started, which took their sheep flocks northwards
with them. Within a few years the Merino had spread to all parts of the country. From 1891
considerable numbers of different types of Merino were imported from other continents to
improve the flocks. The Australian Merino, the Wanganella and Peppin type, were found
to suit best and large numbers were imported to form the basis of the typical South African
Merino (Merino Breeders Society of South Africa, 2004).
In the Highlands of Kenya, the Corriedale became an important breed which developed
from the South African Merino sheep by crossing them with Lincoln and Leicester. This
breed spread from South Africa to Chile-Patagonia, USA, Canada and Kenya (Hammond
et al., 1961).


records on introduction of foreign genetic material
Breed Country of origin Country of destination
Kent Not recorded Poland
Leine Not recorded Poland
East Friesian Not recorded Poland
Finn Not recorded Poland
Lincoln Not recorded Poland
Booroola Merino Not recorded Poland
Texel Not recorded Poland
Ile de France Not recorded Poland
Blackheaded Mutton Sheep Not recorded Poland
Suffolk Not recorded Poland
Berrichon du Cher Not recorded Poland
Dorset Not recorded Poland
Merino Australia Russia
Rambouillet USA Russia
Cameroon West Africa Germany
Dorper South Africa Germany
Chios Greece Near East (countries
unrecorded)
Dorper South Africa USA
East Frisian Not recorded USA
Lacaune Not recorded USA
Several unrecorded breeds Canada, France USA
Barbados Blackbelly Central America USA
Texel Not recorded USA
St. Croix USA Canada, Mexico
Hamshire Down Not recorded Uruguay
South Down Not recorded Uruguay
Suffolk Not recorded Uruguay
Ile de France Not recorded Uruguay
Texel Not recorded Uruguay
Poll Dorset Not recorded Uruguay
Dohne Merino Australia Uruguay
Merino Australia Uruguay
New Zealand Uruguay
Corriedale Australia, New Zealand Uruguay
Ideal Australia Uruguay
Romney Marsh New Zealand Uruguay
Merino Australia, New Zealand Argentina
Dorper South Africa Mexico, Brazil

Breed Country of origin Country of destination
Barbados Blackbelly Not recorded Ecuador
Pelibuey Not recorded Ecuador
Dorper South Africa Australia
25 breeds including Polled
Dorset, Suffolk, Texel,
Charolais
Russia, France, UK, Germany,
Netherlands, Denmark, USA,
Canada, Australia, New
Zealand
China
Djallonke Germany Malaysia
Barbados Blackbelly USA Indonesia
St. Croix USA Indonesia
Improved Awassi Israel Details given in case study
Dman Morocco Iraq
Breeds not recorded EU-15 countries EU-15 countries, Balkan
countries, Switzerland, Turkey,
Morocco, Algeria, Venezuela,
Brazil, China, Japan
Breeds not recorded Switzerland, Poland, Chile,
Argentina, Uruguay
EU-15 countries
Source: own elaboration, summary of chapter 3 on current status of gene flow of sheep
A 4: Composite sheep breeds, number of foundation breeds and the year of origin or year
recognised by country of origin
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Algeria Tadmit 2 (1925)
Argentina Argentine
Cormo
4 (1979)
Corino 2 (1970)
Pampinta 2 (1980)
Armenia Armenian
Semicoarsewool
3
Kyasma 2
Martunin 3
Australia BLM 2 (1955)
Bond 3 (1909)
Booroola
Leicester
2
Borino 2
Bumfdale 5 (1979)
Bundoran
Comeback
2 (1971)
Bungaree
Merino
2
Comeback 2 (1976)
b

Coolalee 6 (1968)
Cormo 2 (1960)
Daldale 3 (1970)
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Dormer 2
Elliotdale 4 (1963)
Fonthill Merino 2 (1954)
Glenara
Improver
3
Gromark 2 (1979)
b

Hyfer 3 (1978)
Improved
Border Leicester
2
Meridale 24
Poll Dorset 2 (1954)
b

Polwarth 2 (1880)
Romshire 2
Waridale 3 (1970)
White Suffolk 3 (1977)
Zenith 2 (1947)
Austria Austrian
Negretti
2+
Carinthian 3 (1988)
b

Azerbaijan Azerbaijan
Mountain
Merino
3 (1947)
Brazil Brazilian Somali 2 (1939)

Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Brazilian
Woolless
2
Rabo Largo 2
Santa Ines 2 (1940)
Burkina
Faso
Mossi 2
Bulgaria Bulgarian Dairy 2 (1970)
Danube
Finewool
4 (1950)
Karnobat
Finewool
2 (1950)
Mountain Tsigai 3 (1950)
North Bulgarian
Semifinewool
6
North-East
Bulgarian
Finewool
4 (1950)
Petrokhan Tsigai 3
Pleven
Blackhead
2
Razlog 3 (1955)
South Bulgarian
Semifinewool
4
Thrace Finewool 6 (1943)
White
Klementina
3 (1916)
Zlatusha 3 (1965)
Cameroon Maroua 2
Canada Canadian Arcott 12 (1988)
b

Canadian
Corriedale
3 (1919)
DLS 3 (1989)
Outaouais
Arcott
9 (1988)
b

Newfoundland 7 (19th)
Rideau Arcott 9 (1988)
b

Romnelet 2 (1935)
China Aohan Finewool 3 (1970)
Chinese Karakul 3 (1960)
Chinese Merino 3
Erduos 3
Gadasu 2 (1970)
Gansu Alpine
Finewool
6 (mid
20th)
Guizhou
Mutton-Wool
5
Inner Mongolian
Finewool
2
Jia Shike 2 (1970)
Lanzhou Large-
tail
2 (1862)
Linchuan 3
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Ningxia Black 2
North-East
China Finewool
3
North-East
China
Semifinewool
2
Qinghai
Semifinewool
4
Shanxi Finewool 2 (1920)
Sichuan
Semifinewool
4 (1970)
Tibegolian 2
Xinjiang
Finewool
4 (1935)
Yunan
Semifinewool
2 (1970)
Colombia Manchada
Paramuna
2 (1976)
Croatia Dubrovnik 2 (late
18th)
Island Pramenka 2
Pag Island 2 (19th)
Czeck
Republic
Improved
Valachian
4
Sharka 5
Denmark Danish
Finewool
2
Danish Landrace 4 (1900)
Sne 3 (1991)
Egypt Ossimi-Finn 2 (1980)
Rahmani-Finn 2 (1980)
Estonia Estonian
Darkheaded
2 (1940)
Estonian
Whiteheaded
2
France Avranchin 4 (1928)
b

Berrichon du
Cher
6 (1936)
b

Blanc du Massif
Central
2 (1965)
Bleu du Maine 3 (1938)
b

Boulonnais 3 (1963)
Catalan 4
Central
Pyrenean
2
Charmoise 5 (1896)
b

Charollais 2 (1963)
b

Cotentin 2 (1925)
b

French Alpine 2 (1952)
b

FSL 3 (1967)
Ile de France
(Dishley
2 (1922)
b


Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Merino)
INRA 401 2 (1980)
Landais 2
Lourdais 2 (1975)
b

Rayole 2 (1980)
Roussillon Red 3
Roussin de la
Hague
4 (1983)
Trun 2 (1960)
Georgia Georgian Fat-
tailed Finewool
3 (19th)
Georgian
Semifinewool
Fat-tailed
4 (1931)
Germany Bentheimer 2 (1934)
b

German
Blackheaded
Mutton
4 (1920)
b

German Karakul 2
German
Mountain
3 (1938)
b

German
Whiteheaded
Mutton
3 (1885)
b

Leine 5 (1906)
b

Merino
Longwool
3 (1971)
Merinolandschaf 2 (1922)
b

Ghana Nungua
Blackhead
2
Greece Argos 2
Evdilon 2
Frisarta 4 (1946)
Moraitiko 2
Mytilene 2+
Rhodes 2
Greenland Greenland 2
Hungary Csenger Merino 2 (1982)
Hungarian
Merino
7
Hungarian
Prolific Merino
2 (1992)
Kazanluk
Semifinewool
5 (1964)
J-AKI-1 2 (1980)
J-AKI-2 3 (1980)
Prolific Babolna 3 (1970)
Tetra 3 (1960)
Iceland Kleifa 3
India Avikalin 2 (1970)
Avivastra 2
Baghdale 3
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Bharat Merino 5 (1980)
Hissardale 2 (19th)
Kashmir Merino 7 (1947)
Nilgiri 4 (18th)
Raymond
Merino
5 (1973)
Sandarsamand 2 (1935)
Sandyno 2 (1973)
UAS 3
Indonesia Priangan 3 (19th)
Ireland Belclare
Improver
4 (1985)
b

Fingalway 2 (1970)
Finn-Dorset 2
High Fertility 6+ (1965)
Improved
Galaway
2
Israel Assaf 2 (1955)
Israeli Improved
Awassi
2 (1943)
b

Italy Apennine 3 (1981)
b

Campanian
Barbary
2 (1971)
b

Comisana 2 (1942)
b

Cornigliese 3
Fabrianese 2 (1974)
b

Finarda 2
Gentile di Puglia 4 (1942)
b

Mascherina 2
Segezia Triple
Cross
3
Sicilian Barbary 2 (1942)
Sopravissana 5 (1942)
Tyrol Mountain 3
Kazakhstan Aktyubinsk
Semicoarsewool
2
Chuisk
Semifinewool
4
Degeres Mutton-
Wool
3 (1931)
Edilbaev 2
Kargalin Fat-
rumped
4
Kazakh Arkhar-
Merino
2 (1934)
Kazakh
Corriedale
3
Kazakh
Finewool
3 (1946)
Kazakh
Semifinewool
5 (1945)
North Kazakh 2 (1976)

Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Merino
South Kazakh
Merino
6 (1966)
West
Kazakhstan
Mutton-Wool
5 (1952)
Kyrgyzstan Kirgiz Fat-
rumped
3
Kirgiz Finewool 4 (1956)
Tyan Shan 5 (1966)
Latvia Latvian
Darkheaded
4 (1937)
Libya Barbary
Halfbred
2
Ghimi 2
Lithuania Lithuanian
Blackheaded
3 (1923)
Mexico Chiapas 5
Tarset 2
Mongolia Aohan Finewool 3 (1970)
East Mongolian
Semifinewool
4 (1962)
Hangay 2
Orhon 4 (1943)
Sumber 2 (1950)
Torguud 2 (1962)
Yoroo 4 (1981)
Morocco South
Morroccan
2
Timahdit 3
Zaian 2
Zoulay 2
The
Netherlands
Dutch Black
Blaze
4 (1979)
b

Flevoland 2 (1975)
North Holland 2 (1970)
Rijnlam A 2
Rijnlam B 3
Schoonebeker 2 (1990)
b

Swifter 2 (1967)
Texel 3 (1909)
b

New
Zealand
Borderdale 2 (1930)
Border-Merino 2
Border-Romney 2
Carpetmaster 3
Cheviot-
Corriedale
2
Coopworth 2 (1968)
b

Corriedale 2 (1910)
b

Elliotdate 4 (1960)
New Zealand 4
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Halfbred
New Zealand
Wiltshire
2 (1974)
Perendale 2 (1961)
b

Romney-
Corriedale
2
Skye Farm
Romney
3 (late
1960)
South Dorset
Down
2
South
Hampshire
2 (1970)
South Suffolk 2 (1938)
Nigeria Permer 2
Yankasa 2
Norway Dala 3 (1926)
b

Norwegian Fur
sheep
2 (1968)
b

Rygja 3 (1926)
b

Steigar 2 (1954)
Pakistan Baghdale 3
Pak Awassi 2
Pak Karakul 2 (1965)
Peru Asblack 3 (1990)
Junin 5 (1940)
Philippines Laguna 2
Poland Bialystok 2 (1963)
Bochnia 2
Damline 66 3 (1980)
Damline 77 3 (1980)
Friserra 2 (1960)
Jdrzychowice
Merino
2 (1954)
Kamieniec 3 (1954)
Koszalin 4
Lublin 3 (1950)
Olkusz 2
Polish
Blackheaded
Mutton
4 (1976)
Polish
Corriedale
2 (1962)
Polish
Longwool
5
Polish Lowland 9
Polish Merino 2 (1952)
Polish Mountain 3 (1946)
Polish
Strongwooled
Merino
3
Polish
Whiteheaded
6 (1976)

Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Pomeranian 4 (1984)
Prolific 09 3 (1976)
Prolific meat 08 5 (1976)
Prolific meat 10 8 (1976)
Prolific wool 04 2 (1976)
Sireline 5 (1970)
Silesian 2 (1932)
Wielkopolska 2 (1977)
b

elazna 3 (1955)
Portugal Bordaleiro 2
Fonte Ba
Merino
2 (1902)
Friserra 2 (1962)
Portuguese
Merino
4 (1929)
Romania Brsa 3 (1953)
Danube Merino 2
Palas Merino 6 (1926)
b

Rueu 1 3
Spanc 2
Stogo 2
Russia Altai 4 (1940)
Altai Mountain 3 (1945)
Angara Merino 3 (1974)
Caucasian 3 (1921)
Chita 2
Dagestan
Mountain
2 (1926)
Gorki 2 (1950)
Grozny 2 (1929)
Kalinin 2 (1935)
Karachai
Mountain
Mutton-Wool
3
Krasnoyarsk
Finewool
5 (1963)
Kuchugury 2 (1970)
Kuibyshev 2 (1938)
Kulunda 3
Liski 2 (1936)
Manych type of
Stavropol
2
North Caucasus
Semifinewool
3 (1944)
North Caucasus
Mutton-Wool
3 (1944)
Omsk
Semifinewool
2
Oparino 2
Ostrogozhsk 2 (1963)
Pechora 2 (1937)
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Russian
Longwool
2 (1978)
Russian
Mountain
Merino
2
Salsk 2 (1932)
Siberian Merino 5 (20th)
Siberian type
Soviet Mutton-
Wool
3
Soviet Merino 6 (1938)
Soviet Mutton-
Wool
5 (1950)
Stavropol 4 (1950)
Transbaikal
Finewool
6 (1927)
Volgograd 6 (1978)
Vyatka 2 (1936)
Serbia Vojvodina
Merino
2 (19th)
Senegal Warale 2 (1975)
Slovakia Improved
Valachian
4
Slovakian
Merino
3
Solava 3 (1983)
b

South
Africa
Afrino 3 (1969)
Bezuidenhour
Africander
3 (1918)
Dohne Merino 2 (1940)
Dormer 2 (1941)
Dorper 2 (1950)
b

South African
Merino
5 (1906)
b

Van Rooy 3 (1948)
b

White Dorper 2 (1960)
b

White Wooled
Mountain
3 (1942)
Spain Basco-Barnais 2 (1960)
Mestizo
Entrefino-fino
2
Ripollesa 2
Salz 2 (1970)
Talaverana 3 (1960)
Sudan Ingessana 2
Meidob 2
Toposa 2
Switzerland Engadine Red 2 (1985)
b

Swiss
Brownheaded
2 (19th)
b

Swiss Charollais 2 (1991)
b


Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Swiss White
Alpine
2 (1936)
Togo Vogan 2
Tajikistan Darvaz
Mountain
Mutton-Wool
3 (1948)
Pamir Finewool 2
Tajik 3 (1963)
Tunisia Sidi Tabet cross 2
Tadmit 2 (1925)
Thibar 2 (1945)
b

Tunisian milk
sheep
2
Turkey Acipayam 3
andir 3
Central
Anatolian
Merino
2 (1952)
Kamakuyruk 2
Kivircik 2
Karacabey-
Merino
2 (1928)
Menemen 3
Menemen
Kivircik
2
Ramli 2 (1969)
Tahirova 2 (1964)
Trkgeldi 3
Ukraine Azov Tsigai 2
Askanian
Blackheaded
4
Askanian
Corriedale
2
Askanian
Crossbred
3
Large Karakul 2 (1932)
Multifoetal
Karakul
2 (1935)
North Ukrainian
Semifinewool
4
Transcapathian
Finewool
4
Ukrainian
Mountain
2 (1950)
United
Kingdom
ABRO Damline 4 (1967)
Black Leicester
Longwool
2 (1986)
b

Boreray 2 (1930)
British
Milksheep
5+ (1970)
Cadzow 2 (1960)
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Improver
Cambridge 9 (1969)
b

Castlemilk
Moorit
3 (1974)
b

Chevaldshay 2
Clun Forest 3 (1865)
Colbred 4 (1962)
b

Cotswold 2 (1862)
Crickleg Barrow 2 (1970)
Dalesbred 2 (1930)
Dartmoor 2 (1909)
Derbyshire
Gritstone
2 (1892)
b

Devon,
Cronwall
Longwool
2 (1977)
Devon
Closewool
2 (1923)
b

Dorset Down 2 (1906)
b

Dorset Horn 2 (1862)
English
Halfbred
2 (1981)
b

Greyface
Oldenbred
2
Hampshire
Down
3 (1889)
b

Kent Halfbred
(South England)
2 (1988)
b

Lincoln
Longwool
2 (1892)
b

Llanwenog 2 (1963)
b

Lleyn 3 (1970)
b

Masham 2
Meatlink 5 (1963)
Norfolk Horn 4 (1978)
b

North of
England Mule
2 (1980)
b

Oldenburg 2
Oxford Down 3 (1951)
Pettadale 2 (1959)
Romney
Halfbred
2
Scotch Halfbred 2
Scotch Mule 2 (1986)
b

Scottich
Greyface
2
Scottish
Masham
2
Shetland-
Cheviot
2
Speckled
Halfbred
2

Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

Suffolk 2 (1810)
Texel-Oxford 2 (1970)
Wealdon Four-
quarter
6 (1971)
Welsh Bleu 4 (1990)
b

Welsh Halfbred 2 (1955)
b

Welsh Masham 2
Welsh Mule 2 (1979)
b

Welsh
Oldenbred
2
Wensleydale 2 (1876)
White Face
Dartmoor
2 (1951)
b

Wiltshire Horn 2 (1923)
b

USA California Red 2 (1971)
Columbia 2 (1942)
b

Columbia-
Southdale
2 (1943)
Combo-6 6 (1970)
Debouillet 2 (1954)
Fannin sheep 2
Katahdin 3 (1957)
Montadale 2 (1933)
MARC
composite dam
line 1
3 (1984)
Country Composite
breed
population
No. of
foundation
breeds
a

MARC
composite dam
line 2
3 (1984)
MARC terminal
sire composite
3 (1986)
Minnesota 100 3 (1941)
Morlam 8 (1961)
Multinipple 4 (1923)
Polypay 4 (1979)
b

Romeldale 2 (1915)
Santa Cruz
Island
3 (1920)
Targhee 3 (1951)
b

Thribble Cross 3 (1903)
Warhill 5
Willamette 3 (1952)
Uruguay Meriln 2 (1910)
Uzbekistan Akhangaran
Mutton-Wool
3
Uzbek Mutton-
Wool
3 (1955)
Yugoslavia Birka 2
Zimbabwe Wiltiper 2 (1946)
a
Year of origin or year recognised.
b
Year breeds society, association or stud book was established.
Source: Shrestha (2005)
A 5: ICAR Report of the working group on milk recording scheme
All tables, synthesising the results of the survey, are available on the ICAR website
www.icar.org.

Size of population of dairy sheep, type of milk recording and number of recorded ewes in
ICAR member countries and other countries (year 2003)
COUNTRY SIZE OF
POPULATION
OFFICIAL MILK RECORDING
Total Number Of
Females
Number of
recorded females
( % population)
Number of
recorded flocks
Average size of
the recorded
flocks
Belgium Few 277 5 55
Canada - - -
Croatia 33,000 2,920
(8.8 %)
66 44
Czech Rep. 473 204
(43 %)
8 26
Denmark - - -
England & Wales Few 692 1 692
Estonia - - -
France (1) 1,395,000 305,143
(22 %)
831 367
Germany 20,000 1,193
(6.0%)
11
Greece 8,732,000 7,885
(0.1 %)
102 77
Israel (2) 46,200 14,975
(32 %)
22 681
Italy 6,150,000 478,992
(7.8 %)
2,898 165
Luxemburg - - -
Mexico - - -
Morocco - - -
The Netherlands 4,000 1,156
(29%)
165
Norway - - -
Portugal (3) 110,000 24,242
(22 %)

Slovak Rep 216,000 17,846
(8.3 %)
108 165
Slovenia 6,300 1,704
(27 %)
32 53
South Africa - - -
Spain

2,361,000 188,197
(8.0 %)
400 470
Switzerland 8,000 2,800
(35 %)
180 16
Tunisia 25,000 2,393
(9.6 %)
9 266
(1) In addition to A recording, France implements D method (616,337 females in 1,625 flocks, representing
44% of the whole dairy sheep population.
(2) figures from the survey 2002.
(3) Serra da Estrella and Mondegueira breeds only.
Source: Astruc et al. (2004)

Size of population and importance of milk recording for dairy sheep breeds accounting
for more than 10 000 recorded ewes
BREED (country) SIZE OF
POPULATION
OFFICIAL MILK
RECORDING
(A or B or E nomenclature)
OTHER MILK
RECORDING
(D nomenclature)
Total number of
females
Number of
recorded
females (%
population)
Number of
recorded
flocks
Number of
recorded
females (%
population)
Number of
recorded
flocks
Assaf & Awassi (Israel) 46,200 14,975
(32 %)
22

Castellana (Spain) 250,000 11,852
(4.7 %)
14
Churra (Spain) 650,000 31,868
(4.9 %)
78
Comisana (Italy) 750,000 (*) 83,749
(11 %)
697
Corse (France) 100,000 19,607
(20 %)
70
Lacaune (France) 825,000 179,299
(22 %)
399 584,507
(71 %)
1,503
Latxa Black-Faced
(Spain)
263,000 61,532
(23 %)
147
Latxa Blond-Faced
(Spain)
180,000 30,391
(17 %)
60
Basco-Bearnaise
(France)
80,000 18,738
(23 %)
82 3,557
(4.4%)
19
Manech Tete Noire
(France)
120,000 17,675
(15 %)
355 1,559
(1.3%)
6
Manech Tete Rousse
(France)
270,000 69,824
(26 %)
210 26,714
(10%)
99
Manchega (Spain) 1,000,000 49,298
(4.9 %)
89
Pinzirita (Italy) 207,000 (*) 62,756
(30 %)
362
Sarda (Italy) 4,700,000 (*) 230,895
(4.5 %)
1,202
Serra Da Estrella
(Portugal)
105,000 21,000
(20 %)

Valle Del Belice (Italy) 77,628 587
(*) figures from the survey 2000

Breeding scheme using artificial insemination (AI)
Country AI Number of AI Selection
Breed year of
starting
AI per year
(semen)
progeny-tested
rams per year
Criteria (***)
France:
Lacaune 1968 154,000 (fresh) *
(281,000 out of the
nucleus)
458 FY+1.85
PY+0.2 P%
Manech Tete Rousse 1977 35,500 (fresh) * 130 FY+1.85 PY
Manech Tete Noire 1977 (22,600 out of the
nucleus)
31 FY+1.85 PY
Basco-Bearnaise 1977 7,800 (fresh) *
(2,000 out of the nucleus)
8,500 (fresh) *
39 FY+1.85 PY
Corse 1992

(3,000 out of the nucleus)
7,800 (fresh)
20 MY
Greece
No Information For
2003

Israel (**):
Assaf & Awassi 1999 2,000 (fresh) none
Italy:
Sarda 1986 19,256 (fresh) 50 MY
Portugal:
Serra Da Estrella 1995 2,000 (fresh) 1 MY
Spain:
Latxa Blond-Faced 1984 9,997 (fresh) 36 MY
Latxa Black-Faced 1985 18,730 (fresh) 61 MY
Karranzana 1985 556 (fresh) 7 MY
Manchega 1988 30,166 (fresh) 100 MY
Churra 1986 1,500 (fresh)
11,500 (frozen)
60

MY + P%
Castellana 1999 140 (fresh)
562 (frozen)
6 MY
(*) in official milk recording (**) These are figures of the last survey in 2001 (***) MY = Milk Yield, FY =
Fat Yield, PY = Protein Yield, F% = Fat Content, P% = Protein Content, SCC = Somatic Cell Count

A 6: Changes in sheep breed composition in the USA
Annual registrations (head)
1980 1990 2000 Classification
Barbados Blackbelly Watch
Black Welsh Mountain Recovering
Blue Face Leicester 50 70
Border Leicester 273 513 Rare
Cheviot 2,518 2,851 2,136
Clun Forest Recovering
Columbia 10,044 7,828 4,117
Corriedale 6,534 4,332 2,491
Cotswold 338 499 Rare
Delaine Merinos 196 732 497
Dorper 2,165
Dorset 15,206 19,531 11,636
Dorset Horn Watch
Finnsheep 1,069 1,034 264
Gulf Coast Native Critical
Hampshire 21,360 16,460 10,018
Hog Island Critical
Jacob 625 172 Rare
Karakul 183 316 Rare
Katahdin Hair Sheep 825 Recovering
Lincoln 275 716 915 Watch
Montadale 3,139 3,754 2,806
Natural Coloured 1,547 2,425
Navajo Churro 14 197 Rare
North Country Cheviot 705 685 544
Oxford 1,457 1,914 1,593 Watch
Polypay 11,874 1,935
Ramboullet 11,872 17,100 5,062
Romney 1,093 2,806 1,822
St. Croix Rare
Santa Cruz Critical
Scottish Blackface 250 219
Shetland 385 1,700 Recovering
Shopshire 4,453 3,114 2,554 Recovering
Soay Study
Southdown 4,371 5,899 5,497 Recovering
Suffolk 83,409 58,928 18,293
Targhee 1,445 2,538 1,570
Texel 347
Tunis 301 394 711 Rare
Wiltshire Horn Rare
Source: Country Report United States of America (2003)

A 7: Country Report excerpts for sheep
Africa
The most common exotic sheep breeds used in Botswana are Dorper, Karakul and
Damara. The Dorper is often crossbred with the local Tswana for meat production. Under
local conditions the Dorper is outperformed by the Tswana. The Karakul is mainly kept in
south-western part of the country and is used for pelt production. At times farmers
crossbreed Karakul with some meat-type sheep when the prices of pelt are not attractive.
The Damara is mainly found in the northwestern part of the country predominantly among
the Herero people. The Black-Headed Persian and the Ile-de-France are other sheep breeds,
which are found in the country but are very few in numbers.
In Ethiopia exotic sheep breeds used are Awassi, Hamshire, Bleu-de-Main, Merino,
Romney, Corriedale and Dorper. Crossbreds of the local Menz breed with Awassi,
Hamshire, Bleu-de-Main, Romney and Dorper are being tested for development and
research.
Uganda introduced exotic breeds like the Corriedale, Romney Marsh and Merino but they
had no significant impact. The Merino and Doper sheep are now reared on a few farms in
the country. The latter are kept mainly to meet the demand for lamb in urban areas.
The Dorper is the predominant sheep breed in Zambian commercial production of lamb
and mutton. Other important breeds are the Wiltiper, the South African Mutton Merino, the
Blackhead Persian, the Dorset Horn, the van Rooy, the Corriedale and the Suffolk.
Latin America
In El Salvador the Criollo, Nubian, Saanen, Toggenburg and Franco Alpine exist, the
Criollo being the most widely used. Additionally crosses of Criollo and Nubian are used.
The Criollo origin is Spain. It first came into the country between 1548 and 1812. The
Black Belly of Barbados originally came from Africa, and has adapted well to climate and
utilisation.
North America
The sheep industry of Canada uses the Suffolk, Dorset, Kalahdin and others in farm
flocks, and the Columbia in range flocks, although many of these are not registered. There
are more than 40 breeds of sheep in Canada, but many are held in small numbers.
The USA traditionally used Suffolk and Hamshire rams crossed with Rambouillet ewes to
produce slaughter lambs in extensive production systems. In the mixed crop-livestock
production system a wide variety of breeds are used including Suffolk, Hamshire,
Rambouillet, Columbia and Dorset. Due to market forces there is growing interest in hair
sheep breeds such as Dorper, Katahdin, St. Croix and Barbados Blackbelly, which do not
need shearing. Currently Dorper (from South Africa) and Katahdin (a composite developed
in the USA) are undergoing evaluation by researchers and industry and appear to be
generating producer interest.
Western and Northern Europe
Ireland reports an inventory as summarised in the table below, with reference to origin
and date of importation.

Origin of sheep imports to Ireland by breed
Breed Origin Imported in No. registered
females
Beltex Belgium 1996 272
Berrichon du Cher France 1993 120
Bleu du Maine Britain and France 1988 and 1989 300
Bluefaced Leicester Britain 1983 130
Charmoise France 1993 150
Charolais Britain and France 1984 and 1985 4,700
Ile de France Britain and France 1978 and 1987 150
Rouge de lOuest Britain and France 1988 650
Scottish Blackface Britain 19th century 1,000,000
Suffolk Britain 1891 13,192
Texel Netherlands and
France
1966 and 1992 5,000
Vendeen France and Britain 1980 and 1985 860
Source: Country report Ireland (2003)
Latvia keeps a few Romanov, Gotland, Leicester, German Black-Headed sheep, Ile-de-
France sheep but their existence is at risk. Sheep breeding farms deal with purebreeding
and also with single blood addition of unrelated breeds to improve meat production. Farms
dealing with meat production rear sheep of unknown origin.
Sheep production is practiced only on a very modest scale in Sweden and exchanges with
other countries are limited. In the 1980s, a certain amount of breeding material from dairy
sheep breeds was imported into Sweden. This led to the establishment of some 20 dairy
sheep herds for the production and direct sale of sheep cheese.
In the United Kingdom only two exotic sheep breeds (British Texel and Charollais) play a
major role in the sheep industry.
Eastern and Southern Europe
In Albania a transformation of local small ruminant breeds began 1955 to 1960, after
importing Kaukaz Merino and Dagestan Tsygaia from the ex-Soviet Union.
In the past Bosnia-Herzegovina tried many projects to improve production of sheep meat,
milk and wool, both by selection among local breeds and crossbreeding with exotic breeds.
The first project dates back to 1878 when 56 Karakul rams were imported from Bukhara,
Uzbekistan. In general, all these attempts have failed. A comprehensive Merinization
programme to improve wool production was carried out from 1947 to 1950. Local and
imported Merino rams were used for AI of local ewes (approximately 800,000 ewes were
inseminated in one year in the former Yugoslavia). As a result the first generation
produced 25 to 50% more wool, but the sheep were more susceptible to diseases. In
addition, farmers did not accept the programme, which was implemented without their

consensus or participation. Local sheep genetic resources are almost totally preserved in
their original form. However, sheep production will certainly be affected by socio-
economic changes such as rural exodus, a need to increase efficiency and a ban of the
nomadic system. These changes may also have some bearing on the genetic resources and
cause further decline in the sheep numbers in the country.
In Romania most extinct breeds were imported, not native. Friesian sheep were imported
in large numbers to improve milk yield, but they disappeared. Many imported breeds were
not adapted to the local breeding systems and to local parasites.
Exotic sheep breeds have had an influence on the 32 breeds currently used in the Russian
Federation. The Australian Merino and American Rambouillet have been crossed with
local sheep to develop fine-fleece breeds. Romney Marsh sheep were developed into the
dual-purpose Kuibeshevskaya breed in the mid 20th century. In 1978 the Russian long
wool breed was created by crossing local sheep with Lincoln rams. The Soviet meat-wool
breed was officially approved in 1986. The breed results from a cross between sheep of
Northern-Caucasian meat-wool breed with Lincoln rams imported from Britain and
Argentine with subsequent selection and interbreeding. In the last years of the 20th century
meat breeds have been developed by crossing local ewes with Texel rams.
Russia imported 226 female and 50 male Australian Merino and Texel from Australia and
Finland 1990-1995. Further 500 Mongolian Sheep were imported to Russia 2001-2002
from China. Russia exported 193 male Romanovskaya, Tsigayskaya and, Orenburgskaya
in 2001-2002 to Latvia, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan.
In Serbia and Montenegro Merino, Merinolandschaf (Wrttemberg), Ile de France,
Bergamo and Jezersko-solavska are used as exotic sheep breeds.
In Slovenia only the Texel sheep is used as an exotic breed. Its population is increasing.
Western Asia
Armenia has successfully developed well adjusted wool breeds from a local rough-wool
breed called Balbas with American Rambouillet and English Lincoln.
Southern and Eastern Asia
In Bhutan Merino and Comeback are the two exotic breeds of sheep used to cross with
local sheep to improve the quality of wool and growth rate. Merino was fazed out as its
wool attracted dust and it was difficult to process. The pure Comeback rams have been
supplied to the farmers since early 1990s. The 9th plan livestock breeding strategy
emphasises the production of adapted breeds by incorporating local sheep in the breeding
programme. As an effect of imports and crossbreeding with exotic sheep, like the Merino
in the earlier years and Comeback in the recent past, the numbers of local sheep and
especially the black sheep population has decreased.
China has listed the following exotic breeds used in the country: Charolais, Tsigai,
Corriedale, Lincoln, Australian Merino, Romney, German Mutton Merino, Suffolk, Poll
Dorset and Texel.
Indonesia utilises both native and imported sheep. Sheep genetic material is imported both
by government and traders. The government imported Romney and Kashmir in 1912. The
introduction of the Kaapstad breed from South Africa is not clear.

No native sheep has ever existed in Japan. Sheep were imported after the Meiji era (1912)
to produce meat and wool. In the early period, Corriedale was the main breed for wool
production but in recent years, Suffolk is the main breed being utilised for meat
production. Other breeds used are Southdown, Romney Marsh and Border Leicester. The
sheep number has declined sharply because of the liberalisation of imports for sheep meat
(1959) and wool (1961), along with the proliferation of synthetic fibres.
Trotter breeds from Russia and England were imported into Kyrgyzstan for crossing with
local sheep breeds. Rams of Australian Merino have been delivered to Kyrgyzstan since
1971 and widely used in crossbreeding. In 1998, 290 rams and 400 ewes of Australian
Merino were delivered from Australia. They proved well adapted to local conditions and
had a higher reproductive rate than local breeds.
Among introduced sheep breeds of Nepal, the Polwarth is a continually introduced breed
that is being used to improve wool production. Merino, Rambouillet, Border Leicester and
Scottish Blackface are other introduced breeds.
In Pakistan almost all sheep breeds are kept for wool and mutton. In the 1950s
Rambouillet was imported for the first time and crossbred with several local breeds to
improve wool quality and body weight. On government farms the following crossbreds are
maintained: Pak-Awassi (Kachhi x Awassi), Lohi x Awassi, Pak-Karakul (Karakul x
Kachhi), Salt Range x Afghani and Salt Range x Awassi.
In the Philippines native sheep are believed to have originated from the Merino breed
imported during the Spanish colonisation. Some other exotic breeds have recently been
introduced primarily from the USA and Australia. These include Poll Dorset, Rambouillet
Merino, St. Croix and Katahdin (found in selected government stock farms), Barbados
Blackbelly (found in some commercial or institutional farms), Border Leicester, and
Suffolk (in very small populations). The exotic breeds are also used for crossing and
upgrading. The Philippines imported 119 sheep in 1990, 78 in 1991, 412 in 1992, 15 in
1994 and 678 in 1997.
Many fine-fleeced sheep breeds like Caucasian, Vortemberian, Kirghiz, Australian
Merinos and others were imported by Professor Lebedev to Tajikistan. In 1930 about 400
thousand head of imported sheep had already spread in the area between from Uzbekistan
to Khatlon. Tajikistan imported the Darvaz breed since 1940, to improve productivity.

A 8: Country report excerpts for goats
Africa
The Tswana is the major goats breeds used in Botswana. Other goat breeds of less
significance in terms of numbers include the Saanen, Savanna Kalahari Red and
Toggenburg. Many farmers are increasingly using the Boer goat for crossbreeding or
keeping it as a purebred. The problem posed by the use of the Boer goat, especially in the
eastern part of the country is its susceptibility to heart water. Under local conditions, the
indigenous Tswana goat outperforms Boer goat in terms of productivity index.
Almost all goats raised in Burundi are local breeds. Crossbreeding with the Alpine breed
began in 1979 in provinces Ngozi and Kayanza to produce and crossbreds for the

rural areas.
Ethiopia introduced exotic goat breeds to improve milk production. Anglo Nubian and
Toggenburg were introduced by FARM-Africa and higher learning institutions. Crossbreds
between Anglo Nubian and locals are being used for milk production by smallholders in
central, eastern, south-eastern, and southern parts of the country. Toggenburg and their
crosses with Hararghe Highland are used for research purposes at the Alemaya University
of Agriculture and Debub University.
Uganda has a small number of introduced goat breeds and their crosses. They include the
Toggenburg, Anglo Nubian and the Saanen breeds. A crossbreeding programme with
indigenous breeds to enhance milk and meat yield began in the early 1960s but was later
abandoned following the period of civil strife of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 1995 the
Boer goat from South Africa was introduced for crossbreeding with the locally adapted
breeds. Currently, importation of Boer goats continues, mainly by Government, under the
Strategic Interventions Programme. The breed is being multiplied at the National Animal
Genetic Resources Centre farms and ranches as well as other privately owned farms for
meat production. The demand by farmers for Boer goat is on increase; farmers and NGOs
have continuously imported the breed into the country. This trend is likely to lead to
significant changes in ratios of goat breeds in the country.
North America
The Canadian goat industry is relatively small, and at least ten breeds are present; Alpine,
Nubian, and Saanen are the most important breeds. There is a system in place for genetic
improvement for dairy purposes. The goat meat industry has been increasing with the
introduction of Boer goats.
Compared to other ruminant species, the number of goat breeds utilised in the USA is
small. Angora goats are kept for Mohair. For twenty years Angora producers have
participated in buck testing programmes where mohair quantity and quality are evaluated
as well as body weight and feed utilisation. Several key lines of Angora have been
developed in Texas. Periodically these producers have acquired additional genetic
resources from South Africa. In 1992 the wool and mohair subsidy was removed. This has
led to a decline in sheep and Angora goat numbers with a shift in breed choice toward hair
sheep breeds. Six breeds of dairy goats are recognised (Nubian, Alpine, Saanen,
Toggenburg, LaMancha and Oberhasli). The Nubian is also used for meat production due
to its large body size. Specialised breeds for meat goat production are: the Spanish,
Tennessee Stiff-legged (or Myotonic), and Boer. In the meat goat industry there has been a
continuous conversion to the Boer goat, at the expense of the Spanish and the Tennessee
Stiff-legged breed as well as the Angora. The original importations of the Boer goat were
from New Zealand, due to the phytosanitary issues involved with direct importations from
South Africa and the high importation costs. Positively, this importation created a number
of opportunities for South African and USA breeders to exchange information and Boer
germplasm. A flock of feral goats exists on San Clemente Island. Across the USA there are
small populations of exotic breeds: Pygmy, Pygora, Nigerian Dwarf and the Kinder (note
by the editor: Kinder is a cross between Nubian and Pygmy with about 1000 registered
animals).


Goat breeding is not a major sector in Russia. Between 1996-2000, about 310 female
Lithuanian black head, Alpine, Nubian and Saanen goats were imported from Lithuania,
Netherlands, USA, Denmark and Poland.
Slovenia uses the Boer goat as the only exotic breed. The population is increasing.
China uses the Saanen and Boer goat as the only mentioned exotic goat breeds.
Indonesia imported Ettawah goats from India. Saanen came from Australia in 1978. The
way the Costa goat in Banten was brought into the country is not known. Angora or
Montgomery goats were imported for the experimental stations in Bogor, Bandung and
Padang Mangatas. The Dutch Improved Goat was brought to Java and Sumba. Boer goats,
numbering less than 1,000 head, are distributed in North Sumatra, Lampung and South
Sulawesi. They were imported from Australia since 1997 in order to upgrade local breeds.
In Japan, apart from Japanese Saanen, which accounts for 30.4% of the total 14,000 goats,
all other goats are of unidentified genotype and most of them seem to be crossbreds.
Among introduced goat breeds of Nepal Jamnapari and Barbari are most commonly used
introduced breeds. Other introduced breeds are Beetal, Ajmeri, Saanen and Kiko.
Exotic breeds in the Philippines include the Anglo Nubian, Boer, Saanen, French Alpine
and Toggenburg, all of which are found in commercial and institutional farms, and the
LaMancha, available in very limited population. Crosses and upgrades of native goats are
also widely available in the country. The number of goats imported in 1993, 1994, 1995,
1997 and 2001 were 40, 8, 16, 1,364 and 155. There is no information on the breeds
imported..
From personal communication with Dr. A.D.N. Chandrasiri it was learned that Sri Lanka
imported 200 Beetal goats from Pakistan in 1990 and 1991. In 1992, 28 German Fawn
goats were imported from Germany followed by 22 Boer goats in 1996. In 1997, 368
Jamnapari came from India. All exotics are used for breed improvement.
Tajikistan imported Angora goats in 1937 and created a new fibre breed by crossbreeding
with local goats.
Saanen, Alpine and Boer (from the USA) were introduced to Vietnam in recent years for
improving milk and meat production with the aim of adaptation and crossing with local
breeds. Additionally, Barbari, Jamnapari and Beetal have been introduced since 1994.
They are used for crossing with the Co or Bach thao goats to improve production.
Oceania
Palau only has Anglo Nubian goats, which were introduced from the Northern Mariana
Islands since 1983. They do not make significant contribution to production. The numbers
are declining and the breed is expected to disappear over the next decade.


Northeast Asia, with centres of domestication

Source: Payne and Hodges (1997)
A 10: Possible introduction routes of cattle into North, West and north-eastern Africa


A 11: Possible introduction routes of cattle into the Indian subcontinent and Southeast
Asia and probable centres of domestication for Bos (bibos) spp.


A 12: Cattle migration after the 16th century

(a) Spaniards take cattle to America in the 16th century, (b) Dutch, English and French colonisers take cattle
to North America in the 17th century, (c) British cattle to Australia at the end of 18th century, (d) Indian
Zebu cattle to America and Australia in the mid 19th century, (e) constant movement of cattle throughout
Maghreb
Source: adapted from Jasiorowski et al. (1988)
A 13: Total Simmental population per country** in the early 1990s
0 1 2 3 4 5
Ireland
Sweden
England
Italy
Switzerland
USA
South Africa
Hungary
Austria
France*
Yugoslavia
Germany
number of animals in 1'000'000

* including Montbeliarde, Simmental Francais and Abondance; ** only the countries with the largest
Simmental populations
Source: own elaboration, data from Knzi and Stranzinger (1993)

A 14: German Simmental export to Turkey
92 0
717
2,880
2,310
205
2,110
2,611
5,054
4,851
7,831
23,133
450
0 0
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s

Source: own elaboration, data from Averdunk et al. (2001)
A 15: EU heifer export by origin and year

1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 Total
Germany
67,731 65,490 69,056 78,226 89,796 70,457 31,134 40,121 27,881 539,892
Netherlands
37,175 42,389 36,297 35,302 28,426 29,314 9,199 20,491 17,996 256,589
France
33,969 36,690 19,878 27,647 27,799 24,153 25,975 34,170 25,916 256,197
Austria
22,367 28,492 22,396 14,528 17,398 12,170 18,194 9,154 11,063 155,762
Denmark
11,062 10,705 8,198 11,187 11,941 6,346 4,337 7,059 8,652 79,487
Belgium-
Luxemburg
2,473 3,503 3,882 2,992 3,487 2,761 7,815 9,824 3,700 40,437
Spain
1,512 760 991 373 190 3,386 889 9,933 2,208 20,242
Ireland
4,245 112 39 323 257 1,641 831 1,111 2,059 10,618
Italy
1,213 901 1,068 878 814 1,031 823 594 641 7,963
Sweden
178 229 1 381 54 40 86 490 906 2,365
Finland
4 220 2 10 0 42 30 0 0 308
Greece
40 0 179 0 0 0 0 0 0 219
UK
22 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 22
Portugal
0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10
Total
181,991 189,501 161,987 171,847 180,162 151,341 99,313 132,947 101,022 1,370,111
Source: Eurostat (2004)

A 16: Annual EU heifer export by destination 1993-2003
45
2
11
47
21
19
36
11
31
51
228
4
5
12
14
12
24
33
37
61
1
231
434
14
16
21
24
28
49
53
123
476
797
1,282
1,806
2,137
15,237
25
1,318
2,209
2,406
7,040
13,446
4
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 16,00
not specified
Cameroon
South Africa
Uganda
Nigeria, Niger, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone
Mauritania
Senegal
Ethiopia
Malawi
Rwanda
AFRICA TOTAL
Hong Kong
J apan
South Korea
North Korea
Iran, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Reunion
India
Kasakhstan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Thailand
Philippines
ASIA TOTAL
Georgia
Gaza +J ericho
Bahrain
Israel
Yemen
Oman
Syria
Qatar
Kuwait
Saudi Arabia
U.A. Emirates
J ordan
Lebanon
Turkey
Sudan
Libyan Arab J amahiriya
Egypt
Tunisia
Algeria
Morocco
WESTERN ASIA TOTAL
M
.
S
.
W
.
E
.
E
.
S
C
.
S
E
.
W
.

A
s
i
a
M
a
g
h
r
e
b
A
f
r
i
c
a
A
s
i
a
W
e
s
t
e
r
n

A
s
i
a
/
M
a
g
h
r
e
b
number of heifers


A 17: Annual EU heifer import and export 1998-2002
337,615
16,979
4,781
0 0 0
3,538
82
165,660
140,728
82,507
49,522
27,041
1,957 6,222
-10,907
-11,081 -1,978
-9,578 -2,166
-14,469
-20 -5,463 -46
-3,632
-9,784
-23,812
-36,052
-135,257
-304,523
836,632
-568,768
-400,000
-300,000
-200,000
-100,000
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
S
p
a
i
n
I
t
a
l
y
P
o
r
t
u
g
a
l
G
r
e
e
c
e
U
K
B
e
l
g
.
-
L
u
x
b
g
F
i
n
l
a
n
d
I
r
e
l
a
n
d
S
w
e
d
e
n
B
e
l
g
i
u
m
D
e
n
m
a
r
k
A
u
s
t
r
i
a
N
e
t
h
e
r
l
a
n
d
s
F
r
a
n
c
e
G
e
r
m
a
n
y
t
o
t
a
l

E
U
net-importer net-exporter
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s
-900,000
-675,000
-450,000
-225,000
0
225,000
450,000
675,000
900,000
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s
exports imports
net-import exports
imports net export
net export net-import

A 18: EU heifer import by destination and year
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s
Others
Ireland
Portugal
Germany
Italy
Spain


A 19: Annual EU heifer import by origin 1993-2003
2
9
4
45
8
474
28
0
1,168
403
40
3
396
4
3,147
8,560
90
14,382
96,759
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
not specified
Morocco
Hong Kong
Algeria
USA
Canada
Norway
Iceland
Switzerland
Slovakia
Romania
Rep.Macedonia
Poland
Latvia
Hungary
Czech Rep.
Bulgaria
extra-EU
intra-EU
N
o
r
t
h
E
a
s
t
O
t
h
e
r
s
N
.
A
m
.
E
u
r
o
p
e
number of animals
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000 100,000
number of animals

A 20: German Simmental export by year
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
1
9
8
0
1
9
8
1
1
9
8
2
1
9
8
3
1
9
8
4
1
9
8
5
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s

Source: own elaboration, data from Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Rinderzchter e.V. (2002)

A 21: Introduction of the Simmental breed to different environments
Aspect Breed Place Success Source
Adaptation to
extensive ranch
conditions
Simmental Harsh
environments
Superior production
parameters
Speers, 1997;
Schoeman, 1996
Tick infestation
under extensive
ranch conditions
Simmental Southern
Africa
Higher management
requirements than
local breeds
Rechav et al.,
1991
Production potential Simmental x
Brahman
Venezuela Highest potential
among different
crosses but only with
good management
Plasse et al., 1995
Farm reconstruction
Project after Balkan
crisis
Simmental,
Brown Swiss
Kosovo,
Bosnia-
Herzegovina
Farmers more
satisfied with
Simmental than with
Brown Swiss
Cossee, 2003;
World Bank,
2003; IFAD,
2004
Intensive production
systems
Simmental Denmark High daily weight
gains
Dansk
Simmental, 2004;
Hansen, 2004
Peri-urban
production systems
(no forage
production)
Simmental,
Brown Swiss,
Jersey, Danish
Red and
Holstein
Iran Important
contribution to milk
production but
dependent on
subsidies
Schahidi et al.,
2001


A 22: Crosses of Simmental with local cattle breeds
Crossing partner Place Time Source
Unnamed local breeds Iran 1940s Schahidi et al., 2001
Botswana 1990s Nsoso and Morake, 1999
Mozambique 1980s Rocha et al., 1987
South Africa 1970s Borstlap, 1972; Neser et al., 2002
China 1980s Liang, 1988
Mexico 1990s Country Report of Mexico (2003)
Iran 1990s Schahidi et al., 2001
Turkey 1990s Oklahoma State University, 2004a
Colombia 1990s Orbita, 2004
Boran Kenya 1970s Sonn, 1985
Boran Ethiopia 1970s - 1990s Demeke et al., 2003
Barca Ethiopia 1970s - 1990s Demeke et al., 2003
Horro Ethiopia 1970s - 1990s Demeke et al., 2003
Southern Anatolian
Red
Turkey 1990s Ertugrul et al., 1999
Holstein crossbreds Indonesia 1990s Hadi et al., 2002
A 23: German Simmental export to Balkan countries 1998-2002
4,725
6,917
3,909
4,997
401
799
80
295
1,116
29
67
332
525
62
96
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s
Serbia and Montenegro
Kosovo
Croatia
Bosnia

Source: own elaboration, data from Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sddeutscher Rinderzucht und Besamungsstationen
e.V. (2002)

A 24: Semen export of industrialised countries by origin in 1991
7
14
34
120
10
23
33
36
74
3
16
17
625
0
11
62
85
285
507
569
700
0 250 500 750 1,000
Australia
South Africa
J apan
New Zealand
Norway
Sweden
Finland
Switzerland
Austria
Poland
Slovenia
Hungary
Estonia
Ireland
Spain
United Kingdom
Denmark
Belgium
Netherlands
Germany
France
Canada
USA
O
t
h
e
r
s
W
e
s
t
e
r
n
E
u
r
o
p
e
E
a
s
t
e
r
n
E
u
r
o
p
e
E
U
N
.
A
m
.
number of doses in thousands

Source: own elaboration, data from Chupin and Schuh (1993)
A 25: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (%)
EU
16%
Other Western Europe
and accession countries
12%
Eastern Europe except
CIS
5%
CIS
4%
North America
4%
Oceania
4%
Latin America
17%
Middle East and North
Africa
17%
Far East
7%
South Africa
1%
Other Sub Sahara Africa
13%
Other
26%


A 26: EU semen export by destination in 2003 (number of doses)
182,553
800
68
38,134
302,836
73,963
600
597
1
1,200
17,078
15,550
3,527
42,855
21,320
7,432
21,008
3,454
180,085
32,952
87,968
16,445
73,132
2,500
375,244
78,566
50,045
3,850
183,671
187,503
193,016
51,905
83,523
254,055
465,751
50,600
104,387
452,218
58,025
485,650
198,038
519,252
117,422
490,462
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000
Australia
Fr.Polynesia
N. Caledonia
New Zealand
USA
Canada
Faroe Isles
Greenland
Azerbaijan*
Belarus
Kasakhstan
Ukraine
Albania
Bosnia-Herz.
Croatia
Romania
Cyprus
Czech Rep.
Estonia
Hungary
Latvia
Lithuania
Malta
Norway
Poland
Slovakia
Slovenia
Switzerland
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
Fr Germany
France
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Utd. Kingdom
O
c
e
a
n
i
a
N
o
r
t
h
A
m
e
r
i
c
a
C
I
S
E
a
s
t
e
r
n
E
u
r
o
p
e
e
x
c
e
p
t
C
I
S
O
t
h
e
r

W

E
u
r
o
p
e

a
n
d
A
c
c
e
s
s
i
o
n
E
U


320
0
450
4,000
500
1,300
0
2,500
150
140
7,679
3
800
38,060
0
20,802
1,000
4
3
250
1
12,100
3,552
28,011
1,000
18,451
50
1
13,273
31,428
552
2
6,610
2,000
13,000
124,560
207,693
20,000
8,000
138,076
70,709
97,946
17,825
1,090
37,382
16,690
1,000
208,448
400
1,901
1
5,915
0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000
Botswana
Burundi*
Cameroon
Ethiopia
Guinea
Ivory Coast
Malawi*
Mauritius
Nigeria
Saint Helena
Tanzania
Zambia*
Zimbabwe
South Africa
Hong Kong*
India
North Korea
Philippines*
South Korea*
Taiwan
Thailand*
Algeria
Bahrain
Egypt
Iran
Israel
J ordan
Kuwait*
Lebanon
Morocco
Oman
Qatar*
Saudi Arabia
Sudan
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Ecuador
El Salvador
Guatemala
Mexico
Nicaragua
Peru
Surinam*
Uruguay
Venezuela*
O
t
h
e
r

S
u
b

S
a
h
a
r
a

A
f
r
i
c
a
F
a
r

E
a
s
t
M
i
d
d
l
e

E
a
s
t

a
n
d

N
o
r
t
h

A
f
r
i
c
a
L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

* only number of consignments given, total number of doses exported in 2003: 6,579,839

A 27: Semen import of developed countries by origin in 1991
287
1
2
10
24
30
32
47
138
144
111
154
220
5
6
12
45
204
318
50
105
155
158
168
205
247
430
483
0 100 200 300 400 500
Canada
USA*
Croatia
Slovenia
Macedonia
Estonia
Slovakia
Romania
Poland
Czech Republic
Hungary
South Africa
J apan
Australia
Norway
Malta
Finland
Sweden
Austria
Switzerland
Denmark
Greece
Portugal
Belgium
Ireland
Netherlands
Spain
France
United Kingdom
Germany
Italy*
Luxemburg*
N
.
A
m
e
r
.
E
.

E
u
r
o
p
e
O
t
h
e
r
s
W
.

E
u
r
o
p
e
E
U
number of doses in 1,000
*no data

Source: own elaboration, data from Chupin and Thibier (1995)

A 28: EU semen import by origin in 2003
Partner Trade Quantity (doses) %
Total 7,531,240 100.0
Intra-EU 2,929,304 38.9
Extra-EU 4,601,936 61.1
USA 2,476,008 32.9
Canada 1,759,377 23.4
Czech Republic 92,720 1.2
Hungary 79,441 1.1
New Zealand 68,286 0.9
Slovakia 42,040 0.6
Australia 28,090 0.4
Switzerland 25,982 0.3
Poland 18,974 0.3
Romania 3,700 0.0
Slovenia 3,500 0.0
Taiwan 2,000 0.0
Norway 501 0.0
Colombia 500 0.0
Ivory Coast 400 0.0
Ukraine 400 0.0
Japan 10* 0.0
Egypt 7* 0.0
Uruguay 0* 0.0
* number of consignments

A 29: Semen imports and exports by breed group and region in 1991
00 0
-170,000-117,000
206,000
3,166,000
-15,000
-152,244
-1,665,900
956,000
665,000
29,000
-236,500
-135,300
-55,600
33,000 700
637,300
-599,817
-114,762
173,993
57,902
-384,855
-51,239
-153,548
63,000 18,910 94,053
-2,000,000
-1,500,000
-1,000,000
-500,000
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
2,500,000
3,000,000
3,500,000
d
a
i
r
y
b
r
e
e
d
s
b
e
e
f
b
r
e
e
d
s
d
u
a
l
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
d
a
i
r
y
b
r
e
e
d
s
b
e
e
f
b
r
e
e
d
s
d
u
a
l
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
d
a
i
r
y
b
r
e
e
d
s
b
e
e
f
b
r
e
e
d
s
d
u
a
l
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
d
a
i
r
y
b
r
e
e
d
s
b
e
e
f
b
r
e
e
d
s
d
u
a
l
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
d
a
i
r
y
b
r
e
e
d
s
b
e
e
f
b
r
e
e
d
s
d
u
a
l
p
u
r
p
o
s
e
Canada EU (8) Eastern Europe
(12)
Western Europe
(7)
other developed
(4)
number of included countries in paranthesis
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
e
m
e
n

d
o
s
e
s

i
m
p
o
r
t

e
x
p
o
r
t

destination
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Africa (n=37)
Near East (n=16)
Asia (n=23)
Latin America (n=28)
number of imported semen doses in 1'000'000
tropical breeds
beef breeds
other dairy breeds
J ersey
Holstein


A 31: Annual semen imports and exports of EU in 2002/2003
0 0
1,066,094
368,952
69,23982,212
125,141
31,474
560
5,750
274,342323,404
601,518
1,554,915
1,451,988
-1,272,970
-797,858
-630,906
-283,520
-252,061
-207,058
-88,025-64,161
-18,656
-3,086
-92,445
-131,266
-498,395
-603,905
-1,438,189
5,955,586
-6,382,497
-2,000,000
-1,500,000
-1,000,000
-500,000
0
500,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
2,000,000
-8,000,000
-6,000,000
-4,000,000
-2,000,000
0
2,000,000
4,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000 exports imports

A 32: German semen import (doses) by year and origin
0
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
Others
North-America
EU

Source: own elaboration, data from Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Rinderzchter e.V. (2002)

A 33: US Brahman export by destination and year
Head 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982
Mexico 27 46 129 258 839 334
Ecuador 8 1 25 4 141
South Africa 9 4 14 46 42
Dominican Republic 3 33 21 72 40
Panama 45 44 31 171 86 36
Guatemala 176 134 143 16 20 31
Venezuela 431 117 7 1 43 30
Costa Rica 26 31 45 48 76 24
Philippines 6 14 64 1 16
Colombia 204 396 279 214 130 13
total 932 786 760 744 1,316 707
Source: own elaboration, data from Cowert (1983)
A 34: Brazilian Simmental embryo import by origin 1986-1993
9
20
78
160
472
1,096
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
USA
Switzerland
Argentina
Italy
Germany
Canada
number of embryos

Source: own elaboration, data from Fraga (2004)

A 35: Brazilian Simmental semen import by origin 1972-1993
1,100
14,400
15,582
45,258
78,595
1,500
9,630
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000
Austria
Argentina
Switzerland
Italy
Canada
USA
Germany
number of semen
doses

A 36: Brazilian semen doses sold in 2002 by breed
0.08
0.05
0.22
0.27
0.30
0.33
1.17
3.24
1.34
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
other
Brown Swiss
Guzaret
Simmental
J ersey
Milking Gyr
Holstein
Angus
Nellore
semen doses in million

Source: own elaboration, data from Country report Brazil (2003)

A 37: Israeli Holstein export by country and time period
43
93
103
180
320
407
457
518
530
1,468
1,750
2,175
20,485
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
India 1996
Turkey 1986
Bulgaria 1996
Hungary 1989-1990
Zambia 1960-1980
Egypt 1981-1984
Iran 1960-1979
number of animals

Source: own elaboration, data from Israeli Cattle Breeders Association (2004)
A 38: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developed countries in 1991
77.7%
33.4%
72.9%
49.0%
30.4%
4.5%
14.5%
5.2%
7.8%
76.2%
63.6%
57.6%
83.8%
73.8%
64.0%
0.0%
25.0%
50.0%
75.0%
100.0%
Eastern Europe
(n=12)
European Union
(n=12)
North America
(n=2)
Western Europe
(n=7)
Other developed
(n=4)
All developed
dual-purpose breeds
beef breeds
dairy breeds


A 39: AI coverage by breed and country groups for developing countries in 1991
0.1%
17.9%
5.1%
2.9%
7.0%
1.7%
51.9%
13.2%
23.3%
14.5%
6.2%
77.4%
50.7%
53.1%
60.0%
0.0%
25.0%
50.0%
75.0%
100.0%
Africa (n=37) Asia (n=23) Latin America
(n=28)
Near East (n=16) All developing
local breeds
crossbreds
temperate breeds

A 40: Use of AI by breed group and region for developed countries in 1991
78%
33%
0% 0% 0%
73%
49%
30%
5%
15%
5%
8%
76%
64%
58%
84%
74%
64%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Eastern
Europe
(n=8)
European
Union (n=7)
North
America
(n=2)
Western
Europe
(n=3)
Other
developed
(n=4)
All
developed
dairy breeds
beef breeds
dual-purpose breeds


A 41: Use of AI by breed group and region for developing countries in 1991
35%
73%
7%
12%
43%
31%
10%
59%
28%
30%
35%
17%
34%
60%
27%
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
Africa (n=5) Asia (n=8) Latin America
(n=5)
Near East
(n=5)
All developing
temperate breeds
crossbreds
local breeds

A 42: Share of bull breeds used in Botswana from 1987 to 1995
Charolais
13.2%
Simmental
15.7%
Brahman
56.5%
Africander
0.1%
Santa Gertrudis
5.1%
Tuli
1.2%
Friesian
2.6%
Bonsmara
3.4%
Hereford
0.2%
South Devon
0.2%
Pinzgauer
0.4%
Sussex
0.6%
Tswana
0.8%

Source: own elaboration, data from Nsoso and Morake (1999)

A 43: Australian beef cattle registrations by breed
1990 1995 2000
British breeds and Australian derivates
Angus 13,280 16,623 22,611
Poll Hereford 33,763 26,941 20,277
Hereford 32,764 24,067 17,637
Murray Grey 11,072 11,680 8,761
Shorthorn 8,119 6,350 6,718
South Devon 1,863 1,266 1,635
Red Angus 285 1,755 1,575
Red Poll 2,077 908 788
Devon 2,190 1,242 710
Australian Lowline n.a. n.a. 461
Beef Shorthorn 714 451 299
Galloway 559 328 179
British White n.a. n.a. 93
Group total 106,686 91,611 81,744
Tropical breeds
Brahman 18,496 13,427 11,932
Santa Gertrudis 9,477 8,180 8,312
Droughtmaster 4,044 6,007 6,793
Brangus 1,068 1,432 1,842
Braford 4,176 2,263 1,518
Belmont Red 1,033 704 1,476
Charbray 493 245 350
Tuli - 60 161
Boran - 41 26
Sahiwal 299 158 n.a.
Greyman - 71 n.a.
Group total 39,086 32,588 32,410
European breeds and derivates
Limousin 9,403 10,407 4,479
Charolais 3,939 4,152 4,055
Simmental 13,669 7,823 3,861
Gelbvieh 187 1,044 1,023
Romagnola 562 977 573
Blonde dAquitaine 599 1,055 457
Salers 1,637 870 363
Maine Anjou 503 561 134
Original Braunvieh and Australian Braunvieh
Association
200 121 127
Piemontese - 161 80
Belgian Blue n.a. 198 47
Chiangus 103 21 36
Chianina 168 113 34
Group total 30,970 27,503 15,269
Other
Wagyu n.a. 300 1,260
Mandalong Specials n.a. 388 86
Grand total 176,742 151,702 129,423
Source: own elaboration, data from Allen (2002)

A 44: Number of breeders by breeds in South Africa in July 2003
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Brahman
Simmental
Bonsmara
Nguni
Limousin
Simbra
Santa Gertudis
Angus
Hereford
Afrikaner
Drakensberg
Sussex
Brangus
Charolais
19 others
number of breeders

Source: own elaboration, data from Simmental South Africa (2004)
A 45: Ratio of utilisation of the Simmental breed in different countries for milk and beef
milk : meat
France 60-80 : 20-40
Hungary 75 : 25
Austria 60 : 40
Switzerland 60 : 40
Yugoslavia 55 : 45
Germany 50 : 50
Italy 50 : 50
South Africa 5 : 95
England 1 : 99
Sweden 1 : 99
Ireland 0 : 100
USA 0 : 100
Source: Knzi and Stranzinger (1993)


A 46: Examples of absorption of local cattle by imported breeds
Absorbed
breed
Absorbing
breed
Place Time Aspects Source
Criollo European
breeds and
Zebu cattle
breeds
Argentina Late 19th
and early
20th century
New breeds displaced
Criollo Cattle to marginal
regions
Giovambattista
et al., 2001
Criollo European
and Zebu
cattle
breeds
Latin
America
Late 19th
and early
20th century
Introduction of exotic
breeds led to the
replacement of Criollo
cattle
Alba, 1978
Sahiwal Temperate
dairy
breeds
Pakistan Second half
20th century
Number of purebred
Sahiwals was drastically
reduced by crossbreeding
Philipsson,
2002
Kenana Holstein Sudan Since 1980s Efforts to increase milk
yields to improve milk
supplies
Philipsson,
2002
Muturu,
Keteku,
NDama
White
Fulani
West
Africa
Since 1970s Changing ecological
conditions and human
demographic pressures
Jabbar and
Diedhiou,
2003
Biu Zebuine
cattle
West
Africa
Since 1970s Changing socio-
economic framework
conditions
Blench, 1999
Rahaji Azawak North-
west
Nigeria
1990s Better environmental
adaptation
Blench, 1999
Two
native
cattle
breeds
Black and
White and
Red cattle
Lithuania 1990s Development accelerated
by change of economic
framework conditions
Maleviciute et
al., 2002
A 47: Holsteins and Sahiwals contribution to composite breeds
Composite breed
with Holstein
contribution
Contributing breeds
besides Holstein
Place Source
Karan Fries 50-62% Tharparkar,
Sahiwal
India Felius, 1995
Frieswal Sahiwal India Mudgal and Arora,
1994
Drakensberger Africander South Africa Oklahoma State
University, 2004b
Siboney 37% Zebu Cuba Robes and Martinez,
1990
Mambi 25% Zebu Cuba Robes and Martinez,
1990
Tropical Holstein 3% Zebu Cuba Robes and Martinez,

1990
Lucerna Shorthorn, Criollo Colombia Blake, 2004
Simhol Simmental Colombia Orbita, 2004
Holgus Angus Texas/USA Felius, 1995
Taino, Mestizo Holstein, Girolando, Mantiqueira, Riopardenze,
Guzerando, Brazilian Dairy Hybrid, Tropical, Hays Converter, RX3, Beef
Machine, Ranger
Felius, 1995
Composite breed
with Sahiwal
contribution
Contributing breeds
besides Sahiwal
Place Source
Australian Milking
Zebu
Jersey, Red Sindhi Australia Felius, 1995
Australian Friesian
Sahiwal
Holstein Australia Felius, 1995
Jamaica Hope Jersey; Holstein Jamaica Trail and Gregory,
1981
Taurindicus Holstein New Zealand Felius, 1995
Frieswal Holstein India Mudgal and Arora,
1994
Pabna Milking Cow Hariana, Red Sindhi Bangladesh Islam and Bhuiyan,
1997
Karan-Fries, Karan-
Swiss, Quasah,
Mpwapwa
Felius, 1995
A 48: Performance of the Holstein breed in different environments
Aspect Place Performance Source
Coat colour Cuba Black cows have higher milk yields Gutierrez et al.,
1985
Economic returns to
AI
Venezuela Positive economic returns only if
high daughter milk response to sire
selection is given
Holmann et al.,
1991
Comparison to
crossbreds in dual-
purpose systems
Venezuela Profitability of purebred Holsteins
lower if comprehensive economic
analysis is carried out
Holmann et al.,
1990a
Genotype by
environment
interactions
Colombia,
Mexico, Puerto
Rico
Smaller daughter milk responses in
Latin America compared to USA
Stanton et al.,
1991
Investment in semen
from North America
Colombia,
Mexico,
Venezuela
Economic returns from investments
in semen from North America are
negative in most scenarios
Holmann et al.,
1990b
Conception rate Mexico Lower conception rates than Brown
Swiss, Zebu and the respective
crosses
Osorio and
Segura, 2002

Aspect Place Performance Source
Performance
affecting factors
Mexico Factors affecting performance are
basically the same as in temperate
regions
McDowell et
al., 1976
Sire comparisons Mexico Correlations between sire
comparison values in Mexico and
North America are high
McDowell et
al., 1976
Heat tolerance Indonesia Better adaptation to high altitudes but
still not reach their genetic potential
Pangestu et al.,
2000
Replacement rate India High involuntary culling and low
reproductive performance limit
replacement rate
Mangurkar et
al., 1986
Crosses in co-
operative setting
Bangladesh Holstein x local compared to local
and Sahiwal x local has highest
performance
Hoque et al.,
1999
Heat tolerance Kenya Severe heat stress in lowlands but in
highlands only transient
Ikiror, 2001
Smallholder farms Uganda Several management constraints
show low adaptability to smallholder
conditions
Nassuns-
Musoke, 2002
Introduction in
humid forest zone
Ghana Feeding and management practices
need to be improved to increase
performance parameters
Gyawu et al.,
1988
Intensive production
systems
North Africa Under intensive management
comparable production parameters
Ageeb and
Hayes, 2000;
Sadek et al.,
1994; Sonn,
1984
Import of heifers
from US
Morocco Under intensive management
comparable production parameters
Johnson et al.,
1989
Economic
performance
Morocco High economic sensitivity due to
climatic conditions
Srairi and El
Khattabi, 2001
A 49: Country Report excerpts for cattle
Africa
In southern Africa, Botswana and Zimbabwe reported breed substitution through the use
of exotic breeds. Between 1987 and 1995 the use of exotic bull breeds in Botswana was
significantly higher than that of indigenous bull breeds both in natural service (94.9 vs.
5.1% per year) and as semen (94.1 vs. 5.9% per year). The most significant breed in
southern Africa is the Brahman.
In West Africa, Burkina Faso reports great influence of exotic genes in bovines. The
Azaouak Zebu, which is widely spread in the country for its recognised dairy performance,
is noted. The Red Bororo of Niger and the Goudali of Nigeria are recently introduced
breeds valued for their dairy and beef performance. The introduction of these breeds was
driven by pastoralists and transhumants on the one hand and peri-urban private producers

on the other. The Tarentaise, Brown Swiss and Montbliard breeds are consistently
imported for improvement of dairy production, as are the Jersey, Holstein and Limousin
breeds.
Burundi reports the introduction of Sahiwal for crossbreeding with Ankole since 1953,
followed by introduction of European exotics since 1970. Exotic breeds are mainly used in
dairy production in Burundi as well as in Ghana. Ghana imported Friesians, Jersey and
Sahiwal from Europe and India to develop a milking animal. In Cameroon, several breeds
are used either in purebreeding or for crossbreeding, namely the Holstein, Montbliard,
Normande, Salers, Jersey, Charolais, Brahman and Baoul breeds. Mali reports consistent
importation of Montbliard and Holstein cattle.
Eritrea and Ethiopia in eastern Africa report import of exotic animals and semen of dairy
cattle breeds like Holstein-Friesian, Jersey and Simmental for improvement of production.
Eritrea specifies an import of Holstein-Friesian from Holland in 1991, and semen of
unspecified breeds from Europe, Kenya and, more recently, from Ethiopia.
In Malawi, locally adapted Brahman and consistently imported Fresian, Holstein, and
Jersey cattle are used for crossbreeding in meat and milk production.
South Africa is one of the main sources of exotic genetic material in the southern African
region. Some of the exotic cattle breeds used in Zambia were introduced in colonial times.
Settler farmers introduced exotic breeds into Zambia as early as 1945. Since then, exotic
breeds were continuously imported into the country, first in live animals during the 1970s
and later through imported semen from Europe and America. Many breeds continue to be
consistently imported, including Friesian, Guernsey, Jersey and Simmental, Pinzgauer,
Boran, Brahman or Hereford.
Latin America
El Salvador is the only South American country reporting gene flow. The first exotic
breeds imported in 1890 were Durham or Shorthorn, Holstein and Normande. In 1923,
these were followed by import of Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey and other breeds. In the 1950s,
Zebu from Guatemala and Guzerat and Santa Gertrudis from Texas were imported. Most
recently, the American Brahman was introduced. The most important beef breed in El
Salvador is the Brahman, while the most significant dairy breed is the Holstein.
North America
The Canadian dairy herd is made up of Holstein cows (95%), Ayrshires and Jerseys. The
beef industry was based primarily on British breeds until the late 1960s, when many
Continental European breeds were imported. Recently there has been a move back to
smaller brood cows, in concert with the United States industry. Canada is a net-exporter of
live and processed cattle. Much of the international trade in live animals takes place
through transfer of genetic material. In 2001, 2,452,991 doses of semen and 2,337 embryos
of both dairy and beef cattle were exported.
The USA imported a large number of continental European breeds in the 1970s and, at
various points in time, beef producers imported Bos indicus breeds. The USA Holstein has
been developed as a global breed. The USA cooperates internationally on a number of
issues related to animal genetic resources. With regard to the conservation of animal
genetic resources, collaborative effort spans North America, South America, Europe,

conservation programmes which are at a similar stage of development. Across the USA
there are a number of federal and state scientists that interact with scientists of other
nations on the use of animal genetic resources and mapping animal genomes. USA animal
genetic resources are traded globally and this trade has led to increased animal
performance and economic returns and reduced poverty. The USA Holstein has made
substantial contributions to the global dairy industry.
Finland reports importation of farm animal genetic material with cost-effective long-term
benefits. The imported volumes of breeds have been sufficient to start breeding
programmes. Nevertheless, new foreign populations quickly exceeded the level of Finnish
animals. For example, when the breeding of the Ayrshire and the Friesian outpaced the
breeding of Finncattle, these breeds soon replaced Finncattle in dairy production. Dairy
production is dominated by a few powerful Holstein breeding organisations.
In Ireland the Shorthorn was crossed with British Friesian cattle during the 1940s and
1950s. During the late 1980s the Friesian cattle were crossed with higher-yielding
Holstein-Friesian cattle from Continental Europe and North America. Today almost all
dairy cattle in the country are Holstein Friesian type. Simmental cattle have been imported
from Austria since 1971.
Similarly in Sweden international exchange is intensive and widespread, and dairy cattle
breeders regularly import breeding material. The Swedish breeding practices, which focus
on health and functionality, are of interest to foreign livestock breeders. Semen doses of
Swedish Red and White bulls have been exported to Argentina and New Zealand.
In the United Kingdom the dairy industry is dominated by purebred Holstein and the beef
industry is dominated by Limousin, Charolais and Belgian Blue cattle. Most native beef
breeds have experienced introgression from exotic breeds.
In Albania the first crosses of local breeds and Jersey were produced in the 1930s. After
1965, Black and White heifers were imported from the Netherlands, Denmark and
Germany, and a national AI system and bull centres with bulls of Jersey, Black and White
and Simmental breeds were established. The number of the local cattle is decreasing due to
transformation of local cattle breeds into "cultivated" ones by crossbreeding with imported
breeds.
Belarus reports the introduction of Holstein from European countries (Holland, Denmark,
Germany) and the USA.
Exotic breeds were first introduced to Bosnia-Herzegovina from Austria in 1886. In 1906,
over 2,000 bulls were imported from Tyrol. A new local breed (Gatacko cattle) was created
in the south of the country by crossing of Tyrolean Grey with local Busa cows. Simmental
cattle were introduced to neighbouring Croatia and Serbia in the first decades of the 20th
century, and from there imported to Bosnia-Herzegovina. In subsequent years, breeding
animals came from Germany, Austria and other countries. In 1950, research on the breed
composition of herds in the Sava valley (in northern Bosnia) showed that 13.7% of cows
were of the local Busa breed, 7.8% were Busa type crosses, 23.8% were Posavsko cattle,
15.7% were Pinzgauer and Pinzgauer x Busa crosses, 7.0% were crosses between

cattle in the country were of the Simmental breed and its crosses with other breeds,
including the Busa.
Friesian cattle were imported in 1960, followed by later imports of Holsteins. In 1996, a
three-year programme to rehabilitate the animal production sector in the Federation of
Bosnia and Herzegovina was adopted. It envisaged import of 60,000 high quality cows,
100,000 sheep and 20,000 goats. During the first year of the programme (1997) some
10,000 heifers were imported from Hungary, Austria, Germany and the Netherlands. 75%
were Simmental, 10% were Friesian and Holstein, 10% were Montafon (Alpine Brown),
and 5% were Oberinntal (Grey Tyrolean). Both pregnant heifers and doses of semen for
use in AI have also been imported. Farmers wanting to purchase the imported animals
received soft loans from the Government in accordance with criteria approved by the
Federal Ministry of Agriculture, which required that over 50% of the production assets of
the farm must have been destroyed and that land be available (one cow or 5 sheep per
hectare of the agricultural land). In general, the policy was to give one cow to one family.
At a later stage, the option for more market-oriented production units of 3-5 cows with an
interest in increasing production and raising efficiency through improved management
techniques prevailed.
A similar programme for the republic of Srpska set a target of 20,000 heifers to be
imported in a three-year period starting in 1997. About 2,000 heifers were imported in
1997 on an International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) loan. The majority of
the imported heifers were Simmental cattle and roughly 20% were Montafons, Tyroleans
and Frisians.
In Bosnia-Herzegovina the importation of exotic breeds increased production and led to the
formation of a well-adapted new breed (Gatacko) and new, locally adapted strains of
Tyrolean Grey, Montafon and Simmental. On the other hand, importation was not
accompanied by changes in production systems and intensification.
Many breeds have been experimented with in Bulgaria over the last 20 years. As a result,
it has been established that the Hornless Hereford is the best breed for mountainous regions
and the Simmental and its hybrid forms are best for plains.
In the Czech Republic an originally unified Simmental-type red-pied cattle was
developed. The current genetic diversity of farm animals in the Czech Republic reflects the
previous orientation of production targets pursued in the process of breeding in different
species and breeds. One example is the development of the originally unified Simmental-
type red-pied cattle throughout the modern-day Czech Republic. Efforts to increase milk
yields led to both the controlled immigration of Ayrshire and, later, Red-pied Holstein
cattle in half of the population, and to the crossbreeding (later conversion-crossing) with
Lowland black-pied and later Holstein cattle through the import of animals and sperm in
the other half. This resulted in the concurrent realisation of separate selection programmes
and the development of separate populations (breeds), namely the Bohemian red-pied and
the Holstein. The gradual development of beef cattle farming led to breeding specialisation
of a subset of the original Bohemian red-pied herd and to the emergence of a population of
meat-type Simmental cattle which were developed and managed separately.
In Hungary, replacement of local breeds with foreign cattle occurred in two stages. The
first occurred at the end of the 19th Century and the first half of the 20th Century, when

(Hungarian Grey Cattle with the Simmental). In the second stage, the spread of
technologically-advanced large-scale cattle farming throughout the country was
accompanied by the import of modern, intensive, specialised varieties and hybrids suitable
for large farms and by the crossing of local semi-intensive varieties. Market pressure to
import new varieties, especially hybrids, is still present, but the importance of preserving
endangered and native varieties is receiving increasing emphasis.
The Russian Federation imported Brown Swiss cattle from Switzerland in 1861. Today
many breeds are selected using Brown Swiss. A subsequent substantial import of genetic
resources from Switzerland took place between 1920 and 1930. Between 1958 and 1972
imports came from Austria, Switzerland, Hungary and USA. After 1972, semen and sires
were imported from USA and Canada. Since 1995, small herds of Angler, Red Dutch, Red
Lithuanian, Red Estonian and Brown Latvian breeds have been combined with Red Steppe
breed. The table below gives an overview of export and import of cattle into and out of the
Russian Federation between 1990 and 2002.
Import and Export of cattle from Russia from 1990 to 2002
Breed, cross Year of
purchase
Exporting country Number
of
animals

Import males females
Dairy Ayrshire, Brown
Swiss, Holstein,
Red and White
1990 1995 Germany, Denmark,
Netherlands, USA,
Finland, Japan
273 15,655
Ayrshire, Angler,
Jersey, Brown
Swiss, Holstein,
Simmental, Red
and White, Black
and White
1996 2000 Germany, Denmark,
Netherlands, Hungary,
Finland, Estonia, Italy,
Canada
379 10,376
Ayrshire, Angler,
Jersey, Brown
Swiss, Holstein,
Simmental, Red
and White, Black
and White, Red
Danish, Red Steppe
2001 2002 Austria, Germany,
Netherlands Denmark,
France, Finland, Estonia,
Lithuania
174 14,141
Beef Hereford 1990 1995 Canada 7
Hereford,
Limousine, Aubrac,
Salers, Charolais
1996 2000 France, Canada, Ukraine,
Germany, Hungary
22 1,195
Aberdeen Angus,
Galloway,
Limousine, Aubrac,
Salers, Charolais
2001 2002 France, Hungary,
Germany
93 1,670
Export
Dairy Ayrshire, Holstein,
Kostromskaya,
1996 2000 Kazakhstan 10 250

Black and White
2001 2002 Kazakhstan, Tajikistan 24 1,321
Source: Country report Russian Federation (2003)
In Serbia and Montenegro, the exotic breeds used are: Simmental, Holstein-Friesian,
Holstein (Black and Red), Limousin, Charolais and Montafon. The use of local breeds is
decreasing.
In Slovakia, a massive import of highly productive, specialised, foreign breeds is taking
place. Some local breeds have become endangered, mainly due to reduction in
biodiversity, economic pressure to increase production, and gradual market globalisation.
Since 1989, global processes like holsteinization i.e. upgrading of local cattle breeds with
the Holstein have greatly contributed to a decline in biodiversity in Slovakia.
In Slovenia, there is widespread use of Simmental and Black and White Holstein cattle,
both of which exist in stable populations. Other stable populations are the Charolais,
Galloway and Red Angus, while populations of Limousin, Scottish Highland cattle, Red
Holstein and Montbliard are increasing. In the early 18th century, the first immigrants
from Germany and Holland introduced Red cattle. Angler and Dutch breeds were crossed
with the red cattle at the end of the 19th century. At the end of the 18th century, the first
Simmental animals appeared in Russia. By 1950, the Sychevskaya breed - a cross between
local cattle and Simmental - had been developed. Until the 1960s Simmental and related
breeds dominated in Russia (95% of the total population). After 1990, the Simmental
population began to decrease and the Red and white dairy breed - a cross between Red and
white Holstein and Simmental - was approved in Russia.
Western Asia
In Armenia, Swiss breeds were selected to cross with Grey Caucasian Cattle because of
similar climatic conditions in the mountainous region in Switzerland.
In Azerbaijan efforts were made to raise milk productivity by bringing male cattle of the
milk-trended breeds of Qara-Ala (black-black and white). While milk productivity
increased, the milk quality indexes were reduced. The number of highly productive
pedigree animals imported from abroad is decreasing each year due to lack of adaptation.
In Turkey, the most widespread exotic breeds are Holstein Friesian, Brown Swiss and
Turkish Brown Swiss. The Turkish Brown Swiss is a development of the Karacabey
Brown, which originated from crosses of Brown Swiss with Anatolian Grey. Holstein and
Jersey were successfully crossed with local breeds, while crossing with Angus and
Hereford was unsuccessful. As a result, there is a loss of breeds in Turkey due to
geography, socio-economic and cultural structure, and presence of livestock improvement
projects.
Bhutan has applied crossbreeding programmes with the local Nublang (Siri) and Indian
breeds such as Haryana, Sahiwal and Red Sindhi. In the early 1980s, AI of Nublang (Siri)
with germplasm of Jersey and Brown Swiss was introduced. Jersey has been used
throughout the country, while the Brown Swiss breed has been used only in the high
altitude areas. Crossbreeding trials with Australian Milking Zebu and Tarentaise were not
satisfactory.

According to incomplete statistics, China introduced more than 120 domestic animal
breeds before 1989 from Russia, the UK, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the
USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, including 27 cattle breeds, 25 sheep breeds, 4
goat breeds, and 11 pig breeds. The imported domestic animals enriched genetic resources
in China and played a positive role in improving local animal breeds. In the last few years,
the annual value of breeding livestock imports exceeded US$ 20 million. Some of the
exotic breeds used in China today are the Holstein, Piedmontese, Simmental, South Devon,
Jersey, Limousin, Shorthorn, Angus, Hereford, Deutsches Gelbvieh, Charolais and Red
Dane. The China Holstein and China Simmental breeds have also been developed.
Indonesia imported Holstein Friesian first from West Friesland and then from Australia,
New Zealand, the USA, Japan and Canada. The population of Holstein Friesian cattle in
2002 was roughly 354,000. Imported cattle are mainly used for feed-lot operators.
26.4% of cattle used in Japan for beef production are Holsteins and 31.3% are Holstein
hybrids. The Holstein is similarly dominant in the dairy sector, comprising nearly 100% of
dairy cattle since 1965.
In Kyrgyzstan increased demand for livestock products and the development of a
domestic processing industry have stimulated breeding throughout the livestock branch.
Kyrgyzstan is developing composite breeds to create cultural and highly productive breeds.
This has resulted in the creation of two new breeds. There are regular imports of live male
breeding animals and frozen semen of various breeds for local breed improvement. The
main countries of origin for cattle imports are Austria, the USA, Holland, Switzerland,
Russia.
In early 1984 in Laos, 120 pure Holstein-Friesian heifers were introduced from Cuba. The
cows were not properly managed and could not survive in the difficult local conditions.
Myanmar introduced a crossbreeding programme for dairy production in 1977, using
fresh semen from imported dairy breeds such as the Friesian and Jersey.
Jersey and Holstein-Friesian are the most commonly used breeds imported to Nepal. Other
introduced breeds are Brown Swiss, Ayrshire, Sahiwal and Haryana.
In Pakistan, dairy breeds such as Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Illawarra Shorthorn and Brown
Swiss (recently imported by multinationals) have been imported for use in purebred herds
and for crossing. Imported and locally produced Jersey semen has also been used in the
irrigated regions and, more so, in the Barani areas. Holstein and Jersey semen is locally
produced. Semen from breeds such as Australian Illawarra Shorthorn, Swedish Red and
White, Chinese Black and White, Australian Friesian Sahiwal, Australian Milking Zebu
and Brown Swiss has been imported for use in crossbreeding, but at a very limited extent.
There has also been limited use of Charolais and Simmental in experimental purposes and
in crossbreeding for beef.
In the Philippines cattle of the Bos indicus line and Bos indicus x Bos taurus crosses are
most common. In feed-lot fattening American and Australian Brahmans and their crosses
are used. Imported Holstein Friesian cattle and their crosses are used as dairy herds.
Breeding is conducted through AI using locally produced or imported frozen semen. The
table below gives an overview of the numbers imported between 1990 and 2001.

Animal numbers imported to the Philippines, 1990-2001
Year 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Cattle 23,022 15,773 49,237 82,130 115,916 168,769
- Breeder 1,709 3,099 15,875 7,458 6,430 6,299
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001(P)
Cattle 167,435 156,719 186,835 236,882 196,777 102,478
- Breeder 2,645 1,269 704 725 2,056 30
P - Preliminary
Source: Country report Philippines (2003)
In Sri Lanka Dr. A.D.N. Chandrasiri reports imports of semen between 1990 and 2001 in
a personal communication. Details are provided in the table below.
Import of cattle semen to Sri Lanka by breed and country of origin
Breed of Semen No. of doses Country of Origin
Jersey (all types) 136,110 New Zealand, Australia, Canada,
Netherlands Denmark
Friesian (all types) 62,500 Australia Canada Holland New Zealand
Holstein Friesian 46,000 New Zealand, Australia, Canada,
Netherlands
Australian Friesian Sahiwal 14,000 Australia
Australian Milking Zebu 6,025 New Zealand, Australia, Canada,
Netherlands
Ayrshire 3,500 New Zealand
Sindhi 596 India
Brown Swiss 270 Switzerland
Source: Country report Sri Lanka (2003)
Tajikistan imported exotic breeds, mainly from Russia, to improve productivity after
1940. Cattle breeds imported include Friesians, Swiss breeds and Kholmogosrkiy.
Nevertheless, many imported breeds did not adapt to the local conditions and did not
become wide-spread.
In Uzbekistan it is reported that exotic, locally adapted breeds of cattle, namely Black and
White, Alpine Brown, red-steppe, red Lithuanian, Latvian and red Estonian. Recently
Holstein, kept only in several pedigree farms, and Santa Gertrudis have been introduced.
In Vietnam a Zebuization programme is taking place since 1994, in which local cows
are crossed with Red Sindhi or Ongole bulls to create the Lai-sind. For improved dairy
production the Lai-sind is crossed with Holstein Friesian, and to improve beef production it
is crossed with Charolais, Limousine, Hereford or Brahman. To improve draught power,
Lai-sind is continually upgraded to Red Sindhi.

Locally produced cattle semen fills about 60-65% of the current demand for semen doses;
the remainder is imported from France, Australia, the USA, Cuba and other countries.
Imported breeds include the Red Sindhi, Sahiwal, Brahman, Charolais, Limousine,
Hereford, Simmental, Santa Gertrudis, Droughtmaster, Belmont Red, Red Brangus Red
Brahman, Jersey and Holstein Friesians. The Brahman is considered to be well adapted in
the central region of Vietnam. The most common increasingly used breeds are the Holstein
Friesian from Cuba, the USA and Australia, the Sindhi from Pakistan, and the Jersey from
the USA.
Oceania
The first cattle were introduced to Samoa by European settlers in the late 1800s. The first
breeds to be introduced were mainly temperate breeds such as the Aberdeen Angus,
Ayrshire, Friesian, Hereford, Shorthorn and Red Poll from Australia and New Zealand.
Subsequently, Brahman cattle were introduced. In 1984, embryo transfer technology was
used to bring the Piedmontese breed from the USA. Breeds used today are Braford,
Brahman, Droughtmaster and Santa Gertrudis, Australian Friesian Sahiwal, Friesian and
Jersey.
A 50: Annual EU breeding pig import and export 1992-2003
320 7
90
118
2,547
5,018
7,565
15,996
49,493
74
8,689
1,396
12,219
22,112
-14 -1
-1,889
-99 -58
-5,079
-7,981
-2,351
-3,935
-12,662
-17,484
-20,459
-23,063
-38,983
125,644
-134,060
-60,000
-40,000
-20,000
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
U
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0
50,000
100,000
150,000
exports imports
exports imports

Source: Eurostat (2004); Warning: It is possible that these numbers are distorted due to misclassification of
breeding pigs.

A 51: Imported pig breeds during the 1970s into different countries
Importing country
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Austria x x x x x x x
Belgium x x x
Bulgaria x x x x
Denmark x x x x x x x
Finland x x
former Czechoslovakia x x x x x x
France x x x
Germany x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Greece x x x x
Hungary x x x x x x x
Ireland x x x
Italy x x
Lithuania x x
Netherlands x x x x x x
Norway x x
Poland x
Portugal x x
Sweden x x x x x x x
Switzerland x x x
UK x x x x x x x x x x
Yugoslavia x x x x x x
J apan x x x
Malaysia x x x
Myanmar x x x
Philippines x x x x x x x x x
Brazil x
Ecuador x x
Argentina x x x
Canada x x x x x
USA x x x x x x x x x x
Australia x x x x x x x
New Zealand x x
Papua New Guinea x x
Europe
Oceania
Asia
South
America
Northern
America

Source: adapted from Sutherland et al. (1985)

A 52: State of the pig genetic resource utilisation in Uruguay
Breed Adaptation Population
tendency
Use
intensity
Importance Breeding Use of
product
Production
system
Breeders
Association
Improvement
programmes
Character-
isation
Reproduction
Criollo locally
adapted/risk
of
extinction
decreasing low not defined mainly
crossbreeding
family extensive non-
existent
without
registration
phenotypic/
molecular
natural
Duroc
Jersey
continuous
imports
decreasing medium economic
importance
mainly
crossbreeding
industry/
family
semi-
intensive
for breed
group
genealogical
register
phenotypic natural
Hampshire locally
adapted
decreasing low economic
importance
mainly
crossbreeding
industry/
family
semi-
intensive
non-
existent
without
registration
phenotypic natural
Landrace continuous
imports
increasing high economic
importance
mainly
crossbr.,
some purebr.
industry semi-
intensive
for breed
group
genealogical
register
phenotypic natural,
artificial
insemination
Belgian
Landrace
continuous
imports
stable low economic
importance
mainly
crossbreeding
industry intensive non-
existent
without
registration
phenotypic natural,
artificial
insemination
Large
White
continuous
imports
increasing high economic
importance
mainly
crossbr.,
some purebr.
industry semi-
intensive
for breed
group
genealogical
register
phenotypic natural,
artificial
insemination
Pampa locally
adapted
stable low economic
importance
mainly
crossbr.,
some purebr.
family/
industry
semi-
intensive
for breed
group
genealogical/
productive
register
phenotypic/
molecular
natural
Spotted
Poland
locally
adapted
decreasing low economic
importance
mainly
crossbreeding
family/
industry
semi-
intensive
non-
existent
without
registration
phenotypic natural
Pietrain continuous
imports
stable low economic
importance
mainly
crossbreeding
industry intensive non-
existent
without
registration
phenotypic natural,
artificial
insemination
Source: Country Report Uruguay (2003)

A 53: Country Report excerpts for pigs
Africa
In Burundi local pig breeds are crossed with exotic breeds, mainly Large White, in order
to raise productivity.
Mali reports constant imports of Large white, Yorkshire and Chinese pig breeds.
The exotic pig breeds in Uganda include the large white, Wessex saddleback, and the
Landrace.
The major pig breeds of Zambias commercial sector are the exotic Landrace, the Large
White, the Duroc and the recently introduced Dalland.
Latin America
El Salvador uses the following pig breeds in modernised systems: Landrace, Yorkshire,
Duroc and crosses between them. In the rural zones local breeds dominate.
North America
In Canada pigs of seven different breeds were registered in 2001, but 99.4% of these were
in the Yorkshire, Landrace, and Duroc breeds, which are used predominantly by the pig
industry either pure or in crossbreeding programmes. These breeds, along with newly
developed lines, continue to be used in crossbreeding programmes, often without
registering individuals.
Composite lines are playing a larger role as breeding animals in the commercial industry of
the USA. The most prominent sire breeds are Duroc, Hampshire and Berkshire, while
Yorkshire and Landrace are maternal breeds.
In Denmark the British breeding company PIC has established breeding and production
herds, and is responsible for about 10% of supplies of the breeding animals and boar
semen.
Owing to the strict provisions governing the importation of genetic material, Iceland has
not participated in the globalisation, which has characterised cattle breeding in various
parts of the world for over a decade. However, breeding activities involving pigs, poultry
and furred animals are primarily non-Icelandic activities, as the breeding stock in these
sectors is regularly and frequently imported. Genetic material in the pig sector is based on
regular imports of overseas breeds which are used in systematic crossbreeding, as is the
case in other countries and therefore there are no independent domestic breeding
programmes.
Purebreeding and systematic breed crossing are used in pig breeding in Latvia. Nucleus
farms produce gilts for industrial crossing. 9.2 % of sows are reared on nucleus farms from
locally adapted breeds (Latvian White improved with Yorkshire and Landrace). Recently
introduced breeds (Yorkshire and Duroc) are renewed with imported representatives. Only
Hampshire and Pietrain boars are imported continuously.
In the past, the Dutch pig breeding organisations imported various foreign breeds for their

expected since no material that would contribute positively to commercial pig breeding
programmes is available outside breeding organisations.
Pig breeding in Sweden is currently the subject of internal debate, and opportunities to co-
operate with Danish breeders are under inquiry. The native Swedish breeds have
satisfactorily met breeding goals, such as good fertility and high growth rates. In the early
years of the last century, breeding pigs were imported mainly from Denmark in order to
strengthen native Swedish breeds. Importing breeding material from native breeds into
Sweden continued with the introduction of breeding boars and semen from Norway and
Finland. From the mid-1950s breeders have used Yorkshire breeding pigs imported from
Canada and Finland in addition to native Swedish stock.
The pig industry of United Kingdom is focused on producing hybrids based upon lines or
breeds of global importance. Systematic crossbreeding, within-breed strain crosses and
hybridisation is widely practised in the pig and poultry industries. 79% of purchased boars
(of which 47% are Large White) are supplied by four companies, and 70% of purchased
hybrid gilts by three companies.
In Belarus the Belorussian Black pig breed was created by difficult reproductive
crossbreeding of local pigs with European pedigree breeds: Big Yorkshire, Medium White,
Dark-nap, Large Black, Berkshire, Long-eared Lincoln.
Certain groups of boars are imported to Poland every year, in particular Landrace and
Large White, which are included in the breeding of the Polish Landrace and Polish Large
White breeds. These imports are from England, France and the Scandinavian countries.
Boars are also imported systematically for sire breeds, though this is limited and
insufficient to improve the leanness considerably. Other exotic breeds mentioned are
Belgian Landrace, Duroc, Hampshire, Pietrain and Synthetic Line 990.
The pig sector of the Russian Federation is represented mainly by Large White, which
accounts for 88% of the total pig stock. The Large white breed was first imported from
Britain in the 1980s to be crossed with local breeds. Later, in the 20th century, genetic
stock of Large White breeds were imported again from Britain. As a result, the population
of Soviet Large White breed was established that proved to be highly adaptive to different
climatic and natural conditions of the former USSR. This Large White breed is superior to
other breeds in many breeding indices, therefore it takes the leading position in Russias
pig sector. Examples of synthetic lines developed in the Russian Federation are listed in
the table below.
Development of synthetic pig breeds in the Russian Federation
Breed name Type Registration
/Recognition
year
Breeds used
Breight general
purpose
1948 Large White, Danish Landrace, Lithuanian and
Latvian breeds and Polesskaya breed from
Belorussia
Northern
Caucasus
1955 local breeds with Large White, Berkshire and
White short ear breeds

Muromskaya 1957 local breeds with Lithuanian White and Large
White
Kemerovskaya general
purpose
1961 native Siberian pigs, Large White and
Berkshire
Belorussian black
and white
1976 in 19th century with local breeds with
Yorkshire, Large Black and other imported
breeds; expanded in the 1920s by using
Swedish Landrace, Estonian Beacon, Large
White and Berkshire breeds
CM-1 early
maturing
1990s Large White and others
Livenskaya general
purpose
unknown local pigs with Large White and Berkshire
Tsyvilskaya unknown native Chuvash pigs with Large White
Source: Country report Russian Federation (2003)
The exotic pig breeds used in Serbia and Montenegro are Swedish Landrace, Large
White, Dutch Landrace, German Landrace, Belgian Landrace, Danish Landrace, Canadian
Landrace, Pietrain, Hampshire and Duroc.
Pig breeds in Slovenia, are classified into locally adapted pig breeds and exotic pig breeds
and the trends in population size is estimated. The exotic breeds that are widely used are
Pietrain and Duroc. Another exotic breed is Large White. Locally adapted breeds are
Swedish Landrace, German Landrace and Large White.
Western Asia
Armenia imported the Large White pig breed in 1930. Initially they were used to improve
local pig characteristics, and later for purebreeding and crossbreeding. The main breeds
cultivated in Armenia are local meat, big white, exotic Welsh, Landrace, Duroc and
Ukrainian lines. Populations in north-eastern regions have developed a local breed well
adapted to local conditions.
In Bhutan Large Black, Duroc Jersey, Yorkshire, Saddle Back and Landrace are the exotic
breeds used to cross with local pigs for improving body weight, litter size and growth rate.
As the preference by farmers is for coloured breeds, the nucleus farms will maintain only
Duroc Jersey, Saddle Back, Large Black and Hampshire. In addition, there are also plans to
introduce Meishan pigs as a maternal line to improve the litter size of the crossbreds.
Experiments using the exotic and local breeds are developing a composite breed
appropriate for village management conditions. Crossbreeding with exotic breeds like
Large White, Yorkshire, Duroc, Large black, Saddle black and Hampshire has been
promoted by the Government. As a result, the ratio of indigenous pigs fell by about 47%
between the years 1987 and 2000. Plans are under way to revive nucleus breeding farms
for the native pigs. The pigs in the farm will be used for crossbreeding with some exotic
lines to upgrade its inferior trait in fertility and litter size which will then be supplied to the
farmers as per their choice.
Large-scale pig production was introduced to Cambodia in 1997. Two products are piglets

for sale and meat. Breeds are imported from the surrounding countries Thailand, Vietnam,
and Taiwan
China reports importing the following exotic breeds of pigs: Berkshire, Landrace,
Yorkshire, Duroc, Soviet White, Hampshire, Kemiroff, Pietrain.
After 1960 Indonesia imported Hampshire, Duroc, Landrace, Poland China, and Yorkshire
(Large white) pigs. The potential area for pigs is in North Sumatra, West Kalimantan.
Before 1960 there were German Landrace, Netherlandss Landrace, Tamworth,
Saddleback pigs available in Indonesia.
Pig production in Japan is characterised by the high popularity of the Kagoshima Black
Pig. In addition to this breed, there are hybrids from triple crossbreeding Large White,
Landrace, and Duroc, and hybrids from triple crossbreeding Large White, Landrace,
Berkshire (in place of Duroc), or commercial pigs which have been produced using pigs
imported from foreign breeding companies. Eight breeds comprising Middle White,
Berkshire, Landrace, Large White, Hampshire, Duroc, Spot, and Chester White have been
included in the statistics. In 1999, Duroc, which is used as a terminal sire in a triple cross,
accounted for by far the highest percentage at 52.9% of the total of 77,000 breeding boars;
Berkshire, Landrace, Large White accounted for 6.1%, 5.3%, and 6.6% respectively. Other
than these breeds, exotic hybrid pigs and crossbreds for triple cross account for 13.9%, and
13.4% respectively, making up more than 99% of the pigs in this category (see the table
below). On the other hand, of the total 886,000 breeding sows, Berkshire, Landrace, and
Large White account only for 3.7%, 4.2%, and 3.1% respectively, with Duroc at 1.8%.
Exotic hybrid pigs and crossbreds for triple cross account for 14.0% and 72.5%
respectively. Purebred female account for only 13.5% of the total. Pigs used for meat
production total 5.97 million, only 6.6% of which are used as purebreds. Berkshire at
2.8%, Duroc at 1.3%, Landrace at 1.1%, and Large White at 0.8% are used for this
purpose. Berkshire, which is extremely popular in Japan under the name Black Pig,
accounts for about 50%. Kagoshima Black Pig accounts for only 2% (327,000 animals) of
the annual total number of slaughtered pigs (16 million, FY 2001).
Transition in numbers of breeding hogs, breeding sows, and pigs for fattening in Japan
1. Breeding
hogs
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 1999
Middle
White
368 72 55 63 62 75
Berkshire 316 310 879 1.685 2.236 4.717
Landrace 11.693 10.876 7.108 6.209 4.421 4.120
Large
White
3.600 7.926 9.632 9.316 5.395 5.147
Hampshire 13.406 21.660 11.099 5.077 1.774 1.009
Duroc 3.052 12.775 38.672 48.391 42.962 40.934
Spotted 63 403 200 41 24 4
Chester
White
12 40 52 67 20 19

Others 23 284 3.303 9.441 8.898 11.047
Hybrids 3.303 8.336 8.690 10.769
Cross 931 2.279 3.134 9.485 9.087 10.356
Total 33.464 56.625 74.134 89.775 74.879 77.428
2. Breeding
sows

Middle
White
8.754 1.803 327 215 115 172
Berkshire 11.551 6.551 5.509 9.861 15.490 32.950
Landrace 392.318 321.305 154.783 75.480 42.367 37.387
Large
White
38.878 54.357 50.457 54.610 32.325 27.053
Hampshire 52.050 55.960 13.743 5.630 2.572 1.203
Duroc 9.754 41.246 41.034 26.259 14.320 15.977
Spotted 903 894 286 59 38 0
Chester
White
75 176 1.313 220 40 105
Others 1.145 409 40.742 135.421 165.686 128.517
Hybrids 40.742 110.672 128.839 124.361
Cross 295.085 663.341 841.611 796.346 606.019 642.693
Total 810.513 1.146.042 1.149.805 1.104.101 878.972 886.057
Source: Country report Japan (2003)
In these excellent Japanese statistics the indication of the breed composition of others,
hybrids and crosses, which constitute a major part (more than 100%?) of the sows and
40% of the boars, is missing.
In Kyrgyzstans pig breeding Big White Breed, North Caucasian, Landrace, German
Yorkshire were imported for domestic breeding.
In Malaysia the poultry and pig sub-sectors are very dependent on continually imported
breeding stock and feedstuffs. Practically all production activities for poultry and pigs are
based on the use of exotic breeds. This is because there are no local poultry or pig breeds
suitable for modern, commercial production.
Indigenous pig breeds of Myanmar in various regions are slow in growth, thick fat and of
low productivity. At present, the Government Enterprise and private companies import
high productive breeds to crossbreed with local breeds. Thats why the pig population has
increased in recent years. In some areas commercial boars are kept for breeding. Most of
the boars are crossbred with exotic breeds like Large White, Landrace, Duroc Jersey and
Berkshire. Myanmar had imported some exotic breeds since 25 years ago for improving
pig breeding.
Apart from native Nepalese pig breeds there are Large White Yorkshire, Landrace,
Hampshire, Saddleback, Fayuen, Tamworth and Duroc pigs in Nepal. Among these

Yorkshire and Landrace are most widely used.
The Philippines recognises pigs as the single largest contributor to the local livestock
sector. Its pig population is made up of several breeds and genetic groups that are
distributed throughout the country and in different farming production systems. The pig
genetic groups present in the country are classified into: exotic standard purebreds,
synthetic hybrids and the Philippine native pig and its upgrades or crosses. The purebred
group is composed mainly of the Landrace, Large White, Duroc and Pietrain breeds.
Berkshire and Hampshire breeds are also present but in significantly lesser numbers
compared to the four aforementioned breeds. The Landrace and the Large White are
extensively used by commercial pig farms for the production of a crossbred sow line, while
the Duroc and Pietrain are commercially used for boar line. Synthetic hybrids like the New
Dalland, Babcock, Seghers, Cotswold and Hypor are also continuously introduced into the
country and commercially utilised by many commercial pig raisers. Recent importation of
these exotic breeds and hybrids came from Canada, USA, European countries and
Australia.
Sri Lanka imported mainly Large White, Landrace and Duroc pigs for breed improvement
(see the table below).
Pig imports to Sri Lanka by year and country of origin
Year Country Breed Number of
animals
No. of semen
doses
1990 Australia Landrace/ Large
White
120
1991 - - 2
1996 USA - 32
1997 USA Large White 17
USA Land Race 8
USA Duroc 6
1998 USA Land Race 15
USA Large White 13
Unknown USA Duroc 100
USA Land Race 45
USA Large White 45
Source: Country report Sri Lanka (2003)
Imported breeds play an important role in Vietnams pig production (see the table below).
56% of intensive farms and only 9% small households raise exotic breeds, while
crossbreds are found mainly in small households (58%) and are less common in intensive
farms (28%).
Regarding breed supply, only 5% of the breeds in small households are provided by state
intensive farms. The rest are raised or traded by small households themselves, which led to
a poor quality of breeds. The semen for pig breeding is internally produced. High

productivity exotic breeds will be used to meet the requirements of urban consumption and
the export market. In domestic consumption and in rural areas usually hybrids are used.
Most Vietnamese slaughter pigs are commercial F1 crosses between local sows (mainly
Mong Cai), and exotic boars such as Duroc, Landrace, Yorkshire or Hampshire breeds.
Some exotic breeds such as Large White, Hampshire, Berkshire and German Yorkshire
have decreased in numbers due to degradation of genetic breeding over many years
importation and/or not meeting the target of leanization. For further details please refer to
the case study: Impact of the use of exotic compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic
development and biodiversity in Vietnam.
Imported pig breeds of Vietnam
Breed Origin Aim of
utilisation
Levels of use Trends
Large White Russia Leanization Normal decreasing
Duroc USA Leanization Normal Increasing
Landrace USA, Japan,
France, Russia
Leanization Wide Increasing
Yorkshire USA, Japan,
France, Russia
Leanization Wide increasing
Hampshire USA Leanization narrow decreasing
Berkshire Russia Leanization Normal decreasing
Pietrain Belgium Leanization wide increasing
German Noble Germany limited decreasing
Cornwall Limited limited
Meishan China New imported
Source: Country report Vietnam (2003)
Oceania
In Palau all pigs used commercially have been imported - Landrace, Large White and
Duroc. Breeds of pigs which were popular in previous years are now in decline namely
Hampshire, Berkshire and Poland-China. Locally adapted breeds of pig (the Pacific pig)
are very inefficient producers (poor weight gain, low litter sizes) and have been crossed
with improved breeds.
Pig breeds previously imported to Samoa include the Berkshire, Duroc Hampshire, Large
White, Landrace, Poland China and Tamworth.

A 54: Information from the World Watch List of Domestic Animal Diversity
Proportional share of the worlds total sheep population size and number of breeds in
each region
Africa Asia and
The
Pacific
Europe Latin
America
and The
Caribbean
Near East North
America
Population((%) 12.1 38.6 8.2 0.1 0.7
Breeds (%) 11.2 17.7 17.5 6.0 0.4 4.7
Source: Scherf (2000)
Risk status of the worlds domestic sheep breeds recorded
up to 1995 up to 1999
Status Absolute Approx. % Absolute Approx. %
Unknown 264 27 391 26
Critical 26 2 62 4
Critical-
maintained
8 1 6 1
Endangered 59 6 156 10
Endangered-
maintained
26 2 43 3
Not at risk 537 55 656 44
Extinct 55 5 181 12
Total 975 100 1495 100
Source: Scherf (2000)
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189




ANNEXES 9.2-9.5

190

ANNEX 191

ANNEX
9.2 Global gene flow of sheep

C. Schfer, A. Valle Zrate

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 193
List of figures 193
Abbreviations 194
1 Introduction 195
2 Historical development of sheep gene flow 195
2.1 Gene flow during domestication and breed formation 195
2.2 Influence of human migration on transfer of animals 198
2.2.1 Europe 199
2.2.2 Africa 200
2.2.3 Asia 201
2.2.4 The Americas 201
2.2.5 Oceania 202
2.3 Influence of breeding in further development and spread of breeds 203
2.3.1 Influence of breeding on development and spread of the Merino breed 203
2.3.2 Influence of breeding in development and spread of other temperate
breeds 207
2.3.3 Influence of breeding in development and spread of breeds in
developing countries 207
material 209
3 Current status and actual trends of sheep gene flow 210
3.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import 210
3.1.1 EU-15 countries 210
3.1.2 Eastern Europe 212
3.1.3 America 213
3.1.4 Oceania 213
3.1.5 Asia 213
3.1.6 Middle East 214
3.1.7 Africa 214
3.2 Gene flow indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material 214
LIST OF TABLES 193

3.2.1 Europe 215
3.2.2 America 218
3.2.3 Oceania 220
3.2.4 Asia 220
3.2.5 Middle East 220
3.2.6 Africa 221
3.2.7 The Booroola gene - An example for the introduction of foreign genetic
material 221
3.3 Gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts 223
4 References global gene flow of sheep 225
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Systematic classification of the genus Ovis 195
Table 2: Characteristics of the Merino breed and tropical hair sheep breeds according
to production environment, purpose and regions of dissemination 196
Table 3: Fine wool breeds of Russia and their formation basis 206
Table 4: Distribution of sheep population in the EU-15 countries including export
and import of breeding animals in 2003 211
Table 5: Russian sheep export and import figures of sheep 213
Table 6: Breeds used in Merino breeding in the past and the recent Merino breeds in
Hungary 215
Table 7: Changes in breed structure in sheep population of Poland between 1976 and
2000 217
Table 8: Source and year of importation of Booroola gene into European countries 222
Table 9: Country Report excerpts on gene flow of sheep 224
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Development of fine wool sheep with uniform fleece composition in
comparison to double coated hair sheep breeds, from domestication to
dissemination of Iberian Merino 198
Figure 2: Spread of the Merino breed after fall of the Spanish Merino monopoly 200
Figure 3: Development of exports and imports of breeding sheep in EU-15 countries
from 1992-2003 212
Figure 4: Geographic illustration of the flow of the Booroola gene 223
194 ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
BC before Christ
BMPIB Bone morphogenetic protein IB receptor
DAD-IS Domestic Animal Diversity Information System
Kingdom
FRG former Federal Republic of Germany
PROFOR Program on Forests (multi-donor trust fund program housed at the World
Bank)
UK United Kingdom
USSR former Union of Socialist Soviet Republics

INTRODUCTION 195

1 INTRODUCTION
For this chapter Merino and Hair Sheep breeds have been chosen to highlight typical
developments in sheep. The Merino is a wool sheep which used to be important worldwide
in both crossbreeding and purebreeding programmes. Hair sheep have adapted to hot
climates. The influences of domestication, breed formation, human migration, and
breeding methods on the diversification of sheep were studied. Reference to other sheep
breeds are made where appropriate.
Data was sourced from the Eurostat statistic database, which, however, does not contain
any breed information, and Country Reports on the State of Animal Genetic Resources.
Additionally project reports and publications were studied and breeding organisations and
experts from different countries were contacted.
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP GENE FLOW
2.1 Gene flow during domestication and breed formation
The world sheep population today accounts for 1,024 million sheep. 350 million, about one
third, are found in developed countries, the remaining two thirds in developing countries
(FAO, 2004).
The systematic classification of the genus Ovis is still an open question. It is generally
accepted that it can be subdivided into one domestic species (O. aries) and several wild
species with some of them differing in chromosome number (Table 1). Of the wild species
the Asiatic mouflon (O. orientalis), European mouflon (O. musimon) and the Urial (O.
vignei) are believed to be ancestors of domestic sheep.
Table 1: Systematic classification of the genus Ovis
Common name Chromosome number Systematic name
Asiatic mouflon 54 O. orientalis
European mouflon 54 O. musimon
Urial sheep 58 O. vignei
Arkhar argali sheep 56 O. ammon
Snow sheep 52 O. nivicola
Dall sheep 54 O. dalli
Bighorn sheep 54 O. canadansis
Domestic sheep
(about 1000 breeds)
54 O. aries
However, there are also suggestions that domesticated sheep all belong to the species Ovis
ammon L. with 28 Eurasian and 9 North American subspecies. This theory was supported
by the fact that all wild and domesticated sheep are interfertile (Strittmatter, 2003).
The Asian and European Mouflon were found in Europe and West Asia and are known as
the ancestors of many sheep breeds. The Urial sheep were found in the north up to the
Caspian Sea, in the east to Cashmere and in the south to the Oman. Characteristics of the

wild ancestors that can be traced to modern breeds and that allow the differentiation of
later breeds are horns in both sexes, and a short tail. In comparison to the Mouflon, the
Urial are taller and longer with almost round horns in adult rams and have a tail with 8-10
more vertebrae (Strittmatter, 2003).
Sheep are believed to have been domesticated about 9000 - 7500 BC with the original
centre of domestication in the Aralo-Caspian steppe (Zeuner, 1963). A second centre
probably came up around 7000 - 6000 BC in Greece and East Europe (Ludwig, 1997).
However, the origin is not fully clear. The first breeding steps after domestication resulted
in sheep with a high genetic variability seen particularly in coat colour, but also in horn
shape, fleece architecture and other visible traits. With at least 1,747 known sheep breeds
in the world, domesticated sheep, compared to their wild ancestors, are characterised by an
impressive diversity (DAD-IS, 2004). This diversification has been driven by factors
affecting breed formation, the occurrence of the characteristic wool fleece, the occurrence
of the fat tail and in particular the adaptation to a very broad range of environmental
conditions when sheep spread all over the world (Haring, 1984).
Among all domestic animals, sheep show the strongest relation to their production
environment which is reflected by the great diversity of sheep breeds. Their ancestry, their
local environment and the purpose of their keeping led to the diversification - for example
the development of fat-tail or milk sheep. Sheep are generally bred for wool, meat, fat, fur,
skin, and milk and are in general at least dual-purpose breeds. Table 2 below summarises
the classification of the two breeds respectively breed groups at focus, the fine wool sheep
and tropical hair sheep, according to production environment and purpose. Both stem from
long tailed Urial sheep.
Table 2: Characteristics of the Merino breed and tropical hair sheep breeds according to
production environment, purpose and regions of dissemination
Breed group Production
environment
Production purpose Main regions
Tropical hair sheep Hot-humid
environments with
severe production
constraints
Meat production, skin
as side-product
West Africa, Southeast
Asia, The Americas
Fine wool sheep Continental pastures
with uniform
distribution of rainfall
and constant fodder
supply
Wool production,
additionally meat
Australia, South
Africa, South
America, continental
Europe
Sheep were domesticated just as their wild ancestors developed a double coat, with a short
hair coat of kemp fibres and frequently grown and shed underwool fibres. Domesticated
sheep breeds with this original double coat are referred to as hair sheep. The first
primitive wool sheep with increasingly uniform coat composition go back to the 6th
millennium BC in the East Iran. These developed from the original double coat sheep with
primary follicles producing kemp fibres and secondary follicles producing extremely fine
underwool and exhibiting seasonal growth and shedding processes, to a uniform wool
sheep with continuously growing wool fleece uniformly produced from primary and
secondary follicles. This process seems to have been going on for some thousands of years
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SHEEP GENE FLOW 197

during which the primary follicle changed from producing kemp fibres to wool fibres, and
the seasonal growth and shedding of the undercoat changed to a continuous growth
requiring shearing. This lead to increasingly uniform fibres within the coat and increased
the amount of wool harvested. The consequence of this ongoing process is the known great
variety of wool sheep breeds with differing fleece composition and characteristics.
Such mutations must have occurred in descendants of both the Mouflon and the Urial
sheep, which explains the existence of short and long tailed wool sheep with different
fleece characteristics (Epstein, 1971; Haring, 1984; Ryder, 1984; Schfer, 1998;
Strittmatter, 2003). Henseler (1944) supposed that the occurrence of uniform-fine-wool
sheep depended on further mutations of coarse woollen descendants of the Urial. When
man discovered that wool fleeces could be used to produce fabrics of high quality, sheep in
the Middle East lost genetic originality. This resulted in marginalised traditional
populations of sheep at least partially standardised woolly and white sheep (Lauvergne,
1990). The preferential dissemination of fine woollen sheep increased fineness, but also
replaced local stock with fine wool sheep where the environment was suitable for fine
wool sheep. The fine wool sheep of early extreme quality that was bred in Phrygian in the
7th and 8th century BC to produce the Milet-Tuch was carefully prevented from spreading
to maintain a monopoly. How the first breeding animals, later referred to as Merino,
occurred in the Iberian Peninsula is not known. However, due to trading connections
between the Orient and Spain, it became a centre of sheep breeding in the following
centuries. From Spain, these Merinos began their triumphal distribution to France,
Germany, Australia, Africa, South America, and the rest of the world (Ryder, 1984;
Haring, 1984). Today the Merino breed includes fine, medium, and strong wool strains.
However, wool-bearing sheep were initially only of interest in climates where the
additional value of wool was seen in the insulation purpose, mainly to make human
clothing. On the other hand, in hot and humid climates large amounts of wool is a major
disadvantage for sheep. Therefore, in tropical environments wool breeds did not
successfully replace breeds with hair coats. This hair coat is often regarded as primitive
due to its early appearance in domestication, but really it can be regarded as the result of
thousands of years of adaptation of these hair sheep breeds to their extreme production
environments in which other sheep breeds do not often survive (Schfer, 1998).
Figure 1 summarises the formation of domestic sheep breeds with the two extreme coat
characteristics, the double coated hair sheep on one hand and the uniform fine wool sheep
on the other.

Figure 1: Development of fine wool sheep with uniform fleece composition in
comparison to double coated hair sheep breeds, from domestication to
dissemination of Iberian Merino
Mouflon and Urial
hair sheep
primitive wool sheep
(development towards uniform
wool fleece started)
6
th
millennium in East Iran
hair sheep breeds
wool sheep with
mixed fleece
composition
fine wool sheep
(uniformity of wool fleece
achieved)
3000 BC in Sumerian and
Phoenician
extreme fine wool
sheep
(increased fineness of wool)
7
th
and 8
th
century BC in
Phrygia
Iberian Merino sheep with mixed
fleece composition
hair sheep
mutation
preferential
dissemination of wooly
and white sheep
preferential dissemination
of sheep with uniform wool
fleece
prevention of free
dissemination
domestication
9000-7500 BC in Arab-Caspian Steppe
7000-6000 BC in Greece and East Europe
partial replacement in
suitable environments
development
Mouflon and Urial
hair sheep
primitive wool sheep
(development towards uniform
wool fleece started)
6
th
millennium in East Iran
hair sheep breeds
wool sheep with
mixed fleece
composition
fine wool sheep
(uniformity of wool fleece
achieved)
3000 BC in Sumerian and
Phoenician
extreme fine wool
sheep
(increased fineness of wool)
7
th
and 8
th
century BC in
Phrygia
Iberian Merino sheep with mixed
fleece composition
hair sheep
mutation
preferential
dissemination of wooly
and white sheep
preferential dissemination
of sheep with uniform wool
fleece
prevention of free
dissemination
domestication
9000-7500 BC in Arab-Caspian Steppe
7000-6000 BC in Greece and East Europe
partial replacement in
suitable environments
development

2.2 Influence of human migration on transfer of animals
The biggest catalyst of gene flow after domestication were tribal migrations during the
Neolithic transition, taking along their domesticated animals. At that time, sheep were
generally hair sheep. Mutations towards uniform wool fleeces took place only after the first
migrations and can be regarded as regional developments. Sheep with favourable
characteristics were traded and replaced breeds in other regions.
The migration of people and livestock has not generally been in one continuous direction.
In most regions there has been fairly constant trade in livestock from one community to the

next throughout human history, modifying every population through a gradual inflow of
genes (Henson, 1992). Therefore, the influence of dissemination based on migration
compared to that based on trading favourable breeding animals cannot always be clearly
distinguished.
Through human migrations during the Neolithic period, sheep spread from the centre of
domestication into what is now Iran, eastwards into the Indian subcontinent and Southeast
Asia, westwards into western Asia and on into Europe and Africa.
2.2.1 Europe
In Europe the original hair sheep were eventually replaced by wool-bearing sheep once
they had developed, due to their great importance in producing insulating fabrics. How the
first fine wool sheep occurred in Europe, namely in Greece, Italy and Spain is not
known. Some essayists suggest the breeds ancestry was the Caspian area, and that they
came with human migrations to the Iberian Peninsula across the Mediterranean Sea. It may
be that the Iberians brought them with them on their way from the Caucasus to Spain.
It is accepted that the fine wool breed, later referred to as Merino, was created in the
southern Iberian Peninsula, precisely in the area in which nowadays the main nucleus is
located (Baraja, 2002). Here, the Merino breed stayed isolated from the rest of the world
until the end of the 18th century and exclusively exploited the potential of the Merino
breed for producing fine wool by forbidding Merino sheep exportation (Baraja, 2002).
After the Arabs brought Islam to Spain, the trading connections to the Orient made Spain a
centre of sheep breeding. Countries across the whole world became interested in the
development of this fine wool breed. The enormous demand for Merino breeding
animals was satisfied in the last quarter of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th
century. The breed spread along different countries into western and eastern Europe.
Where it found a continental environment suitable for its management and development, it
began its triumphal distribution (Haring, 1984). In western Europe, mainly France,
Germany, Austria, and Italy, important Merino flocks were developed. In eastern Europe,
the Merino breed gained importance in Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary.
Countries with more maritime climates, such as Holland, Great Britain and Scandinavia,
proved unsuitable for the breed. Figure 2 summarises the most important aspects of the
spread of the Merino breed after the fall of the Spanish monopoly. More detailed
information on national developments of the breed can be found in Annex 9.1 A 2.


Figure 2: Spread of the Merino breed after fall of the Spanish Merino monopoly
Austria
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
Hungary
Canada/USA
New Zealand
Australia
South Africa
Uruguay
Argentina
North
America
South
America
Africa
Europe
Oceania
1850
1864
1869
1786
1863
1797
1873
1773
1774
1765
1786
1784
1786
1867
1897
Austria
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
Hungary
Canada/USA
New Zealand
Australia
South Africa
Uruguay
Argentina
North
America
South
America
Africa
Europe
Oceania
1850
1864
1869
1786
1863
1797
1873
1773
1774
1765
1786
1784
1786
1867
1897

Source: own elaboration, data from Haring (1984)
Where Merino wool sheep were imported, the breed was usually established nationally by
crossbreeding it with local indigenous breeds. The sustainable establishment was often
based on follow-up imports of purebred stock. Additionally, purebred nucleus flocks were
started from which dissemination took place. Germany, Austria, and France - as well as
Spain - founded Merino breeds which later gained important genetic influence on breeds
around the world. One outstanding example is the Rambouillet breed in France, created by
crossbreeding Spanish Merino rams with local indigenous ewes (Annex 9.1 A 2). With the
increasing importance of mutton production, beside the Rambouillet-Merino, the dual-
purpose Merino Precoce was developed with two types, the Merino Chatillon and
Soissons. Both types influenced the development of the German Mutton Merino
sustainably whose influence went beyond regional importance (Haring, 1984).
2.2.2 Africa
A great variety of sheep breeds exist in Africa, developed by differentiation from the hair
sheep breeds indigenous to Africa since Neolithic times, and also through the later arrival
of mostly wool breeds. Remains of domestic sheep (and goats) have been found dating
4800 BC (Payne and Hodges, 1997).
Around the Sahara, the African Long-legged type predominates, which were probably
introduced by Hamitic pastoralists from western Asia. The two separate African groups of
thin-tailed hair sheep (the larger Savannah type and the smaller Forest type) may have
developed from the same source by natural and man-assisted selection in their two widely
different environments (Payne and Wilson, 1999).
The fat-tailed coarse wool sheep appear to have been introduced into Africa some 3,000
years after the thin-tailed hairy breeds, probably via the Isthmus of Suez and the Straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb at the northern and southern end of the Red Sea. These fat-tail coarse

woollen sheep replaced thin-tailed hairy sheep in Egypt and in what is now Libya and
Tunisia. Those entering what is now Somalia and East Africa were eventually taken by
their migrating owners to the far south of Africa, and their descendants are the present fat-
tailed breeds of Northeast, East, Central and South Africa.
The origin of the fat-rumped breeds remains unknown but they occur in two separated and
ecologically different regions, which are, on the one hand Northeast Africa, East Africa,
the Indian Ocean and Red Sea littorals of the Arabian Peninsula; and on the other hand
Central Asia. In South Africa, breeds for the harsher areas developed from the fat-rumped
sheep of Somali-Arabian origin, which were introduced into the Cape Province of South
Africa during the 19th century and were quickly improved to form the breed known as the
Blackhead Persian (Payne and Wilson, 1999). From here it has also spread to other parts of
South Africa and farther north, notably to Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, and even Ghana
(Gatenby, 1986). It has been used for crossbreeding, and the best known result is the
Dorper synthetic breed. The Dorper breed was developed in the Grootfontein area of South
Africa from 1942 onwards by crossing Dorset Horn males with Blackhead Persian females.
A fixed type was developed through inter-se mating. A breed society was established in
1950 in the Republic of South Africa. The Dorsian, a white variety, was affiliated to the
Dorper in 1964. Some specialisation for different functions and markets is taking place.
The Blackhead Persian is used in a variety of other crosses, which have characteristics
similar to the Dorper (Wilson, 1991). But Blackhead Persians have also been introduced to
Central and South America for crossbreeding purposes (Wilson, 1991).
2.2.3 Asia
In Asia, a variety of sheep breeds exist which are derived from the hairy breeds that arrived
in Asia with migratory tribes. The influence of wool breeds must come from later
migratory events.
Fat-tailed breeds with unknown coat characteristics thrive in the drier regions of northern
India. Farther south fat-tailed and thin-tailed wool types were found which are gradually
being replaced by thin-tailed hairy breeds. The humid regions of Southeast Asia have few
sheep breeds but most are small hairy types. Exceptions are a fat-tailed type of Western
Asia, possibly from India, and a poor wool sheep breed from crossing the indigenous hair
type with wool sheep from Australia or South Africa. The poor coarse wool sheep of
southern Thailand and Malaysia appear to have originated from crosses between woollen
Chinese sheep, taken south by Thai and other peoples, and the native hairy sheep of the
region (Payne and Wilson, 1999).
In China alone, a great variety of breeds is found. The authors do not know when the
Merino breed arrived in China but it has became the most numerous and the nation now
has the worlds largest sheep population.
2.2.4 The Americas
There are no domesticated sheep truly indigenous to the Americas. There have been two
migratory events that have brought domestic sheep to Central America and the Caribbean.
Firstly, the sheep type generally known today as Criollo type arrived with early settlers
from Spain and Portugal in the 16th century. These were wool sheep, but under tropical
conditions much of the fleece has been lost or reduced.

A second source was hair sheep from Africa. These gave rise to most of the truly woolless
sheep of the area, established in the humid tropical areas where the Iberian sheep had never
become acclimatised. The hair sheep in the Americas that are of African origin came from
countries between Nigeria and Angola in West Africa during the slave trade during the
17th and 18th century. It is supposed that two types of thin-tailed sheep came to the
Americas. One, without mane, probably came from savannah zones. The other type of
thin-tailed sheep, which gave origin to the hair sheep carrying a mane and throat ruff,
probably came from the Djallonke of Cameroon (Shelton and Figueiredo, 1990; Fitzhugh
and Bradford, 1983). Hair sheep populations are found on many Caribbean islands, in
Central and South American countries around the Caribbean basin, and in north-eastern
Brazil. Both Barbados and the Virgin Islands have exported hair sheep to the United States
(Fitzhugh and Bradford, 1983). Studies on the genetic relationship of hair sheep breeds of
the Americas by Muigai et al. (2002) however suggested genetic influence of different
origins. The study indicated that the major genetic influence in three American hair sheep
populations (Barbados Blackbelly, St. Croix, and Gulf Coast Native) is likely European
and may have originated from crossbreeding with Merino breeds.
As the chronologically youngest source, most of the traditional breeds of wool sheep of
European origin have been introduced to tropical Americas. In a few cases, these are used
as a basis of commercial programmes of limited scope, but for the most part these sheep
have not persisted and are of no importance in tropical regions. But they may have
contributed genes to some of the present strains (Shelton and Figueiredo, 1990) as
supported by the findings of Muigai et al. (2002).
Merinos were introduced to South America by the early 19th century. In countries with
cold and dry highlands, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, Brazil and Chile, the
Merino quickly gained importance. In Argentina for example, the Merino breed became
the dominant breed (Shelton and Figueiredo, 1990).
2.2.5 Oceania
Domestic sheep in Australia arrived with the First Fleet in 1788 and were fat-tailed sheep.
However, the sheep industry in Australia is based largely on the Australian Merino, which
goes back to the Spanish Merino arriving in 1797 from the Cape Colony. Initially, the
expansion was along the green pasture belt along the coastline. However, when the wool
industry - due to its outstanding wool quality - grew, the traditional pasture was used up.
The most significant development occurred when these pioneering breeders broke away
from the coastal line and moved their flocks into the drier, harsher inland country that
under normal circumstances would not have been considered suitable for the fine wool that
the industry aimed to produce (Padbury, 2002).
The first sheep in New Zealand were landed by Captain Cook in 1773, also of the Merino
breed. However, only when the gold fever from the 1860s to the 1880s drew thousands of
prospectors to New Zealand did large sheep farms began to be established on land cleared
from the native forests. Many Australian squatters came over to lease large areas for their
flocks. Thousands of sheep, predominantly Merino, were shipped from Australia. This
period is known as the wool period. However, sheep scarp came with the Australian flocks
in the 1860s, killing thousands of sheep. The Merino breed today makes up only a small
portion of the New Zealand breeds. However, it is the only breed to thrive on the high
altitude pastures of native grass (New Zealand Merino Breeders Association, 2005).

2.3 Influence of breeding in further development and spread of breeds
Three apparent steps of breeding can be distinguished: spontaneous mating, planned
mating and planned mating plus selection or crossbreeding programs.
Breeding aims at developing individuals and populations with improved characteristics.
Whenever an improvement is achieved which goes beyond national importance, gene flow
may start. As certain breeding approaches are younger than others, the examples given
below partially overlap with the information assembled in chapter 3.2 on indicators of
current status of gene flow, and repetitions occur.
2.3.1 Influence of breeding on development and spread of the Merino breed
The Merino breed provides an excellent example of how breeding influences the
development and spread of a breed with international importance can be exemplary
depicted for the Merino breed.
When the Merino was first exported from Spain at the end of the 18th century, they were
generally crossbred with local breeds in the destination country to improve wool quantity
and quality. Where the breed found an environment suitable for its management and
development, distinct breeds developed, adapted to the specific local conditions. Due to the
exceptional importance of fine wool production at that time, Merinos were generally bred
for wool production for garments and the breeding goals were to improve quantity and
quality. In many countries, the Merino breeds kept their landrace character as they were
kept under most extensive management in regions with extremely specific conditions. It
was therefore important to combine the specific adaptation of the local landrace with the
improved production traits of the Merino. This way, the successful distribution of the
Merino breed was possible, being able to equally produce on continental pastures with
uniform distribution of rainfall and constant fodder supply, on drier and harsher inland
countries such as Australia and South Africa, and on the high altitudes of some South
American countries.
Soon after World War II, fine wool sheep breeding and activities related to managing
Merinos came under severe economic pressure when the use of wool fibre substitutes in
fabrics and the development of artificial fibres influenced the world wool market in such a
negative way that the wool prices dropped drastically. The only solution was a quick
orientation towards meat production world wide. Wool value, which still makes up the
largest part of the profits from Merino sheep productions, has been falling ever since.
Again, there were two ways to improve meat production from Merino sheep, selection or
crossbreeding.
France for example had already seen in 1860 a wool price reduction of two thirds and a
meat price increase of one third (Haring, 1984). It pioneered the breeding goal of adapting
their fine wool breed to an intensive dual-purpose breed, and developed an early maturing
Merino Precoce with two types, the Merino Chatillonais and the Merino Soissonnais. Two
decades later, Germany developed their mutton type by crossbreeding with these two meat-
types. The German Mutton Merino were very successful and as a result it was recognised
that with this breed, fine wool could indeed be produced by meat sheep (Haring, 1984). In
Spains Merino production, for example, todays profit from wool has reached a low of
about 2% of the whole production (Baraja, 2002).

In Hungary, Merino sheep have been raised since the middle of the 1700s. The predecessor
of the modern Hungarian Merino sheep, the Combing Merino, emerged from
crossbreeding the Electoral-Negretti Merino with the local breeds by the 1920-30s. This
cross was subsequently upgraded using Rambouillet and German mutton breeds. The
heterogeneity of Hungarian Combing Merino was further increased by upgrading with
Soviet Merino breeds. These included sheep from the Caucasus, Stavropol, Groznyy, and
most of all Askania. From the 1960s onwards meat purpose breeding also got underway,
first with Merino Precoce from France and with German Mutton Merino, both from East
and West Germany. During the 1970-80s the Hungarian Combing Merino was further
improved by crossing with the long-wool Kent and Corriedale breeds, with Australian
Merinos to improve wool quality and with Booroola Merino to increase reproduction rates.
In order to standardise the Hungarian Merino Breed, a new flock book for the Hungarian
Merino was established in 1993. Meanwhile, sub-breeds were excluded from breeding.
And following the introduction of the Animal Breeding Law, offspring from crossings with
another breed can be re-entered into the main part of the flock book after four generations
(Fss et al., 2002).
In China, the Merino breed arrived a long time ago and was crossed with local breeds. The
most numerous cross is the Xianjiang Merino, a composite of Caucasian, Precoce, Hazake,
and Mongolian, which is known for its good quality meat and wool. The northeast Chinese
Merino has been bred more towards meat as a composite of Rambouillet, Corriedale, and
Mongolian with top quality fleece and meat. The Mongolian or Mongol Merino or China
fat-tailed is a composite of the Soviet Merino and the Caucasian. Due to its fat-tail it is
well adapted to harsh environments with sudden changes. The north-western Chinese
Merino is a composite of Caucasian and Xinjiang Merino x Mongolia Tibetan, which, also
known as Gansu Alpine Fine Wool sheep, is characterised by its exceptional fine wool
(DAD-IS, 2004). In the 1950s, China imported about 20,000 German Mutton Merino from
the former East Germany. In the 1990s further imports followed (Schmidt, 1995). From
these imports it can be concluded that Chinas Merino breeding goals are switching from
wool to meat production.
The Australian Merino provides a unique example of top level sheep breeding with an
industrial structure, which allows the implementation of intensive selection schemes. The
advantage for genetic improvement is achieved in elite ram breeding nuclei of an open
nucleus system - also referred to as centres of genetic improvement - and transferred to
commercial flocks. An elite flock of 2,000 breeding ewes can provide sufficient rams to
commercial flocks totalling about 100,000 breeding ewes. In other words, the effect of
selection in the elite flock is magnified by a factor of 50 in the industry. The logic behind
this structure lies in the concentration of superior animals (and thus genes) in the upper tier
of the hierarchy. The genes in the upper tier are multiplied and reach the base of
commercial flocks via the transfer of rams (Ponzoni, 1992).
In Australia, years of breeding work led to the evolution of different strains suitable for
varying climates and pastures. The most important one is the Peppin Merino for which it
seems clear that Merinos of French and Spanish origin were introduced. 70% of todays
Australian Merino are said to be directly descended from the Peppin. It is known for its
large frame and its heavy fleece in the midrange of Merino wool qualities and was
developed for the temperate climates of the country. The South Australian Merino were
specifically bred to provide an economic return from wool under arid pastoral conditions.

It is physically the largest of the Merino strains and less wrinkled than other strains of the
country. The fleece is at the strongest end of the range of Merino wool types. The Saxon
Merino are found exclusively in the higher rainfall areas of Australia and physically
contrasts with the South Australian Merino. It is the smallest Merino type, cutting lowest
wool weights but it is without peer in the quality of wool. The wool is extremely white and
bright, soft and fine. Additionally, there is a Fine Wool type. It is distinguished by a small
to medium-sized but compact frame and produces a soft, bright coloured dense fleece
(Handbook of Australian Livestock, Australian Meat and Livestock Corporation, 1989).
Early last century, larger plainer bodied sheep began to replace the wrinkled type that had
been popular previously. Two centuries of skilled breeding has developed the Merino
amazingly. It now produces far more meat and much better wool than its forebears. In
1800, the average wool cut of a pure blood Spanish Merino was less than 2 kg of wool.
Today, most of the ewes in the Merino studs in Australia produce more than 7 kg. At the
same time, the Australian Merino has adapted to dozens of different environments; from
the high rainfall pastures of Tasmania to the drier harsher almost semi-desert areas of
inland Australia (Padbury, 2002).
The former USSR is a striking example where numerous sheep breeds have been formed
by crossing imported and national sheep breeds. Crossbreeding programmes have been
started to form new breeds combining the genotypes of high producing breeds and the
characteristics of the local populations such as strong constitution, hardiness and
adaptation to mountainous environments. For example, the Merino breed has influenced
Russias fine wool sheep. Table 3 summarises the different fine wool breeds and their
genetic basis of formation.

Table 3: Fine wool breeds of Russia and their formation basis
Fine wool breeds Formation basis
1. Wool breeds
Grozny Purebred Australian Merino, in addition Australian Merino rams x
Novocaucasian and Mazaev Merino ewes (local Merinos)
Salsk American Rambouillet rams x local Merino ewes
Stavropol Interse mating of the local Merinos, additionally crossing with
American Rambouillet
2. Wool-mutton type
Altai (earlier Siberian
Rambouillet)
Based on local Merinos brought to Siberia from the North Caucasus,
mated to American Rambouillet rams, later crossing with Australian
Merino
Askanian Local Merino ewes mated to American Rambouillet rams, selection and
infusion of small quantities of Precoce blood
Caucasian Improved local Merino ewes crossed with American Rambouillet and
Askanian rams
Kirgiz Finewool Coarse-wooled fat-rumped ewes crossed with finewool rams, first of the
local Novocaucasian and Siberian Merino breed and then of the Precoce
and the Wurttemberg (Merino Landschaf) from Germany; following
inter se mating and mating to rams of the Caucasian, Altai, Stavropol,
Askanian and particularly Grozny type
Krasnoyarsk Finewool Based on local Merinos from the North Caucasus and American
Rambouillet ewes and rams; further crossbreeding with Precoce from
Germany; later crossbreeding with Askanian and Grozny rams
North Kazakh Merino Crossbreeding coarse-wooled fat-ramped ewes with Novocaucasian
Merino, Rambouillet and Precoce, subsequent crossing with Altai,
Askanian and Grozny rams
South Kazakh Merino Crossbreeding fat-rumped ewes with Novocaucasian and Soviet Merino
rams, then to Caucasian, Grozny, and Stavropol breeds, additionally
crossbreeding with small numbers of Altai and Askanian
Soviet Merino (varieties
North Caucasian and
Siberian)
Crossbreeding local coarse-wool sheep from various parts of the country
with finewool rams of different breeds: initially American Rambouillet
and Australian Merino, later Caucasian, Stavropol, Grozny, and Altai
Trans-Baikal Finewool Based on Mongolian and Buryat coarse-wooled fat-tailed sheep
unsuccessfully crossbred with Electoral and Infantado sheep, later
Precoce, Novocaucasian and Siberian Merinos were brought in,
subsequent crossbreeding with Precoce, Altai, and Grozny rams
3. Mutton-wool type
Georgian Fat-tailed
Finewool
Crossbreeding local Tushin ewes with Soviet Merino rams; subsequent
crossbreeding with Caucasian rams
Kazakh Arkhar-Merino Inseminating Novocaucasian ewes with Arkhar rams; crossbred rams
were crossbred with Precoce and Rambouillet ewes;
Kazakh Finewool Crossbreeding selected fine-wooled fat-rumped ewes with American
Rambouillet rams
Volgograd Crossbreeding fat-rumped ewes to Precoce rams; further crossbreeding
with Caucasian and Grozny rams
Source: adapted from Dmitriev and Ernst (1989)

2.3.2 Influence of breeding in development and spread of other temperate breeds
Apart from the focus of this global study on the Merino breed, other breeds developed
which are of major regional and global importance. In particular British breeds, developed
through the early efforts of the British breed societies, have influenced the whole New
World. Suffolk, Lincoln, Romney Marsh, Corriedale, Poll Dorset, Border Leicester,
Scottish Blackface, and many others are reported to have been transferred to many other
countries across the world and have impacted national population compositions in different
ways.
The Ile de France, Charolais, and Texel and breeds from Russia are other European breeds
whose historic and current global spread is evident. Scherf (2000) reports in The World
Watch List published by the FAO based on figures from 1999, that Europe held 17.5% of
the worlds sheep population but 47.9% of the worlds known sheep breeds. These figures
reflect the effective breeding work in Europe and the subsequent influence of these breeds
globally.
Greece, Italy, Spain and France have large populations of milk sheep. An ICAR report on
Dairy Sheep 2004 (Astruc et al. 2004) documents intensive purebreeding efforts on
developing milk sheep breeds with countries having above 30% of recorded females under
official milk recording. Looking at breed level, the East Frisian Milk sheep from Germany,
the Lacaune from France, and the Awassi respectively Assaf breed from Israel have spread
beyond national importance.
2.3.3 Influence of breeding in development and spread of breeds in developing
countries
In general, in developing countries spontaneous mating is widely spread among sheep.
Breeding work faces many challenges to introducing planned mating and selection or
crossbreeding programmes. Subjective selection criteria often replace objectively obtained
and economically assessed selection criteria.
Examples of selection programs based on objectively measurable and repeatable traits are
generally rare in the tropical and subtropical regions. The Karakul breeding program in
Namibia was one example where selection based on performance testing of an objectively
measurable lamb coat trait was very successful (Horst and Reh, 1999) and generated
international demand for the breeding material. Improving milk production through
selection based on performance testing of objectively measurable repeatable traits was
another example. However, due to the high level of organisation required, such
performance testing is only found in countries with advanced breeding organisation such as
Israel and some South European countries.
Introducing improved European meat breeds was initially regarded as the key to improving
meat production in developing regions of the tropics and subtropics. Examples were
numerous but usually barely successful (Horst and Reh, 1999). In general, the lack of
adaptability to the constraints of local production systems, namely to high ambient
temperatures, restricted availability of water and fodder, and susceptibility to local diseases
does not allow the exotic breeds to make the most of their productive potential and
outperform the indigenous breeds. For example, Horst and Reh (1999) compiled
information on the reproductive performance of exotic breeds in subtropical production

environments, and they state that adapting the breeding season of exotic breeds was a
major problem. Therefore, establishing purebred flocks of these imported breeds in the
tropics and subtropics was rare and restricted to the edges of these regions. However, these
purebred flocks are essential to produce F1-ewes or lamb end products.
Alternatively, combination crossing can be used where a breeding scheme can be
successfully carried out. The most important example is the development of the synthetic
Dorper breed which combines the adaptability of the Blackhead Persian to the hot
environment on the ewe side, and the growth performance of the Dorset breed on the sire
side. Horst and Reh (1999) stated that the Dorper breed was the most important meat breed
in the extensive production systems of South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Kenya.
Some specialisation for different functions and markets has taken place. A detailed
description of the history of the Dorper sheep was presented by Milne (2000) and de Waal
and Combrinck (2000). The Blackhead Persian is used in a variety of other crosses, which
have characteristics similar to the Dorper (Wilson, 1991). In producing a new breed, the
initial crossings must be on a large enough scale (using at least ten rams) to avoid the
deleterious effects of inbreeding. The characteristic of this breeding strategy is that gene
flow takes place several generations before the new breed has been established (Gatenby,
1986).
An example for the successful three-way crossing including an exotic breed from a
temperate climate in a subtropical environment is the Assaf breed in Israel, where East
Frisian Milksheep were crossed with Improved Awassi sheep. Details are given in the case
study.
Information on the global formation of composite breeds is compiled by Shrestha (2005).
He stated that in the past centuries, more than 443 composite breed populations of sheep
have been developed in 68 countries of the world. Details of many composite breeds world
wide including country of formation, composite breed name, number of foundation breeds,
and year of origin were given (Annex 9.1 A 4). According to the author, they all derived
from two or more distinct populations. The breeds chosen world wide for potential genetic
merit were the Dorset, Suffolk and Texel for meat, the Finnish Landrace, Romanov and
Booroola for fecundity, the Merino and Rambouillet for wool, the Karakul for fur, and the
Awassi and East Frisian for milk. For North America, Shrestha (2005) illustrated the
influences of different breeds at different times in developing composite breeds. In the
1960s, the Finnish Landrace had been identified as having considerable potential to
improve reproduction of the sheep breeds established in the USA. The Polypay breed was
developed by reciprocal crossing between the Dorset x Targhee breed and the Finnish
Landrace x Rambouillet in the 1970s and inter se mating of the four breed cross. Canada
imported the East Friesian, Finnish Landrace and Ile de France breeds from continental
Europe and assembled these breeds with the Corriedale, Dorset, Leicester, Lincoln, North
Country Cheviot, Romnelet, Shropshire, Southdown and Suffolk breeds established in
North America to develop multi-breed synthetic populations. In 1972, the genetic base of
the newly formed population was closed to any further introduction of new breeding
material. 20 years of selection followed leading to the development of one meat-type
terminal sire breed, the Canadian Arcott, and two fecund-type dam breeds, the Outaouais
and Rideau Arcott.

However, introducing exotic breeds from temperate climates into the tropics and subtropics
is usually unnecessary (Horst and Reh, 1999). Indigenous breeds have also been spread
based on their improved traits.
The Improved Awassi sheep from Israel is an outstanding example where through selection
in purebreeding of the Awassi an improvement was achieved, and gene flow started as the
breed gained importance in several countries of the Middle East (Iraq, Syria, Lebanon,
Jordan, and Israel) (Horst and Reh, 1999). Details are given in the case study.
An example for systematic crossbreeding in sheep, recorded in scientific literature, is the
introduction of Blackhead Persian and Dorper rams into Maassai flocks in East Africa
(King et al., 1984 according to Gatenby, 1986).
The prolific Chios breed, found in Greece and West Turkey has been used in intensively
managed milk production system for purebreeding and crossbreeding purposes in the
Aegean region (Horst and Reh, 1999).
The remarkable adaptability and reproductive performance of the Blackhead Persian in
subtropical production environments has led to the spread of the breed to many African
countries and to South America for purebreeding and crossbreeding purposes (Horst and
Reh, 1999).
Oya (1992) gives an example of a successful sheep improvement program for Djallonke
sheep in Ivory Coast. In addition to the 10,000 ewes in the nucleus flock, the project
monitors from 10,000-11,000 ewes in other flocks. On request, selected genetic materials
in the form of rams, ewes, and fresh semen, were supplied to Togo.
Hair sheep of West African and Central American origin have been used to improve West
Malaysian and Sumatran wool breeds through crossbreeding, making use of the
introduction of the hair coat and the reproductive performance of the hair sheep breeds
(Gatenby et al., 1997a; 1997b; Gatenby et al., 1994; Gatenby, 1986; Schfer, 1998). Horst
and Reh (1999) stated that the Barbados Blackbelly breed, a hair sheep breed from Central
America, has gained international interest due to their remarkable reproductive
performance.
material
Artificial insemination is less successful in sheep than in cattle. It requires capital-intensive
production systems and is therefore not widespread where sheep are maintained on
extensive systems and receive little individual attention. In the former USSR and former
GDR, where flocks were run on collective and state farms, AI was widely practised but it
collapsed for cost reasons after the economic changes.
In general, AI in sheep has had an important impact in schemes where the use of fresh
semen is practical, such as todays dairy sheep breeding programmes. According to the
ICAR report of the working group on milk recording in sheep, in France 154,000 doses of
fresh semen per year were used in 2001 alone in the breeding scheme of the Lacaune with
458 AI progeny tested rams per year. Italy and Spain also use AI with around 20,000 doses
per year in their dairy sheep breeding schemes. (For further details see Annex 9.1 A 5.)
Furthermore, the strategic use of laparoscopic intra-uterine AI of frozen semen, and in
some cases cervical AI, to create genetic links across flocks, is central to the success of
210 CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF SHEEP GENE FLOW

sheep sire referencing schemes. There is no doubt that new techniques, which produce high
conception rates and use less invasive insemination methods than laparoscopy, could have
a major impact on the dissemination of genetic improvement in the sheep industries of
many countries (Simm, 1998).
To describe the current status of gene flow, the transfer routes of breeding materials
needed to be identified and their impact assessed. The treatment envisaged was to analyse
selected export and import data of breeding stock and semen, supplemented by the analysis
of indicators of gene flow. Two indicators were investigated: the changes in national breed
compositions and the influence of foreign genetic material in existing sheep breeds.
During the process it became evident that this claim faced many limitations. Compiled
export and import data on breeding material were only available for EU-15 countries in the
form of the Eurostat statistic database. A distinction at breed level was not made which
limited specific conclusions on gene flow significantly. To gain export and import data
beyond this European database, national contacts were searched for. The FAO-based
DAD-IS was used to identify national experts. More data was sourced from national
breeding associations via their websites. Altogether, six associations and 21 experts from
12 countries were contacted.
Only three useful contributions were returned, very little compared to the effort made. In
many cases, no reply was received at all. In other cases, the information was not available
or not freely made accessible. Against this background, extracting information from
publications and in particular from the Country Reports gained importance. To obtain a
regional balance, country reports from ten countries were used: Poland, Russia, Bulgaria
and Romania for Eastern Europe, North America, Canada, Paraguay, and Uruguay for The
Americas, Australia for Oceania and China for Asia. However, these sources should not be
relied on totally as the procedure is very time consuming and the results remain
fragmentary. Concrete figures on breeding material exports and imports were rarely found.
However, the reports contained valuable gene flow information where foreign genetic
material was introduced.
3.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import
3.1.1 EU-15 countries
In the EU-15 countries the sheep population accounted for 100 million head in 2003
according to FAO statistic database. The population trend has followed the profitability of
sheep production during the last decades. It was considered stable until the end of the
1900s however it has decreased ever since due to the decline of profitability. The
distribution of sheep within the EU-15 countries as depicted in Table 4 for the year 2003
show that the United Kingdom accounted for one third of the overall sheep population,
followed by Spain, France, Greece, and Italy.
CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF SHEEP GENE FLOW 211

Table 4: Distribution of sheep population in the EU-15 countries including export and
import of breeding animals in 2003
EU-15 countries Sheep population
(head)
Breeding sheep
export (head)
Breeding sheep
import (head)
United Kingdom 35,700,000 7 24
Spain 23,800,000 57,491 3,154
France 9,200,000 1,592 -
Greece 8,900,000 - 6,161
Italy 7,900,000 - 2,373
Portugal 5,500,000 2,498 -
Ireland 4,800,000 - -
Germany 2,700,000 415 119
Netherlands 1,200,000 6 -
Sweden 448,000 - -
Austria 304,000 40 37
Belgium 146,000 73 1,069
Denmark 143,000 - -
Finland 67,400 - -
Luxemburg 9,000 - -
The Eurostat statistics available provide insights into the scope and development of
European exchange of purebred breeding sheep (Figure 3). Exchange among EU-15
countries was much higher than exchange with other European countries, which ranged
from 2.4% to 9.5% of total exports over the years.
The main exporter was Spain, which has dominated exports since 1997. In 2003, Spain
accounted for 92.5% of the exports of purebred sheep from EU-15 countries. Main
destination countries were Portugal (68.8%), Italy (14.4%), Greece (12.6%), and France
(4.2%). France and Germany traded more breeding stock with European countries outside
the EU-15 territory. Exports to these countries often exceeded that among EU-15 countries
but figures vary greatly between years. Export destinations during the last decade were
mainly the Balkan region. France further exported sheep to Switzerland, Turkey, Morocco
and Algeria, Venezuela, Brazil, China, and Japan. Germany exported to Switzerland,
Brazil, China, and Indonesia.

Figure 3: Development of exports and imports of breeding sheep in EU-15 countries from
1992-2003
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
L
i
v
e

a
n
i
m
a
l
s

(
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
Exports
Imports

Imports into EU-15 countries were generally very small scale. If breeding stock was
imported, imports came exclusively from European countries. Imports of breeding stock
from countries outside the EU-15 territory during the last decade ranged from 0.03% to
3.8% of total imports. Suppliers were Switzerland, Poland, Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay.
Differentiation of exchange of breeding stock at breed level was not possible.
It may be concluded that EU-15 countries are net-exporters of purebred sheep with Spain
playing a dominant role. Exchange takes place mainly among the EU-15 countries but
Eastern Europe is important as an additional destination. Global exchanges also take place
but are limited to individual contacts with single countries. The proportion of breeds of
transferred purebred animals were not known and therefore no trends or reasons for
transfers could be derived, nor conclusions drawn on their impact, for example on
population composition.
3.1.2 Eastern Europe
No statistic database on exports or imports of breeding stock was available for Eastern
European countries. Selected export and import figures were found only in the Russian
country report.
In this report, Russia states a gene influx for the sheep breeding sector and an intensive
replacement of its genetic material. Export/import figures given in the report are
summarised in Table 5 below. An orientation towards fine wool production is stated by
crossbreeding local sheep with imported Australian, Mazevski and Siberian Merino.
Crossbreeding with Rambouillet from the USA is also mentioned, but not supported by
concrete figures.

Table 5: Russian sheep export and import figures of sheep
Year Breed Country Number
Imports 1990-1995 Australian
Merino, Texel
from Australia,
Finland
226 males,
50 females
2001-2002 Mongolian
Merino
from China 870 females
Exports 2001-2003 Romanovskaya,
Tsigayskaya,
Orenburgskaya
to Latvia,
Kyrgyzstan,
Kazakhstan
193 females
Source: Country Report Russian Federation (2003)
3.1.3 America
This chapter concentrates on North and South America, neglecting Central American
countries. Information was available through country reports and in the case of Argentina
from personal communication (Mueller, 2004).
For Canada, no information on import/ export of breeding animals could be extracted from
its country report. In the USA, the sheep breeding sector experienced a major loss of
profitability during the last half of the 20th century. Numbers of breeding ewes dropped
about 40% during the last decade to 5 million head in the year 2000. Due to a growing
interest in hair sheep breeds 2,165 Dorper sheep from South Africa were imported 1990 -
2000 (Annex 9.1 A 6). An import of 347 Texel sheep 1990 - 2000 could also be identified
from the table. To develop niche markets, an increased interest in sheep milk production
with imports of East Frisian Milk sheep and Lacaune as well as several imports from
Canada and France are reported. However, numbers of imported animals were not given.
In Uruguay, with the exception of the Merilin synthetic breed, all breeds utilised are of
foreign origin and most are derived from the Merino breed. Current gene flow into the
country consists of imports of breeding stock and semen with varying degrees of
continuity. In the case of Merino and Corriedale the imports originate from Australia and
New Zealand. The Ideal breed is imported from Australia solely and the Romney Marsh
from New Zealand. However, concrete figures were not given.
In Argentina, the current status of gene flow is an estimated 5,000 doses of frozen Merino
semen and about 5 live Merino rams imported yearly, with about 95% from Australia and
5% from New Zealand. Exports of Merino breeding stock from Argentina are limited to
neighbouring countries.
3.1.4 Oceania
Concrete figures on gene flow for the Oceania region were not found in the given sources.
Although export/import statistics for Australia and New Zealand are kept by national
breeding associations, they were not made freely accessible to the authors.
3.1.5 Asia
For Asia, China was selected to depict gene flow of a major Asian country. Information
was extracted from its country report (Country Report of the Peoples Republic of China,

2003). No information more recent than 1989 was found. The reports states that before
1989 according to incomplete statistics cited in the country report, 25 sheep breeds were
introduced mainly from Russia, France, the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the
USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
3.1.6 Middle East
The case study on the Improved Awassi breed traced in detail the worldwide transfer of
breeding material from the Improved Awassi and the Assaf breed. Information on the
current gene flow from these breeds can also be obtained from the case study on the
worldwide gene flow of the improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from Israel.
3.1.7 Africa
Obtaining information on gene flow from developing regions was expected to be extremely
difficult. Export and import figures for developing countries were not available even for
live animals through the FAO statistic database, and were certainly not available for
breeding stock. South Africa was expected to provide a better information base compared
to other African countries. However, a country report did not exist. The only information
on current gene flow was contributed by the South African Dorper Society.
With 6.6 million head in 2002, the synthetic Dorper as a single-purpose breed for mutton
has become the second largest breed in South Africa, with an increasing population trend.
According to information from the South African Dorper Society, the Dorper breed has
been distributed to many other countries in the world, such as Australia, New Zealand,
Canada, America, Mexico, Brazil, Switzerland, China, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Namibia.
(Milne, 2004).
3.2 Gene flow indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material
Indicators that gene flow has taken place and the basis for impact analysis are information
on changes in the national breed composition and on the introduction of foreign genetic
material into existing breeds.
Sheep production following World War II was characterised by economic pressure for
producing cheep commodities to meet the growing demand of the increasing human
population and improve productivity. In parallel, the wool market hit a crisis in 1968 and
the wool price collapsed in 1989 - 1991. Due to the marginal role of sheep husbandry in
national economy, sheep production suffered a dramatic decline of profitability. The last
decade showed both a dramatic reduction of sheep population and the orientation from
wool to meat production. This in general called for imports of exotic breeds with improved
meat and prolificacy characteristics and an influx of foreign genetic material in many parts
of the world.
The orientation towards meat production increased interest in hair sheep breeds outside
their traditional production environments. When shearing costs exceed the wool price, hair
sheep breeds become more popular as they produce meat without needing shearing.
Additionally, hair sheep as indigenous to the tropics are known for their non-seasonality,
as well as high twinning rates, good mother abilities and resistance to particular diseases.
High prolificacy has been reported particularly for the Barbados Blackbelly and the St.
Croix hair breeds and for the Djallonke sheep. The Dorper breed is popular based on its

growth performance. Therefore, as well as the sources mentioned in the introduction of the
chapter, statements from publications on the particular movements of these hair sheep
breeds have been used for this chapter.
3.2.1 Europe
Sheep production in Eastern and central Europe was additionally characterised by the
introduction of the market economy in the early 1990s.
Hungary provides a good example to prove the increasing importance of alternative breeds.
In Hungary, virtually all sheep raised before 1968 were Merinos. The drastic fall in wool
prices resulted in a switch to lamb fattening technologies at the beginning of the 1970s.
Income proportion changed significantly from wool to meat. Additionally, changes in the
political system, state subsidies, and the structure of ownership affected not only the
development of the sheep population but also its composition. The current breed
composition is shown in Table 6 below (Fss et al., 2002). The Merino breed had to give
up its monopoly position. While today 86.9% belong to the Merino breed, the remaining
stock is divided among small indigenous populations of animals specialised for meat and
milking as well as prolific breeds (Fss et al., 2002).
Before the 1960s, upgrading the Hungarian Merino was based on introducing Soviet
Merino breeds including sheep from Caucasus, Stavropol, Groznyy, and most of all
Askania. After the 1960s, when meat purpose breeding got under way, Merino Precoce
from France and German Mutton Merino from East and West Germany were used for
crossbreeding purpose. Merinos were crossed with Kent and Corriedale breeds. Crossing
with Australian Merinos introduced the Booroola gene into Hungarian populations. For the
dairy breed fraction it is known that Hungary has imported Awassi sheep from Israel.
Table 6: Breeds used in Merino breeding in the past and the recent Merino breeds in
Hungary
Breeds used in the past to
improve the Hungarian
Merino
Recent Merino breeds in
Hungary
Distribution of breed groups
in 2001
Ascanian Merino
Groznyy Merino
Stavropol Merino
Caucasian Merino
Merino Precoce
Mutton Merino of GDR
Mutton Merino of FRG
German Mutton Merino
Australian Merino
Booroola Merino
Hungarian Merino
German Mutton Merino
Merino Landschaf
Booroola Merino
Prolific Merino
Merinos
Mutton breeds
Dairy breeds
Indigenous breeds
86.9%
6.9%
2.0%
4.2%
Source: Fss et al. (2002)

In Poland since the early 1980s the sheep population has grown steadily due to the
increased export opportunities of prime lambs in Western Europe. This development
demanded for a re-orientation from wool to meat production and resulted in importing
many breeds, both meat and prolific ones for pure- and crossbreeding purposes. While in
1976 only 9 breeds had been stated, in 1986, when sheep numbers in Poland reached their
peak, performance recording covered 26 different sheep populations including
backcrosses. Until 1990, the population dropped slowly, then very quickly after the market
economy was introduced and wool price collapsed. However, at the same time, the number
of genotype groups increased, partly due to the new imports.
Table 7 below gives details on 14,645 imported sheep of 12 identified breeds until 1990.
At that time, these imported purebred sheep accounted for 4.1% of the sheep population.
By 2000, these breed groups accounted for 15% of the total sheep population with 0.4%
belonging to purebred Longwool breeds, 0.7% to prolific breeds and 13.9% to meat breeds,
not including 2.3% backcrosses and 0.4% prolific crosses. Breed numbers were quoted
with 33 breeds in 2000 (Polish Union of Sheep-Farmers, 1991).

Table 7: Changes in breed structure in sheep population of Poland between 1976 and
2000
Breeds Number of ewes under recording scheme
and their share in total active population
1976 1990 2000
Number % Number % Number %
Polish Merino 158,255 43.5 171,241 47.8 31,988 29.8
German Merino 1,861 0.5 97 0.1
Polish Lowland
In Wielkopolska type 52,184 14.3 22,982 6.4 4,388 4.1
In Lincoln type 5,550 1.5 - - - -
In Corriedale type 5,986 1.7 277 0.2
Other Polish Lowland 57,348 15.7 87,933 24.5 26,035 24.3
Polish Longwool:
In Pomorska type 39,949 11.0 15,969 4.5 5,760 5.4
In Suski type 16,594 4.6 - - - -
In Kamieniecka type 12,922 3.6 1,625 1.5
In Pogorze type 4,874 1.4 1,755 1.6
Olkuska 50 0 - -
Other Polish Longwool 17,104 4.7 9,520 2.6 779 0.7
Polish Mountain Sheep 2,086 2.6 5,152 1.4 11,306 10.5
Other purebred sheep 15,015 2.1 - - - -
Polish Health Sheep 2,037 0.6 1,491 1.4
Swiniarka - 163 0.2
Purebred imported sheep (Kent, Leine, East
Friesian, Finn, Lincoln, Booroola, Texel, Ile de
France, Blackheaded Mutton Sheep, Suffolk,
Berrichon du Cher, Dorset
14,645 4.1 - -
Purebred Longwool sheep (Kent, Leine) 431 0.4
Prolific sheep (East Friesian, Bergschaf, Finn,
Olkuska, Romanov)
758 0.7
Meat sheep (Texel, Ile de France, Blackheaded
Mutton Sheep, Suffolk, Berrichon du Cher, Dorset
Horn, Charolais, White Alpine)
14,988 13.9
Synthetic line 874 0.2 2,627 2.4
Backcrosses 2,532 0.7 2,524 2.3
Prolific crosses 476 0.4
Total 364,085 100 358,578 100 107,468 100
Total population size (in thousands) 3,429.9 4,158.5 361.6
Including ewes 1,780.9 2,437.5 228.8
% of active population 20.4 14.7 48.2
Intensive replacement of the genetic material is also stated in the sheep breeding sector in
Russia. Local sheep breeds are crossed with Merino from Australian and with Rambouillet
from the USA.

For Europe, although not a tropical production environment, similar observations can be
made. The introduction of Cameroon hair sheep into Germany had been reported by Gregg
(1998). The introduction of the synthetic Dorper breed from South Africa in Germany in
1994 was described by Holtz (1998), when, scientifically accompanied and motivated,
Dorper embryos and deep-frozen semen from some elite flocks in the north-eastern Cape
Province and of the Oranje Freestate were introduced to Fichtenberg in Germany. Here,
first purebred Dorper lambs were born in 1995. Some nucleus flocks were established in
this area.
Fahmy (1996) reported the transfer of the prolific Chios breed from Greece into many
countries of the Near East
3.2.2 America
In the USA, the sheep breeding sector experienced a major loss of profitability during the
last half of the 20th century. The number of breeding ewes dropped about 40% during the
1990s to 5 million heads in the year 2000. There are approximately 50 sheep breeds in the
USA. Details are given in Annex 9.1 A 6. Of these Rambouillet, Suffolk, Hamshire, and
Dorset are considered major breeds. The wool component has reduced over the last decade
and about 80-95% of income was generated from lamb production in extensive
management systems. Due to these market forces there is a growing interest in hair sheep
breeds which is partly satisfied by importing the Dorper breed from South Africa. Numbers
of imported animals extracted from the tables give 2,165 Dorper sheep from 1990 - 2000.
In connection with the development of niche markets, an increased interest in sheep milk
production is reported and imports of East Frisian Milk sheep and Lacaune as well as
several imports from Canada and France are reported. However, numbers of imported
animals were not given.
For both the USA and Canada, Minhorst (1997) and Minhorst et al. (1999) reported the
successful management of Barbados Blackbelly sheep and St. Croix flocks, both
descended from Middle American breeds.
St. Croix sheep were first introduced to the USA in the 1960s and were used to develop the
Katahdin breed. Purebred flocks were kept in Utah, Florida, Mississippi, New York, Ohio,
and California. In 1992, a small flock was exported to Canada. St. Croix sheep were also
exported from Utah to Mexico and sold to producers for crossbreeding purposes with
Pelibuey (Fahmy, 1996). However, the impact of these introductions is not known.
In Uruguay, before the collapse of the wool price 1989-1991, crossbreeding the Criollo
breed with Merinos from various sources has significantly improved wool quality and
quantity. The genetic material was reported to come from Europe, USA, and Australia, and
the wool characteristics changed from very thick, low quality to improved delicacy, colour,
and smoothness. According to Uruguays country report crossbreeding with the Criollo led
to almost total absorption. This period was followed by a predominance of crossings with
Lincoln and Romney Marsh in order to meet the great demand for sheep meat in Europe.
The Merilin breed was developed through crossing and selecting Merino (66% blood
share) with Lincoln (33%). After 1930 the local genotypes were absorbed with synthetic
breeds imported from Australia and New Zealand, mainly Corriedale and Ideal. From the
1990s, the relative importance of sheep meat increased and the interest for specialised
breeds in meat production to be used in terminal cross systems arose. Imported breeds

were Hamshire Down, Southdown, Suffolk, Ile de France, Texel and Poll Dorset of
unquoted origin. Due to improved fine wool prices, the Dohne Merino breed from
Australia has also been introduced to produce a double purpose meat and fine wool sheep.
Therefore, with the exception of the Merilin synthetic breed in Uruguay, all breeds utilised
are of foreign origin and those mostly utilised were derived from the Merino breed.
According to Horst and Reh (1999) Corriedale crosses make a share of 50% of the
population, 29% are crosses, and 10% are Merilin sheep. Current gene flow into the
country is made up of imports of breeding stock and semen with varying degree of
continuity. In the case of Merino and Corriedale the imports come from Australia and New
Zealand. The Ideal breed is imported from Australia only and the Romney Marsh from
New Zealand.
In Paraguay sheep and goat stock numbers are increasing due to high prices of cattle meat.
Sheep breeds are mostly Hamshire Down, Texel, Suffolk, Santa Ines, Criollo, Border
Leicester, Corriedale, and Romney Marsh suggesting parallels with sheep population
developments in Uruguay. However, information on the current status of gene flow was
not found in the country report.
In Argentina, total sheep population has declined dramatically from the early 1970s.
Millions of sheep were replaced or killed, largely due to low wool prices and more
profitable agriculture alternatives such as cropping and beef in favourable areas (pampas),
but also due to natural disasters like volcano eruption (1992) and heavy snowfall in
marginal areas such as Patagonia. The last decade has been more stable with some stock
recovery due to improved fine wool prices. In the more favourable areas dual-purpose
breeds are run, such as Corriedale originally from New Zealand, while the Merino is found
in more marginal areas. Merinos remain in the southern cold Patagonia.
The Argentine Merino population is about 6 million head, which corresponds to about 43%
of the sheep population. The current status of gene flow is such that an estimated 5,000
doses of frozen semen and about 5 live rams are imported yearly to Argentina with about
95% from Australia and 5% from New Zealand. Merinos in Argentina are almost all
descended from Australian Merinos, with over 50 years of continuous imports of stock
from Australia. The general trend in breeding is towards finer wool and increased wool
quality. Recently, superfine wool sheep from several studs were imported. There is some
crossbreeding with meat-type breeds. Exports of Merino breeding stock from Argentina are
limited to neighbouring countries (Mueller, 2004).
Milne (2004) reported that the Dorper breed is popular in Mexico and Brazil.
Fischer et al. (1999) report another example of hair sheep successfully introduced to the
tropical region of South America. In 1990, 100 hair sheep of the breeds Barbados
Blackbelly and Pelibuey-West African were imported to the Province Sucombios, Ecuador
as part of the PROFOR project. In 1994, 170 animals followed. From 1994 onwards, the
hair sheep production in this area could maintain itself without any additional imports and
in 1998 had reached a population of about 1,000 head. The production performance of both
breeds was reported to be comparable to that in other tropical and subtropical regions
(Fischer et al., 1999).

3.2.3 Oceania
Australia has the second largest sheep population in the world, and is the largest live sheep
exporter mainly for human consumption. Development of the Australian sheep sector has
followed the changing profitability of wool production world wide: numbers in Australia
reached a peak of 180 million in 1970. In general, numbers have fallen since then. Poor
market prospects for wool after 1990 impacted the flock size and sheep numbers fell
rapidly until 1995. The decline continued more slowly until 1999. As a result of the
uncertainties in the wool market, many traditional Merino breeders have changed to
alternative breeds which specialise in meat production (Padbury, 2002). In 2000, 95% of
Australias sheep flock were purebred Merinos used for wool production (85.1%). 10.4%
were first crosses used for prime lamb production using Border Leister sires (Simm, 1998).
The remaining 4.5% represent more than 40 different breeds. Which breeds were used for
the terminal crossing were not stated. Because of its strict quarantine system, it can be
assumed that the breeds used were mainly not imported. However, Milne (2004) reports
the transfer of Dorper breeding animals to Australia and New Zealand.
3.2.4 Asia
China, with 143 million sheep, keeps the worlds largest sheep population. Most important
for sheep production systems are the pastoral zones of northwest China including Inner
Mongolia, Gansu Xinjiang, Quinghai and Tibet where native breeds have adapted to local
environments. Some exotic breeds were imported in order to improve production
performance of these native breeds through crossbreeding. To improve fine-wool
production a series of new breeds were developed including Chinese Merino, East-North
Fine Wool and Aohan Fine wool. To improve the local sheep breeds meat production,
meat purpose exotic sheep breeds such as Polled Dorset, Suffolk, Texel, and Charolais
have been introduced to be used on small-tailed Han and Mongolian ewes. Altogether,
before 1989 according to incomplete statistics in the country report, 25 sheep breeds were
introduced mainly from Russia, France, the UK, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, the
USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
The introduction of Dorper breeding animals in China is confirmed by Milne (2004).
Well documented is the introduction of hair sheep breeds into the tropical production
environment of Southeast Asia in two scientific projects to develop a synthetic breed based
on local breeds. For example, the Cameroon hair sheep from Germany was introduced into
Malaysia for crossbreeding with local Longtail sheep (Schfer, 1998). The DAD-IS
indicates that hair sheep breeds (Barbados Blackbelly, Dorper, and Morada Nova) continue
to be introduced into Malaysia for crossbreeding purposes. For another example, improved
Barbados Blackbelly and St. Croix hair sheep from the USA were introduced into
Indonesia for crossbreeding with Sumatran wool breeds (Gatenby et al., 1997a; 1997b;
Gatenby et al., 1994; Gatenby, 1986). Information on the current impact of these breeds
was not available.
3.2.5 Middle East
The case study on the worldwide gene flow of the improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of
sheep from Israel depicts the flow of the Improved Awassi and the Assaf breed as prolific

breeds from Israel into many countries worldwide. Detailed information on the
introduction of these breeds in many countries can be obtained from there.
3.2.6 Africa
During the last decades, the South African sheep population has steadily decreased due to a
national programme aimed at reducing overgrazing. According to the FAO statistics, for
the last decade there has been a fairly stable number of about 29 million sheep in South
Africa, half of it the Merino breed. With 6.6 million head in 2002, the synthetic Dorper as
a single-purpose breed for mutton has become the second largest breed in South Africa
with an increasing population trend. According to the South African Dorper Society, the
Dorper breed has been distributed to many other countries in the world, such as Australia,
New Zealand, Canada, America, Mexico, Brazil, Switzerland, China, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Namibia and Swaziland. (Milne, 2004). According to Meyn (2005) Dorpers
also came to Tanzania, Kenya and Zambia.
A prolific breed, the Moroccan Dman, is exported in considerable numbers to Iraq
(Fahmy, 1996).
3.2.7 The Booroola gene - An example for the introduction of foreign genetic
material
The orientation towards meat production led to an explosion of interest in importing
prolific genes in sheep breeds. Better availability and improved transport, as well as
advances in AI and embryo transfer techniques, made it easy to move prolific breeds
across the continents to develop new prolific breeds by upgrading local breeds. It has been
realised that it is faster, easier and cheaper to improve sheep production by incorporating
prolificacy from imported breeds using local base populations, than selecting these
populations, although the importation of undesirable traits may also be encountered.
Some countries have banned exports of prolific sheep and so these sheep are found only in
their country of origin. However most countries have adopted an open policy to exporting
their genetic resources, allowing prolific sheep to spread around the world. Where
government or para-government agencies imported prolific sheep, these imports were
documented. However, private companies also imported many animals, and most of these
could not be accurately verified (Fahmy, 1996).
The most widespread breeds are Finnsheep, Romanov, and Booroola Merino. The spread
and use of the Booroola Merino was chosen to serve as an example based on the data
compiled by Fahmy (1996). The globally important Merino breed was until then
characterised by a low reproductive performance which limited the use of it as A-line in
crossbreeding programmes for meat production (Horst und Reh, 1999).
In the 1980s, the Booroola gene, a single gene with a dominant effect on litter size, was
discovered in a Merino population in Australia. Wilson (1991) discovered that the high
prolificacy in Booroola sheep is the result of a mutation in the BMPIB(ALK6) receptor.
Turner (1982) suggested that the highly prolific Booroola Merinos can be traced back to an
early Australian flock known to include prolific Bengal sheep, imported in 1792/93 from
Calcutta. The description of the Garole breed given by Ghalsasi and Nimbkar (1993)
seemed to fit into this picture. Evidence for this hypothesis was presented by Davis et al.
(2002) who tested prolific sheep from eight countries for the presence of the BMPIB

receptor mutation related to the Booroola gene and confirmed its presence in Garole and
Javanese Thintail sheep.
Europe imported Booroola sheep initially from Australia. However, as a result of a
moratorium on exporting live Booroola sheep from Australia, Booroola sheep were also
sourced from other countries. New Zealand gained importance as 3 Booroola Merino rams
had been donated by the Australian CSIRO before the discovery that high prolificacy in
Booroola Merinos is controlled by a single gene. 74 rams and 34 ewes were imported by
private owners, making New Zealand the major country of origin for purebred Booroola
Merino breeding stock apart from Australia. Table 8 below summarises the spread of the
Booroola Merino in Europe. Recently, Spain imported Booroola Merino sheep and crossed
them with Sagurina and Spanish Merino. However, information on the country of origin
was not found.
Table 8: Source and year of importation of Booroola gene into European countries
Country Source Years of importation
Hungary New Zealand, Australia 1980, 1982, 1984, 1986, 1989
France Australia, New Zealand, UK 1981, 1982, 1984
UK Australia, New Zealand 1981, 1982, 1984
Czechoslovakia New Zealand 1985
The Netherlands UK 1986
Germany New Zealand, Hungary 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993
Poland New Zealand 1988
Source: Fahmy (1996)
Where purebred Booroola Merinos were available, the main intention was to establish a
nucleus purebred flock and introduce the Booroola gene from this flock into various local
Merino breeds until the Booroola gene was homozygous throughout the local Merino
population. However, after the Australian moratorium, Booroola gene imports were
increasingly based on Booroola Merinos crossbred with various breeds.
22 Booroola Merino rams were imported from Australia and New Zealand in 1980 with
Hungarian Merino sheep. The crossbreds became important to introduce the gene into
German Mutton Merino.
In America, research stations in the USA and Canada imported purebred homozygous
Booroola Merino rams and embryos to establish purebred flocks. As well as a private USA
company, which imported purebred homozygous Booroola Merinos from New Zealand,
crossbred homozygous animals were imported by private sheep breeders in the USA. In
Canada, many farms bought rams for slaughter, which were heterozygous for the Booroola
gene and used them for breeding. Uruguay, Brazil and Chile were the only countries in
South America to import Booroola Merino genes, exceptionally in the form of rams.
Except for Uruguay, where 6 farms housing 6,000 sheep are using carrier animals, the
Booroola genes influence on South American sheep populations remains limited.
The only two imports of Booroola to tropical and subtropical countries in Africa and Asia
were to Israel from New Zealand for crossbreeding purposes and to South Africa from

Australia. In Israel the imports had a very large influence on breeding and led to the
development of the Afec Awassi and Affec Assaf lines. Figure 4 illustrates the flow of the
Booroola gene based on the information compiled by Fahmy (1996).
Figure 4: Geographic illustration of the flow of the Booroola gene
Czech Rep.
Poland
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
USA
Hungary
Canada
New Zealand
Australia
Israel
South Africa
Uruguay
Brazil
Chile
India
Indonesia
(Afec Awassi
Afec Assaf)
18
th
century
(J avanese
Thintail)
(Booroola
Merino)
(Garole
breed)
High volume
Low volume
North
America
South
America
Africa
Middle East
Europe
Asia
Oceania
Suggested
Czech Rep.
Poland
United Kingdom
France
Germany
Netherlands
Spain
USA
Hungary
Canada
New Zealand
Australia
Israel
South Africa
Uruguay
Brazil
Chile
India
Indonesia
(Afec Awassi
Afec Assaf)
18
th
century
(J avanese
Thintail)
(Booroola
Merino)
(Garole
breed)
High volume
Low volume
North
America
South
America
Africa
Middle East
Europe
Asia
Oceania
Suggested

Source: own elaboration, data from Fahmy (1996)
3.3 Gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts
The analysed excerpts from the Country Reports revealed little impact of sheep gene flow
in most countries. Although sheep imports were reported by many countries, only North
America and Western and Northern Europe also reported exports from their countries.
However, conclusions from the summaries given in Table 9 cannot be drawn, because
major players in the sheep industry are not included, like Australian, New Zealand or
France. Narrative extracts from single country report excerpts are summarised in Annex
9.1 A 7. They also reflect a very heterogeneous state of information, serve illustrative
purposes and should not be utilised to draw conclusions.


Table 9: Country Report excerpts on gene flow of sheep
Breed Extent of gene flow
in and out of the
region
Main breeds
imported
Breed
replace-
ment
Disadvantages
of exotic breeds
Country report excerpts
containing information
In Out
Africa low -
medium
0 Dorper, Merino Low Not named Botswana, Ethiopia,
Uganda, Zambia
Eastern and
Southern
Europe
low -
medium
0 Merino low Poorly adapted
to local breeding
systems, pests
and diseases
Albania Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Hungary,
Romania, Russian
Federation, Serbia and
Montenegro, Slovenia
Latin
America
low 0 Criollo medium Not named El Salvador
North
America
medium medium Suffolk low Not named Canada, United States of
America
Oceania none
Southern
and Eastern
Asia
medium
- high
0 Merino medium Replacement of
local breeds
Bhutan, China, Indonesia,
Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal,
Pakistan, Philippines,
Tajikistan, Vietnam
Western and
Northern
Europe
low low Charolais, Texel low Not named Ireland, Latvia, Sweden,
United Kingdom
Western
Asia
low 0 American
Rambouillet,
English Lincoln
low Not named Armenia
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ANNEX 229

ANNEX
9.3 Global gene flow of goats

E. Alandia Robles, C. Gall, A. Valle Zrate


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 230
List of figures 230
Abbreviations 230
1 Introduction 231
2 Historical development of goat gene flow 231
2.1 Origin and early distribution of the goat species 231
2.2 Influence of breeding methods, technology and global mobility on the spread
of goats 233
2.3 Development and distribution of Angora goats 234
2.4 Development and distribution of Boer goats 236
3 Current status of goat gene flow 237
3.1 Goat gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts 237
4 References global gene flow of goats 239
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Country Reports on gene flow of goats 238
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Probable spread of domestic goats from initial domestication (closed circle)
to East and South Asia 231
Figure 2: Distribution of goat types 232
ABBREVIATIONS
e.g. for example
ZASV Zoological Acclimatisation Society of Victory

INTRODUCTION 231

1 INTRODUCTION
Global gene flow of goats refers to the historic development of gene flow and the current
status of gene flow for this species. The historic development concentrates on the influence
of domestication, breed formation, human migration, and breeding methods on the
diversification of goats. The evaluation of the current status of gene flow was exclusively
based on Country Reports due to the lack of other reliable information sources.
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GOAT GENE FLOW
2.1 Origin and early distribution of the goat species
Goats belong to the genus Capra, with several species: C. ibex, C. pyrenaica (the Spanish
wild goat), C. caucasia (the tur), C. aegagrus (Bezoar goat), C. falconeri (Markhor). The
domestic goat (C. hircus) is believed to have a monophyletic root in C. aegagrus (Horst
and Husain, 1991; Mason, 1981), but the Markhor and Ibex may also have contributed.
(Nozawa, 1983).
Figure 1 shows the probable spread of domestic goats through the Asian continent.
Figure 1: Probable spread of domestic goats from initial domestication (closed circle) to
East and South Asia

Source: Devendra and Nozawa (1976)

Gradually, different goat types evolved in different areas, formed as much by the demand
of man as by the environment. Goats with short ears are predominant in Europe, in North
and coastal West Africa, in part of East Africa and in Southeast Asia. In Central Asia the
main types are coarse-haired or cashmere producing, with short ears and twisted horns;
they include the Angora that produces mohair fibre. Lop-eared goats are dominant in the
Near East, parts of West and East Africa, southern Africa and parts of the Indian
subcontinent.
For the global distribution of goat types see Figure 2.
Figure 2: Distribution of goat types

(1) milk goats, (2) meat goats, (3) Angora goats, (4) Kashmir goats
Source: adapted from Knzi and Stranzinger (1993)
The number of goat breeds is estimated at approximately 300 by Horst and Husain (1991)
and Pashaa and Saithanoob (2000), whereas Scherf (2000) reported 594 goat breeds
currently recorded worldwide. The majority of goat breeds are found in the tropics and
subtropics. However, breeds are difficult to identify in many parts of the world. While
many populations are called certain breeds by their owners their genetic and phenotypic
characteristics are not documented. For most of these populations phenotypical
characterisation based on field records and herdbooks are lacking. In addition, effective
reproductive isolation is not always given. In fact it is difficult to ascertain whether they
are distinct breeds.
As from the 19th century onwards, exotic goats were introduced in several European
countries to create new breeds. Breed societies and herdbooks were founded in the 19th
and early 20th century in England, and purebred goats were exported to many countries all
over the world as the founder stock for establishing new breeds and for crossbreeding to
improve the performance of indigenous goats.
The prick-eared native goats of Britain were crossed with milk goats introduced from
Switzerland and Nubian-type goats from Africa and India. The newly established Anglo
Nubian with morphological characteristics of the Nubian-type goat was later distributed
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GOAT GENE FLOW 233

worldwide as a well-performing dairy breed, to tropical and subtropical countries in
particular (Nozawa, 1983). The development of this breed and its spread is discussed in the
case study "History and worldwide development of Anglo Nubian goats and their impacts
in smallholder farms in Bolivia".
Goats were not present in America and Oceania when European settlers arrived. West
European goats were introduced from colonisation onwards: to North America from
France and England, to Latin America from Spain and Portugal and to Australia from
England (Porter, 1996). The Mexican Criollo goat is a mixture of the original Spanish and
Portuguese breeds. It is predominantly Murciano-Granadina in the central region of
Mexico, Alpine and Toggenburg in the Northern region and some Celtiberic White in
Puebla (Glimp, 1995; Montaldo and Meza, 2000). When slaves were brought from West
Africa to West Indian Islands they brought along African dwarf goats, and the West
African hair goat. West African goats are considered to have contributed to the gene pool
of American common goats (Nozawa, 1983).
Some fine, generally large-framed dairy breeds were developed in India.
The Damascus goat is a dairy breed of Western Asia. It was recently improved by the
Agricultural Research Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resource in Cyprus. It
has gained international recognition as outstanding dairy breed for tropical and subtropical
countries. While the herd is quite small much of this genetic resource has spread around
the Mediterranean basin.
In Africa south of the Zambezi River, goats were introduced late, shortly before and after
the arrival of European settlers. The goat population is, therefore, derived from various
breeds brought by Bantu tribes from the north (Gall, 1996).
Feral goats are an important gene reserve. They originate from goats brought by the early
explorers to ocean islands and left there for future meat supply. In Australia Feral goats
stem from goats used during the 19th century for producing fibre (Mohair and Cashmere).
With the arrival of fine wool sheep, goats were abandoned and some turned feral. At the
end of the 20th century their number was estimated at 4 million.
2.2 Influence of breeding methods, technology and global mobility on the spread
of goats
In many countries, crossbreeding of local goat populations with bucks of specialised
breeds was the main tool for genetic improvement. Purebred animals or semen were
imported and used directly, or after crossbreeding and multiplying in local herds.
Crossbreeding strategies favoured creating new breeds.
The outstanding example is the development of dairy breeds of Central Europe. Most of
these highly productive breeds were derived from local goats by upgrading with dairy
breeds of Swiss origin. Even in those breeds that were developed mainly by within-breed
selection, occasional introductions maintained a steady gene flow. Some new breeds were
even formed mainly by importing pure stock or absorptive crossing (e.g. British Saanen or
the Japanese Saanen).
In Mexico, the widespread use for many years of sires from several specialised breeds
imported from the USA, such as Anglo Nubian, Alpine, Saanen and Toggenburg, makes
the current Criollo a multi-breed population composed mainly of Nubian crosses in herds

used for meat production, and crosses of Granadina and breeds of alpine origin in milk
producing herds (Montaldo and Meza, 2000). Similarly, albeit on a smaller scale, Criollos
were upgraded in semiarid northern Venezuela and other Latin American countries.
In South Africa local Boer ewes were crossbred since 1857 with Angora rams in order to
upgrade for fibre production as quickly as possible (Porter, 1996). Between 1838 and 1896
about 3,000 Angoras were imported from Turkey. In 1906 the first Angora herdbook was
established and in 1921 the South African Angora Breeding Association was founded
(Gall, 2001; Nozawa, 1983; Porter, 1996).
Further examples of breed formation through crossbreeding are the Indian Mohair in
Southern India in 1973, created from a cross of 7/8 Angora and Sangamneri (Porter, 1996);
and the Pafuri goat, created in Southwest Mozambique after the introduction in 1982 of
South African Boer male goats and their crossing with Landim females (Gall, 1996).
Crossbreeding was also used when introduced exotic breeds failed to adapt well to local
conditions and/or requirements. In 1937 700 Angora goats were imported from the USA to
the former USSR. Since the animals had difficulties in acclimatising, absorptive
crossbreeding with local hair goats was started on state farms in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan and Kirgiziya. Progeny from the second backcross to Angora has been bred
inter-se since 1947. Selection was for fleece characteristics, body weight and carcass
quality and the result was the development of the Soviet Mohair breed (Gall, 1996; Porter,
1996).
The development of biotechnology (artificial insemination and deep-frozen semen
conservation, embryo transfer) enhanced global mobility in the 20th century. It facilitated
dissemination of breeds around the world and the establishment of new breeds.
Breed improvement very often makes use of genetic resources obtained from outside the
breeding area by crossbreeding thus inciting gene flow. This has happened in most
improved breeds, fibre and dairy breeds in particular.
2.3 Development and distribution of Angora goats
Angora goats have been developed since ancient times; their history is said to be older than
the written records of man (Tuncel, 1987). The ancestor of the Angora goat is considered
to be the Wild Goat of Persia, C. aegagrus but archaeological investigations suggest that
the Angora goat may have descended from the wild goat C. prisca (Tuncel, 1987). Goats
have been bred in Turkey for more than 4,000 years. They probably came originally from
the east, possibly central China, Tibet or Turkistan. Goats, along with their herders, were
driven to Turkey by Genghis Khan (Porter, 1996). Others claim that Central Anatolia, in
Turkey, are their area of origin (Gall, 1996).
The formation of industrially usable fibre (Mohair and Cashmere) is caused by specific
genes. The interest in production of these fibres has prompted the flow of these genes from
their Asian countries of origin to all other continents.
During the 19th century in Australia suitable fibre was produced by goats. The
development of the Australian Angora industry is a good example of the importance of
commercial interest for the promotion of gene flow and the development of new breeds.
The first Australian imports of Angora goats was from France in the 1830s. In 1856 a
Melbourne merchant imported seven mohair goats acquired by the Zoological
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GOAT GENE FLOW 235

Acclimatisation Society of Victory and these were kept in Melbournes Royal Park. In the
following years, Frances Imperial Acclimatisation Society presented ZASV with twelve
top-class pure Angora from Asia Minor. More Asia Minor imports followed in 1869 and
from 1871 to 1873, and by 1895 there were two thousand in the herd. Mohair productions
became quite popular but with the advent of merino sheep breeding in the early twentieth
century goats were abandoned. The Angora became almost extinct in Australia and by
1947 there was only one flock left (Gall, 1996). Many goats (Mohair- and Cashmere-
bearing) went feral. The Angora bounced back during the 1970s, when wool prices were
low and mohair fibre was in short supply internationally. Crossings of feral goats which
had the genetic potential of producing fibre with Angora goats imported from South Africa
and Texas, led within five generations to the development of a white Angora goat with
good mohair quality. The Angora breeding started in 1970 with about 1,000 animals. Two
breeding organisations were created and in 1988 there were 320,000 Angoras (Porter,
1996).
In the 1970s China (previously a major source of cashmere) adopted a policy of processing
its own fibre, forcing several processors in Britain, USA and Italy to look to Australia and
New Zealand for alternative suppliers. In 1980 the processors Dawson International,
particularly interested in white cashmere, moved to Australia to establish a goat farming
industry.
In New Zealand goats (some Angoras and a few cashmere) were introduced from 1842
onwards by acclimatisation societies on 22 offshore islands. The early Angora imports
failed because they were susceptible to footrot and other diseases. Traces of Angora
ancestry remained in the herds of Hawkes Bay and North Auckland (Mason, 1981). Many
of the abandoned animals went feral. During 70-80 years in the bush they have adapted to
New Zealand conditions, but fleece weight has declined. With the revival of the mohair
industry in the 1970s, feral animals were used to upgrade Angoras for mohair production
(Mason, 1981). In 1979 about 27,000 feral does were transported to South Island to be
mated with Angora bucks. New Zealand rapidly expanded its fibre industry based on feral
and Angoras. In 1984 there were about 800 Angora herds in the country; two years later
there were some 2,000. In 1985 New Zealand produced 6 million kilograms of mohair
(Porter, 1996).
In order to build up a mohair industry in the USA, Angora goats (seven does and two
bucks) were imported to Texas in 1849. Despite Turkeys ban of Angora exports in 1881
another 300 goats went to the USA. In 1898, the Angora population was about 250,000 and
a breeders society was established in this country in 1900 (Gall, 2001).
South Africa started Angoras with very few animal brought from Turkey in 1838 and
several major imports followed in the second half of the 19th century. By crossing with
white Boer goats the Angora population was built up to about 3 million around 1900. By
1911 South Africa produced around 60% of the world Mohair (Gall, 2001) with 4.5 million
Angora goats. A small Angora goat population exists in Lesotho, which is mostly the result
of crossbreeding with South African stock.
Some other countries like Pakistan and Madagascar have tried to establish Angoras (Horst
and Husain, 1991) with variable success. A major herd exists in Latin America
(Argentina).

The Soviet Mohair goat, officially recognised as a distinct breed in 1962, was developed
from Asian fibre goats crossed to Angora goats from Turkey and in the 1930s from the
USA (Gall, 1996). Angora goats spread all over the world from Turkey, and after Turkeys
export ban in 1881 were redistributed from other countries. Although detailed statistical
records are not available it can be concluded that small numbers of animals were enough to
establish a broad mohair industry in some countries.
The existence of Angora goats in Western Europe was reported in the 16th century (1554).
Angora goats were sent to France and in 1598 they were reported in Cyprus. In 1725,
Dutch people tried, without success, to establish longhair Persian goats in South Africa.
During the 18th century, Angora goats were introduced into Holland, England, Italy and
France in small numbers but due to adaptation problems they perished (Arbiza, 1983;
Horst and Husain, 1991).
2.4 Development and distribution of Boer goats
In the last decades, goat meat demand has increased remarkably due to the economic
development with improvement of living standards or, in countries like USA and Canada,
due to the growing ethnic groups who prefer goat meat in their diet (Hispanic, African,
Asian, Middle-Eastern and Caribbean people) (Luginbuhl, 2003). There is a rewarding
market for goat meat in West-Asian Arab countries. As a consequence demand increased
for animals with meat conformation.
The history of the Improved Boer goat is another example of the development of breeds as
a result of human demand. The Boer is a meat goat, developed in South Africa (East Cape)
from the 18th century onward by selecting various indigenous goats. These are the spotted
Hottentot goat, which possibly had its origins in the Nubian types that were said to have
accompanied tribes during their southward migration down the east coast of Africa, and the
Bantu goat. They were crossed with Indian goats and with high-class European dairy
breeds (Gall, 1996; Malan, 2000; Porter, 1996). Polledness indicates the possible influence
of European dairy goats (Casey and van Niekerk, 1988; Porter, 1996). Since the 1920s the
Boer goat has been selectively bred for meat conformation. It is considered to be one of the
most suitable goat breeds for meat production due to its body conformation, growth rate
and carcass quality, adapts well to tropical conditions and has been introduced and
crossbred with low-yielding goats in several parts of the world (Erasmus, 2000; Lu, 2002;
Yonghong, 2001).
Boer goats were introduced into Germany in 1980 in order to establish a meat goat by
crossing with German dairy breeds. A herdbook for the Boer goat was formed in 1980 and,
since 1985, repeated imports of frozen semen as well as frozen embryos in 1994, led to the
establishment of a population of about 1,500 registered goats, distributed all over Germany
(Gall, 1996; Porter, 1996; Sohnrey, 2000).
In 1982, the German Boer type was introduced into Sri Lanka and crossed with local goats
to improve meat production (Porter, 1996) and in 1988 the German Boer goat was first
exported to Britain, where a Boer breed society was formed. Nowadays, breeding stock
and frozen embryos are sold to breeders in several European countries and abroad (like
Brazil, China and Israel) (Sohnrey, 2000). The Boer goat has also been widely used to
increase meat production in Australia in the early 1990s. This was mainly a reaction on the
market opportunities in the Arabian countries of Western Asia and the slump of wool
prices prompting growers to change from wool to meat production. In 1989 the first of
CURRENT STATUS OF GOAT GENE FLOW 237

hundreds of Boer goats were imported into Australia as live animals or as embryos. By the
end of 1998 there were just under 10,000 registered pure Boer goats but hundreds of
thousands of Boer crosses, mostly the result of mating between Boer bucks and feral does.
From the mid 1990s onwards goat meat producing enterprises and Boer breeding
developed, as an increasing number of traditional sheep and wool producers changed their
livestock from sheep to goats (Murray et al., 2000).
In the USA the demand for meat goats was related to the decline of the Mohair industry
and a growing market for goat meat. Embryo transfer technology and AI has allowed the
numbers of purebred Boer goats to increase from a few dozen to thousands in a couple of
years (Cutrer, 1995). The first South African frozen Boer embryos were introduced in
1993. A Meat Goat Association was created in 1993 (Luginbuhl, 2003; Machen, 1997) and
since 1995, the quality of Boer goats in the USA has improved remarkably due to sustained
direct imports of live goats, semen or embryos. Up until 1998, approximately 4,000 Boer
goats from South Africa were either imported directly from South Africa or via Australia
or New Zealand. At present there are approximately 8,000 Boer goats in the USA and the
meat goat industry is the fastest growing animal industry in the country (Malan, 2000;
Sahlu, 2000). There are approximately 800,000 meat goats in the USA of which about
700,000 are in Texas.
With the increased interest in meat production, several Asian countries (Indonesia,
Malaysia, Singapore) have imported Boer goats (Malan, 2000). In China the Boer breed
was introduced by artificial insemination to improve local goats for higher meat
production. In 1995, for the first time, China imported 25 breeding Boer goats (8 males and
17 females) from Germany, and pelleted frozen semen was prepared in the fall of the same
year. In 1995-97 more than 6,000 local does were inseminated with frozen and fresh
semen. Following these first imports, about 3,000 have been introduced successively from
Germany, South Africa, New Zealand and Australia. By 2000 the population of purebred
Boer goats had reached 6,000 and was spread all over China (Gangyi et al., 2000;
Yonghong, 2001). The number of Boer crossbreds totalled 400,000 in 1999, and increased
to about 600,000 in 2001 (Yonghong, 2001). Today, China is exporting Boer goats.
3 CURRENT STATUS OF GOAT GENE FLOW
Information on current gene flow in goats is very scarce and has been sourced mainly from
Country Reports. The valuable contribution from experts were mainly of analytic character
and are comprised in the respective subchapters of the main findings.
3.1 Goat gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts
Information in Country Report excerpts regarding goat transfers are less extensive
compared to other species. Many excerpts did not contain any mention of goats at all, so
that a global conclusion cannot be drawn.
The flows reported to be entering a country receive more emphasis than flows out of a
country. Additionally, the disadvantages of imported goats were mentioned in only a very
few reports. Only for Africa was the increased susceptibility to disease of exotic improved
breeds addressed in several country reports (Table 1).
238 CURRENT STATUS OF GOAT GENE FLOW

Table 1 summarises the information from Country Reports on goats. Some country specific
information can be depicted in Annex 9.1 A 8. On the whole, information on goats is
scarce and less comparable between countries than that of other domestic livestock species.
Table 1: Country Reports on gene flow of goats
Breed Extent of gene
flow in and out of
the region
Main breeds
imported
Breed
replace-
ment
Disadvantages
of exotic breeds
Country report
excerpts containing
information
In Out
Africa medium 0 Boer, Anglo
Nubian
low Susceptibility to
diseases
Botswana, Burundi,
Ethiopia, Uganda
Eastern
and
Southern
Europe
low 0 Lithuanian
Blackhead,
Alpine
low Not named Russian Federation
Latin
America
none
North
America
medium low Nubian, Alpine,
Saanen
low Not named Canada, United States
of America
Oceania low 0 Anglo Nubian 0 Not named Palau
Southern
and
Eastern
Asia
low 0 Saanen, Boer,
Jamnapari
0 Not named China, Indonesia,
Japan, Nepal,
Philippines, Sri Lanka
Western
and
Northern
Europe
none
Western
Asia
none
REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF GOATS 239

4 REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF GOATS
Arbiza, S.I. 1983. Evolution of Mohair, Cashmere and Skins. In: Neimann-Sorense, A. and
D.E. Tribe (eds.) World animal science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Casey, N.H. and W.A. van Niekerk. 1988. The Boer goat. I. Origin, adaptability,
performance testing, reproduction and milk production. Small Ruminant Research
1:291-302.
Cutrer, G. 1995. Boer goats for beginners. Ranch and Rural Living Magazine 77(2).
Devendra, C. and K. Nozawa. 1976. Goats in Southeast Asia - their status and production.
Zeitschrift fr Tierzchtung und Zchtungsbiologie 93:101-120.
Erasmus, J.A. 2000. Adaptation to various environments and resistance to disease of the
Improved Boer goat. Small Ruminant Research 36:179-187.
Gall, C. 1996. Goat breeds of the world. CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Gall, C. 2001. Ziegenzucht. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
Gangyi, X., P. Jiabi, Z. Hongping, and C. Taiyong. 2000. A preliminary report on
improvement by using Boer goat in China. 7th International Conference on Goat,
France, 15-21 May 2000, 342-345.
Glimp, H. 1995. Meat goat production and markeing. Journal of Animal Science 73:291-
295.
Horst, P. and S.S. Husain. 1991. Animal genetic resources. In: Panandam, J., S. Sivaraj,
T.K. Mukherjee, and P. Horst (eds.) Goat husbandry and breeding in the tropics.
Compiled papers presented in an international seminar carried out by German
Foundation International for Development (DSE) at the Institute for Advanced
Studies, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 100-113.
Germany.
Lu, C.D. 2002. Boer goat production: progress and perspective. 2001 Conference on Boer
goats in China, 21-24 October 2001, Guizhou. 9-17.
Luginbuhl, J.M. 2003. Goat production in North Carolina. IGA Newsletter June 2003. 16-
17.
Machen, R.V. 1997. Boer goats - introduction and impact in North America. Journal of
Animal Science 75:139.
Malan, S.W. 2000. The improved Boer goat. Small Ruminant Research 36:165-170.
Mason, I.L. 1981. Wild goats and their domestication. In: Gall, C. (ed.) Goat Production.
pp. 35-53. Academic Press, London.
Montaldo, H.H. and C. Meza. 2000. Goat genetic resources situation in Mexico. 7th
International Conference on Goat, France, 15-21 May 2000, 944-945.
Murray, P.J., T. Johnson, E.A. Qualischefski, and J.E. McCosker. 2000. The Boer goat
down under - revitalizing Australias goat meat industry. 7th International
Conference on Goat, 15-21 May 2000, France. 221.
240 REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF GOATS

Nozawa, K. 1983. Domestication and history of goats. In: Neimann-Sorense, A. and D.E.
Tribe (eds.) World animal science. Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
Pashaa, T.N. and S. Saithanoob. 2000. Goat meat production in South and South East Asia.
7th International Conference on Goat, France, 15-21 May 2000, 623-626.
Porter, V. 1996. Goats of the world. Farming Press, Ipswich, UK.
Sahlu, T. 2000. The American goat situation. 7th International Conference on Goat, 15-21
May 2000, France. 894-896.
publication. http://dad.fao.org/en/refer/library/wwl/wwl3.pdf (01.06.2005).
Sohnrey S.B., and W. Holtz. 2000. Transcervical embryo collection in Boer goats. Small
Ruminant Research 36:195-200.
Tuncel, E. 1987. World production and utilisation of Mohair. In: Santana, O., A.G. da
Silva, and W.C. Foote (eds.) IV. International Conference on Goats, 8-13 March
1987, Brasilia, Brazil. pp. 169-175. EMBRAPA, Brasilia.
Yonghong, H. 2001. Utilisation and development of Boer goats in China. 2001 Conference
on Boer goats in China, 21-24 October 2001, Guizhou. 21-24.

ANNEX 241

ANNEX
9.4 Global gene flow of cattle

M. Mergenthaler, H. Momm, A. Valle Zrate


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 243
List of figures 243
Abbreviations 244
1 Introduction 245
2 Historical development of cattle gene flow 245
2.1 Gene flow during domestication, migration and breed formation 245
2.1.1 Early gene flow in the Old World 246
2.1.2 The penetration of the New World 247
2.1.3 Breed formation 248
2.2 Systematic influences on gene flow 249
2.2.1 Levels of gene flow 249
2.2.2 Influence of breeding goals and methods on breed development and
spread 250
2.2.3 Influence of technology, disease and animal welfare rule on global
mobility and dissemination 251
3 Current status and actual trends of cattle gene flow 252
3.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import data 252
3.1.1 Europe 253
3.1.2 North America 261
3.1.3 South America 262
3.1.4 Asia 263
3.1.5 Africa 266
3.1.6 World 267
3.2 Gene flow indicated by changes in the breed composition 269
3.3 Gene flow indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material into
existing breeds 271
3.4 Gene flow indicated by Country Reports 274
4 References global gene flow of cattle 276
LIST OF TABLES 243

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Export of purebred breeding heifers from EU countries 1993-2003 254
Table 2: Import of purebred breeding heifers to EU countries 1993-2003 255
Table 3: Simmental breeding cattle exports from Germany and Austria 1998-2002 256
Table 4: Semen import to EU-15 countries and insemination with imported semen in
2003 259
Table 5: Cattle breeding imports into the Philippines 265
Table 6: Total numbers of cattle by breed in Switzerland 269
Table 7: Examples of replacement of local cattle by imported Simmentals 274
Table 8: Country Reports on gene flow of cattle 275

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Possible migration routes of Bos taurus type cattle from western Asia 246
Figure 2: Major cattle introduction routes into North, Central and South America 247
Figure 3: Semen imports and exports of the Simmental breed for upgrading in beef
breeds in 1970 252
Figure 4: Share of semen imports to EU countries by origin in 2003 258
Figure 5: Mean annual imports of semen doses to Germany by partner region for
1998-2002 260
Figure 6: Imported Simmental breeding animals to Brazil by country of origin for
1905-1994 262
Figure 7: Number of inseminations by breed and origin of semen in the dairy sector
in Mozambique 1983 267
Figure 8: Number of cattle in Queensland/Australia 271
244 ABBREVIATIONS

ABBREVIATIONS
AD anno Domini
BC before Christ
BHV1 Bovine Herpesvirus type 1
BSE Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
CIS Commonwealth of Independent States
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
e.g. for example
e.V. Eingetragener Verein (Incorporated society)
EFRP Emergency Farm Reconstruction Project (Kosovo)
EU European Union
Kingdom
Interbull International Bull Evaluation Service
UK United Kingdom
US United States

INTRODUCTION 245

1 INTRODUCTION
The global gene flow study of cattle consists of two parts, the historic development and the
current status of gene flow. Exemplary for the species Bos taurus, the Holstein and
Simmental breeds and for Bos indicus the Brahman and Sahiwal breed have been chosen to
highlight typical developments of cattle gene flows.
Material from various sources were used. Data was sourced from the Eurostat statistical
database, Country Reports on the State of Animal Genetic Resources and from reports and
publications from regional experts and breeding organisations with special reference to the
breeding organisation of Simmental, Holstein and Zebu breeds.
Regarding the historical development, influences of domestication, breed formation,
human migration and breeding methods on the diversification of cattle are summarised.
The depiction of the current status focuses on selected export and import information and
on indicators for the introduction of foreign genetic material characterised for regional
clusters.
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CATTLE GENE FLOW
2.1 Gene flow during domestication, migration and breed formation
The world cattle population today accounts for 1,339 million cattle. 1,022 million, about
one quarter are found in developed countries, the remaining three quarters in developing
countries (FAO, 2004).
Bos primigenius is believed to be the monophyletic ancestor of todays Bos taurus and Bos
indicus cattle breeds. The first evidence of domesticated cattle appeared on the Southern
Anatolian plateau in Turkey about 6,400 BC, and in Greece and Macedonia around the
same time (Payne and Hodges, 1997), after sheep and goats. It is believed that cattle were
domesticated independently in at least two distinct centres, one in western Asia (Bos taurus
and Bos indicus) and the other in Southeast Asia (Bos (bibos) spp.). In Southeast and East
Asia, gene flow from the Bos (bibos) wild species to todays local cattle breeds probably
occurred. Domestic Yak and all buffaloes together with the mentioned Bos and Bos (bibos)
species belong to the bovinae sub-family (Payne and Wilson, 1999).
It has been suggested that the first domestic cattle in western Asia were the longhorn type
of Bos taurus. The shorthorn type appeared about 1,000 years later. There are several
theories on the ancestry of shorthorn type cattle, but it is likely that they shared a common
ancestor with longhorn cattle and arose through conscious selection.
Bos indicus, Zebu cattle are humped. It is unknown whether the Zebu resulted from the
domestication of a specialised strain of aurochs or Asian urus (Bos primingenius
namadicus) which was already adapted to hot, dry environments, the crossbreeding of
domestic and wild cattle, or selection by man in existing domestic herds (Payne and
Hodges, 1997).
It is assumed that Bos (bibos) spp. were domesticated in two distinct centres: the gaur
stemmed from regions of Bhutan, Myanmar and parts of Bangladesh and India, and the

banteng were most likely domesticated in the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali (Payne
and Hodges, 1997).
2.1.1 Early gene flow in the Old World
During the Neolithic transition, migrating tribes took along their animals and thereby
affected gene flow in domestic animal species very early in history. They brought cattle
from Western Asia into Central Asia, the Indian subcontinent, Africa and Europe (for a
graphical depiction see Figure 1 and Annex 9.1 A 9 to A 11). Starting in the late 18th
century but mainly effective during the 19th century, important cattle migrations occurred
from the alpine area to all parts of the Austrian-Hungarian empire and the Balkans
(Simmental, Brown Swiss, Pinzgauer) and from the German-speaking countries to Russia
(including lowland cattle).
Migration led to the gradual extinction of wild African and European aurochs. Zebu cattle
were generally spread at later stages than taurines, entering the African continent from the
primary domestication centres in Arabia and India. In eastern Africa, crosses of Zebu cattle
with existing taurine cattle formed the Sanga. From there, they spread throughout Eastern
and Southern Africa and eventually to the whole continent. In western Africa, taurine cattle
developed a trypanotolerance through natural selection. Zebu cattle arrived in West Africa
only in the last 1,400 years through Arabic influences and possess little trypanotolerance.
(Epstein and Mason, 1984; Machugh et al., 1994; Machugh, 1996; Payne and Wilson,
1999). A study by Hanotte et al. (2002) based on microsatellite marker analysis of
continent-wide samples suggests both indigenous domestication of cattle in Africa and
genetic influence from other domestication centres in West Asia and the Indus Valley.
Figure 1: Possible migration routes of Bos taurus type cattle from western Asia

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CATTLE GENE FLOW 247

2.1.2 The penetration of the New World
In North America first human-induced gene flow of cattle (together with sheep and goats)
took place in 1000 AD by the Norsemen - which did, however, not last. Cattle, sheep and
pigs were brought to Latin America by the Spanish and Portuguese colonisers in the 16th
century, from where they spread over the whole continent (Figure 2). At the beginning of
the 17th century British colonists re-introduced cattle to New England from Great Britain.
After initial set-backs they were established permanently. In the course of time local strains
developed through natural selection which were adapted to their environments (Alba,
1978; Payne and Hodges, 1997; Martnez et al., 2000).
Figure 2: Major cattle introduction routes into North, Central and South America

Australian settlers brought cattle to Australia in their efforts to create living conditions
similar to their homeland. The first imports took place at the end of the 18th century and
consisted mainly of British cattle breeds. They were meant to insure against food
deficiencies. Although there was also gene flow of Zebu and Criollo cattle from Latin
America, it did not have a pronounced effect at the time (Allen, 2002; Daly, 1981; Payne
and Hodges, 1997; Payne and Wilson, 1999; Vercoe, 1989). In the second half of the 20th
century British breeds were gradually replaced by cattle with Zebu blood (Annex 9.1 A
12).

These first cattle introduced to Latin America, North America and even Australia had a
subsistence function similar to that of cattle transported in migrations from West Asia to
Europe and Africa. The Criollo cattle of Latin America result from this. Since the middle
of the 19th century, however, the gene flow has become increasingly commercial, first
through registered pedigree animals and, since the 1960s, complemented by semen and
other biotechnology.
In addition, gene flow has occurred during or after acts of war and - more significantly - in
transfers through livestock trade. This is testified for centuries by established trading
houses, empires, and long trade routes at land and at sea.
2.1.3 Breed formation
Formal breed formation began in the 18th century in Britain with the foundation of breed
societies which practiced deliberate selection. British cattle breeders, both in Scotland
(Galloway, Aberdeen Angus, Ayrshire) and England (Shorthorn, Hereford, Jersey,
Guernsey), pioneered the development of breeds which later significantly influenced cattle
breeding worldwide. The early work of the breed societies strongly emphasised formalistic
criteria through phenotypic standardisation, systematic inbreeding and restrictive pedigree
registration rules. The breed societies promoted closed herdbooks in some British breeds,
many generations of upgrading in others and the transfer of these ideas to the whole New
and English-speaking world. All this contributed to the depletion of genetic variability.
This pedigree breeding concept which appeared to be successful in Britain, spread to the
European continent, in particular to the Netherlands, where Black and White as well as
Red and White cattle were selected, and to Switzerland, where Brown Swiss and
Simmental cattle were bred.
The Simmental breed is an example of a dual-purpose breed for beef and milk with global
influence. The breed ranges from the dual-purpose type, nowadays found mainly in Central
and Eastern Europe and the Balkans, to a specialised beef type found mainly in the New
World. For details on the total Simmental population per country in the early 1990s, refer
to Annex 9.1 A 13. In addition to the Simmental, three other cattle breeds with global
outreach will be referred to occasionally in describing gene flow: the Holstein as a single-
purpose dairy breed with the highest potential for milk yields under favourable
management and environmental conditions; the Sahiwal as a dual-purpose beef and milk
breed adapted to tropical and subtropical climates; and the Brahman as a beef breed with
good adaptation to harsh environmental conditions.
The Simmental breed might suffice as a specific example of breed formation. The Red
spotted cattle of Western Switzerland - which includes the Simmen valley - are assumed to
have been introduced by the South German Alemanic tribes in the 5th century (Felius,
1995). Further gene flow can be identified by the introduction of large German cattle in the
middle ages (Bo et al., 2001). Thereafter purebreeding was practiced and no remarkable
gene flow took place. In the 19th century breed societies were founded and several local
strains developed, which finally resulted in the Simmentaler Fleckvieh (Felius, 1995).
More specific insights into the spread of genes can be illustrated by the spread of the
Simmental breed from Switzerland. First exports of the Bernese cattle (early designation of
the Simmental breed) to Italy are reported from 1480. During the 18th century a large
number of these cattle were exported from Switzerland to Bavaria/Germany,

Lombardy/Italy and Eastern France. Rural nobility in Central West Russia first imported
Simmental to Russia in 1850. In the second half of the 19th century gene flow to Russia,
Eastern Europe, Southern Germany, Eastern France, Northern Italy and Austria increased
and reached a peak. Crossing with local cattle strains led to their absorption and the
development of several Simmental strains (Felius, 1995). Imports from Russia to Inner
Mongolia/China in 1898 established an early influence of the Simmental on the Chinese
cattle population (Qiu Huai et al., 1993). In 1957 official imports of Simmental from the
Soviet Union followed (Liang, 1988).
In Southwest Africa (now Namibia) and South Africa the early imports of Simmental by
German settlers led to the successful establishment of the breed in the 19th century (Rusch,
1988). Long-term breed comparisons in Namibia and in Omatjenne, Mara and Vaalharts
research stations in Southern Africa in the 1950s proved the Simmentals viability in ranch
conditions and produced a wave of Simmental gene flow in the late 1960s. The success in
Southwest Africa led to the spread of the Simmental to Latin America, North America and
finally also Oceania. Changes in consumer preference to leaner meat catalysed and
favoured the Simmentals utilisation in comparison to traditional European beef breeds
(Neser et al., 2002; Rocha et al., 1987; Sonn, 1985). Other large-sized continental cattle
breeds also experienced increased gene flow during this time.
Simmentals are reported to have been present in the 19th century in Illinois/USA
(American Simmental Association, 2004). The first herd of Simmental cattle in the USA
was set up in 1886 in Texas but did not lead to wider distribution (Felius, 1995). It was not
until the 1960s that the Simmental became fully established in America through imports of
semen from Canada (from a French bull out of a Swiss bloodline).
The first gene flow to South America is reported for Brazil in 1905 and for Argentina in
1922, but this gene flow did not lead to sustained and lasting establishment of the breed.
Considerable numbers of Simmentals imported to Argentina in 1967 were lost as the
animals were not pre-immunised, but eventually the Simmental breed was established and
spread (Sonn, 1985). In all these regions the Simmental has been used for beef production
and has been developed to this end.
2.2 Systematic influences on gene flow
2.2.1 Levels of gene flow
Gene flow may occur at different levels and in different forms. At the first level, the breed
is spread through the transfer of breeding females for milk or beef production. At the
second level, stud herds are established, primarily to produce bulls for natural service. At
the third level, genetic materials are provided for AI stud breeding. The latter includes both
the transfer of animals, semen and embryos selected on the basis of contract matings (in
exchange programmes of test bull semen and after completing the progeny test) and
comparison of the breeding values of bulls at global level through Interbull.
The effects of the various levels of gene flow differ. For example, the impact of exporting
large numbers of breeding heifers primarily for commercial use as dairy cows is relatively
small compared to that of establishing nucleus herds for stud breeding, importing genetic
materials through an existing AI network, or participating in an AI breeding programme,
provided there is an operational distribution network in the importing country. Although

the trade in breeding animals is the simplest form of gene flow, semen and embryos are
powerful in transgressing disease barriers with significant multiplier potential.
The French example of upgrading their Black and White cattle to Holstein mainly through
the import of very valuable embryos is a good example of strong multiplier effects. The
basis for this development was the import of less than 1,000 embryos (Meyn, 2005). On
the other hand, the widely discussed export of Simmental heifers from Germany (and
Austria) to Kosovo may be regarded as a minor event in terms of gene flow.
2.2.2 Influence of breeding goals and methods on breed development and spread
Domestication of wild species generally leads to higher variability within the species,
which in turn allows new selection possibilities. Moreover, moving animals to new habitats
prompts natural adaptation. These two factors cannot be clearly distinguished in early
breed development. Natural and artificial selection lead to the development of many local
breeds, that are characterised by high variability which then permits further selection with
different breeding goals. Early breed selection focused on conformation with limited
advances in productivity. Only later did selection based on performance and genetic
evaluation lead to more rapid progress.
Many different scenarios exist in which the selection of cattle may occur:
according to utility or market requirements for dual- or multi-purposes, dairy or beef;
according to climate for the temperate, hot-dry or hot-humid zones using the different
breed groups of cattle: taurine, Zebu or other cattle;
through pure- or crossbreeding.
Dairy cattle breeding in the temperate zone is heavily influenced by the overwhelming
market power and outstanding yield of the Holstein. This endangers the existence of other
temperate zone dairy and dual-purpose breeds. Some examples of breeds competing with
the Holstein are the Simmental, the Montbeliard (as a Simmental subpopulation), the
Brown Swiss and the Swedish Red and White/Ayrshire.
In Holstein breeding a few top bulls and top lines dominate, due to extremely high
selection intensities and internationally-connected breeding populations. This reduces the
effective population size and leads to both inbreeding and a higher frequency of recessive
gene defects. This way of breeding is most efficient in achieving genetic progress in single
traits and building up high-yielding specialised breeds. On the other hand, it increasingly
displaces other breeds, impacting gene flow and reducing genetic resources. Nonetheless,
appropriate use of progeny testing (including sire x daughter matings) and DNA analysis
for genetic abnormalities can be powerful tools for detecting and eliminating undesirable
genes. One important advantage of long-term semen storage is that large quantities of
semen are available at the time the results of progeny testing become available.
Purebred Holstein are also expanding into the dry tropics and subtropics - for example in
the subtropical part of the USA, in Israel and Saudi Arabia - and actually achieving their
highest yields there. Because of high fodder production costs, high yields with relatively
high producer milk prices are required for a breed to be profitable. However, when cattle
producers need multi-purpose cattle or if product prices do not justify costly inputs, other
breeds and breeding methods have to fall into place. Here, the Sahiwal (Zebu) and its
crosses with temperate zone dairy and dual-purpose breeds are possibilities. Not only the

Holstein, but also in some situations the pure Simmental, Brown Swiss, Jersey or other
breeds may be of interest.
For the humid tropics - mainly in Latin America, but also in the Philippines - efforts to
introduce Holstein cattle have generally failed. Productive dairy cattle for this eco-climate
require some taurine blood with a high frequency of alleles determining milk yield
combined with a zebuine breed for adaptability.
Beef breeds are less endangered by absorption through other breeds because reproduction
is mainly through natural service and there is not yet sufficient knowledge about the
comparative efficiency of breeds kept on natural pasture. There are many breeds for
diverse purposes: B. taurus breeds from Britain (early maturing but moderate in size) and
from the European continent (large size but late maturing) for the temperate zone; many B.
taurus x B. indicus crosses for the hotter areas (Santa Gertrudis, Brangus, Beefmaster,
Droughtmaster, Bonsmara and other crossbreds); Zebu breeds (Brahman, Gir, Guzera,
Nelore, Boran and others); Sanga breeds (Africander and Tuli); and other indigenous
breeds.
2.2.3 Influence of technology, disease and animal welfare rule on global mobility
and dissemination
There are a number of major restrictions to the international gene flow by means of live
animals:
High costs prevents trade over long distances unless the animal is extremely valuable.
For breeding cattle there are in fact three zonal markets in the world based on the main
exporters: Europe, North America and Oceania. There is little overlap between these
export zones.
Increasingly strict disease control in international trade has created barriers to the
movement of live animals, in the form of complete bans (e.g. out of Africa), veterinary
checks and quarantines, and - increasingly infrequently - vaccinations. In the EU, for
example, internal barriers for the movement of breeding stock are very strict due to
threats of contamination with Bovine Herpesvirus type 1 (BHV1). Other restrictive
diseases are Bluetongue, Scrapie, and many other viral diseases. Severe consequences
followed the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE). A temporary ban
on semen and embryo trade as well as a permanent ban on import of live animals from
certain countries were put into place.
Stricter regulation of animal welfare during transport limits the distance live animals
can be moved.
Where high-yielding taurine breeds are crossbred with adapted cattle in a tropical
climate, live animals of the exotic breed may struggle to survive in the environment.
Artificial insemination (AI) was developed first in the former USSR by Ivanov, then in
Kenya by Anderson in 1935, and then in the UK. While AI in cattle came into regular use
in the USA and UK in the 1940s, it only became commonplace in most countries after the
second world war. In some developing countries, the development of AI programmes are
still in experimental stages (Chupin and Schuh, 1993, Chupin and Thibier, 1995). The
international gene flow in cattle increased substantially after the technique of deep-freezing
252 CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF CATTLE GENE FLOW

bovine semen was developed in the 1960s, in part because transport costs were reduced
and animal welfare and disease control regulations could be more easily complied with.
A global inventory of cattle semen imports and exports in 1991 covering 31 developed
countries (Chupin and Thibier, 1995) gives some insight into the impact of biotechnology
and global mobility on the dissemination of genetic material. 10 countries exported more
semen than they imported (Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France,
Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Slovenia). Altogether more than 4.3 million doses
from dairy breeds, 900,000 doses from beef breeds and 760,000 doses from dual-purpose
breeds were exported to other regions of the world in 1991. Presumably the USA are the
largest net-exporter of semen, but figures on semen import have not been provided. Most
of the surplus semen was of the Holstein breed and imported by developing countries.
Following the development of techniques to deep-freeze bovine embryos in the 1980s, this
technology has also become an important vehicle for gene flow, especially because the
risks of disease contamination are minimised through trypsin washing.
The Simmental is an historic example of the inter-relation between semen imports and
exports and desired global mobility. Figure 3 illustrates the direction of semen trade for
purposes of upgrading beef breeds in 1970 and indicates 4 exporting, 3 importing and
exporting, 5 exclusively importing countries or regions. This example shows the ingenuity
of exporters in overcoming veterinary barriers. Currently, the EU may export semen and
embryos directly to all of these countries.
Figure 3: Semen imports and exports of the Simmental breed for upgrading in beef breeds
in 1970
Germany
France Austria
Switzerland
Sweden
South Africa
Canada
USA
UK
South America
Australia
and
New Zealand
Germany
France Austria
Switzerland
Sweden
South Africa
Canada
USA
UK
South America
Australia
and
New Zealand

Source: adapted from Knzi and Stranzinger (1993)
3.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import data
This chapter compiles information on selected cattle exports and imports in Europe, North
America, South America, Asia and the Middle East. For Europe, a statistical database was
accessible from Eurostat (2005) which tabulates information on the exchange of breeding
stock from the EU-15 countries. Information on breeds is not included in the database.
Currently, the dairy cow population in the EU-15 countries is the most important in the
CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF CATTLE GENE FLOW 253

temperate zone, attracting 5.5 million doses of semen from the USA, Canada, New
Zealand and Australia and exporting more than 3.6 million doses to third countries in 2004.
For other regions, information was extracted from publications and from communication
with regional experts. The result is, in general, only illustratory in nature and no claim is
made of its completeness. Selected information of breeding animal transfer at breed level
was added from various breeding organisations, with special reference to the Simmental,
Holstein, and Zebu breeds. Based on these sources, emphasis was put on analyses of the
direction of animal transfer and of the observed fluctuations in the export and import of
breeding cattle.
3.1.1 Europe
Live animals
Annual fluctuations in the exchange of breeding animals are influenced by special export
programmes, trade restrictions due to sudden disease outbreaks or long-term veterinary
restrictions, and political conflicts. The influence can be positive or negative depending on
the specific situation. In general, animal health regulations or measures tend to restrict
gene flow, however, they can also promote the exchange of breeding animals. For
example, in Germany after 1950, eradication programmes of bovine tuberculosis,
brucellosis and leucosis created the demand for disease-free, productive animals. As
healthy cattle were not available locally, foreign stock of both the same and foreign breeds
were imported. As a consequence Black-and-White and Jersey cattle appeared in the
Allgu region of Germany, where formerly Braunvieh cattle had dominated.
Table 1 presents data on the export of breeding heifers from EU countries over eleven
years (1993 to 2003), allowing consideration of both year-to-year fluctuations and of the
overall direction of gene flow through breeding heifer trade. On average, EU countries
exported more than 150,000 breeding heifers annually between 1993 and 2003. Annual
export increased from almost 125,000 heifers in 1993 to over 180,000 in 1995. However,
heifer exports subsequently declined to around 100,000 in 2001 following the BSE crisis
(Table 1).

Table 1: Export of purebred breeding heifers from EU countries 1993-2003
Period Extra-EU Intra-EU Total
1993 67,909 55,834 123,743
1994 80,693 78,590 159,283
1995 124,135 57,856 181,991
1996 133,451 56,050 189,501
1997 84,436 77,551 161,987
1998 98,794 73,053 171,847
1999 96,338 83,824 180,162
2000 76,941 74,400 151,341
2001 11,423 87,890 99,313
2002 30,593 102,354 132,947
2003 35,569 65,453 101,022
Roughly half the breeding heifers exported from EU countries remained within EU-borders
and half left the EU. Of the latter, the largest share - about 64% - was exported to the West
Asia/Maghreb region. The most important trade partners were in Northern Africa.
Morocco received 18% of exports leaving the EU, Algeria received 9%, and Tunisia,
Egypt, Libya and Sudan together received 7.8%. In West Asia, Turkey received 20% and
Lebanon and Jordan, both received 2-3% of exports. The large Turkish share resulted from
a special credit programme for the export of German breeding cattle to Turkey which ran
from 1988 to 1996 and financed the purchase of 177,000 heifers. 45,000 heifers were
exported during its last year alone. Since then, however, virtually no exports have gone to
Turkey (Annex 9.1 A 14). The remaining 3.8% of EU exports to West Asia/Maghreb went
to 11 countries in West Asia.
34% of heifer exports leaving the EU were received by non-EU European countries. About
19% went to Eastern European countries, most notably Poland, the Czech Republic, Russia
and Ukraine, while 14% went to South Eastern European countries. The Balkan countries
(Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Serbia and Montenegro) predominated. Switzerland
accounted for 0.7% of the heifer exports leaving the EU while Northern-European
countries constituted 0.5% (mainly the Baltic states). Heifer exports from the EU to other
parts of the world averaged 1.8% annually. Of these, Brazil and the Philippines were the
only two countries receiving more than 0.1% of extra-EU exports. For more details refer to
Annexes A 15 and A 16.
From 1993 to 2003, the EU was a net-exporter of purebred breeding heifers. Exports
exceeded imports by almost 40,000 per year (import-export-ratio: 0.7). However, the
absolute number of trades as well as the import-export-ratios of individual countries
showed considerable variation.
The main net-exporting countries were Germany, Denmark, the Netherlands, Sweden and
France, Austria and Finland. However, since genetic exchange from Sweden and Finland is
restricted mainly to Norway and Denmark, they can not be considered true exporters.
Additionally, the UK was an importer of breeding heifers during the years of recovery
from BSE.

The two main importing countries are Spain and Italy. Their import-export-ratios were 27
and 22 respectively. Other net-importers were Portugal, Greece, the UK, Ireland and
Belgium-Luxembourg. EU imports from the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary were
mainly cheap beef and dairy cattle for herd build-up, e.g., in the former GDR. In Italy,
Spain, Portugal and Greece, there was a tendency to import replacement breeding heifers
from the north (France, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Denmark), where
rearing costs are lower. A decline of imports was caused by the BSE crisis. For a
comparison of absolute numbers refer to Annex 9.1 A 17.
In Table 2, import data for EU countries over the 1993 to 2003 time period are presented.
On average, EU countries imported more than 111,000 breeding heifers annually from
1993 to 2003. Imports to EU countries ranged from 80,000 to 130,000 head of cattle,
without a clear trend. A peak of more than 200,000 imports in 1994 resulted from a
massive Spanish import of almost 70,000 French breeding heifers. Italy has become the
largest importer within the EU, followed by Spain, Greece and Portugal.
Table 2: Import of purebred breeding heifers to EU countries 1993-2003
Period Extra-EU Intra-EU Total
1993 65,186 66,120 131,306
1994 69,687 131,599 201,286
1995 34,394 83,346 117,740
1996 10,781 82,369 93,150
1997 6,266 104,226 110,492
1998 4,351 98,046 102,397
1999 3,189 89,317 92,506
2000 3,008 114,052 117,060
2001 1,267 71,592 72,859
2002 902 102,776 103,678
2003 1,129 79,139 80,268
In the period studied, only 13% of the imports to EU countries came from extra-EU
countries. The remaining 87% are intra-community trade and cannot be considered real
imports. The increase in the percentage of EU imports originating within the EU - from
67% in 1993 to 99% in 2003 - may be explained by the accession of exporting countries of
breeding cattle (Austria, Sweden, Finland) and by the BSE scare. Imports during the early
1990s were mainly intended for initial herd build-up, as was already discussed.
Of the imports from extra-EU countries the majority (88%) were from Eastern Europe. The
most important trade partners were the Czech Republic (60%), Hungary (22%), Slovakia
(2.8%) and Poland (2.8%); all are EU-member states today. 8.1% of imports came from
Switzerland and imports from six other European countries combined to make up slightly
more than 1%. Canada dominated imports from North America with 3.3%. Marginal
shares of imports to the EU came from the USA, Algeria, Morocco, Hong Kong and other
unspecified countries, which together made less than 1% contribution. Imports from the
USA were restricted due to Bluetongue, Bovine Leucosis and BHV1. No imports were

reported from other parts of the world. For absolute numbers, refer to Annexes A 18 and A
19.
Table 3 presents data summarising exports of Simmental cattle from Austria and Germany
over a five year period (1998 to 2002). On average almost 7,500 breeding animals per
annum were exported from Germany and more than 10,000 were exported from Austria.
After 2000, the German export figures were more strongly affected by the BSE crisis than
the Austrian ones. Of the breeding cattle exported from Germany, 85% were heifers, 5 %
cows, 5% calves, 4% maiden heifers and 0.5 % bulls. In Austria the exports were 73%
pregnant heifers, 22% cows, 4% heifers, 1% calves and 0.5% bulls. Exports to European
countries were dominant, 88% and 98% of German and Austrian Simmental exports,
respectively. 67% of German and 46% of Austrian exports went to East and Southeast
European countries, predominantly Bosnia, followed by Croatia and Kosovo. Bosnia and
Kosovo were important buyers of cattle because of donor-funded reconstruction
programmes.
Table 3: Simmental breeding cattle exports from Germany and Austria 1998-2002
Year Austria
1
Germany
2
1998 9,850 13,174
1999 13,185 9,585
2000 10,439 8,411
2001 8,728 3,190
2002 8,026 3,072
1
data from Arbeitsgemeinschaft sterreichischer Fleckviehzchter (2004),
2
data from Arbeitsgemeinschaft
Deutscher Rinderzchter e.V. (2002)
21% of German Simmental exports went to EU countries, while more than 50% of the
Austrian Simmentals remained in the EU. Italy was the biggest customer, followed by
Spain (for Germany) and Germany (for Austria). The main destination for exports of
Simmental breeding animals outside Europe was West-Asia/Maghreb. 12% of German and
2% of Austrian exports went to this region. The dominant importers were Morocco,
Algeria and Egypt (for Germany) and Algeria (for Austria). Until 1996, Turkey had
overriding importance. Between 1998 and 2002, Austria had no other exports while 0.2%
of Germany exports went to Colombia and an even smaller share of breeding animals went
to Australia.
Considering a longer time span, Averdunk et al. (2001) report export booms from
Germany to Italy and Yugoslavia in the 1970s and to countries of the Maghreb region in
the 1980s. In the 1970s exports went to North American and Latin American countries, to
New Zealand and Australia, and to countries in Northern Europe (Figure 3). The
foundations of Simmental populations in these regions were based on the introduction of
relatively few animals or imports of semen. As the Simmental breed became established
and expanded, and breeding organisations were founded (e.g., the World Simmental
Federation in 1974), exports to these countries have been limited to a few animals of high
breeding value (Grupp, 2003; Jakopovic et al., 1995; Rusch, 1988). Simmentals were
exchanged between the new breeding associations and exported to countries in which they

were not yet established (Felius, 1995). Political and economic developments in African
and South American countries at the end of the 1970s are cited as contributing factors for
dropping exports to these regions (Sonn, 1985), but the apparently low replacement
requirements of beef breeding herds may also play a role.
Simmental exports from Germany to other regions of the world have been less pronounced.
For example, in 1976 about 3,000 Simmentals were exported from Germany to Heilonjiang
Province, Manchuria (Meyn, 2005). Between 1979 and 1984 more imports followed from
Austria, Switzerland and France (Liang, 1988). Yearly exports of 500 to 1,500 German
Gelbvieh and Simmental breeding animals by a German Cattle trading company to
ranching regions of Kenya, Uganda, Zambia, Angola, Mozambique and South Africa
(Sonn, 1984) are reported from 1965 to 1975, with Simmentals always outnumbering
Gelbviehs. In all these regions, Simmentals were developed as a dual-purpose breed with
more or less equal emphasis on meat and milk. For more detailed information on the total
exports over time see Annex 9.1 A 20. Annex 9.1 A 21 and A 22 compile information on
environments to which Simmentals have been introduced and their crosses with local
breeds in the second half of the last century.
In the 1970s, Holstein heifers were imported to Yugoslavia and a genetic improvement
programme was started. Simmental, Black and White, Red and White, and other domestic
cattle breeds were upgraded with Holstein up to Holstein purebreds (Medic et al., 2002).
From June 2000 to June 2003, the Kosovo Emergency Farm Reconstruction Project
(EFRP) was implemented to reconstruct agricultural production in areas damaged during
the Balkan conflict (Cossee, 2003). Although not all imported animals originated from
Germany the impact on export numbers was significant because of the import ban by many
other countries because of BSE. The share of Simmental exports to Kosovo rose from 1%
in 2000 to 9% in 2001 and 36% in 2002 (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sddeutscher Rinderzucht
und Besamungsstationen e.V., 2002). According to the World Bank (2003), breeding cattle
imported under the project included 4,399 heifers and 92 bulls. By the end of 2003 the herd
had grown to 9,000 head. The effect these transfers had on gene flow is unclear, since
animals were primarily used to build up milking rather than breeding herds. Absolute
figures of German Simmental breeding animal exports to other Balkan countries can be
seen in Annex 9.1 A 23.
The export ratio of breeding animals gives an indication of the relative importance of gene
flow within a country and gene flow that leaves the country. Between 1998 and 2002 the
export ratio of Simmental breeding animals in Germany was 30%. Though inland sales
were more stable than exports in this period, there is some indication that years in which
export sales were high, inland sales decreased (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sddeutscher
Rinderzucht und Besamungsstationen e.V., 2002).
The exports of the Swiss Simmental Breeding Association serve as another example of
fluctuations in trade caused by disease. While the Association exported almost 6,000
breeding animals to eight different countries in 1996, its export business collapsed entirely
in the following two years due the outbreak of Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)
and the associated restrictions Switzerland had to face in trading live animals. Only in
1999 did their exports slowly start to recover (Schweizerischer Fleckviehzuchtverband,
2000); from 2003 there were announcements of revived exports (Agro-News Aktuelles aus
der Landwirtschaft, 2003).

From the mid 1970s to the outbreak of BSE in Switzerland around 1991, the government
paid generous export premiums to support breeding cattle exports in competition with the
export premiums of the EU. Together, Switzerland and Austria were able to supply all the
breeding cattle required by Italy. Export premiums were also important instruments for
breeding cattle exports of the EU to third countries, but their relative values became
smaller and smaller over the years and they are now expiring with the agricultural reform
2003 of the EU.
Croatia was an important importer of breeding cattle in the 1970s, then became a net-
exporter and remained a net-exporter until the Balkan war in the early 1990s. As
agricultural assets were lost in the war, Croatia depended on imports of food products in
the post-war period. For reconstruction purposes, foreign breeding animals were imported
and Croatia again became a net-importer of live breeding animals (Haluska, 2002).
Semen
According to Eurostat, the internal EU export trade in semen was 3.7 million doses at a
trade value of 23.4 million in 2003. Almost 3 million doses were exported to third
countries at an export value of 15.6 million. Notably, not all the quantities are reported in
the database, but the export values are all given. According to these statistics, export shares
in doses of semen are: other Western Europe and accession countries 37%, Latin America
21%, CIS, Balkan countries, Turkey and North Africa 17%, USA/Canada 13%,
Australia/New Zealand 7%, Asia except CIS and Turkey 3% and Africa except North
Africa 2%. For more details on the absolute numbers of semen exports see Annexes A 24,
A 25 and A 26.
While North America is a significant exporter of semen, its role as an importing region is
minor, according to Chupin and Thibier (1995). Among developed countries, the EU is the
primary importer of cattle semen, followed by non-EU Western European countries, other
developed countries (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa), and Eastern European
countries. This finding is confirmed on the basis of imported semen value (Hemme, 1995).
In 2003, EU countries imported about 6.8 million semen doses. Most of the imports
originated within the EU and the majority of the non-EU imports came from the USA and
Canada. A very small percentage of imports originated in Australia/New Zealand and other
countries (Figure 4). For more details see Annexes A 27 and A 28. Some imports resulted
from joint testing programmes with other countries (e.g. Czech Republic, Slovenia or
Switzerland) and returning semen of test bulls to their countries of origin (e.g., Hungary,
Czech Republic, Poland or Romania).
Figure 4: Share of semen imports to EU countries by origin in 2003
Number of doses Share in %
intra-EU 2,926,437 39
USA 2,476,008 33
Canada 1,759,377 23
Others 366,551 5
Total 7,528,373 100

The Netherlands, Germany, and the UK were the largest semen importers in the EU. AI
coverage is an indicator of a countrys accessibility to exogenous gene flow. The ratio of
the number of doses of semen imported to the number of cows or first inseminations
carried out (Table 4) provides a measure of the accessibility, awareness, and penetration of
foreign semen in a given country. This relation indicates the awareness, interest and
willingness of the cattle producers in the country to import semen. For a comparison of
imports and exports in absolute numbers including a global view of the early 1990s see
Annexes A 29, A 30 and A 31.
Table 4: Semen import to EU-15 countries and insemination with imported semen in 2003
Country Imported semen doses Inseminations with imported
semen (%)
Netherlands 1,527,180 38
Germany 1,449,358 53
UK 1,261,812 18
Spain 846,744 42
France 593,781 11
Belgium 566,127 30
Austria 376,051 48
Italy 262,532 22
Portugal 195,494 19
Sweden 169,830 26
Finland 115,499 5
Denmark 77,131 14
Luxembourg 60,713 36
Greece 28,987 6
Ireland 1 78
EU-15 7,531,240 23
For a detailed trend analysis German semen imports and exports were analysed. Between
1998 and 2002, on average 290,000 semen doses of the Simmental breed and more than
677,000 doses of the Holstein breed were exported from Germany per annum. The
percentage of all semen exports which were Simmental in this period was relatively
constant at 23% (max: 26%; min 18%). 55% of semen exports were Holstein. Refer to
Annexes A 24 and A 25 for data on German import and export rates and their development
over time. The notable depression of German semen exports from 1991 to 1994 resulted
from re-unification. The impact of the BSE crisis can also be seen in the data for 2000 and
2001, when it was not yet established that BSE cannot be transmitted by semen. Germany
has a long history of semen imports from North America. Imports increased in 1994 to
1995 due to the entry of Austria into the EU.

On average, more than 26,000 doses of Simmental and 573,000 doses of Holstein semen
were imported into Germany annually. The percentage of imported Simmental doses from
first inseminations with Simmental is 1.4%. It is not specified where the imported semen
doses came from. Simmental semen comprised 4.7% of all semen imported between 1998
to 2002 on average, with considerable variation (max: 6.1%; min: 0.6%). For the Holstein
breed, this percentage was 86%. A comparison of Simmental and Holstein over this period
is not useful, however. Large-scale gene flow of the Holstein breed from North America to
Europe was still ongoing, but there was no similar movement of the Simmental breed
because the Germans were the top breeders of the Simmental and did not consider it
worthwhile to buy semen from other countries.
An average of 662,346 cattle semen doses were imported to Germany between 1998 to
2002 (all breeds). More than half the imports originated from North America, while 34%
came from EU countries, 18% came from Eastern Europe, 0.9% came from the remaining
West European countries (effect of BSE crisis, especially Switzerland), and 0.3% came
from Australia and New Zealand. No semen was imported from other regions of the world
in the years studied. German AI organisations frequently keep test or lay-off bulls in
various Central and East European countries and re-import semen, which explains the large
percentage of imports originating in Central and East European countries. For absolute
numbers of mean imports see Figure 5 and for more details on their development over time
see Annex 9.1 A 32.
Figure 5: Mean annual imports of semen doses to Germany by partner region for 1998-
2002

1,627
4,338
10,871
227,948
417,562
0 250,000 500,000
Australia and New
Zealand
remaining W-Europe
Eastern Europe
EU
North-America
number of semen doses

Source: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Deutscher Rinderzchter e.V. (2002)
Recent trends in semen and embryo exchange for internationally-integrated breeding work
are illustrated by the following two examples.
Between 1998 and 2002, Germany exported an average of 158 Simmental embryos
annually (Arbeitsgemeinschaft Sddeutscher Rinderzucht und Besamungsstationen e.V.,
2002). From 2001 onwards, German Simmental embryos of top-mating pedigree were
implanted in Canadian recipient cows and female progeny were used in North American
dairy farms. Semen was returned to Germany, where male progeny were used as test sires.
These cattle served as insurance in case of epidemics in Europe (Grupp, 2003).

An intensive exchange of Simmental semen in Europe is indicated by a common test bull
programme in Austria, Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, Slovenia, Czech Republic and
Slovakia (Dodenhoff and Egger-Danner, 2004).
3.1.2 North America
In 1973, eight plane loads of breeding cattle were exported from the USA to Honduras.
The majority of these animals were of the Brahman breed, though Santa Gertrudis and
Charolais cattle were also included. Annex 9.1 A 33 shows us Brahman exports by
destination over a 5-year period. In the previous year, Holstein breeding animals had been
imported (McDonald, 1973). Beefmaster genetic material, a synthetic breed with major
contribution from Brahman cattle, was exported from the USA to Latin America and
Australia in the 1970s and 1980s (Schuhmacher, 1983). Similarly, Brangus genetic
material (a synthetic breed of Brahman and Angus) was exported from the USA from the
1970s onwards and led to worldwide distribution (Holbert, 1983).
The spread of the Holstein is one of the most significant gene flow events in history. The
Holstein was bred as a single-purpose dairy breed from the 1950s onwards. The large size
of the cow, its high milk yield, and American salesmanship combined to drive extensive
exports from the USA which made the Holstein the single most important dairy breed in
the world. The genetic spread occurred primarily via export of semen and embryos to the
developed world, with France being the main importer of embryos. However, between the
1950s and the early 1990s an estimated 3.9 million cattle of dairy breeds were imported
from developed countries by developing countries, 2 million in Latin America and 1.9
million in Africa and Asia. In the early 1990s, there were nucleus herds of high-yielding
dairy breeds in 52% of African, 71% of Asian and 100% of Latin American countries.
From the 1960s onwards, the Holstein breed was the predominant breed among all
imported dairy breeds (McDowell, 1992).
Beginning in the 1950s, dairy cattle breeders in Europe became interested in the highly
productive North American dairy breeds, in particular the Holstein-Friesian. As grain
prices declined, feeding even large quantities of concentrates became economical. Breeders
looked for large-framed dairy cattle which had been successfully bred over many decades
solely for milk yield, disregarding fat test, conformation and beef characteristics with
lactation yields almost twice that of European dual-purpose breeds. In the course of a few
years almost all AI stations and breeders associations used genetic resources from the USA
and Canada, either in the form of live imported sires and heifers or via import of semen
and embryos. In many breed associations this massive gene transfer resulted in almost
complete upgrading. Standards for the increasingly observed type appraisal in North
America were adopted, though they were sometimes modified to emphasise the old dual-
purpose type to some extent. The 4% fat test breeding goal was also conserved.
Between 1985 and 1998, domestic sales of semen in the USA declined while exports
further increased, raising the export share from 16.5% (2,524,000 doses dairy) to more
than 40% (8,789,700 doses dairy, 848,300 doses beef and 18,370 embryos) in 1998
(Monke, 1999).

3.1.3 South America
The establishment of the Simmental breed in Brazil was dominated by imports of genetic
material from Germany. From a total of 3,001 live breeding animals imported between
1905 and 1994, 66% originated in Germany. Smaller percentages came from the other
traditional Simmental-keeping countries: 6% from Switzerland, 5% from Austria, and 1%
from France. The remaining 22% arrived from countries where the Simmental became
widely established only in the second half of the 20th century, with the largest share (11%)
coming from Argentina where the distribution of Simmental in South America started
(Stange, 1988). Smaller shares originated in Canada (5%), Uruguay (3%), the USA (2%),
and South Africa (0.3%). For absolute numbers see Figure 6 (Fraga, 2004).
Figure 6: Imported Simmental breeding animals to Brazil by country of origin for 1905-
1994
10
25
74
91
141
161
195
326
1.978
0 500 1.000 1.500 2.000 2.500
South Afrcica
France
USA
Uruguay
Austria
Canada
Switzerland
Argentine
Germany
number of animals

Between 1986 and 1993, 1,835 Simmental embryos were imported to Brazil. 60% of these
imports were Canadian, 26% were German, and smaller shares came from Italy, Argentina,
Switzerland, and the USA (Annex 9.1 A 34). 166,065 Simmental semen doses were
imported to Brazil between 1972 to 1993. 47% of the semen came from Germany, 27%
from the USA, 9% from Canada, 9% from Italy, 6% from Switzerland, 0.9% from
Argentina and 0.7% from Austria (Annex 9.1 A 35). The registered cattle population with
Simmental blood grew to more than 370,000 animals in 2003, becoming one of the most
important cattle breeds in Brazil (Fraga, 2004). Yearly sales of semen doses of the
Simmental breed in Brazil were 273,000 in 2002, which corresponds to 3.9% of all semen
doses sold (Country report of Brazil, 2003). For the total number of semen doses sold per
breed, see Annex 9.1 A 36.
Simmental genetic material - both live animals and semen - were introduced to Colombia
in the 1970s through collaboration of the Colombian and German governments. The first
imported Simmental bulls arrived from Switzerland in 1968, but they did not immediately

have a significant influence. Later, however, they led to a gradual spread of the Simmental
breed throughout the country. The Simmental was used as a dual-purpose breed in regions
with favourable climactic conditions and in crossings with more robust breeds like the
Brahman elsewhere. In the mid 1980s, import restrictions on live animals were eased,
leading to massive imports of different breeds from Europe and North America
(Asociacin Colombiana de Criadores de Ganado Simmental y sus cruces-AsoSimmental,
2004; Orbita, 2004 and SOPEXA, 2004).
Though Holstein and Zebu cattle are also of considerable significance in South America,
information on these breeds was not available.
In 1964, a nucleus herd of purebred Central American Criollos was exported from
Nicaragua to Mexico. Bulls emerging from these herds were later used in AI of local cattle
or exotic breeds. Selection in a Criollo herd in Costa Rica from the 1950s led to the
distribution of genetic material from this herd to several Latin American countries, namely
Mexico, the Dominican Republic, and Bolivia. The most widespread distribution was
reported in areas where milk producers were already organised and established institutions
could be used (Alba, 1978; Felius, 1995; Israeli Cattle Breeders Association, 2004).
The Brahman and the Santa Gertrudis breeds had the most influence on beef cattle
breeding in the tropical and subtropical zones of the New World. They were also imported
into several African countries, but were found to have shortcomings as subsistence milk
suppliers for pastoral herdsmen. The main trading partner of the American Brahman
Breeders changed two times during the six years from 1977 to 1982. While Venezuela was
the main partner country in 1977, it played a marginal role only three years later, while
Mexico became more significant. In the interim, Colombia was the main partner country of
American Brahman exports (Cowert, 1983).
From 1983 to 1988, 120,000 Holstein animals were imported into Venezuela from North
America (Vaccaro, 1990). Imports and exports of other South American countries could
not be quantified.
3.1.4 Asia
Asia contains two distinct breeding zones, a temperate zone and a tropical and subtropical
zone. In the temperate zone, there is an emphasis on dairy cattle but also some beef.
Countries in the temperate zone include the former Soviet Union: Siberia (Russia),
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan. These countries have a
history of continental dual-purpose breeds, Holsteins, and also the Kazakhian Whitehead
for beef production which is in fact an upgrade of the Hereford breed. In Japan, Korea and
China, which are also in the temperate zone, there is an emphasis on Holsteins but also
Simmentals (Manchuria). Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Saudi Arabia,
Kuwait, United Arab Emirates are all dependent on the import of live animals from
Europe. Israel, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Iran also occasionally import cattle from the USA.
In Iran, breeding cattle were first imported in 1940 by the University of Tehran. They
originated from France and included the Tarantaise, Tachetee, Brown Swiss and
Montbliarde breeds. Gradual but steady import activity is reported from 1951 onwards.
Purebred dairy cows (Brown Swiss, Jersey, Danish Red, Simmental and Holstein breeds)
were imported first from Europe and later from North America. While government bodies
dominated cattle import in the 1950s, private sector import became more significant with

time. Imports of live breeding animals ceased in 1980. 95% of the 750,000 purebred cattle
kept around large cities in Iran are Holstein (Schahidi et al., 2001).
From 1980 onwards, imports of breeding animals into Iran were prohibited in order to
encourage purebreeding within the country. From 1983, progeny tests in purebred cows
were performed. The first AI station had already been set up by the government in 1950.
By the end of the 1990s, there were seven stations. From 1991 to 1997, the share of semen
imports decreased from 28% to 5.7%. This is partly explained by an increase in the genetic
potential of Iranian bulls, but the exchange rate is also an influential factor. For a long time
both cattle imports and the production of semen were limited to governmental bodies. In
the late 1990s, political stability increased and the private sector was given more freedom.
Private companies began to import semen from the USA, Canada, Holland, and Germany
to develop the potential for a dairy industry based on temperate zone breeds (Schahidi et
al., 2001).
From 1942 onwards, the genetic improvement policy in Iraq called for crossbreeding of
local cattle with Holsteins. In 1962, AI was introduced. The number of inseminations
increased from 648 in 1962 to more than 132,000 in 1976. In comparison, the national
cattle population numbered roughly 2 million in 1974. The Iraqi government supported the
country-wide distribution of the Holstein breed by making young Holstein bulls available
to cattle owners. Later on, free veterinary services accompanying AI also supported
Holstein distribution. Higher-yielding crossbreeds increased demand for AI with Holstein
semen (El Dessouky, 1977). In the following decades no more gene flows were reported,
as Iraq became completely isolated from the rest of the world.
The formation of the Israeli Holstein breed dates back the early 20th century, when
imported European cattle were crossbred with locally available cattle (e.g., Damascus
cattle). In the 1950s, massive imports of North-American Holstein cattle contributed to a
sharp increase in the genetic potential for milk production, which was further enhanced by
the strict national breeding plan. This led to the formation of the Israeli Holstein breed,
which is known for its high potential for milk production under subtropical and arid
conditions and intensive management, and also for the low butterfat and protein content.
These developments led to an increased demand for the Israeli Holstein in countries with
similar climatic conditions. This is illustrated by the large number of Israeli Holstein cattle
exported to Iran, Turkey and Egypt (Israeli Cattle Breeders Association, 2001). For more
details, see Annex 9.1 A 37, which sums up information from different periods, also
reflecting political dependency of export volume and destination.
In the tropical and subtropical zone breeding emphasis incorporating exotic breeds is on
crossbreeding for milk production but there is also some development of beef. India,
Pakistan and Bangladesh are countries in this zone that failed several times to establish
pure breeds and made a vast effort to crossbreed taurindicus cattle for milk. Many German
and Swiss projects were conducted. Southeast Asia directed its efforts toward breeding
dairy cattle, but in many regions - e.g., in the Philippines - they were unsuccessful. Other
examples are breeding of Danish Red near Bangkok, German dual-purpose breeds in
Thailand, and German Holsteins in Malaysia.
In India, there are two prominent examples of successful genetic progress in cattle
breeding, Operation Flood and the Indo-Swiss cattle project. Both are characterised by a
comprehensive approach, which includes all aspects of the production environment,

marketing and training, as well as a long-term commitment by a national or local body.
Between 1961 and 1975, bulls for semen production of different dairy breeds (Holstein on
the forefront) were imported to India from Australia, Denmark, Canada, New Zealand,
United Kingdom and the USA (Katpatal, 1977). In 1985, 1,000 Holstein heifers were
imported from Germany and, over many years, Brown Swiss were brought in from
Switzerland and the USA. These imports were crossbred with local cattle to form the
Sunandini and Karan Swiss breeds under the auspices of the Indo-Swiss cattle project in
Kerala State. Although Holsteins were in the forefront of live animals imported into India,
the National Dairy Development Board of India (Operation Flood) favoured and used
Jersey cattle for crossbreeding because of their desirable high butterfat percentage and
small body size of the cows.
Since the start of the 19th century, the Philippines have imported breeding animals. The
Southwest of the Philippines and parts of Indonesia are somewhat drier and are suitable for
cattle ranching. Brahman, American, Brazilian and Australian Zebu crossbreeds and some
large-sized European beef and dual-purpose breeds were imported to these areas. The
Brahman breed has become the most popular exotic breed due to its adaptability. In Table
5, an overview of importations into the Philippines is given.
In the National Medium Term Livestock Development Programme (1993-1998), cattle,
sheep, goats, pigs, and other animal species were imported to the Philippines. Purebred
Brahman and Simbrah cattle were imported from the USA and kept in nucleus herds.
Superior animals were multiplied and genetic improvement reached rural village level
through AI or live bull crossbreeding of local cattle (Boadle et al., 1997; Loculan, 2002).
Table 5: Cattle breeding imports into the Philippines
Year Number of
breeds
Breeds
1900-1935 15 Dairy: Jersey, Shorthorn, Holstein, Guernsey
Beef: Galloway, Angus, Devon, Hereford, Sussex
Zebu beef: Nellore, Hariana, Bhagnari
Zebu dual-purpose: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Tharparkar
1946-1970 12 Dairy: Brown Swiss
Beef: Brahman, Chiricano, Santa Gertrudis, Ongole, Charolais,
Charbray Braford, Red Poll
Others: Red Danes, Australian Illawara, Balinese, Madura
1971-1983 9 Beef: Indu-Brazil, Droughtmaster, Beefmaster, Belmont Red,
Beefalo, Chianina, Marchiagiana, Simmental, Maine Anjou
1990 2 Dairy: Australian Friesian Sahiwal
Dual-purpose: Simbrah
Year Head Breeds
1993 8,816 Simbrah
1994 6,893 Brahman, Simbrah, Holstein, Sahiwal
1995 12,546 Senepol, Nellore, Simmental, Brahman
1996 3,648 Brahman, Senepol
Source: adapted from: Loculan (2002)

From 1999 onwards, Indonesia imported bulls of various breeds, including the Simmental,
from Australia. The import scheme, intended to increase meat production, was fostered by
the Indonesian government. Artificial breeding centres were established in provincial
areas, and technicians were trained and equipped with nitrogen, containers, and motorbikes
to transport subsidised AI semen to farmers. 20% of Indonesias cows were inseminated
with Simmental or Limousine semen (Hadi et al., 2002; Meat and Livestock Australia,
2001; Simmental Australia, 2002). Imports and exports of other Asian countries could not
be quantified.
3.1.5 Africa
Information on the current status and trends of gene flow in important African countries is
limited, despite the significance of cattle breeding in countries such as South Africa,
Namibia, Zimbabwe and Zambia in the South, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria in the North,
and Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in the East. The following section depicts the example of
Mozambique, where gene flow has been documented.
Holstein cattle were first imported to Egypt in the 1930s. Between 1954 and 1961, imports
from the Netherlands and Denmark followed and, from the 1970s, semen was imported
from the USA (Nigm, 1990).
AI was of practical use in commercial farming in Mozambique as early as 1962. At this
time, imported semen was used exclusively. The Africander breed from South Africa was
the most significant for beef production. Other breeds used included Hereford, Angus,
Sussex, Simmental, Pinzgauer, Charolais, Chianina, Brahman and Santa Gertrudis. In
1974, a first effort was made by governmental bodies of Mozambique to establish an AI
centre, which did however not succeed. In 1977, the national AI centre was reopened and a
subsidised AI scheme removed the need for fees. In the 1980s, however, it was observed
that AI had serious limitations under ranch conditions and its importance diminished. AI
was also not introduced in the small-scale sector. Failure of AI resulted from the lack of an
established dairy industry and breeding policy. The establishment of AI centres was
premature.
From a dairy herd of about 3,000 cows in state and private farms in Mozambique in 1983,
about 70% were artificially inseminated. Figure 7 illustrates the breeds and countries of
origin of the semen used. Almost 95% of the cows were inseminated with Holstein semen.
The majority came from Mozambique, and significant percentages came from New
Zealand, Denmark and Germany (Rocha et al., 1987).

Figure 7: Number of inseminations by breed and origin of semen in the dairy sector in
Mozambique 1983
11
1193
492 154
212
104
Holstein from Mozambique
Holstein from New Zealand
Holstein from Denmark
Holstein from Germany
J ersey from Denmark
Brown Swiss from Switzerland

Source: Rocha et al. (1987)
3.1.6 World
FAO surveys conducted by Chupin and Schuh (1993) and Chupin and Thibier (1995)
analysed the use of AI and semen trade in developing and developed countries. In 1991,
76% of developing countries included in a survey reported use of AI in cattle in their
countries (100% Near East, 87% Asia, 79% Latin America, 57% Africa). In some of these
countries, the development of AI programmes was still in experimental stages. 71% of
countries using AI also produced semen locally, while the remainder used only imported
semen.
65% of the developing countries included in the analysis imported cattle semen. This
percentage is highest in Asian countries (78%), lowest in African countries (51%), and
intermediate in Latin American (68%) and Near East countries (75%). On average, most
imports went to Latin American countries, with almost 121,000 imported semen doses, and
the least went to African countries, which imported just 11,750 doses. Asian countries
imported 37,437 doses and Near East countries 28,877 doses).
Based on data from 62 countries, the number of inseminations in developing nations
increased by 131% between 1980 and 1991 (Africa: -5%; Latin America: +11%; Asia:
+85%; Near East: 203%). The stagnation in Africa insemination rates is probably due
mainly to the unstable political situation in Southern Africa and the declining interest of
the western world in Africa following the end of the East-West conflict. In Latin America,
where beef is important, AI development was probably constrained by economics. The
countries with rapid dairy development in the Near East and Asia have also had rapid AI
development.
In developed countries the number of inseminations decreased by 13% between 1980 and
1991 (EU: -17%; North America: -5%; Eastern Europe: -29%; Western Europe: -8%;
others: +21%). During this period, the use of AI decreased most significantly in dual-
purpose breeds (-29%), while AI in dairy breeds decreased by -12% and AI in beef breeds

increased by +25%. The decline in dairy inseminations in the developed countries is
mainly due to yield increases and reduced cow numbers.
In general, AI coverage in developing countries increased between 1980 and 1991, through
there was considerable variability between countries and regions. In 1991, AI coverage in
developing countries was highest in Asian countries, followed by Near East, Latin
American and African countries. In all regions AI coverage was highest for temperate
breeds and lowest for local breeds, with AI of crossbreds between local and temperate
breeds being intermediate. As could be expected, AI coverage in developed countries was
higher than in developing countries. Generally, it was highest in dairy breeds and lowest in
beef breeds. For more details on AI coverage differentiated for regions and breed groups
see Annexes A 38 and A 39.
Of inseminations in the surveyed developing countries, 43% were by local breeds, 30% by
crossbreds and 27% by temperate zone breeds. These percentages were highly variable by
region. In Africa inseminations by the three breed groups had about equal shares, while in
Asia inseminations by local breeds clearly dominated. In Latin America, the majority of
inseminations were by crossbreds, while in the Near East most were by temperate breeds.
In developed countries dairy breeds made up a 61% majority of all inseminations. 23% of
inseminations were performed with dual-purpose semen and the remaining 16% with
semen from beef breeds. For more details see Annexes A 40 and A 41.
The main source of gene flow from developed countries was North America (USA,
Canada), which produced 72% of global semen exports (Chupin and Thibier, 1995). The
second largest exporter was the EU, from which 19% of semen exports originated. The
remaining 10% of exports came from non-EU countries in Eastern and Western Europe
and other countries (Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa).
Semen exports from the EU in 2003 point in a similar direction except that numbers were
lower (as the EU is the only trading partner for the importing countries considered) and
that mean numbers were highest for countries of West Asia/Maghreb followed by Latin
America (which mirrors geographical factors). For data on semen exports from the EU in
2003 differentiated by country of destination, refer to Annex 9.1 A 26.
88% of semen imported by developing countries globally was from dairy breeds, which
made up 98% of imports in the Near East, 73% in Asia, 87% in Africa, and 91% in Latin
America. Among the dairy breeds, the Holstein breed was clearly dominant, accounting for
86% of all imported semen doses, with much smaller shares contributed by the Jersey
breed (4%) and other dairy breeds (mainly Brown Swiss). 9.5% of all imported semen
doses were from beef breeds and 2.1% from tropical breeds (mainly Brahman, Red Sindhi
and Sahiwal) (Annex 9.1 A 30).
Hemme (1995) presents a study of the dynamics of semen trade in relation to trade values
from 1983 to 1993. He found that the value of semen traded internationally increased
almost steadily and, in total, tripled over this period. Since then, almost all countries have
increased their exports in terms of absolute numbers. Proportionally, the market share of
US exports shrunk to the benefit of EU exports. Within the EU, Germany, the Netherlands
and France dominated exports. Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela were the main importers
among southern countries and all showed constant growth rates, according to Hemme. In
Asia, Japan and South Korea extended their imports, while in other parts of the South no
major changes occurred. The highest prices were paid for semen in Japan and in the EU,

indicating the interest of customers in the top dairy cattle genetics of the temperate zone.
Relatively low prices were paid in Latin America, reflecting the main use of semen in
commercial herds.
Philipsson (2002) analysed four cases of cattle breeding systems with AI in less developed
countries (Pakistan, Kenya, Sudan, West Indies). The author identified problems in the
following areas:
Breeding objectives and utilisation of genetic resources;
Methodological, technical and operational issues;
Policy and organisational aspects.
AI is a useful technology for the breeding of dairy cattle, but is often of marginal economic
benefit in beef cattle breeding. The problems with dairy cattle in the humid tropics is the
lack of selected breeds or problems with excessive upgrading with temperate zone breeds.
3.2 Gene flow indicated by changes in the breed composition
In this section, examples of changing breed composition in national cattle populations are
given, focusing primarily on the proportion of the Simmental, Holstein and Brahman
breeds.
In some traditional Simmental-keeping regions of central Europe, the significance of the
breed waned in the second half of the 20th century. The Simmental population decreased
and was partly crossed with the Red Holstein. Table 6 gives an illustration from the 1960s,
when AI began to gain importance, to the beginning of the 1980s in Switzerland. Because
of the very high milk prices relative to beef, dairy farmers in the plains started to upgrade
the Simmental to the Red or Black Holstein, farmers at medium altitude continued to breed
Simmentals from a Red Holstein x Simmental foundation, and only farmers at higher
altitude maintained the Simmental without gene flow from the Holstein (Piot, 1987).
Table 6: Total numbers of cattle by breed in Switzerland
Total numbers of cattle by breed in Switzerland in 1,000
1966 1973 1978 1983 Change 1966
to 1983 in %
Brown cattle 852 894 884 786 -8
Red Pied
(Simmental)
885 894 897 851 -4
Black Pied
(Holstein)
30 86 190 229 660
Eringer
(Herens)
20 15 15 14 -31
Crosses 10 22 37 52 439
total
Switzerland
1,796 1,911 2,024 1,933 8
Source: Piot (1987)

In the 1970s, the former Soviet Union decided to pursue Holsteinization. While the
Simmental had been the leading cattle breed in the former USSR, no further imports of
Simmentals were made and large-scale upgrading was practised following the decision to
convert to Holstein. The number of Simmental cattle remained almost constant between
1974 and 1980, but their share of the national cattle population decreased from 29.2 to
25.6% due to the increased numbers of Holsteins (Bagrii, 1982). Although the Simmental
was rehabilitated by Russia as an accepted breed in 1997, it had lost its importance.
According to information provided by the Russian Cattle Breeders Federation
Rosplemobje-dinenje for 2001, the share of Simmental pedigree cattle had declined to
about 10%. Even within nominally Simmental herds, the use of Red Holstein bulls caused
the cattle to look more like Red Holsteins than Simmentals.
In Botswana in the 1980s, extension services made recommendations on the use of exotic
cattle breeds. They stated that, due to the large genetic differences between the local
Tswana cattle and exotic (Bos taurus) breeds, higher heterosis effects could be expected
when crossbreeding Tswana with exotic rather than local breeds. Exotic live animals
originated mainly in South Africa (Country Report of Botswana, 2003). The Tswana breed
is a Sanga cattle type introduced in the late 18th century to Botswana from Eastern Africa
(Felius, 1995; Payne and Hodges, 1997). In the 1980s, government institutions started to
promote the use of exotic bulls (including Simmental) on Tswana cows by subsidies and
the operation of an AI scheme. This led to a decrease in the share of purebred Tswana
cattle in the national cattle population from 75% in 1983 (Felius, 1995) to 50% in 1996,
and to decreased breeding efforts in Tswana cattle (Nsoso and Morake, 1999). The
diagram in Annex 9.1 A 42 illustrates that between 1987 and 1995 almost 95% of the bulls
used in Botswana were exotic breeds (Brahman: 57%; Simmental: 16%; Charolais: 13%;
other exotics: 9%; local breeds: 5%). However, under small-scale livestock-keeping
conditions pure Tswana cattle are reported to economically outperform the Simmental-
Tswana-crosses (Country Report of Botswana, 2003). Additionally, the use of exotic bulls
under small-scale livestock-keeping conditions is questionable due to lack of mating
control, management expertise, supplementary feeding and veterinary inputs (Nsoso and
Morake, 1999). Milk production is not a major production goal in Botswana.
According to the Australian Brahman Breeders Association (2004), minimal numbers of
Brahman cattle were first introduced to Australia in about 1900, though there are also
reports of earlier imports (Payne and Wilson, 1999; Vercoe, 1989). The 1930s, the 1950s,
and - most notably - the 1970s, brought subsequent major cattle imports from the USA.
The breeds resistance to different stress factors (e.g., heat, ticks) led to its spread in
tropical and subtropical regions of Northern Australia. Figure 8 illustrates the effects of the
introduction of the Brahman, steady increase in total number as well as in the share of zebu
cattle breeds in Queensland/Australia. While the share of zebu cattle breeds in
Queensland/Australia was zero until 1930, it grew to 4% in 1950, reached more than 50%
at the end of the 1970s and was expected to be close to 100% in the late 1990s. Breeding in
marginal areas which had not previously been used for beef production was allowed by the
introduction of tropical cattle breeds such as the Brahman and its derivates. For more
recent development of cattle registrations by breed in Australia, refer to Annex 9.1 A 43
(Croaker, 2002; Daly, 1981; Griffith et al., 2003; Payne and Hodges, 1997; Vercoe, 1989).

Figure 8: Number of cattle in Queensland/Australia

4.1
4.4
4.7
5.6
5.2 5.0
0.7
4.0
5.9
0.2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1900 1930 1950 1965 1973 1977
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s

i
n

1
'
0
0
0
'
0
0
0
Bos taurus Bos indicus and crosses

Source: own elaboration, data from Daly (1981)
In a development similar to that in Australia, the share of Brahman cattle in South Africa
grew from 4.4% to almost 57% between 1965 and 1985. The increase was mainly at the
expense of the Africander breed, an indigenous South African Sanga-type breed kept as the
main beef breed by white farmers in drier areas (Brahman Cattle breeders society South
Africa, 2004). The number of breeders by breed in 2003 is given in Annex 9.1 A 44.
Brahmans were imported primarily to South Africa and Namibia, and moved from there to
Botswana.
The use of the Simmental breed varies from country to country dependent on the primary
purpose of the breed in the country. This is due to dependencies on the level of milk prices
(Switzerland) and on the milk-beef-price ratio. In traditional Simmental-breeding countries
in Central and Eastern Europe, the breed is used as a genuine dual-purpose breed for milk
and beef production. In contrast, in the New World and in North-West Europe where the
breed has only been recently introduced, it is mainly used for beef. Because of more
attractive prices for milk than for beef, the Swiss Simmental and the French Montbliard
sub-type of the breed were oriented more towards milk (see also Annex 9.1 A 45).
3.3 Gene flow indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material into
existing breeds
The gradual introduction of foreign genes into existing breeds is another indicator of gene
flow. Although its impact and danger are higher, it is much more difficult to detect and
measure than the change of national composition of animal populations. The introduction
of foreign genes into existing breeds is illustrated by the example of the Simmental breed
in selected European countries.
Ayrshire bulls were introduced into Simmental breeding in Southern Germany in the 1950s
to improve milk yield and udder quality, but this did not lead to sustained results. In 1984,
a change in the breeding policy following the introduction of the EU milk-quota system put
an end to widespread crossbreeding schemes of Simmental with Red Holstein in Germany,
although some Red Holstein or half Red Holstein bulls were still used (Aumann, 2003;
Averdunk et al., 2001).

Ayrshires exerted a strong influence on the Simmental breed the Czech Republic. The
introduction of imported Red Holstein blood from North America in the 1970s led to the
expected higher milk yields in Simmentals, but to the detriment of parameters important
for beef production. The milk-beef-price ratio drove this development.
In contrast to that, the influence of Red Holstein introduction on the Simmental breed has
been more pronounced in Switzerland (first crosses in 1967).
In Russia, the introduction of Ayrshire and Montbliard genetic material into the
Simmental breed led to increased milk yields per cow in the 1970s (Bagrii, 1982). From
the 1980s, increased introduction of Red Holstein germplasm is reported (Sonn, 1985). In
the early 1990s, these developments were questioned and a return to typical dual-purpose
and pure Simmentals was requested (Sereda et al., 1991). However, the Simmental share of
the national herd had been reduced from 40% to 10% by 2001 because of the
Holsteinization policy. Introduction of Red Holstein genetic material has also been a
general policy in other East European Simmental (Felius, 1995).
In the 1970s, the Montbliard breed in France, a sub-type of the Simmental, had no
noteworthy influence of foreign genetic material. Starting in the early 1980s, however,
Holstein germplasm from the USA was introduced and increased the share of foreign
genetic material to 4%. For genetic material from Canada this value was 1% in the early
1990s. In the French Simmental breed the share of Swiss Simmental genetic material grew
from 15% in 1970 to about 30% in 1992, reaching a peak of almost 45% in the mid 1980s.
As the Swiss Simmental was influenced by Canadian and American Red Holstein genetic
material, the share of Holstein material in the French Simmental increased too. The share
of German genetic material, which contained much less Holstein influence, was zero in
most of the 1970s.
The share of foreign genetic material was much larger in the French Holstein breed, which
was almost completely absorbed by foreign Holstein germplasm through embryo imports.
The percentage of US American genetic material in the breed grew from about 5% in the
1970s to almost 80% in 1992. The share of Canadian genetic material in the same period
was between 10% and 25%, with a peak in 1980. The share of Dutch material decreased
from much higher levels in 1970 to less than 10% in 1992 (Boichard et al., 1996).
In 1995 the estimated percentage of Holstein genetic material in Black Pied cattle
populations averaged 66% in the EU, 59% in other European countries, and 36% in the
former USSR countries (Felius, 1995). AI, which made these developments possible,
caused the active breeding population of Holsteins, if considered genetically, to be rather
small (Wickham and Banos, 2004).
As the dairy cattle breeding industry has become more globalised and genetic material of
temperate breeds - mainly Holstein - has been increasingly traded internationally, lack of
consideration of genotype-environment interaction has caused sires of temperate origin to
be genetically overestimated when used in tropical and subtropical countries (Holmann et
al., 1991; Stanton et al., 1991).
In 1984 the International Bull Evaluation Service (Interbull) was founded by the
International Dairy Federation, the European Association for Animal Production and ICAR
(at the initiative of Professor Gravert), at the onset mainly for better comparability and
transparency within the temperate zone. Although virtually all data come from intensive
dairy systems that do not provide breeding value estimates in most developing countries, it

has helped exporters to purposefully target potential markets and importers to have a better
information basis for their buying decisions (Banos and Sigurdsson, 1996; Smith and
Banos, 1991; Zwald et al., 2003). However, the international exchange of genetic material
from few sires has also resulted in increasing levels of inbreeding since the early 1980s,
prompting concerns about inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variation (Young and
Seykora, 1996).
In some cases, introduction of foreign genetic material takes the form of continuous gene
flow into local breeds, leading to their absorption and replacement by new breeds. As an
example, the gradual introduction of the Simmental breed through upgrading or expansion
of imported purebred herds has led to the replacement of local breeds or strains in some
parts of the world, most notably in Europe. For data on the Simmental breed, see Table 7,
and for other breeds, see Annexes A 46 and A 47.
In many countries the Simmental itself is now facing increasing absorption by other
breeds, especially by the Holstein, which performs better in different environments but is
also being introduced to production conditions where it cannot express its performance
potential (see Annex 9.1 A 48).

Table 7: Examples of replacement of local cattle by imported Simmentals
Absorbed
breed
Absorbing
breed
Place Time Aspects Source
Local cattle
strains
Simmental Europe Late 19th
and early
20th
century
Share of Simmental
increased and local cattle
strains absorbed
Felius,
1995
Vogtlnder Simmental Germany Early
20th
century
Governmental regulations:
traditional Vogtlnder
breeding area to be changed
Muller,
1993
Hinterwlder Simmental Germany Second
half of
20th
century
Superior efficiency Furthmann,
1987
Limpurger Simmental Germany 20th
century
Superior efficiency Haller,
2000
Chianina and
Romagnola
among
others
Simmental Italy 1960s and
1970s
Replacement of local
draught breeds
(mechanisation of
agriculture)
Averdunk
et al., 2001
Hereford,
Angus,
Shorthorn,
Charolais
Simmental USA 1970s Spread of Simmental
diminished relative
importance of traditional
beef breeds
Peterson,
1988
East
Anatolian
Red
Simmental,
Brown Swiss
Turkey 1980s Crossings implied a
reduction of purebred East
Anatolian Red cattle.
Oklahoma
State
University,
2004
Tswana
cattle
Simmental
among other
exotic breeds
Botswana 1980s and
1990s
Reduction of purebred local
Tswana cattle
Nsoso and
Morake,
1999
Istrian cattle Brown
Swiss,
Simmental
and others
Croatia 1990s AI with exotic breeds,
superior efficiency
Dasovic,
1992
3.4 Gene flow indicated by Country Reports
The excerpts of the Country Reports provided the most extensive information on cattle.
However, the summary provided in Table 8 does not give a representative picture of the
situation in different regions. The largest inflows are reported in the whole of Europe,
followed by Western Asia. Large imports may also be expected from Latin America, but
the analysis was based on only one country report excerpt, which cannot be considered
representative.
The same holds true for the outflows mentioned in the excerpts. The flows out of Western
and Northern Europe, for example, are reported to be medium. However, countries known
to have large outflows, such as France, Germany, the Netherlands, Italy (semen), Austria,
Denmark or the UK, are not included.

The breeds mentioned in the excerpts should also be interpreted cautiously. Discussion of
the same breed in different regions may have very different implications. This is the case
regarding the Brahman and Holstein breeds in Africa and Latin America: the Brahman is a
beef breed useful for beef-ranching in dry tropical or outlying areas while the Holstein is a
dairy breed used for high potential, high feeding-level environments. Additionally, it is
likely that important information is missing from the analysis of excerpts. It is well
documented that there was an important inflow of Holstein genes into Oceania, however
this is not mentioned in the present analysis because only excerpts from Cook Island,
Palau, Samoa and Vanuatu were available and only the excerpt from Samoa contained
information. The excerpts for cattle are summarised in Annex 9.1 A 49.
Table 8: Country Reports on gene flow of cattle
Breed Extent of gene flow
in and out of the
region
Main breeds
imported
Breed
replace-
ment
Disadvantages
of exotic breeds
Country reports
In Out
Africa Medium
- high
low Brahman, Holstein,
Holstein-Friesian,
Jersey
medium -
high
Not named Botswana, Burkina Faso,
Burundi, Cameroon,
Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana,
Malawi, Zambia,
Zimbabwe
Eastern and
Southern
Europe
high -
very
high
medium Holstein,
Simmental
medium -
high
Replacement of
local breeds,
failure to
upgrade
production
systems
Albania, Belarus, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, Bulgaria,
Czech Republic, Russian
Montenegro, Slovakia,
Slovenia
Latin
America
Medium

0 Brahman, Holstein medium Not named El Salvador
North
America
High high Holstein low Not named Canada, United States of
America
Oceania High 0 Braford, Brahman,
Droughtmaster
0 Not named Samoa
Southern
and Eastern
Asia
High 0 - low Holstein, Holstein-
Friesian, Jersey
low Lack of
adaptation to
local production
conditions
Bhutan, China,
Indonesia, Japan, Laos,
Myanmar, Nepal,
Pakistan, Philippines, Sri
Lanka, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan, Vietnam
Western and
Northern
Europe
high -
very
high
medium Holstein high Not named Finland, Ireland, Sweden,
United Kingdom
Western
Asia
High low Holstein medium Loss of local
breeds
Armenia, Azerbaijan,
Turkey
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ANNEX 281

ANNEX
9.5 Global gene flow of pigs

K. Musavaya, M. Mergenthaler, A. Valle Zrate

TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 283
List of figures 283
Abbreviations 283
1 Introduction 284
2 Historical development of pig gene flow 284
2.1 Gene flow during pig domestication and breed formation 284
2.2 Influence of breeding methods in further development and spread of pig breeds 285
3 Development of pig gene flow after World War II 286
3.1 Influence of technology and global mobility on the spread of breeding pigs and
changes in breeding organisation 286
3.2 Main distributors of breeding pigs 287
3.3 Main recipients of breeding pigs 290
4 Current status and actual trends of pig gene flow 292
4.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import data for live breeding pigs 292
4.1.1 European Union 292
4.1.2 North America 298
4.1.3 Asia 298
4.2 Gene flow of pigs indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material in
existing breeds 299
4.3 Pig Gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts 301
5 References global gene flow of pigs 303

LIST OF TABLES 283

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Early PIC joint ventures, daughter companies and associates worldwide 291
Table 2: Mean annual EU imports of purebred breeding pigs 1992-2003 by origin 297
Table 3: Pig breeding material imports to Thailand 299
Table 4: Country Report excerpts on gene flow of pigs 302

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: EU exports of purebred breeding pigs (highlighting the Netherlands) by
destination and share of extra-EU exports 293
Figure 2: Annual EU purebred breeding pig export by destination 1992-2003 295
Figure 3: EU imports of purebred breeding pigs by destination and share of extra-EU
imports 1992-2003 296
ABBREVIATIONS
BC before Christ
EU European Union
Kingdom
JSR John S. Rymer breeding company
NPD Northern Pig Development Company, renamed National Pig
Development Company (UK)
UK United Kingdom

284 INTRODUCTION

1 INTRODUCTION
The trade with breeding pigs cannot be quantified easily because commercial companies
dominate the exchange market of some major countries and details are normally
confidential, unless a company uses figures in advertisements. Therefore this chapter is
based on interviews with Dr. Maurice Bichard, a senior expert and a retired leading
scientist of the former Pig Improvement Company Limited (PIC), and Mr. David Steane
who provided additional information for Southeast Asia. Isolated statistics of Southeast
Asia and Canada and the international Eurostat database have been used for trade of the
EU-15 countries. However, the latter database lacks information on breeds.
Additionally, some emphasis has been put on Large White and Duroc breeds to trace
typical global gene flows.
The Large White includes very diverse types induced by its particularly high adaptability
to wide-ranging conditions. It adapted in temperate regions as well as in the tropics. It is
usually used in crossbreeding programmes as a maternal line.
The Duroc is a meat-type pig with excellent adaptability and good combination
characteristics. These features have led to the wide spread of Duroc to the tropics, its use in
crossbreeding programmes in both paternal and maternal lines, and as an exotic replacing
local populations.
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PIG GENE FLOW
2.1 Gene flow during pig domestication and breed formation
The world pig population today accounts for 948 million pigs. 284 million, about 30 % are
found in developed countries, the remaining 70 % in developing countries (FAO, 2004).
The ancestors of the domesticated pig are found among the wild species Sus scrofa and Sus
vittatus (Comberg, 1978). Although there are conflicting theories about where pigs were
first domesticated, the earliest known remains of domesticated pigs have been found in
Southeast Anatolia and were dated 7,000 BC (Epstein and Bichard, 1984).
Several domestication centres have been identified. The earliest one is assumed to be in
East Asia (China) and a later one in the area of the Mediterranean and Baltic Sea
(Krulich and Brem, 1997). From the domestication centre in Asia domestic pigs spread
to Europe and to North and Northeast Africa. In Europe the domesticated pig was first
introduced into the Caucasus and Balkans from south-west Asia in the second half of the
7th millennium BC, which is slightly later than in Anatolia (Epstein and Bichard, 1984).
Recent work by Larson et al (2005) reveals a different pattern that involves six possible
domestication centres across Eurasia. They suggest that modern European pigs stem from
European, rather than Near-Eastern, wild boars.
In the 15th century the Portuguese brought pigs from China and Southeast Asia to Europe.
In the 16th century Portuguese and Spaniards introduced pigs into Central and Latin
America. Local domestic pigs in Britain were crossed with imported Chinese, Southeast
Asian, Portuguese and Neapolitan pigs, to create the modern European breeds. They - and
pigs from other sources - were imported into North America.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PIG GENE FLOW 285

In Europe breed formation before the 18th century is not clear. Pigs were long
unfashionable and breeding records were not considered important. In Britain pigs were
imported from China and Indo-China directly or via Naples and Portugal in 1770-80. More
productive breeds, not distinctly different, were developed, and small herds were
established. Inbreeding subsequently created distinct types and, when successful, the need
for more animals and a herdbook arose. The first herdbooks for pigs in Britain were
created in 1884 (Epstein and Bichard, 1984).
The largest national pig populations today can be found in China, USA, Brazil, Germany
and Spain in descending order. Highest pig concentrations (head/square km) can be found
in Tuvalu, Singapore, Netherlands, Denmark and Malta (FAO, 2004).
2.2 Influence of breeding methods in further development and spread of pig
breeds
After local breeds emerged all over Western Europe, groups of breeders formed herdbooks
and breeding associations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These followed the
principles of the early livestock improvers and promoted the virtues of their particular
breeds. Purebreeding was normal and individual farmers sourced their boar from the most
successful farmers in the region.
In the 1930s Mendelian genetics was combined with statistical methods to produce a
theoretical basis for animal improvement. This methodology has gradually taken over from
traditional methods as the driving force for pig improvement. Additionally pig farming
moved away from small-scale farms with one or two sows towards large specialised
ventures, later equipped with modern technology and commercially orientated. Although
the pace of this change varies from region to region, a general trend to more concentrated
pig production can be seen worldwide (Glodek and Bichard, 1994).
Since the late 1970s there have been profound technical and organisational changes in pig
production. Technical changes involve the increased professionalism with intensive use of
micro-electronics in data recording, communication and processing, better reproductive
technology and exploitation of gene technology. These changes have led to an increase in
the initial investment demands.
Organisational changes have been driven by increased competition; the whole production
chain has increased in scale, areas such as Latin America, Southeast Asia and East Europe
have been re-introduced to the world market, the North American industry has grown
strongly, and international trade has been liberalised. Pig breeding is becoming more and
more international. Pig breeders are therefore confronted with an increasing need to
disseminate their genetic improvement to more end products to channel more funding back
to the nucleus level and an increasing variation in the production conditions of their
customers together with an increasing professionalism among them and steadily reduced
margins (Knap, 1998).
In hybrid breeding, standardised and highly efficient end products are bred, which are
excluded from further breeding. For pigs these are hybrid fattening pigs. They are normally
produced by breeding units with the respective multiplication systems, which can produce
hundreds of thousands of hybrids if demand arises. In the past decades in the pig sector
these hybrid-products have displaced conventional breeding units which produce less
286 DEVELOPMENT OF PIG GENE FLOW AFTER WORLD WAR II

standardised, less efficient and lower numbers of fattening animals. Inevitably this has
reduced genetic variation considerably.
International pig breeding companies like PIC usually have a variety of exports. The first is
the one-off purebred consignment targeted at breeders that want to replenish their herds
with a few animals. This kind of transfer is suitable for locations both far and near, but the
individual value and with it cost of the single animals is usually high because the company
does not expect much repeat business. The second is the transfer of grandparent or great-
grandparent stock for breeding programmes. This involves supply of complete herds of
boars and gilts, which can then produce further breeding stock in the importing country.
This often happens with the supervision or even ownership of the exporter. Again this type
is also suitable for remote locations. Finally there is the regular transfer of hybrid parent
stock. This is only suitable for short distances with low transport costs, since the parent
stock must recoup investments within one breeding lifetime (Bichard and Dyson, 1980).
As well as considering the type and distance of planned transfers, an important factor is the
adaptation of the genetic stock in their hybrid programmes to the environmental conditions
for which they are intended. For example, it may be inappropriate to introduce the Pietrain
as a terminal crossing partner in Southern China because it can be too sensitive.
Furthermore consumers may prefer fat to lean meat, and this requires adaptation.
International breeding companies take account of this by establishing nucleus herds in the
target regions or countries they wish to service and adapt the animals there.
Apart from hybrid programmes transfer of breeding pigs may take place in other breeding
systems. Rotational systems are in theory quite efficient but are, in practice, difficult to run
properly. They have, in the past, mainly served as the first stage of improved breeding
systems by allowing farmers to partly exploit crossbreeding advantages. Today they have
largely been replaced. There are also important synthetic lines in use today. However, they
are not generally used as new breeds in purebreeding systems, but instead contribute to
modern hybrids for some markets. As an example, PIC uses the Leicoma, which was
developed in the large pig production units in the former GDR to withstand the prevailing
hard physical conditions, as one component of a hybrid.
3.1 Influence of technology and global mobility on the spread of breeding pigs
and changes in breeding organisation
Breeding pigs worldwide are now mainly distributed by a few international breeding
companies. This is particularly true in the case of hybrid pigs. Although in the past
developed countries contributed most to the dissemination of genetic material, nowadays
there are strong breeding enterprises e.g. in Thailand, the Philippines and China.
The mobility in the second half of the 20th century has increased tremendously compared
to previous centuries. However, although technically transport of any magnitude and
distance is possible, freight costs are the main restriction to transfers, but there are also
veterinary restrictions, welfare considerations and exchange rates and inflation difficulties
(Bichard and Dyson, 1980). Consequently almost always, airfreight of breeding pigs is at
breeding weights of 100 kg or lighter to save freight costs.
DEVELOPMENT OF PIG GENE FLOW AFTER WORLD WAR II 287

Apart from logistics for global mobility international breeding companies strongly utilise
all biotechnological methods. However, still today, mainly live breeding pigs are
transferred. Ova are unimportant because it has not been possible to store them. Reliable
semen freezing was slow to develop, but is now being used to maintain improvement in the
purebred lines, which are exported from the highly technical nucleus units in North
America or Europe. Commercial production increasingly relies on AI, the semen coming
from imported or locally bred boars. This mode of transfers enables also elaborate disease
control, to prevent diseases being exported into the new countries.
International breeding companies are operating under high pressure of competition. This
leads to an increasing tendency towards monopolisation. This implies a danger of genetic
loss if no safeguards are put in place.
After 1945 national, regional and commercial pig breeding programmes began to develop.
While governments or breed society-owned programmes were often pleased to have the
opportunity to export a few breeding pigs, their primary focus was on their home markets.
This contrasts with some of the commercial programmes, which actively sought export
opportunities. They usually tried to retain control of their purebred lines and so the main
saleable items were crossbred breeding stock. But because transport costs are high relative
to the value of the stock, it is not usually economic to export large volumes of breeding
females (except for short distances, e.g. by truck from the United Kingdom to Germany).
Usually the company sent a small number of purebred stock (either to a daughter company
or a licensed distributor) to establish multiplication herds. These herds then produced
crossbred breeding animals for sale in the overseas territory.
While the herdbook sector and some commercial farms in the receiving countries will
continue to import small quantities of breeding stock with no restrictions on use, most
exports from the West will be controlled. In the past, the breeding companies might have
established breeding farms abroad, which were wholly owned or joint ventures with local
partners. Today, because of the need to minimise their capital investment and the growing
size and sophistication of the foreign commercial pig producers, they may incline to sell
breeding stock under contract. The local producers agree, for example, not to sell breeding
stock to third parties, to allow the breeding company to examine their record system, and
to pay it a genetic royalty every time a new breeding animal produced within the
multiplication unit is transferred to the breeding unit.
3.2 Main distributors of breeding pigs
The main players in the distribution of breeding pigs are UK, Netherlands, Denmark,
Sweden, Belgium, Hungary and USA. However, both absolute and relative export
quantities are difficult to estimate, mainly because almost all companies are primarily
focussed nationally. Their main role is to provide breeding stock for their home country.
Generally commercial companies are more interested in selling relatively few high-priced
pigs to an overseas customer than in establishing part- or wholly-owned businesses in
those countries. The main profit of some international breeding companies comes from
genetic royalties and this increases as its customers change to large agribusinesses. The
amount (per parent gilt) is determined by what the profits would traditionally have been
had (when the customer only purchased parent gilts) less the savings to the breeding
company from not having to own or contract multiplication farms, fleets of trucks etc. The

customer gains from not having to pay the full market price for a parent gilt but of
course picks up some of the costs of doing the multiplication in house.
In the following the main nations are being characterised briefly.
The UK never had strong breed associations and (after boar licensing ceased 30 years ago)
had no legal support, such as was the case in Germany for example. The British Ministry
of Agriculture was heavily influenced by the new science of population genetics, which
first flowered in USA but soon had a world-class centre in Edinburgh, and it left the
industry free to develop new organisations and breeding plans. The Meat and Livestock
Commission, funded by commercial pig producers, and the meat trade, put heavy emphasis
on improvements within purebreds (building a chain of performance testing stations) and
encouraged individual breeders to combine and market crossbred breeding pigs.
Government research centres pioneered crossbreeding studies sooner than most other
European countries. Additionally a strong forward-looking spirit helped, with conservative
institutions that were much weaker than those in mainland Europe. Being an island made
disease control easier so that pigs were more acceptable to importing countries veterinary
authorities.
The largest commercially owned British breeding company is PIC (now Sygen), which
claims to supply 40% of the annual replacements in the USA, based upon purebreeding
herds mainly imported from Europe since 1973. PIC produces between 2 and 3 million
replacement gilt equivalents annually worldwide today. Equivalents are used since actual
sales will be a mixture of parent gilts (used directly to produce slaughter progeny)
grandparent gilts (used in customers multiplication herds to produce parent gilts) and
great-grandparent or nucleus-level gilts (one further level up the breeding pyramid). PIC
weights each category by its expected lifetime output of parent gilts (thus grandparents
might produce five selected daughters in each of 2.5 years - hence a factor of 12.5).
NPD (Northern Pig Development Company) renamed National Pig Development
Company was a family-owned business grown from the 1960s, which made important
sales worldwide and to USA. It was purchased by PIC around 1995, having then an
approximate size of one third of PIC.
Cotswold Pig Development Company, with origins in the 1960s, was owned by the
Nickerson family for many years. It reached a similar size to NPD but declined over the
past 10 years and has been broken up and sold off.
Newsham emerged in the 1980s as an offshoot of NPD and made significant sales to
Mexico and USA.
Both Cotswold and Newsham were acquired by JSR, a breeding company, which was built
up by John S. Rymer from the 1960s. It is now the second largest UK company after PIC.
Masterbreeders originated in the 1960s when it was owned by a UK feed company, which
was part of Unilever. It conducted a lot of business in the Far East but eventually failed.
The Netherlands has a large and nationally important pig industry and a well-developed,
co-operative system with a strong trading tradition. Both herdbook and private (e.g.
Unilever) improvement programmes were able to develop. For example, Dalland is a
commercial company with significant worldwide exports that was originally part of the
Unilever group but then absorbed (15-20 years ago) into the large Stamboek herdbook

based company. The main commercial companies that play a role in the export market
today are Topigs and Hyporc.
Denmark started very early with a strong national programme (1900) based on co-
operative organisations of farmer-owned meat exporting factories. But after 1945 they
decided that exporting breeding pigs could damage their meat exports and subsequently
banned pig exports. As a result, UK had to import its Landrace stock from Sweden as
second-best in the early 1950s. But Denmark eventually realised its mistake in relying
totally on its one breed (Danish Landrace) and imported British Large White and US
Durocs and Hampshires in the 1960s and eventually started up breeding pig exports. Post
1970, the national programme of the farmer owned slaughterhouses re-entered the export
business. However, Denmark had missed the opportunity to be a world leader.
Sweden gained importance in the export business mainly due to its role in serving the
market demand for its Landrace, as long as Denmark remained closed. Indirectly Sweden
plays a role via the UKs Landrace.
Belgium possesses uniquely muscled breeds (of all species), and their Belgian Landrace
and Pietrain were in demand when everyone wanted leaner pigs. Seghers, a long
established company, is the only one to commercialise this trade and has been an important
exporter for many years. However, the herdbook sector/ministry programme has also
exported purebred stock worldwide (including to hot countries where these stress-
susceptible pigs had high mortality and poor muscle quality).
Hungary was the most important central European country in the trade with breeding pigs.
One of their state-run organisations (Babolna) had the large-scale facilities of most of the
central European countries, but also adopted good genetics and good marketing. So its pig
breeding programme for large industrialised production systems (Tetra) was quite widely
exported (as also its hybrid poultry). Tetra exported not only to other central European
countries, but also to Southeast Asia pre-1985.
In the USA, with its free-enterprise economy, and where quantitative genetics and statistics
were first applied to improving crops (maize) and livestock (poultry), it would be expected
to find genetically improved pigs and exports. New organisations were created: Farmers
Hybrid and later De Kalb and Kleen Leen. But early improvement methods in corn
involved creating and then crossing inbred lines. This was not as successful in pigs and
held up their progress for years.
The really interesting question is not why USA was influential in world gene flows in pigs,
but why it did not dominate the world, and even allowed European companies to arrive in
the 1970s and dominate US pig production today? The answer may lie in the different US
carcass market (their pigs remained fat for years) and in the support the universities
continued to give to the small-scale local purebred breeder and the show ring, rather than
educating pig producers to put their trust in science-based breeding organisations. Only
when large-scale agribusiness replaced the small family farm the demand changed to more
efficient sows and leaner carcasses.
Exports to Central and South America and to Southeast Asia reflected US aid to these
regions, the large US pig population, and the existence of US breeding methodology in
plant and poultry breeding - even at a time when US pig improvement methods were still
very traditional. Both Farmers Hybrid and De Kalb have exported to Latin America and
Southeast Asia, but not extensively to Europe. The size of De Kalb is mainly reflected by

the large size of its home market, however it also established De Kalb companies abroad,
for example in Japan. Additionally PIC operates from USA and Smithfield Swine Genetics
plays a role, which uses stock derived from NPD in UK.
Further players in the commercial exchange of genetic material are Canada with
Geneticporc and Donaldson, France with Nucleus (French purebred breeders), Pen-ar-Lan
and France Hybrides, Ireland with Hermitage, Spain with Bataille and Germany with the
Bundeshybridzuchtprogramm (German Hybrid Pig Breeding Programme).
In conclusion, the important source countries were those which controlled some unique
genotypes (Large White, Scandinavian Landrace, Pietrain, Belgian Landrace, Duroc,
Hampshire), and then those which emerged quickly from the old, conservative breed-
society and government-dominated structures (UK, Netherlands, USA).
3.3 Main recipients of breeding pigs
Central and South America imported their ideas and breeding stock initially from USA. US
professors persuaded them that rotational crosses using Yorkshire, Duroc, and Hampshire
were what they needed; and large numbers of boars went south, mainly from small
breeders but also from the US breeding companies. But when corporate pig production
started in the late 1970s, these southern countries were much more impressed by the
intensive European management methods and bought European hybrid sows to populate
their large new units, often with US-breed boars. Thus Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Peru,
Argentina, Columbia, and Venezuela all bought from PIC though the European stock often
came via US herds. Uruguay reports imports for their commercial hybrid pigs from both
Brazil and Spain (Country report of Uruguay, 2003). Incidentally, Cuba bought North
American breeds from Canada because they do not trade with USA. Some South American
countries utilised muscular European breeds (Pietrain, Belgian Landrace, German
Landrace) e.g. Brazil - in part because their German/Italian derived pig producers had
contacts there.
As in South America, US professors advised many countries in Southeast Asia (Japan,
Thailand, Singapore, Taiwan, Philippines) to adapt their rotations and breeds. The US
stock went into the purebred herd structure or else into a few large breeding programmes
run by feed millers, brewers or others who were entering agribusiness. Corporate pig
production was often started by corporate poultry producers who had probably successfully
imported Western poultry genotypes. But there were often disasters because the imported
breeding stock could not always resist the heat and disease burdens in the rather
unsophisticated Asian units, and their carcasses did not always satisfy the very specific
local demands. But once again, as production methods became more sophisticated, demand
increased for European hybrid sows even if these were supplied via US-based breeding
companies. For example: PIC (now Sygen) is a London-based public company, but its
major business is in North and South America and it often supplied its Asian customers or
joint ventures or subsidiaries from its North American breeding units.
Australia should perhaps be included in the list of exporting countries, but until 10 or 15
years ago its impact was not significant. Its extremely strict health regulations kept out
most imports so that its own pig herds have not benefited from the early European or US
advances. The only export market it services is Asia, dependent mainly upon lower
transport costs, good health of pigs and the persistence of Australian traders active in those
countries. The Australian pig production industry is perhaps more dominated by large-

scale agribusiness than any other, and these companies can only expand by exporting meat
or pigs.
Compared to South America and Asia, the influx of breeding pigs to Africa has been
negligible. In South Africa strict veterinary regulations made imports almost impossible.
PICs franchise there mainly had to use their existing breeds but apply Northern European
methods, although UK pigs from NPD did get in.
Apart from the main planned flows from Europe and North America into developing
countries of the South, there is unplanned "leakage" or gene flow from primary customers
to the whole industry in those and neighbouring countries. Often, purebred pigs were not
sold, except under contracts, which prohibit or control purebreeding, but it has been
impossible to keep control completely.
Additionally commercial companies may establish joint ventures, daughter companies or
associates in emerging markets. Important factors for such developments are availability of
animals when needed, import health requirements and the assurance that the company can
profit financially from the transactions.
PIC supplies the pig breeding sector in new countries from its main bases in UK and USA.
However Chile was responsible for supplying breeding pigs to Peru, while Argentina was
supplied by Chile and Brazil. New Zealand received its breeding pigs from Australia and
Canada sent boars to Australia (Table 1).
Table 1: Early PIC joint ventures, daughter companies and associates worldwide
Year Country Type Pigs generally
derived from
1970 Canada Joint Venture UK
1972 Mexico Joint Venture UK via Canada
1973 Australia Daughter Company but semen sent out
subsequently

1973 USA Daughter Company UK via Canada
1977 Brazil Joint Venture UK via France
1978 Chile Associate USA
1982 Japan Associate USA
1984 Korea Associate
1985 China - Hubei Associate
1985 New Zealand Associate, stock from Australia and Canada
1985 Peru Associate Chile
1988 Cuba Fixed term contract
1992 Argentina Joint Venture
1993 Colombia Associate
1993 Puerto Rica Associate
The size of these ventures reflects the size of each national market, since each is largely
confined to within its own country. But of course the competence of the individual
292 CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF PIG GENE FLOW

company has also been important. Thus, the Japanese company grew very slowly and the
Chinese venture in Hubei failed to make much progress as it was more profitable to supply
slaughter pigs to Hong Kong than to develop a nationwide business selling breeding stock.
By contrast, the associate in Chile was extremely well managed and grew very rapidly to
dominate the local industry and greatly increased the per capita consumption of pork.
Similarly the Brazilian company grew quickly to a large size.
After 1988 the gene flow of pigs became more complex. Pigs were moved when needed
from whichever PIC-controlled herds had them available and healthy. This latter point is
most important. Today the company has a large nucleus (purebreeding) herd in Southeast
Saskatchewan (Canada). It was specifically established in a very isolated area away from
people and other pigs to try to remain free of infections. Canada as a whole has a good
international reputation for pig health. As a result, many international pig transfers
originate from this Canadian herd which contains breeds or lines sourced originally from
all round the world.
In summary, in the first four decades after World War II all countries in the Americas were
strongly influenced by breeds from the USA (Hampshire, Duroc and Yorkshire). The same
thing occurred in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, Thailand, Singapore. Similarly, purebred stock
from Britain went to the old commonwealth countries (Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, Kenya, Zimbabwe) using Large White and Swedish Landrace.
4.1 Gene flow indicated by selected export and import data for live breeding pigs
Compared to ruminants very little information on the current exchange of breeding pigs is
available. For Europe, the Eurostat statistic database was accessible for purebred pigs. No
other statistic databases were available. Therefore, publications and breeding associations
needed to be consulted, but the report remains sketchy. Particularly if considered, that
crossbred animals, which do not appear in the Eurostat statistic database, have gained
increasing importance. Additionally, non-traditional countries for breeding pigs, such as
Thailand, are gaining increased market shares.
In commercial trade with breeding pigs the following countries compete with each other:
Britain, USA, Canada, Belgium and Netherlands, Denmark and Hungary (Bichard and
Dyson, 1980). Nowadays also France, Germany, Ireland and Spain play an important role,
and Hungary has lost importance.
4.1.1 European Union
Commercial pig breeding companies which have established bases in second countries
from which to supply third country customers are PIC (Sygen) from UK, Topigs and
Hyporc from Netherlands. However, as the market for breeding stock has become more
difficult within European countries in recent years, every national company has taken more
interest in exports and have made opportunistic sales worldwide.
The following data is compiled from the Eurostat database, maintained by the European
Union and collected by the member states (e.g. through customs declaration). The EU
refers to the EU-15 countries (Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,
CURRENT STATUS AND ACTUAL TRENDS OF PIG GENE FLOW 293

Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, The Netherlands, United
Kingdom), the new member states are not yet considered.
Between 1992 and 2003 EU countries exported an annual mean of over 125,000 purebred
breeding pigs. This figure masks however dynamic changes: from 1992 onwards exports
constantly grew from about 54,000 to about 105,000 in 1997. Thereafter exports fell to less
than 59,000 in 2001. In 2002 exports from EU countries sky-rocketed to almost 390,000
and fell to about 336,000 in 2003, which was in average almost five times the 1992 to 2001
average of about 78,000 (Figure 1).
Figure 1: EU exports of purebred breeding pigs (highlighting the Netherlands) by
destination and share of extra-EU exports
46 48
70
54
80
95
80 77
73
54
376
323
9
12
11
23
12
10
9
7
8
5
14
13
6
1 2
4
11
3
8 7 7 6
309
232
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s

i
n

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
extra-EU
intra-EU
exports fromNetherlands
extra-EU share

The Netherlands were responsible for the massive growth in exports of purebred breeding
pigs in 2002 and 2003. Their market share in EU-exports rose from 10% in 2001 to 79% in
2002. In 2002 the Netherlands reported exports of purebred breeding pigs to Germany of
almost 270,000 and in 2003 of almost 160,000 purebred breeding pigs to Spain and more
than 40,000 purebred breeding pigs to Germany. The sudden jump in Dutch exports is
probably a distortion; almost certainly these figures result from re-classifying animals
destined for finishing and slaughter as purebred breeding pigs. However, they also
reflect structural changes in the importing countries, particularly in Germany after the re-
unification process.
France almost continuously increased its exports from the early 1990s until 2003 while
exports of Belgium-Luxembourg decreased strongly. In absolute numbers UK had a more
or less constant export of breeding pigs (average 44,000 per year) in this period, though its
share in EU-exports fell due to the massive increase from the Netherlands.

From 1992 to 2001, UK was the main exporter of the EU countries with a mean share of
29% of all exports. It was followed by Belgium-Luxembourg (18%), France (16%), Spain
(11%), Denmark (8%), the Netherlands (7%), Ireland (5%) and the other EU countries
(6%). Only in 2002 Netherlands gained importance as described above.
Most of the reported exports were to other EU countries (115,000 purebred breeding pigs).
Only about 11,000 purebreds left the EU, 8.8% of the total exports. This share declined
almost continuously from 16% in 1992 to 3.9% in 2003, interrupted by a peak in 1995 of
almost 30%. The relative importance of purebred breeding pigs leaving EU countries is
decreasing (Figure 1).
After 1990 there was a considerable flow from EU countries to former communist East
Europe as these countries sought to catch up, particularly in terms of carcass quality. These
pigs were sourced both from small pedigree breeders (perhaps government backed
schemes) and hybrid companies. The Eurostat data confirm the main trading partners
between 1993 and 2003 to be countries that joined the EU in 2004 - Poland and the Czech
Republic being the most significant (Figure 2), closely followed by others.
21% of extra-EU exports went to East and Southeast Asia: Thailand, South Korea, Japan
and China are the largest trading partners, followed by The Philippines and Vietnam. The
remainder went to Taiwan, Malaysia and Singapore and marginal shares to Hong Kong and
North Korea. Some minor exports to Asia went to Kazakhstan, India and Bhutan.
16% of the extra-EU exports went to North America. Between 1992 and 2003 the share of
the USA was about twice as big as the one of Canada.
About 9% extra-EU exports went to Latin America, more than half to Brazil. Also Mexico
made up for considerable numbers of breeding pigs exports from the EU especially in the
first half of the 1990s. With some distance Venezuela, Colombia, Guadeloupe, Uruguay,
Argentine and Martinique followed. Also some other Latin American countries imported
relatively small number of breeding pigs from the EU.
2.7% went to Sub-Saharan Africa. Main trading partners were Cape Verde, South Africa,
Nigeria and Kenya.
Close to 1% of extra-EU exports went to the West Asia/Maghreb region, Turkey and
Tunisia being the main partners. Although these countries traditionally do not have a large
pork market, a demand for breeding pigs can be attributed to the flourishing tourism
industry.
Marginal numbers of purebred breeding pigs went to Oceania and unspecified destinations.

Figure 2: Annual EU purebred breeding pig export by destination 1992-2003
1
3
11
12
14
25
43
3
4
24
5
13
79
9
10
50
104
0
24
44
5
214
25
34
36
47
60
531
617
1,127
7
8
29
41
62
176
322
426
13
19
75
385
386
398
13
9
16
212
245
0
5
12
18
19
20
47
66
392
777
181
328
385
473
540
778
958
0 250 500 750 1,000 1,250
not specified
Aust.Oceania
Georgia
Saudi Arabia
Bahrain
Turkey
Tunisia
Malawi
Zimbabwe
Kenya
Cameroon, Congo, S. Tome
Gabon
South Africa
Giunea, S. Helena, Burk. Faso, Benin, I. Coast
Ghana
Nigeria
Cape Verde
Dominican R., Dominica
Martinique
Guadeloupe
Costa Rica
Mexico
Chile, Fr. Guiana, Peru, Falkland Is., Surinam
Argentina
Uruguay
Colombia
Venezuela
Brazil
Canada
USA
Bhutan
India
Kasakhstan
Singapore
Malaysia
Vietnam
Philippines
Thailand
Hong Kong
North Korea
Taiwan
China
J apan
South Korea
Switzerland, Liechtenstein
Norway, Iceland
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia
Yugoslavia
Malta
For.J Rep.Mac
Albania
Bosnia-Herz.
Slovenia
Cyprus
Croatia
Canary, Ceuta
Bulgaria
CIS
Hungary
Slovakia
Romania
Czech Rep.
Poland
E
.
C
.
W
.
C
a
r
i
b
.
C
.
S
.
S
C
S
E
E
.
N
.
S
.
E
.
W
.

A
s
i
a
/
M
a
g
h
r
e
b
A
f
r
i
c
a
L
a
t
i
n

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m
e
r
i
c
a
N
.
A
m
.
A
s
i
a
E
u
r
o
p
e
number of animals

Total intra-EU export 114,631 and extra-EU export 11,013

In the years 1992 to 2003 EU countries imported an average of 134,000 purebred breeding
pigs annually (Figure 3). 1996 was the year with the highest imports (551,000), mainly
through 450,000 purebred breeding pigs imported by the UK from Ireland. These may be a
severe distortion. The UK probably only needed a total of 250,000 replacement breeding
pigs in 1996, most of which would originate in UK, so it would not import 450,000 from
Ireland. Perhaps these were weaner pigs brought into UK for finishing, or sent on into
mainland Europe via UK.
Other large transfers were reported by Germany in 1999 of almost 44,000 purebred
breeding pigs from the UK, by Belgium in 2001 of almost 38,000 purebred breeding pigs
from the Netherlands and by Spain in 2002 of almost 25,000 purebred breeding pigs from
the Netherlands. For six EU countries (Belgium, France, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg and
Spain) the Netherlands were the main source of pig genetic material and for three countries
(Ireland, Denmark and Germany) the UK during the time period from 1992 to 2003.
Exports from UK are mainly attributed to PIC. Information given in Figure 2 and Figure 3
is not fully compatible.
Figure 3: EU imports of purebred breeding pigs by destination and share of extra-EU
imports 1992-2003
19
30
50
70
550
83
134
128 126
119
138 140
0
1
1
0
1
3
2
2 2
3
4 2
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

p
i
g
s

i
n

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
40%
intra-EU extra-EU
extra-EU share

The main origin of purebred breeding pigs is the EU. Only an average of 1,775 purebred
breeding pigs annually (1.3%) were imported form extra-EU countries. 98% of these extra-
EU imports originated from other European countries, 96% were from countries that
accessed the EU in 2004, mainly Cyprus, Czech Republic and Hungary.
Imports from other continents were marginal compared to gene flow within Europe: in
2000 176 purebred breeding pigs were imported from Argentine to France, between 1997
and 1999 a total of 110 purebred breeding pigs were imported from Canada to Italy and
France, in 1992 the UK imported 12 purebred breeding pigs from the USA and between

1993 and 1995 the UK imported 16 purebred breeding pigs from Australia and New
Zealand. Other trading partners for imports to the EU were not mentioned between 1992
and 2003. Although the absolute numbers are small, it can be assumed that these were
high-value nucleus animals and the gene flow caused by these imports is important.
However, due to lack of breed information and follow-up data, this is only speculative. For
the shares of imports of pig breeding animals according to regions of origin refer to Table
2.
Table 2: Mean annual EU imports of purebred breeding pigs 1992-2003 by origin
Number of pigs
EU 19,427
EU accession countries 2004 Cyprus 1,317
Czech Rep. 338
Hungary 50
Other European countries Switzerland 24
Norway 16
Extra-European countries Argentina 15
Canada 12
USA 1
Australia 1
New Zealand 1
Total 21,202
The three main exporting countries (Netherlands, France, Denmark) had import-export-
ratios of 0.16, 0.32 and 0.01 respectively. Also Ireland, Austria, Sweden and Finland were
net-exporters. The three largest importing countries are UK, Luxembourg and Germany,
with import-export-ratios of 1.8, 1.9 and 14.7 respectively. Other net-importers were the
countries in the southern EU namely Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal. For a comparison
of absolute numbers refer to Annex 9.1 A 50. It must however be considered that there
may be distortions due to misclassifying breeding pigs in the statistical bases.
The European Union up to 2003, with its 15 member states, has a high trade volume with
purebred breeding pigs. However only very few transactions of purebred breeding pigs
with outside nations can be observed. This is true for exports and more so for imports. Of
the few extra-EU transactions the main share lies with other European countries.
The interpretation of the Eurostat data is however difficult. There is no information on
breeds, or the organisations conducting the trade. Large transfers normally indicate also a
large gene flow. International breeding companies, which import and export purebred
breeding pigs to their own daughter companies usually induce high gene flow, whereas
single transactions by individual breeders usually result in low gene flow. However, in
certain cases single transactions may be successful and so cause high gene flow. Follow-up
information is rarely available in order to verify the extent of gene flow.

It is further unclear how records reflect the true volumes and whether transfers as part of
development projects are also recorded. Often figures are difficult to explain and may be
distorted, possibly due to problems with categorising pigs into purebred breeding pigs.
Hybrid gilts are not recognised as breeding pigs, so that they have to fall under other pigs.
Also there may also often be a strong incentive to falsify the category in order to avoid
paying taxes or in order to secure a subsidy.
4.1.2 North America
The information available for North America is limited, and generalisation or
representativity cannot be achieved.
In Canada, between 1996 and 2003 the Canadian Swine Breeders Association reported
mean annual exports of 473 breeding animals. It peaked at 1,260 breeding pigs in 1997 and
had its minimum in the following year with only 78 exported breeding animals. Figure 4
illustrates this development. The figures quoted are most likely smaller than in reality since
not all breeding pigs are registered through the Association, e.g. PICs main nucleus is
located in Canada and these numbers would not be included here.
Figure 4: Exports of breeding pigs from Canada
880
1,260
200 226
571
97 78
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1996 1997 1998 1999* 2000 2001 2002 2003
n
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

a
n
i
m
a
l
s
*data not available

Source: own elaboration, data from Canadian Swine Breeders Association (2004)
4.1.3 Asia
Quantitative data available from Asia is scarce and the countries and figures presented here
are not representative. With quantitative data on China missing altogether, general
conclusions may not be drawn. A few examples however illustrate some aspects of Asian
pig trade.
Thailand imported breeding material for its pig sector almost exclusively from
industrialised countries, mostly Large White and Landrace breeds. Pietrains were imported
from Belgium and Hampshires from France. British breeding companies, imported during
and after the Foot-and-Mouth disease outbreak from Poland and Australia to Thailand.
Table 3 gives some indication of the extent of gene flow to Thailand.

Table 3: Pig breeding material imports to Thailand
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Semen
doses
850 1,330 608 24,700 930 3,000
Breeding
animals
Male 430 313 400 750 164
Female 1,204 1,070 450 990 268
Source: Department of Livestock Development Thailand (2004)
In 1983, a total of 2,397 breeding pigs were imported to Singapore. They originated from
UK (63%), USA (16%), Australia (15%), Canada (5%) and New Zealand (1%). Breed
composition was 64% Duroc, 21% Yorkshire, 13% Welsh and 3% Landrace (Quek et al.,
1984). It cannot be concluded from the present figures whether the 1983 imports are
representative for the decade.
With gifts from China, France undertook crossbreeding experiments in 1979 based on nine
imported pigs of three breeds. The trials carried out are considered the first performance
tests of Asian pig breeds under modern husbandry conditions. Genetic material from these
trials spread to other European countries. In 1989, 140 Chinese breeding pigs were
imported for experimental purposes to the USA after having fulfilled the required
quarantine regulations for experimental crossbreeding purpose. Similar imports of 32
breeding pigs were organised in 1985 to the UK. Also countries like Albania, UK, Japan,
Korea and Thailand have imported Chinese pig breeds (McLaren, 1990; Wood, 1990).
4.2 Gene flow of pigs indicated by the introduction of foreign genetic material in
existing breeds
The formation of commercial pig breeds in Europe and North America depended heavily
on the introduction of foreign genetic material. The Large White, the Yorkshire and
Berkshire in England were heavily influenced by imports from South China, and soon after
their establishment they replaced indigenous breeds. In the late 20th century the Taihu,
Fengjing, Minzhu and Meishan Asian breeds were of interest in European and US pig
breeding not only for their prolificacy but also for meat quality (Wood, 1990), but their
influence has been slight. In a global survey of new pig breeds introduced to major pig-
keeping countries during the 1970s, Landraces from different origins and Pietrain were
among the most common. (Sutherland et al., 1985). More details are given in Annex 9.1 A
51.
Most interesting to European and US breeders has been the hyperprolificacy of some Asian
breeds. Litter size of the purebred Meishan breed is considerably larger than those of
European breeds and annual sow output may be 50% higher. Also of interest is the
precocity of some Asian breeds. It gained importance as little progress was being made in
breeding for fertility traits in European breeds due to the low heritabilities. It implied
potential to increase economic performance by crossbreeding selected Asian breeds with
European breeds. Additionally exploitation of hybrid vigour was expected. Yet
comparisons of Chinese-Western-crosses with commercial crossbreds showed little
economic advantage. More recent suggestions only refer to transferring relevant genes into
commercial genotypes (Ellis, 1992; McLaren, 1990).

The other way round, Asian countries have imported pigs of European origin for
crossbreeding. McLaren (1990) reports imports of Middle Yorkshire, Berkshire and
Kmirov breeds to China in the 1950s. In the 1960s English Large White, Soviet Large
White and Landrace were imported. From the 1980s there are reports on the imports of
Landrace, Duroc and to a lesser extent of Hampshire from Canada. Imports of Western
meat-lard breeds to China and crossing with Chinese breeds led to the formation of 29 new
lines, which have made a substantial contribution to meet growing demands for pork (Jing
et al., 2001). It was found that with increasing shares of Western gene contribution daily
weight gains, eye muscle area and lean meat percentage increased while litter size
decreased.
Bichard (personal communication, 2005) reports that many recent imports into China have
had limited impact for various reasons. First, Chinese importers did not build efficient
multiplication organisations and e.g. used the imported stock to supply slaughter markets
because of attractive markets for lean carcasses or because they could not find large-scale
customers to build new units. Secondly, disease problems due to poor understanding of
disease control methods led to infection from surrounding local stock. Thirdly, China only
opened up in the 1990s to wholly-owned ventures of Westerners. After that e.g. PIC has
established a successful breeding nucleus near Shanghai, which is now building a
substantial multiplication pyramid as the new commercialism allows modern units to be
established which can properly manage Western hybrids.
Developing countries attempted to overcome productivity bottlenecks of pigs using
crossbreeding schemes to exploit hybrid vigour (Omeke, 1989; Pathiraja, 1986). It was
stated that low productivity does not merely derive from low management intensities but
also from the low genetic potential of animals and the lack of crossbreeding schemes.
Breed comparisons of indigenous Desi, exotic Landrace and Yorkshire and their halfbreds
were subject to analysis in Indian state farms and may serve as an example at this stage:
The purebred exotics led the ranking, followed by the half-breds while the indigenous
breed was last. These results were similar in comparable studies (Sharma et al., 1998).
Under village conditions in India Landrace and its cross with Desi was superior to Desi
purebreds but inferior to Large White and its cross with Desi (Sharma et al., 1992). The
ranking strongly depends on the production conditions. The genotype x environment
interaction is larger the more different the production conditions are. The situation in
Vietnam has been looked at separately in the case study: Impact of the use of exotic
compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic development and biodiversity in Vietnam.
Uruguays pig stock consists principally of commercial hybrid pigs with Large White,
Landrace, Belgian Landrace and Pietrain, but also purebred exotic lines exist. A new breed
called Pampa has been developed from Poland, China and Criollo, which is locally adapted
to the extensive systems in the east of the country. The massive utilisation of imported
hybrids is becoming a threat to local pig breeds. Details on the state of the pig genetic
resources in Uruguay can be found in Annex 9.1 A 52.
It was concluded that genotypes from temperate regions and their crosses face severe
problems when confronted with management conditions in developing countries resulting
in poor reproductive performance. Furthermore to avoid loss of heterosis in consecutive
generations continual inflow of exotic germplasm was necessary. It cast doubts on the
success of small-scale crossbreeding schemes. Without institutional, organisational and
technical support these crossbreeding schemes were doomed to fail (Agbagha et al., 2001).

In some cases breeding methods including exotic breeds and established under smallholder
conditions were neglected after the projects concluded. Without further access to exotic
breeds, the impact of isolated crossbreeding on the local populations declined from
generation to generation. However, also isolated projects with release of Duroc or
Hampshire boars to smallholder conditions have left long time visual traces in local
populations, as can be observed especially in least developed Latin-American countries.
Applying different breeding methods for pigs in tropical conditions has limitations. We
find up to now only a few isolated cases of selection efforts within local breeds and
purebreeding of exotic tropical breeds. The main emphasis of breeding in the tropics is in
discontinuous crossings and purebreeding of European-American breeds, especially in the
commercial sector (Horst, 1994).
In commercial pig production, as opposed to ruminant livestock, the environment is
normally shaped according to the needs of the pigs. The adaptability problems are
therefore in most cases reduced. Also commercially owned breeding enterprises often have
regional structures in which breeding pigs are adapted to the local conditions.
Although the main pig gene flow is expected to take place in commercial production, there
is a continuous trend to replace local breeds with exotics. The degree of replacement
varies. It is almost complete e.g. in Chile, Taiwan, Mexico, Spain (only a specialist outdoor
section for top quality ham still uses Iberian breeds) and all the central European countries,
which have nearly lost most of their breeds. In Denmark the Danish Landrace was
universally used purebred before the 1970s; now most sows are Large White x Danish
Landrace and the boars are based on Duroc and Hampshire. Much less replacement took
place in Belgium, where Pietrain and Belgian Landrace still dominate, China or Brazil. In
the latter two countries large agribusiness units use imported stock but small peasant farms
still rely on local breeds though these have often been influenced by infiltration by boars or
semen of Western breeds.
4.3 Pig Gene flow indicated by Country Report excerpts
The excerpts on pig gene flow show generally high mention of pig imports (Table 4).
These imports generally contain high-yielding breeds, mainly Large White, Landrace and
Duroc. However, the extent of breed replacement is at the same time reported as low,
except for Southern and Eastern Asia. This may be due to lack of information in the
excerpts but it may also be caused by the difference in the production system into which
these breeds are imported. Imported pigs are mainly used in intensive production systems
located in more suitable regions with market access. In these cases there may be little
interference with the local breeds kept in extensive systems. However the excerpts list no
disadvantages to the exotic breeds, which is unlikely even in suitable production systems,
so the excerpts may not give the true picture.

Table 4: Country Report excerpts on gene flow of pigs
Breed Extent of gene
flow in and out of
the region
Main breeds
imported
Breed
replace-
ment
Disadvantages
of exotic breeds
Country report excerpts
In Out
Africa low 0 Large White low Not named Burundi, Mali, Uganda,
Zambia
eastern and
southern
Europe
medium 0 - low Large White low Not named Belarus, Poland, Russian
Montenegro, Slovenia
Latin
America
low 0 Landrace,
Yorkshire, Duroc
low Not named El Salvador
North
America
high Low Yorkshire,
Landrace, Duroc,
composites
low Not named Canada, United States of
America
Oceania very high 0 Landrace, Large
White
0 Not named Palau, Samoa
Southern
and Eastern
Asia
high -
very high
0 - low Large White,
Landrace, Duroc
medium Not named Bhutan, Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Japan,
Kyrgyzstan, Malaysia,
Myanmar, Nepal,
Philippines, Sri Lanka,
Vietnam
western and
northern
Europe
high -
very high
Medium Yorkshire, Large
White
low Not named Denmark, Finland,
Iceland, Latvia,
Netherlands, Sweden,
United Kingdom
western
Asia
low 0 Large White low Not named Armenia
Narrative extracts from single country reports are summarised in Annex 9.1 A 53. As can
be depicted from Annex 9.1 A 52, increasing worldwide spread of purebreds can be
observed only for Landrace and Large White. However, the example of Japan (Annex 9.1
A 53) shows very clearly that, in the last 20 years, the share of purebreds has become
insignificant, whereas others, hybrids, crosses contribute about 100% of the sows and
40% of the boars. This development can be observed in other countries at a slower speed
and unfortunately can hardly be traced nor quantified.
REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF PIGS 303

5 REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF PIGS
Agbagha, F.M., F.U. Ezema, and B.C.O. Omeke. 2001. Studies of management effects on
fertility of purebred and crossbred exotic gilts in two breeding farms at Nsukka,
Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 28:20-25.
Bichard, M. and A. Dyson. 1980. Exporting British Breeding Pigs. RASE/ADAS/NFU
Conference on "Pig Marketing - the Challenge of the 80s", Stoneleigh, 18 November
1980.
Bichard, M. 2005. Personal communication.
Canadian Swine Breeders Association. 2004. http://www.canswine.ca/. (05.07.2004)
Comberg, G. 1978. Schweinezucht. Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
Country report of Uruguay for FAOs State of the Worlds Animal Genetic Resources.
2003. Ministerio de Ganaderia, Agricultura y Pesca.
Department of Livestock Development Thailand. 2004. Unpublished.
Ellis, M. 1992. Exotic breeds. The commercial potential of Chinese pig breeds. Meat Focus
International 1:84-86.
Epstein, H. and M. Bichard. 1984. Pig. In: Mason, I.L. (ed.) Evolution of domesticated
Rome, Italy.
Glodek, P. and M. Bichard. 1994. Analysis of the structure of pig breeding in EU countries
with possible lessons for central and eastern Europe. European Association for
Animal Production Task Force on Livestock Production in Eastern Europe.
Workshop "East and Central Europe Livestock - Selp help in Livestock Production".
January 1994, Berlin, Germany.
Horst, P. 1994. Zuchtstrategien fr tropische Standorte. In: Krulich, H.
Tierzchtungslehre, 4. Auflage, Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
Jing, R.B., C.Y. Song, Z.H. Liu, and Y. Tao. 2001. Breeding of new swine lines (female
parent lines) in China in the past ten years. Pig News and Information 22:55N-58N.
Knap, P.W. 1998. Internationalisation of pig breeding companies. 6th World Congress of
Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, 12-16 January 1998, Armidale, Autralia.
26:143.
Krulich, H. and G. Brem. 1997. Tierzucht und Allgemeine Landwirtschaftslehre fr
Mediziner. Enke, Stuttgart.
Larson, G., K. Dobney, U. Albarella, M. Fang, E. Matisoo-Smith, J. Robins, S. Lowden, H.
Finlayson, T. Brand, E. Willerslev, P. Rowley-Conwy, L. Andersson, and A. Cooper.
2005. Worldwide Phylogeography of Wild Boar Reveals Multiple Centers of Pig
Domestication. Science 307:1618-1621.
304 REFERENCES GLOBAL GENE FLOW OF PIGS

McLaren, D.G. 1990. Potential of Chinese pig breeds to improve pork production
efficiency in the USA. Animal Breeding Abstracts 58:347-369.
Omeke, B.C.O. 1989. Field performance of exotic pigs and their crosses in tsetse-infested
area of Nigeria. Bulletin of animal health and production in Africa 37:79-83.
Pathiraja, N. 1986. Improvement of pig-meat production in developing countries. 1.
Exploitation of hybrid vigour (heterosis). World Animal Review 60:18-25.
Quek, K.L., C.F. Chang, C.E. Low, and T.H. Lee. 1984. Observations of imported
breeding pigs during on-farm isolation. Singapore Veterinary Journal 8-9:15-19.
Sharma, B.D., S.K. Singh, and A.A. Devi. 1998. Study on genetic and nongenetic factors
affecting daily weight gain in exotic, desi and their halfbred piglets. National
Academy Science Letters 21:324-329.
Sharma, B.D., S.K. Singh, C.B. Dubey, and H.R. Mishra. 1992. A comparative study on
growth pattern of exotic and desi pigs, and their halfbred under farm and village
conditions of rearing. Indian Journal of Animal Science 62:378-380.
Sutherland, R.A., A.J. Webb, and J.W.B. King. 1985. A survey of world pig breeds and
comparisons. Animal Breeding Abstracts 53:1-22.
Wood, D.R. 1990. The Meishan importation 1987. Pig Veterinary Journal 24:137-139.
Gene Flow in Animal Genetic Resources.
A study on Status, Impact and Trends



Annex 9.6

UNIVERSITY OF
HOHENHEIM
Institute of Animal
Production in the
Tropics and Subtropics
Germany
AGRICULTURAL
RESEARCH
ORGANIZATION
The Volcani Center
Institute of Animal Science
Israel

The Worldwide Gene Flow of the
Improved Awassi and
Assaf Sheep Breeds from Israel

Tobias Rummel, Anne Valle Zrate, Elisha Gootwine

VERLAG ULRICH E. GRAUER Beuren Stuttgart 2005
Tobias Rummel, Anne Valle Zrate, Elisha Gootwine:
The Worldwide Gene Flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf Breeds of Sheep from Israel.
VERLAG GRAUER, Beuren, Stuttgart, 2005.

ISBN 3-86186-497-5

2005 Institut fr Tierproduktion in den Tropen und Subtropen
Universitt Hohenheim (480a), 70593 Stuttgart, Deutschland
E-mail: inst480a@uni-hohenheim.de

All rights reserved.

Printed in Germany.
Druck: F. u. T. Mllerbader GmbH
Forststr. 18, 70794 Filderstadt, Deutschland

VERLAG ULRICH E. GRAUER
Linsenhofer Str. 44, 72660 Beuren, Germany
Tel. +49 (0)7025 842140, Fax +49 (0)7025 842499
Internet: http://www.grauer.de/, E-Mail: grauer@grauer.de

This case study is an independent part of the gene flow study implemented by the Institute of
Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics of the University of Hohenheim. The
Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the German
Technical Cooperation (GTZ) acted as commissioner and project executing agency.
The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) acted as a support agency. An advisory panel
composed of international scientists, representatives of donor and development agencies, the
private sector and NGOs closely accompanied the study.
The co-funding by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) is gratefully acknowledged,
as is the support of all sponsors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A variety of people from different countries and institutions contributed to accomplish this
case study by providing helpful information and data on the gene flow of the Awassi and
Assaf breed.
These are Jock Allison from Abacus Biotech in New Zealand, Calle Escobar from the
National Agricultural University La Molina in Peru, Yosef Carrasso from the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development in Bet Dagan, Israel, and Ebru Emsen from the
Department of Animal Science at the Ataturk University in Turkey.
Our thanks go also to Irina Florescu from the Ministry of Agriculture in Romania, Phillip
Grand from Cowra Cheese in Australia and Sandor Kukovics from the Research Institute for
Animal Production and Nutrition in Hungary.
Finally, we wish to thank Nurlan Malmakov from the Research Institute of Sheep breeding in
Kazakhstan, Ian McDougall (UK), Chanda Nimbkar from the Nimbkar Agricultural Research
Institute in Maharashtra, India, Ch. Papachristoforou and C. Christofides from the Ministry of
Agriculture of Cyprus, Daniel Roldao (Sociedade Agricola da Herdade do Matinho, Lda.,
Castelo de Vide, Portugal), and Makros Tibbo from the National Livestock Research Institute
in Ethiopia. Not to forget Awassi Rt. in Hungary.
In Israel, we are grateful to the devoted team of the Ein Harod flock that is engaged with the
breeding of the Improved Awassi sheep for decades and that provided much of data for this
study.
We gratefully acknowledge contributions from all before mentioned institutions and persons
to this study.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 313
List of figures 313
Terms and Abbreviations 314
Executive Summary 315
1 The Improved Awassi breed in its indigenous environment 316
1.1 Origin, domestication and distribution of the unimproved Awassi 316
1.2 Gene flow in the past of unimproved Awassi in traditional pastoral
farming systems of Bedouins 317
1.3 Gene flow and breeding activities during the formation of the Improved
Awassi breed 317
1.4 Gene flow and breeding activities to form the Assaf breed 318
1.5 Gene flow and breeding activities to form the Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf
lines 318
1.6 Additional crossbreeding with the Improved Awassi and Assaf in Israel 318
1.7 Spread of the Improved Awassi and its crosses in Israel and the Palestinian
Territories to intensive and extensive farming systems 319
1.8 Description and performance of the unimproved Awassi, Improved Awassi
and Assaf breeds 320
1.9 Description and performance of the Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines 322
1.10 Conclusions 323
2 Worldwide gene flow of the Improved Awassi sheep from Israel 324
2.1 Middle East 329
2.1.1 Jordan 329
2.1.2 Iran 330
2.1.3 Abu Dhabi 330
2.1.4 Turkey 331
2.2 Mediterranean Region and Western Europe 331
2.2.1 Portugal 332
2.2.2 Spain 333
2.2.3 Italy 336
2.2.4 Cyprus 336
2.2.5 United Kingdom 337

2.3 Eastern Europe and Central Asia 337
2.3.1 Hungary 338
2.3.2 Romania 339
2.3.3 Former Yugoslavia 340
2.3.4 Kazakhstan 340
2.4 Tropical countries 341
2.4.1 Ethiopia 341
2.4.2 India 343
2.4.3 Peru 345
2.5 Australia and New Zealand 346
2.6 Conclusions 349
3 References 351
4 Contact Addresses 356

LIST OF TABLES 313

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Performance of unimproved, Improved Awassi and Assaf sheep in Israel 322
Table 2: Gene flow of Improved Awassi and Assaf breeding material from Israel 326
Table 3: Performance of Improved Awassi, Baluchi and Shal breed and their
crossbreds in Iran 330
Table 4: Performance of Improved Awassi, Redkaraman and Tushin breed of sheep in
Turkey 331
Table 5: Performance of the Malpica (Awassi x Mancha, Talavera, Churro and
Castilian) breed in Spain 334
Table 6: Performance of Cyprus fat tailed and Chios sheep and their crosses with
Improved Awassi in Cyprus on station 337
Table 7: Performance of Merino de Palas, Tigaie, Turcana and Improved Awassi in
Romania 339
Table 8: Milk Production of Improved Awassi, Improved Awassi x Kazak Fine Wool
and pure Karakul sheep on station in Kazakhstan 341
Table 9: Performance of the Improved Awassi and its crossbreds with local Menz
sheep in comparison to pure Menz sheep in Ethiopia 343
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Historical overview on Awassi and Assaf breeding in Israel 319
Figure 2: Improved Awassi ewes 321
Figure 3: Assaf stud ram 321
Figure 4: World wide gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep
from Israel 324
314 TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ASBLACK Assaf, Barbados Blackbelly
ASCEGA Association of Assaf Spanish breeders
iAw Improved Awassi
BB homozygous for the Booroola gene
BC Basque Country
B+ heterozygous for the Booroola gene
CDR-AID US-Israel Cooperative Development Research Program
C-L Castila-Len
C-M Castilla-La Mancha and Madrid
CN heterozygous genotype; C=Callipyge gene; N=normal gene
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
FecB Booroola gene
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
KFW Kazak Fine Wool breed
MASHAV Jordanian Ministry of Agriculture and Israels Centre for International
Cooperation
MV Maedi-visna
MY Milk yield
NARI Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute
Nav Navarre
NSW New South Wales
RIRDC Rural Industries Research and Development Cooperation
UNALM Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina
UNDP/FAO United Nations Development Programme, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In Israel, within-breed selection in the unimproved sheep started at the beginning of the 20
th

century by Jewish sheep breeders, resulting in the formation of the Improved Awassi strain.
The Improved Awassi differs from the unimproved Awassi mainly by its remarkable high
milk production about 550 vs. 70 litres per lactation, respectively. To improve its
prolificacy, the Improved Awassi was crossed in the 1960s with the East Friesian Milk sheep
that was imported from Germany, resulting in the formation of the "Assaf" with improved
prolificacy of about 0.4 lambs born per lambing over the Improved Awassi. Today, the Assaf
has nearly replaced the Improved Awassi in Israels intensive dairy sheep sector. Recently,
the Booroola gene, a major gene coding high prolificacy, was introgressed by crossbreeding
to the Improved Awassi and the Assaf resulting in two new strains, the Afec Awassi and the
Afec Assaf, respectively, both with a prolificacy of about 2.0-2.4 lambs born per ewe
lambing.
The gene flow of the Improved Awassi breed of sheep from Israel started in 1965. Since then,
28 transfers to 15 different countries are documented, with summarized monetary transfers
over $2 million. Totally, 5,433 lambs, 1,100 doses of frozen semen and 143 embryos of the
Improved Awassi have been exported from Israel. While only 9 of these 28 transfers have
been part of development aid projects, the majority represent commercial transfers between
private sheep farmers or government institutions and Kibutzim in Israel. Even though the
biggest part of Improved Awassi breeding material, 2,944 lambs and 1,000 doses of semen,
were transferred to Eastern Europe and Central Asia (Bulgaria, Former Yugoslavia, Hungary,
Romania and Kazakhstan), the highest numbers of pure Improved Awassi and crossbreds with
indigenous sheep are today in Spain (150,000-200,000 sheep) and Western Australia (100,000
sheep). The transfers to the tropical countries Burma, Ethiopia and India were part of
development projects, but with limited success. In the Middle East, a total of 1,113 Improved
Awassi lambs have been exported to Jordan, Iran, Abu Dhabi and to Turkey, where most of
them were used to improve local stocks of unimproved Awassi. The following unofficial
transfers to secondary destinations cannot be traced accurately.
The gene flow of the Assaf started in 1977. 687 lambs, 11,354 doses of semen and 260
embryos, for a total price of $333,040, have been exported from Israel in 10 transfers to 7
different countries. Only 2 transfers were part of development aid, while the majority were
commercial imports. The main stream of the gene flow of the Assaf breed of sheep went to
the Iberian Peninsular. Portugal imported 6,854 doses of frozen semen and 260 embryos in
the years 1991/1992, while Spain imported 430 lambs and 4,000 doses of semen between
1977 and 1993. In these countries the Assaf is today the dominating dairy sheep breed,
numbering over 1.2 million pure- and crossbreds. Besides those two countries, the Assaf has
been transferred to Peru, Jordan and Abu Dhabi, but with much less effect on the sheep
production sector. From Portugal, Assaf breeding material was exported to the United
Kingdom and Italy. No Assaf breeding material has been transferred to Eastern Europe,
Central Asia, Australia or New Zealand.
316 THE IMPROVED AWASSI BREED IN ITS INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENT

The following case study describes the worldwide gene flow of the Improved Awassi breed of
sheep and of the Assaf breed that was developed from the Improved Awassi. While the native
or unimproved Awassi sheep is the indigenous breed in different countries of the Middle East,
the Improved Awassi sheep and the Assaf breed that developed from it are the achievement of
an intensive breeding process that was started in 1932 by Jewish sheep breeders in Israel. This
process is still going on today.
According to the definition of the Israeli Sheep Breeders Association, only sheep which are
either registered in the national flock book of the Improved Awassi, or the pure offspring
from such sheep are called Improved Awassi. Today, the average milk production of ewes
registered in the flock book is 506 kg in 214 days. Because of their superior milk yield, the
Improved Awassi and Assaf of Israel have played a significant role in the world wide gene
flow of sheep, in both numbers of breeding animals and material transferred for the last 40
years.
Though there have been several transfers of unimproved or partly improved Awassi from
other Middle East countries like Syria, Lebanon and Turkey, the following article is limited to
lines of improved Awassi of Israel, because of their dominant role in the world wide gene
flow of the Awassi breed, the short time frame those transfers were conducted and the
detailed documentation available. This case study considers the history of the breed, its
modification through crosses and its world wide distribution. The Awassi breed has been
extensively described in the literature, in case of Israel especially by Hirsch (1933), Finci
(1957), Epstein (1985), Gootwine and Goot (1996), Gootwine and Pollot (2000a) and Pollot
and Gootwine (2001).
1.1 Origin, domestication and distribution of the unimproved Awassi
The Awassi is the most numerous and widespread breed of sheep in southwest Asia (Epstein,
1985) and has evolved in the nomadic and transhumant production systems traditionally
practiced in the Middle East region since biblical times (Epstein, 1971). It is assumed that the
Awassi developed its characteristic fat-tail during over 5,000 years of domestication, which
started in Mesopotamia, and that its parent stock were local breeds of thin-tailed wild sheep.
Epstein (1985) remarks that heavy fat tails severely impede movement in the wilderness and
can only develop in sheep protected by man. Because pigs are not consumed by Moslems or
Jews, sheep were the main source of animal fat in the Middle Eastern region, supporting the
selection of fat tail sheep where the fat is concentrated at the tail.
Archaeological fragments and mosaics from Ur, dated back to 3,000 B.C., show horned sheep
with a characteristic fat tail, indicating that the fat tail is an ancient product of domestication.
Comparing the appearance of sheep on these ancient fragments with unimproved Awassi
sheep reared today, it is obvious that the unimproved Awassi still represents the prototype of
many related fat tailed sheep breeds in the Near and Middle East and can be considered as one
of the oldest domesticated breeds of sheep worldwide. Its name is supposed to be derived
from the Bedouin tribe Awass, living in the Euphrat region (Finci, 1957). Today, the
Awassi is the dominant breed in Iraq, the most important sheep in the Syrian Arab Republic
and the only indigenous breed of sheep in Lebanon, Jordan and Israel. It is also found in large
numbers in Saudi Arabia and Turkey.
THE IMPROVED AWASSI BREED IN ITS INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENT 317

1.2 Gene flow in the past of unimproved Awassi in traditional pastoral farming systems
of Bedouins
The traditional sheep farming systems in the semiarid regions of the Middle East have been
nomadic and in some regions transhumant, where animals and shepherds move during the
entire year. Nomadic systems produce wider gene flows than sedentary farming systems,
since animals are moved over long distances following seasonal pastures and water. Sheep
keepers sell slaughtering and breeding animals on their movements to surrounding villages or
nomadic tribes from other regions. For that reason the unimproved Awassi spread very soon
after its domestication over a large geographic area, ranging from Turkey in the North and
West to the Arab peninsula in the South and Iran in the East with only marginal differences in
phenotype. Since the beginning of the 20th century this movement of the Bedouin tribes has
been more and more restricted and is nowadays limited by political borders, forcing the tribes
to change to a semi nomadic production system with less animal movement. Today, gene flow
of Awassi sheep across national borders through nomadic Bedouin tribes has disappeared
almost completely.
1.3 Gene flow and breeding activities during the formation of the Improved Awassi
breed
By the end of the 19th century sheep in Palestine were exclusively produced by Bedouin
tribes and a few Arab villages in upper Galilee. Jewish people, starting to return to Palestine
at the end of the 19th century, showed an interest in raising sheep and they bought flocks from
Bedouins. In 1914 an organization called The Shepherd was founded to establish flocks of
Awassi sheep in the Jewish settlements. In Kefar Giladi in upper Galilee a breeding flock
was established and stud rams for this flock were purchased in Transjordan and the Jaulan
(Jebel ed Druz) (Epstein, 1985).
In 1932, the breeding aim to improve the Awassi sheep was formulated by the annual
assembly of the Jewish sheep breeders at Kfar Giladi: The improvement of milk and mutton
production in sheep (Finci, 1957). Uniform milk recording and book keeping in the flocks
was adopted and in 1935 controlled mating was introduced in some flocks. In 1937 an
important decision was made on improving the Awassi breed: the annual assembly at Kefar
Hahoresh rejected a proposal to crossbreed Awassi with imported breeds of milk sheep in
order to raise production more speedily than by selection alone (Epstein, 1985). The breeding
aim was modified to concentrate on the increase of milk production, along with taking
care to preserve the robust and healthy constitution of the Awassi breed of sheep (Finci,
1957). In 1943, the flock book for the Improved Awassi was established and decades of in-
breed selection based on this breeding goal followed.
Although the Improved Awassi is a pure breed with performance gains solely from intensive
and strict in-breed-selection process, during the years 1953-55 17 shipments of Hirrik sheep,
totalling 14,632 ewes, arrived in Israel from Turkey, for distribution among small farmers.
The animals were imported by the Israel Sheep Breeders Association and the Jewish Agency
in order to overcome a shortage of Awassi sheep during that period. The Hirrik breed was
chosen because of its outward similarity to the Improved Awassi. It is bred in the vicinity of
Cizre on the Tigris, Kurdistan, near the borders of Syria and Iraq. In general conformation and
the shape of the fat tail it resembles the Awassi, however, it is smaller than the Improved
Awassi, the live weight of adult ewes varying between 40 and 45 kg. No male Hirrik sheep

were imported. The ewes were all bred to Improved Awassi rams and the traits introduced by
this crossbreeding were absorbed during the following years (Epstein & Herz, 1964).
1.4 Gene flow and breeding activities to form the Assaf breed
After three decades of intensive selection and breeding, the Improved Awassi had developed
into a high yielding milk breed, with individual ewes producing over 1,000 kg milk per year.
Nevertheless, the limited prolificacy of the Awassi breed was recognized and attempts were
made to improve this trait, as well as milk production by crossbreeding with the East Friesian
milk sheep. This crossbreeding program started in 1955 at Newe Yaar Experimental Station,
near Haifa (Goot, 1986) by scientists of the Volcani Research Centre. In 1955, 23 2-year-old
ewes and 12 rams, from several sires, and in 1963 another 23 ewe hoggets sired by five rams
of the East Friesian milk sheep, had been imported from West Germany by ship. The
subsequent crossbreeding by selection resulted in the Assaf composite breed. While pure East
Friesian milk sheep were not able to cope with the Mediterranean climate and conditions, the
Assaf proved to be a well adapted milk and meat dual purpose breed (Gootwine and Goot,
1996). In the following years, the high demand and prices paid for lamb meat encouraged
even intensive dairy farms to produce more mutton from the dairy flocks. With its higher
fertility, prolificacy, less seasonality and better growth performance (see Table 1), the Assaf
suited this demand and therefore replaced more and more the Improved Awassi in intensive
dairy flocks.
1.5 Gene flow and breeding activities to form the Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines
Because lamb production contributes to more than 40% of the income of intensive dairy
farms, farmers were interested in increasing prolificacy above the then level of 1.2 and 1.6
lambs born per ewe lambing for Awassi and Assaf, respectively. Crossbreeding the Improved
Awassi and Assaf with Booroola Merino rams began at the Volcani Center in Israel in 1986,
to introduce the B allele of the FecB (Booroola) gene, a major gene causing high prolificacy,
from the Booroola Merino into the Awassi and Assaf breeds (Gootwine et al., 1992). This
resulted in two new lines of Awassi and Assaf sheep, namely the Afec Awassi and the Afec
Assaf.
5 Booroola Merino rams were imported from New Zealand in 1986. After 4 generations of
backcrossing and intercrossing, Afec sheep carry 90% or more Awassi or Assaf genetic
background and are either heterozygous (B+) or homozygous (BB) for the Booroola gene.
The prolificacy of the (B+) Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf is about 1.9 and 2.3 lambs born per
ewe lambing, respectively (Gootwine et al., 2000b). Today, after 15 years of breeding, a BB
homozygous nucleus population has been established and BB rams are used in more than 20
intensive Awassi and Assaf flocks to produce B+ offspring which can be selected by marker
assisted genotyping (Gootwine et al., 2000b).
1.6 Additional crossbreeding with the Improved Awassi and Assaf in Israel
Further attempts to improve lamb production in local and Improved Awassi flocks were made
during the 1972-1978 period by scientists of the Volcani Center by crossing the Awassi with
the Finn and the Romanov prolific breeds (Goot et al., 1980). Although the prolificacy of the
crosses was relatively high, about 1.9 lambs per lambing, the crosses were not integrated into
the national flock in a sustainable way.

Over the years, several crosses between the Improved Awassi and the Assaf on one hand and
rams from terminal breeds like the Australian Suffolk, American Suffolk, Dorper and
Charolais on the other hand were evaluated in Israel. Results from these crossbreeding
experiments did not lead to massive introduction of the new blood lines to the commercial
flocks.
In addition, in 1998, semen from a heterozygous CN Dorset-Hampshire crossbred ram was
shipped to Israel from the University Wisconsin-Madison, USA. Assaf and Awassi ewes were
inseminated and first backcross generations were evaluated at the Volcani Center
experimental flock (Gootwine et al., 2002b). Although the meat leanness increased in lambs
carrying the Callipyge mutation, the meat quality, especially taste and tenderness, was of
lower quality and unacceptable to customers. So dissemination of the callipyge mutation was
avoided.
1.7 Spread of the Improved Awassi and its crosses in Israel and the Palestinian
Territories to intensive and extensive farming systems
As shown in Figure 1, the results of the last 80 years of Awassi breeding in Israel are four
new genotypes that emerged from the local Awassi: The Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds,
and the Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines. The unimproved Awassi still dominates the
mutton market in Israel today, with about 350,000 head raised in extensive and semi-
extensive production systems, mainly by Arab sheep keepers and Bedouins. In southern Israel
unimproved Awassi flocks were partly improved during the last decades by introducing
breeding rams from the Improved Awassi nucleus flock of Ein Harod.
The Improved Awassi with its superior milk yield dominated the intensive milk production
systems until the 1980s but is nowadays replaced almost completely by the Assaf.
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Assaf
Afec
Awassi
Assaf Afec
Assaf
East Friesian Milk
Sheep, Germany
Booroola Merino,
New Zealand
Improved
rams
Hirrik ewes,
Turkey
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
5000 BC
1932 AC
1955 AC
1986 AC
2004 AC
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Unimproved
Awassi
Improved
Awassi
Assaf
Afec
Awassi
Assaf Afec
Assaf
East Friesian Milk
Sheep, Germany
Booroola Merino,
New Zealand
Improved
rams
Hirrik ewes,
Turkey

Figure 1: Historical overview on Awassi and Assaf breeding in Israel

Today there is only one flock of the Improved Awassi the Ein Harod flock with about
1,500 sheep which are recorded in the national flock book. The nucleus flock of the Afec
Awassi is kept in the Ein Harod flock, and the number of breeding ewes is increasing

gradually with about 300 head of Afec at the end of 2004. Recently, a project was started to
introduce the Afec Awassi to the semi-extensive Bedouin flocks in the Negev. By the end of
2004 there were about 700 Afec Assaf ewes in different commercial sheep flocks and the
breeding nucleus at the Volcani Center in Bet Dagan.
In the Palestinian Territories the majority of the sheep stock is kept in the West Bank with a
small number in the Gaza strip. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics counted 590,000
Awassi sheep and 240,000 sheep of other breeds (mainly Assaf, some Mutton Merino and
Dorper) in the Palestinian Territories in 2002/2003. In the West Bank, semi-intensive systems
are concentrated in the North and tend to use Assaf or Improved Awassi purchased from
Kibbutzim in Israel.
According to records of the Kibbutz Ein Harod, about 400 Improved Awassi lambs (mainly
ram lambs) have been transferred to the West Bank during the last 10 years for breeding. The
majority of these transfers have been commercial transfers between private Palestinian sheep
farmers in the West Bank and the Kibbutz, in some cases with logistical assistance from Arab
merchants in Israel because of the restricted access of Palestinians to Israel and of Israelis to
some areas in the West Bank. Only a few transfers have been started by Rural Development
projects in the West Bank. Average prices of $400-450 per breeding sheep were paid. In 1997
another 200-300 Improved Awassi lambs were sold to a research station of the Palestinian
Authority at Beit Kat, near Jenin, and recently, in September 2004, 60 Improved Awassi
lambs were sold by Ein Harod to a private Palestinian farmer in the Ramallah area. The
numbers of Improved Awassi lambs sold to Palestinians in the West Bank are increasing each
year.
The Assaf breed was introduced to the West Bank in the same way as the Improved Awassi
but from many more sources in Israel, since many Assaf flocks exist in Northern Israel. The
greater part of the sheep population of the West Bank is located in the South, in semi-
extensive and extensive production systems with the unimproved Awassi as dominant breed.
This unimproved stock is increasingly influenced by unofficial transfers of Improved Awassi
sheep from the Bedouin sector in the south of Israel to the West Bank.
1.8 Description and performance of the unimproved Awassi, Improved Awassi and
Assaf breeds
The unimproved Awassi is a robust and vigorous, medium sized sheep of milk and mutton
type. The typical phenotype is white with brown head and legs and large pendulous ears, but
the colouring is very variable, so that there are also sheep with black, grey, white and spotted
heads and legs (Finci, 1957). Rams are nearly always horned, ewes are commonly polled.
In the course of several thousand years, the Awassi has become fully adapted to the sub-
tropical environment of its extensive breeding area in the semi-arid or arid regions of
southwest Asia. The traits which make the Awassi a favoured breed in these environments are
its tolerance to heat and water stress as well as its resistance to enzootic pneumonia. It was
also found that the Awassi is relatively resistant to copper poisoning (Epstein, 1985). It is well
adapted to poor Mediterranean pasture and can compensate for under-nutrition during the dry
season by using the stored energy reserves in its fat tail. The Bedouins favour its ability to
lamb on the open field and its good mothering abilities.

Figure 2: Improved Awassi ewes Figure 3: Assaf stud ram

Source: Rummel et al. (2003) Source: Israel Sheep and Goats Breeders'
Association (2001)
Because of the strict in-breed-selection - rejecting crossbreeding with exotic milk breeds - the
Improved Awassi is still a very robust breed, fully adapted to semiarid environments. The
outward appearance of the improved type is similar to the unimproved, but the animals are
heavier and have a much larger frame. The characteristics of the respiratory type of milk
sheep are more pronounced than are the mutton features (Epstein, 1985). Performance traits of
both the unimproved and Improved Awassi are given in Table 1. The relatively higher
prolificacy of the Improved Awassi is mainly due to the improved feeding management in the
systems those sheep are employed. According to the breeding goal formed at the beginning of
the process by the Israeli sheep breeders to improve the Awassi sheep, the highest
achievement of the improved genotype is the increased milk yield which on average is about
8 times higher. The decreased milk fat content in the improved genotype follows the well
known negative correlation of milk yield and fat content.
The Assaf breed is less described and reviewed in the literature than the Awassi. A detailed
description of the development and the performance is given by Epstein (1985), Goot (1986),
Gootwine and Goot (1996), Gootwine and Pollot (2002a) and Pollot and Gootwine (2004).
The original design of the Assaf was a proportion of 3/8 East Frisian and 5/8 Awassi, but
today the proportions of the two breeds may vary between different flocks and are generally
unknown. It is a large framed breed with a white fleece of non-curly wool. The head is free of
wool and usually white, but brown and black variations occur occasionally as well as spots on
the extremities. Generally, the Assaf is still a heterogeneous breed. Ears are long and
pendulous and ewes are hornless most of the time, while rams occasionally have horns. Assaf
have a semi-fat tail with a fat base. Selection for milk yield without selection pressure on
udder conformation resulted in a large, high-hanging udder. Compared to the Improved
Awassi, the Assaf breed is less adapted to the harsh environment and therefore requires a
higher level of management and feeding. Also its sensitivity to copper poisoning has to be
considered, excluding higher proportions of poultry manure from the diet. Epstein (1985)
describes a high risk of parasitic pneumonia for lambs of 3-5 months when raised with their
mothers in extensive housing conditions. A summarized overview on the performance of the
Assaf, is given in Table 1.

Table 1: Performance of unimproved, Improved Awassi and Assaf sheep in Israel
Trait Performance*
Unimproved Awassi Improved Awassi Assaf
Height at shoulder
(cm)
Ewe: 68
Ram: 75 (1)
Ewe: 73.7
Ram: 85.4 (6)
-
Mature live weight
(kg)
Ewe: 30-50,
Ram: 60-90 (4)
Ewe: 60-70
Ram: 110-120 (6)
Ewe: 70
Ram: 120 (9)
Prolificacy
(lambs/ewe/lambing)
0.6-1 (6) 1.28 (2) 1.57 (6)
Gestation (days) 155 (7) 152 (6) 146 (6)
Birth weight (singles)
(kg)
Male: 4.63
Female: 4.23 (1)
Male: 5.4
Female: 4.9 (3)
Male: 6.21
Female: 5.28 (6)
Daily gains of
liveweight** (g/day)
- Singles: 220-280
Twins: 190-246g (6)
400 (average of male
and female lambs) (9)
Milk yield 40-60 kg/year (1, 4) 506 kg/214 days (8) 334 l in 173 days (10)
Milk components (%) Fat: 7.5
Protein: 5-5.5 (4, 5)
Fat: 5-6
Protein: 5-5.5 (6)
Fat: 5,5 -7
Protein: 5-5.5 (9)
Wool yield (kg) Ewes: 1.8
Rams: 2.0-2.3 (5)
Ewes: 2.6-3.0
Rams: 4.4 (6)
Ewes: 2.6 (9)
* References (in brackets): 1: Hirsch (1933), 2: Epstein & Herz (1964); 3:Goot (1966); 4: Mason (1967);
5: Epstein (1977); 6: Epstein (1985); 7: Benjamin (1992); 8: Gootwine and Pollot (2000a); 9: Sheep and Goat
Breeders Association (2001); 10: Pollot and Gootwine (2004)
** of lambs, average from birth to marketing in two groups.
1.9 Description and performance of the Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines
Phenotypically, the Afec lines cannot be distinguished from the Awassi and Assaf breeds.
Adult sheep are as well adapted to the conditions of the region as the original breeds.
Differences in performance, as described by Gootwine et al. (2000b) and Gootwine et al.
(2001) are mainly the higher prolificacy of about 1.9 and 2.3 lambs born per ewe lambing and
1.8 and 2.1 lambs born alive per ewe lambing, for heterozygous B+, Afec Awassi and Afec
Assaf, respectively. Lower milk yields occurred in the first backcross generations, due to still
higher proportions of Merino. In a direct comparison between the Awassi and Afec Awassi,
Gootwine, et al, (2000b) report a total milk yield for the 4th backcross generation which is
94% of the Improved Awassi. In the same study, the number of lambs born per ewe lambing
differed significantly (+0.66) between the Afec Awassi (B+) and the original Improved
Awassi (++). Birth weights of the lambs are generally lower and the mortality to weaning
17% higher than in the Assaf and Improved Awassi (Sparim and Gootwine, 2000) due to
multiple births. Triplets and quadruplets require improved feeding during pregnancy, more
sophisticated and intensive supervision at birth and health management for the weaker lambs.

1.10 Conclusions
Putting the history and development of the Awassi of Israel into the context of the present
study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
i The Improved Awassi in Israel is a successful example of within breed selection,
without losing the adaptation of a breed to its natural environment. It also shows the
genetic potential which can slumber in indigenous breeds.
ii The development of the Assaf breed through crossbreeding with imported East Frisian
Milk Sheep gives an example of a well adapted composite breed. Many crossbreeding
efforts with East Frisian sheep have been conducted in Mediterranean countries
aiming to improve lamb and milk production. (Boyazoglu, 1979; Mavrogenis, 1987;
Salah and Galal, 1994; Gabina and Serradilla, 2000), but the Assaf is the only
successful example for a new synthetic breed formed.
iii The Afec Awassi and Afec Assaf lines bred through introducing the Booroola gene
from New Zealand represent a very specific gene flow where only a major gene was
transferred to improve a specific trait: prolificacy. This kind of single gene flow may
dominate future breeding activities.
iv Both the Assaf breed and the Afec lines show the impact of economic pressure on
sheep breeding as well as on the gene flow in animal genetic resources.
v The social structure of the agricultural sector in Israel, dominated by cooperative farm
structures, had a decisive impact on the formation of the Improved Awassi and Assaf.
Cooperative structures simplify breeding organisation, and the level of formal
education of cooperative members was high (Liegle and Bergmann, 1994).
vi The fact that the development of the Improved Awassi breed as well as its later gene
flow has been initiated by the return of the Jewish people to Israel gives an example of
the impact of human migration on gene flow in animal genetic resources. The genetic
potential has been present in the region for thousands of years, but motivated breeders
were needed to exploit it.
324 WORLDWIDE GENE FLOW OF THE IMPROVED AWASSI SHEEP FROM ISRAEL

2 WORLDWIDE GENE FLOW OF THE IMPROVED AWASSI SHEEP FROM
ISRAEL
The worldwide gene flow of the Improved Awassi started in the mid-1960s and continues
today. After the successful development and introduction of the Assaf breed to Israels dairy
sector in the early 1990s, Assaf genes were also exported on a large scale especially to Spain
and Portugal. Figure 4 and Table 2 give an overview of the many destination countries.
Until the beginning of the 1990s live animal exports dominated the transfers, but since 1992
veterinary regulations made it almost impossible to export live animals, semen or embryos
from Israel to countries of the EU. Until now, the two new Afec lines of the Awassi and Assaf
breeds have not been exported to other countries, but they are offered by the Volcani Center
as promising breeds for foreign sheep milk and meat producers. Middle East joint regional
cooperation projects include in their working proposals the evaluation of the Afec lines in
several locations.
Figure 4: World wide gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from
Israel
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa
Israel
Peru
Ethiopia
India
Burma
Cyprus
Abu Dabi
Iran
Jordan
New
Zealand
Australia
Turkey
Portugal
Spain
Italy
United
Kingdom
Bulgaria
Hungary
Romania
Albania
Former Yugoslavia
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyzstan
Mediterranean
Countries
East Europe and
Central Asia
Tropical
Countries
Middle East
Okinawa

Oceania
WORLDWIDE GENE FLOW OF THE IMPROVED AWASSI SHEEP FROM ISRAEL 325

In the following chapters a detailed description of each transfer of Improved Awassi and
Assaf breeding material from Israel is given.
The information was gathered using the following methodological approach: Firstly,
documents from the Ministry of Agriculture of Israel were used to identify destination
countries and transfer stakeholders. Secondly, all the importing stakeholders were contacted
via email and phone and informal interviews were conducted about the transfers and about the
development and current state of the breed since its import. If the direct stakeholder of the
transfer was not available for interviewing, key persons were identified in the country and
interviewed. Where published literature was available, it was used instead of - or in addition
to - the personal communication.
Exports to Abu Dhabi, Burma, Bulgaria, and Iran could be identified by export protocols of
the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture, but unfortunately, there was no response to requests for
detailed information. Besides the documented transfers to the countries shown in Figure 4,
there are several undocumented reports of extension officers who saw Improved Awassi
sheep at the UNDP/FAO Dairy School of Naivasha, Kenya during the 1960s and 1970s as
well as at a governmental farm in North-Eastern Somalia in 1979 (Meyn, 2005). These
countries are excluded in the following overview because neither proven documents nor
reliable information sources in the countries could be identified. Also secondary transfers
(from 2nd to 3rd countries) are poorly documented and hard to trace so their extent remains
largely unknown.

Table 2: Gene flow of Improved Awassi and Assaf breeding material from Israel
Country
Import.
breed*
Year of
import
Breeding
material
Price
US$
Purpose
Type of
transfer
Way of
transfer
Importer
Exporter
**
Actual stock
numbers*
Further
distribution
Middle East
iAw 1973 400 lambs
Unknown

Improve
meat
Commercial
Sharif Nazer
Uncle of the King of
Jordan
Ein Harod
Ass 1998
100 lambs
4 lambs
Improve milk
& meat
Unknown
iAw 1999 230 lambs
iAw 1999
100 lambs
15 lambs
Grant of
Israel
Jordan Ministry of
Agriculture

Ein Harod
.
Jordan
Ass 2004 5 lambs 1,500
Improve milk
production
Development
aid

Truck
Jordan M.O. Agricult. &
DANIDA
Unknown
Ass.: 200
iAw.: 563
Cross.:
Local farmers in
Karak region;
crossbreeding of
iAw rams with
unimproved
Awassi
Iran iAw 1965/66
203 lambs
42 lambs
100,100
Pure- &
crossbreeding
Commercial Unknown Unknown Ein Harod Unknown
Local farmers in
Quazin area
Abu Dhabi
iAw

Ass
1996
50 lambs
6 lambs
50 lambs
6 lambs
22,700
23,300
Unknown Commercial
Plane via
Cyprus
Not named private
businessman from Jordan
Ein Harod
Gazit
Unknown Unknown
iAw 1973
50 lambs
10 lambs
24,500 Truck
Turkey
iAw 1991 7 lambs 3,150
Improve local
Awassi
Commercial

Plane
Caylanpinar Agricultural
Institute, Sanli Urfa,
Turkey

Ein Harod

900,000 local
Awassi
Local Awassi
herders in East
Turkey
Mediterranean Region & Western Europe
Italy Ass
1999
-2004
65
10
Unknown

Improve milk
production
Commercial Plane
Dr. Amos Bareli, Israeli
Veterinary, Sardinia, Italy
Herdade do
Matinho

1,000
crossbreds with
Sarda breed
-
Cyprus iAw
1968
-1973
810 lambs
21 lambs
365,000
Improve milk
production
Commercial Ship
Ministry of Agriculture,
Nicosia, Cyprus
Ein Harod
All iAw culled
in 1993
Australia
Ass
1991
1993
5,000 doses
semen
260 embryos
50,000
M. Sarnadas, Sociedade
Agricola da Herdade do
Matinho, Lda.
Gazit
Portugal
Ass

1992
1,854 doses
semen
18,540
Improve milk
production
Commercial Plane
Y. Barradas, Evora
M. Carvajal, Lisbon
Moledet
Several hundred
thousands
All over Portugal,
Spain, UK, Italy

Table 2 continued
Country
Import.
breed*
Year of
import
Breeding
material
Price
US$
Purpose
Type of
transfer
Way of
transfer
Importer
Exporter
**
Actual stock
numbers*
Further
distribution
iAw 1971
150
50
82,500
iAw 1973/74
120 lambs
130 lambs
106,500
Ship
Cria Ovina de Malpica
S.A., Malpica-Tajo, Spain
Ein Harod
150.000-
200.000
pure- and
crossbreds
Other provinces
in Spain,
Portugal
Ass
1977

120 lambs
20 lambs
59,000
Ass 1978
110 lambs
40 lambs
66,000
Ass 1979
100 lambs
40 lambs
62,000
Private sheep farmer in
Len, Spain
Spain
Ass 1993
4,000 doses
semen
40,000
Improve milk
production
Commercial
Plane
Mr. Carlos Guerra, Spain
Gazit
700,000-
800,000
(purebreds and
crosses of
various degrees)
Portugal
United
Kingdom
Ass 1997
3,000 doses
semen
Unknown
Improve milk
production
Commercial Plane Dr. Ian McDougall, UK
Herdade do
Matinho
100 cross. -
Eastern Europe & Central Asia
iAw 1989
200 lambs
25 lambs
115,000
Ship &
land
iAw 1990 200 lambs 100,000
iAw 1990
49 lambs
4 lambs
26,900
iAw 1991
100 ewes
hogged
53,000
Hungary
iAw 1998 5 lambs 3,850
Improve milk
production
Commercial
Plane

Bessenvei Cooperation,
Hajd-Bihar County,
South-East Hungary
Awassi Rt Corporation
Bakonszeg, Hajd-Bihar
County, South-East
Hungary
Ein Harod
200 pure
3500 cross.
Albania
Bulgaria iAw 1977-79 1,786 lambs 803,700 Unknown Commercial Ship Unknown Ein Harod Unknown Unknown
Romania iAw 1973
80 lambs
20 lambs
51,000
Improve milk
production
Commercial Ship
Romania
Ein Harod Unknown -
Former
Yugoslavia
iAw 1969/70 450 lambs 225,000
Improve milk
production
Commercial Ship
Yugoslavia
Ein Harod Unknown -
iAw 1996
1,000 doses
semen
10,000
Kazakhstan
1999
20 lambs
5 lambs
10,250
Improve milk
production
Development
aid
Plane
Kazak Research Techn.
Institute of sheep
breeding, Almaty region
Ein Harod
30 pure
~200 cross.
Kyrgystan

Table 2 continued
Country
Import.
breed*
Year of
import
Breeding
material
Price
US$
Purpose
Type of
transfer
Way of
transfer
Importer
Exporter
**
Actual stock
numbers*
Further
distribution
Tropical countries
iAw 1980 10 lambs -
iAw 1984
4 lambs
5 lambs
-
Ethiopia
iAw 1994
18 lambs
8 lambs
-
Improve meat
and coarse
wool
production
Development
aid
Plane
sheep breeding Centre,
Debre Berhan, Ethiopia
Ein Harod
On Station
119 pure
400 cross.

Local farmers in
Highlands of
Ethiopia
iAw 1990
25 lambs
5 lambs
2,082
India
iAw 1995
100 doses
semen
1,000
Improve milk
production
Development
aid
Plane
Nimbkar Agricultural
Research Institute
(NARI), Phaltan, India
Ein Harod
Very few pure
and crossbreds
Regional farmers
Burma iAw 1980-83 20 lambs Gift of Israel
Meat
Development
aid
Plane Unknown Ein Harod Unknown Unknown
Peru Ass 1988
11 lambs
6 lambs
500 doses
semen
12,700
Improve milk
yield for
lambs
Commercial Plane
Depratment of Animal
Production at the
Universidad Nacional
Agraria La Molina
Gazit
185 pure
165 cross.
Regional farmers
Oceania
New
Zealand
iAw 1991 143 embryos 27,800
Milk
production
Commercial Plane
AWASSI New Zealand
Ltd., Dr. Jock Allison
Ein Harod Only very few
Offspring went to
Australia
Australia iAw 1987 311 embryos Unknown
Mutton
production
Commercial Plane
Australia, Dr. Lightfoot
Cyprus
~ 100000
purebreds
-
Total:
15
countries
iAw
1965
-1999
5,433 lambs
1,100 doses
semen
143 embryos
2,134,032
9 development aid
19 commercial transfers
Purebreds: 100,912 + unknown
numbers in diff. countries
crossbreds: 204,100 + unknown
numbers in diff. countries
7 countries Ass
1977
-2004
687 lambs
11,354 doses
semen
260 embryos
333,040
2 development aid
8 commercial transfers

> 1.2 million pure- & crossbreds of
various degrees
iAw = Improved Awassi; Ass = Assaf; pure = purebred; cross = crossbred; = increasing population; = decreasing population; = stable population
**Ein Harod = Kibbutz Ein Harod, Awassi Fold Division, 1860 Ein Harod Ihud Gazit = Kibbutz Gazit, D.N. Emek Israel 1934; Moledet = Kibbutz Moledet, M.P. Gilboa 1913
Herdade do Matinho = Sociedade Agricola da Herdade do Matinho, Lda. P.O. Box 22. Quinta da Moutosa, 7320 Castelo de Vide, Portugal,
Cyprus = Improved Awassi flock of the Ministry of Agriculture, Nicosia


2.1 Middle East
The Middle East region is the natural environment of the Awassi breed of sheep and in most
of the countries stocks of unimproved Awassi sheep can be found. The majority are kept in
extensive, sometimes pastoral farming systems for mutton production. If sheep are milked it
is usually for home consumption or rural markets. In several countries of the Middle East
efforts and national breeding programs have been launched to improve the Awassi sheep
(Jordan, Turkey). In order to supply such breeding programs with improved genetic material
as well as to improve indigenous breeds through crossbreeding, the Improved Awassi of Israel
has been imported to a number of countries.
2.1.1 Jordan
Source: Carasso, Y., 2004; Gootwine, E., 2004
The first transfer of Improved Awassi sheep from Israel to Jordan took place in 1973, when
the uncle of the Jordanian King bought 400 ewe lambs from the Kibbutz Ein Harod. The flock
was transferred to his private farm in Jordan but the development and further distribution of
Improved Awassi breeding material from this flock to local Jordanian farmers is unknown.
In 1996, Jordan and Israel signed an agricultural cooperation agreement which apart from
agricultural trade and plant protection contained a sheep husbandry project, as part of the first
governmental peace project between Jordan and Israel. The aim of the project was to establish
a nucleus flock of Improved Awassi and Assaf in the southern governorate of Karak, to
provide Improved Awassi and Assaf breeding material to local herders. Beside the sheep
flock, a dairy plant was planned to process sheep milk produced in the region.
The project was implemented in 1998 by the Jordanian Ministry of Agriculture and Israels
Centre for International Cooperation (MASHAV). In 1998, 100 Assaf ewe lambs and 4 ram
lambs were transferred from Israel to Jordan, in 1999 230 Improved Awassi lambs and in a
third transfer during 1999 another 100 ewes and 15 rams. All transfers were conducted by
trucks. While the Improved Awassi are kept at the Karak sheep breeding station, the Assaf
flock was established on the Al-Mushairfeh private farm in the same region. Both flocks are
supervised by the Jordanian extension service. The costs for the sheep and the dairy plant
equipment were provided by the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture, an investment totaling
$500,000, while the Jordanian government provided the land, buildings for sheep shelter and
the dairy plant as well as the manpower to run the farm. In its initial phase, the project was
endangered because opponents of the 1994 peace treaty spread the rumor among Karaks
residents that Israel would try to buy land and dominate Jordans economy (Charkasi, 1999).
Since 2000, the sheep breeding program (at the Karak demonstration farm) has been included
in the Middle East Regional Program between Denmark, Egypt, Israel, Jordan and the
Palestinian Authority, initiated by DANIDA, the Danish Agency for Development Assistance.
In November 2004, another 5 Assaf ram lambs were transferred to the Assaf flock in Jordan,
founded by the DANIDA project. Israel provided the animals for a price of $300 per ram, i.e.
half of the commercial price. At the end of 2004, 563 Improved Awassi sheep were kept at
the Karak sheep farm and about 200 Assaf sheep at the private farm Al-Mushairfeh. In 2003,
22 Improved Awassi lambs have been sold from the nucleus at Karak to local sheep farmers.
The average annual milk yield in the flock of 200 milked ewes at Karak was 145, 165, 189

and 178 litres per ewe and year for the years 2000, 2001, 2002 and 2003, respectively. The
main reason for the poor milk yields is the inadequate feeding regime.
2.1.2 Iran
Source: Epstein, H., 1985
In 1965-66, in an effort to increase the milk production of the local Baluchi and Shal sheep in
the Quazin area of Iran (situated in the northwestern corner of the central plateau, west of
Tehran), Iran imported 42 male and 203 female Improved Awassi lambs from the Ein Harod
flock in Israel at a price of $100,100 for pure- and crossbreeding with the two Iranian breeds.
While the crossbreeding of the Improved Awassi x Shal was conducted at an experimental
station with 100 sheep from each breed, the crossbreeding of the Improved Awassi x Baluchi
was implemented at village level in the traditional production system as well as with an
intensively managed demonstration flock.
Table 3: Performance of Improved Awassi, Baluchi and Shal breed and their crossbreds in
Iran
Improved
Awassi (iAw)
Baluchi Shal iAw x Baluchi iAw x Shal
Body weight of ewes (kg) 79 67 77 68 76
Mortality of adult ewes (%) 4.3 3.0 3.2 13.3 4.8
Average milk yield (l/year) 333 189 210 211 284
Prolificacy (lambs per ewe) 1.25 1.18 1.41 1.43 1.45
Birth weight (Singles, kg) 5 4.6 5 4.8 5.1
Mortality of lambs 0 180
days (male &female), (%)
m: 23.4
f: 13.0
10.1
6.8
7.8
9.1
11.9
12.4
14.4
11.8
Daily weight gain lambs
(Singles, Twins, g/day)
S: 230
T: 236
S: 226
T: 217
S: 231
T: 236
S: 233
T: 233
S: 244
T: 236
Fleece weight of ewes (kg) 2.43 1.76 2.0 2.39 2.41
Source: Wallach & Eyal (1974), QDA (1970), both cited after Epstein (1985)
Information about the further development of the Improved Awassi stock and its crosses in
Iran is not available.
2.1.3 Abu Dhabi
Source: Carasso, Y., 2004
In 1996 a private businessman from Jordan visited the Agritech exhibition in Israel and
contacted sheep breeders in Israel. He had a request from a private sheep farmer from Abu
Dhabi to import Improved Awassi and Assaf sheep. In October 1996 50 ewes and 6 rams of
Improved Awassi and the same numbers of Assaf sheep were transferred by plane to Cyprus
and from there to Abu Dhabi. The sheep were bought from the Kibbutzim Ein Harod and
Gazit at a price of $22,700 and $23,300. The destination address in Abu Dhabi, the
development of the imported stock and the current state of the flock are unknown.

2.1.4 Turkey
Source: Emsen, E., 2004
In 1973, the Improved Awassi was introduced to Turkey to raise the milk yield of local sheep
through crossbreeding, and to improve the local unimproved Awassi stocks in Eastern
Turkey. 50 ewes and 10 rams of Improved Awassi were bought for $400 and $450 per ewe
and ram lamb respectively, by the Caylanpinar Agricultural Institute, Sanli Urfa, Turkey and
transferred from Israel to Turkey. After arrival, the sheep where transferred to the Ataturk
University in Eastern Turkey.
In 1991, another 7 ram lambs were transferred from Israel to Turkey by plane for $3,150.
After initial crosses with local breeds (Chios, Tushin, Redkaraman, Daglic, Akkaraman) and
performance testing in local sheep production systems it became obvious that the Improved
Awassi could not maintain its high level of milk production under rural conditions. Eastern
Turkey, where the Improved Awassi was brought to, is characterized by high altitude (2000
m) and long, snowy winters. The breed had difficulty adapting to this environment, catching
respiratory diseases and unable to cope with the very low level of nutrition. So in the
following years, the breed was used to improve the mutton production of the local Awassi
through crossbreeding. Today there are about 900,000 purebred Awassi sheep in Turkey,
which have been partly improved through the national breeding program in which the
imported Improved Awassi from Israel participated, representing 2-3% of the total sheep
stock of the country. The number of crossbreds is unknown, but seems to be much higher.
The performance of the Improved Awassi under semi intensive management in Turkey,
compared to local sheep breeds, is presented in Table 4:
Table 4: Performance of Improved Awassi, Redkaraman and Tushin breed of sheep in Turkey
Improved Awassi Redkaraman Tushin
Rate of ewes lambing/ewes exposed (%) 87 85 95
Litter size 1.2 1.16 1.07
Average daily milk yield (l/day) 0.57-0.78 - -
Lactation length (days) 120 - -
Milk components (%) Fat: 6.6, protein 5.6 - -
Average daily gains of lambs (birth to
marketing) (g/day)
214-252 142 131
Source: Emsen (2004)
2.2 Mediterranean Region and Western Europe
The Mediterranean countries have a long tradition in breeding milk sheep and dairy
processing of sheep milk. Nowhere else in the world has such a manifold diversity of local
breeds of milk sheep as well as sheep milk products developed. Following the general trend in
European agriculture during the last five decades the sheep milk production systems have
become rapidly more intensive, using high yielding specialized exotic breeds. As part of this,
the Improved Awasssi and Assaf breeds were introduced to these countries, especially to the
Iberian peninsula. The Assaf succeeded dramatically, outnumbering the traditional milk
breeds only a decade after its first import.
Other than this and exports to the UK (see below), no transfer of genetic material of Improved
Awassi breeds from Israel to Europe is known to the authors.

2.2.1 Portugal
Sources: Sarnadas,M., 2004; Roldao,D., 2004; www.herdadematinho.pt
The story of the success of the Assaf in Portugal started in 1991. For several generations, Mr.
Sarnadas family had kept local milk sheep Serra de Estrla on his farm at Herdade do
Matinho, in the province of Alto Alentejo near Castelo de Vide. In 1975 he imported a flock
of 200 Awassi x Manchega crossbreds from Spain because he was not satisfied with the poor
milk yield of the Serra de Estrela (less than 1 litre per day).
In 1988 the Sociedade Agricola da Herdade de Matinho was founded to create a modern
sheep dairy farm to improve productivity. New stables, milking parlours, cheese rooms and
feed stores were built by Mr. Sarnadas. Several important milk breeds of Europe and the
Mediterranean were investigated by the management to find the most suitable, high yielding
milk breed for the new, intensive production system. The Assaf breed from Israel was finally
selected, because of its high milk yield in combination with heavy, fast growing lambs and
the ability to adapt to the dry and hot climate of the Mediterranean.
Following this decision, 5,000 doses of semen and 260 frozen embryos were purchased and
imported by the company from the Kibbutz Gazit in Israel at a value of about $50,000
between 1991 and 1993. The embryos were implanted into the Awassi x Manchega ewes and
the resulting offspring inseminated with Assaf semen. So the company had a purebred Assaf
flock for production and further breeding. Beside dairy production and processing, an
Artificial Insemination Centre was set up by the Herdade do Matinho according to the
stringent regulations of the European Union, and the company has become the main source of
Assaf breeding material outside Israel.
All ewes are milk recorded and genetic material (breeding rams and ewes, semen and
embryos) are offered for national and international sale with detailed performance records,
available on the internet (www.herdadematinho.pt). Today, 2,000 pure Assaf sheep are kept at
the nucleus flock of Herdade do Matinho, with an average milk yield of 320 litres in 150 days
(with single ewes up to 606 litres in 150 days) and 400-500 litres in a lactation of 200-240
days. Compared to the milk yields of the local dairy breeds of 80-120 litres and 120-150 litres
per year for the Saloia and Serra de Estrla, respectively, and 50-70 litres per year for the
Merino breed, which is still being milked in some regions, these numbers show the
extraordinary increase in milk yield achieved by introducing the Assaf.
Parallel to the imports organized by the Herdade de Matinho in 1992 (who thought they
would have the sole rights on the Assaf breed in Portugal), 1854 doses of semen were sold
from another Kibbutz in Israel, Moledet, Gilboa at a price of $18,540 to two farmers in
Lisbon, Mr. Y. Barradas in Evora and Mme M. Carvajal.
In Portugal, Assaf rams crosses with Lacaune, Saloia, Serra de Estrla and Merino sheep were
mainly uncontrolled. On some farms, the Assaf is also produced as a purebred. Although
neither numbers for purebreds nor crossbreds are available, according to local sheep breeders
the Assaf became the dominating sheep breed in Portugals dairy sheep sector, reaching
several hundred thousand sheep today (Roldao, 2004). Among the main cheese-producing
areas of Portugal, in the region Castelo Branco most of the dairy sheep farmers keep Assaf in
intensive production systems, mainly because of the development of the cheese industry in
this region and the absence of a traditional, local milk breed. With the introduction of the
Assaf breed, the extensive pastoral sheep production systems had to change dramatically into
much more intensive production systems based on irrigated pasture, heavy concentrate

supplements and a sophisticated reproduction management. Where the Assaf was kept in
traditional extensive systems, it could not compete with the rustic indigenous breeds. In
contrast to Spain, there is a national Assaf breeding organisation in Portugal, ACOSSAF, and
a closed flock book with about 5,000 registered sheep. The organisation was created by 10
farmers immediately after the Assafs were imported in 1993, representing the only members
still today.
In the past ten years, thousands of doses of semen, embryos and breeding animals have been
exported to Spain, with the Herdade de Matinho as the dominating importer. Assaf breeding
material has also been exported to Italy (see 2.2.3) and the United Kingdom (see 2.2.5) and
attempts are being made by the company to export Assaf semen and embryos to Canada. But
in recent years, veterinary health export requirements became much stricter in the EU, and are
difficult to fulfil in a country like Portugal where diseases like scrapie, maedi visna or Border
disease are present. Because of this situation Spain recently closed its borders to sheep
breeding material from Portugal, and the transfer to Canada was also not successful. Facing
this problem, the Herdade do Matinho is trying to establish a closed nucleus, which is free of
these diseases, especially maedi visna, in order to make further exports of breeding material
possible.
Beside the Improved Awassi crosses imported by Mr. Sarnadas from Spain there have been
several other private imports of Improved Awassi crosses from Spain to Portugal (see 2.2.2)
but compared to the success of the Assaf their numbers are negligible. Today only a few
farmers keep Improved Awassi crossbreds, but tend to replace them with Assafs (Roldao,
2004).
2.2.2 Spain
Source: Ugarte et al., 2001; Wellham, 1976; Epstein, 1985
In Spain, milk sheep production systems have a long tradition, producing 11% of European
sheep milk today. The traditional areas of dairy sheep farming are the Autonomous
Communities of Castila-Len (C-L), Castilla-La Mancha and Madrid (C-M), the Basque
Country (BC) and Navarre (Nav). The traditional sheep breeds in those areas are the Churra
and Castellana breeds in C-L, Manchega in C-M and Laxta in BC and Nav (Gallego et al.,
1994). Even though considerable efforts have been made to improve these local breeds
through different breeding programs, the annual genetic gain ranged only between 1-2% per
year. Therefore, more and more farmers have chosen to introduce foreign high yielding dairy
sheep breeds and more intensive production systems in an attempt to increase yields in the
short term. Beside the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds from Israel, which are the
dominating breeds, East Friesian and Lacaune are also present today with about 10,000 and
75,000 heads, respectively (Ugarte et al., 2001).
Improved Awassi were first introduced to Spain by the Spanish sheep breeding company Cria
Ovina de Malpica, S.A. (Malpica Sheep Breeding Company Ltd), located around Malpica-
Tajo near Toledo, some 106 km southwest of Madrid. In 1955 the Duke of Arion took over
the Malpica estates and began to improve the milk yield of the traditional Talavera breed (a
Manchega x Merino cross) by crossing it with Manchega rams. However, by 1970 it became
apparent that rising production costs could not be met by continuing with the existing system
of sheep farming. Hence, it was decided to increase the efficiency of the milk flocks by
crossbreeding with Improved Awassi rams from Israel (Welham, 1985). The Improved
Awassi of Israel was chosen because, apart from high milk yields, it is a hardy animal,

adapted to the Mediterranean climate of Spain and suitable for management in large flocks.
For this purpose 150 ewes and 50 rams were imported from Israel in 1971 at $82,500, and a
further transfer of 120 ewe lambs and 130 ram lambs at a price of $106,500 was made in
1974/75. The 180 imported Improved Awassi rams were first mated to the purebred imported
Awassi ewes and then together with a selected number of Spanish-born pure Awassi rams for
a crossbreeding program. Welham (1976) estimated the number of F1 crossbreds by Awassi
rams out of Talavera and Manchega ewes at 15,000 and from Churro and Castilian ewes at
25,000. But the experiment did not succeed and all the stock was sold (200 sheep to Mr.
Sarnadas in Portugal). In the following years, the variety of Awassi crosses, called Malpica,
spread to other provinces in C-L (especially to Zamora and Salamanca, and less to Palencia,
Valadolid and Len) (Ugarte et al., 2001). Wellham (1976) and Epstein (1985) gave the
following performance levels of the Malpica:
Table 5: Performance of the Malpica (Awassi x Mancha, Talavera, Churro and Castilian)
breed in Spain
Lactation
Number
Pure Awassi in
Spain
Malpica Mancha
Milk yield 1
2
348 l in 232 days
410 l in 264 days
180 l in 170 days
210 l in 200 days
80-95 l/lactation
Growth of lambs
(g/day)
- 257 214
Source: Epstein, 1985; Wellham, 1976
The import by the Malpica Sheep Breeding Company Ltd was the only transfer of live Awassi
sheep to Spain. Later, in 1998, frozen semen entered Spain from Israel via Portugal. The
current population of Awassi sheep in Spain is estimated to range from 150,000 and 200,000
sheep with a high level of crossbreeding with local breeds. The average milk yield is around
1.5 litres per day. Today, there is still no breeding program in Spain for the Improved Awassi
and its crosses, the Malpica (Ugarte et al., 2001). Besides its use in the commercial dairy
sector, the Improved Awassi breed was used as a reference breed in a scientific investigation
which examined the genetic relationships among the indigenous Spanish breeds of sheep,
Churra, Laxta, Manchega, Raza Aragonesa and Merino by genotyping for 19 DNA
microsaltellites (Arranz et al., 1998).
Only a few years after the Improved Awassi was imported from Israel, the Assaf was
introduced to Spain in three transfers. A farmer in Len imported from Israel by plane 120
female and 20 male in 1977, 110 female and 40 male in 1978, and 100 female and 40 male
lambs in 1979. He bought the sheep from the Kibbutz Gazit at $400 per ewe lamb and $550
per ram lamb. Between 1985 and 1987, this first nucleus was sold to other farms in
Salamanca, Zamora, Len, and even to Portugal. Later, the Assaf spread from these flocks to
the rest of Spain (Ugarte et al., 2001).
In 1993, the Herdade de Matinho transferred 4000 doses of Assaf semen from Israel to
Portugal and from there to a farmer in Spain, Carlos Guerra. This transfer was conditional to
the import of Assaf embryos from Israel to Portugal by the Herdade de Matinho from the
Kibbutz Gazit, because it was difficult to transfer the semen directly to Spain due to strict
veterinary health import protocols. But in the following years, until Spain recently
dramatically tightened up its import health requirements, this Portuguese insemination and

Assaf breeding company sold thousands of doses of semen and about 150-200 breeding rams
each year to farmers in Spain. Today the population of Assaf sheep in Spain is estimated to be
around 700-800,000 animals. Not all animals are purebred, but the level of Assaf blood is
probably higher than 80%. In consequence, the Assaf breed has had a significant effect on the
population of Churra and Castellana sheep, and on the traditional livestock production
systems. While in 1980 these local breeds numbered 1.5 Churra and 1.4 million Castellana
sheep, by 1998 these figures decreased to 750,000 and 250,000 sheep, respectively (Ugarte et
al., 2001).
The Assaf breed is less adapted to the local environment and cannot cope as well with poor
nutrition compared to the Churra and Castellana breeds. This has meant that where it is
adopted, the traditional extensive production systems dependent on long periods of grazing
natural pasture, fallow lands and stubble fields have had to change to an intensive almost
zero grazing dairy system with heavy concentrate supplements and irrigated pastures close
to the farm. Ugarte et al. (2001) give an average milk production of 2 litres per day and ewe
for the Assaf in intensive dairy systems in Spain. In contrast to the Improved Awassi, several
associations of Assaf farmers are trying to organize breeding schemes, even though there is
no national breeding organization for Assaf sheep. Some are partly financed by the local
government, such as the Diputacin de Len with 54 flocks and 25,000 ewes. There are other
initiatives which are fully supported by private funds, like the ASCEGA (Association of
Assaf Spanish breeders) with 27 farms and 20,000 ewes. Another one consists of
10 Camporreal farmers (Madrid) with about 11,000 ewes, and a third one consists of
12 Valladolid farmers with 10,000 animals (Ugarte et al., 2001).
In Spain, there are numerous brand names of sheep cheese, the origin and quality of which is
guaranteed by Denominaciones de Origen (D.O.: Label of Origin), which is linked to a
specific region and local sheep breed. Nevertheless, most of the Spanish dairies do not pay a
higher price for this milk but set the price given per liter according to the contents of fat,
protein, bacteria and somatic cell counts irrespective of the breed of sheep. This is one reason
why farmers changed to the high yielding Assaf or Improved Awassi instead of producing
less milk of higher quality with local breeds. On the other hand, it has motivated many
shepherds of the Basque country and Navarra region (50%) to hand process brand name
cheese on their farms from local breeds to increase their income. This is presumably the main
reason for the lower level of Assaf and Improved Awassi sheep in this area (Ugarte et al.,
2001).
Problems of both the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds in Spain include a higher incidence
of mastitis than in local sheep breeds, and in cases of inadequate feeding, low fertility and
toxemia, because of the higher energy requirements by higher milk yields.
Moreover, the traditional role of the sheep as landscape conservator is lost in production
systems with zero or irrigated pasture grazing. In consequence, land erosion becomes more
common and natural pastures become more shrubby and wooded, drastically increasing the
risk of fires during summer (Ugarte et al., 2001).

2.2.3 Italy
Source: Gootwine, E., 2004
Recently the Assaf breed of sheep also spread to Italy. In 1999, 65 Assaf rams were exported
from Portugal to Sardinia, where they have been crossed by artificial insemination with the
local Sarda milk breed of sheep in order to improve milk production. The transfer was started
by an Israeli veterinarian, Amos Bareli, who owns an insemination centre in Sardinia. The
exporting company was the Herdade do Matinho Ltd. Since 1999 there have been some more
transfers of Assaf breeding rams from Portugal to Sardinia (about 10 rams). Today there are
about 1,000 crossbreds between the Assaf and Sarda breeds, of various percentages of Assaf
blood in Sardinia.
2.2.4 Cyprus
Source: Papachristoforou, Ch., 2004, Christofides, Ch., 2004
In the 1960s, programs were launched in Cyprus to improve the milk and mutton production
of the local Cyprus fat-tail breed. Beside Chios and East Friesian sheep, the Department for
Animal Breeding of the Ministry of Agriculture in Cyprus imported 831 improved Awassi
lambs from the Kibbutz Ein Harod, Israel, from 1968-73 at a price of $365,000.
The aim was to improve the ability of Chios and its advanced crosses with the Cyprus fat-tail
sheep to withstand adverse management and environmental conditions in extensive
production systems (Mavrogenis, 1995). In the following years a nucleus flock was
established at the Experimental Station of the Ministry of Agriculture in Nicosia;
crossbreeding with the indigenous Cyprus fat tail and Chios sheep (Epstein, 1985), and
performance testing started. But the Improved Awassi and its crosses could not compete with
the Chios breed and its crosses in the increasingly intensive local sheep milk production
systems, due to the higher prolificacy of the Chios (1.9 lambs per ewe lambing), with a
similar milk yield (160-170 kg per lactation). Additional difficulties have been the seasonal
breeding of the Awassi and fertility problems. In 1993 the governmental nucleus flock was
culled, because there was no further intention to use the Improved Awassi and its crosses in
Cyprus. Today, only very few crossbreds are producing in the country. In 1986/87, 311
embryos of Improved Awassi were exported to West Australia from the nucleus flock in
Nicosia (see chapter 2.5).

Table 6: Performance of Cyprus fat tailed and Chios sheep and their crosses with Improved
Awassi in Cyprus on station
Average daily milk
yield, lactation length,
daily milk yield
Milk contents
Protein (P), Fat (F)
(%)
Daily weight
gain of lambs
(kg)
140 day
weight of
lambs (kg)
Awassi x Cyprus
fat tail
122 kg in 134 days
0.91 kg
F: 6.5
P: 6.7
239 35.8
Pure Cyprus fat
tail
65 kg in 106 days
0.61 kg
F: 6.0
P: 7.1
185 28.5
Awassi x Chios 171 kg in 146 days
1.17 kg
F: 6.0
P: 6.1
236 35.6
Pure Chios 137 kg in 143 days
0.95 kg
F: 6.1
P: 6.5
217 33.7
References (Cyprus ARI, 1972,
1973, 1975) quoted
after Epstein 1985
(Cyprus ARI, 1972,
1973, 1975) quoted
after Epstein 1985
(Mavrogenis
& Louca,
1979)
(Mavrogenis
& Louca,
1979)
Source: Epstein, 1985; Mavrogenis and Louca, 1979
2.2.5 United Kingdom
Source: McDougall, I., 2004
Dr. Ian McDougall runs a company specializing in artificial insemination and embryo transfer
services for sheep in the UK. He imported 3,000 doses of Assaf semen in 1997, which he
received for a service he provided to the Herdade do Matinho in Portugal. So the Assaf was
introduced to the very young sheep dairy sector of England (founded 1983). The common
breed in the British dairy sheep sector is the East Friesian (or British) milk sheep and Mr.
McDougall crossed the Assaf with this breed.
But for several reasons (unconventional phenotype, foot problems on wet pasture, grazing
difficulties in the cold and wet climate), the crossbred was not accepted by British sheep
breeders. Only about 100 Assaf ewes are producing in England nowadays. Another important
reason for the failure lays in the fact, that artificial insemination is not common among British
dairy sheep farmers, but only semen had been imported. At about the same time, the Lacaune
breed, a milk sheep from France, was introduced to Britain and crosses between this breed
and the East Friesian milk sheep have been favoured by the breeders. For some years, the
Assaf semen was stored by Mr. McDougall and offered free of charge to all milk sheep
breeders of the British Sheep Dairy Association, but with poor feedback. In March 2004 all
the semen left over was destroyed.
2.3 Eastern Europe and Central Asia
In Eastern Europe there is a long tradition of producing and consuming sheep dairy products.
While in the past, sheep milk production was mostly limited to extensive pastoral production
systems with local breeds, after the breakdown of the socialist regimes there was some
restructuring of sheep milk production, calling for more intensive dairy breeds for the newly
set up intensive production units. During this transition Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania,
Former Yugoslavia, Kazaksthan and Kyrgystan imported Improved Awassi breeding material
from Israel. While in some countries of Eastern Europe these transfers had already begun
during the socialist era, the Improved Awassi was introduced to Central Asia very recently.

2.3.1 Hungary
Source: Kukovics, S., 2004
As in other countries of Eastern Europe, milking sheep and processing sheep cheese is
common among Hungarian sheep keepers. The traditional milk breeds are the Tsigai and
Racka, kept in extensive production systems. Their milk yields range between 50 and 200
litres per lactation, but with high percentages of butter, fat and protein.
In the former communist era, attempts had been made to establish an intensive sheep dairy
sector. In Bessenyei, a village in the Hajd-Bihar County, South Eastern part of Hungary, a
cooperative farm for intensive sheep milk production was established. As a dairy sheep breed,
the Improved Awassi from Israel was chosen and a long term import strategy was set up by
the management of the cooperative. Between 1989 and 1991, 29 ram lambs, 449 ewe lambs
and 100 pregnant ewe hoggets were imported from Israel by this cooperative. The sheep were
purchased for an average price of $550-770 per breeding ram lamb, $450-500 per ewe lamb
and $530 per ewe hogget. While the first transfer in 1989 went probably by ship to Koper in
Slovenia and from there by road to Hungary, the three subsequent transfers were by plane
directly from Israel to Hungary.
But the privatisation and reorganisation in Hungary during the early 1990s caused feed
shortages and management failures, and the major part of the Awassi sheep stock at the
Bessenyei Cooperative farm died or was sold. In 1996, the cooperative was reorganised and
transferred into the Awassi Rt Corporation Bakonszeg. By then, the sheep stock of the farm
numbered 100 ewes and 8 rams of purebred Improved Awassi and about 1200 crossbreds.
Today 200 purebred Awassi and about 2500 crossbred (Awassi x Merino) are kept in an
intensive, zero grazing management system and another 2500 Gyimesi Racka sheep under
extensive management at the cooperative farm. Most of the milk is processed in the units
own dairy plant to semi-stiff kneaded cheese for export. In 1998, the Corporation imported
another 5 breeding rams from Israel and further imports of Improved Awassi breeding
material from Israel are planned.
Beside the Awassi Rt Corporation Bakonszeg, today there are several smaller private farms
in Hungary keeping about 1000 Awassi crossbreds for milking. All of them are closely linked
to the Corporation, in terms of breeding as well as in management and marketing. Compared
to the national stock numbers of sheep in Hungary today (about 1.2 million head), the
Improved Awassi and its crosses number still less than one percent. In the extensive and semi-
extensive grazing sheep milk production systems of Hungary the Improved Awassi has not
become established. Main reasons mentioned by the farmers are foot-rot problems on cold
and wet pastures and difficulties in grazing natural pastures. As a socio-cultural constraint,
most of the traditional dairy sheep farmers do not accept the new Awassi breed, but stick to
their local sheep breeds. Nevertheless, the Sheep Breeders Association of Hungary has set up
a special breeding plan for Awassi sheep with the primary goal to increase milk production,
but the Improved Awassi or its local crossbreds are only just starting to be introduced to the
broad Hungarian sheep dairy sector.
Since 1970, Improved Awassi sheep have also been exported from Hungary to Albania,
where they have been established in the semi-nomadic production systems. In 1996, there
were about 10 flocks with about 390 Improved Awassi counted in Albania (Department of
Animal Breeding and Genetics, School of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover 1998).

2.3.2 Romania
Source: Florescu, I. , 2004
In 1973 the Ministry of Agriculture in Romania bought 20 ram and 80 ewe lambs of
Improved Awassi from Israel ($51,000), to crossbreed with the local Tigaie and Turcana
sheep to improve milk production. In Israel, the breeders association arranged the transaction
and the animals were transferred by ship to Romania where they were moved to the breeding
research station in Rusetu in the county of Buzau.
The crossbreds of the Improved Awassi and the Tigaie and Turcana breeds did not perform
well in the mountain areas of Romania due to foot rot problems. But in regions of the plains
with less then 350 mm annual rainfall per year these feet problems did not occur. Beside the
crossbreeding with the two indigenous breeds, a new composite breed was created at the
research station for sheep and goats in Palas, County of Constanta, by crossing the breeds
Improved Awassi, Merino de Palas and East Friesian Milk sheep. Its average milk production
is reported to be 200 litres per lactation and the breed is well adapted to the plains of
Romania.
The sheep breeding station in Rusetu had to close down in 2004 and all the Improved Awassi
stock and crossbreds were sold to Mr. Ioan Sufana from Insula mare a Brailei. Beside this
information, no documentation on the current state of the flocks of the Improved Awassi in
Romania is available, but its influence on the sheep dairy sector of Romania seems to be
negligible.
Table 7: Performance of Merino de Palas, Tigaie, Turcana and Improved Awassi in Romania
Merino de Palas Tsigaie Turcana Improved Awassi
Mature body weight
Ewes (kg)
Rams (kg)

60-65
100-110

43-45
70-80

38-40
60-70

58-65
90-100
Age at first lambing
(months)
20-22 24 24 22-24
Lambs born per ewe
lambing
1.18-1.22 1.08-1.10 1.03-1.05 1.08
Survival rate birth to
weaning (%)
85-90 90-92 92-95 90
Average milk yield
(l/day)
0.6-0.7 0.5-0.6 0.5-0.6 1.3-2.2
Average lactation
length (days)
130-150 180-190 190-200 172-250
Milk components
Fat (%)
Protein (%)
Solids Not Fat (%)

6.5
6.23
17-18

6.4
5.4
17-18

7.0
5.8
17-18

6.6
5
14
Source: Raducu, 2004, personal communication

2.3.3 Former Yugoslavia
Source: Epstein, H., 1985
In 1969 and 1970 the Ministry of Agriculture, Yugoslavia imported 450 ram and ewe lambs
of Improved Awassi from Israel in order to improve the milk production of the local sheep
breeds, Ovce Polje and Kosovo, by crossbreeding (Epstein, 1985). The sheep were purchased
from the Kibbutz Ein Harod at a price of $225,000. No information is available on the
development of the breed in the country, or its present state.
2.3.4 Kazakhstan
Source: Gootwine, E., 2004
Kazakhstan is the first country of Central Asia to which the Improved Awassi breed has been
exported. Before Kazakhstan was included in the UDSSR, there was a common tradition to
milk sheep and produce sheep cheese, but when the UDSSR took over the sheep production
sector was forced to concentrate solely on producing fine wool.
Based on the tradition and market for sheep milk products in Kazakhstan, a development
project was set up between Dr. Gootwine of the Volcani Centre in Israel and Prof. Kasymov
and later Dr. Malmakov of the Kazak Research Technological Institute of sheep breeding in
the Almaty region. The project was founded by CDR-AID, an American agency development,
which supports developing countries in cooperation with scientists from Israel. The aim was
to develop an dairy sheep production system based on the Improved Awassi and its crosses
with local breeds.
In 1996 about 1000 doses of frozen semen were transferred by plane to Kazakhstan. The
semen was collected from rams belonging to the flock of the Kibbutz Ein Harod and the price
of $10,000 was paid by CDR. On a former Kolkhoz in the North East of the country, in the
Semipalatinsk region, local Kazak fine wool ewes were inseminated and F1 offspring were
born which developed well. Unfortunately, documentation on these initial results is missing
and the project was terminated.
In 1998, 25 ewe lambs and 5 ram lambs were transferred by plane to Kazakhstan to establish
a purebred Improved Awassi nucleus at the breeding station of the institute near Almaty.
Breeding material from that nucleus served to produce Awassi crosses with Kazak Fine Wool,
Kazak Fat Rump and Karakul sheep on three private farms under semi-extensive
management.
Today the breeding nucleus at the Kazak Research Technological Institute of sheep breeding
contains about 30 purebred Improved Awassi , 6 F1 crossbred ewes (Improved Awassi x
Kazak Fine Wool) and purebred local sheep. The first contemporary comparison of milk
production showed the superiority of the Awassi in milk production (Table 8).

Table 8: Milk Production of Improved Awassi, Improved Awassi x Kazak Fine Wool and
pure Karakul sheep on station in Kazakhstan
Breed n Total MY in 125
days (l)
Average daily
MY (l)
Maximum
daily MY (l)
Improved Awassi 15 178 1.4 4.2
F1 (iAw x KFW) 4 161 1.3 2.7
KFW 14 47 0.4 1.4
iAw= Improved Awassi, KFW= Kazak Fine Wool breed; MY= milk yield

In autumn 2003, 150 Kazak Fine Wool ewes at the Madina farm in the Konyrolen village,
Panfilov district, 350 km southeast of Almaty, were inseminated with Improved Awassi
semen resulting in 38 F1 ram lambs and 44 F1 ewe lambs. The same number of Kazak Fat
Rump ewes were inseminated in 2003 at the Dias farm near Ulguli village, Djambulsky
district, 120 km northwest of Almaty, resulting in 48 F1 ram lambs and 67 F1 ewe lambs. In
South Kazakhstan, in the Aryssky district on the Ahdala farm, 160 Karakul ewes were
inseminated with Improved Awassi semen in cooperation with the regional Karakul sheep
breeding institute. Performance data of the different crossbreds are being collected and will be
used to identify the most suitable crossbred for a semi-intensive dairy sheep production
system in Kazakhstan. Until now Improved Awassi sheep introduced to Kazakhstan were
limited to the scientific research station and the three farms where the on-farm research takes
place. Results of performance and acceptance among local sheep breeders are yet to be seen.
In November 2001, one Awassi ram and about 200 doses of frozen Improved Awassi semen
was exported to Abdugani Abdurasulov, head of the reproduction department at the Kyrgyz
Livestock Research Institute in Kyrgyzstan, a neighbouring country in Central Asia.
2.4 Tropical countries
There has been only a limited gene flow of Improved Awassi breeding material from Israel to
tropical countries. Ethiopia, India and Peru imported Improved Awassi and Assaf sheep not to
improve milk production, but to increase mutton and coarse wool production of local breeds
through crossbreeding. The advantage of the Improved Awassi over other exotic mutton
breeds was its hardiness and ability to cope with hot climates as well as to produce at high
altitudes.
In the context of bilateral relationship, Improved Awassi breeding material was given to
Burma by Israel.
2.4.1 Ethiopia
Source: Tibbo, M., ILRI, 2004
Sheep production is a major agricultural activity with a considerable economic impact in
Ethiopia. The sheep population of about 24 million is one of the largest in Africa
(Woldemeskel et al., 2002) and its majority (75%) is concentrated in the northern and central
highlands, raised in smallholder mixed crop-livestock production systems. Milking sheep is
largely limited to very view regions (North Wello and Sekota district) (Lemma et al., 1998).
The highlands are dominated by indigenous fat tailed sheep that are adapted to their specific
environments, namely fat-tailed Menz sheep or the Tucur breed (Hassen et al., 2004).

The genetic potential of the indigenous sheep in Ethiopia for meat and wool production is
believed to be low, and therefore the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture has established a
number of sheep improvement programs, all based on crossbreeding with imported breeds,
assuming that in-breed selection among local breeds would be too slow.
To improve the highland sheep (Menz breed), Corriedale, Hampshire and Romney rams were
imported from the UK for crossbreeding (Hassen et al., 2002). But those breeds and their
crosses were not accepted by local farmers, and so in 1980 the Improved Awassi breed was
imported from Israel as it was assumed similar in phenotype to the local Menz sheep (fat tail).
The transfer was begun by the government of Ethiopia with the support of the government of
Israel as a contribution to the agricultural development of the country. Between 1980 and
1994 23 ram lambs and 22 ewe lambs have been imported in 3 transfers by plane. They
originated from the Kibbutz Ein Harod in Israel and were brought to the Debre Berhan Sheep
Breeding and Improving Centre, 135 km north of Addis Ababa at 2800 m above sea level.
The breeding project intended to produce on station crossbred rams between the local Menz
and the Improved Awassi, with 75% Awassi blood, which would be spread to the sheep
producers in the highlands as terminal sires. Between 1994 and 2000, the Debre Berhan Sheep
Breeding and Improvement Centre distributed about 1055 (783 for breeding and 272 for
fattening) crossbred rams to farmers in most of the districts in Ethiopia, mostly in the Shewa
District where the station is located. Contrary to the former crossbreeding attempt with the
imported thin tailed mutton breeds, the Awassi x Menz crossbreds were well accepted by the
local sheep keepers, but no records were kept and so there is no reliable information about the
Awassi breed level in the smallholder mixed farming systems.
Research on the performance of the Awassi breed in Ethiopia indicated that they adapted
easily to the tropical highlands at altitudes between 2,700 and 2,900 m above sea level.
Additionally, there was a continuous increase in mean weight at birth, weaning, and annual
greasy wool weights with increasing levels of Awassi breeding (Lemma et al., 1989) on
station. However, due to insufficient natural pasture and lack of supplementary feeding in the
mixed crop-livestock production system where the crosses with indigenous Menz type sheep
were distributed, the 75% Awassi crossbred rams were unable to adapt to such a low input
system. The farmers reported that they suffered from helminth parasites. Hassen et al. (2002)
found that the performance of 37.5% Awassi x Menz crossbred sheep was no better than the
indigenous Menz sheep in the low input system of village conditions. Tibbo et al. (2004)
reported increased adult Fasciola hepatica worm burden with increasing Awassi proportion.
The performance of different genotype levels of the Awassi breed is published (Lemma et al.,
1989; Lemma et al., 1991; Lemma et al., 1993; Lemma et al., 1995; Demeke et al., 1995;
Demeke et al., 1998; Lemma et al., 1998; Hassen et al., 2002; Hassen et al., 2004; Tibbo et
al., 2004). Their performance as affected by the level of the Awassi blood and comparison
with indigenous Menz breed is given in Table 9.

Table 9: Performance of the Improved Awassi and its crossbreds with local Menz sheep in
comparison to pure Menz sheep in Ethiopia
Awassi Crossbreds Menz
Proportion of Awassi (%) 100 75 50 37.5 0
Performance traits
Mature body weight ewes (kg) - 41 41.4 - 31.6
Age at first lambing (months) 25.0 21.4 - - 11.6
Rate of ewes lambing/ewes exposed 74.27 71.01 62 - 97.18
Lambs born per ewe lambing 1.04 1.02 1.04 - 1.05
Birth weight (kg) 4.1 3.3 3.0 3.4 2.8
Weaning weight (kg) 22.5 18.9 16.8 12.8 11.9
Daily gains of live weight by lambs (g) 172 144 128 144 68
Average live weight of lambs at
marketing
60.0 41.0 29.6 - 24.8
Greasy wool production (kg/ewe/year) - 1.33 0.98 - 0.60
Source: Tibbo, 2004
Today, there are 119 pure Awassi, 51 Awassi (75%) x Menz and 341 Awassi (50%) x Menz
sheep on the three Breeding and Improvement Centres Debre Berhan, Amed Guya and Sheno.
The relatively low numbers of crossbreds result from the culling and test and slaughter policy
started on the stations after an outbreak of respiratory diseases in 2000 (Tibbo et al., 2001).
Maedi-visna (MV), a chronic viral disease of adult sheep characterised by interstitial
pneumonia, was responsible for the outbreak, to which the crossbred and indigenous Menz
sheep were especially susceptible (only 48% of the imported Awassi, but 92% of the Menz
sheep were infected). It appears that Menz sheep are nave to MV infection, and it may be that
a related virus was introduced to Ethiopia with imported exotic breeds from the UK or from
Israel (Wolsemeskel, M. et al, 2002). In both countries MV was reported (FAO/OIE/WHO,
1991-1994).
In order to control the disease, the following measures were taken: The distribution of
crossbred animals to farmers for breeding was stopped and all crossbred sheep from the
breeding stations had to be culled. The crossbreeding program as well as new imports of
Awassi sheep into the country were stopped and the pure Awassi stock on the stations were
subjected to test-and-slaughter policy for MV to establish a clean flock; pure Awassi lambs
are separated immediately from their dams and fostered with cow milk. In addition,
indigenous Menz sheep were purchased from farmers from MV-free areas. In general, the
Ministry of Agriculture is also reconsidering the breeding objectives and is working on an
import policy of genetic material to prevent foreign diseases being imported to Ethiopia in the
future.
2.4.2 India
Source: Nimbkar, C., NARI, 2004
While in Ethiopia the transfer was started by governmental institutions, in India a NGO was
the driving force of the gene flow of the Improved Awassi from Israel. In 1990, the Nimbkar
Agricultural Research Institute (NARI), Phaltan, district of Satara, Maharasthra State and its
founder Mr. B.V. Nimbkar saw the need to improve indigenous Deccani breed of Maharashtra

and the Patanwadi breed of North Gujarat through crossbreeding with an imported high
yielding milk breed.
Until then research in sheep breeding in India had focused on improving the yield and quality
of wool and, to a lesser degree, the yield of mutton. No attempts had been made to improve
the milk yields of indigenous sheep (Nimbkar et al., 1992). Better lamb survival and growth
due to higher milk yields and milk for home consumption of the shepherds were the aims
behind improving the milk yield through crossbreeding. The main reason for choosing the
Awassi breed was its hardiness and high milk yields, promising adaptability to Maharashtra
conditions. So in May 1990, NARI imported 25 Improved Awassi ewes and 5 rams from the
Kibbutz Ein Harod, Israel, at a price of $2028. They were transferred by plane to Mumbai and
from there to Phaltan. In 1995, 100 straws of Improved Awassi semen were imported from
Israel (Volcani Centre Bet Dagan) for $1,000, paid for by GIFRID, Germany, as a research
grant. But these straws contained dead semen so were useless. In 2000 a further 100 semen
pellets were collected in Syria from Syrian Awassis in a bilateral cooperation. A NARI
veterinarian collected and froze the semen in Syria, and in return instructed Syrian
veterinarians in the technology of freezing ram semen.
Between 1990 and 2000, several crosses between the Awassi and the Deccani breed were
produced and 27 pure Awassi rams, 26 Awassi (50-87,5%) x Deccani rams, 14 pure Awassi
ewes and 15 Awassi (50-87.5%) x Deccani ewes were sold from NARI to farmers, research
stations and companies all over India. At the Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute in
Rajasthan, where some of these sheep went, several crosses with the indigenous Malpura
breed were produced. But the low numbers of animals sold show the poor results of the
crossbreeding program.
The transfers in India did not follow any broad strategy but were isolated activities. No
records about the Awassi and its crosses in local production systems are available. But on the
NARI station it became obvious that although the Awassi adapted well to the hot climate, it
required a high level of nutrition to reach its full potential for milk and could not manage the
very poor feed resources of local sheep production systems. In addition, it was susceptible to
local diseases and the conception rate at the station was very low. Therefore the crossbreeding
program stopped in 2000 and new strategies for improving the Deccani sheep were
considered. Today, after 15 years of breeding, Mr. B.V. Nimbkar, who initiated the transfer,
considers that importing the Improved Awassi was a mistake. It had no impact on the Indian
sheep production systems and did not establish at local farms.
But recently the remaining stock of Improved Awassi at the NARI station is being used in a
new improvement strategy for the Deccani sheep. In the year 2000, a breeding plan was
started at NARI to develop a composite breed of Deccani, Garole and Bannur, three
indigenous sheep breeds of India, which should carry the FecB (Booroola) gene for
prolificacy. Historical accounts suggest that this major gene for prolificacy, which today is
found in the Booroola Merino in Australia and the Afec Awassi and Assaf in Israel, originated
in the Garole sheep of India (Turner, 1982).
The Garole sheep is indigenous to Sunderban, West Bengal and is the only reported prolific
sheep breed in India. Its natural habitat is swampy and very conducive to diseases, so it was
expected that along with gene/genes for prolificacy, Garoles may also have genes for
resistance to internal parasites, liver fluke and other diseases such as footrot (Nimbkar et al.,
2002). Crossing this breed with the Deccani sheep should increase the poor prolificacy of 1.04

of the Deccani to 1.4-1.7 lambs born per ewe lambing, without losing its adaptation to the
Indian production systems.
In 2001 the Improved Awassi was introduced to the breeding plan to improve the milk yield
of the ewes, in order to rear properly twins and triplets, and to compensate for the reduced
size due to crossing with the micro-breed Garole. At the moment the Syrian unimproved
Awassi semen is introduced to the dairy type Awassi flock at NARI, because the crosses,
which are going to be used in the development of the new composite breed, seem to be
hardier.
For the future, NARI has two parallel breeding objectives: to produce a fecund Deccani
sheep, carrying the FecB gene, which can be reared in the local shepherds environment and
to produce a fecund composite for a more intensive production system by infusion Awassi
and Garole breeds into Deccani x Bannur and Bannur x Deccani ewes (Nimbkar et al., 2002).
2.4.3 Peru
Source: Calle, R., 2004
The traditional breed of sheep in Peru is the Criollo, descendants from Manchega and Churra
sheep transferred to Peru in the 15th century from Spain, representing 60% of the current
ovine population in Peru (14 million sheep).
From 1920, in the southern region of the country, the Peruvian Andean Plains, those animals
were crossed with several imported improved wool breeds, especially Merino, Corriedale and
Romney Marsh. From those crosses the most wide spread was the Criollo x Corriedale. But
with wool prices on the world market, the breeding activities in Perus sheep sector
concentrated on improving mutton. In order to increase prolificacy and the quantity of mutton
per ewe lambing, in 1984 the Department of Animal Production at the Universidad Nacional
Agraria La Molina (UNALM) imported, as recommended by the FAO in these years, prolific
Barbados Blackbelly rams from Barbados (multiple births and annual polyoestrus) for
crossbreeding with single birth and seasonal polyoestrus ewes (criollo crosses). But it was
soon obvious that the crossbred ewes did not produce enough milk to nourish the multiple
offspring properly.
For this reason, the University imported 17 (11 females and 6 males) Assaf lambs and 500
doses of Assaf semen from Israel (Kibbutz Gazit) in 1988 to improve the milk yield of the
crossbreds at a price of $12,700. The Assaf was preferred over other milk breeds because of
its relatively high body and lamb weights. But shortly after the import the responsible
scientist at UNALM, Prof. Rigoberto Calle Escobar, retired and his work was discontinued. In
1989 the offspring of the imported Assaf were sold by UNALM to private persons across
Peru. Prof Calle Escobar bought several of those pure Assaf and crosses and started
crossbreeding Barbados Blackbelly (pure) and Assaf in the same year on his private 1 hectare
farm, called Rigoranch in Cieneguilla-Lima. The result is a new composite breed, named
ASBLACK ( Assaf, Barbados Blackbelly). In the beginning, crosses between Assaf and
Corriedale x Criollo sheep were also used but soon excluded from forming the new
ASBLACK breed. In 2002, Prof. Calle Escobar donated all the flock (398 heads) of
Rigoranch together with the infrastructure back to UNALM and it is now Prof. emeritus who
manages the ASBLACK breeding flock at Rigorange de La Molina. In September 2004, the
flock numbered 616 sheep, 186 pure Assaf, 165 ASBLACK and 265 pure Barbados
Blackbelly sheep and is kept under intensive zero grazing management. All sheep are

individually recorded by computer and production traits are evaluated. Surplus ASBLACK
rams and ewes have been sold to sheep breeders all over Peru during the last 4 years, but have
not been followed up systematically.
The pure-bred Assaf is not established in any production system in Peru. Assaf sheep and
crossbreds sold by UNALM in 1989 were crossed without control with different breeds by
local sheep breeders. Neither records, stock numbers nor production parameters of those
crosses are available, since there was no feedback from the farmers where the Assaf breeding
material went and the transfers had no long term breeding goal. Concerning the ASBLACK
genotype, Calle (2004) reports a population of ASBLACK in the Puno Department of more
than 3000 head. The ASBLACK is well accepted by local lamb producers, but no production
parameters are available due to lack of monitoring.
2.5 Australia and New Zealand
Source: Allison, J., 2004; Grand, P., 2004
Australia represents a country with no traditional sheep milk production systems. Sheep
production focused on wool and lamb production, dominating the world market of wool
production today. With no specific milk breed, Australian sheep dairy operations were based
on traditional meat and carpet wool breeds (Merino x Dorset; Merino x Border Leicester),
with poor milk yields of 0.75 litres per ewe and day (Anderson, 1996) or 30-120 litres per
head over 90-100 day lactation periods (RIRDC 2001).
In 1994, Australia imported 2,000 tonnes of sheep milk cheeses annually, valued at around
$20 million (RIRDC, 2001). This growing demand and the opportunity to export sheep milk
products to the world market was recognized by governmental institutions as well as private
industries, and the Improved Awassi sheep was imported from Israel and Cyprus (originated
also from Israel), to increase the efficiency of milk production.
There have been two separate transfers of the Improved Awassi sheep to Australia, one started
by governmental institutions and another driven by a private company. Sunderman and Johns
(1994) gave a brief history about the governmental activities:
In the early 1980s the Department of Agriculture of Western Australia began a program to
import Awassi fat tail sheep in order to diversify agriculture and improve the potential for
exports. Dr. John Lightfoot, now Executive Director of Animal Industries, managed this
project from its conception and saw mainly three opportunities in importing the Awassi
sheep:
1. A new sheep breeding industry to supply Awassi cross ram lambs, young breeding
ewes and chilled carcases to the premium fat-tail markets in the Middle East.
2. A specialized sheep dairy industry to meet growing domestic and export demands for
sheep dairy products
3. An expanded carpet wool industry with the Awassi fleece replacing carpet wool
imports.
In 1986 embryos were collected in Cyprus from the Ministry of Agricultures Awassi flock,
which had originated from the two best Awassi dairy flocks in Israel, the Ein Harod and Sde
Nahum. Washed and frozen embryos were preferred to live animals to prevent introducing
exotic diseases to Australia. The flock in Cyprus was chosen as source for the Awassi
breeding material because a very high standard of disease surveillance and reporting had been

maintained. The frozen embryos were transferred to the Cocos Island Quarantine Station and
implanted into Merino ewes. From the 311 embryos collected in Cyprus, only 51 pure Awassi
lambs were born in September 1987, of which 41 survived to 100 days. Most losses are
thought to have occurred during the embryo washing treatments required to remove any
organisms that may have been present in the embryo flushings. The young lambs were then
flown to a specially built quarantine facility in Kununurra, West Australia, and kept there
until July 1990 when all the animals were transported to a larger quarantine station at Wongan
Hills. The relocation was necessary for the Department to check for fibre contamination of
Merino clips, which represent a serious threat to Australias fine wool sector. Better facilities
at Wongan Hills also enabled the multiplication program to proceed. During the seven years
of quarantine the sheep and their progeny were subjected to rigorous observation and testing,
and prior to the release the original imports were all slaughtered and their organs examined in
detail for possible diseases. At the same time, the original donor flock was re-examined to
confirm its freedom from disease. Finally, in October 1990, 1640 pure Awassi and crossbred
(Awassi x Merino) sheep were released from quarantine. The Awassi flock was ready for
commercial development in Australia.
The second transfer of Improved Awassi sheep to Australia is closely linked to the names of
Dr. Jock Allison, New Zealand, and Mr. Tom Grant from Australia. At first, the import was to
New Zealand, and from there the Awassi went to Australia, where almost all of their offspring
are now established. Only a few Awassi sheep are still producing on farms on the northern
Island of New Zealand, and their numbers are decreasing. A brief history of this transfer is
given below, sourced from RIRDC (2001), and personal communication with Dr. Jock
Allison:
The transfer of Improved Awassi sheep from Israel to New Zealand was the idea of a scientist
and sheep breeder in New Zealand, Dr. Jock Allison. At the end of the nineties he founded the
AWASSI NEW ZEALAND LTD, as an instrument for importing sheep. It took him three
years to develop an import protocol, and to negotiate conditions of entry of frozen Awassi
sheep embryos from Israel to New Zealand. This crucial work as well as all the later effort
importing the sheep to New Zealand was conducted by a New Zealand team of scientists
under the supervision of Dr. Allison. In 1990, Tom Grant, an Australian farmer and business
man, came into contact with Dr. Allison and took a small shareholding in the company. Soon,
the Australian investments increased to 90% and the name of the company was changed to
AWASSI AUSTRALIA Ltd, with Mr. Grant as chairman.
After negotiations with the Israeli animal health department conducted by Dr. Allison in
1991, the company bought 65 ewes and 4 rams in Israel from the Kibbutz Ein Harod at a price
of $27,800. As a requirement of the import protocol, ewes of at least six years of age were
chosen, as older animals have had a longer time to manifest scrapie if it was present. The
sheep were shipped to a specially built interim quarantine station (4 shipping containers,
which had been modified as accommodation) in a Moshav in the Arava valley, 90 km north of
Eylat in southern Israel. After two rounds of breeding conducted by the New Zealand team,
143 frozen embryos were flown to Somes Island, New Zealand, a maximum security
quarantine station. There they were implanted into Romney ewes, which had been bought by
the New Zealand group and after 60 days of maximum security quarantine (all the health tests
passed), the pregnant recipients were transferred to a research station of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) quarantine at Bulls, near Palmerston North, where 43
purebred Improved Awassi lambs were born alive.

But efforts to dramatically increase the numbers of purebred stock failed because artificial
breeding proved difficult with the Awassi breed. After four years of quarantine in New
Zealand, for commercial reasons, almost the whole stock, 64 purebred Awassi and 292
crossbreds with Romney sheep (1/2 and 3/4 Awassi), was shipped to Australia in March 1995.
They were brought to a farm where they could be observed by the New South Wales (NSW)
Department of Agriculture and finally transferred to Mr. Grants farm near Cowra were he
had set up a modern sheep milking unit.
The results of the first mating were poor because the Awassi crossbred rams had difficulties
mounting the purebred Awassi ewes. So they had to be hand mated, which was labour-
intensive. Finally Mr. Grant had over 2,000 ewes, the majority being crossbreds of various
degrees. The first milkings in August 1996. By the end of the import process in 1996, 25% of
the AWASSI (Aust) Pty Ltd was owned by a Saudi national, 25% by a Kuwaiti and the
remaining 50% by a consortium of Australians including the Grant family. It has invested
approximately $2.4 million of shareholders funds to date in importing the Awassi sheep and
establishing facilities for sheep breeding, management and milking at its base near Cowra, in
Central NSW. Part of the money came from the Rural Industries Research and Development
Cooperation (RIRDC), Australia.
The breeding flock in Western Australia that came from Cyprus was bought by a company
named YYH Holdings, Perth, which has shares held mainly by Kuwaitis. Stock numbers were
increased during the last 14 years as fast as possible in order to produce prime fat tail lamb for
live export to the growing Middle Eastern market. In 2004 approximately 100,000 Improved
Awassi sheep were kept by this company in Western Australia near Perth. Besides
establishing the stock imported from Cyprus, YYH Holdings purchased a major share in
AWASSI (Austr.) Ltd. Cowra, to access the only source of genetically different Awassi
breeding material in Australia to prevent inbreeding in its Improved Awassi stock. From their
side there was no interest to support the AWASSI (Austr.) Ltd. To overcome serious financial
problems going along with establishing the milking unit in Cowra. As a result of this policy of
YYH, difficulties in the dairy process and problems of marketing the sheep milk products
forced the AWASSI (Austr.) Ltd. to shut down and to liquidate the company in 2004. In this
process, 2,500 Improved Awassi sheep were sold to YYH Holdings, while only 30 remained
with the Grant family in Cowra.
In addition to the commercial use of the Improved Awassi, the breed was used as a reference
breed in an Australian sheep gene mapping project . Generally, the Improved Awassi has had
no difficulties getting established in the Australian environment. Feet problems (foot rot) are
reported occasionally, when the animals are kept in a wet environment.
In the very profitable Middle Eastern market of live fat-tailed lambs, YYH Holding seems to
be developing into a major player in the Middle Eastern mutton market, supported by new
genetic material obtained to increase its Improved Awassi stock and the solid financial
support of its Kuwaiti and Saudi shareholders.

2.6 Conclusions
Looking at the gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of sheep from Israel
during the last 50 years and the development of the breeds in the different countries of
destination, the following conclusions can be drawn in the context of the present study:
i In general, the gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breed of sheep is
characterized by free animal movements, based on commercial interests, with a
minimum of governmental impact.
ii With a few exceptions, where the transfers were part of a bilateral cooperation
program, the movements of the Improved Awassi and Assaf sheep can be
characterized as commercial transfers with a freely agreed benefit sharing by both
stakeholders, exporters and importers alike. In all cases animals were purchased.
Although Israel has an interest in exporting developed breeds, most of the transfers
were started by importers aiming to improve their national production systems.
Development projects, emergency aid and government institutions played a negligible
role in the gene flow of the Improved Awassi.
iii The most successful developments of transferred Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds
were organised by private persons, breeders or companies (Portugal, Spain, Australia,
Hungary), while those organised by governmental institutions and NGOs seem to have
had less sustained impact on the national sheep sectors (Ethiopia, India, Jordan, Iran).
iv Concerning the geographical direction of the transfers, this case study on the improved
Awassi breeds of sheep describes gene flows from South to North, North to South and
from South to South. In terms of numbers of animals established the emphasis was on
the South to North movement. Today the majority of Improved Awassi and Assaf
stocks are kept in European countries, north of Israel. Farmers of the Iberian
Peninsular, where the Assaf is the dominating milk sheep, had the highest benefit from
the past gene flow of Awassi and Assaf breeding material. While the South to North
movement is dominated by the Assaf breed, in the movement to the South the
Improved Awassi plays the major role (Australia).
v In the case of the Mediterranean countries, Improved Awassi and Assaf imports had a
serious impact on the traditional breed structure of milk sheep. With increasing
numbers of Assaf and Awassi during the past decade, the numbers of traditional milk
breeds like the Serra de Estrela in Portugal and the Churra and Castellana sheep in
Spain has decreased dramatically. But since those indigenous breeds are still not
endangered, the Awassi and Assaf can be considered as contributions to the genetic
diversity of these countries. In other places, like Australia, the transfer had no impact
on the mutton breed structure at all, but the new breed exploited a specialized market
(Middle Eastern premium fat tail lamb market), to which no traditional breed fitted.
The latter example shows the feedback gene flows can have on the regions from which
they originate: the established Improved Awassi stock of Australia already supplies
the Middle Eastern market with premium fat tail lamb through considerable live
exports to these countries, which will increase with growing stock numbers in
Australia, and this competes with local sheep breeders in the Middle East.

vi An important stimulus for the gene flow of the Improved Awassi and Assaf breeds of
sheep was the development and spread of Artificial Insemination (AI) and Embryo
Transfer technology, creating an efficient tool to replace expensive live animal
transfers and to reduce the threat of importing foreign diseases. The rapid increase of
the breed on the Iberian Peninsula would not have been possible without those
technologies. Similarly, introducing the Improved Awassi via live animal import to
Australia would probably have been denied by the national veterinary departments, in
order to prevent foreign diseases being imported with them and threatening the
national sheep production sector.
vii An additional aspect of gene flows in animal genetic resources can be seen in the
transfers of Improved Awassi and Assaf breeding material to Jordan and to the
Palestinian Territories. In addition to their economic benefits for the local sheep
breeders, those transfers have been part of an ongoing peace process and international
cooperation. Sharing achievements, in this case in animal production, can build
confidence. But as seen in Jordan, politically motivated actions are often less
successful than commercial ones.
viii With intensive management on station, the Improved Awassi showed a higher level of
performance in most countries in milk and mutton compared to indigenous breeds. But
in several examples, especially in the tropical countries India and Ethiopia, but also in
Eastern European countries, the Improved Awassi could not maintain its level of
performance in local production systems with low input. This shows the importance of
production system analysis before introducing a foreign breed or crossbred, in order to
prevent a mismatch of breed and production system.
ix Gene flow of animal genetic resources often includes a flow of animal diseases. This
can be seen on the example of Ethiopia. Local breeds are often not adapted to exotic
diseases. In developing countries, where the need to raise the performance of local
breeds in order to provide food is high, import regulations and restrictions have often
been insufficient.
x On the other hand, government restrictions and import policies can be major obstacles
to gene flow, as seen in Portugal and Australia. In Portugal, exporting Assaf breeding
material is increasingly difficult due to tightened European laws for genetic transfers.
In the case of Australia, governmental restrictions and veterinary requirements
increased the organisational and monetary investments dramatically, restricting animal
transfers only to people or organisations with sufficiently high financial capital.
xi Examples for a lack of fit to the production environment are the attempts of
introducing the Improved Awassi to India and Romania, while the cases Ethiopia and
Britain illustrate a lack of fit between breed and production system or
environmental/climatic conditions.
xii It is interesting that the Improved Awassi and Assaf gene flow is bilateral: while
Awassi and Assaf genes contribute to the gene pool in many countries, Awassi and
Assaf absorb new traits controlled by new alleles originated from other breeds, such as
the Booroola gene.
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4 CONTACT ADDRESSES
Rummel, Tobias, Dipl.-Ing.agr.
Dorfstr. 38, 09326 Geringswalde,
OT Neuwallwitz, Germany
Phone: ++49 3738271722
Anne Valle Zrate, Prof. Dr.
Institute of Animal Production in the Tropics
and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim,
70593 Stuttgart, Germany
Phone: ++497114594210,
Fax: ++497114593290
Email: valle@uni-hohenheim.de
Gootwine, Elisha, Dr.
Institute of Animal Science, A.R.O., The
Volcani Center,
P.O. Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250 Israel
Phone: ++97239683752,
Fax: ++97239603678
Email: gootwine@agri.gov.il

Allison, Jock, Dr.
Abacus Biotech,
PO Box 5585,
Dunedin, New Zealand
Phone: ++64 3 4776375,
Fax: ++64 3 4776376,
Mobile 64 21 363337,
Email: jallison@abacusbio.co.nz

Awassi Rt.
4164 BAKONSZEG,
Hunyadi t 83., Hungary
Phone: (54) 513-000/001/002;
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www.awassi.hu
Email: awassi@axelero.hu
Calle Escobar, Rigoberto, Prof. Emeritus
Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina,
Telf. 3495747 anexo 164.
Francisco Del Castillo 573 San Antonio,
Miraflores, Lima Per
Phone: 4473115
Fax: 2424364
Mobile: 99857639
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Carrasso, Yosef
Sheep and Goat Division, Extension Service
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, P.O. Box 28
Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
Phone: 97239485306, Fax: 97239485614
Mobile: 97252993656
Email: ykaraso@shaham.moag.gov.il
Emsen, Ebru
Department of Animal Science,
Ataturk University, Turkey
Email: eemsen@atauni.edu.tr
Florescu, Irina
Counsellor, Division for European
Integration
Ministry of Agriculture, Romania
Email: irina.florescu@maa.ro

Grand, Phillip
Cowra Cheese,
1078 Mid Western Highway,
Cowra, NSW 2794 Australia
Phone: ++61 0417479716
Kukovics, Sandor, Dr.
Research Institute for Animal Prod. and
Nutrition
Geszteneys u.1. Herceghalom,
H-2053 Hungary
Phone: ++3623319133
email: sandor.kukovics@atk.hu

Malmakov, Nurlan, Dr.
Research Institute of Sheep Breeding
Research Centre for Animal Production and
Veterinary
Mynbaevo village, Djambul District
Almaty region, 483174, Kazakhstan
Phone: ++73272214235
Email: nurlan1@nursat.kz

McDougall, Ian
48 Bath Road,
Stroud GL5 3JL, UK
Phone:++447855262308
Email: mcdougall@img171811.fsnet.co.uk
Nimbkar, Chanda
Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institut,
Animal Husbandry Division,
P.O. Box 23, Phaltan 415523
Maharashtra, India
Email: cnimbka2@pobox.une.edu.au

Papachristoforou, Ch.
Christofides, C.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1412 Nicosia, Cyprus
Phone: 35722408639, Fax: 35722408656
Email: doagrg@cytanet.com.cy
Chr.Papachristoforou@aeinet.ari.gov.cy
Roldao, Daniel
Sociedade Agricola da Herdade do Matinho, Lda.
P.O. Box 22. Quinta da Moutosa,
7320 Castelo de Vide, Portugal
Phone: ++351 245901145/ 245993225 /
245202202
Fax: ++351 245901145
www.herdadematinho.pt
Email.: herdadematinho@mail.telepac.pt,
dmr2001@hotmail.com
Tibbo, Makros
International Livestock Research Institute ILRI
Animal Genetic Resources
PO Box 5689
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Email: m.tibbo@cgiar.org

358

359




ANNEX 9.7

361

UNIVERSITY OF HOHENHEIM
Institute of Animal Production
in the Tropics and Subtropics

History and worldwide development of Anglo
Nubian goats and their impacts in smallholder
farms in Bolivia

A. Stemmer, C. Gall, A. Valle Zrate


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 364
List of figures 364
Abbreviations 364
Executive summary 365
1 Introduction 367
2 Development and distribution of the Anglo Nubian breed 368
2.1 Description of the Anglo Nubian breed 368
2.2 Origin and breed development of the Anglo Nubian 368
2.3 Distribution of the Anglo Nubian 370
2.4 Conclusions 373
3 The keeping of Anglo Nubian goats in Bolivia: History, development and
impacts 375
3.1 Conditions of goat keeping in Bolivia 375
3.2 Introduction of Anglo Nubian goats to Bolivia 375
3.3 Spread of Anglo Nubians in Bolivia 376
3.4 Development of Anglo Nubian populations in Bolivia 378
3.4.1 Cochabamba 378
3.4.2 Chaco 379
3.4.3 Tarija 380
3.4.4 Chuquisaca 380
3.4.5 Potosi 380
3.4.6 Santa Cruz 381
3.4.7 Comparison with other exotic goat breeds 383
3.5 Impacts of the keeping of Anglo Nubians 383
3.5.1 Impact on goat holders 383
3.5.2 Impact on the Criollo goat population 384
3.5.3 Impact on the environment 385
3.6 Conclusions 386
4 References 388
5 Contact addresses 393
364 LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Introduction of Anglo Nubian goats to Bolivia and spread within the country 377
Table 2: Development of Anglo Nubian populations in Bolivia 382
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Gene flow of the Anglo Nubian goat 373

ABBREVIATIONS
ACCT Asociacin de Criadores de Cabras, Tarija (Association of Goat Breeders,
Tarija)
CEDEAGRO Centro de Desarrollo Agropecuario (Center for Agronomical
Development), Bolivia
DRIPAD Desarrollo Rural Integrado y Participativo en Areas Deprimidas (Rural
Integrated and Participatory Development in Depressed Areas)
g gram
IBTA Instituto Boliviano de Tecnologia Agropecuaria (Bolivian Institute of
Agronomical Technology)
m Meter
PDAR Programa de Desarrollo Alternativo Regional (Regional Programme for
Alternative Development)
PMA Programa Mundial de Alimentos (World Food Programe)
PRODIZAVAT Programa de Desarrollo Integral de la Zona Andina y Valles Altos de
Tarija (Integrated Development Programme for the Andean Zone and High
Valleys of Tarija)
SONU Sociedad Nueva
WFP World Food Programme

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Anglo Nubian is an example of a breed developed by combining genetic resources from
different parts of the world joining performance and adaptation to tropical conditions. It is a
dual-purpose goat used for milk and meat production. Its origin can be traced to Nubian
goats and the Indian dairy breed J amnapari, which may have a common ancestor in ancient
Iran. The Nubian group includes the Zaraibi, Damascus and Sudanese Nubian. Herdbooks of
the Anglo Nubian are kept in Britain, the USA, Canada and Australia. The countries of the
South with purebred or crossbred Anglo Nubians have no such official records and
information on numbers is scarce or non-existent.
during the latter half of the 19
th
century with more directed efforts from 1896 up to 1910.
Afterwards, the Anglo Nubian was developed by in-breed selection alone. In 1910, the Anglo
Nubian was recognized as a breed in England and registry began.
Anglo Nubians were exported for the first time from Britain to the USA in 1909, reaching a
total of about 30 goats up to 1950. Here, Anglo Nubians were bred and selected without any
further crossbreeding with other breeds.
impact on Anglo Nubians there until the late 1940s.
From the USA Anglo Nubians were exported to Puerto Rico and Latin America as early as
the 1940s. Later on, Anglo Nubians were exported from Britain and the USA in several
development efforts in Latin America, Africa and Asia. In some countries, Anglo Nubians
continue to be kept as purebreds (Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, several Caribbean states,
Egypt, Israel, Oman, India, Bangladesh, The Philippines, Mauritius and Malaysia) although
numbers are sometimes so small that it is difficult to preserve the population (Venezuela,
Ecuador, Thailand). More widespread is the use of the Anglo Nubian in crossbreeding.
In some countries, like Cuba, imported Anglo Nubians together with other specialized breeds
caused a decline in number of the local Criollo goat.
In Bolivia, goats are mainly kept in the inter-Andean valleys at altitudes ranging from 1,000
to 3,000 m altitude. Anglo Nubian goats were imported to Bolivia in the late 1960s up to the
present. Animals originated in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay or the USA; semen was
introduced from Germany. There have also been exchanges between different parts of the
country. Anglo Nubians were introduced in the regions with a tradition in goat keeping,
namely the departments of Cochabamba, Tarija, Chuquisaca, Potosi, and some parts of Santa
Cruz. The majority of importations and exchanges within Bolivia were planned and handled
by development agencies (6 cases), non-governmental organizations (3 cases) and
universities (2 cases) while only in few cases, individual goat owners imported Anglo
Nubians. Introduction was successful in intensive or semi-intensive production systems,
whereas no benefits were observed in semi-extensive and extensive production systems.
Here, in cases of persistence of the breed, it could often not make use of its production
potential and was therefore not superior to Criollo goats.
However, introducing Anglo Nubians in intensive production systems had positive side
effects through improved pasture and herd management. The impact of the introduction and

promotion of the Anglo Nubian in Bolivia on the local goat population in predominantly very
extensive production conditions was largely unsuccessful and unsustainable. The focus on
Anglo Nubians in development projects and research resulted in a waste of resources
invested and limited the allocation of resources for Criollo goat improvement but did not
cause direct damage. Only in exceptional cases, under more intensive management
conditions, positive economic and environmental effects could be stated.

INTRODUCTION 367

1 INTRODUCTION
The present case study outlines development of the Anglo Nubian goat in Britain and follows
up the original transfer of the founder breeds to Britain in the 19
th
century.
The Anglo Nubian is found in many parts of the world toay. An overview of the worldwide
spread of the Anglo Nubian from Britain to USA and Canada, later to Africa and Asia as
well as Latin America is given. It is described how the transfers were made and the key
players are identified.
The impact of the Anglo Nubian in Bolivia is examined as an example of the introduction of
an improved, high performance tropical goat, to predominantly very extensive smallholder
production conditions The flow of breeding animals into the country and their spread within
Bolivia is described. The main actors and driving forces for the introduction and spread are
identified and the impact of success and failure on the local population of goat keepers, the
environment and biodiversity of goats are shown. The factors that played a role in affecting
positive and negative impacts are identified where possible.
Information is compiled through available project reports, literature, statistical records where
available and accessible and interviews with experts.

368 DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANGLO NUBIAN BREED

2.1 Description of the Anglo Nubian breed
The Anglo Nubian goat is named after its origin from England and the long, droopy ears and
convex nose associated with the name Nubian (Reinhardt and Hall, 1978). In the USA, the
breed is usually spoken of as the Nubian. Herdbooks are maintained in USA, Britain, Canada
and Australia (Mason, 2002).
The Anglo Nubian is a tall goat with body weights of 50 to 70 kg in females and 60 to 80 kg
in males (Peacock, 1996). The head is characterized by the high-arched Roman nose, ears are
long and lopped; horns may be absent. The hair is short and silky. All colours occur: pure
white to solid black, all shades of red and brown, multi-toned and spotted; white trim is
common, particularly on the ears (Gall, 1996).
Among dairy breeds developed in northern countries, Anglo Nubians are considered as a
breed suitable for meat production because of its conformation and fertility, its adaptability
to tropical conditions and non-seasonal breeding (Gall, 1996). Milk yield is less than in dairy
breeds developed in Switzerland, but milk fat content is higher. Anglo Nubian goats
registered by the American Dairy Goat Association (ADGA) (n=480) in 2003 averaged 826
kg milk with 4.9 % fat. A total of 1324 Nubian lactations recorded by the Dairy Herd
Improvement Scheme (DHI) yielded 629 kg milk with 4.6% fat in 2002 (http://adga.org/). It
was found that Anglo Nubian goats produce milk with high levels of total solids, protein and
casein, as well as alpha
s1
-casein. This has important implications on the value of Anglo
Nubian milk for cheese production (Clark and Sherbon, 2000), especially under tropical
conditions (Devendra, 1972). Additionally the value of Anglo Nubians as crossing partners
for the development of breeds with favourable traits for cheese production have been proven
(Dimassi et al., 2005).
In Venezuela, Pariacote and Ruiz (2004) and Pariacote (1992) observed low reproductive
performance with a tendency to decline with the size of the reproductive population in
introduced breeds, among them the Anglo Nubian. As these breeds have been introduced for
crossing with the Criollo population and have not been managed as purebreds the number of
purebred males nowadays in most of the cases is less than 20, resulting in difficulties to
preserve themselves as a population. Heinkel (1986) observed production potential of Criollo
and crossbreds with Anglo Nubians on a farm in Venezuela; purebred female Anglo Nubians
were not kept there because of low adaptability and consequently, low yields. Garcia et al.
(1996) found abortion rates of 6.2%, 14.6%, and 14.9% in Criollo, halfbred Anglo Nubian
and purebred Anglo Nubian, respectively. In a report from Colombia (Berrio et al., 1995),
the milk yield in Anglo Nubians was less than in Criollos when both breeds received the
same improved feeding and management.
2.2 Origin and breed development of the Anglo Nubian
The Anglo Nubian breed was developed in Britain at the end of the 19
th
century (Peacock,
1996). Literature is not consistent as to which goat breeds contributed to the development of
the Anglo Nubian. Porter (1996) states that the origins of the Anglo Nubian are diverse and
were initially somewhat random. It originated from haphazard crosses between the native
prick-eared Old English goats and a variety of lop-eared breeds from the eastern
Mediterranean, north and east Africa and India, which had in common the carriage of their
DEVELOPMENT AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANGLO NUBIAN BREED 369

ears and a roman facial profile to a lesser or greater degree. The imported animals were long-
legged, hardy goats; well adapted to hot and dry climates. A little Swiss blood was included
as well. According to Peacock (1996) only the two tropical breeds Zaraibi from southern
Egypt and J amnapari from India were crossed with the local British goat. Gall (1996),
Mason (1981) and Mason (2002), name the lop-eared goats Zaraibi and J amnapari, as well as
local British and Swiss goats, but also another breed identified only by the name of its place
of origin Chitral in the extreme north of Pakistan.
The Jamnapari (also called J amnapuri or J umuna Pari) derived its name from the location of
the breed beyond the river J amna (J amna Par) in Uttar Pradesh in the north of India (Gall,
1996). It is a dual-purpose milk and meat type much valued for its good milk yield from a
large udder (Porter, 1996). It has been widely used for crossbreeding in India and elsewhere
and has been used to upgrade goats in South-East Asia, particularly Indonesia, where it is
known as the Ettawah breed (Gall, 1996; Peacock, 1996). The J amnapari has contributed to
form the Boer goat in South Africa and the Anglo Nubian. Nowadays, purebred J amnapari
are estimated at numbers less than 5,000 does (Gall, 1996).
The name of the Zaraibi relates to confinement, indicating that this is the type of goat kept
as a dairy animal under more intensive management in Egypt (Gall, 1996). It is now rare in
Egypt raised mainly in the North Delta and around Cairo in small flocks as a household dairy
animal. It is preserved on experimental farms of the Ministry of Agriculture. Mason (1981)
states that there are no recent descriptions of the Zaraibi but Porter (1996) describes it as a
breed used for milk production with a spherical udder traditionally protected by a leather
bag.
The Shami or Damascus breed of Syria is close to the Nubian type but its coat is long. It is a
good milker (Mason, 1981). Gall (1996) states that the Damascus is one of the main dairy
breeds of eastern Mediterranean countries and Iraq. It belongs to the Nubian group, together
with the Zaraibi and Sudanese Nubian. Nubian goats and Indian dairy breeds (J amnapari)
may have a common ancestor in ancient Iran. It is the dairy goat of the urban areas in Iraq,
Lebanon, J ordan and Syria.
The Sudanese Nubian breed is a black goat of the Nubian type with grey ears, coarse and
long hair. It is of medium size and has a typical Roman nose with its convex profile. Horns
are nearly always present and it is known to be a good milker (Mason, 2001). Its chief
breeding area is the south of the territory of ancient Nubia, but its appearance relates it to the
Syrian Mountains. It forms the bulk of the goat population in Sudan.
The Old English Goat (also called Common English Goat) was described by Pegler in the
late nineteenth century, cited by Porter (1996) as a long-bodied, square-shaped goat with a
neat, tapering head and prominent frontal bone. The ears were rather large, erect or
horizontal and pointing forward. The coat was fairly close; there was often a fine, soft woolly
undercoat. According to Gall (1996) and Mason (1981), the Old English goat has been
completely absorbed in the crossbreeding with goats imported from Africa and Asia to form
the Anglo Nubian. The Old English Goat was no longer recognized as a breed after 1939
(Reinhardt and Hall, 1978) and is now considered extinct (Mason, 2002).
During the latter half of the nineteenth century, steamers continued the customary shipping
practice of carrying on board goats acquired abroad for the homeward journey. On docking,
these exotic goats from various sources were often bought by goat keepers and crossed with
their own animals to increase size and milk yield. Many of these goats came from India,

especially from the Chitral region. From the East came Nubian, Egyptian, Assyrian and
Syrian goats and the Zaraibi of Egypt. The term Nubian came to be applied to all these goats
from the Near/Middle East as long as they had the typical features of height, arched profile
and long lop ears.
The term Anglo Nubian was given to the various crossbreds in the British Goats Society
herdbook in 1893. For a while, the breeders began to lose interest in the Nubian; the type
increasingly diluted its eastern look and was in need of fresh blood. That all changed from
1896 to 1904 when one Indian J amnapari, one Zaraibi, one Chitral and one buck of
unidentified breed were imported (Porter, 1996; Reinhardt and Hall, 1978). These four bucks
were used in crossbreeding with the Old English Goat to produce the Anglo Nubian. A small
percentage of Swiss blood was incorporated as well. The two Indo-Pakistan billy goats were
particularly successful and, between them, these four fresh imports sired the first hundred or
so Anglo Nubians. In 1910, the Anglo Nubian was recognized as a breed in Britain and
registry began with 459 goats accepted as the nucleus of the Anglo Nubian section of the
herdbook (Reinhardt and Hall, 1978). The early Anglo Nubian was expected to produce
adequate milk with high fat content and to grow very large and fast; especially bucks were
used for draft purposes. In 1911, some modifications were made in the original standards and
over 60 more goats were allowed in the Anglo Nubian section. Breeders tried to import more
animals in the following years, but due to health restrictions, no more imports to Britain were
permitted (Reinhardt and Hall, 1978; Porter, 1996).
2.3 Distribution of the Anglo Nubian
Main distribution flows are those starting from Britain to the USA and Canada and from
there further on to Latin America (Figure 1). Where information was available, flows to
Africa, the Middle East and Oceania are briefly outlined.
Nubian type goats were imported into the USA as early as 1896, but most of them were
either not disseminated or were not used on purebred animals so that they had no impact
(Reinhardt and Hall 1978). In 1909 the importation of one buck and two does from Britain
formed a nucleus from which Nubians in America descended.
In total, about 30 Anglo Nubians were brought from Britain to the USA between 1909 and
1950 (Gall, 1996). Between 1909 and 1918, Anglo was dropped from the name, and 40
animals were registered as purebred Nubians. No new blood was ever incorporated in the
Anglo Nubian of the USA (Reinhardt and Hall, 1978). In 1999 there were 1,224 registered
Anglo Nubians (DHIA, 2000, cited by Gall, 2001).
Anglo Nubians were imported from Britain to Canada in 1909, but no records were kept. In
1917, 5 more Anglo Nubians were imported, one of which later was sold to California. By
1921, a registered breeding program had been established in Canada. Offspring were
imported into the USA; those purchases of Canadian imported and bred Anglo Nubians
continued to have a great impact on Nubians in the USA until the late 1940s (Reinhardt and
Hall, 1978). Anglo Nubians were exported from Britain to the West Indies and thence to the
USA after 1910 (Porter 1996). Anglo Nubians were exported from the USA to Puerto Rico
and South America in the 1940s (Reinhardt and Hall, 1978), where they have been used in
goat development efforts. Crossbreeding programmes with Anglo Nubians from USA were
established in Mexico, Venezuela and Brazil where importations of animals from other
countries were virtually impossible because of animal health regulations (Gall, 2001).

Anglo Nubians were first imported to Argentina, early in the 20
th
century, and spread mostly
in the northern half of the country. The diversity of the genetic pool, different environmental
conditions in the different parts of the country, free mating and natural and artificial selection
has led to the development of different local populations (Lanari et al., 2003). In the 1960s
Anglo Nubians from Canada and Britain were introduced to the province of Cordoba and
Anglo Nubians from Brazil to the province of Santiago del Estero. A breeding nucleus was
established in the central region of the country, in Villa de Maria del Rio Seco in the
province of Cordoba, from where breeding males were distributed and intensively crossbred
with the Criollo goat. Goat keepers were interested in crossbreeding as they considered that
reproduction and weight gain were much higher than in the Criollo (Mueller, 1994).
In Mexico, the central and northern states have Criollos which, according to the predominant
types of external appearance, are predominantly Granadina and Nubian crosses (Montaldo et
al., 1995).
The widespread use for many years of Anglo Nubian, Alpine, Saanen and Toggenburg sires
imported from the USA makes current Mexican Criollo goats a multi-breed population
composed mainly of Nubian crosses in herds used for meat production, and crosses of
Granadina with breeds of Alpine origin in milk producing herds (Montaldo and Meza, 2000).
In Chile, Anglo Nubians were introduced from the USA since the 1970s (Burrows, 1994).
The Criollo goats of today seem to be in fact high grade Anglo Nubians according to the
large size of the ears, and the lack of other long eared breeds in the country (Montaldo and
Meza, 2000), a finding confirmed by Gallo and Wainnright (1995) who observed the form of
the ears of goats in the south of Chile to be erect in only 4.5%, drooping of medium length in
67.5% and long lopped in 28.0%.
In Cuba, importations of milk goats commenced in 1986, mainly of Anglo Nubian, Alpine,
Saanen and Toggenburg. Cuban Criollos were crossed with these breeds mainly in an
uncontrolled way. Today, there are few pure Criollos left, most of which are found in the
East of the country. Criollos nowadays are mainly crossbreds of Anglo Nubian or Alpine
descent (Ribas et al., 2000).
Peru imported Anglo Nubians from the USA in 1961. Velez and Callacna (1984) used the
descendents of these Anglo Nubians for a long-term study on performance of Criollo and
crossbred goats.
In Ecuador, Anglo Nubians were used in crossbreeding programmes (Gomez, 2003; Narvaez
and Hernandez, 1995). A project located at the National University of Loja imported 2 bucks
and 25 female Anglo Nubians from Peru in 1998. Bucks were rotated in flocks of varying
degree of Criollo and Anglo Nubian crossbred blood; up to date the University of Loja keeps
a flock of purebred Anglo Nubian (Mendoza, 2004).
In Brazil, the first importation of Anglo Nubians from England took place in 1929 by private
entrepreneurs. Other importations in 1932 from the USA and England introduced Anglo
Nubians to Bahia from where they spread to the Sertao region. From 1938 onwards,
governmental agencies became active in the introduction of Anglo Nubians. In those years,
Brazilians experienced a period called "the empire of the ears" referring to zebuine bovines
whose large, pendulous ears were seen as a sign of success; that's why goat keepers got
enthusiastic about the arrival of a long-eared goat breed. In the last years, a lot of
importations of Anglo Nubians occurred, mainly from the USA. The breed is widely used in
the Northeast of Brazil in crossbreeding for meat and milk. It is estimated that from a total of

10 millions of goats, about 7 millions have some influence of Anglo Nubians (personal
communication M. N. Ribeiro, 2005).
In Oman, Anglo Nubians were imported from Britain in 1988 to improve indigenous goat
performance; the project is still under evaluation but there are signs of inbreeding and lack of
interest among farmers (Zaibet et al., 2004).
In Thailand, Anglo Nubians were used in a crossbreeding programme (Sripongpun, 1991).
Original imports to Kenya were British Alpine, Saanen, Anglo Nubian and Toggenburg;
mainly Saanen under a Dutch aid project in the 1960-1970s. Respiratory diseases prevailing
in improved breeds have been a major reason for restriction of their impact and distribution.
In the Ethiopian highlands, a dairy goat development programme implemented crossbreeding
and improved goat management between 1989 and 1997. Anglo Nubian goats were
introduced from Britain and crossed with the local Somali goat (Peacock, 1996), A year
after the programme had finished, Ayalew (2000) studied the impacts of the project and
found that the attributes of crossbreds were not maintained because the pool was too small to
maintain 50% exotic blood level in the crossbreds, which ranged from 6.25 to 75%, with the
50% crosses representing less than a quarter of the crossbred population. Shortages of
crossbred breeding males also led to gradual backcrossing of the does, resulting in an
increasing mosaic mix of crossbreds.
In Egypt, Anglo Nubians are used on intensively managed farms to produce French type
cheese; some of these farms face serious financial troubles and technical problems like
adaptation of imported animals and securing replacements (Galal, 1995).
In New Zealand the Anglo Nubian together with British Saanen and British Toggenburg
were used to crossbreed with selected goats of the feral goat population of that country.
Crossbreeding and interbreeding at the F2 and F3 generations resulted in a meat type
synthetic breed named Kiko (Mowlem, 1992).
In Ethiopia, Kenya (Peacock, 1996; Rewe et al., 2002), Ecuador (Gomez, 2003; Narvaez and
Hernandez, 1995) and Thailand (Sripongpun, 1991), Anglo Nubians were reported to be used
in crossbreeding programmes, but once the official crossbreeding projects expire, it is often
not known how many purebreds or crossbreds remain. In most cases the optimum level of
exotic blood required for efficient production and adaptation was not established (e.g.
Kenya) and the attributes of crossbreeding were not maintained because the pool of breeding
males was too small (e.g. Ethiopia, Oman). In other cases, crossbreeding resulted in higher
production and better reproductive performance (e.g. Argentina). In some countries of Latin
America, crosses with Anglo Nubians (and other specialized breeds) tend to cause the
decline or even disappearance of the original Criollo goat.

Figure 1: Gene flow of the Anglo Nubian goat
Argentina
Mexico
Venezuela
Chile
Per
Ecuador
Bolivia
Brasil
Belice
Guayana
British Caribbean
Malasia
India Banglade
Australia
New Zealand
USA
Oman
Ethiopia
Israel
Kenya
Low volume
Europe
Middle East
Asia
Africa
Caribbean and
South America
Oceania
North and Central
America
Canada
Argentina
Mexico
Venezuela
Chile
Per
Ecuador
Bolivia
Brasil
Belice
Guayana
British Caribbean
Malasia
India Banglade
Australia
New Zealand
USA
Oman
Ethiopia
Israel
Kenya
Low volume
Europe
Middle East
Asia
Africa
Caribbean and
South America
Oceania
North and Central
America
Canada
Less frequently Anglo Nubians in tropical countries are used as purebreds. Today there are
purebred Anglo Nubian populations in Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Honduras, Trinidad, Egypt,
Oman, India, Bangladesh, The Philippines, Mauritius, Malaysia, Israel (Gall, 1996), and
Colombia (SENA, 1991). Purebred Anglo Nubians in Colombia yielded less than Criollos
when both breeds received the same improved feeding and management. But in Israel, Anglo
Nubian goats descendants from an import of bucks and frozen semen from the USA in the
1980s adapted well to the Mediterranean environment (Landau et al., 1995). In the British
Caribbean, purebred Anglo Nubians are kept on private as well as governmental farms and
are used in crossbreeding; they have been more successful than the British Alpine,
Toggenburg and Saanen breeds. Anglo Nubians have also been introduced into Belize,
Grenada, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Antigua, Trinidad and Tobago and Guyana (Devendra and
Chenost, 1973).
2.4 Conclusions
i The Anglo Nubian breed was developed in Great Britain by using local and imported goats.
Of the breeds used, the British base is now extinct (Old English Goat). Information is scarce
on numbers of the tropical and subtropical foundation stock (Zaraibi), the number is
alarmingly low in the J amnapari as it is being used extensively in crossbreeding programmes
both in its country of origin (India) and in other developing countries.
ii The Anglo Nubian breed spread to all continents. Apart from being kept as purebreds, it is
more often used in crossbreeding programmes in different regions of the world.

iii The value of this genetic resource has been recognized a long time ago, but there seem to be
no efforts to counteract the danger of loosing it by excessive use in crossbreeding.
THE KEEPING OF ANGLO NUBIAN GOATS IN BOLIVIA: HISTORY, 375

3 THE KEEPING OF ANGLO NUBIAN GOATS IN BOLIVIA: HISTORY,
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPACTS
3.1 Conditions of goat keeping in Bolivia
Bolivia is a country with very diverse climate and geography, ranging from tropical rain
forests to the high peaks of the Andes. Goats are mainly kept in the inter-Andean valleys at
altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 m and in the Chaco region at altitudes ranging from
150 to 1,500 m. In these zones, annual rainfall is on average 400 to 500 mm, distributed
mainly during the months of December to March.
According to estimates, there are about 1.5 million goats in the country (CID, 1996; FAO,
2003), 92% of which are kept in the departments of Potosi, Chuquisaca, Tarija and
Cochabamba. The vast majority of goats are of the Criollo breed, known for its hardiness and
adaptation to seasonal food and water shortage. Its products in order of importance to the
smallholder farmers are: manure, milk, meat, offal and hides. Other uses of goats are
important too, as, for example, a form of insurance, banking reserve and means of paying
social obligations. Most of the goats are kept in mixed flocks with sheep. These flocks are
indivisible components of the local smallholder production systems (Iiguez, 2004).
The majority of goat holders are subsistence oriented and less than half of the milk and meat
produced enters the market (Ayala, 2002; Sanabria et al., 1992; IICA, 1989). Especially in
regions where the keeping of cows is limited, goats are the main producers of milk for the
smallholder family.
3.2 Introduction of Anglo Nubian goats to Bolivia
There are no official records on the introduction of goats from outside Bolivia. The following
information is a compilation of project reports, personal, telephone or e-mail interviews with
development workers of governmental and non-governmental organizations, goat keepers
and other experts.
The first importations of Anglo Nubian goats to Bolivia took place in the late 1960s
(Chumacero, 1993, cited by Iiguez, 2004). Since then, there have also been exchanges
between different parts of the country. The introductions took place in the regions with a
tradition in goat keeping, namely the departments of Cochabamba, Tarija, Chuquisaca,
Potosi, and some parts of Santa Cruz. Table 1 summarizes the data available on the
introduction of Anglo Nubians to Bolivia.
In 1985, 24 Anglo Nubians (19 females and 5 males) were imported from Argentina to the
department of Cochabamba. These animals were kept in the instalations of a newly founded
Goat Project at the Faculty of Agronomy, University Mayor San Simon in Cochabamba. The
flock at the faculty served as a multiplier in order to introduce young male goats to Criollo
flocks in the province of Esteban Arze, department of Cochabamba. The field work was
conducted by the Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) Sociedad Nueva (SONU) in
cooperation with the Faculty of Agronomy (Comit de Coordinacin Interinstitucional,
1987). This work was concluded in 1991. Since 1994, the goat project at the faculty
cooperates with German counterparts, and deep frozen semen of Anglo Nubian bucks was
imported from Germany in the late 1990s.

In the interandean valley of Tarija, the Association of Goat Breeders (ACCT, Asociacin de
Criadores de Cabras Tarija) imported 38 Anglo Nubians (3 males and 35 females) from
Santiago del Estero, Argentina in December 1996. These animals were kept in the central
valley of Tarija and used on the one hand for purebreeding to maintain a small flock of
purebreds, and on the other hand for crossbreeding with Criollo goats owned by the members
of ACCT. This project was financed by the European Union and the World Food Programme
and carried out by PRODIZAVAT (Programa de Desarrollo Integral de la Zona Andina y
Valles Altos de Tarija, Integrated Development Programme for the Andean Zone and High
Valleys of Tarija) (personal communication M. Bass Werner, 2004).
Again in Tarija, a private farm not far from the city is managed intensively with purebred
Anglo Nubians. The original stock was imported from Catamarca, Argentina. During the last
years, the owner imported deep frozen semen from France in order to inseminate his goats
(personal communication M. Bass Werner, 2004).
In the Chaco region (which covers part of the Tarija, Chuquisaca and Santa Cruz
departments), Anglo Nubians were introduced in the 1970s by individual goat owners, some
of whom lived in the cities but owned large flocks of goats in the country side; others were
goat keepers making a living of their goats and other livestock (personal communication J .L.
Vaca, 2004).
In the tropical lowland of Santa Cruz, the NGO Heifer International imported about 30
Anglo Nubians from the USA in 1984, but all of them died while in quarantine. Another
importation of 20 females and 10 males took place in 1986. These animals were taken to the
village of San J ulian and donated to smallholder farmers (personal communication, R.
Hinojosa, 2005).
A private farm in Santa Cruz imported the first Anglo Nubian bucks in 1975 from Paraguay.
Later on they received bucks from the Heifer project. In the late 1990s, they bought male and
female Anglo Nubians from Caritas, introduced via the Netherlands. In the last years up to
2004, bucks were bought from private persons who imported Anglo Nubians from Brazil
(personal communication, C. Foyanini, 2005).
The University of Santa Cruz in 1986 used 100 doses of deep frozen semen of Anglo Nubian
and French Alpine breeds for crossbreeding with local Criollo goats in order to improve milk
production (Videz and Cardona, 1992); the report does not specify the number of doses
according to breed, nor are there other reports of the results of this project.
There is a demand for purebred Anglo Nubians in Bolivia, which is not always covered by
the number of animals offered for sale. In the south of the country, people resort to buying
goats in Argentina. Apart from that, potential buyers and sellers sometimes meet with
difficulties to get together simply because they dont know where to get relevant information.
3.3 Spread of Anglo Nubians in Bolivia
After the introduction of the Anglo Nubian to Bolivia it spread within the country through
the promotion by various organisations. Table 1 summarizes the data available on the spread
within the country.

Table 1: Introduction of Anglo Nubian goats to Bolivia and spread within the country
Place of introduction Year Number of Place of origin
males females
1985 5 19 Argentina Cochabamba, Faculty of
Agronomy
1990s semen Germany
1989-92 14
Cochabamba and
Santa Cruz
Cochabamba, Province
Campero
2000 67 Santa Cruz
1990s 17 Santa Cruz
Cochabamba, Province
Mizque
1996 3 18 Santa Cruz
Tarija 1996 3 35 Argentina
Chaco 1970s - -
Santa Cruz

1975
1984
1986
1986
up to2004

10
semen
-
-
30

20
Paraguay
USA
USA
-
Brazil
1994 3 9 Santa Cruz
Potosi
1994 2 Cochabamba
2000 10 60 Santa Cruz
Chuquisaca
2000 11 Tarija
-: data not available
In the 1990s the Governmental Agronomic Research Institute IBTA (Instituto Boliviano de
Tecnologia Agropecuaria) bought 17 Anglo Nubian goats in Santa Cruz to be kept at the
premises of IBTA in the province of Mizque, Cochabamba and in four individual
intensively managed flocks, also in the valley of Mizque (Campero, 1996; personal
communication R. Ergueta, 2004).
From October 1989 to May 1992, the PDAR (Programa de Desarrollo Alternativo Regional,
regional programme for alternative development) worked in the valleys of Mizque and
Campero. The programme introduced 14 Anglo Nubian bucks to the region, which were
bought from the Faculty of Agronomy in Cochabamba and from individual owners in
Yapacani, Santa Cruz (Caballero, 1994).
In 1996, 3 bucks and 18 females were bought in Santa Cruz and introduced to Mizque, where
they were kept at the installations of the NGO CEDEAGRO in Bolivia (Centro de Desarrollo
Agropecuario, Centre for Agronomical Development). Occasionally, a male goat was lend
out to goat keepers (Stemmer, 1996).
In November of 2000, the World Food Programme (WFP) introduced 67 Anglo Nubians
bought mainly in Santa Cruz to the province of Campero, Cochabamba. All the animals
were given directly to the members of an association of goat breeders and some to people
who had not owned goats before (Stemmer, 2003).

In Potosi, two Anglo Nubian bucks and nine females were introduced from Santa Cruz in
1994 and kept at the IBTA research station in Chinoli (personal communication E.
Chumacero, 2004). In 1994 a further two bucks were purchased from the flock at the Faculty
of Agronomy in Cochabamba (Stemmer, 1994).
In Chuquisaca, the World Food Programme financed a goat project, which in 2000
introduced 70 Anglo Nubians from Santa Cruz (10 males and 60 females) and eleven from
Tarija (all of them bucks). These animals were given directly to the members of an
association of goat breeders in the village of Potreros (PMA-DRIPAD, 2003).
3.4 Development of Anglo Nubian populations in Bolivia
The following paragraphs show the development of the Anglo Nubian population in Bolivia
by region. Table 2 summarises the findings.
3.4.1 Cochabamba
The goat project at the Faculty of Agronomy in Cochabamba is currently maintaining a goat
flock of some 25 female Anglo Nubians and some 15 crossbreds with Criollos (F1 and
backcrosses to Criollo and Anglo Nubian) and a few pure Criollos. The project sells young
pure and crossbred bucks to development agencies and private goat keepers.
All the goats are kept in one flock and managed the same way, foraging natural pasture from
December to J une and receiving hay and maize silage from J uly to November. Performance
of the different genotypes was evaluated in various investigations, some of which are
presented here as there is no information from other parts of Bolivia about the performance
of pure Anglo Nubians, Criollos and their crossbreds kept under the same conditions.
In the flock of the faculty, pure Anglo Nubians showed higher live weights than F1-
crossbreds and Criollos from birth up to 4 months of age, while there was no difference
between the latter two. Mortality from birth to one year of age was much higher in Anglo
Nubians (15.0%) than in F1 (7.0%) and Criollos (3.4%) (Condori, 2000). Milk production
was significantly higher in Anglo Nubians than in Criollos; this superiority was confirmed
when performance was compared on a metabolic weight basis (Pari, 1998).
Up to now, the project has shown sustainability, managing to auto-finance its nucleus flock
during the last 5 years.
In the province of Esteban Arze, the introduced pure male Anglo Nubians were kept in a
centre built in the village of J ulo Chico and mated to Criollo females brought from the
surrounding countryside to the centre. There was some extension service and aid for
improving night enclosures. The project worked for 3 years (from 1987 to 1990) and after
that, the animals and installations of the centre were transferred to the community.
Nowadays, there is just one family who keeps crossbreds in semi-confinement and a few
others who maintain some crossbreds in their flocks. However, the majority sold or
slaughtered the purebreds and crossbreds (personal communication F. Cautin, 2004).
The reasons for the practical disappearance of the Anglo Nubians can be found in the poor
access to a market for goat cheese and, probably, in extension work that was not focused on
the real constraints of goat husbandry; this conclusion is drawn from the analysis of a booklet
published by SONU and aimed at the goat keepers (Mosua, 1989), which does not address
solutions to the problems of goat keeping in an understandable way and got some outright

mistakes in it. In contrast it is worthy to mention the work of WFP in Tarija (see below),
where a useful and easy to understand booklet was published (Pinaya, 2002).
In the province of Mizque, the Anglo Nubians kept at the research station of IBTA were
managed intensively and used in feeding experiments. At the closure of the station in 1998,
these animals were transferred to the NGO CEDEAGRO. This NGO already had a flock of
goats; of the 21 animals originally bought in Santa Cruz, approximately 60% died in the
months following the transfer from the tropical lowlands to the inter-Andean valley of
Mizque at 2,000 m altitude. The kids born from the remaining females, though, adapted well.
CEDEAGRO sold Anglo Nubians and crossbreds to interested goat keepers and offered
extension services (Eisele, 2001; personal communication, R. Ergueta, 2004).
In 2001, these activities came to an end when CEDEAGRO closed down its agronomic
projects for lack of outside funding. Five purebred Anglo Nubians (1 buck and 4 females)
were bought by the Agricultural Faculty of Cochabamba and incorporated in its nucleus
flock (Stemmer, 2001).
Nowadays, there are flocks, which maintain crossbred goats, mainly near the villages or
close to the interdepartmental road. At these locations, goat keepers sell soft cheese produced
from goats milk. In more remote places, the amount of cheese produced is less and more
than half of it is consumed by the family itself.
In the province of Campero, 67 Anglo Nubians were introduced from Santa Cruz to the
community of Novillero in November 2000. They had mortalities of 54% in the four months
following the transfer; only one buck and 30 females survived. This can be attributed to the
lack of extension, lack of sanitary care, and lack of experience in the case of the people who
received Anglo Nubians and had not owned goats before (Stemmer, 2003). Up to December
2002, only fifteen purebred kids were born in Novillero; most of the purebred females
crossed with Criollo bucks (personal communication O. Hinojosa, 2003). The WFP has
ceased to assist goat keepers in Novillero at the end of the year 2002. Nowadays, purebred
and crossbred Anglo Nubian are still kept by some goat keepers.
The Anglo Nubian bucks introduced to the province of Campero by PDAR had 50%
mortality. Primiparous Criollo goats suffered an increase in distocic parturitions due to
bigger size of crossbred kids. Growth of these kids was impaired as the Criollo dams did not
provide sufficient quantity of milk (Caballero, 1994). The report does not mention if there
was an extension service working with the goat holders.
3.4.2 Chaco
In the part of the Chaco region that belongs to the department of Santa Cruz, the population
of Anglo Nubians did not thrive well. As the flocks there are managed extensively, let out to
graze on shrubs and thorn bush, the main problem were the large udders of the females,
which frequently got entangled and hurt by the thorns resulting in high levels of mastitis.
Another problem was the supply of breeding animals, which could not be sustained.
Nowadays, there are no purebreds in the Chaco and very few goats remain with some
characteristics of the Anglo Nubian like the pendulous ears (personal communication J .L.
Vaca, 2004).
A study carried out in the province of Gran Chaco, department of Tarija, including 210
flocks found that 86% of goats are Criollo and 14% are crossbreds with some characteristics

of Anglo Nubian or Toggenburg; no specification as to the proportion of the two introduced
breeds are given (CODETAR, 1992).
3.4.3 Tarija
In Tarija, the members of ACCT produce goat cheese and manage their goats on natural
pasture with very little additional production of forage. With aid of the WFP, the
management of the goats was improved by better housing (construction of roofs in the night
enclosures), veterinary service, pasture enclosures and rotations (Stemmer, 2003). The
introduction of Anglo Nubians was done step by step by crossbreeding with female Criollos.
The F1 and backcrosses to Anglo Nubian have satisfactory levels of milk production and
adaptation, and ACCT has decided to keep crossbreds and pure Criollos in order not to lose
the high adaptation of the latter. Another reason for keeping Criollos is the considerable rise
in milk and meat production resulting from an improvement of feeding and management
such as given to the crossbreds (personal communication M. Bass Werner, 2004).
The private farm in the central valley of Tarija produces four different French types of goat
cheeses, which are sold in different cities of Bolivia. The goats are kept in complete
confinement and are stall fed. The size of the flock is small and has been stable for some
years (personal communication M. Bass Werner, 2004).
3.4.4 Chuquisaca
The Anglo Nubians introduced by WFP in Chuquisaca in 2000 suffered very high mortality
(53%) and abortion rates (70%). Of the 81 purebreds introduced, 38 were still alive in 2003.
The reasons for this sharp decline were identified as very limited extension service, lack of
veterinary care, deficient design of night enclosures, which were closed buildings with small
doors prohibiting sufficient air circulation and restricting animals movements so that there
was more fighting among animals and consequently, a rise in abortion rate. Feeding was
deficient as no additional fodder was produced and the region suffers from water shortage in
the dry season. At the same time, cheese production of goat milk was only sporadic, so that
there was no direct financial incentive connected with the keeping of Anglo Nubians
(Stemmer, 2003).
3.4.5 Potosi
The Chinoli research station lent Anglo Nubian bucks to smallholder goat keepers, which
preferred this breed over the Saanen for its coloured hair coat and long ears. At the station,
crossbreds of Anglo Nubian and Criollo reached higher body weights than crossbreds of
Saanen and Criollo. According to the technician responsible for the goat programme, E.
Chumacero (personal communication, 2004), the Anglo Nubian purebreds did not adapt well
to the altitude of Chinoli (3,450 m altitude). At the closure of the research station in 1996, all
the goats were sold and there are no reports on their fate.
According to Yagil (1991), the introduction of Anglo Nubian bucks was not successful. High
mortality of purebreds and low productivity of crossbreds were due to lack of extension
service so that goat farmers were left on their own and could not even envisage short-term
advantages and so left the breeding regime. Adaptive problems of the imported breed were
not taken into account, so lack of improvement in management and no sanitary attention
depreciated genetic productivity capabilities.

3.4.6 Santa Cruz
The introduction of Anglo Nubians to San J ulian in Santa Cruz was first met with enthusiasm
as the animals adapted well and showed high prolificacy. Heifer International set up an
extension service, first on animal health, management and milk production aspects, which
later on was reduced to vaccination and parasite control programmes. The animals were
found to be very susceptible to internal parasites. Passing the years, the interest in keeping
purebred Anglo Nubians faded and crossbreeding with Criollo goats occurred more often,
being the main reason the lack of interest in producing milk, according to R. Hinojosa
(personal comunication, 2005). As the Anglo Nubians were not milked there was no benefit
of keeping milk goats. Heifer International did not offer help in the marketing of milk or
milk products, but there were other institutions in the region, which did, like the Lutheran
Church who constructed a milk-processing unit. This plant, however, never got to function
(personal comunication R. Hinojosa, 2005).
Purebred Anglo Nubians were sold to private breeders in Santa Cruz, to the NGO Sociedad
Nueva of Cochabamba and the IBTA research station Chinoli in Potosi (personal
comunication R. Hinojosa, 2005).
The Anglo Nubians introduced to a private farm in Santa Cruz adapted very well and had
low mortality; the only problem were the higher nutritional needs compared to Criollo goats.
Nowadays the family manages two flocks of purebred Anglo Nubian goats, one of 500
animals in Pailon at 50 km from the city of Santa Cruz and another one of 120 animals in
San J avier. The latter location poses more problems to goat keeping due to higher humidity
and parasite burden. The goats are managed semi-intensively with supplementary feeding
during the dry season and parasite control. Milk and cheese are produced; the marketing of
milk poses problems due to lack of time to dedicate to the sale. Breeding animals are sold
mainly to NGOs and to private persons.
Table 2 summarizes the development of Anglo Nubian populations in Bolivia by place of
introduction.

Table 2: Development of Anglo Nubian populations in Bolivia
Actual number of Place Number
of intro-
duced
goats
(year)
Mortality
of intro-
duced
goats (%)
purebreds crossbreds
System of
management
Market
access
Extension
service
Cochabamba
Faculty
Cochabamba
24
(1985)
- 25 15 semi-
intensive
good offers
extension
E. Arze -
(1987-
1990)
- 0 few extensive poor poor
Mizque
(IBTA)
17
(1990s)
- 0 * - intensive good good
Mizque 21
(1996)
app. 60 - - semi-
extensive
good good
Campero 14
(1989-
1992)
50 - - extensive difficult -
Campero 67
(2000)
54 few few extensive difficult sporadic
Chaco
Unspecified -
(1970s)
- 0 very few extensive poor none
Tarija
ACCT 38
(1996)
low app. 60 app. 400 semi-
intensive
good good
private farm few
(1990s)
- stable 0 intensive good -
Chuquisaca
Potreros 81
(2000)
53 38 few extensive poor poor
Potosi
IBTA Chinoli 13
(1994)
- 0 * - intensive difficult -
Santa Cruz
In quarantine 30
(1984)
100 0 0 - - -
San J ulian

30
(1986)
3 few - Semi-
extensive
poor good in the
begin-
ning, later
reduced
Pailon and
San J avier
-
(1975 -
2004)
low 620 0 Semi-
intensive
good -
-: data not available; *: all sold at closure of station; ACCT: Asociacin de Criadores de Cabras, Tarija; IBTA:
Instituto Boliviano de Tecnologia Agropecuaria

3.4.7 Comparison with other exotic goat breeds
Compared to other introduced goat breeds, the Anglo Nubian was the most persistent.
Importations of Saanen, Alpine and Toggenburg to Bolivia took place in the 1980s and
1990s, but very few crossbred animals of these breeds can be found nowadays and, to the
authors knowledge, no purebred animals. The Saanen was very susceptible to high radiation
(personal communications, R. Ergueta, 2004 and E. Chumacero, 2004), while specific
reasons for the disappearance of the Alpine and Toggenburg are not known to the authors.
In Argentina, a similar situation occurred regarding the importations of Saanen, Toggenburg
and Alpine goats, which were introduced without success. Crossbreds with Saanen and
Criollo were able to maintain the adaptability of the Criollo but there was little rise in milk
production and no benefit in meat production. Crossbreeding with Toggenburg resulted in a
loss of adaptability without improving milk yield (Mueller, 1994); no specific reasons for the
failure of crossbreeding with Alpine are given.
In India and Venezuela, the Anglo Nubian was inferior to the French Alpine in milk yield.
However, in these tropical conditions, the Anglo Nubian shows superiority over other exotics
for reproductive traits. The local breeds are generally superior to all exotics for reproduction
and viability. Circumstantial evidence from the field in Malaysia, Fiji, Mauritius and the
West Indies suggests that breeds like the British Alpine, Toggenburg and Saanen are prone to
reproductive failure and high mortality compared with the Anglo Nubian or J amnapari
(Quartermain, 1983).
3.5 Impacts of the keeping of Anglo Nubians
3.5.1 Impact on goat holders
A very important advantage for the smallholders of keeping goats is the fact that these
animals need very little monetary input while procuring a monetary income at a substantial
profit margin (Ayala et al., 2004). The same situation was described by Primov (1994) for
smallholders in Brazil where the author found that the overriding reason for the popularity of
goats as the most profitable production line is the simplicity and economy, with which they
can be produced. Fewer inputs mean that the prices received for goats contain higher profit
margins. A constriction in the profit received from the sales of goats as a consequence of
increased capital inputs will rapidly result in a deterioration of the relative advantages of
goats to the small producer.
This situation is likely to occur with the introduction of purebreds; however, the keeping of
more adaptable crossbred goats seems to offer advantages to those smallholders who are able
to market part of their products.
In the case of the very few intensively managed goat enterprises in Bolivia, the keeping of
pure Anglo Nubians is an advantage in the production of milk and milk products; on one
hand, milk and fat quantity produced are high and on the other hand, the Anglo Nubian breed
adapts well to the climate of the inter-Andean valleys if and when they are given the
necessary care.
It can be concluded that the introduction of purebred Anglo Nubians brings no benefit to
small holders as the animals are likely to suffer high mortality and abortion rates. In the case
that the animals were given to goat keepers as development aid, at least there was no direct
monetary loss for the people involved. In San J ulian, Santa Cruz, where purebreds adapted

better, goat keepers had some additional income from the sale of offspring (personal
comunication R. Hinojosa, 2005).
The introduction of Anglo Nubian crossbreds can result in a better position of the goat
keeper. In a study carried out in Mizque, department of Cochabamba, daily milk yield of 62
Anglo Nubian crossbreds and 102 Criollo goats during the rainy season was 552 and 424 g,
respectively; this difference was significant. During the dry season, daily milk yield of 14
purebred Anglo Nubians, 20 Anglo Nubian crossbreds and 85 Criollo goats was 692, 430 and
234 g, respectively (because of low numbers, no analysis of variance was carried out) (Altug,
2002). The higher milk yield of crossbreds can thus be expected in the rainy as well as in the
dry season, a fact quite important for the successful raising of kids and for people who often
dont consume milk from other animals than goats. The same study (Altug, 2002) found no
significant difference in litter size between 41 Anglo Nubian crossbreds and 67 Criollo goats;
if this could be confirmed with a higher number of observations, there would be no loss to
the goat holder in terms of kids born by preferring Anglo Nubian crossbreds over Criollo
goats.
In another study conducted in Mizque on 10 smallholder farms, five with flocks of Anglo
Nubian crossbreds, and five with Criollo goats (Eisele, 2001), the following benefits and
disadvantages of keeping Anglo Nubian crossbreds could be identified:
In the flocks of crossbred goats, milk yield was higher than in Criollo flocks; in the latter
case, goat holders frequently sold kids in order to obtain more milk for home consumption or
for sale. The holders of crossbred goats did not need to resort to the sales of kids. Body
weights of 19 crossbred and 64 Criollo goats, all adults, did not differ greatly. If this finding
could be proved in a larger number of animals, the conclusion could be drawn that there is a
positive impact of Anglo Nubian crossbreds as they produce more milk at the same body
weight than the Criollos and, presumably, with similar feed intake. However, crossbreds may
grow to higher body weights than Criollos with better feed supply.
A possible negative impact is the greater need of the crossbreds for improved management,
which is basically improved parasite control, i.e. a need for higher inputs. Eisele (2001)
found the same level of ectoparasite infestations in crossbreds and Criollos although the
former were subjected to better control measures.
3.5.2 Impact on the Criollo goat population
Apparently, no marginalization or substitution of Criollo goat populations has taken place in
Bolivia; but it must be stated that there is no way to quantify this impression of the authors,
as to begin with, there is no reliable census of goat numbers in the country and the published
figure of 1.4 million goats could be much higher (CID, 1996). Another limitation is the lack
of distinction of breeds in the census. Taking into account the number of imported goats and
their high mortalities in many cases, there is reason to believe that there are not more than a
few hundred purebred and crossbred Anglo Nubians in Bolivia.
A negative impact on the Criollo goat population, though, can be seen in the efforts and
financing that was spent in introducing Anglo Nubians to climatic zones and management
systems not suitable to the breed. Had the same effort been spent in characterizing the
production environment and the genetic resource of the Criollo goat or in their improved
breeding and management, our knowledge in these fields today would be far greater.

3.5.3 Impact on the environment
In Tarija, there was a positive impact on the environment caused by the introduction of
Anglo Nubians as there was a simultaneous improvement of the pastures caused by rotating
flocks and the building of enclosures; plant biomass production in the enclosures is ten times
higher than it used to be in the same area before it was fenced off (Stemmer, 2003).
Contrary to this, the traditional management of communal grazing lands without any fencing
practised by practically all Criollo goat keepers is detrimental to the environment, causing
high grazing pressure, plant degradation, loss of species diversity, and, in some cases, soil
erosion (Iiguez, 1989; Sanabria et al., 1992; Caballero, 1994; Campero, 1996).
386 CONCLUSIONS

3.6 Conclusions
Anglo Nubians were introduced to different production systems and climatic zones;
successes or failures of these introductions can be summarized as follows:
i Anglo Nubian populations increased in the cases of intensive or semi-intensive management
including health care, improved housing and fodder production. These conditions are found
in institutional flocks or those managed by private entrepreneurs; examples are the flock of
the Faculty in Cochabamba, the ACCT and a private flock, both in Tarija. In these
intensively managed goat farms, purebred Anglo Nubians have positive impacts because of
their good adaptation to the climate of the inter-Andean valleys and their high yields.
ii In semi-extensive management, this breed is able to survive but its production potential is not
fully made use of. There are only few examples (flocks in Mizque) of persistent Anglo
Nubian populations in these conditions, and all of them include some access to the market so
that goat owners can sell cheeses at least during part of the year. Another prerequisite is the
extension service needed to assist goat owners with the introduced breed so that they can
respond to the higher needs of Anglo Nubians compared to the Criollo goats in terms of
better housing, parasite control and improved feeding.
iii In extensive management, Anglo Nubians did not last for long; cases include those in the
province of Esteban Arze and Campero in Cochabamba, the Chaco, as well as flocks in
Chuquisaca and Potosi.
iv The introduction of purebred Anglo Nubians has brought no benefit to smallholders in
Bolivia as the animals are likely to suffer high mortality and abortion rates. In the case that
the animals were given to goat keepers as development aid, no direct monetary loss for the
farmers was recorded.
v In the case of introduction of purebreds, the impact of Anglo Nubians on smallholders is
negative because the animals suffer high mortality and abortion rates. However, the
introduction of crossbreds can result in benefits to those smallholders who are able to make
use of the higher milk production of crossbreds by marketing part of the cheeses produced. A
possible negative impact is the greater need of the crossbreds for improved management,
which translates into the necessity of higher monetary input.
vi The time needed for adaptation to a new environment can be very long when adult animals
are transferred from one climatic zone to another, in some cases only the offspring of the
introduced animals adapted well, as observed in Mizque. Purebreds cannot be transferred to
the conditions of smallholdings without mortalities surpassing 50% and high abortion rates.
When introduction is in the form of a slow process using young pure or halfbred bucks for
breeding, results are much more favourable, like in Tarija.
vii The impact of the introduction of Anglo Nubians on the Criollo goat population has been
very limited. Today, Criollo goats far outnumber Anglo Nubians and crossbreds. A negative
impact on the Criollo goat population, though, can be seen in the efforts and financing that
was spent in introducing Anglo Nubians to climatic zones and management systems not
suitable to the breed. Had the same effort been spent in characterizing the production
environment and the genetic resource of the Criollo goat or in their improved breeding and
management, our knowledge in these fields today would be far greater.
CONCLUSIONS 387

viii The impact of the introduction of Anglo Nubians on the environment was positive in those
cases where there was a simultaneous improvement of the pastures caused by rotating flocks
and the building of enclosures. Inputs in infrastructure and management were responded to
by high performance of the improved breed, making sense of restricting flock sizes and
movements of the animals.
ix The gene flow between developed countries was realized by private persons and on a
commercial basis, whereas the transfers from developed to developing countries often
involved development agencies. In the case of Bolivia, the gene flow was planned mainly by
agencies, and only in few instances by goat keepers. There were also gene flows between
countries of South America.
x In Bolivia, the introduction of Anglo Nubians was met with failure when the planning was
done merely by development agencies without considering or even knowing the production
systems involved. On the other hand, careful planning and involvement of the goat keepers
themselves led to success.
xi The financing of the introduction of Anglo Nubians was mostly by development agencies,
governmental or non-governmental. Only in few cases did private financing occur. It is
concluded that in most cases, smallholder goat keepers did not suffer financial losses due to
the introduction of Anglo Nubians, however public incentives frequently did not pay back.
xii A negative impact of the transfer of Anglo Nubians lies in the fact that much effort was spent
in introducing and adapting a foreign breed to the conditions of Bolivia, while the local
genetic resource, the Criollo goat, has been neglected both by researchers and development
agencies. The Criollo has, however, a high variability and production potential that can be
utilised if these animals are included in research on management and breeding improvement
(Altug et al., 2000).
388 REFERENCES

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th
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Bass Werner, M. 2004: Personal comunication, 12.10.2004
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5 CONTACT ADDRESSES
Bass Werner, M.
Director of DRIPAD Tarija,
Avenida Defensores del Chaco s/n, zona
aeropuerto, Tarija, Bolivia.
Tel.: ++591 46645837
email: mbwerner58@hotmail.com
Cautin, F.
Administrator of SONU (Sociedad
Nueva)
Calle Mama Ocllu No. S-0905, Casilla
4231, Cochabamba, Bolivia.
Tel.: ++591 44250562
email: sonubol@supernet.com.bo
Chumacero, E.
Formerly Head of IBTA Research Station
Chinoli, Potosi; currently lecturer at the
Faculty of Agronomy,
University Tomas Frias, Avenida del
Maestro s/n, Potosi, Bolivia.
Tel.: ++591 46225414
(no email)
Ergueta, R.
Formerly technician of CEDEAGRO,
Mizque, Cochabamba, currently Director
of DRIPAD Cochabamba
Avenida Aroma No. 327, Cochabamba,
Bolivia
Tel.: ++591 44251565
email: dripadcb@supernet.com.bo
Foyanini, C.
Owner of Residencial Bolivar and goat
farms in Pailon and San J avier, Santa
Cruz, Bolivia
Tel.: ++591 3325989
email: residencialbolivar@hotmail.com
Hinojosa, R.
National Director of Heifer International
Bolivia, Avenida Moscu s/n entre 5 y 6
anillo, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Tel.: ++591 33557235
email: e.arancibia@heifer-bolivia.org
Hinojosa, O.
Formerly technician of DRIPAD
Cochabamba in Novillero, currently
technician of Aldeas SOS, Cochabamba
km 1 a Tiquipaya, zona Linde s/n,
Cochabamba, Bolivia
Tel.: ++591 44421935
email: ing_oscarhinojosa@hotmail.com
Mendoza, B.
Lecturer at the National University of
Loja, Ciudadela Universitaria, La Argelia
Casilla 795, Loja, Ecuador
Tel: ++593 7574054
Email: bmendoza@ch.pro.ec
Vaca, J .L.
Lecturer at the Veterinary Faculty of
University Gabriel Rene Moreno,
Avenida Centenario, Campus
Universitario, Casilla 702, Santa Cruz,
Bolivia.
Tel.: ++591 3537676
email: vacajl@cotas.com.bo
Ribeiro, Maria Norma
Departamento de Zootecnia
Universidade Federal Rural de
Pernambuco
Av. D. Manoel de Medeiros, SN, Dois
Irmaos, CEP: 51171-900 Recife, Brazil
e-mail: mn.ribeiro@uol.com.br
394




ANNEX 9.8


Boran and Tuli cattle breeds
Origin, worldwide transfer, utilisation and the
issue of access and benefit sharing

S. Homann, J .H. Maritz, C.G. Hlsebusch, K. Meyn,
A. Valle Zrate

SabineHomann, J acobus H. Maritz, Christian G. Hlsebusch, Klaus Meyn, AnneValle
Zrate:
Boran and Tuli cattle breeds Origin, worldwide transfer, utilisation and the issue of access
and benefit sharing

ISBN 3-86186-498-3



Printed in Germany.

Tel. +49 (0)7025 842140, Fax +49 (0)7025 842499
Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics of the University of Hohenheim. The

Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the German
Technical Cooperation (GTZ) acted as commissioner and project executing agency.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A variety of people from different countries and institutions contributed to accomplish this
case study by providing helpful information and data on the gene flow of the Boran and Tuli
cattle breeds.
These are Tezera Getahun and Ahmed Abdi from the Pastoral Forum Ethiopia, Workneh
Ayalew from the International Livestock Research Institute in Ethiopia, and Morn de la Ray
from EMBRYO PLUS in South Africa.
Our thanks go also to Geoff Maynard from the Mount Eugene Belmont Reds & 5 Star
Senepols in Australia, Tafesse Mesfin, and Siboniso Moyo from the Department of Livestock
Production and Andrew Mushita from Commutech, both in Zimbabwe.
Finally, we wish to thank J ohn Vercoe from Australia, J acob Wanyama from the ITDG-EA in
Kenya, and Kerstin Zander from the Center for Development Research in Bonn, Germany.
We gratefully acknowledge contributions from all before mentioned institutions and persons
to this study.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables and figures 402
Terms and abbreviations 403
1 Introduction 407
2 Overview on Boran and Tuli cattle breeds 408
2.1 Origin 408
2.1.1 Boran 408
2.1.2 Tuli 409
2.2 Description and performance 410
2.2.1 Unimproved Boran 410
2.2.2 Improved Boran 411
2.2.3 Tuli 413
3 Current status and breeding organisation 414
3.1 Utilisation in Africa 414
3.1.1 Population status in the area of origin 414
3.1.2 Potential within Africa 416
3.2 Formation of cattle breeding organisations and programmes 418
3.3 Governmental impact on breeding and trade 422
4 Worldwide transfers of Boran and Tuli live cattle, semen and embryos 427
4.1 Transfers within Africa 427
4.2 Import into Australia and America 429
4.2.1 Australia 429
4.2.2 America 432
4.3 Diagrammes of Boran and Tuli transfers 435
5 Mode of transfer 440
5.1 Traditional and modern transfer mechanisms 440
5.2 Issue of access and benefit sharing agreements 442
6 Conclusions 444
7 References 446
7.1 Personal communications 446
7.2 Internet 446
7.3 Literature 448

402 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1: Performance of Ethiopian Boran, Improved Boran and Tuli cattle 412
Table 2: Overview on Boran and Tuli breeding organisations worldwide 422
Table 3: Transfers of Improved Boran and Tuli cattle breeding material from eastern and
southern Africa 436

Figure 1: Unimproved (left) and improved (right) Boran cattle 412
material from Eastern and Southern Africa 435
Figure 3: Worldwide transfers of Tuli cattle breeding material from Southern Africa 435

TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 403

TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
AML African Model Law
BCBS Boran Cattle Breeders Society
CAIS Kenyan Central Artificial Insemination Station
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia
EARO Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FMD Foot and Mouth Disease
IETS International Embryo Transfer Society
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute
KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute
KETRI Kenya Trypanosomias Research Institute
LMA Livestock Marketing Authority
LMDE Livestock and Meat Development Enterprise
MARC US Meat Animal Research Centre
MJ Megajoule
NATA North American Tuli Association
OADB Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau
OAU Organisation of African Unity
SADC Southern African Development Community
SAABCO South African Australian Breeders Company
SA TCBS South African Tuli Cattle Breeders Society


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
cattle production in sub-/tropical environments worldwide. In this context, controversy
arises about conservation-through-utilisation strategies and access and benefit sharing. We
have studied Boran and Tuli cattle and their past development, their actual utilisation, and
their future potential. Information on breed history, current status and breeding
organisation, and on worldwide transfers of live animals, semen, and embryos of the breeds
was gathered from the scientific literature, project reports and internet sources. Semi-
structured interviews were held with key people involved in the breeding of, research into,
and utilisation and conservation of the Boran and Tuli.
rangelands in southern Ethiopia. The Tuli cattle (Bos taurus) decend from a small nucleus
strategies. In Kenya, rapid breeding of the Boran cattle was started by British settlers,
developed at governmental breeding and research stations from the early 20
th
century.
environmental constraints. Boran cattle showed high fertility and production in low input
produced comparatively better in high input environments.
producers imported the first Boran and Tuli embryos from Zambia and Zimbabwe. In
Nebraska and Texas, USA, where the largest germplasm programmes on beef cattle in the
world were undertaken. The breeds also found their way into the Australian, American, and
South American beef industries through various other channels.
schemes or in the formation of composite breeds are scarce. From the few available figures,
the population of these breeds in these countries is small. Given the overall size of the beef
industry, with 94.9 million head of beef cattle in the USA and 26.4 million head in

origin, although they are still used particularly the Improved Boran in Kenya - for
Some Non Governmental Organisations argue that the Boran and Tuli were exploited by

INTRODUCTION 407

1 INTRODUCTION
African indigenous cattle breeds are a source of genetic diversity that is being increasingly
recognised for its potential for cattle production in tropical environments worldwide. In
their native environment these breeds experience genetic loss due to environmental
degradation, recurrent droughts, indiscriminate crossbreeding, replacement by exotic
breeds, and the absence or disappearance of breed development programmes. In some
industrialised countries, there appears to be a potential demand for some of these breeds.
However, although their greater dissemination has become possible with improved disease
control and the use of embryo transfer and artificial insemination in their countries of
origin, their use has still remained limited.
The present case study attempts to describe the worldwide transfer of genetic material of
two African cattle breeds, the Boran from East Africa and the Tuli from Southern Africa.
The so-called Improved Boran is the result of intensive ongoing breeding initiated by
British settlers in Kenya from the indigenous Boran cattle stock of southern Ethiopia,
southeastern Somalia and northern Kenya. The Tuli evolved from indigenous Sanga cattle
from Zimbabwe and eastern Botswana, and was maintained and improved on state breeding
and research stations in Zimbabwe. Available information was gathered from the scientific
literature and from the internet. Networks involved in using and conserving cattle genetic
resources were identified and key persons were contacted for information.
The aim of this study is to give an overview of the origin and movements of the two breeds.
Their worldwide distribution, performance and further development in other countries are
reviewed. The formation of Boran and Tuli cattle breeders societies and their national and
international networks are reviewed, as well as governmental breeding and trade policies
and their impact on the further development of the breeds. Data on imported and exported
germplasm as well as the current livestock populations are quantified for each country
where possible. Issues concerning the modes of transfer of genetic material and access and
benefit sharing for livestock genetic resources are addressed.
408 OVERVIEW ON BORAN AND TULI CATTLE BREEDS

2.1 Origin
2.1.1 Boran
Boran
1
cattle are of the large East African short-horned zebu type with a large thoracic
hump and pronounced dewlap, and are commonly classified as Bos indicus. Based on
molecular genetic analysis, Frisch et al. (1997) present evidence of East African zebus as
taurindicus, i.e. having both Bos taurus and Bos indicus in their ancestry. Hanotte et al.
(2000) found only zebuide alleles in Boran cattle, indicating that the indigenous taurine
African Y chromosome has been almost eliminated from the Ethiopian region. According
to Gibson (2005, pers. comm.) molecular genetic analysis indicates about 20-30% taurine
genes in the Boran, with higher proportions in the improved than in the unimproved (cf.
below for the distinction). This is likely due to crossing with European Bos taurus cattle
when developing the so-called Improved Boran.
The thoracic-humped zebu cattle descend from the secondary cattle domestication in the
fertile crescent south of Mesopotamia at about 5,000 BC (Payne and Wilson, 1999).
Archaeological records indicate that they are the most recent types of cattle introduced into
Africa from western Asia. Recent molecular genetic and archaeological evidence
(Marshall, 2000; Hanotte et al., 2002) suggest that zebu cattle were introduced into Africa
through East Africa rather than through the land connection between Egypt and the Near
East. After the Arab invasion (670 AD) they were imported into eastern Africa in large
numbers and were spread by Indian and Arabian merchants across the Red Sea to drier
agro-ecological regions in the Horn of Africa. Over time they displaced the Sanga type
cattle as far south as the Zambezi river owing to their greater resistance to Rinderpest and
their higher milk yield (Mason, 1984; Loftus and Cunningham, 2000).
The Ethiopian Boran cattle originate from the pasture planes at Liban and Dirre, the
heartland of the Borana rangelands in southern Ethiopia
2
. Molecular characterisation
suggests that all Boran types originate from this same ancestral stock (Rege et al., 2001).
Boran cattle are kept by the Borana pastoralists in a dryland environment with
comparatively productive pastures (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977; Coppock, 1994; Oba, 1998).
In the past the Boran cattle spread from Ethiopia to south-western Somalia, where they
were called Somali Boran or wai. The Somali Boran are now mainly found in south
eastern Ethiopia, J ubaland in the southern part of Alto Giuba along the Ethiopia - Somalia -
Kenya border and also in the Wajir region of Kenya, where they are kept by the Arti and
Mohammed Zubier Somali tribes (Felius, 1995; Rege et al., 2001). The Borana and Somali
pastoralists migrated with their cattle south-eastward into northern Kenya where the
Kenyan Boran then evolved. In the 15
th
century, Boran cattle moved further south until they
arrived west of the river Tana in Kenya. There, the Orma pastoralists developed the more
trypanotolerant variety, the Orma Boran, also known as Tanaland Boran (Dolan et al.,

1
The name Boran stems from the original habitat, the Borana rangelands in Ethiopia.
2
Earlier literature uses the term Sidamo for the Borana rangelands.

OVERVIEW AND BORAN AND TULI CATTLE BREEDS 409

1994; Rege et al., 2001). According to Felius (1995) the Boran influences even reached
Massai territory in southern Kenya. However, the southward spread appears to have come
to a halt on the borderline between Ukambani and Masailand in Kenya, where a number of
European ranchers took to breeding Boran cattle.
Homann (2004) found that the Borana pastoralists in southern Ethiopia differentiate two
types, which they call the Qorti and the Ayuna. The large-framed Qorti is considered
as the true Ethiopian Boran. It is appreciated for its high productivity but it is poorly
adapted to scarce grazing. The smaller Ayuna is less productive but better adapted to forage
scarcity. According to the pastoralists, the Qorti originated in the eastern plains of the
Borana rangelands, while the Ayuna type evolved under the gradual inflow of animals from
the northern Ethiopian highlands. According to Mesfin (2004, pers. comm.) the
representative type of Boran cattle is currently found in the south-eastern Borana - Somali
cross-border region, while in many other areas the breed characteristics have been diluted.
The so-called Improved Boran was developed by British ranchers in central Kenya from
pastoral Boran cattle of southern Ethiopia, south-eastern Somalia and northern Kenya. Lack
of success in breeding European cattle in Machakos, Laikipia, and the Rift Valley led the
ranchers to buy Boran cattle from pastoralists in the 1920s via Somali traders. Through
selection and crossbreeding with European beef breeds used by the white farmers at the
time (mainly Hereford, Shorthorn, and Simmental) the Boran was then improved to an
excellent beef breed for this area. It is during this process that the Improved Boran must
have acquired its higher portion of Bos taurus genes. Export of Improved Boran breeding
stock to Zambia and other African countries started in 1947, and in 1973 the Improved
Boran were quite popular among white farmers in Zambia. Since 1991 the Improved Boran
found its way to Australia, North- and South-America for research and commercial
purposes (Felius, 1995; Rege et al., 2001).
2.1.2 Tuli
The Tuli
3
cattle have evolved from the southern African Ngwato cattle, a large heavy boned
Sanga cattle type with long horns. Sanga type cattle are commonly classified as genetic
intermediates between Bos indicus and Bos taurus breeds. Frisch et al. (1997) support
classifying Sanga as being partly Bos taurus, with the Tuli in particular having taurine but
no Bos indicus ancestors. This was confirmed by Hanotte et al. (2000) who found taurine
dominance among Sanga breeds in the southern African region.
Sanga cattle are commonly thought to originate from hump-less long-horned cattle, but
with zebu influences in the Horn of Africa between 5,000-1,500 BC (Oliver, 1983). The
Sanga cattle moved with the human migrations to new areas in southern Africa. The Bantu
crossed the Zambesi around 700 AD and remains of Sanga cattle were found in Zimbabwe
dating back to 900 AD (Epstein, 1971). The cattle were then moved from Botswana in the
west to Mozambique and Zululand in the east. From west of Zimbabwe they were taken to
South Africa prior to the 15
th
century. From this cattle type European settlers developed the

3
The name tuli stems from the Ndebele word utulili meaning dust, and refers to the arid native
environment of the Tuli cattle.

Africander breed. Later the Bonsmara breed resulted from crosses with Hereford and other
shorthorn cattle (Mason 1984).
Hetzel (1988) reports that Tuli cattle originate from the Tswana cattle indigenous to the
vast arid sweet-veld region in the central and northern part of southern Africa and southern
part of central Africa. He considers the Tuli as an improved Tswana breed. According to
Felius (1995), the Bamangwato livestock farmers, who originally settled in south-eastern
Botswana and then spread across the Transvaal and southern Zimbabwe before the advent
of the Matabele livestock farmers, had a distinct type of cattle. These Bamangwato cattle, a
Sanga strain called Ngwato, formed one strain of what is named Tswana, but were almost
extinct following the Rinderpest outbreaks in 1896. In 1942 a land development officer, Mr
L.V.A. Harvey, observed a distinct type of yellow Sanga cattle among the mixed local
Ngwato cattle herds. These yellow Ngwato seemed to be better adapted to local conditions
and superior beef animals. Harvey persuaded the Zimbabwe government to start buying a
basic breeding herd of the last remaining Tswana type Ngwato cattle from the local
livestock owners in the Tuli area, in south western Zimbabwe (TCBS, 2004).
In 1945 a state breeding station was established on about 1,200 hectares in Matabeleland
with a founding Tuli herd of twenty cows and one bull, because these already possessed
desirable characteristics such as high fertility and good ease of milking. Further selection
efforts focused mainly on heritable traits concerning meat production and conformation,
and on naturally polled animals of a golden brown colour. The result was the rapid
development of what was described by Goodwin (1976) as a highly fertile purebred
indigenous breed with good beef and milk qualities. In 1950 the government decided to
extend the research station to about 8,000 hectares and by 1956 the Tuli numbers had risen
to 1,000 (Harvey, 1987). The original breeding policy was designed to supply improved
animals to the smallholder sector in the low rainfall areas. However, over the years
commercial ranchers were increasingly attracted by the Tuli and became involved in its
breeding (Harvey, 1987). Due to security problems from the liberation war in Zimbabwe,
the Tuli herd was translocated to Matopos Research Station in south western Zimbabwe in
1979, where breeding continues today. The breed is now mainly used by commercial
farmers. The success of the improved Tuli breed has led to the export to neighbouring
African countries as well as to Australia and northern and southern America (Mushita,
2005, pers. comm.).
2.2 Description and performance
2.2.1 Unimproved Boran
The Boran is the largest of the East African zebu breeds. Mature body weights of
unimproved Boran cattle range from 300 to 650 kg in males and from 200 to 360 kg in
females (Table 1; on-staion and field data). The typical Ethiopian Boran cattle have a deep
chest, long legs, a large and wide body frame, and hard hooves. They are used by
pastoralists for milk and meat. The larger Somali Boran is short legged and mainly used for
milk. The Orma Boran is more resistant to trypanosomiasis and is the smallest type among
the Boran cattle. The coat colour of Boran cattle is usually light grey, white or fawn,
reddish or brown, with characteristic dark grey forequarters including the thoracic hump
and the pendulous dewlap. The hump is well developed and hangs over to one side in

OVERVIEW AND BORAN AND TULI CATTLE BREEDS 411

males. The udder is well developed in females (Felius, 1995; Reda, 2001; Rege et al.,
2001). Survival and fertility were the most important traits for local cattle raisers and
stringent natural selection ensured hardy animals. Consequently, milk yield of individual
cows was low and large herds were required to ensure sufficient milk supply (Rege et al.,
2001).
Physiological adaptations to harsh environments are common for zebu breeds. They are
known to regulate body temperature more efficiently than taurine cattle and therefore have
lower water requirements. They also show more efficient ruminal digestion and protein
synthesis along with lower metabolic faecal nitrogen excretion than most temperate breeds.
Furthermore, their hard hooves and light bones enable them to endure long migrations
(Hunter and Siebert, 1985).
The particular characteristics of Boran cattle - with the Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya and Orma
Boran types sharing similar traits - are summarised in the Domestic Animal Genetic
Resources Information System (DAGRIS) database of the International Livestock Research
Institute (ILRI) as follows: Excellent walking ability, drought resistance, pronounced herd
instinct, excellent mothering ability, docile but aggressive with the calf at foot, high disease
resistance and tolerance, good heat tolerance, good adaptation to a variety of climates,
longevity, high fertility, and pronounced sex dimorphism with small females and large
males (DAGRIS, 2005). However, both the unimproved Boran - but particularly the
Improved Boran - are generally found to be more succeptible to diseases, ticks, and other
environmental stresses than other, smaller East African zebu breeds. Similar to the
humpless Longhorns adapting to the tsetse bush by forming the small NDama, the zebu
became smaller in size when exposed to humidity and disease, the smallest indigenous
cattle breeds of Eastern Africa being found in the Mbulu Highlands of Tanzania and the
Taita Hills in Kenya. These small East African zebus have lower yields than the
unimproved and the Improved Boran (Meyn, 1967; Meyn, 1970).
2.2.2 Improved Boran
Improved Boran cattle are primarily kept for beef production and are described as an
excellent tropical beef breed with good meat quality (Kenya Beef Industry Development
Project, 1974). The Boran Cattle Breeders Society of Kenya describes them as being well
adapted to arid environments and showing good productivity under environmental
constraints (BCBS, 2005). Mature body weights range from 550 to 850 kg in males and
from 304 to 414 kg in females (Table 1). Although morphologically similar to the other
Boran types, they typically have well-developed hindquarters (Rege et al., 2001) and well
fleshed thighs, especially in the upper parts (Felius, 1995) (cf. figure 1). They can maintain
these economically valuable qualities also under unfavourable environments because of
their good adaptability to heat, to low forage quality, to low water availability, and to
walking long distances. The cows are known to be very fertile with good calving ease and
mothering traits (BCBS, 2005). Compared to the Orma Boran, the Improved Boran is less
productive under trypanostress (Rowlands, 1995 in Khler-Rollefson, 2001). Some
breeders selected for white breeding herds but red-brown is the predominant coat colour.
Rege et al. (2001) found high numbers of alleles diverging from the Hardy Weinberg
equilibrium in the Improved Boran, which they attributed to intentionally selecting for beef
production.

Table 1: Performance of Ethiopian Boran, Improved Boran and Tuli cattle
Traits Unimproved
Boran
Improved
Boran
Tuli
Wither height (cm) Male
Female
111 - 127
113 - 118
133 - 147
115 - 120

Adult Liveweight (kg) Male
Female
300 - 650
200 - 360
550 - 850
303 - 414
Max 800
369 - 468
Age at first calving (month) 34 35 - 47 36
Calving interval (days) 370 - 743 380 - 544 389 - 475
Pregnancy rate (%) 97 90
Calf survival (%) 96 96
Birth weight (kg) 23 - 26 24 - 44 29-32
Weaning weight (kg) 85 - 190 160 - 217 170-184
Age at weaning (days) 252 214 - 26
Age at puberty (days) 389 365
Puberty weight (kg) 310 299
Meat production
Carcass weight, 447 days (kg) 310 308
Daily gain, birth-weaning (g) 559 - 636 289 - 408 622
Daily gain, weaning - slaughter (g) 272
Milk production
Length of lactation (days) 70 - 319
Total milk yield/off-take (kg) 66 - 513
Daily production (kg) 0.8 3.9 0.8
Sources: Bock (1971); Cundiff et al. (1996); DAGRIS (2005); Felius (1995); Meyn (1967); Tonn (1974).

Figure 1: Unimproved (left) and improved (right) Boran cattle
Sources: Homann (2004); Hlsebusch (1992)

OVERVIEW ON BORAN AND TULI CATTLE BREEDS 413

2.2.3 Tuli
Tuli cattle are also considered as one of the worlds best-suited breeds for improving
beef production under extensive ranching conditions. Tuli have a moderate frame and
a colour, which ranges from silver, yellow, light brown to deep red. Few animals are
pale grey to black. Although descended from the horned Sanga cattle, about 70-80%
of the animals are naturally polled, which indicates taurine influence during breed
evolution. The rest have long and occasionally loose horns. The Tuli cattle offer
maximum hybrid vigour in crossbreeding programmes with genetically different Bos
indicus breeds (TCBS, 2004).
Tuli cattle are described as an early maturing beef breed with excellent meat quality
and high fertility (TCBS, 2004). Tuli cows reach body weights of 370-470 kg, bulls of
up to 800 kg (Table 1). Well-managed steers weighed about 275 kg at 33 months of
age and dress out at 60%. Cows are very fertile and many breed beyond 15 years of
age (Felius, 1995). Tuli cattle reached calving rates of 70% and calf mortality rates of
only 9% under extensive ranching conditions in Zimbabwe. Their ease of calving
along with low birth weights, good mothering instincts, disease and parasite
resistance, good feed conversion and their docile temperament are appreciated for
maximal production under minimal cost (Tawonezvi, 1984).

414 CURRENT STATUS AND BREEDING ORGANISATION

Today most of the unimproved Boran cattle in Africa are kept in subsistence-based
systems in southern Ethiopia, northern Kenya, south-eastern Somalia and Tanzania
(Ali, 1998). Improved Boran cattle are mainly kept on commercial ranches on the
semi-arid to arid plains of the Rift Valley and the Eastern Provinces of Kenya. They
have been exported to Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Nigeria and Congo and more
recently to South Africa.
The pure Tuli cattle in Africa today are mainly raised in the commercial sector of
Zimbabwe and Botswana, although the population declined over the last years. South
Africa has developed a growing Tuli population. Namibia and Gabon are also
reported to have Tuli cattle (Felius, 1995; TCBS, 2004). Usually the subsistence
sector keeps most of the indigenous cattle, but no evidence exists as to whether these
are Tuli or the related Tswana cattle.
After the systematic within-breed selection in Africa, both breeds were imported for
commercial or experimental purposes into Australia and North America. Australia
started the transfer of embryos from Africa for research and commercial
investigations. The USA, importing from Canada and Australia, started the largest
research programmes on Boran and Tuli cattle. Some cattle were also transferred to
Latin America. Although both breeds clearly showed their value for beef production
in the tropics, relatively few producers in Australia and North America adopted the
Tuli, and were even more reluctant towards the Boran. The Tuli was reported to also
exist in Argentina, the Boran also in Mexico and Brazil.
Boran and Tuli breeds play a role for both subsistence and commercial livestock
production systems and their roles and uses, the breeding strategies, and the potential
for improvements therefore differ accordingly. The commercial sector was
comparatively better served by data from formal registrations and advanced breeding
organisations. Available documents were mainly on the performance of Boran and
Tuli stock, however, the commercial impact does not seem to be established yet. Data
on the subsistence sector, taking ecological and socio-economic changes into account,
were very limited and can only be presented as general trends.
The following chapters therefore refer mainly to the commercial sector in the African
countries of origin as well as to the further development of the breeds in Australia and
in the USA. Data on Boran and Tuli imports into African countries were scarce and
not further investigated. No data were found for Latin America. The nature of this
study is to address in more detail those countries and cases for which information is
available. Thus it does not represent all Boran and Tuli transfers worldwide, but
merely indicates the general processes.
3.1 Utilisation in Africa
3.1.1 Population status in the area of origin
The unimproved or indigenous Boran cattle are abundant in southern Ethiopia with an
estimated 1.8 million head in 1992, while the Improved Boran is not found there

CURRENT STATUS AND BREEDING ORGANISATION 415

(DAGRIS 2005). A National Artificial Insemination Centre (NAIC) distributes Boran
semen within the country since 1980 (Getahun and Ahmed, pers. comm., 2005).
DAGRIS (2005) differentiates the indigenous Boran cattle population of Kenya
between the Orma Boran with 547,000 head, the Improved Boran with 580,570 head,
and the Kenya Boran which has no population data. Two Improved Boran bulls where
placed at the Central Artificial Insemination Station in Kabete, Kenya, around 1972 to
provide semen for Kenyan Boran breeders and for export. However, the demand for
semen remained low. In 1990, 90% of the Improved Boran females were estimated to
be purebred and nine males were registered for artificial insemination (FAO DAD-IS,
2005). During 1999 and 2000, about 1,300 new Improved Boran cattle were
registered in the Kenya Stud Book (BCBS, 2005). In Zambia the total Boran
population is estimated to be less than 100,000. Four males were in artificial
insemination service and deep frozen semen is available (FAO DAD-IS, 2005). In
Tanzania the total Boran population is estimated to be below 5,000 and falling, with
about 2,000 females and 500 males. In South Africa, 61 Improved Boran were
registered in 1998, including 30 breeding females (FAO DAD-IS, 2005). No
population data were found for Somalia, Uganda, Congo and Nigeria.
Tuli cattle are found in southern Zimbabwe and neighbouring countries in the hands
of commercial farmers. According to Moyo (2005, pers. comm.) the Tuli is the most
popular indigenous cattle breed in the commercial sector. In 1992 the total number of
Tuli cattle in Zimbabwe was estimated at 10,000 with 2,380 females registered in the
herdbook and eight males used for artificial insemination (FAO DAD-IS, 2005).
DAGRIS (2005), however, classifies todays Tuli population in Zimbabwe as
endangered. No population census data were available for Botswana. The government
owned a Tuli breeding herd of 60 cows in 1996 and 57 animals were used in a breed
evaluation study in 2000 (Mpofu, 2002). In 1990, 800 straws of deep frozen semen
were in the semen bank and 1,112 straws were used for artificial insemination (FAO
DAD-IS, 2005). Currently, South Africa has the biggest Tuli herd. The population has
risen from 1,629 registered females and 564 registered males in 1997 and 2,339
registered animals in 1998 (FAO DAD-IS, 2005) to about 4,000 registered animals in
2004 (Pretorius, 2004). In 1997, one male was registered for artificial insemination
and 5,477 doses of semen were stored at a commercial artificial insemination station,
while 3 sires were used for cryo-conservation (FAO DAD-IS, 2005). No population
data were found for Namibia.
Purebred Boran and Tuli populations faced genetic dilution due to various factors in
their countries of origin. In Ethiopia this was due to uncontrolled introgression and
restocking with inferior highland cattle after drought (Haile-Mariam et al., 1998;
Mesfin, 2004, pers. comm.). Degradation of the environment further jeopardises the
pure Boran (Homann, 2004). In Kenya the main threats to the Improved Boran are
said to be uncontrolled crossbreeding with exotic breeds, disappearing breeding
structures, neglected traditional livestock systems and shrinking grazing resources
(Rege et al., 2001). Irungu (cited by Daily Nation, 1998) states that about two thirds
of ranch cattle classified as Boran were actually crossbreds.
The status of the Tuli population in Zimbabwe is unclear. It is regarded at risk on
commercial ranches following the national land resettlement programmes. The


privately owned breeding nucleus of 200 cattle in Matabeleland was reportedly sold
when farmers sold their cattle due to compulsory acquisition of their farms (Gande,
2000). In the light of the current situation in Zimbabwe, the South African Tuli Cattle
Breeders Society considers exporting Tuli breeding stock from Zimbabwe unlikely
(TCBS, 2004). While Pretorius (2004) claims that there are hardly any improved Tuli
cattle left, Moyo (2005, pers. comm.) maintains that although farms have changed
owners, the Tuli cattle are still there but have not been officially re-registered.
According to Mhlanga et al. (1999) cattle restocking after the 1992 drought favoured
exotic breeds and they replaced indigenous breeds in the communal areas.
In Botswana, the meat grading system seems to favour large framed exotic breeds
over the Tuli. Data from the Ramatlabama Bull Study and Artificial Insemination
Laboratory (1987-1995) illustrate the promotion of exotic European bulls at the
expense of native cattle, with a very low share of Tuli bulls in natural service (0.5-
3.2%) and artificial insemination (0.2-2.4%) (Nsoso and Morake, 1999).
Crossbreeding with European breeds appears to have considerably reduced or diluted
local cattle breeds (Senyatso and Masilo, 1992). Before independence in 1966, the
livestock industry used mainly native cattle breeds and contributed substantially to
agricultural production and export earnings. After independence, the government
launched a bull subsidy scheme and artificial insemination services, open to all
farmers, which led to the above phenomena.
3.1.2 Potential within Africa
African indigenous cattle breeds are recognised as essential for people living in
marginal areas where no other land use is possible. Indigenous cattle are often kept in
mobile or smallholder systems for multiple purposes, different between locations.
Recent studies show that indigenous breeds are often more productive than European
breeds in such systems, especially in unfavourable environments. This is attributed to
their superior adaptation to environmental stress, including resistance to diseases and
parasites. For those systems, developing single purpose breeds to produce either beef
or milk, is considered inappropriate (Rege, 1998; Rege et al., 2001).
The Boran cattle in Ethiopia are predominantly kept in pastoral systems in the arid
and semi-arid lowlands. Pastoralism provides a living for about 10-12% of the
countrys human population, and pastoralists keep 40% of the national cattle herd and
use 60% of the total area. Figures from the 1990s suggest that they also contribute
about 90% of the legal live animal exports of the country, and that they supply 20% of
the draught animals used in the Ethiopian highlands (Coppock, 1994; Sandford and
Habtu, 2000). Further, a considerable share of Boran cattle is reportedly exported to
Kenya by unofficial cross border trade (Teka et al., 1999). Several studies suggest that
Boran cattle in indigenous pastoral systems can perform better than commercial beef
cattle ranching systems under similar ecological conditions. Borana pastoralists were
found to achieve a 57% higher productivity than did Kenyan ranches, when using
gross energy edible by humans (in MJ per haand year) as an indicator (Cossins,
1985). However, this might not hold for dairy ranching systems.
Pastoral Boran cattle yielded more milk per cow and year than did Massai cattle (219-
251 kg vs. 50-235 kg) and permitted a slightly higher cash output per head and year


(20-27 US$ vs. 16-24 US$) (Bekure et al.,1991; de Leeuw, 1995; Behnke and Abel,
1996). Intensive research was therefore launched in the 1980s on the growth potential
of Boran cattle (Arnason and Kassa-Mersha, 1987; Sisay and Ebro, 1988; Tegegne et
al., 1994; Haile-Mariam and Kassa-Mersha, 1994), but no commercial beef sector has
yet developed in Ethiopia.
As crossbreds with Boran cows showed improved milk production, they were thought
to have the potential to meet the increasing demand for dairy products in the densely
populated highland regions of Ethiopia. On station results showed that milk
production of Boran purebreds was too low when compared with exotic dairy breeds
kept in commercial highland farms. Milk production of Boran crossbreds with
Holstein Friesian or J ersey increased threefold in the first generation due to significant
additive and heterotic contributions. However, the high level of production could not
be maintained in later generations due to recombination losses. To overcome this
problem, the late Douglas Hinde of Lolldaiga Hills Estate in Kenya used criss-crossed
milking cows of Boran x Red Poll in a dairy ranching system. Two stud herds of
Boran and Red Poll were kept and only purebred bulls were used to serve the
crossbred cows. Demeke et al. (2004) recommended a breeding strategy of selecting
within purebreds and then producing F1 crosses that could be used as dairy cows.
Holstein Friesian x Boran crossbred dairy cows were evaluated for their potential as
dual-purpose cattle (milk production and traction) for small scale farmers in the
Ethiopian highlands. Milk production and reproduction were not significantly affected
by work both on station and on farm (Shapiro et al., 1994), and work output of dairy
cows was equivalent or above that required by farmers for land cultivation (Zerbini et
al., 1998; Alemu, et al., 1998). Dual-purpose crossbred Boran cows were thus
considered an attractive innovation in areas where increasing demand for arable land
has reduced the size of land available for natural grazing and browse (Demeke, 1999).
Sufficient feed quantity and quality was a major factor determining the performance
of dual-purpose cows.
In Kenya the majority of Boran cattle the unimproved Boran - are kept by
pastoralists. A considerable number of large-scale private and public ranches also
keep Improved Boran cattle on arid and semiarid pasture plains of the Rift Valley and
the Eastern Province (Rege et al., 2001). The Improved Boran cattle in particular have
an established place in the national beef sector. The Kenya Beef Industry
Development Project at Lanet, a Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI)
station, chose the Boran as the most common breed in the market as a basis for
starting a cattle feeding industry. In comparative feedlot trials between 1968 and 1973
the Improved Boran produced high quality beef and after a 16 weeks fattening period
showed a dressing percentage of 52%, grade scores of 4.68 and an average daily gain
of 1,098g, while the unimproved Boran had a dressing percentage of 51.7%, grade
scroes of 4.24 and an average daily gain of 883 g after a 16 weeks fattening period.
From this data, the potential to increase the yield of edible carcass from one
unimproved head of pastoral cattle was estimated 30-50% during 10 weeks feedlot. It
was thus recommended to use this potential to capitalise upon Kenyas excellent
rangelands, combining cheap growth on native pastures with compensatory growth
during finishing in the feedlot (Creek, 1977).


The Orma Boran was found to be superior in Tse-tse infested areas. Research at the
Kenya Trypanosomias Research Institute (KETRI) showed that they produce better
than other Bos indicus under Tse-tse challenge. They are less likely to suffer from
severe anaemia, recover sometimes without treatment, and infection and mortality
rates are half that of the Improved Boran. The programme resulted in Orma calves,
with improved birth and weaning weights (bulls reach up to 400kg at 4 years of age),
being now sold to farmers in other Tse-tse infested areas (Dolan et al., 1994).
In Southern Africas commercial sector Tuli cattle are mainly used for beef
production, whereas in the communal sector milk, draught power and manure play a
more important role (Moyo, 2005, pers. comm.). The Tuli improvement programme
in Zimbabwe at Matopos Research Station and research in Botswana confirmed its
high fertility and the ability to produce well under extremely diverse natural
conditions. The Tuli was rated for its docility and mothering qualities (Trail, 1984;
Tawonezvi et al., 1988). The University of Zimbabwe (UniZim, 2005) is
characterising the Tuli breed for beef production.
Hetzel (1988) ascribed the Boran and Tuli cattle a leading role for beef production in
Africa after evaluating six African cattle breeds under free range conditions. His
comparison was based on studies covering a wide range of environments in Uganda
(Gregory et al., 1985), Zambia (Thorpe et al., 1980; Thorpe et al., 1981), Zimbabwe
(Animal Productivity Research Team, 1969, 1971) and Botswana (Trail et al., 1980;
Animal Production Research Unit, 1981). Reproduction and growth traits of purebred
Boran, Tuli, Mashona, Barotse, Angoni and Afrikander in comparison with the
Brahman were assessed in high- and low-input environments. The indigenous
purebreds were highly productive, largely due to their high reproductive rates. In
high-input environments the Tuli were the most productive breed per unit of cow
weight, but performed poorly in the low-input environment. The Boran performed
well in several trials in low-input and hot environments. Crossbreds in this study did
not perform better than purebreds. Based on these results, within-breed selection of
Boran and Tuli cattle was recommended for national breeding programmes in
unimproved environments.
3.2 Formation of cattle breeding organisations and programmes
Breeding organisations form out of commercial breeding interests and they provide a
regulatory framework to evaluate breeds. Breeding strategies for commercial systems
are likely to be different to those targeting subsistence-oriented producers. Many
African countries have cattle breeding organisations in the commercial sector. Despite
the importance of the subsistence sector, no breeding organisations have evolved in
this area. Breed development programmes were formerly strongly technical, but under
the challenge to meet the local breeders needs, they increasingly emphasised
organisational and institutional aspects. The formation of breeding organisations and
programmes is described for the countries with a major stake in the Boran and Tuli
cattle breed in the following section.
In Ethiopia no formal breeding organisation to maintain, use and develop the Boran
breed has been established. The Borana indigenous institutions, once famous for
complex management systems and regulated rangelands and water resources, have not


excelled in breeding Boran cattle. The topic was not raised at the last two Gumi Gayo,
an eight yearly pan-Borana assembly to review laws and regulations. However,
Shongolo (1995), Huqqa (1999) and Reda (2001) argued that skilled cattle breeding is
a part of the daily livelihood management, and of customs and culture. According to
Getahun and Ahmed (2005, pers. comm.) establishing a regional Oromia Boran Cattle
Breed Association is extremely important to solicit technical and financial support. A
rising awareness for the need to ensure the sustainable use of Boran cattle is also
indicated by the foundation of the Gayo Boran cattle NGO in 2003, initiated by Sora
Adi, himself a Borana and advocate of pastoral development.
The breeding programmes implemented by the Ethiopian government were for a long
time characterised by top down approaches and destined to cater for the demands of
the highland population. They did not take the available resources and the production
objectives of the Borana pastoralists into account. The first breeding programmes
started in 1972, at the government-owned Abernossa ranch
4
in the Ethiopian
highlands. Boran cows were crossbred with Friesian cattle to produce F1 heifers for
dairy production (Haile-Mariam et al., 1998). Another long-term crossbreeding
programme using Boran cows for dairy production was initiated in 1974 at the
governmental Holetta Research Station, also in the Ethiopian highlands. Since 1978
the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO)
5
together with ILRI
studied Holstein Friesian x Boran F1 crossbred cows for their profitability as dual-
purpose dairy-draught animals (Alemu et al., 1998; Demeke, 1999). Crossbreeding
studies between 1990 and 2000 used common sires supplied by the NAIC through
artificial insemination and natural service (Demeke, 2004).
Comparatively little investment is being made in breeding programmes in the beef
sector. The Did Tuyura governmental breeding ranch was established in 1987 to
conserve and improve the Ethiopian Boran cattle in its native environment. It was
supposed to distribute superior bulls to the local pastoralists and to provide Boran
purebred heifers to Abernossa ranch for crossbreeding with Holstein Friesian. Due to
a lack of funds and facilities the ranch operates below its capacity. Within-breed
selection has however been maintained and high quality bulls are distributed to
pastoralists at a comparatively low price. According to Zander (2005, pers. comm.),
the ranch had about 1,400 animals, including 180 bulls and 600 breeding females at
the beginning of 2005. About 60 bulls were distributed to the local pastoralists in
2004. The pastoralists were reported to have a strong interest in buying bulls from the
ranch to upgrade their stock. The regional Oromiya Agricultural Development Bureau
(OADB) and ILRI started a livestock breed survey in 2000 to characterise the

4
The Abernossa cattle breeding and multiplication center (about 2,500 ha) is one of the two
remaining government ranches in Ethiopia. The other ranch is the Did Tuyura Boran indigenous
cattle breed improvement and multiplication centre (about 5,000 ha), located in the Borana.
rangelands. All other ranches were transferred to private hands in the course of the market
liberalisation policy.
5
The national Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organisation (EARO) founded in 1977 as successor
of the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), has the mandate to coordinate all agricultural
research activities in the country.


domestic animal genetic resources for future improvement (Ayalew and Rowlands,
2004).
The situation in Kenya is different. The stakeholders in the beef industry are
encouraging cattle producers to take up the Improved Boran. The Boran Cattle
Breeders Society (BCBS) and a Boran herd book were established in 1951 (Table 2).
The BCBS has introduced standards for registering typical Improved Boran cattle.
BCBS still actively promotes the Improved Boran in order to retain the breeds
efficiency and adaptation to harsh environmental conditions. By 2001 the BCBS had
64 paid up members. The BCBS executive committee sets and maintains standards,
which are applied by a panel of inspectors (BCBS, 2004). BCBS collaborates with the
Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), the Kenya Central Artificial
Insemination Station (CAIS) and the University of Nairobi. ILRI has started a
Conservation of Animal Genetic Resources Project, assessing the global genetic
resources, identifying unique gene pools and developing tools for economic analysis,
in which the Boran is included as important breed (ILRI, 2005).
KARI is running a Beef Research Centre in Lanet with the mandate to develop beef
production technologies for high and medium potential areas of Kenya. In order to
conserve the Boran, the centre advocates within-breed selection, establishing a
national Boran stud breeding herd, popularising the breed and involving multiple
stakeholders in planning and research. By selling fertile animals to the livestock
keepers, they expected to increase the Boran herds' overall fertility, growth and beef
production potential. Later, the centre also incorporated bull performance traits into
the improvement programme. Livestock keepers were asked to take their choice bulls
to a central place for finish feeding over a period of six months, after which they were
evaluated for growth, semen quality and concentration (Daily Nation, 1998). They
expected to better understand the various parameters that determine growth and
reproduction, and so develop simple and accurate methods of selecting breeding bulls
(Rege et al., 2001).
KETRI embarked on an ambitious breeding and selection programme on the
trypanotolerance of the Orma Boran cattle from 1980 to 1996. It was implemented at
Galana ranch in the Coast Province of Kenya. Galana borders the Orma pastoral
grazing land. Orma Boran cattle were found less susceptible to trypanosomiasis than
other breeds, including the Improved Boran. Background information on cattle
keeping by Orma pastoralists and on local control measures for trypanosomiasis were
collected (Irungu, 2000). The programme aims at involving the community in Tse-tse
control and improving beef production while at the same time maintaining the
trypanotolerance of the Orma Boran. KETRI plans a multiplication programme for
commercialisation of the Orma Boran (Dolan, 1997).
Zimbabwe established a Tuli Breeders Society in 1961. The Tuli became part of the
Zimbabwe herd book in 1994 and in 2002 seven commercial Tuli breeders were
registered. According to Mhlanga et al. (1999) there are currently no national
conservation and utilisation programmes for indigenous livestock genotypes.
In Botswana the Tuli Breeders Society was established in 1966. The herd book
recognised all uni-coloured animals except those being black (FAO DAD-IS, 2005).


In the 1990s the Botswana Department of Agricultural Research started a selection
programme to conserve cattle breeds, which was necessary for the Tswana rather than
for the Tuli cattle, and to improve their productivity, based on two herds with 300
cows each, and so promote establishing cattle breed societies (Senyatso and Masilo,
1992).
The South African Tuli herd book and the South African Tuli Cattle Breeders
Society (SA TCBS) were established in 1994. In 1999 the SA TCBS gave permission
to change the status of the Tuli from a developing breed to an established breed. In
2001 the SA TCBS had 36 registered herds, including one herd in Namibia. The Tuli
breeders have started participating in the National Beef Improvement Scheme. About
60% of the registered animals and about 43% of the society members are involved
and several farmers gained the prestigious Farmers Weekly trophies for best
producing cows (Pretorius, 2001; Mpofu, 2002).
In 1998 the South African and the Zimbabwean Breeders Societies started to
incorporate the data on the Zimbabwe Tuli cattle into those on the South African Tuli
cattle to form the South African Breedbook as basis for a joint genetic evaluation
programme (Pretorius, 2004). In 2000 the agreement was signed and the BLUP
breeding values for 21,647 Tuli cattle became available. The most recent development
is a state herd established under the management of the Agricultural Research Council
- Animal Improvement Institute at Loskop, South Africa (TCBS, 2005).
The privately owned embryo transfer and artificial insemination industry has grown in
South Africa. The first and main registered embryo transfer and artificial insemination
company in the whole of Africa is Embryo Plus, which started as a family enterprise
in 1980. Embryo Plus specialises in bovine embryo transfer and semen collection,
transfer technology and trade, as well as trains veterinarians in embryo transfer. 90%
of all embryo exports of South African breeds today are through Embryo Plus, with
customers in the USA, Brazil, Paraguay, Australia, Bolivia, China, Canada, Argentina
and throughout Africa. Embryo Plus operates at five registered quarantine centres in
South Africa and has one centre each in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Embryo Plus
frequently works in association with numerous embryo centres throughout the world.
Ongoing negotiations for protocols are expected to open further alleys for exports of
South African genetic material (de la Rey, 2005, pers. comm.; Embryoplus, 2005).


Table 2: Overview on Boran and Tuli breeding organisations worldwide
Country Society Year of
foundation
Members
(year)
Registered cattle
(year)
Kenya Boran Cattle Breeders
Society
1951 64
(2001)
1,300
(1999-2000)
Zambia Boran Cattle Breeder
Society
Not
known
Not
known
Not
known
Zimbabwe Tuli Cattle Breeder
Society
1961 7
(2002)
2,380 fem. (1992)
869 mal. (1992)
Botswana Tuli Cattle Breeders
Society
1966 Not known Not
known
South
Africa
Boran Cattle Breeders
Society of SA
2003 Not
known
61
(1998)
South
Africa
Tuli Cattle Breeders
Society
1994 36
(2001)
4,000
(2004)
Australia Boran Cattle Breeder
Association
1992

Not
known
26
(2000)
Australia Tuli Cattle Breeder
Association
1990 28
(2004)
161
(2000)
USA,
Canada,
Mexico
North American Tuli
Association
1998 26
(2002)
500 cows
(2002)
3.3 Governmental impact on breeding and trade
Livestock breeding legislation regulates animal identification and herd book keeping
through performance testing, animal reproduction, genetic material trade, zoo-sanitary
and quarantine regulations, and subsidies to livestock production. However, there is
not much of a framework for conserving Farm Animal Genetic Resources (AnGR),
which includes identifying the status of livestock biodiversity, strategies for
conserving and sustainably using AnGR, and economic analysis (FAO, 2004).
This chapter reviews current breeding and trade policies on cattle genetic material for
the Improved Boran and Tuli in their original countries in eastern Africa as compared
to southern Africa. Key policy areas such as governance, land-use policy and
infrastructure development, which influence the Boran and Tuli breeds are also
considered. Ethiopia and Kenya lack encompassing livestock breeding policies, but
promising structures are opening up. Zimbabwe and South Africa, both SADC
countries, are further ahead to adjust their policies to international requirements for
the management of AnGR. Uganda has made recent efforts in breeding activities and
has implemented an animal breeding Act in 2002 (see Nakimbugwe, 2003).
African States have an obligation under the WTO TRIPS Agreement to either adopt
patents, or a sui generis law, or a combination of both. So, through the Organisation
of African Unity (OAU), they have endorsed a model legislation to protect the rights
of local communities, farmers and breeders, and to regulate access to biological


resources, which is known as the African Model Law (AML). The OAU has
recommended that African countries should include it in their national processes,
however, the AML is still being much debated among the various stakeholders and it
has not yet been adopted anywhere.
In Ethiopia the lack of policy development for pastoral livestock breeding and
production is particularly evident. Policy development in the past was characterised
by political upheavals, marginalised pastoral populations and unsatisfactory policy
interventions (Moris, 1999). Pastoral livestock breeding was interfered with by
sedentarisation programmes, establishment of ranches and large scale grazing blocks,
subsidised veterinary campaigns, forced user co-operatives and nationalisation of
livestock trade. The current government is attempting to decentralise power and
implement a federal system. Following the structural adjustment programme the
livestock sector was economically liberalised, including privatisation of livestock,
marketing, and removal of subsidies on livestock inputs. An encompassing land use
policy was not implemented. Infrastructure in pastoral areas is deficient in rural
education, pastoral services, marketing and processing facilities. Civic representation
is comparatively weak and NGOs are compelled to conform to government priorities.
A breeding policy to improve and conserve Animal Genetic Resources is not
institutionalised. Government programmes have so far favoured exotic species to
increase production in the densely populated highlands, while the lowland regions
were neglected. Ethiopia has not yet submitted a National Biodiversity Strategy and
Action Plan to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). An Animal Genetic
Resource programme is, however, being developed under the Institute of Biodiversity
Conservation and Research, which was established in 1998.
Aklilu et al. (2002) described the current trade policy development in Ethiopia as
reluctant, and the emerging private livestock marketing sector lacks financial
capacity. Although livestock movement permits are not required within the country,
livestock trade within Ethiopia appears to be subject to heavy taxes. Livestock taxes
and transit fees are not standardised, but are collected at locally varying rates. Taxes
are not used to improve the efficiency of livestock markets, but contribute to funding
regional government offices. The National Bank requires all legal exports to be
conducted through a letter of credit. Under this arrangement, exporters of live animals
are liable to pay hard currency to the Bank if the importing country should reject the
animals for any reason. Under these conditions, the estimated official off-take for
cattle is only 8% and falling (FAO, 1999) and is one of the lowest in Africa. Cross
border trade, however, has developed remarkably, as pastoralists are attracted by
markets particularly in Saudi Arabia, often via Somalia.
When privatising the livestock marketing, most of the government owned ranches,
abattoirs and tanneries were sold and the government owned Livestock and Meat
Development Enterprise (LMDE) was dissolved. In 1998 the Livestock Marketing
Authority (LMA) was created under the Ministry of Trade. The LMA aims to promote
domestic and export markets. It initiates policies, laws and regulations, issues quality
control directives on exportable and importable materials, establishes staging points
and quarantine stations for domestic and export trade, promotes organised livestock


markets, abattoirs, skins and hides sheds and encourages research on livestock
marketing (Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No 117/1998). However, the LMAs
potential seems to be still constrained as responsibilities have not being clearly
assigned between federal and regional administrative structures and between LMA
and the veterinary department of the Federal Ministry of Agriculture.
For Ethiopia it can be concluded, that the lack of breeding and trade policy favoured
uncontrolled crossbreeding, particularly through regional integration programmes and
drought rehabilitation measures. Lack of land use policy has indirectly caused a loss
of habitat for the indigenous Boran cattle. Inconsistent trade policies hamper making
the most of Ethiopias livestock production potential, especially live cattle exports.
In Kenya the policy situation appears to be more advanced than in Ethiopia, although
pastoral development has been neglected in the past and infrastructures are considered
insufficient too. Kenyan pastoralists are comparatively better served by rural
education and seem to be more aware of commercial livestock production. Regional
governments are relatively stable and more services are also provided by NGOs, who
are encouraged to facilitate pastoral development. While technical interventions in the
rangeland sector have in the past often not been appropriate, more localised and
community based initiatives emerge since the 1990s. Kenya also followed the
privatisation policy and removal of government subsidies (Moris, 1999).
Livestock breeding and trade policies in Kenya are also deficient. Livestock breeding
programmes to upgrade local populations with high yielding exotic breeds are said to
have had a negative impact on cattle genetic diversity. However, as these crossbreds
turned out to be more productive in the highland areas than both purebred exotic and
purebred local animals, they were popular among the highland cattle producers, who
sought to increase their revenue from cattle keeping. Lowland pastoral and agro-
pastoral systems were also targeted by crossbreeding programmes although these
mainly focused on higher potential areas (Wanyama, 2003). Kenyas National
Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP, 1998) recognises the value of AnGR
for food security, and the fact that they are being endangered by crossbreeding with
exotic germplasm. It states a lack of clear animal breeding policies to promote
improvement and conservation of AnGR.
Livestock movements are restricted within Kenya. The Kenyan Animal Diseases Act,
CAP 364, 1972, which was revised in 1989, determines the declaration of infected
areas, the provisions for infected areas (isolation, disinfection and movement of
animals) and controlled movement and import of animals (Incorporating Rules
L.N.106/1965). The legislation prescribes examining imported animals, issuing health
clearance certificates for imported animals, animal health tests and quarantine
procedures. The Kenya Stock Traders Licensing Act of 1962, which was revised in
1983, prescribes licenses for trade or barter of livestock, without which livestock are
not permitted to travel from high disease risk areas to terminal markets. Provincial
and District Commissioners issue stock traders licenses and police, administration
police, veterinary officers or inspectors inspect the license on demand.


Under Kenyas Animal Diseases Act and the current livestock disease threats of
CBPP
6
, Rinderpest and FMD
7
from the lowlands, access to the terminal livestock
market in Nairobi for lowland pastoralists and agro-pastoralists is poor. It is further
limited by weak marketing infrastructure such as fragmented stock routes, unusable
holding grounds and bad roads. Barrett et al. (2002) criticise the Governments animal
disease quarantines as instruments to protect highlands around Nairobi from
competition from pastoral suppliers, thus impeding trade and causing substantial
revenue losses for pastoralists. According to Aklilu et al. (2002) the disease free
zones from which livestock and livestock products were exported are outdated,
quarantine facilities are not fully operational and the rising cross-border livestock
imports are not considered. Exports of livestock and livestock products are, however,
done through established veterinary procedures. There is a growing interest in
promoting livestock marketing both in quality and volume but there is no specific
policy to support and facilitate livestock trade. Kenya has imported twice the volume
of red meat and offal it has exported between 1996 and 2000. The contributions from
cross-border trade with Ethiopia increased, with currently 46% live animal supply
from pastoral areas within Kenya, and 26% supply from cross-border trade.
The southern African countries of the SADC region have joined in a regional
programme to characterise and conserve indigenous breeds, including capacity
building and policy formulation (Khler Rollefson, 2004). Since 1995 all SADC
countries have signed the CBD, however, incorporating the international agreement
into national policies remains deficient. Moyo (2003) stated that all member countries
have zoo-sanitary measures in place (imports, exports, movement), but only few have
animal health acts and regulations with specific provisions for AnGR. However, some
countries implemented animal improvement acts, and biodiversity strategies are in
process. Import and export regulations need to be revised to minimise indiscriminate
imports of exotic breeds and regulate the export of indigenous germplasm. There is
still a lack of animal identification, recording and performance testing systems.
Zimbabwe is in the process of developing a National Livestock Policy. South Africa
has strengthened breeding societies as a tool to highlight the importance of breeds and
to improve capacity building among breeders. The Livestock Improvement Act
(1977) formally recognised breeding societies, with 61 breeding societies in 2001. For
48 further breeds no societies exist, but the breeds are registered in the South African
Stud Book.
Campher (2003), a businessman from South Africa, analysed the constraints in
international trade in animal genetic material. Accordingly, the trade of commercial
animals from other countries into the SADC region as well as within SADC-countries
is common. After lifting the sanctions to South Africa in the early 1990s veterinary
protocols were established for exporting semen, embryos and live animals. In the
absence of further regulations, breeders negotiated on their own with foreign buyers.
The demand for genetic material from South Africa was initially high, but decreased

6
CBPP: Contagious Bovine Pleuro-Pneumonia.
7
FMD: Foot and Mouth Disease.


due to lack of performance control of the exported animals and lack of standardised
protocols in recipient countries. Efforts to form trade organisations, such as the South
Africa Australia Breeders Company (SAABCO) failed due to lack of experience.

WORLDWIDE TRANSFERS OF BORAN AND TULI LIVE CATTLE,
SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
427

4 WORLDWIDE TRANSFERS OF BORAN AND TULI LIVE CATTLE,
SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
The worldwide transfer of Boran and Tuli live cattle, semen and embryos (cf. Table 3)
started in the late 1940s. It was prompted by the research and commercial interests of
European settlers who traded live cattle in different African countries. After
recognising the potential of both breeds for beef production under environmental
constraints in the late 1980s, Boran and Tuli germplasm was exported from Africa,
mainly through the Australian partnership between research and the beef industry.
The transfer was then extended to North and South America. Since the 1990s the two
breeds have been used in research and crossbreeding programmes run by the worlds
major beef producing nations. Tuli cattle have gained appreciation as a promising
breed for quality beef production, and the Boran mainly for improving fertility and
adaptation traits in international beef breeds. Nevertheless their proliferation in the
beef industry seems to be overestimated.
In order to describe the transfers of Boran and Tuli cattle breeding material from their
countries of origin, data were collected from the literature, the internet, and by
contacting research, development and business experts with a stake in cattle breeding
worldwide. Key persons involved in the transfer of Boran and Tuli breeding material
were identified and contacted. The lack of documented data on cattle numbers, prices
and agreements limited the supply of concrete data. The objective was therefore
reformed to appraise rapidly the origin, major transfers and key investors in the Boran
and Tuli cattle genetic material where data were available.
4.1 Transfers within Africa
Kenya has exported Improved Boran live animals to several African countries, and
embryos to South Africa. Data on the transfers could neither be obtained from ILRI,
nor from the Boran Cattle Breeders Society. Further correspondence was with most of
the Boran breed importing countries, but very little data was returned. Only Embryo
Plus, a private company in South Africa, shared their information on embryo transfer.
The sources were therefore mostly scientific literature. No information was obtained
on Boran cattle in Congo.
In 1947 Kenyan ranchers transported live cattle by ship, rail and on the hoof to
northern Zambia. In the following 30 years more best quality Improved Boran were
exported from Kenya to the commercial ranch sector in Zambia, which provided good
management conditions (Frisch, 1989). In 1965 the Zambian Department of
Agriculture started beef cattle research at the Central Research Station, Mazabuka,
testing the Boran as sire and dam breed (Thorpe and Cruickshank, 1980). The aim
was to evaluate the beef potential of major cattle breeds under ranching conditions.
Anticipating a continued development of the beef industry, the research programme
established foundation breeding herds of purebred dams. 13 Boran bulls sired progeny
during the programme. According to Frisch (1989) the breed prospered in Zambia and
the Zambian Boran Breeder Society had the largest number of registered cattle of any
breed in Zambia.

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS

First imports of Boran cattle into Tanzania may have occurred in the late 1940s when
a Boran dairy herd was established by the Government in Tanga and when some
white settlers in the Arusha/Moshi region bought Boran cattle for beef breeding.
During the 1950s and early 1960s parastatal and company ranches were the main
importers of Improved Boran, especially bulls to upgrade small local zebu cattle
(Meyn, 1970).
In Uganda, research on hybrid vigour of Boran cattle was started at Ruhengere Field
Station in the late 1960s, using four Boran bulls for crossbreeding beef cattle. First
results revealed the importance of hybrid vigour for beef cattle, with Boran cows
weaning heavier calves and showing good mothering ability. Larger numbers of
Boran purebreds were produced in 1969 to be used as sire breeds for crisscrossing on
west Uganda ranches (Sacker et al., 1971). Recently, the privately owned Zziwa ranch
- formerly property of the Uganda government ranching scheme - claims to possess
3,000 best quality Boran cattle, and considers these as the best of all local breeds. The
ranch is the leading provider of semen in Uganda and supplies large scale beef
producers. It purchases semen from South Africa and does artificial insemination.
Some of the animals are also bred for beef production, with leading beef dealers as
main customers. It also exports live bulls and beef to Kenya and European countries
(All.Africa.com, 2005). De la Ray (2005, pers. comm.) reported a substantial
movement of about 200 Boran bulls per year from South Africa to Uganda over the
last five years. The imports are driven by the Ugandan government with international
funding.
Improved Boran cattle are reported to be widely distributed in southern Nigeria
(Nwosu et al., 1985). They were imported as heifers from Kenya in 1975. Since then
they were kept as a closed herd at the University of Nigeria Teaching and Research
Farm Nsukka, southern Nigeria, to improve beef production. They proved susceptible
to trypanosomes, but tolerated the disease under regular treatment. The cows had a
high milk output and raised heavy calves under the Nsukka farm conditions. The
average body weights were comparatively heavy for Nigerian cattle (345 kg +10.41),
but were below the Kenyan Improved Boran weights.
In South Africa, Embryo Plus, a private company, was the main importer of Boran
germplasm. They first transferred about 600 Boran embryos from Kenya to
Zimbabwe in 1992. They imported 481 (1994), 365 (2000), 981 (2001), 603 (2002)
and 331 (2004) Boran embryos from Kenya to South Africa. Further, they imported 6
cattle from Zimbabwe in 2003 and 10 cattle from Swaziland in 2004; and they
transferred 120 cattle from Zambia to Swaziland in 2003 (de la Ray, 2005, pers.
comm.). Pretorius (2004) adds that 60 cows, 30 calves and seven bulls were imported
from Zambia in 2004.
After their potential for commercial beef production was recognised in Zimbabwe,
Tuli cattle were transferred to the neighbouring African countries. However, access to
information on Tuli transfers seemed even more difficult than for the Boran, probably
as the Tuli population is comparatively small. No response was obtained from any of
the Tuli Breeders Societies. Contacts to Zimbabwe confirmed the available
information but did not specify the size and payments for Tuli exports. Information

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
429

from Botswana was limited to scientific literature. In South Africa Embryo Plus
provided the only information on Tuli transfers. No information was obtained for
Namibia and Gabon.
The first Tuli cattle were imported to South Africa from Zimbabwe in 1977. Regular
imports of superior cattle from Zimbabwe are reported to have broadened the genetic
base, but numbers were not available. South Africa claims now to have a sufficient
gene pool to meet future breeding requirements (TCBS, 2004). During the 1990s
several auctions were held by the Zimbabwean and South African Breeder Societies
and approximately 200 of the best Zimbabwean Tuli cattle were transferred to South
Africa. 13 of Zimbabwes best Tuli bloodlines are now available in South Africa
(Pretorius, 2004). Live Tuli cattle of the improved type were (re-)exported to
Botswana in the past, but the date and investigators could not be specified. According
to Mpofu (2002), the Botswana Government owned a Tuli herd of 57 cows in 2000
and used them for breed evaluation studies.
4.2 Import into Australia and America
In the 1980s and early 1990s, both Australian and USA beef industries developed
rapidly, receiving a particular push from research and technology development in
breeding, feeding and marketing. Their beef sectors opened to the world market and
hence underwent increasing pressure to import and exploit new breeds, in order to
match cattle traits with market and consumer requirements, and to improve beef
quality. As there were not yet any local breeds other than the Brahman
8
that were
adapted to environmental stress with good productive traits, the Boran and Tuli were
hailed by some as new options to increase the productivity of composite crossbred
populations due to their additive contributions and heterosis effects (Vercoe, 1989;
Burrow et al., 2001; Lunstra and Cundiff, 2003).
4.2.1 Australia
Documentation of the transfer of Boran and Tuli genetic material to Australia and of
their dispersal in the Australian beef industry is scarce. Vercoe (2004, pers. comm.),
who was involved in the initial transfer of Boran and Tuli embryos, kindly provided
information on the volume and the mode of transfer. The Commonwealth Scientific
and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) archive statistics could not be
accessed. Individual beef producers kindly provided case-to-case information, but
could not provide aggregated data on the volume of transfers. No reply was received
from the Australian Boran and Tuli cattle breeders associations. A descriptive account
of the Boran and Tuli transfers from Africa to Australia was obtained only from a
CSIRO perspective, but not from African counterparts.
The first scientific interest in Australia in crossbreeding with zebu cattle at the end of
the 19
th
century was opposed by the Industrial United Graziers Association, due to

8
The Brahman is a Bos indicus breed developed in the USA from Indian breeds. It is popular for its
good adaptation to tropical and subtropical conditions, desirable maternal traits, calving ease, and
high levels of heterosis in crosses with Bos taurus breeds (Ralph, 1992).

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS

their prejudice against non-British cattle. However, in 1933 the CSIRO forerunner,
the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, co-operated with a group of
Queensland graziers to import the first Brahman cattle from the USA. These were,
however, not sold or distributed for breeding until 1942. In 1953, initiated by the
United Graziers Association, the Australian Meat Company Board purchased two
properties for research in Queensland. CSIRO operated research at the National Cattle
Breeding Station, Belmont, and their results supported the observation of the beef
industry, that Brahman bulls used on British cows resulted in superior crossbreds.
However, after an additional import of Brahman in 1958 a complete ban was issued
on live cattle imports to protect the cattle industry from accidental diseases. In 1986
CSIRO, with support from the Australian Centre for International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR), had reviewed African cattle breeds, and the Tuli and Boran
breeds appeared most promising. In consequence, Boran and Tuli embryos were
imported into Australia, initially for research only (Ralph, 1992).
The arrangements for the import of deep frozen Boran and Tuli cattle embryos from
Africa into Australia were made in 1987. According to Vercoe (1992) the Australian
Quarantine and Inspection Service developed protocols and the Australian policy
bodies provided endorsement. Frisch (1989) stated further, that the initial negotiations
were made by CSIRO representatives with the Boran Cattle Breeders Society in
Kenya, the Tuli Cattle Breeders Society in Zimbabwe, and later also the Boran Cattle
Breeders Society Zambia. While the breed societies were very enthusiastic to enter
into a co-operation, the Kenyan and Zambian authorities were hesitant. After 12
months of negotiation the Kenyan and Zambian authorities agreed to the transfer.
Thereafter, CSIROs approach to the Tuli Cattle Breeder Society in Zimbabwe was
also successful. However, the contents of the negotiations between CSIRO and the
African governments, their scepticism and motivation to agree, were not specified.
Finally, CSIRO decided to collect Boran embryos from Zambia, and not from Kenya
due to political reasons. Tuli embryos were collected from Zimbabwe.
The implementation of the embryo transfer programme started in 1988. Frisch (1989)
reported that the potential Boran and Tuli donor cows were selected by the Boran and
Tuli Cattle Breeding Societies in Zambia and Zimbabwe. After passing foot and
mouth disease tests, about 20 bulls and 80 cows of each breed entered the final
quarantine phase after three months at stations in both countries. The Zambian
Department of Veterinary Services and Tse-tse Fly Control made their quarantine
station available, which was close to the capital Lusaka. The station required
considerable upgrading to meet Australian quarantine requirements. After successful
embryo collection in Zambia, the CSIRO team departed for Zimbabwe to collect Tuli
embryos. In Zimbabwe a private company had constructed quarantine facilities, and
had already collected sufficient Tuli semen and placed the Tuli cows in quarantine
before the CSIRO team arrived. According to Vercoe (2005, pers. comm.) the
Australians were better served in Zimbabwe due to the presence of an independent
veterinarian who collaborated with the Zimbabwean government.
In 1988, CSIRO in collaboration with the Boran and Tuli Producer Consortium
imported the first deep frozen Boran (264) and Tuli (269) embryos to Australia. This

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
431

was the start of a large scale practical test of embryo transfer for cattle breeding. The
embryos were transported via air to the Australian off-shore Quarantine Station on
Cocos Island, where they were transferred into Australian recipient cows. Several
hundred Friesian heifers had been tested on-farm for diseases and 112 were
considered suitable to act as surrogate mothers. They were flown there specifically for
this purpose and 93 cows were registered pregnant from 12 sire lines (Frisch, 1989).
In 1990, 73 Boran and Tuli calves of similar size were transferred by air from Cocos
Island and 71 arrived safely in Australia after six months of extensive tests for
diseases. Some were kept as bulls in a tick and blue-tongue free quarantine in
southern Australia for future artificial insemination. The others were shipped to
Belmont in Northern Australia, the CSIRO National Cattle Breeding Station near
Rockhampton, Queensland (Vercoe, 2004, pers. comm.). Taylor (1994) reported that
in Belmont extensive crossbreeding programmes were launched with about 500 cows.
Several thousand cows were involved in crossbreeding programmes of the Boran and
Tuli Producer Consortium members. Young cattle were grown out on Belmont or
nearby properties and the heifers were subjected to embryo transfer procedures in an
effort to multiply the number quickly and to get them out to the industry via the
consortium. VAB Genetics designed artificial insemination techniques to assist the
rapid build-up of pure and crossbred herds with Boran and Tuli semen.
The crossbreeding programmes served to evaluate the Boran and Tuli breeds for
various production, reproduction and health traits on pasture. Results of crossing
Adaptaur and Belmont Red cows with Boran, Tuli and Brahman sires showed that
crossbred cows were more productive than purebreds. The F1 crosses with Boran and
Tuli had higher calving rates than the purebreds and F1 crosses with Brahman.
Survival of Boran and Tuli crossbreds to the age of 18 months was higher than for the
purebreds. Boran and Tuli sired cows were constantly more productive than the larger
Brahman crosses, although they had progeny with lower mature live weights than
Brahman sired cows (Gazzola et al., 1998). Frisch and ONeill (1998) found no
difference in tick resistance between different breeds and crosses. Boran cattle were
slightly more resistant to ticks than Tuli, but could not equal the Brahman for
resistance to both ticks and worms. Boran sired progeny as well as Brahman sired
progeny had higher live-weight gains than purebreds irrespective of parasite
challenge. Tuli sired progeny exceeded the purebreds only at lower parasite level.
Burrow et al. (2001) concluded that as the environmental conditions became harsher,
better adapted breeds produce relatively better quality meat than less well adapted
breeds.
In 1993, CSIRO and the consortium held the first auction for 40 purebred Boran and
Tuli embryos, the progeny of the original import in 1990. The auction attracted
interest from areas as diverse as Western Australia, Victoria and Tasmania (Taylor,
1994). The second Boran and Tuli purebred embryo sale was held in 1994. The Tuli
embryos were in demand and fetched a new world record price of US$ 9,500. The top
price paid for the Boran embryos was US$ 5,000. In 1995 the original purebred herd
of imported Boran and Tuli cattle and their progeny were further dispersed to the
industry, and all progeny of the original 1990 CSIRO import were put on the market

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS

(Temere Pastoral, 2005). The CSIRO corporate press release 95/32 quotes Vercoe
saying that marketing embryos through auctions speeds up the development of the
breeds considerably, as the producers are more competitive and effective in tuning the
breeds to suit industry needs. The whole import programme of Boran and Tuli
embryos was described as a very successful venture between scientists and the
Australian beef industry. However, despite the promising research results and the
enthusiasm of the consortium, both breeds have not been largely accepted by the
Australian beef industry. According to a later statement by Vercoe (2004, pers.
comm.), Tuli were incorporated mainly into a few composite herds and were blended
with the Belmont Red, Bonsmara and Senepol. Several purebred breeders provided
the gene pool and only one of the large cattle companies made extensive use of the
Tuli after the results of privately imported Tuli cattle became visible. The Boran in
the end did not compete favourably with the Brahman and only a few breeders
incorporated it into composites. It seemed that the comparatively lower body weight
was the most striking argument against preferring Boran and Tuli over Brahman.
The Australian Tuli Association was founded in 1990 and has currently 28 members
(Agfact, 2004). The Association has set up a Tuli Group BREEDPLAN marketed by
the Australian Business Research Institute (ABRI) with an integrated performance
and pedigree recording (Temere Pastoral, 2005). About twenty breed societies have
genetic evaluations on their databases. The Boran Association was founded in 1992,
but information about their current operation could not be found. Recently the
Woorabinda Pastoral Company was founded as a pilot project under a draft strategy to
evaluate the Boran and Tuli breeds for fast growing grass-fed cattle suitable to meet
the demands of the Asian market. This project was managed with CSIRO and is the
first independent large scale commercial evaluation of Boran and Tuli cattle in
Australia. It is designed to provide breeding information to other pastoralists,
particularly Aboriginal enterprises, and to supply bulls commercially (ATSIC, 2004).
However, according to Allen (2001, compiled by the Australian Registered Cattle
Breeders Association Inc.), Australia had 60 registered Tuli cattle in 1995 and 161 in
2000. The registered Boran cattle were 41 in 1995 but only 26 in 2000. Given the size
of the overall beef industry with 26.4 million head of beef cattle in Australia in 2004
(FAO STAT, 2005), the population of both breeds appears comparatively
insignificant.
4.2.2 America
Boran and Tuli breeding material has entered North, Central and South America since
1991. Sources of information in America were difficult to access. Therefore key
persons in Australia and South Africa, as well as the available scientific literature and
media releases were drawn upon.
The USA launched the largest body of research on the Boran and Tuli breeds so far in
1991. Due to health restrictions, they did not import genetic material directly from
Africa, but started by importing semen from Australia. The joint venture of CSIRO
and the Boran and Tuli producer consortium sold approximately 250 doses of semen
from eight Boran and nine Tuli bulls to the US Meat Animal Research Centre
(MARC) in Nebraska, for testing in the germplasm evaluation programme (Cundiff et

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
433

al., 2000). MARC cooperated with the Texas A&M University Research Centre at
their subtropical research stations in Texas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and
Oklahoma (Hill, 1993; Herring et al., 1996; Cundiff et al., 2000). At the Nebraska
site, the germplasm evaluation programme primarily studied carcass characteristics
and growth of Boran and Tuli compared to other breeds. Early results showed that
Tuli produced crossbred progeny with both carcass and meat quality similar to
Charolais, Hereford and Angus and better than Bos indicus breeds. Boran beef
showed more variation but was more tender than beef from Brahman. Herring et al.
(1996) showed that Tuli sired carcasses had advantages in value based marketing
systems, and that the smaller body size of Tuli and Boran sired females bore lower
maintenance costs. Boran and Tuli crosses had relatively low average daily gains but
were younger at puberty than Brahman sired crosses. Brahman sired crosses had
higher maternal weights than Boran, and Boran had higher weights than Tuli (Cundiff
et al., 1996). Lunstra and Cundiff (2003) found that bulls sired by European breeds
grew more rapidly than bulls sired by Boran and Tuli breeds. In the light of the high
conception rates and the high birth and weaning percentages of the Tuli crosses,
Warrington et al. (2004) concluded that Tuli crosses would have the greatest overall
reproductive efficiency under the semi-arid conditions of south Texas. Cundiff et al.
(2000) suggested that Tuli might replace Bos indicus breeding and maintain
adaptation traits without reducing meat tenderness. The Tuli Association captured
these results to praise the tenderness of Tuli beef as its highest inheritable trait,
arguing that the industry needs to move towards a moderately sized animal to raise
beef quality (Briggs, 2002).
Since then various industrialists have imported Tuli cattle into the USA from
Australia and Zimbabwe via Canada. Maynard (2005, pers. comm.) mentioned several
players in Australia who exported Boran and Tuli genetic material to America.
Leachman Cattle Co., USA, bought Tuli semen from Australia and sent some further
on to South America. RAB-Australia (a privately owned artificial breeding
organisation) used to send Tuli semen to their counterpart RAB-Mexico. Teeraweena
Boran and Tuli was very active in exporting genetic material to south America.
Unfortunately none of the companies provided further information.
According to a Dallas Business J ournal media release in 2004, the industrial
germplasm producer Carrol Shelby formed a syndicate to transfer Tuli embryos. He
purchased the first Tuli from his partner Scott McKay, Calberta Farms and Northern
Vision Co., Canada. McKay had travelled to Zimbabwe to select high quality Tuli
cattle and shipped embryos to Canada, where they were placed in recipient cows. Out
of these, Shelby purchased the top five purebred Tuli yearling heifers and one
purebred Tuli bull and took them to Texas. Today, Shelby keeps about 700 Tuli cattle
and sells Tuli semen to several cattle raisers in Mexico and South America. Shelbys
partner Ken Briggs had started the first Tuli herd in the USA in 1996. Briggs
specialises in top grade beef. He has about 275 head of Tuli cattle, which he
crossbreeds with J apanese Wagyu cattle to develop a composite breed under the
trademark Waguli. A Country World (2005) media release features Bill Bucek,
another partner of Shelby, who introduced the first live Tuli bull from Australia into
the United States in 1995. Convinced by a business associate in Australia, he brought

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS

the bull in after a two-year quarantine period. Bucek breeds for meat quality. He also
developed a composite breed named Tulangus by crossing 40 registered Red Angus
cows with Tuli bulls.
The Texas A&M research stations in Texas also collaborated with the Mexican
National Institute for Agricultural Research (INIFAP) and the Foundation for
Livestock Research in the State of Sonora (PATROCIPES). They pursued research in
four Mexican states since the late 1990s, focussing on crossbreeding schemes with
artificial insemination using Tuli semen on local cows. Reproductive performance,
adaptability, and carcass characteristics were evaluated with a view to producing
desirable characteristics for re-export to the USA (Fajerson, et al., 1996).
The North American Tuli Association (NATA) was formed in 1998 with a board of
directors from the USA, Canada and Mexico. Currently there are about 26 breeders
associated with NATA. In 2002 NATA sponsored a Tuli field day at a private ranch
in Texas (Briskin, 2002). The Texas Department of Agriculture granted the North
American Tuli Association US$ 20,000 for promoting Tuli cattle among breeders
throughout the USA and Mexico (TDA, 2004). According to TDA (2004), 90% of the
purebred Tuli cattle in the USA were reported in Texas, with about 500 registered
cows (Briskin, 2002), and about half of these kept by Shelby (cf. above). For the
Boran population no figures were found. Hammack (2003) classified the Tuli
population as less significant in the Texas region and did not mention the Boran at all.
Again, given the size of the overall beef industry with 94.9 million head of beef cattle
in the USA (FAO STAT, 2005), the population of both breeds appears insignificant.
Apart from the USA, Tuli embryos were imported from South Africa to Canada and
Latin America. Embryo Plus exported 450 embryos to Canada in 1995 and 189
embryos to Argentina in 1996, but no legal exports of live cattle or semen were
recorded (de la Ray, 2005, pers. comm.).

SEMEN AND EMBRYOS
435

4.3 Diagrammes of Boran and Tuli transfers
Ethiopia
Kenya Uganda
Congo
Zambia
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Australia
USA
Mexico
Brazil
Somalia
Nigeria
Unimproved Boran
Improved Boran
North- and
South America
Eastern Africa
Southern Africa
Australia
Ethiopia
Kenya Uganda
Congo
Zambia
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Australia
USA
Mexico
Brazil
Somalia
Nigeria
Unimproved Boran Unimproved Boran
Improved Boran Improved Boran
North- and
South America
Eastern Africa
Southern Africa
Australia

material from Eastern and Southern Africa
South Africa
Australia
USA
Canada
Mexico
Argentina
Gabon
North- and South
America
Southern
Africa
Australia
Tuli
South Africa
Australia
USA
Canada
Mexico
Argentina
Gabon
North- and South
America
Southern
Africa
Australia
Tuli Tuli

Figure 3: Worldwide transfers of Tuli cattle breeding material from Southern Africa

Table 3: Transfers of Improved Boran and Tuli cattle breeding material from eastern and southern Africa
Country Date of
import
Breeding material Purpose Type of
transfer
Way of
transfer
Importer Exporter Cryo-
conser-
vation
Actual
stock
numbers
Further
distribution
Improved Boran in the African region
Zambia 1947
30 years
ongoing
Live animals,
number unknown
Improved
beef
production
Commercial Ship, rail, on
the hoof
Commercial
ranch
Commercial
ranch in Kenya
Yes <10,000

Tanzania Late
1940s

1950/
early
1960s

Live animals,
number unknown

Live animals,
mainly bulls
Dairy
production
Improved
beef
production

Upgrading
of small
zebu cattle
Not known Not known Government

Commercial
ranches

Parastatal and
commercial
ranches
Not known

Not known

Not known
<5,000
Uganda 1960s

1969

Since
1999
Live animals,
number unknown

Semen,
amount unknown
+200 bulls year-1
Improved
beef and
germplasm
production

Research and
commercial
Not known State research
station

Commercial
ranch
Government
with int.
funding
Not known

South Africa

South Africa

Not known Beef and live
bull exports to
Kenya and
Europe
Congo Not
known
Not known
Nigeria 1975 Live animals,
number unknown
Improved
beef
production
Research Not known State research
station
Not known Not known

Table 3 (continued)
Country Date of
import
transfer
Way of
transfer
conser-
vation
Actual
stock
numbers
Further
distribution
South
Africa
1994
(1995)
2000
2002
2003

2004
481 embryos
not known
365 embryos
981 embryos
603 embryos
6 cattle
331 embryos
10 cattle
60 cows
30 calves
7 bulls
Improved
beef and
germplasm
production

Commercial Not known Embryo Plus,
South Africa
Kenya

Not known
Zambia
Kenya
Kenya
Kenya
Zimbabwe
Kenya
Swasiland
Zambia
61
registered
(1998)

USA, Canada,
Argentinia
Zimbabwe 1992 +600 embryos Improved
beef
production
Not known Not known Embryo Plus,
South Africa
Kenya Not known
Swasiland 2003 120 cattle Improved
beef
production
Not known Not known Embryo Plus,
South Africa
Zambia Not known
Tuli in the African region
Botswana Not
known
Living animals,
number unknown
Improved
beef
production

Research and
commercial
Land State research
station
Yes 57cows at
study
(2000),
(1990)
population
data not
available

Gabon Not
known
Not known
Namibia Not
known
Not known

Table 3 (continued)
Country Date of
import
transfer
Way of
transfer
conser-
vation
Actual
stock
numbers
Further
distribution
South
Africa
1977
ongoing
1999
Many cattle

200 living animals
Improved
beef
production
Research and
commercial
Auctions,
land
SA Breeder
Societies
Zimbabwe
Breeder Societies
Yes 4,000
registered
(2004)
????
Boran and Tuli in Australia and Northern and Southern America
Australia 1988

1991
20 bulls and 80
cows of Boran and
Tuli each
264 Boran embryos
269 Tuli embryos

Improved
beef and
germplasm
production

Research and
commercial
Plane CSIRO and a
producer
consortium
Zambia and
Zimbabwe
26
registered
Boran
(2000),
161
registered
Tuli
(2000)
Canada, USA,
South Africa
1991 250 doses semen
from 8 Boran and 9
Tuli bulls
Improved
beef and
germplasm
production
Plane S MARC CSIRO and a
producer
consortium,
Australia
Mexicoand
South America
Not
known
5 Tuli heiffers,
1 Tuli bull
Germplasm
and
improved
beef
production
Not known Carrol Shelby

Scott McKay,
Calberta Farms
and Northern
Vision Co.,
Canada

1995 1 Tuli bull Improved
beef
production
Not known Bill Buceck Australian partner
1996 Not known Improved
beef
production
Not known Ken Briggs Not known
USA
Not
known
Tuli semen Not known
Research and
commercial

Not known Leachmann
Cattle Co.
Australia
1,500
registered
Tuli (2004)

Table 3 (continued)
Country Date of
import
transfer
Way of
transfer
conser-
vation
Actual
stock
numbers
Further
distribution
Canada Not
known

1995
Not known

450 Tuli embryos

Improved
beef
production
Commercial Ship

Not known
Scott McKay,
Calberta
Farms and
Northern
Vision Co.

Zimbabwe

Embryo Plus,
South Africa
Not known USA
Argentina 1996 189 embryos Not known Commercial Not known Not known Embryo Plus,
South Africa
Not known
Mexico Not
known
Tuli semen Not known Commercial Not known RAB Mexico RAB Australia Not known

440 MODE OF TRANSFER

5 MODE OF TRANSFER
Mode of transferring genetic material in subsistence systems traditionally refers to herd
migrations, exchange mechanisms within and between livestock keeper communities, and
local trade with live animals. In commercial systems it traditionally refers to transporting live
animals. New transfer mechanisms include advanced breeding organisations and breeding
strategies, embryo transfer and artificial insemination, vertical integration of cattle breeders
with livestock research and the beef industry, and horizontal integration of peer groups.
Progress in breeding and transfer technology has widened possible genetic transfers and sped
dispersion. With regard to Boran and Tuli genetic transfers, NGOs have staged a debate on
access and benefit sharing and advocate agreements to be implemented. The following
section attempts to review the different mechanisms behind the worldwide transfer of Boran
and Tuli cattle genetic material.
The initial joint venture of CSIRO and the Australian beef producers to import Boran and
Tuli embryos from Zimbabwe and Zambia became a prominent issue in the public debate
and information was available from several sources. However, detailed information is scarce
on other transfers to industrial beef producers and possibly other research institutions in
Australia, North and Latin America, and on the later expansion of trade within Africa and
worldwide. Data on the volume of transfers were usually unavailable and no references were
found to payments, be it for lack of access to the appropriate sources, or for lack of
documentation. The section is therefore limited to deriving preliminary assertions.
5.1 Traditional and modern transfer mechanisms
Since historical times the distribution of cattle genetic diversity in sub-Saharan Africa has
been largely through human migration and was influenced by adaptation to specific habitats
and diseases (Hanotte et al., 2000). Breeders selection among the small shorthorned zebu
cattle introduced via Saudi Arabia was predominantly for adaptive traits and this permitted
their long migrations from East Africa to southern Africa and their fast adaptation to new
environments. Traditional exchange mechanisms, local trade among and between different
ethnic groups, raiding and warfare further dispersed the genetic material at a relatively low
speed.
The systematic improvement of the Boran and Tuli genetic material - including its transfer -
and the formation of breed organisations was stimulated differently for the two breeds. For
the Boran, it was triggered by commercial interests of European settlers in Kenya and by an
increasing demand for beef and dairy cattle. Since the 1920s, settlers in Kenya purchased
Boran cattle originating in southern Ethiopia / northern Kenya mainly from Somali traders
but probably also from local pastoralists. Within breed selection under improved
management and in prime grazing areas in Kenya rapidly developed the Improved Boran as
an excellent beef breed. The foundation of the BCBS in 1951 has advanced professional
testing and evaluation of the breed and was the starting point for establishing a national beef
cattle breeding scheme. Although accompanied by extensive research programmes launched
by KARI, this scheme was mainly borne by the commercial interest of private ranches and
led to the Improved Boran. Buyers of the animals were Kenyan government agencies co-
operating with research and breeding institutions. Sellers were the commercial ranchers
and/or pastoralists. The commercial breeders investment has contributed to maintain and to
propagate the Improved Boran (Mason and Maule, 1960; Hetzel, 1988; Felius, 1995).

MODE OF TRANSFER 441

The development of the Tuli breed in Zimbabwe is founded on a government intervention in
the early 1940s, when it established the Tuli Breeding Station. The Tuli Cattle Breeder
Society was founded in 1961 and the use of Tuli cattle increased over years both in the
commercial and the smallholder sector. According to Moyo (2005, pers. comm.), the
continued demand for Tuli genetic material from inside and outside Zimbabwe kept the
breeders in Zimbabwe busy and keen to expand their herds, knowing that there is a ready
domestic and international market.
With the Boran and Tuli embryo exports to Australia, the dispersal of the breeds gained a
new momentum. Australia had the necessary industry, infrastructure and scientific resources
to undertake this endeavour, thus creating an efficient and relatively low cost transfer mode,
replacing live animal transfers and interrupting disease-transmission cycles. This was the
beginning of the breeds dispersal to Australia and the Americas. According to Vercoe
(1992) the undertaking was a practical approach to genetic improvement in harsh
environments, and an opener for a promising new area of molecular genetics, identifying
useful genes and combinations to improve production potential and resistance to stress.
Embryo transfer and artificial insemination technologies require sophisticated husbandry
management, high nutritional standards, disease control and infrastructure, and are thus
limited to high input cattle systems. The technology rapidly became a tool for business
transactions of Boran and Tuli genetic material between individuals, institutions and
companies in Australia, the Americas and South Africa. It thus permitted the beef industry to
supply the world market with new cattle genetic material. In Africa, countries like Zambia,
Botswana and South Africa made use of cryo-conservation of Boran and Tuli semen.
On one hand, these technologies can overcome health constraints and sanitary barriers and
reduce the costs otherwise associated with live animal exports. On the other hand, they may
also lead to erosion of genetic diversity because genetically similar material from locations
where the technology is available is propagated. These technologies may thus contribute to
exclude poor livestock keepers from the market, because they do not usually have access to
the technologies and are unable to compete (Khler-Rollefson (2000).
The collaborative project between CSIRO, the Boran and Tuli Producer Consortium and
cattle breeders is an example for the vertical integration of livestock research, beef industry
and breeders in a joint venture. The CSIRO National Cattle Breeding station in Belmont was
owned and funded by the Meat Research Corporation. Similar cooperations were found
between the Texas University and individual cattle businessmen in the USA. This vertical
integration was part of the initial success of the venture. Horizontal integration between
breeders societies and beef producers across countries is another element to foster joint
breed improvement, genetic progress evaluation, and marketing and promotion programmes.
In Australia, the Boran and Tuli breeder societies merged their genetic evaluation database
into BREEDPLAN, which is marketed by the Agricultural Business Research Institute. The
North America Tuli Breed Society has amalgamated the USA, Canada and Mexico for joint
breed improvement and promotion programmes. The South African Tuli Breeders
Association, including Namibia, has a joint breed evaluation programme with the Tuli
Breeders Association in Zimbabwe (BLUP). In eastern Africa similar joint programmes do
not seem to be established yet. A further example of joint interest groups are the USA Shelby
producer syndicate.

442 MODE OF TRANSFER

5.2 Issue of access and benefit sharing agreements
Access and benefit sharing agreements arose as a critical issue to conserve farm animal
diversity. Industrial companies along with major governmental and academic research
institutions are accused of exploiting the Boran and Tuli cattle breeds - sovereign assets of
African countries - and thereby commercially exploiting local breeders indigenous
knowledge and the genetic resources they developed. It is further argued that the two breeds
have added to the worlds beef market and to the creation of valuable new cattle breeds
without any benefit being returned to the countries of origin. The issue that the Boran and
Tuli genetic material was accessed without an appropriate framework for fair and equitable
access and benefit sharing has been raised by NGOs, namely the Canadian ETC group
(formerly Rafi) (RAFI, 2000), the Germany based League for Pastoral Peoples (LPP, 2002;
Gura, 2003), the Scandinavian based AfriDAD (Zulu, 2003) and New African (Commey,
2003).
The discussion staged on access and benefit sharing to date exclusively concentrates on the
exports of Boran and Tuli genetic material to countries outside Africa, and still avoids a more
differentiated view on the inner-african transfers - form the area of origin to other African
regions. Boran cattle were transferred from Ethiopia via Somalia and Kenya to Zambia,
Tanzania, Uganda, Congo, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and South Africa (cf. Figure 2),
where they were used by different stakeholders for commercial purposes. Here again, the
benefits accrued from such transfers can hardly be even roughly estimated. Nevertheless,
if a balanced discussion on access and benefit sharing is to be achieved, transfers of this
nature must as well be taken into account.
The CBD (1992), which was concluded four years after the start of trading in Boran and Tuli
embryos to industrialised countries, is the major legally binding instrument for the trade in
genetic resources. It sets out the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from using
genetic resources as prime objective (CBD Article 1). With regard to access to genetic
resources, Article 15 recognises the sovereign rights of every state and subject of national
legislation. Access is to be based on Prior Informed Consent (PIC) and mutually agreed
terms (MAT) about the objectives and about economic and environmental implications of
such access, granted through bilateral agreements. The FAO Global Strategy for the
Management of Farm Animal Resources (1999) further acknowledges that the most rational
and sustainable way to conserve animal genetic resources is to ensure that locally adapted
breeds remain a functional part of their production system. Therefore the full value of local
breeds must be taken into account and the rights of livestock breeders to multiply, exchange
and develop breeds must be protected.
The apparent lack of prior informed consent is one of the major points of discussion, and the
sovereignty and fair trade in Boran and Tuli genetic resources is often questioned by those
criticising the venture. Some sources maintain that the initial embryo transfer from
Zimbabwe and Zambia to Australia was agreed for scientific purpose in crossbreeding at
CSIRO only. However, a second transfer one year after the arrival of the first progeny in
Australia was sold by the CSIRO joint venture to the US MARC, and the dispersal of Boran
and Tuli cattle to the Australian beef industry started immediately after their arrival in
Australia. Individual and company business relations attempted to push the commercial use
within Australia and towards Northern and Southern America.

MODE OF TRANSFER 443

RAFI (2000) commented that those involved in the transfer of Tuli cattle concede that the
removal was undertaken with as low a profile as possible, and that Zimbabwe officials would
have opposed the transfer, had they been aware of the full endeavour. Other sources go as far
as accusing the Australians to have stolen the embryos from Zambia and Zimbabwe (Zulu,
2003) and argue that the benefit to the African countries is nil (Commey, 2003). According
to Mushita (2005, pers. comm.) there was insufficient transparency about the full commercial
use of the genetic material. However, although no formal contract between CSIRO and the
Zimbabwe government was made, a certificate was granted to export the embryos from
Iridor Farm in Zimbabwe.
According to Vercoe (2004, pers. comm.), agreements with the authorities in Zambia and
Zimbabwe were in place. The Australia Quarantine Inspection Service was involved in the
negotiations and in the development of protocols. Part of the agreements was to upgrade the
local quarantine stations and to provide infrastructure, equipment and training, which would
enable the local authorities and institutions to pursue their own programme to export cattle
embryos. CSIRO established quarantine stations and veterinary facilities in both countries
and two qualified veterinarians from each country received a 2 months training programme
in embryo collection, evaluation and transfer at Rockhampton, Australia. The facilities were
intended to be used after the departure of the Australians. While embryo transfer has since
continued at the Zimbabwe station, the infrastructure built in Zambia had gone a year later.
The payment of appropriate benefits from the commercial exploitation of Boran and Tuli
cattle to their original breeders has become a prominent issue in the debate. However, as the
Boran and Tuli were intended and have been used by the consortium mainly for
crossbreeding and to form composite breeds, it is difficult to estimate their current value.
RAFI (2000), one of the main advocates of such payments to be implemented, have based
their calculations on early Australian media releases and suggest a minimum of 5% of the
value added by Boran and Tuli genetics to the Australian beef sector to be paid as
remuneration to the original breeders. CSIRO, in a 1993 media release speculated that
introducing Boran and Tuli breeds could lift the production of the Australian herds by up to
30%. However, this was an ex-ante statement reflecting rather high-flying expectations,
while reliable ex-post assessments of the eventual value added are not available.
Another point of discussion is that the embryo and semen transfer technology has created
both new advantages and disadvantages for the various stakeholders. Mpofu (2002) argued
that the importing nations collect and process information concerning the African breeds and
reinvest in their genetic improvement. They thus have a comparative advantage over the
original breeders. Mushita (2005, pers. comm.) is concerned that useful genes of the Tuli
might become patented without involving the local communities who developed the breed.
He regards research on the Tuli by the private sector as a tool to gain monopolistic control
over the breed. Moyo (2005, pers. comm.) seconds this by stating that Zimbabwe Tuli
breeders had exciting years during the 1990s, selling their Tuli genetics onto the world
market and that the interest was so great that Zimbabwe alone was not able to meet the
demand. Farmers in Zimbabwe would believe that Australia who joined the race to export
Tuli to America had an advantage in the negotiations because of their disease control
situation and advances in technology.

444 CONCLUSIONS

6 CONCLUSIONS
The lessons learned from the history and development of the Boran and Tuli cattle breeds,
permit the following conclusions to be drawn:
i. Improving the Boran and Tuli cattle breeds in their African environment is an example
of successful within-breed selection and dissemination, maintaining a strong resistance
to environmental stress. It is also an example for the comparative advantage of locally
adapted breeds over imported exotic breeds.
ii. The genetic material from the Boran and Tuli breeds despite high expectations - does
not seem to have significantly contributed to upgrading the international beef industry,
although the actual impact cannot be quantified with the available data. However, the
use of these breeds is an example for international gene transfers and the existing
demand of industrial beef producers for new genetic material, which has particular beef
quality traits and traits of adaptation to harsh environmental conditions.
iii. The trade in Boran and Tuli genetic material has raised awareness of the potential of
germplasm from developing countries also for livestock industry sectors in developed
countries, and underlines the advantage of conserving livestock biodiversity for the
future. The example has drawn public attention back to the value of Boran and Tuli
purebreds in Africa. It has also contributed to raise awareness for adaptive traits and for
beef quality traits in cattle breeding.
iv. Embryo transfer and artificial insemination were the prerequisite for international trade
of Boran and Tuli genetic material in that these techniques have permitted to overcome
the sanitary barriers between the African countries and Australia. They have also
reduced the costs and burden of live animal exports. This was crucial for the initial
dispersion of Boran and Tuli germplasm to the world market.
v. Vertical integration of multiple stakeholders - research institutions, government
agencies, beef industry and individual business people - has essentially contributed to
the initial transfer of Boran and Tuli genetic material to industrial countries as well as to
their further marketing, lobbying and evaluation. Vertical integration could likewise be
applied to breed conservation initiatives, involving local livestock keepers, breeders
societies, universities, governments and development agencies.
vi. The transfers of Boran and Tuli genetic material are characterised by free movements
with governmental impact limited to livestock sanitary / veterinary regulations. Most
transfers are between commercial stakeholders, and freely agreed benefit sharing can be
assumed. Geographically the main streams were between Australia and America, and
South Africa as well as within Africa. The countries of origin of the Boran and Tuli
breeds are not the major players in this, however limited, business.

CONCLUSIONS 445

vii. The issues on whether or not a prior informed consent existed before the initial transfers
of Boran and Tuli genetic material from Africa into Australia, and whether or not the
call for additional compensatory payments to the original breeders is justified are
controversial discussions. The main positions raised in the debate over the Boran and
Tuli case are speculative and not based on sound scientific investigations. These issues
are of an ethical nature, and have to be resolved politically.
viii. The actual contribution of the Boran and Tuli to upgrading the Australian and American
triggered the operation and the actual use of Boran and Tuli cattle in the Australian and
American beef sectors is limited to singular cases. Prior informed consent should be
more carefully looked for in future transactions to avoid a posteriori claims.

446 REFERENCES

7 REFERENCES
7.1 Personal communications
de la Ray, M. 2005 : Personal communication.
Getahun, T. and Ahmed, A. 2005: Personal communication.
Gibson, J . 2005: Personal communication.
Maynard, G. 2005 : Personal communication.
Mesfin, T. 2004: Personal communication.
Moyo, S. 2005 : Personal communication.
Mushita, A. 2005 : Personal communication.
Vercoe, J . 2004 : Personal communication.
Zander, K. 2005 : Personal communication.
7.2 Internet
Agfact, 2004: http://www.agric.nsw.gov.au/reader/beef-breeds/a2339.htm, visited
30.11.2004.
All.Africa.com 2005: News item at All Africa com. http://allafrica.com, visited 05.01.2005.
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8 CONTACT ADDRESSES
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458




ANNEX 9.9


Impact of the use of exotic
compared to local pig breeds on
socio-economic development and
biodiversity in Vietnam
Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Regina Roessler, Ute Lemke,
Anne Valle Zrate


Le Thi Thanh Huyen, Regina Roessler, Ute Lemke, Anne Valle Zrate:
Impact of the use of exotic compared to local pig breeds on socio-economic development and
biodiversity in Vietnam

ISBN 3-86186-496-7



Printed in Germany.

Tel. +49 (0)7025 842140, Fax +49 (0)7025 842499

Animal Production in the Tropics and Subtropics of the University of Hohenheim. The Fed-
eral Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and the German Technical
Cooperation (GTZ) acted as commissioner and project executing agency.
The co-funding by the Sonderforschungsbereich 564 (SFB 564) promoted by the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), is gratefully acknowledged, as is the support of all spon-
sors.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In Vietnam, we wish to thank Dr. Le Thi Thuy and Dr. Nguyen Van Dong of the National
Institute of Animal Husbandry (NIAH) in Hanoi and the Department of Agriculture and Ru-
ral Development in Son La for supporting the successful completion of the case study by
providing valuable inputs.
We gratefully acknowledge contributions from all before mentioned institutions and persons to this
study.


TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of tables 467
List of figures 467
Abbreviations 467
1 Introduction 471
2 Formation and distribution of local breeds 472
2.1 Delta areas, northern Vietnam 473
2.1.1 I pig 473
2.1.2 Mong Cai 474
2.1.3 Lang Hong 475
2.1.4 Thai Binh 475
2.1.5 Tap Na 475
2.2 Central and northern mountains of Vietnam 476
2.2.1 Meo 476
2.2.2 Muong Khuong 476
2.2.3 Co 477
2.2.4 Soc 477
2.2.5 Tuy Hoa 477
3 Formation and distribution of composite breeds 478
3.1 Thuoc Nhieu 478
3.2 Ba Xuyen 478
3.3 Trang Phu Khanh 479
3.4 DBI-81 and BSI-81 479
3.5 Improved Mong Cai 480
4 Introduction of high performance breeds and crossbreds 482
5 The pig breeding system and its stakeholders in Vietnam 488
6 Suitability of different breeds for different environmental conditions 490
6.1 Conditions of smallholder pig production in Vietnam 490
6.1.1 Feeding systems and management 490
6.1.2 Pig housing 491

6.1.3 Diseases 491
6.2 Productive and reproductive performance of different genotypes in different
production systems 491
7 Impact of imports on biodiversity 496
8 Conclusions 499
9 References 501
LIST OF TABLES 467

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Local pig breeds in Vietnam 472
Table 2: Chronology of creation of Ba Xuyen and Thuoc Nhieu pigs 479
Table 3: Import of exotic pig breeds to Vietnam 483
Table 4: Reproductive performance of different pig genotypes in Vietnam 493
Table 5: Live weight gain of different pig genotypes in Vietnam 494

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Distribution of major local breeds in Northern Vietnam 472
Figure 2: Distribution of major local breeds in Central Vietnam 473
Figure 3: Mong Cai sow 475
Figure 4: Ban sows 476
Figure 5: Pig population and liveweight of pigs in Vietnam from 1975 to 1999 486

ABBREVIATIONS
ACIAR Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development
LR Landrace pig breed
LW Large White pig
LW gain Liveweight gain
MC Mong Cai pig breed
NIAH National Institute of Animal Husbandry, Vietnam
N Vietnam North Vietnam
PIC Pig Improvement Company
SIDA Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency
SU Soviet Union
S Vietnam South Vietnam
VND Vietnamese Dong
VSF Vtrinaires sans Frontires
468 ABBREVIATIONS


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This case study focuses on the formation and distribution of the main indigenous pig breeds
and crossbreds in Vietnam, the introduction of high performance breeds and their impact on
biodiversity, and the suitability of different breeds for different environmental conditions.
Vietnam owns a wide variety of local pig breeds across different regions of the country. The
Lang Hong, Mong Cai and I breed are the product of a long deliberate breeding history,
whereas other breeds, e.g. the Meo, Co, or Soc, were not systematically bred. In particular
the I and later the Mong Cai were strongly promoted in Vietnam to replace lower yielding
local breeds. In South Vietnam, the Thuoc Nhieu, Ba Xuyen and Phu Khanh composite
breeds developed from crossbreeding local with exotic pigs. The DBI-81 and BSI-81 were
developed in North Vietnam from crossbreeding I sows with exotic boars, but did not be-
come widespread in national pig production. Only the Mong Cai has become common, being
now the major local sow line in Vietnam. Exotic pigs, including Large White, Landrace, Du-
roc and Berkshire, have been introduced to Vietnam from American and European countries
since before the 1920s. Major driving forces were the French Colonial Rulers (before 1954),
American forces (before 1973), the socialist government (since 1954), Vietnamese and for-
eign commercial companies (before 1954 and after 1986), and developmental projects (after
1986). Gene flow now and recently is mainly a net inflow of exotic pigs. Current develop-
ment and poverty alleviation projects at village level usually promote exotics, and only occa-
sionally improved Vietnamese breeds. Information on pig gene flow to and within Vietnam
is limited, due to the restricted information policy of both international breeding companies
and Vietnamese official sources, but also due to the decentralised nature of pig breed import
and distribution.
At present, exotic and crossbred pigs dominate, while local pigs make up only 26% of the
national pig herd, mostly in uplands, rural and remote areas. The decentralised structure of
the Vietnamese breeding system, the less developed central coordination and the common
use of AI have all supported the spread of exotic pigs in Vietnam, especially at the small-
holder level which makes up 80 to 95% of Vietnamese pig production.
commercial pig production, they can be characterised as low-input systems. Local pigs yield
lower reproductive and growth performances. Performance data in literature are rarely com-
parable, as local breeds were usually investigated in low-input extensive-farming conditions,
while exotic pigs or crossbreds are often tested under improved conditions or on station.
Mong Cai sows under smallholder conditions yield higher reproductive performances than
exotic or crossbred pigs, implying better reproductive performance potential of local breeds.
Additionally, favourable adaptation traits (regarding environmental/climatic factors, low in-
put production conditions, and susceptibility to disease) and general robustness are described
for local pig breeds, together with favourable meat quality traits. Other, less favourable traits
of local pig breeds include a high fat content and low lean meat ratio, a low growth rate, and,
apart from the Mong Cai, a low fertility, rendering them less suitable to respond to higher
inputs, unless their special quality traits are rewarded by the consumer.
The influx of exotic breeds had a strong impact on local pig populations. Today, 10 of 14
local pig breeds are in vulnerable or critical state or face extinction, and all of them show
declining populations. NIAH is the main Vietnamese institution conducting conservation

programs, but only for a limited number of pig breeds. The long-term sustainability of those
programs is questionable.
The significant genetic distinctions both between Vietnamese breeds and between Vietnam-
ese and European breeds have been shown. Local breeds are a source of promising alleles,
which might be significant for future genetic improvement and of unpredictable economic
value.
Local pig breeds are a significant component of the Vietnamese and worldwide biodiversity,
and are still important for resource poor farmers in Vietnam, who depend on them to ensure
their livelihoods. The dominance of high yielding exotic breeds will increase in intensified
production systems. Local breeds will only contribute to worldwide biodiversity if their com-
petitiveness to exotics is proved for production systems under development and/or if favour-
able adaptation traits are proved and the controlling alleles identified. Investigations are un-
der way to define local pig breeds, characterise them, and compare their performances under
standardised conditions.

INTRODUCTION 471

1 INTRODUCTION
This case study focuses on the formation and distribution of the main indigenous pig breeds
and crossbreds in Vietnam, the introduction of high performance breeds and its impact on
biodiversity, and the suitability of different breeds for different environmental conditions.
Livestock forms 25 percent of the agricultural output value in Vietnam and is almost entirely
in the hands of small farmers. Traditional farming systems integrate crops, fish and livestock,
mainly pigs and poultry (Ly, 1996). Industrial livestock production on state-run farms and
large-scale private farms is developing, but is still only a minor part (Thong, 1996).
For a long time, animal production in Vietnam has been based on local genotypes (Lemke et
al., 2000), which are well adapted to local climates and available inputs. However, their pro-
ductivity under improved conditions is lower than that of exotic breeds (Ly, 1996), under
low-input conditions it might be comparable or even higher than that of exotics, but both are
rarely tested together under same low-input conditions. Thus, local breeds have been re-
placed or crossbred with imported high-yielding breeds to increase performance in recent
decades, leading to a severe decrease in the number of indigenous breeds, which are an im-
portant part of Vietnams biodiversity (Lemke et al., 2000).
In 2002, the Vietnamese pig population was 23 million head. Indigenous pigs accounted for
26% of the total, located mainly in uplands, rural and remote areas. Local breeds can utilize
farm-grown feeds and by-products, survive and produce in low-input systems, and withstand
hardships. In rural and mountainous areas, local pigs have a multitude of functions, including
consumption, capital storage, use in weddings, funerals, religious celebrations, as gifts and as
suppliers of manure (Country Report of Vietnam, 2003). That report mentions 14 indigenous
Vietnamese pig breeds, five of them in vulnerable state, two in critical state, and three facing
extinction. Disappearance of local breeds might put smallholders food security and econo-
mies at risk, or might be just a consequence of a better suitability of exotic breeds to meet
farmers demands.
Thuy (2004) showed that Vietnamese indigenous breeds were genetically distant to European
breeds, had a higher number of alleles per gene locus, and were genetically more heteroge-
neous than European breeds. The large genetic distance between selected breeds can be ex-
ploited in crossbreeding, benefiting from heterosis and combination effects for performance
and adaptation traits.
This case study describes the formation and distribution of local breeds (chapter 2) and of
composite breeds (chapter 3), and the introduction and spread of exotic high performance
breeds to Vietnam (chapter 4). Chapter 5 describes the pig breeding system and its stake-
holders in Vietnam. Chapter 6 discusses the suitability of selected pig breeds under different
environmental conditions met in Vietnam. Chapter 7 discusses the impact of importing ex-
otic breeds on biodiversity. Conclusions are drawn from the presented results.

472 FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL BREEDS

According to ecological and economic conditions, Vietnam is divided into seven agro-
ecological zones: Northern Mountainous and Middle Highlands, Red River Delta, Northern
Central Coast, Southern Central Coast, Central Highlands, North-East of Southland and Me-
kong Delta (Ly, 1996). There are diverse local pig breeds in the different regions of Vietnam
(Table 1).
Table 1: Local pig breeds in Vietnam
Northern Vietnam
Uplands, Central and
Northern Vietnam
Southern Vietnam
I
Mong Cai
Muong Khuong
Lang Hong
Meo (Ban, Hmong)
Thai Binh
Tap Na
Tong Con
Ha Bac
Son Vi

Meo
Co
Soc
Tuy Hoa
Tau Pha
Nghia Binh
Mini pig/ Quang Tri

Ba Tri
Source: compiled from: Molenat and Thong, 1991; Ly, 1999; Ly, 1999; FAO/DAD-IS, 2004; Thuy, 2004)
Figure 1 and Figure 2 depict the distribution of the major local pig breeds in Vietnam.
Figure 1: Distribution of major local breeds in Northern Vietnam

(Upper case letters mark distribution area of pig breeds: A = I pig, B = Mong Cai pig, C = Lang Hong pig
FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL BREEDS 473

Figure 2: Distribution of major local breeds in Central Vietnam

Upper case letters mark distribution area of pig breeds: A = Meo/Ban pig, B = Muong Khuong pig, C = Co pig,
D = Soc pig
According to Lemke et al. (2000), the indigenous breeds Lang Hong, Mong Cai and I can be
characterised as improved, higher-yielding breeds resulting from a longer systematic breed-
ing period, compared to the Meo and Co indigenous breeds which have not been deliberately
improved. Other local pig breeds include the Tong Con at the Chinese border, the white
Nghia Binh pig (central Vietnam) and the Ha Bac, a small breed predominantly kept in the
central region of northern Vietnam (Molenat and Thong, 1991). The Tau Pha breed predomi-
nates in smallholder scavenging systems in the mountainous regions of central Vietnam. In
the central highlands, a black and white pig resembling the Mong Cai has been observed but
whose breed has not yet been identified (Hot, 1982). Thuy (2004) mentions additionally the
Son Vi pig (Phu Tho province) and the Mini pig of Quang Tri province.
2.1 Delta areas, northern Vietnam
2.1.1 I pig
The I pig originates from Nam Dinh province (nowadays Nam Ha), Red River Delta. It is a
very small, black pig with potbelly and swayed back (Ly, 1999). Two sub-species can be
distinguished (Khanh and Hien, 1963), namely the I-mo (or pure I pig) and the I-pha.
The I-mo is smaller than the I-pha with short legs and trunk, a big head with short snout bent
upward and small, upright ears. In the extremely wrinkled face, the eyes seem to be closed.
Most I-mo sows have 10 teats.

The I-pha is a cross of I-mo with various (unknown) local breeds, but is nowadays consid-
ered a distinct breed. It has longer legs, trunk and snout than the I-mo. The snout tapers. The
potbelly is less pronounced and the face is only slightly wrinkled. The ears are bigger and
stand horizontally. I-pha sows have 10 to 12 teats.
The I pig is characterized by early maturity, high fecundity and adaptation to a frequently
flooded, muddy environment and poor, roughage-based diet. I pigs are said to be resistant to
parasites (Tang and Cuong, 1994). In general, they are considered very robust. The I pig has
a high fat and low lean meat proportion (Molenat and Thong, 1991).
Before 1970, the I pig was most common in North Vietnam. The province of origin (Nam
Dinh, nowadays Nam Ha) had good access via roads and rivers to the other delta provinces,
thus supporting the introduction of the I pig to Ha Nam, Ha Tay, Hung Yen, Hanoi, Vinh
Phuc, Hai Duong, Thai Binh, Quang Ninh, Ninh Binh, Hai Phong and Thanh Hoa (Tang and
Cuong, 1994).
1970-1989: The promotion and distribution of the higher-yielding Mong Cai (Mong Cai-
isation) lead to a parallel reduction of the I pig population. In 1989, only 463 sows were
counted in the original breeding region (Hoang Hoa district). In this time, the National Insti-
tute of Animal Husbandry Hanoi (NIAH) started conservation measures to protect the breed
from extinction (Lemke et al., 2000).
In 1989, 22 I-mo pigs (2 boars, 20 sows) were selected from the remaining I pig population
of two villages to build a nucleus (Tang and Cuong, 1994). Due to internal problems, that
conservation project was dissolved in 1994, and 20 sows and two boars from the nucleus
were transferred to a new nucleus in Hoang Hoa. Since 1989 (start of conservation), the nu-
cleus has slightly expanded; in 2000, the nucleus consisted of 36 sows and six boars (Lemke
et al., 2000). No data exist on the current population size. There remain only few communes
in Thanh Hoa province where I pigs are kept in small numbers outside the conservation pro-
gram (Ly, 1999).
2.1.2 Mong Cai
The Mong Cai, today the main breed in North and central Vietnam, originated from North
East Vietnam (Duyet and Duong, 1996), from the Red River delta, coastal provinces Hai
Phong and Thai Binh (Thien et al., 1996). It has a small to medium body size, and small,
upright ears. Head and body are black, with a white band running from one side of the ab-
domen over the shoulder to the other side of the abdomen, making a black saddle over the
middle of the swayed back (Figure 3). The Mong Cai is characterised by high prolificacy. It
is adapted to poor quality feed, and is in general robust. Disease resistance has been reported
but not scientifically confirmed.

Figure 3: Mong Cai sow

Picture taken at smallholder households of ethnic
Black Thai in Son La province, North West Viet-
nam (picture: Lemke)
Two types of Mong Cai have been described, a small-frame and a large-frame. The large-
frame type is said to have a higher lean meat rate, a bigger litter size and a higher growth
rate. However, piglet mortality in the large-frame type is also higher (Hai et al., 1979). The
pure Mong Cai pig with a small body size originated from the sea shore region of Quang
Ninh province (formerly Hai Ninh province), bordering Quang Dong province (China). The
Tong Cuu pig of Quang Dong province resembles the Mong Cai pig (Doanh, 1994).
1960-1975: Since the 1960s, the Mong Cai has spread throughout the northern delta areas.
After 1975: Mong Cai pigs were introduced to Central and South Vietnam (Ly, 1999). The
Mong Cai was frequently used to improve local breeds with lower performances. Thus, the
number of pure Mong Cai pigs gradually declined, while the number of Mong Cai crossbreds
(with other local or exotic breeds) increased (Doanh, 1994).
2.1.3 Lang Hong
The Lang Hong pig resembles the Mong Cai in appearance and performance. However, there
has not yet been an attempt to assess any relation between the breeds. Compared to the latter,
the Lang Hong has a shorter trunk, less pronounced potbelly and swayed back, a shorter
snout, and smaller, upright ears. The forehead bears a white triangular mark.
Lang Hong pigs are mostly raised in Bac Ninh and Bac Giang provinces (North East Viet-
nam). At present, Lang Hong pigs are mostly crossed with Mong Cai (Ly, 1999).
2.1.4 Thai Binh
The Thai Binh breed originates from the Red River delta. It is a small pig of white colour
with black marks, has a swayed back and a pronounced potbelly (Molenat and Thong, 1991).
2.1.5 Tap Na
The Tap Na has been found in Cao Bang province and neighbouring mountainous provinces
(North East Vietnam), kept under low-input conditions. It is a black pig with six white marks
(forehead, four feet, tip of the tail). The Tap Na shows some external features resembling the
Mong Cai, but has a black belly and no white band at the shoulders like the latter one. The
Tap Na has a straight head of medium size with stooping ears, the snout is not wrinkled. It
has long legs like the Muong Khuong or Meo. Its back is straight and the belly does not
touch the ground. It has 6 to 10 teats.
The Tap Na is well adapted to the ecological conditions where it is kept. It is said to be resis-
tant to certain diseases, and to have a tasty meat. Daily weight gain and lean meat percentage
are low and the feed conversion rate is high.

The number of Tap Na pigs is decreasing and it is at high risk of extinction. Nowadays, Tap
Na pigs in villages near main roads are crossbreds, and pure Tap Na are difficult to find (Duc
et al., 2004).
2.2 Central and northern mountains of Vietnam
2.2.1 Meo
The Meo pig originated from the high mountainous areas of Truong Son. Meo pigs are
mainly kept by ethnic Thai and Hmong people in North and North West Vietnam, who call
their pigs by different names, e.g. Ban, Dan, Meo (with different diction) and Hmong. It
remains to be investigated, whether these are different breeds, eco-types of the same breed,
or one breed under different names (e.g. Hoa, forthcoming). In this study, the term Meo is
used. Meo pigs have also spread to the mountainous areas of Nghe An province (Central
Vietnam), an area populated by Thai farmers.
The Meo is well adapted to the local ecologies and socio-economies of the Hmong people
(Ly, 1999). Meo pigs resemble wild boars. They have no potbelly and a straight back (Figure
4). Thai farmers describe three local varieties differing in size, appearance of white marks
(snout, tip of the tail, legs), reproductive performance and growth rate (Lemke et al., 2000).
For Meo pigs of the Hmong, six phenotypic groups have been described, which might repre-
sent sub- or eco-types (Huyen, 2004).
Figure 4: Ban sows
Pictures taken at smallholder households of ethnic Black Thai in Son La province, North West Vietnam
(Lemke, 2002)
Meo sows are said to have less favourable mothering abilities. They reach maturity late (8 to
9 months). Under the husbandry conditions of Hmong farmers, litters are with 6 to 7 piglets
small; the farrowing interval is high. About 60 to 70% of piglets survive until weaning.
Hmong boars are sexually mature at four to five months age (To and Duc, 1967).
Meo boars have been mated with sows of other local breeds for commercial purposes (Ly,
1999).
2.2.2 Muong Khuong
The Muong Khuong pig closely resembles the Meo pig. It is kept by Hmong farmers in the
mountainous areas of North Vietnam, particularly Lao Cai province. The Muong Khuong is a
large pig and copes well with being kept as a scavenger. Due to similarities between Muong
Khuong and Meo concerning performance, appearance, adaptation traits, and area of keep-
ing, Vietnamese scientists have tried to identify whether they belong to the same breed (Ly,

1999). The development plans of Lao Cai province for the period 2001 to 2005 include a
plan for conserving the Muong Khuong, mainly to preserve it as a sow line for crossbreeding
(Thu, 2004).
2.2.3 Co
The Co pig is found in the Central Highlands of Vietnam. Its very small body size and low
performance is most likely a result of inbreeding (Hot, 1982). Before 1960, Co pigs were
common in the central provinces Nghe An, Ha Tinh and Binh Tri Thien, but were strongly
reduced in numbers due to the spread of the Mong Cai to central provinces (Ly, 1999).
2.2.4 Soc
The Soc pig also originates from the Central Highlands. It is kept by the ethnic groups of E
De, Gia Rai, Ba Na, and Mo Nong, in the provinces Lam Dong, Dak Lak, Gia Lai and Kon
Tum. Soc pigs have a small body and resemble wild pigs. They are kept as scavengers, with-
out supplemental feeding. Due to the introduction of higher-yielding pigs, the population of
Soc pigs in the Central Highlands has strongly decreased (Ly, 1999).
2.2.5 Tuy Hoa
The Tuy Hoa originates from the Song Ba river delta. Tuy Hoa pigs have little hair and a
white colour and are quite sensitive to insolation. They show a good growth performance
under good feeding conditions (Molenat et Thong, 1991). Under smallholder conditions, Tuy
Hoa pigs show a great variation in performance.
478 FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF COMPOSITE BREEDS

In Vietnam, a number of composite breeds are known. However, breeding history and ge-
netic make-up in some cases rather suggest that breed standardisation has not yet been ac-
complished. The Ba Xuyen and Thuoc Nhieu breeds (Mekong delta) and the Trang Phu
Khanh (Central Vietnam), Thuoc Nhieu and Ba Xuyen breeds were formed from spontane-
ous natural mating between local sows and exotic boars in the 1920s (Doanh et al., 1985).
They have widely spread since due to good adaptation to the local climate, high prolificacy,
good mothering abilities and a high growth rate (Tjllden, 1999). More recent attempts of
Vietnamese scientists to create synthetic breeds from I sows and exotic boars date back to the
1980s. Further, the improved Mong Cai with exotic influence in its genetic make-up can be
distinguished from the original Mong Cai.
3.1 Thuoc Nhieu
The Thuoc Nhieu is a medium-sized pig (120 to 160 kg adult liveweight) of white colour. It
has small upright ears, a medium-length snout, short legs and a long body with slightly
swayed back. Growth rate and reproductive performance are moderate (litter size: 8 to 10
piglets/litter), the lean meat ratio is low and the fat percentage high (Molenat and Thong,
1991). The Thuoc Nhieu can cope with feedstuffs of low nutritional value and harsh keeping
conditions (Tjllden, 1999).
In 1900, the Chinese imported pigs to the coastal areas around the Mekong delta. Vietnamese
local black sows (probably Co) were mated with those Chinese Hainan boars. The resulting
crossbreds (F1, called Tau Pha, black-and-white pigs) were mated with French Craonnais
boars (imported by the French, now extinct). The resulting F2 crossbred (called Bo Xu) was
then continuously crossed with imported Yorkshire Large White and Yorkshire Middle
White, creating the Thuoc Nhieu pig, which stabilized after some decades (FAO, 1999). The
Thuoc Nhieu was popular in the provinces Tien Giang and Long An and the vicinity of Ho
Chi Minh City, and later spread to the provinces Vinh Long, Long An, Dong Nai, Binh
Thuan, Can Tho, and Soc Trang (Mekong River Delta) (Ly, 1999).
The Mekong Delta is one of the most important pork-producing areas of Vietnam. To fulfil
national policies and meet the increasing market demand, scientists of the Institute of Agri-
cultural Science of South Vietnam carried out selection programs mainly between 1981 and
1989. In this period, the Thuoc Nhieus growth and reproductive performance improved by
over 10% compared to those in smallholder conditions, and the breed then stabilized com-
pared to those kept under smallholder conditions. The improvements are due to both success-
ful breeding practices and the higher input on station. Thuoc Nhieu pigs for breeding were
selected from rural backyards in Tien Giang province based on body conformation, growth
rate, litter performance (sows), semen quality and sired litter performance (boars). First-
grade boars and sows of second grade and upwards were placed in state breeding farms of
the province for inbreeding between lines for two or more generations with continuing selec-
tion. The results showed increases in weaned litter weight and litter size. Selected sows also
showed good prolificacy, surpassing Yorkshire sows reared in Vietnam (Thong et al., 1996).
3.2 Ba Xuyen
Like the Thuoc Nhieu, the Ba Xuyen was created by mating Vietnamese native black sows
(probably Co) with Chinese Hainan boars and mating the resulting F1 (Tau Pha) with French
FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF COMPOSITE BREEDS 479

Craonnais boars. Between 1932 and 1956, mating the F2 (Bo Xu) with American Berkshire
boars yielded the Ba Xuyen, a black pig with white spots, appreciated by farmers (Hai,
1994). Ba Xuyen pigs were concentrated in Soc Trang province. At present, they are spo-
radically raised in the provinces Vinh Long, Can Tho, Tien Giang, Kien Giang, An Giang,
Long An, and Dong Thap (Mekong River Delta) (Ly, 1999).
Table 2 summarises the creation of Ba Xuyen and Thuoc Nhieu pigs (Doanh et al., 1985).
Table 2: Chronology of creation of Ba Xuyen and Thuoc Nhieu pigs
Year Formula of crossing
1900 Chinese Hainan (B) x Vietnamese local black (S)

1920 French Craonnaise (B) x F1 (S)

F2 (Bo Xu)
1932-1956 American Berkshire (B) x F2/Bo Xu (S)

Ba Xuyen pig
1936-1956 Yorkshire Large White (B) x F2/Bo Xu (S)
1957 Yorkshire Middle White (B) x F2/Bo Xu (S)

Thuoc Nhieu pig
Abbr.: B = boar, S = sow
3.3 Trang Phu Khanh
The Trang Phu Khanh pig originates from Phu Khanh province (today provinces Khanh Hoa
and Phu Yen, South Central Coast) as a crossbred between Yorkshire and local pigs. It is still
kept in the area, being a common sow line (Duyet and Duong, 1996). A long period of cross-
breeding and selection led to the development of the Trang Phu Khanh, resembling in per-
formance and appearance the Yorkshire. The Trang Phu Khanh has been recognized as Viet-
namese pig breed since 1989. However, breeding efforts were not well coordinated, and
Trang Phu Khanh pigs increasingly mixed with other pig breeds (Ly, 1999). Trang Phu
Khanh sows have a good fertility and mothering abilities (Duyet and Duong, 1996).
3.4 DBI-81 and BSI-81
In 1981, scientists of the National Institute for Animal Husbandry (NIAH) created two new
pig types: the white-coloured DBI-81 from mating Vietnamese I sows with Soviet Large
White boars, and the black-coloured BSI-81 from mating I sows with Berkshire boars. They
intended to create pigs with higher lean meat ratio than the local pigs and higher robustness
than the exotic breeds. DBI-81 and BSI-81 were employed to generate crossbred offspring
from local I and Mong Cai sows for fattening, acceptable to farmers and suitable for hus-
bandry conditions in Vietnam (Doanh and Thong, 1985). NIAH selected DBI-81 and BSI-81

boars and supplied them to the artificial insemination network in northern and central prov-
inces (Thuong, 1985). The genotypes were most widely spread in Hanoi and the provinces
Ha Son Binh, Ha Nam Ninh, Ha Bac, and Thanh Hoa (North Vietnam) (NIAH, 1985).
3.5 Improved Mong Cai
With comparatively favourable characteristics, particularly a high reproductive performance,
the Mong Cai pig has been used to improve other local pig breeds with lower performances,
especially in North and Central Vietnam. Mong Cai are mainly used as a sow line (Thien et
al., 2002). Over time, the number of pure Mong Cai gradually declined, while the population
of Mong Cai crossbreds (with local or exotic pigs) strongly increased (Doanh, 1994). Since
1959/60, many scientific studies have been conducted on the Mong Cai. Mong Cai under-
went a breeding and selection process at the state breeding farms including Thanh To, Dong
Trieu, and Tam Dao through activities such as breeding assessment, boar examination and
creating the nucleus herds (Doanh et al., 1985). The following examples document the distri-
bution process.
Since 1975, Mong Cai were exported to Central Vietnam by state breeding farms (Dong
Trieu, Tam Dao, Thach Ngoc). Through selection and adaptation in this centre, the Mong Cai
has been shown to have a good mothering ability, large litters, a good milk production, a
high number of litters per year, and a large body size (Duyet and Duong, 1996). In 1975 and
based on government policies, 300 Mong Cai sows from the provinces Tam Dao, Quang
Ninh and Hai Phong (North Vietnam/Red River Delta) were brought to a state breeding farm
in Hue (Central Vietnam) to replace local pigs of low production. However, this farm col-
lapsed in 1980, and a number of sows were given to local farmers.
Between 1977 and 1987, pig breeding in Central Vietnam focussed on Mong Cai and Trang
Phu Khanh. However, breeding efforts were limited to the government/state farms; there
were no national policies concerning farmers. (Duyet and Duong, 1996).
Since the 1990s, Mong Cai and (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) sows have been imported to Thanh
Hoa province (North Central Coast), as part of the provinces developmental program, to
increase the lean meat rate in the provinces pig herd (Luong and Gian, 1999).
In Tuyen Quang province (North East Vietnam), Mong Cai sows have been introduced since
1992 (Minh, 2000; Dong and Tiep, 2002). The breeding program of Tuyen Quang province
was an open nucleus breeding program carried out in two periods. From 1992 to 1994, 69
Mong Cai sows and two Mong Cai boars of associated farms were given to 69 smallholders
in Son Duong district, which received additional funding. The associated farms ceased work
in 1994, but from 1995 to 1998 the number of pure Mong Cai sows amongst the smallholders
increased very quickly. The breeding program expanded to include many smallholders of
other districts of Tuyen Quang province, reaching a breeding population of over 3 millions
Mong Cai sows. This strong development was partly due to external support, as the program
received funding e.g. from the IFAD project of the province (International Fund for Agricul-
tural Development) and SIDA (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency).
Smallholders received credits from the project for keeping Mong Cai sows
(1 mVND/sow/year, no interest rate). Further project activities included developing AI cen-
tres to distribute Mong Cai semen in 6 towns and districts of Tuyen Quang province, to cre-
ate a pure Mong Cai herd of high quality.
FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF COMPOSITE BREEDS 481

Government policy in 1994 no longer included maintaining Cornwall pigs, but confirmed the
importance of Mong Cai pigs for the national breeding strategy due to its good reproductive
performance and adaptation traits. However, male Mong Cai yield very low prices due to
their inferior fattening performance, and market demand is only for female Mong Cai for
breeding. Thus, keeping a purebred Mong Cai population is not economically desirable for
farmers (Rodrguez et al., 1996). For example, in Thua Thien/Hue province, only one private
farm keeps one Mong Cai boar, and the whole province as well as farmers from other prov-
inces depend on this Mong Cai boar. The availability of semen is low (2 doses each 3 days,
at a price of VND 8,000 = US$ 0.62/dose). Demand for Mong Cai in the provinces is consid-
ered to be very high.
482 INTRODUCTION OF HIGH PERFORMANCE BREEDS AND CROSSBREDS

The indigenous Vietnamese pig breeds are characterized by a low growth rate and high car-
cass fat (Xuan et al., 1995). Exotic breeds like Yorkshire, Berkshire, Cornwall and Landrace
have been introduced as part of government strategies and to satisfy the growing demand for
large lean carcasses. However, they are less adapted to the local environment and husbandry
conditions than the native breeds, and so yield performances lower than their genetic poten-
tial (Singh et al., 1996). About 10% of the Vietnamese breeding herd consist of adapted ex-
otic breeds, which have been kept a considerable time in Vietnam under local conditions,
mainly in state farms and small-scale private farms, concentrated in South East Vietnam
(Hai, 1996). From 1970 onwards, crossbreds of local sows and improved or exotic boars with
hybrid vigour have been increasingly used (Quac et al., 1996).
Table 3 summarises the import of exotic breeds to Vietnam.
INTRODUCTION OF HIGH PERFORMANCE BREEDS AND CROSSBREDS 483

Table 3: Import of exotic pig breeds to Vietnam
Year Pig breeds Origin Vietnamese organization facili-
tating the breed import
1920 Craonnais France
1932 Berkshire USA
1936 Yorkshire USA
Individual farms, S Vietnam
1955 LW, Berkshire France
1957-1959 Yorkshire Japan
Phat Ngan Animal Husbandry
Corporation, S Vietnam
1964 LW, Berkshire SU NIAH, N Vietnam
1965-1966 Yorkshire, LW, Hampshire,
Chester White, Duroc, LR,
Poland China
USA Phat Ngan Animal Husbandry
1969 Yorkshire USA Phat Ngan Animal Husbandry
LW SU
Berkshire China
1971
Landrace Cuba
NIAH, N Vietnam
1976 Duroc S Vietnam Agricultural University No. I and
III, N Vietnam
1977 Yorkshire, LR, Duroc Cuba NIAH, N Vietnam
1978 LW, Duroc Cuba NIAH, N Vietnam
1997 Yorkshire, LR, Pietrain England PIC, N Vietnam
2000 Duroc, LW USA NIAH, N Vietnam
Abbr.: LR = Landrace, LW = Large White, NIAH = National Institute of Animal Husbandry, PIC = Pig Im-
provement Company, SU = Soviet Union
Source: compiled after: Doanh (1985); Thien et al. (1992); Hai (1996); Truc et al. ( 2003)
Before 1954 (end of French colonisation), exotic breeds were imported by individual farms
in South Vietnam. At that time, Ba Xuyen and Thuoc Nhieu pigs were developed (see above)
mostly to meet the domestic market demand, but also partly for export. After 1954, when US
forces occupied South Vietnam, exotic breeds were mainly imported from the US to meet the
demand of the US Army. As a result, pig production developed strongly, particularly from
1964 to 1967 (1964 to 1973 American War). Exotic pigs were imported through Phat Ngan
Animal Husbandry Corporation, South Vietnam, and were then bred both pure and crossed,
creating the so-called Yorkshire Phat Ngan pig. From 1965 to 1974, Yorkshire Phat Ngan
had a great impact on South Vietnamese pig production. Industrial pig production developed
with large and medium scale farms especially around Saigon (today Ho Chi Minh City).
Several factories produced commercial feedstuffs; Phat Ngan Animal Husbandry Corpora-
tion supplied breeding animals, and a number of companies processed pork. After 1975 (end
of the American war, reunification of Vietnam), Soviet Large White pigs were imported

through NIAH (11 boars, 87 sows) and brought to Lam Dong province (North East South)
(Doanh, 1985). Between 1975 and 1986, French Landrace pigs were introduced to South
Vietnam through the France Hybrid Company.
From 1964 to 1977, North Vietnamese state farms imported mainly exotic boars for mating
with local sows. NIAH directly managed those imports. In 1976, Duroc pigs from the South
were introduced to the North and raised in the research farms of Agricultural University No.
I and III (Truc et al., 2003). Imported pigs were kept and tested in the breeding centres of
NIAH and other state farms in Hanoi and Hai Hau under intensive conditions, in order to
create parent stock to supply breeding animals and F1 crossbreds for farmers and commercial
animal production (Doanh and Luan, 1985). Results showed that, in general, imported breeds
could adapt to Vietnamese climatic and husbandry conditions. However, compared to pure
parent stock in the countries of origin, the performance of animals kept in Vietnam declined
by 20 to 30% due to lower nutritional levels and the tropical climate. For example, in im-
ported Large White pigs the reproductive performance of sows declined. In contrast, the se-
men quality of Large White boars raised in Vietnam nearly equalled that of Large Whites in
the Soviet Union. Large White pigs born and raised in Vietnam developed an outer appear-
ance with thinner hair and a lighter body conformation. Large White boars were used to cre-
ate DBI-81 pigs (see above). Imported Berkshire pigs also adapted to local climatic and hus-
bandry conditions at state farms. They were very robust, and especially insusceptible to
mange. Berkshire boars were used to mate I and Mong Cai sows. However the reproductive
performance declined in the Berkshire sows as well. Imported Duroc yielded lower perform-
ances and had higher mortalities. Imported Yorkshire, Landrace and Duroc often developed
respiratory or reproductive diseases during adaptation periods at state farms, but disease in-
cidence has decreased over the years of raising exotic pigs in Vietnam (Doanh, 1985).
In 1997, the British PIC (Pig Improvement Company) introduced 480 great-grandparent pigs
to North Vietnam (Tam Diep farm, Ninh Binh province) including the lines L11 (Yorkshire),
L06 (Landrace), L64 (Pietrain) and the composed lines L19 (Duroc/Yorkshire) and L95
(Landrace/Chinese Meishan). In July 2001, all these lines were transferred to Vietnam
through NIAH. At present, Tam Diep farm produces grandparent stock for Vietnamese
breeding farms, which in turn raise parent stock for smallholders, which then raise and fatten
the end products (Truc et al., 2003). Another farm with 600 great-grandparent sows was es-
tablished by PIC Ltd. Vietnam in Dong Giao (Ninh Binh province) before 2000.
CP group supported Vietnam with the construction of a pig AI station for 50 exotic boars in
Hung Yen province for Hung Yen and neighbouring provinces (Lich and Tuyen, 2001).
From 1995 to 2001, the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR)
funded a project on Breeding and feeding pigs in Australia and Vietnam (AS2/1994/023),
involving collaboration between the Institute of Agricultural Sciences of South Vietnam and
the Queensland Department of Primary Industries. About 40 Australian Large White and
Duroc pigs were brought to Vietnam and crossed with Vietnamese breeds to produce lean
pigs with higher growth rate. A system of performance testing and selection was imple-
mented. ACIAR and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) pro-
vided funding to support AI centres. In addition to the breeding-related activities, two least-
cost diets were formulated based on traditional and non-traditional ingredients (ACIAR,
2004).

Parallel to developing crossbreds, and based on governmental policy, Vietnamese scientists
started to introduce AI from 1958 onwards (Thien, 2002). Since the 1980s, the advantages of
AI have been increasingly recognized. Crossbred feeder pigs increased in number, reaching
60% of the total herd (Thong, 1996). The Yorkshire was considered as a base breed in the
development of two-way and three-way crossbreds. These crossbreds help to increase pork
production and carcass quality and fulfil consumer demand for meat. The use of exotic pigs
and crossbreds and of advanced management techniques was supported by the Vietnamese
research and education system, through the agricultural extension service (training and tech-
nical advice), and the mass media (radio, television). Networks of technical staff and dem-
onstration farms have been established for appropriate feeding, rearing management and a
supply of certified boars, plus AI services and disease management (Hai, 1996).
Previously, traders and farmers used to sporadically introduce exotic pigs from South Viet-
nam to the Central Highlands, including Large White, Yorkshire, Duroc and Landrace. Due
to uncontrolled breeding and extensive management, exotic pigs intermingled with each
other and with local pigs, leading to the great variety in the pig population found today. After
1975, exotic breeds (Cornwall, Large White, Yorkshire, Landrace) were imported to Central
Vietnam (Duyet and Duong, 1996), and state breeding centres were established e.g. in Duc
Trong (Large White) and Bao Loc and Buon Ma Thuot (Edelschwein). Among the breeds
brought to the Central Highlands, the Cornwall seemed to adapt best to local conditions, but
had a high carcass fat content, comparatively lower fertility and undesired colour, and thus
did not get general approval for breeding. Large White, Yorkshire and Landrace were mainly
used for AI service. The proportion of exotic blood in fatteners increased considerably.
Crossbred fatteners now yield growth rates of 430 to 500g/day, a lean meat ratio of 50%, and
have a low feed consumption. Large Whites have become more widespread than the other
exotic breeds in the Central Highland (Hot, 1982).
From 1981 to 1989, the Institute of Agricultural Science of South Vietnam carried out a pro-
ject of selective breeding to improve Yorkshire pigs in Ho Chi Minh City and neighbouring
provinces (Thong et al., 1996). The breeding was based on pigs from commercial breeding
farms (216 sows, 23 boars) and family farms (1050 sows, 40 boars). Selected pigs had higher
performances than the population average (litter weight at birth: + 16%, litter size at wean-
ing: + 9%, litter weight at weaning: + 17%). Further crossbreeding experiments were con-
ducted between Thuoc Nhieu sows and Yorkshire and Landrace boars; 419 crossbred litters
were performance tested. The F1 crossbred offspring had higher performances than the pure
parental pig breeds (Thong et al., 1996).
The so-called Lean Meat Program was based on a governmental decision to increase, over a
10-year-period (1990 to 2000), the lean meat proportion in the Vietnamese pig herd. Exten-
sive investigations between 1990 and 1994, e.g. at NIAH and Bac Thai experimental farm,
proved that crossbreds between local and exotic pig breeds were well adapted to economic
and ecological conditions in the Red River Delta. Particularly the three-way cross of (Land-
race x (Large White x Mong Cai)) was chosen for widespread use in breeding programs in
the Red River Delta Region in the following decade 2000 to 2010 (Thien et al., 1996).
The northern mountainous provinces received a large number of new pigs, including exotic
imports and Mong Cai pigs. For example, the Peoples Committee Son La imported Russian
Large White, Belgian Yorkshire, Hungarian Cornwall, American Duroc and Danish Land-
race (source: Son La Department of Agricultural and Rural Development) through the state
breeding centre and regional breeding centres of the province, agricultural extension centres

of province and districts, national development and poverty alleviation projects and private
organisations of the province. Imported pigs were kept in regions near towns with compara-
tively good infrastructure and economic conditions.
In 1994, 556 pigs (mainly Landrace, Yorkshire) were brought from South Vietnam to state
farms in Thanh Hoa province (Huy et al, 1996).
In several pilot projects, exotic pigs were introduced to smallholder households, e.g. in 1988,
the Vietnam Institute of Agricultural Science and Technique introduced Yorkshire sows to
smallholders in Hai Duong province (Red River Delta) (Duy et al., 2001). Selected house-
holds were relatively well-off and located in regions with already strongly developed pig
production. Contracts were made with the farmers to keep the exotic sows. The risk was
shared between farmer and the research institute; no additional direct funding was involved.
Interested non-project farmers were advised how to select, buy, keep and manage exotic
sows. Results proved the adaptation abilities of Yorkshire to smallholder conditions; farmers
yielded high outputs and an acceptable efficiency. In the following year, this model was ap-
plied widely in the province.
More breeds were introduced in 1995 and 1996. The Thuy Phuong pig research centre
(NIAH) introduced pure Landrace and Yorkshire pigs to farmers in Red River Delta prov-
inces (e.g. Ha Tay, Thai Binh) and investigated their performances under smallholder condi-
tions. Smallholders tended to use extensive farming techniques even for the exotic pigs.
After more than 40 years of research a number of crossbreds have been identified that com-
bine the favourable genetic characteristics of local and exotic breeds, in both state farms and
smallholder farms and in different eco-systems. In particular, government research between
1990 and 1995 produced the crossbreds LR x (LW x MC), LW x (LW x MC), LR x (LR x
(LW x MC)) and LR x (LR x (LR x MC)) for commercial production. In 2000, the cross-
breds (Duroc x (LW x LR) and Duroc x (LR x YR)) were introduced into pig production.
The results of crossbreeding programs led to changes in the breeding strategies for both sows
and fatteners (Thien, 2002).
Figure 5: Pig population and liveweight of pigs in Vietnam from 1975 to 1999
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Pig population
(in 1000 heads)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Pig li veweight
(in 1000 tons)
Pig population
Pig liveweight
0
2000
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
20000
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Pig population
(in 1000 heads)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
Pig li veweight
(in 1000 tons)
Pig population
Pig liveweight

Source: General Statistical Office (2000)

The growth of the Vietnamese pig population increased markedly since 1992, probably re-
flecting the economic changes after 1986 (Figure 5).
The plot depicting the pig liveweight runs almost parallel to the plot depicting the popula-
tion, indicating that a higher production output is mainly due to an increasing pig population.
The rise in the pig liveweight and convergence of the two plots reflect the higher percentage
of exotic and crossbred animals in the total population, especially in the last decade (see be-
low, chapter 7).
488 THE PIG BREEDING SYSTEM AND ITS STAKEHOLDERS IN VIETNAM

5 THE PIG BREEDING SYSTEM AND ITS STAKEHOLDERS IN VIETNAM
The national pig breeding system of Vietnam has mainly been implemented at state farms
(under government administration) and provincial farms (administered by the Peoples
Committee of the province) (ASPS, 2002). Before 1995, Vietnam had 53 state breeding
farms; almost all of them keeping Yorkshire, Landrace, Duroc and Mong Cai. The exotic
pigs had been imported from France, Belgium and other European countries, Japan, Thailand
and the US. These state breeding farms supply piglets for fattening, and produce boars for
both natural mating and AI (Lich, 1996). The majority of breeding centres are involved in
several levels of the breeding pyramid. Commercialisation has required many breeding cen-
tres (Decision 68/1998/QD-TTg, 1998) to change from breed development and dispersal of
genetics to production and sale of commercial stock for fattening. The emphasis on short
term commercial gain is at the expense of a long-term national vision of livestock improve-
ment. Only a small number of breeding centres and research institutes keep local breeds for
crossbreeding and conservation. The Vietnamese pig breeding is not centrally coordinated.
Neither genetic improvement nor breed replacement and conservation are uniform across
regions (ASPS, 2002). A certain amount of the breeding centres output reaches farmers via
the mass organisations (mainly Womens Union, Farmers Association) and national devel-
opment projects. For example, the national extension service runs a Breed Distribution Pro-
ject, with the aim to supply one Large White boar to each village.
Almost all northern and central provinces have AI stations, each holding up to 20 breeding
boars; individual AI stations keep as many as 30 to 100 boars. Insemination services in North
Vietnam are more developed than in the South. Boars for AI are mainly of Yorkshire, Land-
race and Duroc genotype and produce in total over 1 billion doses per year. However, many
AI stations lack equipment for semen collection and processing, resulting in poor semen
quality (Lich, 1996). In 2000, Vietnam had 265 district AI stations, 138 of them in the North
(including independent AI stations). There were 10 state breeding farms with a total of 2,000
grandparent sows including indigenous, exotic and hybrid genotypes, 2 boar testing stations
with a test capacity of 300 boars/year, and 10 provincial breeding farms keeping 1,500 breed-
ing sows (Lich and Tuyen, 2001).
As an example, AI is most common in the Hue-Thua Thien province: farmers obtain semen
from the AI centre in Hue city, and inseminate sows themselves. However the whole prov-
ince has only 3 AI centres and this limits the availability of semen (Rodrguez et al., 1996).
The state farm in Hue city has 8 boars (7 Large White, 1 Mong Cai). In total, 40 doses Large
White/day (VND 6,000/dose = US$ 0.46/dose) are distributed to four technicians in 4 dis-
tricts, who distribute them further. Veterinarians and farmers conduct the insemination at
village level. In Quang Phuoc village, a provincial breeding farm was rented to a farmer, who
manages the farm himself, providing 25 doses/day (Large White). Another private farmer
keeps a Yorkshire boar, supplying semen at VND 4,000/dose (US$ 0.31). Renting AI sta-
tions to private persons and private boar ownership was also seen in Son La province and is
probably widespread.
Since the late 1980s with the start of the open door policy in Vietnam, foreign governmental
and non-governmental organisations have played a role in introducing and distributing
higher-yielding pig genotypes in a large number of both big and small projects. Examples
include the activities of ACIAR and AusAID (see above), the IFAD Country Program Viet-
nam (IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development; Tuyen Quang province) or
THE PIG BREEDING SYSTEM AND ITS STAKEHOLDERS IN VIETNAM 489

SEDEC (Socio-Economic Development Center for Costal Areas) in cooperation with Kon-
rad-Adenauer-Stiftung (Binh Thuan province, 2001). With project activities starting in 2001,
Vtrinaires sans Frontires have promoted Mong Cai sows in Phu Tho province (North East
Vietnam), now extending their activities to other North Vietnamese provinces.
In the field of international companies and breeding organisations, active importers include
PIC, CP Thailand, the Dutch TOPIGS (export via TOPIGS international in Canada and the
US), the United Kingdom Pig Breeding Association (Nhien, 2004) and the Danish DanBred.
It is assumed that a great number of other international traders are actively introducing exotic
pigs to Vietnam, but information on those activities is scarce.
490 SUITABILITY OF DIFFERENT BREEDS FOR DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS

CONDITIONS
Today, Vietnam owns a number of indigenous pig breeds. Depending on the various cli-
mates, ecological and socio-economic conditions in the distribution areas, there is consider-
able variation in performance from one breed to another (Ly and Duyet, 2000). Each region
has its own special conditions and over the generations different breeds have adapted to their
unique environments as people create domestication and breeding processes to suit their own
specific needs. As a result, breeds have been developed that produce even under extreme
conditions, are robust, show low susceptibility or even resistance to disease, and can survive
on limited nutritional resources (Tjllden, 1999). However, ecological and economic condi-
tions are changing, and animals adapted to production systems that no longer exist will be
replaced by those better suited to the new, prevailing systems.
Hai and Nguyen (1997) described three production systems in Vietnam: state run farms (4 to
5% of total pig production), private commercial farms (15%) and smallholders (80%). In
1998, around 95% of sows in Vietnam were kept in extensive households, while less than 5%
were kept under intensive conditions (Pig International, 1998).
Lemke et al. (2002) and Valle Zrate et al. (2003) indicated that pig production in Son La
province (North West Vietnam) showed different levels of production intensity. Lemke et al.
(2002) described a semi-intensive system used in mountain valleys and near towns, where
pig production is driven by generating income from the sale of pork. Introduced Mong Cai
and Mong Cai crossbreds dominate. In the extensive systems found at hillsides and further
away from town, pig production is driven by availability of resources. Local pig breeds pre-
vail (Meo/Ban), serving various functions (consumption, income generation, social func-
tions).
6.1 Conditions of smallholder pig production in Vietnam
Major constraints to livestock production in Vietnam concern animal nutrition, health, live-
stock genetic potential (FAO, 1999) and marketing (Lich and Tuyen, 2001; Vang, 2002).
6.1.1 Feeding systems and management
Smallholder pig production is mainly based on the utilisation of farm-produced feedstuffs
and agricultural by-products, characterised by a high fibre content and low protein and en-
ergy contents (Loc et al., 1996). Feedstuffs for pigs include rice bran, broken rice, maize,
vegetables, agricultural by-products like soybean cake, fish meal, salted fish waste, and
commercial concentrates. Particular for lactating sows, farmers provide protein-rich feed
supplements (Thong, 1996), however, at a limited amount (Rodrguez et al., 1996). Fishes
and shrimps (fresh or dried) are used sporadically as protein supplements (Peters, 1998).
Households with larger pig herds and engaging in activities like wine production, tofu proc-
essing or grain milling, can use by-products as pig feed; which has been observed in both
lowlands and highlands (Tung, 1999). It has even been observed by the authors of this study
that families started distilling and selling rice wine in order to make fermented rice as pig
feed. At smallholder households in Son La, pig feeding was based on maize, rice bran and
cassava. Comparing Thai villages near town, Thai villages in intermediate location, and re-
mote Hmong villages, the use of commercial feed decreased with increasing remoteness,
SUITABILITY OF DIFFERENT BREEDS FOR DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL
CONDITIONS
491

and the use of garden and forest vegetables increased. In Thai villages, between 40 and 90%
of pigs were fed on purchased feedstuff with seasonal variations, while in remote Hmong
villages it was only 4% (Huyen, 2004; Lemke et al., forthcoming).
In general, feeding depends on the crop season and the familys condition (Rodrguez et al.,
1996). Monetary investment into feeding by smallholders is low (Tung, 1999; Ly, 2000).
6.1.2 Pig housing
Pig housing at smallholder level is simple (Rodrguez et al., 1996). According to Astroem
(2000), prevailing systems in rural areas are free range systems or simple pens, both with a
minimum of inputs.
Pig housing at smallholders shows a great variation: Hmong and Thai farmers keep pigs as
scavengers, occasionally confining them in paddocks; in wooden or bamboo-made pens, of-
ten stilted; in pens with concrete floor, wooden/bamboo-made fence and canvas/tile/asbestos
roof; or brick-built stables (Lemke et al., 2000; Huyen, 2004). In the Central Highlands, most
common are stables with a packed clay-floor, less frequently with a partially concreted floor
and a partially packed-clay floor. Some pens are surrounded by a fence (often a live fence
of cassava or bamboo) to restrict the area in which piglets can scavenge (Rodrguez et al.,
1996). Pig housing in Tuyen Quang province is on a closed concreted floor. Compartments
are constructed either from bamboo or concrete; the roof is made from leaves, sometimes
from tiles (Bosma et al., 2003). Smallholders in Ha Tay province (Red River Delta) were
observed by the authors of this study to construct massive brick stables with concrete floor,
tile roof, and compartmented by brick walls.
6.1.3 Diseases
Animal diseases are a risk to livestock development, with a relatively high mortality rate
causing considerable losses of the GDP (NIAH, 2003). Low vaccination coverage has been
identified as a major problem (Dung, 2002). Vaccination coverage for Vietnam in general in
the 1990s was given with 40 to 50% (Thuy, 1999), and for North Vietnam with 25% (Lich
and Tuyen, 2001). Among prevalent diseases, Foot-and-Mouth disease FMD and Classical
Swine Fever are endemic (source: http://www.oie.int). Resistance of local pig breeds against
diseases and endoparasites is often mentioned by Vietnamese sources (e.g. the I pig is said to
be resistant against FMD), but not scientifically proven. High mortalities do not support such
perceived disease resistance, but probably result from unimproved, input-extensive manage-
ment (Lemke et al., 2000).
6.2 Productive and reproductive performance of different genotypes in different pro-
duction systems
In Vietnam, pig production is based on two groups of breeds, the native and the exotic
breeds. In Vietnam, native breeds are usually smaller than imported breeds. On the other
hand, favourable characteristics including adaptation to climate and low-input production
systems, robustness and lower susceptibility against diseases have been described (while not
always been scientifically proven). Native pigs are able to thrive on poor quality feeds, and
are productive under conditions where imported breeds would not (or would even not sur-
vive). Compared with exotics, local breeds can cope with lower amounts and qualities of
inputs (e.g. feed, veterinary inputs) and less intensive care. It is for those favourable charac-
CONDITIONS

teristics that farmers appreciate local breeds (Thong et al., 1996). Exotic breeds require more
intensive feeding and management in order to yield performances according to their higher
genetic potential (Quac et al., 1996). In their countries of origin they are highly productive,
but are difficult to raise under unfavourable conditions in Vietnam. It is estimated that exotic
pigs in Vietnam realise only 60 to 70% of their performance potential, leading to low eco-
nomic efficiency (Thien et al., 1996). In addition to reduced performance, mortalities of ex-
otic pigs under tropical conditions are higher than in their native countries.
However, it may be that local pigs are only kept where there are no alternatives: if available,
farmers keep exotic pigs because of their higher performances and reputation and in order to
benefit from subsidies attached to those exotics.
Some local breeds have a reasonable reproductive performance and produce good quality
meat. Disadvantages include a small body size and a low production output per time unit
(Ly, 1993). Table 4 and Table 5 give an overview of reproductive and growth performance
for different pig genotypes. As different genotypes were kept in different production systems,
the performances should not be directly compared. In addition, for the growth performance
data, age classes were not distinguished.
The improved Mong Cai has a higher production output but requires a higher input. The local
Meo yields a lower output but needs less input (Lemke et al., 2002). Crossbreds of (Large
White x Mong Cai) genotype in Central Vietnam had significantly higher daily gains, when
fed on protein supplements (Loc et al., 1996).
Mong Cai pigs are prolific, having large litters, and are robust. They seem to be less suscep-
tible towards diseases. Disadvantages include a slow growth (liveweight at 10 months 60 to
68 kg), high feed conversion ratio (4.5 to 5.0 kg concentrate/kg LW gain) and low lean-meat
rate of 32 to 34% (Thien et al., 1996). To benefit from the favourable reproduction and adap-
tation characteristics of Mong Cai, while improving the undesirable fattening and carcass
traits, Mong Cai sows are commonly mated with exotic boars like Large White, Danish
Landrace, Cornwall, Hampshire or Duroc (Astroem, 2000).
Meo pigs have a reputation of superior adaptation and robustness and can, like I and Co pigs,
cope with a fibre-rich diet. Their meat quality is considered excellent. Anh and Dung (1994)
give a lean meat ratio of 50 to 60%, higher than in other local breeds (the ages of pigs with
this performance is missing). Meo sows farrow 5 to 15 piglets/litter, in 1.0 to 1.4 litters/year.
Long farrowing intervals are due to high weaning ages (> 2 months), and to the fact that of-
ten male piglets sire the next litter after becoming sexually mature. The pre-weaning mortal-
ity is 20% (Anh and Dung, 1994; Thuy, 1999). According to To and Duc (1967), Meo pigs in
Nghe An province (Central Vietnam) have growth rates of 4 to 8 kg/month (age 2 to
4 months) and of 12 to 15 kg/month (age 6 to 8 months); and Meo fatteners reach 250 kg
liveweight at 12 to 18 months age; corresponding to growth rates of 133 to 266 g/day (2 to
4 months), 400 to 500 g/day (6 to 8 months), and 694 to 463 g/day for the total lifetime. It is
assumed that those results are overestimated, especially in comparison with other data in
Table 5.
The favourable adaptation traits of the I pig have been mentioned above. I pigs reach sexual
maturity early with 3 to 4 months age, have a high reproductive performance, good mother-
ing abilities and a remarkable longevity (Tang and Cuong, 1994; Ly, 1999). In contrast,
Lemke et al. (2000) found a moderate litter size and especially high piglet mortality. I pigs
CONDITIONS
493

are well-known for their calm temper and especially flavoursome meat. However, they get
obese early and have an unappealing external appearance (Tang and Cuong, 1994). Their
growth rate is with 200 to 250g/day low. After 8 to 9 months of age, I pigs reach a liveweight
of less than 50 kg. The lean meat proportion equals 35 to 39% (Doanh et al., 1985).
The reproductive performance of purebred Meo, I and Tap Na is comparable (see Table 4),
but lower than that of Mong Cai sows. The litter size of Mong Cai sows is, even under exten-
sive conditions, higher than that of (Yorkshire x Mong Cai) crossbreds at station, (Landrace
x Mong Cai) crossbreds, and of pure Large White, Landrace and DBI-81. I crossbreds have a
higher reproductive performance than pure I but a lower performance than Mong Cai sows.
Co pigs have the lowest reproductive performance of all the local breeds.
Table 4: Reproductive performance of different pig genotypes in Vietnam
Genotype
Production
system
Piglets
born alive/litter
Piglets
weaned/litter
Source
Meo
Extensive 7.3 1.5
- Lemke et al., 2002
I
Extensive 7.6 2.1 5.6 2.7
Lemke et al., 2000
Co
Extensive 5.0
- Hot, 1982
Tap Na
Extensive 7.9
- Duc et al., 2004
MC
Extensive 12.4
11.5 Lemke et al., 2000
MC
Semi-intensive 11.2 2.7
- Lemke et al., 2002
LW
- 10.6
- Hot, 1982
LR
- 9.3 1.7
7.2 1.6
1
Thien et al., 1995
DBI-81
- 8.9 1.6
7.3 1.3
1
Thien et al., 1995
YR x MC
Experimental
farm
9.4 0.6
8.6 0.6 Quac et al., 1996
YR x I
- 8.3
7.5
1
NIAH, 2004
LR x I
- 8.2
7.2
1
NIAH, 2004
LR x MC
- 10.4 2.4
7.9 1.2
1
Thien et al., 1995
Pi x I
- 13.0
11.0 NIAH, 2004
1
n piglets after 60 days; abbr.: MC = Mong Cai, LW= Large White, YR = Yorkshire, LR = Landrace, Pi =
Pitrain
Compared to the growth performance of exotic pigs kept at experimental farms, the growth
performance of local breeds and its crossbreds with Large White boars under smallholder
conditions is poor. Among the local pigs, the Tap Na yielded the highest growth rate, Mong
Cai yielded under extensive production conditions a lower growth rate, and the lowest
growth rates were found for Meo and (Large White x Meo) genotypes (Table 5).
CONDITIONS

Table 5: Live weight gain of different pig genotypes in Vietnam
Genotype Liveweight gain (g/day) Source
Meo
186 106
Lemke et al., 2000
Meo (Ban)
65
Lemke et al., forthcoming
I
167
Lemke et al., 2000
I
200 250
Doanh et al., 1985
Lang Hong
165 29
Lemke et al., 2000
Tap Na
302
Duc et al., 2004
MC
120
MC
166
Valle Zrate et al., 2003
DBI-81
479
Thien et al., 1995
LW
520
Duc et al., 1997
LR
587
Thien et al., 1995
LW x Meo (Ban)
83
LW x Meo
115
LW x MC
161
LW x MC
165
LW x MC
291
Loc et al., 1996
Abbr.: MC = Mong Cai, LW = Large White, LR = Landrace
Summarising the results, local breeds seem to have some unique adaptation characteristics.
They have lower performances, which they yield, however, under low-input conditions. In
contrast, exotic pigs yield higher performances, but require higher inputs: the higher growth
rates in Table 5 were mainly recorded in experimental stations or in breeding centres. How-
ever, Mong Cai were shown to have higher reproductive performances than exotic pigs or
their crossbreds under improved conditions, and local pig breeds yielded growth rates com-
parable to that of (exotic x local) crossbreds.
The results in this chapter hint at the production potential of some local pig breeds. However,
there have been no systematic investigations on keeping improved breeds under extensive
conditions, or keeping local pig breeds under improved conditions. Investigations on the per-
formance of crossbreds of different genetic make-up under different production conditions
are also missing. Further there is little information on adaptation traits of local pig breeds.
Currently, a project by the University of Hohenheim, Institute of Animal Production in the
Tropics and Subtropics, in Vietnam is trying to close these gaps by conducting a systematic
investigation on different purebred and crossbred genotypes, including exotic breeds (Large
White), Vietnamese improved breeds (Mong Cai) and local breeds (Meo/Ban) under differ-
ent production conditions in a cross-classified design. Further studies deal with the impact
CONDITIONS
495

that (governmental) subsidies have on farmers keeping local or exotic pig breeds in Viet-
nam, and explore market niches for pork produced from local breeds.
Over the last decades, exotic pigs have steadily spread and replaced local pigs in the Viet-
namese pig population (see also Figure 5). As part of ongoing socio-economic developments,
these exotic pigs have become increasingly available and accessible for farmers and have
enabled them to produce pork with increasing efficiency. However, the question remains
whether pig-keeping resource-poor smallholders in remote and mountainous regions can be
included, or if they can set up niche production with local pig breeds.
496 IMPACT OF IMPORTS ON BIODIVERSITY

The third edition of the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity published by the
FAO and UNEP reports that every week the world loses two breeds of domestic animals,
while 1,350 breeds face extinction in the near future. The greatest threat to domestic animal
diversity is the export of animals from developed to developing countries, leading to cross-
breeding and even replacement of local breeds. In developing countries, breeds from the in-
dustrialized world are considered more productive. The problem, however, is that those ani-
mals realize performances according to their genetic potential only under management condi-
tions and at an input level that most local farmers cannot supply, thus putting them under a
considerable economic risk.
For a long time, the animal production of Vietnam was based on local genotypes. Due to
their slow growth, low feeding efficiency and early deposit of fat, local genotypes have been
progressively improved through crossbreeding or been replaced with imported high-
yielding breeds (lean meat programs). As shown above, Vietnam has a long history of im-
porting exotic pig breeds; under French and American rule and later on as the Socialist Re-
public of Vietnam. At certain earlier times, the government had supported higher-yielding
local breeds, especially the Mong Cai (Mong Cai-isation). Importing exotic breeds and
promoting a single higher-yielding local breed have led to a severe decrease in the number of
indigenous breeds. Meanwhile, exotic pigs and their crossbreds dominate the Vietnamese pig
production, and some local breeds have already disappeared or are severely endangered by
extinction (NIAH, 1997). As an example, in North Vietnam the proportion of local genotypes
in the total sow population decreased from 72% in 1994 (Thien et al., 1996) to 45% in 1997
(NIAH, 1997). In 2002, the Vietnamese pig population was a mere 26% of local pigs.
Among 14 indigenous Vietnamese pig breeds, five breeds were in vulnerable state (36%),
two in critical state (14%), and three were facing extinction (21%) (Country Report of Viet-
nam, 2003).
To prevent the extinction of local breeds, Vietnam founded the National Program on Conser-
vation of the Vietnamese Animal Genetic Resources. Under the direction of NIAH, special
sub-programs were founded for the protection and conservation of certain domestic animal
breeds. In contrast to the majority of conservation programs in other countries, most of the
conservation programs implemented by NIAH are conducted on farms with farmer participa-
tion (Lemke et al., 2000). There is a growing recognition that preserving local breeds is not
only important to ensure the livelihoods of resource-poor farmers depending on those animal
breeds; but their conservation is regarded as a national insurance policy, as locally adapted
animal genetic resources could become future assets in livestock breeding programs.
According to the FAO Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources, most Vietnam-
ese local pig breeds are not at risk, and population trends are stable (Mong Cai) or decreasing
(e.g. Co, Lang Hong, I, Meo). Only the Bo Xu is considered extinct. However, according to
later Vietnamese sources, those data do not reflect real conditions:
I pigs were in the 1970s and 1980s widely kept in the North Vietnamese delta provinces (Ly,
1999) and used to create improved crossbred genotypes (see above). As Mong Cai pigs have
progressively replaced the I pig as sow line (Ly, 1999), the I population was at the edge of
extinction at the end of the 1970s (Thuy, 1996). It is nowadays in a critical condition, with a
decreasing population trend (Country Report of Vietnam, 2003).
IMPACT OF IMPORTS ON BIODIVERSITY 497

The Mong Cai was for a long time the dominating breed in North and Central Vietnam, and
its population increased quickly between the 1960s and 1980s. Initially, the government sup-
ported its spread and use nationwide. Since 1975, state farms exported Mong Cai to other
provinces, to replace lower yielding local pig breeds (Duyet and Duong, 1996). In the course
of its ubiquitous distribution, the Mong Cai has mixed with Lang Hong pigs and other local
pig breeds (Doanh et al., 1985; Ly, 1999). Although Mong Cai were raised at state farms and
widely promoted, the population declined in the early 1990s. After an increase in population
size up to 1995, the population is now stable, but the population trend is decreasing, and the
degree of crossbreeding in the population increasing (Country Report of Vietnam, 2003). The
Mong Cai remains one of the major local sow lines in North Vietnam (Ly, 1999).
In North Western mountainous provinces, the Meo (and related breeds/types) are commonly
kept. However, exogenous and indigenous influences may lead to a replacement of local
Meo/Ban pigs (Lemke et al., 2002). Among others, the construction of a huge hydropower
plant in Son La province and related effects concerning transportation, infrastructure, con-
nectedness to markets, and income of inhabitants, will probably influence the keeping of
local Meo/Ban pigs in and around Son La. Meo and Muong Khuong are currently not at risk,
while Ban and Hmong are in a vulnerable state. For all four breeds, populations are declin-
ing.
The Lang Hong is currently in a critical state, with a decreasing population trend. Ba Xuyen
and Thuoc Nhieu are in a vulnerable state, also with declining population. The Phu Khanh
faces extinction; and the pure population is decreasing due to mixing with other breeds.
In Central Vietnam, the Soc is not at risk, while the Co is already facing extinction. For both,
populations are declining. In the last survey, no pure Co boars were found anymore. The Son
Vi faces extinction, the Mini pig of Quang Tri is in a vulnerable state with declining popula-
tion (Country Report of Vietnam, 2003).
Genetic diversity supports livestocks ability to adapt to many unfavourable environmental
factors like diseases and parasites, variations in the availability and quality of feed and water,
and extreme climate conditions. Animals in developed countries increasingly belong to a
small number of high-performance breeds and hybrids, which have been developed over the
last two centuries, strongly influenced by controlled scientifically funded breeding programs.
Those animals have been selected for high yields, not for adaptation, and require standard-
ised conditions and high inputs for exploitation of their potential.
Vietnamese local breeds are specific for particular regions, representing a large natural gene
pool. Compared to exotic breeds, they show a high genetic diversity, although the Mong Cai
breeds do so to a lesser extent. Vietnamese local breeds differ genetically according to their
geographic location (Thuy, 2004). However, as the example of Meo/Ban highlights (see
above), the definition of local pig breeds in Vietnam is not fully standardised. Indigenous
populations are a source of adaptability for specific environmental challenges such as disease
and extreme climatic conditions and a reservoir of worldwide genetic diversity for possible
future changes in production systems (Olivier et al., 2002). Thuy (2004) showed that Viet-
namese indigenous breeds were genetically distant to European pig breeds, had a higher
number of alleles per gene locus, wider ranges of allelic sizes, and were genetically more
heterogeneous than European breeds. The large genetic distance between the Vietnamese and
European breeds could be exploited in crossbreeding, benefiting from heterosis and combina-
tion effects for performance traits. Vietnamese pigs harbour also a source of new alleles,

which might be significant for future genetic improvement and of unpredictable economic
value. To which degree that prospective source will be maintained, depends on national will-
ingness to pay for conservation programs. This depends on expectations of future benefits.
Those expectations will not be based on fairy tales on the overall goodness of local breeds,
but only on scientific proofs of special value of specific traits, controlled by specific alleles,
and market-backed values of products.
CONCLUSIONS 499

8 CONCLUSIONS
Vietnam owns a considerable variety of local pig breeds. The introduction of pigs and breeds
from neighbouring countries (Laos, Cambodia, China) started probably centuries ago, as part
of human migration (e.g. Thai and Hmong migrating from China), occupation (China), and
trade. The influx of breeds was an important component in the development of Vietnamese
local breeds. However, information is lacking on those early phases. The earliest confirmed
information on pig breed introduction goes back to the 1920s.
Gene flow in the recent past and present has probably been a net inflow of pigs. Exports (e.g.
Vietnamese potbellied pigs to western countries as pets and for scientific use) were negligi-
ble. Before 1955 (end of French colonisation) and after 1986 (economic liberalisation), pig
imports were directed by commercial interests as the main driving force of gene flow. From
1955 until 1986 the major driving force was the policies of the socialist government, and
after 1990 additionally foreign developmental projects, both with the declared aim to benefit
the poor farmers, but not always fulfilling their claim.
The inflow of pig breeds to Vietnam consisted of higher-yielding breeds from Europe and
America, which were introduced due to their higher performances (in the countries of origin)
to improve or replace the low yielding local breeds. Commercial imports consisted of exotic
pigs. Current development and poverty alleviation projects at village level usually promote
exotics, and only occasionally improved Vietnamese breeds (e.g. promotion of Mong Cai by
Vtrinaires sans frontires, Phu Tho).
Information on pig gene flow to and within Vietnam is limited, due to the restricted informa-
tion policy of both international breeding companies and Vietnamese official sources, but
also due to the decentralised nature of pig breed import and distribution.
The introduction of exotic pigs was supported by the decentralised nature of the Vietnamese
breeding system. Centralised coordination of breeding measures is not well developed, and
centralised measures fulfilled their aims only partly. However, the impact of the state-run
breeding stations has been considerable; and the advanced use of AI has strongly supported
the introduction of exotic genetics to the smallholder producer level.
The influx of exotic breeds has positively influenced output and efficiency of pork produc-
tion in Vietnam, while the local pig populations have been reduced. Today, pigs of various
crossbreeding degrees are widely distributed. Most indigenous breeds show declining popu-
lation trends, and the majority of local breeds are in a vulnerable or critical condition or even
facing extinction. Conservation measures of Vietnamese institutions follow suitable ap-
proaches (in-situ conservation on-farm). However, due to shortcomings in set-up and imple-
mentation, they may not successfully preserve local pig breeds. National decisions and the
willingness to pay for conservation programs depend on expectations for future benefits,
which need to be based on scientific proofs of the value of specific traits, and market-backed
valuations of products.
Research results indicate a considerable production potential of local pig breeds especially
under low-input conditions, favourable adaptation traits, and genetic peculiarities, differenti-
ating them from the European breeds. Local pig breeds are a significant component of the
Vietnamese and worldwide biodiversity, are important for resource-poor farmers in Vietnam
who depend on local breeds to ensure their livelihoods, and for future breeding measures
500 CONCLUSIONS

utilising e.g. favourable adaptation traits. On the other hand, exotic pigs have become in-
creasingly available and accessible for farmers in Vietnam and have enabled them to produce
pork with increasing efficiency. Whether pig-keeping resource-poor smallholders in remote
and mountainous regions can be integrated in this process, or if they can set up niche produc-
tion with local pig breeds, remains to be clarified by further investigations. Further investiga-
tions are required to define local pig breeds, further characterise their genetic specificities,
and to comparatively evaluate their performances under standardised conditions.
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Le Thi Thanh Huyen
and Subtropics
University of Hohenheim
70593 Stuttgart
Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 711 459 3006
Fax: +49 (0) 711 459 3290
Email: lehuyen1973@yahoo.com
Regina Roessler
and Subtropics
70593 Stuttgart
Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 711 459 3006
Fax: +49 (0) 711 459 3290
Email: roessler@uni-hohenheim.de
Ute Lemke
and Subtropics
70593 Stuttgart
Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 711 459 3294
Fax: +49 (0) 711 459 3290
Email: utelemke@uni-hohenheim.de
Prof. Dr. Anne Valle Zrate
and Subtropics
70593 Stuttgart
Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 711 459 3170
Fax: +49 (0) 711 459 3290
Dr. Le Thi Thuy
Animal Genetic Molecular Laboratory
National Institute of Animal Husbandry
Chem, Tu Liem
Hanoi, Vietnam
Phone: +84 (4) 838 9165
Fax: +84 (4) 8389775
Email: thuy-niah@netnam.org.vn
Dr. Nguyen Van Dong
Pig research centre
National Institute of Animal Husbandry
Chem, Tu Liem
Hanoi, Vietnam
Phone: +84 (4) 938 9774
Mobile: +84 (9) 13001340

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GENE FLOW IN ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES.

A STUDY ON STATUS, IMPACT AND TRENDS

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