Analog Communication Unit7 Vtu

ANALOG COMMUNICATION (VTU) - 10EC53
UNIT-7:
NOISE: Introduction, shot noise, thermal noise, white noise, Noise equivalent bandwidth,
Narrow bandwidth, Noise Figure, Equivalent noise temperature, cascade connection of two-port
networks.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Communication Systems, Simon Haykins, 5thEdition, John Willey, India Pvt. Ltd, 2009.
2. An Introduction to Analog and Digital Communication, Simon Haykins, John Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd., 2008.
Special Thanks To:
Faculty(Chronological): Ravitej B (GMIT).
BY:
RAGHUDATHESH G P
Asst Prof
ECE Dept, GMIT
Davangere 577004
Cell: +917411459249
Mail: datheshraghubooks@gmail.com
Quotes:
If you want something you never had then you have to do something you never done.
Real stupidity beats artificial intelligence every time.
Think before you speak. Read before you think.
Music is the wine that fills the cup of silence.
In my experience, there is only one motivation, and that is desire. No reasons or principle
contain it or stand against it.
Neither in this world nor elsewhere is there any happiness in store for him who always
doubts.
Noise Raghudathesh G P Asst Professor
ECE Dept, GMIT datheshraghubooks@gmail.com Page No - 1
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NOISE

Introduction:
Why to study Noise:
1. Noise is one of the two principle limiting factors in the performance of
communication systems.
2. Electrical noise is any undesired voltages or currents that end up appearing at the
receiver output. An example is static that is commonly encountered on broadcast
AM radio.
Definitions:
1. Noise is any undesirable voltages or a current that ends up appearing in the
receiver output.
2. Noise is any unwanted form of disturbance of signal or energy tending to interfere
with the proper and easy reception and reproduction of desired signal.
3. Noise is a random energy that corrupts and distorts the desired signal.
4. Noise is an unwanted electrical disturbance which gives rise to audible or visual
disturbances in the communication systems, and errors in the digital
communication.
Noise is strong when the signal is weak.
Example of noise in communication system:
1. Noise heard when tuning AM or FM receiver.
2. Hiss or static heard in the speaker.
3. Noise shows up in TV pictures as snow, known as confetti.
4. Noise that occurs in the transmission of digital data manifests itself as bit error.
Noise can affect the communication system performance in three areas:
1. Noise can cause listener to misunderstand the original signal or be unable to
understand it at all.
2. Noise can cause the receiver to malfunction. Noise can cause the receivers
circuitry to function incorrectly, erratically or improperly.
3. Noise can also result in a less efficient system.
Figure represents the communication system with associated noise at various stages.

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Classification of Noise:

Noise can be divided into two general categories:
1. Uncorrelated Noise: noise present regardless of whether there is a signal present or not.
2. Correlated Noise: noise present as a direct result of a signal. Mutually related to the
signal and cannot be present in circuit unless there is an input signal and is produced by
non-linear amplification. No signal, no noise.

Types of Uncorrelated Noise:

1. External Noise:
Noise present in the received radio signal that has been introduced in the
communication medium.
Noise generated outside the device or outside the receiver.

2. Internal Noise:
Noise produced by active and passive devices in the receiver.
Noise generated within the device or within the receiver.

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Types of External Noise:

1. Man-Made / Industrial Noise:
Produced by spark-producing mechanism such as commutators in electric motors,
automobile ignition system, power switching equipment, fluorescent and gas filled
lamps.
Produced by any equipment that causes high voltages or currents to be abruptly
switched. This noise is called impulse noise.
Noise in DC power supply such as AC ripple.
Noise in AC power line such as surges of currents and voltage.
Noise introduced by nearby communication system.
In general, Man-made/Industrial noises are form of electromagnetic interference that
can be traces to non-natural causes.
Industrial noise frequency is between 15 to 160MHz, and it can extend to 500MHz.

2. Atmospheric Noise:
Noise caused by naturally occurring disturbances in the Earths atmosphere, such as
static caused by lightning and thunderstorm.
It has a great impact on signals at frequencies less than 30MHz.
Form of interference caused by rain, hail or snow is called precipitation static.

3. Extraterrestrial / Space Noise:
Noise coming from outer space due to sun, stars, distant planet and other celestial
bodies.
Noise caused by the sun is called solar noise. It is cyclical and reaches a very
annoying peak every 11 years.
Noise caused by stars, distant planet and other celestial objects is called cosmic noise.
It has great impact on signals with frequencies beginning at approximately 8 MHz
and extends out to 1.43 GHz and beyond.

Types of Correlated Noise:

1. Harmonic Distortion: Unwanted multiples of a single frequency sine wave that are created
when sine wave is amplified in a non-linear device, such as large signal amplifier.

2. Intermodulation Interference: Unwanted cross-product (sum & difference) frequencies
created when two or more signals are amplified in non- linear device.
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Types of Internal Noise:
Shot Noise:
Shot noise is produced by random movement of electrons or holes across a amplifying
device due to discontinuities.
The shot noise is produced due to shot effect. Due to the shot effect, shot noise is
produced in all the amplifying devices rather in all the active devices.
It appears as a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output.
The shot noise "sounds" like a shower of lead shots falling on a metal sheet.
The shot noise has a uniform spectral density like thermal noise. The exact formula for
the shot noise can be obtained only for diodes.
For all other devices an approximate equation is stated. The mean square shot noise
current for a diode is given as,
-------- (1)
Here,
I = direct current across the junction (in amp)
I
o
= reverse saturation current (in amp)
q = electron charge = 1.6 x 10
-19
C.
B = effective noise bandwidth in Hz.
For the amplifying devices the shot noise is:
1. Inversely proportional to the transconductance of the device.
2. Directly proportional to the output current.
Low Frequency or Flicker Noise:
The flicker noise will appear at frequencies below a few kilohertz. It is sometimes called
as 1/f noise.
The power spectral density of this noise increases as the frequency decreases.
In the semiconductor devices, the flicker noise is generated due to the fluctuations in the
carrier density. These fluctuations in the carrier density will cause the fluctuations in the
conductivity of the material.
This will produce a fluctuating voltage drop when a direct current flows through a device.
This fluctuating voltage is called as flicker noise voltage.
The mean square value of flicker noise voltage is proportional to the square of direct
current flowing through the device.
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It is proportional to emitter current and junction temperature, inversely proportional to
frequency.
High Frequency or Transit Time Noise:
If the time taken by an electron to travel from the emitter to the collector of a transistor
becomes comparable to the period of the signal which is being amplified then the transit
time effect takes place.
This effect is observed at very high frequencies. Due to the transit time effect some of the
carriers may diffuse back to the emitter. This gives rise to an input admittance, the
conductance component of which increases with frequency.
The minute currents induced in the input of the device by the random fluctuations in the
output current, will create random noise at high frequencies.
This process gives rise to an admittance in which the conductance component increases
with frequency. This conductance has a noise current source which is associated with it in
parallel.
This conductance increases with frequency, the power spectral density increase.
Once this noise appears, it goes on increasing with frequency at a rate of 6 dB per octave.
Partition Noise:
This noise is generated when the current gets divided between two or more paths.
It is generated due to the random fluctuation in the current divisions.
This type of noise is higher in transistor as compared to the diode.
Thermal Noise or Johnson Noise:
Also known as White noise or Johnson noise.
It is a random noise which is generated in a resistor or the resistive component of the
complex impedance due to the rapid and random motion of the molecules, atoms and
electrons.
The free electrons within a conductor are always in random motion. This random motion
is due to the thermal energy received by them. The distribution of these free electrons
within a conductor at a given instant of time is not uniform.
It is possible that an excess number of electrons may appear at one end or the other of the
conductor. The average voltage resulting from this non-uniform distribution is zero but
the average power is not zero. As this power results from the thermal energy, it is called
as the "thermal noise power".
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According to the kinetic theory of thermodynamics, the temperature of a particle denotes
its internal kinetic energy. This means that the temperature of a body expresses the rms
value of the velocity of motion of the particles in body.
As per this kinetic theory, the kinetic energy of these particles becomes approximately
zero (i.e. velocity) at absolute zero.
Therefore, the noise power produced in a resistor is proportional to its absolute
temperature. Also the noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over which the noise
is measured.
Therefore the expression for maximum noise power output of a resistor may be given as

----------------- (1)
Here,
k = Boltzmanns constant = 1.38 X 10
-23
Joule/Kelvin
T = Temperature of the conductor in
o
Kelvin
B = Bandwidth of interest in Hz.
Equation (1) indicates that a conductor operated at a finite temperature can work as a
generator of electrical energy.
The thermal noise power P
n
is proportional to the noise BW and conductor temperature.

Voltage and Current Models of a Noisy Resistor:
If we connect a DC voltmeter across any given resistor at room temperature i.e. 27
o
C (or
300K), then no voltage is displayed by the dc voltmeter. However, if a sensitive
electronic voltmeter is used, then it displays some reading.
This happens because of the fact that every resistor may be treated as a noise generator so
a sufficiently large voltage may develop across it.
The noise voltage generated is always random and thus it has zero dc value but a definite
RMS value. Therefore only an AC meter across the resistor would register a value. This
noise voltage is produced by the random movement of electrons within the resistor
constituting a current.
When measured over a long period of a time, as many electrons arrive at one end of the
resistor as at the other. But, at any particular instant of time, this principle does not hold
good i.e. more electrons arrive at one end than at the other due to their random
movement. This means that the rate of arrival of electrons at either end of the resistor will

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vary randomly and there the potential difference between the two ends will also vary
randomly.
This random voltage across the resistor can be both measured and calculated. The random
noise voltage is always expressed in terms of RMS value rather than instantaneous value.
Now, we can draw an equivalent circuit of a resistor as a noise voltage genera as shown
in figure below. This equivalent circuit is also called as voltage model of a Noisy
resistor.

From this equivalent circuit, we can compute the resistor's equivalent noise voltage V
n
.
Let us consider that a noiseless load resistor R
L
, is connected across the noise generator
as shown in figure.
According to maximum power transfer theorem, for maximum transfer of power from
noise voltage source V
n
to load resistor R
L
, we must have

----------- (1)
Then the maximum noise power so transferred will be given as

Applying voltage-divider method in figure, we get

Thus,

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------------ (2)
But,
, thus

----------- (3)

We may conclude that the square of the RMS noise voltage associated with a resistor is
proportional to the absolute temperature T of resistor, value R of the resistor and the
bandwidth B over which noise is being measured.
At this point, it may be noted that the noise voltage is independent of the frequency at
which it is measured. This happens because of the fact that this noise is random and so on
an average is evenly distributed over the frequency spectrum.
Norton's theorem may be used to find an equivalent current generator as shown in figure
below. This equivalent current generator is called as current model of a noisy resistor.

Using conductance G = 1/R , the RMS noise current I
n
for current model of a noisy
resistor will be expressed as

------------- (4)

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Thermal Noise Due to Several Sources (Resistors):

Resistors in Series:

The resistors act as the sources of thermal noise.
We shall see the effect of connecting two noise sources i.e. two resistors in series with
each other. The situation is as shown in Figures (a) and (b) as shown above. The two
resistances R
1
and R
2
are replaced by the voltage source equivalent circuits.
Since the two resistors are in series they can be replaced by a resistance R = R
1
+ R
2
.
The noise voltage generated by the resistor R is given by,

------------- (1)

---------- (2)

Using the same logic if a number of resistors are connected in series then the resultant
noise voltage is given by

----------- (3)

Thus, the effective resistance R is given as,

------------- (4)

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Resistors in Parallel:
For the parallel connection of the resistors R1 and R2 the current (Norton) equivalent
circuits should be used. The equivalent circuits are as shown in the Figures (a) and (b)
below.

As the two conductances G

1
and G
2
are in parallel, the effective value of conductance is
given by G
p
= G
1
+G
2.
The noise current generated by the conductance G
p
is given as,

---------- (1)
---------- (2)

Using the same logic if a number of resistors are connected in parallel then the resultant
noise voltage is given by

----------- (3)

If it is required to obtain the voltage generator equivalent circuit for parallel connection
of the resistors then the equivalent parallel resistance R
p
is given as,

------- (4)
Thus,

------- (5)

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White Noise:
Noise in an idealized form is known as white noise. Thus, in a communication system,
the noise analysis is based on an idealized form of noise, i.e., white noise.
As white light consists of all colure frequencies, in the same manner, white noise contains
all frequencies in equal amount.
The power density spectrum of a white noise is independent of frequency. This means
that white noise consists of all the frequency components in equal amount.
If the probability of occurrence of a white noise is specified by a Gaussian distribution
function, it is called as white Gaussian Noise.
Since the power density spectrum of thermal and shot noise is independent of the
operating frequencies, therefore, shot noise and thermal noise can be treated as white
Gaussian Noise for all practical purposes.
The power spectrum density of white noise is expressed as,

-------- (1)

Here, the factor 1/2 has been included to show that half of the power is associated with
the positive frequencies and remaining half with the negative frequencies. This has been
shown in figure below.

The power spectrum density of white noise shown in figure above reveals the fact that it
has no dc power, i.e., the mean or average value of white noise is zero. In addition to this,
the auto-correlation function of the power spectrum density of white noise may be
obtained by simply taking the inverse Fourier transform of both sides of expression

The power spectral density and auto correlation function form a Fourier transform pair,

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Above is the expression for the auto correlation function of white noise. The auto
correlation function can is plotted below

Noise Equivalent Bandwidth:
Consider a white noise present at the input of a receiver. Let the filter have a transfer
function H(f) as shown in Figure below.

The filter above is being used to reduce the noise power actually passed on to the
receiver. Now consider an ideal (rectangular) filter as shown by the dotted plot in Figure
above. The center frequency of this ideal filter also is f
o
.
Let the bandwidth "B
N
" of the ideal filler be adjusted in such a way that the noise output
power of the ideal filter is exactly equal to the noise output power of a real R-C filter.
Then B
N
is called as the noise bandwidth of the real filter.

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Noise bandwidth "B
N
" is defined as the bandwidth of an ideal (rectangular) filter which
passes the same noise power as does the real filter.
Consider a passive filter having voltage-ratio transfer function H() as shown in the
figure below,

The input noise spectral density is give as,

------ (1)

Then output noise spectral density S
no
is given as,

-------- (2)

Scenario: Consider a passive RC low pass filter shown below for this we shall fine:
1. Total noise power at output
2. Effective noise bandwidth
3. RMS noise voltage

The transfer function foe this LPF is given below,

------- (3)

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-------- (4)

Here,

Substituting in equation (2) we get,

--------- (5)

The total noise power at the output is obtained by integrating Sno over the complete
frequency spectrum, i.e., from 0 to ,

Substituting then thus,

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Thus, total noise power at the output is,
------- (6)
Maximum noise power at the output is,
-------- (7)
Comparing equations (6) and (7) effective noise bandwidth is given as,
------- (8)
RMS noise voltage is given as,
--------- (9)
The capacitance C will not contribute to the noise and will limit the RMS noise voltage.
Narrowband Noise:
Definition: When in a narrow bandpass filters centre frequency is much greater than the
bandwidth. The noise process appearing at the output of such a filter is called narrowband
noise.
The spectral component of the narrowband noise concentrated about some midband
frequency f
c
as in the figure (a) below, the sample function n(t) of such a process
appears somewhat similar to a sine wave f frequency f
c
, undulates (Move in a wavy
pattern or with a rising and falling motion) slowly in both amplitude and phase as shown
in figure (b) below.
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To analyze the effect of narrowband noise on the performance of a communication
system based on the application there are two specific representation of narrowband
noise:
1. The narrowband noise is defined in terms of a pair of components called in-phase
and quadrature components.
2. The narrowband noise is defined in terms of a pair of components called the
envelope and phase.

Representation of Narrowband Noise in Terms of In-Phase and Quadrature Components:
Consider a narrowband noise n(t) of bandwidth 2B centered on frequency f, as shown in
Figure below,

Narrowband noise n(t) represented in canonical form as,

------- (1)

Here,

= in-phase component of n(t)

= quadrature component of n(t).

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Both n
I
(t) and n
Q
(t) are low-pass signals.
Given the narrowband noise n(t), we may extract its in-phase and quadrature components
using the scheme shown in Figure below. It is assumed that the two low-pass filters used
in this scheme are ideal, each having a bandwidth equal to B (i.e., one-half the bandwidth
of the narrowband noise n(t)).
This Scheme is known as narrowband noise analyzer.

We can directly generate the narrowband noise n(t), given its in-phase and quadrature
components, as shown in Figure below.
This scheme is known as narrowband noise synthesizer.

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Properties of Inphase and Quadrature components of a Narrowband Noise:
1. The in-phase component n
I
(t) and quadrature component n
Q
(t) of narrowband noise n(t)
have zero mean.
2. If the narrowband noise n(t) is Gaussian, then its in-phase component n
I
(t) and quadrature
component n
Q
(t) are jointly Gaussian.
3. If the narrowband noise n(t) is stationary, then its in-phase component n
I
(t) and
quadrature component n
Q
(t) are jointly stationary.
4. Both the in-phase component n
I
Q
(t) have the same power
spectral density.
5. The in-phase component n
I
Q
(t) have the same variance as
the narrowband noise n(t).
6. The cross-spectral density of the in-phase and quadrature components of narrow-band
noise n(t) is purely imaginary.
7. If the narrowband noise n(t) is Gaussian and its power spectral density S
n
(t) is symmetric
about the mid-band frequency f
c
, then the in-phase component n
I
(t) and quadrature
component n
Q
(t) are statistically independent.

Noise Factor:
It is defined as the ratio of the signal to noise power ratio supplied to the input terminals
of a receiver or amplifier to the signal to noise power ratio supplied to the output or load
resistor.
It is denoted by F and is given as,

------------- (1)

Here,
P
si
and P
ni
= Signal and noise power at the input
P
so
and P
no
= Signal and noise power at the output.

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The temperature to calculate the noise power is assumed to be the room temperature.
The S/N at the input will always be greater than that at the output. This is due to the noise
added by the amplifier. Therefore the noise factor is the means to measure the amount of
noise added and it will always be greater than one. The ideal value of the noise factor is
unity.
The noise factor F is sometimes frequency dependent. Then its value determined at one
frequency is known as the spot nose factor and the frequency must be stated along with
the spot noise factor.

Noise Output Power in Terms of F:
Noise factor is given as,

---------- (1)
The available power gain is defined as,

---------- (2)
Substituting equation (2) in (1)

Thus noise power at the amplifier output is given by,

--------- (4)

But
and noise factor is determined at room temperature. Therefore substitute

T
o
in the equation for P
ni
.

Thus,
------------ (3)

Thus with increase in the noise factor F, the noise power at the output will increase.
Higher the noise factor value is more will be noise contributed by the amplifier.

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Noise Figure:
Often the noise factor is expressed in decibels. When noise factor is expressed in
decibels it is called noise figure.

-------- (1)

The ideal value of noise figure is 0 dB.

Noise Temperature:
The equivalent noise temperature is another way of measuring noise alternative to noise
figure or noise factor.
The equivalent noise temperature is used in dealing with the UHF and microwave low
noise antennas, receivers or devices.
Definition: The temperature at which the noisy resistor has to be maintained so that by
connecting this resistor to the input of a noiseless version of the system, it will produce
the same amount of noise power at the system output as that produced by the actual
system.

Equivalent Noise Temperature T
eq
at Amplifier Input:
The noise at the input of the amplifier input is given as,

---------- (1)

If T
eq
represent the equivalent noise temperature representing the noise power then,

--------- (2)

Substituting equation (2) in (1) we get,

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--------- (3)

Cascade Connection of Two Port Networks:
In practice the filters or amplifiers are not used in isolated manner. They are used in the
cascaded manner.

Noise Factor of Amplifiers in Cascade(Friiss Formula):
In the communication systems many a times the amplifiers or other stages are connected
in the cascade connection.
The overall noise factor of such cascade connection can be determined as follows the
figure below shows two amplifiers connected in cascade.

Let the power gains of the two amplifiers be G
1
and G
2
respectively and let their noise
factors be F
1
and F
2
respectively.
The total noise power at the input of the first amplifier is given as,

----------- (1)

The total noise power at the output of amplifier 1 will be the addition of two terms. i.e,

The first term represents the amplified noise power (by G
1
) and the second term
represents the noise contributed by the second amplifier.

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The noise power at the output of the second amplifier is G
2
times the input noise power to
amplifier 2.

--------- (2)

The overall gain of the cascade connection is given by,

--------- (3)

The overall noise factor F is defined as follows:

------------- (4)

Here

Thus,

------------ (5)

The same logic can be extended for more number of amplifiers connected in cascade.
Then the expression for overall noise factor F would be,

-------- (6)

This formula is known as the Friiss formula.

Equivalent Noise Temperature of Amplifiers in Cascade:
The Friiss formula derived for the overall noise factor can be written in terms of the
overall noise temperature as follows:
Friiss formula is give by,

------- (1)

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Subtracting 1 on both sides of the equation we get,

------ (2)
But
, thus

------- (3)

Here T
eq1
, T
eq2
etc are the noise temperatures of amplifiers 1, 2 etc.

Noise Factor of a Lossy Network:
Connecting cable is a good example of a lossy network.
When a signal source is matched through such a connecting cable (lossy network), the
signal power reduces due to insertion loss of the network.
But the output noise remains constant equal to kTB because the noise power does not
depend on the source resistance.
Thus a network attenuates the source noise and adds its own noise. The signal to noise
ratio at the output is therefore lower than that at the input of the network. The noise factor
of such a network is given by,

--------- (1)

Consider a lossy network such as a connecting cable is connected to an amplifier as
shown in Figuere below,

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The power gain of a lossy network is (1 / L). The noise factor of the overall combination
is given by,

------- (2)
Here,
F
nw
= Noise factor of the lossy network
F
a
= Noise factor of the amplifier
G
nw
= Gain of the lossy network.
But G
nw
= 1 / L and F
nw
= L, Substituting these values in (2) we get,

------- (3)

If the lossy network is connected after the amplifier as shown in Figure (b), then the
overall noise figure at the input is given by

As F
nw
= L, Substituting these value in above equation we get,

---------- (4)

In this expression, we can neglect the second term if the amplifier power gain G
a
is very
large. Then,

------ (5)

That means the overall noise factor is equal to the noise factor of the high gain amplifier.

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Problems:

1. A noise generator using diode is required to produce 15V noise voltage in a receiver which
has an input impedance of 75. The receiver has a noise power bandwidth of 200 kHz. Find the
current through the diode.
Solution:
Given: V
n
=15V, R=75, B=200 kHz
Current through the diode is given by,

Neglecting I
o
in above equation we get

------- (1)
Calculating the noise current

Now substituting I
n
in equation (1)

2. A receiver has a noise power bandwidth of 12 kHz. A resistor which matches with the receiver
input impedance is connected across the antennas terminals. What is the noise power contributed
by this receiver bandwidth? Assume temperature to be 30
0
C.
Solution:
Given: B=12 kHz, T=30
0
C=30+273=303
0
K
Noise power contributed by the receiver is,

3. A 600 resistor is connected across a 600 antenna input of a radio receiver. The bandwidth
of the radio receiver is 20 kHz and the resistor is at room temperature of 270 C. Calculate the
noise power and the noise voltage applied at the input of the receiver.
Solution:
R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
Given: R1=600 , R2=600 , B=20 kHz, T=27
0
C=27+273=300
0
K

As two resistors are in series thus,

Noise power is given as,

Noise voltage applied at the input of the receiver:

4. Two resistors 28 k and 51 k are at room temperature T = 290
o
Kelvin. Calculate for a
bandwidth of 100 kHz, the mean square value and RMS value of thermal noise voltage:
a. For each resistor
b. For two resistors in series and
c. For two resistors in parallel
Solution:
Given: R
1
=28 k, R
2
=51 k, T=290
o
Kelvin, B=100 kHz
a. the mean square value of thermal noise voltage for each resistors

R
1
=28 k

R
2
=51 k

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
RMS value of thermal noise voltage for each resistor:

R
1
=28 k

R
2
=51 k

b. For two resistors in series the mean square value of thermal noise voltage:

or two resistors in series the RMS value of thermal noise voltage:

c. For two resistors in parallel the Resistance is:

For two resistors in parallel the mean square value of thermal noise voltage:

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

For two resistors in parallel the RMS value of thermal noise voltage:

5. An amplifier is fed from a 100 , 15 V RMS sinusoidal signal source. Its equivalent input
noise resistance and equivalent input current are 250 and 6 A, respectively. Calculate the
individual noise voltages at the input and the input SNR. Assume noise bandwidth is 10MHz and
temperature is 30
o
C.
Solution:
Given: R
s
=100 , V
s
=15 V, R
an
=250 , I
a
=6 A, B=10MHz, T=273+30=303
o
K
Noise voltage due signal source:

Noise voltage due Amplifier noise:

Noise voltage due input shot noise current:
Expression for shot noise current is:

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

Shot noise voltage is given as:

Total noise voltage at the input of the amplifier:

The Signal-to-noise ratio in desibles is:

6. The signal power and noise power measured at the input of an amplifier are 150 W and 1.5
W respectively. If the signal power at the output 1.5 W and noise power is 40 mW, Calculate
the amplifier noise factor and noise figure.
Solution:
Given: P
si
= 150 W, P
ni
=1.5 W, P
so
= 1.5 W, P
no
=40 mW

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
7. An Amplifier has a noise figure of 3 dB. Calculate its equivalent noise temperature.
Solution:

Equivalent noise temperature is,

8. A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20 dB and it is preceded by another amplifier with a noise
figure of 9 dB and an available power gain of 15 dB. Calculate the overall noise figure referred
to the input.
Solution:
The system can be represented as below

Input Output

Expression for overall noise figure for two stage cascade is,

------ (1)

First we shall convert dB into equivalent power ratios,

F
1
= 9 dB 9=10 log F
1
F
1
=Antilog (0.9) F
1
=7.94
F
2
= 20 dB 20 =10 log F
2
F
2
= Antilog (2) F
2
=100
G
1
=15 dB 15=10 log G
1
G
1
= Antilog (1.5) G
1
=31.62

Thus Over all noise factor is,

Mixer
F
1
= 9 dB, G
1
= 15 dB

Amplifier
F
2
= 20 dB

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

Overall noise figure is,

9. An amplifier with 10 dB noise figure and 4 dB power gain is cascaded with a second amplifier
which has a 10 dB power gain. What is the overall noise figure and power gain?
Solution:
The system can be represented as below

Input Output

Expression for overall noise figure for two stage cascade is,

------ (1)

First we shall convert dB into equivalent power ratios,

F
1
= 10 dB 10=10 log F
1
F
1
=Antilog (1) F
1
=10
F
2
= 10 dB 10 =10 log F
2
F
2
= Antilog (1) F
2
=10
G
1
=4 dB 4=10 log G
1
G
1
= Antilog (0.4) G
1
=2.5
G
2
=10 dB 4=10 log G
2
G
2
= Antilog (0.4) G
2
=10

Thus Over all noise factor is,

1
st
Amplifier
F
1
=10 dB, G
1
=4 dB

1
st
Amplifier
F
2
=10 dB, G
2
=10 dB

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
Overall noise figure is,

Overall power gain,

10. Figure below shows a typical microwave receiver used in satellite communication.
Determine:
a. The overall noise figure of the receiver.
b. The overall equivalent temperature of the receiver.
Assume the ambient temperature T = 17 C.

Solution:
T
o
=17+273=290
o
K
Evaluation of master amplifiers noise figure:

The overall noise figure of the receiver:
Expression for noise factor is,

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
a. Expression for noise figure is,

b. The overall equivalent temperature of the receiver is,

11. In TV receiver, the antenna is often mounted on a tall mast and a long loss-cable is used to
connect the antenna to the receiver. To overcome the effect of lossy-cable, a pre-amplifier is
mounted on the antenna as shown in Figure below.
a. Find the overall noise figure of the system.
b. Find the overall noise figure of the system if the pre-amplifier is omitted and the gain of
the front-end is increased by 20 dB [Assume, F = 16 dB for the front end].

Solution:
First we shall convert Noise figures into equivalent noise factors,

F
1
= 6 dB 6=10 log F
1
F
1
=Antilog (0.6) F
1
=3.981
F
2
=L
2
= 3 dB 3 =10 log F
2
F
2
= Antilog (0.3) F
2
= L
2
=2
F
3
=16 dB 16=10 log F
3
F
3
= Antilog (1.6) F
3
=39.81
G
1
=20 dB 20=10 log G
1
G
1
= Antilog (2) G
1
=100
G
3
=60 dB 60=10 log G
3
G
3
= Antilog (6) G
1
=1x10
6

a. Overall noise factor of the system:

------- (1)
As

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

Thus Substituting F
2
in equation (2) we get,

Overall noise figure of the system:

b. overall noise figure of the system if the pre-amplifier is omitted and the gain of the front-
end is increased by 20 dB,

Overall noise figure of the system:

12. A satellite receiving system consists of a Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) that has a gain of 47
dB and a noise temperature of 120
o
K, a cable with a loss of 6.5 dB and the main receiver with a
noise factor of 7 dB. Calculate the equivalent noise temperature of the overall system referred to
the input for the following system connections.
a. LNA at the input followed by the cable connecting to the main receiver.
b. The input direct to the cable which then connected to the LNA, which in turn is
connected to the main receiver.
Solution:
The system setup for (a) can be represented as below,

F
2
= L
cable

LNA
G
1
= 47 dB, T
e1
= 120
o
K
Main Receiver
F
3
= 7 dB
R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
L = 6.5 dB

First we shall convert Noise figures into equivalent noise factors,

L= 6.5 dB 6.5 =10 log L L = Antilog (0.65) L =4.4668
F
3
=7 dB 7=10 log F
3
F
3
= Antilog (0.7) F
3
=5.0118
G
1
=47 dB 47=10 log G
1
G
1
= Antilog (4.7) G
1
=50.118x10
3

Given T
e1
= 120
o
K and assuming T
0
= 17
o
C=290
o
K
We know that,

Noise Factor of a Lossy Network is,

Overall noise factor of the system:

The overall equivalent temperature is,

The system setup for (b) can be represented as below,

Input Cable
Overall
LNA
G
1
= 47 dB, T
e1
= 120
o
K

Main Receiver
F
3
= 7 dB

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
L = 6.5 dB Amplifier

The LNA and main receiver can be considered to be equivalent of Single amplifier.
The overall factor at the system input due to lossy nature is given as,

-------- (1)

Here F
a
=Noise factor of overall amplifier Thus,

-------- (2)
But F
1
is unknown is determined as,

Substituting F
1
in (2) we get,

Thus, Substituting F
a
in (1) we get,

The overall equivalent temperature is,

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P

R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G

P
R
a
g
h
u
d
a
t
h
e
s
h

G
P

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Analog Communication Unit7 Vtu

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ANALOG COMMUNICATION (VTU) - 10EC53

As the two conductances G

= in-phase component of n(t)

= quadrature component of n(t).

and noise factor is determined at room temperature. Therefore substitute

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