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AGARDogra ph 38
AGARDogra ph
DESIGN AND OPERATION
OF A CONTINUOUS-FLOW
HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL
USING A
TWO-DIMENSIONAL NOZZLE
BY
H. M. Schurmeier
MAY I959
AGARDograph 38
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION
ADVISORY GROUP FOR AERONAUTICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPM ENT
(ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L' ATLANTIQUE NORD)
DESIGN AND OPERATION OP A CONTINUOUS-PLOW
HYPERSONIC WIND TUNNEL USING A TWO-DIM ENSIONAL NOZZLE
by
H.M . Schur mei er
May 1959
This is one of a series of Wind Tunnel AGARDographs concerned with
Wind Tunnel Design, Operation, and Test Techniques. Professor Wilbur
C. Nelson of the University of Michigan is the editor.
A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T
The author wishes to acknowledge that many sections of this AGARDo-
graph were written by Messrs. R.M. Barnett, B. Dayman, Jr., G.W.
Haddock, W.R. Howard, H.N. Riise, H.D. Strong, and M.N. Wilson, all of
whom are members of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory wind tunnel staff at
the California Institute of Technology.
ii
SUM M ARY
The desi gn and oper at i on of a convent i onal hypersoni c wind t unnel
using a two-dimensional nozzle are extensions of t he t echni ques used for
convent i onal supersoni c wind t unnel s but r equi r e t he s ol ut i on of many
engi neeri ng problems associ at ed with t he high st agnat i on t emperat ures
and pr essur es and more c r i t i c a l dimensional t ol er ances. The sol ut i ons
t o t hes e problems employed by t he J et Pr opul si on Labor at or y of t he
Cal i forni a I ns t i t ut e of Technology are out l i ned in some de t a i l based on
both s uper s oni c and hyper s oni c wind t unnel desi gn and ope r a t i ona l
experience.
SOMMAIRE
Le dessin et 1'operation d'une soufflerie hypersonique conventionnel
avec une tuyere bidimensionelle sont une extension des techniques
employees pour les souffleries supersoniques conventionnelles, mais ils
exigent la solution de beaucoup de problemes associe's avec les hautes
temperatures et pressions de stagnation et les tolerances dimensionelles
plus critiques. Les solutions de ces problemes employees par le Jet
Propulsion Laboratory du California Institute of Technology, bashes sur
le dessin et 1'operation de la soufflerie supersonique aussi que la
soufflerie hypersonique, sont esquiss^es (en detail).
533.6.071.011.55
3b8c2f
lii
CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 11
SUMMARY ill
LIST OF TABLES
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
v i l
NOTATION
X
ll
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. TUNNEL USES AND LIMITATIONS 1
3. DESIGN CONCEPTS 2
4. AIR SUPPLY 3
4.1 Compressor Plant 3
4.2 Air Heater 9
4.3 Shakedown Operations 14
5. TUNNEL 15
5.1 Nozzle Contour Design 15
5.2 Boundary Layer Estimation 18
5.3 Diffuser Aerodynamic Design 20
5.4 Cooling 21
5.5 Mechanical Design 25
5.6 Seals 29
6. INSTRUMENTATION 30
6.1 Calibration Equipment 30
6.2 Model Support 31
6.3 Force Balance 32
6.4 Manometers 33
6.5 Schlieren System 34
6.6 Heat Transfer Equipment 35
6. 7 Data Handling 35
7. MODEL TUNNEL 36
7.1 Design 36
7.2 Operation 38
7.3 Performance 40
REFERENCES 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY 47
iv
Page
TABLES
5 2
FIGURES
5 8
DISTRIBUTION
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 JPL Cent ri fugal Compressor Pl ant
Page
52
TABI.E 2 Sample Calculation for New Tunnel Compressor Plant
53
TABLE 3 M = 8 Nozzle Contour Coordinates and Wall Mach Numbers 54
TABLE 4 M = 8 Nozzle Centerline Mach Number Distribution 55
TABLE 5 Physical Properties
56
TABLE 6 Pressure Ranges
57
TABLE 7 Ranges and Least Readings
57
vi
L I S T OF FI G U R E S
Page
Plg.l Supply temperature vs Mach number 58
Pig.2 Reynolds number vs Mach number 59
Pig.3 General arrangement of the 21 in. hypersonic wind tunnel 60
Pig.4 Schematic arrangement of air flow 61
Pig.5 Individual compressor performance for existing units 62
Pig.6 Arrangement of compressors 63
Pig.7 Individual compressor performance for new units 64
Fig. 8 High-pressure compressors 65
Pig.9 Estimated compression ratios available and required 66
Fig.10 Control center of hypersonic wind tunnel 67
Fig. 11 Estimated compression ratio vs Mach number 68
Pig.12 Maximum supply pressure vs Mach number 69
Fig.13 Range of heater operating variables 70
Pig. 14 Electric Heater 71
Pig. 15 Heater and tunnel simulator 72
Pig.16 Temperature distribution at supply section outlet 73
Fig.17 Components of the hypersonic nozzle (M = 8) 74
Pig.18 Throat-block region nomenclature 75
Pig. 19 Effect of the number of characteristic network divisions on the nozzle
fluid channel exit height 76
Pig.20 Coles' incompressible turbulent boundary layer- (no heat transfer Ref.14) 77
Fig.21 Tunnel wall boundary layer correlation of various supersonic and
hypersonic wind tunnels 78
Pig.22 Experimentally measured ratio of total boundary layer thickness to
displacement boundary layer thickness 79
vii
Page
Pig.23 Estimated boundary layer thicknesses at end of flexible plate 80
Pig.24 Estimated dimensions at end of nozzle, JPL 21 in. hypersonic wind tunnel 81
Fig.25 Estimated test-section heights at end of flexible plate 82
Fig.26 Estimate of boundary layer contour in test section at end of flexible
plate at M = 8 83
Fig.27 Comparison of several hypersonic wind tunnel diffusers 84
Fig.28 Local air heat transfer coefficient for M = 8, T
Q
s 1000P and
P
0
= 650 lb/in.
2
abs 85
Fig.29 Permissible skin thickness at nozzle throat 86
Fig.30 Effect of cooling water velocity on throat temperature 87
Fig.31 Maximum anticipated heat flux rate and metal temperatures in throat region 88
Pig.32 Cooling of supply section flange 89
Fig.33 General nozzle arrangement and jack beam support system 90
Fig.34 Nozzle jacks and test section in position during fabrication 91
Fig.35 Throat-block details 92
Pig.36 Assembly of back-up blocks with spacer and angle blocks during manufac-
turing to check mounting surfaces 93
Pig.37 Method of changing inflection angles 94
Pig.38 Contouring of throat blocks using template followers 95
Fig.39 Contouring of throat blocks using the jig borer technique 96
Fig.40 Contouring of throat blocks using the contour grinder technique 97
Pig.41 Comparison of machining methods for cutting throat-block contour 98
Pig.42 Contour grinding throat blocks 99
Fig.43 Jack loads and plate stresses 100
Pig.44 Cooling and lug attachment to flexible plate 101
Fig.45 Hydraulic jack design and mechanical model 102
viii
Page
Pig.46 Nozzle side plate during preliminary machining 103
Fig.47 Sample of sldeplate cooling passages 104
Pig.48 Window mounting 105
Pig.49 Method of clamping sideplate tongue for metal to metal seal at throat 106
Pig.50 Sideplate tongue cooling 107
Fig.51 Adjustable diffuser 108
Pig.52 Diffuser exterior characteristics and discharge piping 109
Pig.53 Standard inflatable seal, seal cap and seal groove 109
Pig.54 Seal connectors 110
Pig.55 Standard seal corner 111
Pig.56 High-pressure/low-pressure seal junction 112
Pig.57 Seal cross-over 113
Pig.58 Small angle-hinge seal 114
Pig.59 Large angle-hinge seal 115
Pig.60 Test section to diffuser seal 116
Pig.61 Calibration probe 117
Pig.62 Half-span crescent model support 118
Fig.63 Alternate model support systems 119
Fig.64 Model starting and stopping loads 120
Pig.65 Water cooled 5-component internal force balance 121
Pig.66 The 6-component external balance and support system 122
Pig.67 Schematic layout of modular manometer unit 123
Fig.68 Schematic layout of Schlieren system 124
Fig.69 3/8 scale model tunnel with sideplates removed 125
Pig.70 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle 126
ix
Page
Fig.71 3/8 scale model tunnel throat assembly 127
Pig.72 3/8 scale model tunnel throat blocks 128
Pig.73 3/8 scale hypersonic wind tunnel throat-block sections 129
Fig.74 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle with sideplate closed 130
Pig.75 3/8 scale model tunnel: thermal mixer and water injector 131
Pig.76 3/8 scale model tunnel diffuser entrance 132
Pig.77 3/8 scale model tunnel modified bulkhead seal 133
Fig.78 Throat-block and sideplate assembly 134
Fig.79 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle alignment fixture 135
Pig.80 Deviation of center line of pitot pressure from that measured at 1000F
supply section temperature 136
Fig.81 Effect of supply section temperature on the sidewall center line static
pressures 137
Fig.82 Deviation of center line pitot pressure from that measured at
264 lb/in.
2
abs supply pressure, H ~ 8.25, T = 850P 138
Pig.83(a) 3/8 scale model tunnel boundary layers 139
Pig.83(b) 3/8 scale model tunnel boundary layers 139
Fig.84 7 in. model tunnel starting and running compression ratio 140
Fig.85 3/8 scale model tunnel vertical support with missile model 141
Fig.86 3/8 scale model tunnel vertical support with GALCIT ogive 142
Fig.87 3/8 scale model tunnel single-tube axial traverse 143
Pig. 88 3-pen plotting table 144
Pig.89 5-tube pitot pressure probe 145
Pig.90 Plow Inclination probe 146
Fig.91 Characteristic influence net-3/8 scale hypersonic wind tunnel
M = 8.0 contour 147
Fig. 92 Initial calibration of M = 8.25 nozzle without symmetry correction 148
Page
Pig.93 Initial calibration of M = 8.25 nozzle symmetry correction in as noted 149
Fig.94 Initial calibration of M = 8.25 nozzle AM(design) = 0.05 150
Pig.95 Pinal calibration of M = 6 nozzle 151
Fig.96 Final calibration of M = 9.5 nozzle 152
Fig.97 Repeatability check M = 8 nozzle 153
Pig.98 Intermediate calibration of M = 8 nozzle 154
Fig.99 Final calibration of M = 8 nozzle 155
Fig.100 Centerline flow inclination M = 8 nozzle 156
xi
N O T A T I O N
M Mach number
Re unit test section Reynolds number
R e
x
test section Reynolds number based on distance from throat
Re Reynolds number
P
e
diffuser exit pressure
P
0
supply pressure
p test section static pressure
P
0
pitot pressure
T
0
supply temperature, P
T
a
maximum allowable metal temperature, P
T
c
coolant bulk temperature, *&
h
c
coolant heat transfer coefficient, Btu sec"
1
ft"
2
P"
1
h
t
air heat transfer coefficient, Btu sec"
1
ft"
2 0
P
_ 1
0 overall heat transfer coefficient, Btu sec"
1
ft"
2
P
_ 1
W skin thickness at tunnel throat, inches
x axial distance from throat
k metal conductivity, Btu sec*
1
ft"
1
P "
1
a expansion coefficient, P"
1
fj . Poisson' s ratio
E Young's modulus, lb/in.
2
boundary layer displacement thickness correlation parameter
S* boundary layer displacement thickness at nozzle exit
8* boundary layer displacement thickness from Coles
1 4
^! average boundary layer displacement thickness at nozzle exit
avg
xii
t* throat height
L* throat radius of curvature
a elastic limit stress, lb/in.
2
c
xiii
DESIGN AND OPERATION OF A CONTINUOUS-FLOW HYPERSONIC
WIND TUNNEL USING A TWO-DIMENSIONAL NOZZLE
H.M. Schurmeier*
1. INTRODUCTION
This r epor t summarizes t he wi nd-t unnel
design and operat i on experience accumulated
at t he Army-owned J et Propulsion Laboratory
( JPL) of t h e C a l i f o r n i a I n s t i t u t e of
Technology. Two continuous-flow supersoni c
wind t unne l s were desi gned and have been
operated for research and development t es t i ng
over t he pas t ni ne yoa r s . Both of t he s e
t unnel s are of t he var i abl e Reynolds number
type using t wo-di mensi onal , f l e xi bl e - pl a t e
nozzl es and produce hi gh- qual i t y a i r flow.
The l arger of these two t unnel s has an 18 i n.
x 20 i n. t e s t s e c t i on and oper at es over a
Mach number range of 1.3 t o 5. M ost of t he
operat i onal experience with these supersonic
t unnel s i s di r ect l y appl i cabl e t o a hypersonic
wind t unnel of t he t ype descr i bed i n t h i s
r epor t .
The bul k of t h i s r e por t concer ns t he
design of t he JPL hypersonic tunnel t hat wi l l
oper at e i n t he M ach number range 5 t o 9,
wi t h 21 i n. by 21 i n. t e s t s e c t i o n and a
t wo-di mensi onal nozzl e. The main f eat ur e
t hat di st i ngui shes t hi s tunnel from t he con-
ventional supersonic t unnel s i s t hat t he ai r
i s heated before expansion in t he nozzle t o
prevent ai r l i quef act i on in t he t e s t sect i on.
The other important di f f er ence i s t hat con-
si derabl y higher supply pressures are requi red
t o provide a reasonable uni t Reynolds number,
and t o avoid very low t e s t sect i on pressures
which would requi re speci al instrumentation.
The JPL sol ut i on t o t hese problems i s d i s -
cussed in some de t a i l .
(7. 4 i n. by 8 i n. t e s t s ect i on) i t i s s u i t -
able for much research work and i s now being
used for such by the Guggenheim Aeronautical
Laborat ory of t he Ca l i f or ni a I n s t i t u t e of
Technology, where t he tunnel i s l ocat ed.
2. TUNNEL USES AND LIM ITATIONS
Thi s i s a convent i onal or ' col d' hyper -
sonic t unnel In t hat t he supply t emperat ure
i s j us t suf f i ci ent l y high t o produce a model
environment t ha t i s gener al l y f r ee of a i r
condensat i on. The t unnel produces a con-
t i nuous flow of gas t ha t i s t her mal l y and
cal or i cal l y vi r t ual l y perfect as well as both
v i s c o u s and c o mp r e s s i b l e . The flow i s
pr i mar i l y in t he continuum regime with t he
c or r e c t M ach number and a Reynolds number
t ha t i s s uf f i c i e nt l y high for t he gener al
c l a s s of problems for which t he t unnel i s
appl i cabl e. The tunnel t her ef or e i s l i mi t ed
t o t he study of problems where high tempera-
t u r e i s not t he i mpor t ant f a c t o r . Thi s
means t h a t r e a l gas phenomena such a s
d i s s o c i a t i o n and i o n i z a t i o n c a nnot be
simulated in t h i s f a c i l i t y . Figure 1 shows
t he requi red supply temperatures as a function
of Mach number for var i ous amounts of l ocal
expansi on i n t he t e s t s ect i on assuming no
super-cool i ng of t he a i r . The shaded port i on
i s t he ope r a t i ng r ange of t he t unne l at
maximum supply pr essur e. At reduced supply
pr essur e t he maximum t emperat ure may be run
at a l l M ach numbers whi l e t he suppl y tem-
per at ur e requi rement s for condensat i on-free
flow are l ess severe.
A 3/ 8- s cal e aerodynamic and mechanical
model oft he nozzle and di ffuser was const ruc-
ted and consi derabl e oper at i onal experience
has been obtained. Although t hi s tunnel i s small
A t unnel of t h i s t ype i s used t o st udy
s t a b i l i t y and cont r ol problems by means of
f or ce bal ances and pr e s s ur e d i s t r i b u t i o n
measurements. Heat t r a ns f e r on p r a c t i c a l
* Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Cal i forni a I ns t i t ut e of Technology, Pasadena, Cal i f or ni a, U.S.A.
shapes and t he e f f e c t s of such t hi ngs as
angl e of a t t a c k, i n t e r f e r i n g flow f i e l d s ,
and s epar at ed flow r e gi ons , bot h with and
wi t hout va r i ous means of c ool i ng, can be
st udi ed experi ment al l y under car ef ul l y con-
t r ol l ed condi t i ons. High-speed i nl et research
i s g r e a t l y f a c i l i t a t e d , and t he st udy of
boundary l ayer problems such as Coles'
!
work
on s ki n f r i c t i o n and La u f e r ' s
2
s t a b i l i t y
I n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e made p o s s i b l e wi t h a
cont i nuous- f l ow, va r i a bl e Reynolds number
t unnel . The oper at i ng range of t he t unnel
for a t ypi c a l t hr ee- f oot model i s shown as
t h e s ha de d a r e a on F i g u r e 2 wi t h t h e
correspondi ng f l i ght a r t i c l e of f i f t y- f oot
length shown at vari ous a l t i t ude s . For most
cases t he Reynolds numbers in t he t unnel are
consi derabl y below t he f l i ght val ues. This
i s t he same order of di f f er ence t hat e xi s t s
i n most s upe r s oni c t u n n e l s and t he same
problems a r i s e with r espect t o the boundary
l ayer . For t he t ype of s t u d i e s for which
t h i s t unnel i s s ui t ed, an important quest i on
i s whether t he boundary l ayer i s laminar or
t ur bul ent . Tri ppi ng of t he boundary l ayer
may be r equi r ed and t echni ques s i mi l a r t o
t hose used i n super soni c t unnel s should be
developed
3
. For t hose cases where t r i ppi ng
i s not pr a c t i c a l , ot her t echni ques ought t o
be l ooked i n t o , such as t h e s u p e r s o n i c
t unnel use of Azobenzene t o det er mi ne t he
e xt e nt of l ami nar and t u r b u l e n t boundary
l ayer on a model t o eval uat e t he ski n f r i ct i on
drag".
The minimum Reynol ds number l i n e of
Figure 2 i s determined by t he minimum i nl e t
pr es s ur e t o t he compressor pl ant at which
s uf f i ci ent compression r a t i o i s mai nt ai ned
and i s es t i mat ed t o be about 0. 25 l b / i n .
2
abs. Thi s cor r es ponds t o a t e s t s e c t i on
s t a t i c pr e s s ur e r ange from 0. 67 mm Hg at
M = 6 down t o 0. 25 mm Hg at M = 9. Test i ng
at t h i s lower l i mi t may prove useful for t he
study of low densi t y problems.
3 . DESIGN CONCEPTS
I n g e n e r a l , most wi nd t u n n e l s a r e
de s i gne d ar ound an e x i s t i n g or r e a d i l y
avai l abl e piece of equipment such as surpl us
a i r c r a f t e ngi ne s , h i g h - p r e s s u r e s t o r a g e
bot t l e s , a water f a l l , a rack cave, and many
ot he r s . In t h i s case i t was t he e x i s t i n g
compressor pl ant consi st i ng of seven mul t i -
st age cent r i f ugal machines and an avai l abl e
supply of e l e c t r i c power. By r est agi ng t h i s
exi s t i ng pl ant and adding two hi gh- pr essur e
compressors, suf f i ci ent mass flow and a high
enough compression r a t i o were made avai l abl e
t o dr i ve a t unnel 21 Inches squar e wi t h a
maximum supply pressure of 45 atmospheres.
The ot her boundary condi t i on on t he design
was t hat i t should be a var i abl e Mach number
t unnel in t he sense t hat i t could be operated
at any Mach number by adj ust i ng a f l e xi bl e -
pl a t e nozzl e t o produce uniform ai r f l ow at
t he desi red Mach number.
The process of machining a f l a t pl at e and
then, by means of pressure and flow i ncl i na-
t i on measurements, s et t i ng t he f l exi bl e f l at
p l a t e t o a cont our t ha t c o r r e c t s f or t he
boundary l a ye r e f f e c t s , t he f a b r i c a t i o n
er r or s , and t he f ai l ur e t o match exact l y the
desi gn cont our wi t h a pi n- suppor t ed pl a t e ,
has proved t o be highly successful . The JPL
20 inch t unnel has produced excel l ent flow
up t o Mach number 5, and i t was desi red t hat
t hi s type of nozzle with i t s r es ul t i ng hi gh-
qual i t y ai rfl ow be used up t o t he Mach number
where t he mechanical t ol er ances on t he t hr oat
r egi on ar e t he l i mi t i ng f act or (t hought t o
be about M ach
9
).
From an aerodynamic poi nt of view, t he
design concept was t o use a two-dimensional,
f l e x i b l e - p l a t e nozzl e with di ver gi ng s i d e -
walls t o compensate for t he sl dewal l boundary
l ayer growth and consequent l y improve t he
flow i n c l i n a t i o n In t he hor i z ont a l pl ane.
The t h r o a t r a d i u s was made a s l a r g e as
pr a c t i c a l t o minimize t he sl dewal l pr essur e
gr adi ent s , and t he r e s ul t i ng secondary flow
e f f e c t s on t he boundary l a ye r which have
r esul t ed in ser i ous flow non-uni formi t i es in
two-dimensional nozzl es with pr opor t i onal l y
smaller t hr oat r a di i .
Prom a mechanical standpoint, the design
concept was t o have maximum r i gi di t y and
repeatability of the nozzle with the overall
design based on minimum deflection and then
wat er - cool ed t o pr es er ve di mensi onal
st abi l i t y at elevated temperatures. Previous
experimental work had demonstrated t hat
small st eps in the nozzle walls near t he
throat or high-pressure air leakage along the
corners of the throat caused large di st urb-
ances t o t he t e s t s ect i on flow. These
r esul t s, together with the desi re to have
the sidewalls removable for complete access
t o the nozzle, placed additional r est r ai nt s
on the mechanical design of the nozzle.
From the operational requirements, i t was
desi rabl e t hat flow be established at low
pressure to minimize st ar t i ng loads before
raising supply temperature and pressure t o
the desired operating conditions. This was
to be accomplished in about 10 minutes. It
was also desired that equilibrium operating
conditions ( i . e. , Mach number and temperature
and pressure distributions not changing with
time) be established at about the same time.
The time to change from one Mach number to
another was to be of the order of one hour.
The operational experience in the 20 inch
tunnel, with the use of both i nt ernal and
ext ernal balances, was t o be used in the
balance and model suspension system design.
The general arrangement of the tunnel i s
shown in Figure 3. Considerable use was made
of standard commercial equipment to minimize
the i ni t i al cost and construction time, the
shakedown period, and the problems of main-
tenance and repair.
4. AIR SUPPLY
4. 1 Compressor Pl ant
One of the fundamental concepts embodied
in t hi s hypersonic wind tunnel design was
that the ai r ci rcui t should be a reci rcul a-
t i ng, closed-loop type with a continuous
compressor pl a nt . Such a c i r c u i t i s
i nherent l y economical with dry ai r while
providing for simple, versat i l e ai r-densi t y
control.
The basic airflow schematic layout, similar
to that used in the two existing JPL super-
sonic tunnels, i s shown in Figure 4. This
layout shows the r el at i onshi p between the
working section and the compressor pl ant .
The working section or wind tunnel consists
of the supply sect i on, hypersonic nozzle,
t est section, and adj ustable diffuser. The
compressor plant includes the heater, fixed
subsonic diffuser, tunnel aftercooler, and
i nt er - connect i ng ai r pi pi ng, as well as
compressors. The required tunnel compression
r a t i o ( P
0
/ P
e
= supply pr essur e/ dl f f user
exit pressure) must be equaled or bettered
by the compressor plant in order to operate
the tunnel sat i sfact ori l y.
The sel ect i on of the required overal l
pl ant compression r a t i o capabi l i t y was
based largely on the following desired tunnel
oper at i ons: (1) t o be able t o s t a r t t he
t unnel col d, i . e . , wi t hout ai d of a i r
heater; (2) to have suffi ci ent excess com-
pression r at i o to allow fai rl y rapid bleed-
in rat es for pressure-level changes or ai r
drying; and (3) t o be abl e t o s t a r t t he
tunnel for most t est configurations without
speci al s t ar t i ng ai ds. The compression-
rat i o values selected were based on the t est s
of the 3/8 scale model tunnel.
In general, a clean or empty t est section
configuration allows the model tunnel to run
at a compression rat i o roughly equivalent to
pi t ot r at i o (pressure r at i o across a normal
shock). However, for st ar t i ng the tunnel,
a compression r at i o nearly 1.8 times pi t ot
r at i o i s requi red. For most wind tunnel
models, a running rat i o somewhat above pi t ot
rat i o i s necessary. With a continuous-type
compressor plant, compression rat i os essen-
t i al l y equal to those required for st art i ng
are available at al l times.
The design of t he hypersoni c t unnel
compressor plant i s based upon the design
and operating experience gained from the
operation of the two existing JPL supersonic
t unnel s. These t unnel s, ut i l i s i ng a con-
tinuous-flow, variable-density, closed-loop
ai r ci r cui t , have enj oyed a high degree of
success. The 12 inch t unnel , Mach 1.3 t o
4.0, requiring a continuous compressor plant
of 4000 horsepower, has been in service since
1947. The 20 inch tunnel, Mach 1.3 t o 5.0,
requiring 10,000 horsepower of continuous
compressor plant, has been heavily used since
i t s i ni t i al operation in 1950.
The existing compressor plant consists of
seven Ingersoll-Rand centrifugal compressor
uni t s , each dri ven by an e l e c t r i c motor
through speed-increasing gears. Alphabetical
desi gnat ors (A. B, C, D, E, P and G) are
used at JPL to identify the various units.
The i ndi vi dual performance curves of
i n l e t volume vs compressi on r a t i o and
horsepower for the existing uni t s are shown
in Figure 5. Maximum pressures are determined
primarily by the compressor casing construc-
tion and secondarily by motor horsepower.
By valving and multiple-piping ci r cui t s,
t he compressors can be arranged in ser i es
or paral l el or added or subtracted to provide
the best compression r at i o and volume require-
ments for any given operat i on. The plant
ci r cui t r y i s such t hat the compressors can
be changed from one t unnel t o t he ot her
without being stopped during the working day.
In order to prevent excessive air-temperature
build-up, each compressor i s equipped with a
water-tube aftercooler which normally cools
the ai r t o 100F.
The cent r i f ugal type compressors were
i n i t i a l l y sel ect ed as t he best st andard
commercial design t o provide the necessary
volumes and compression r a t i os with non-
pul sat i ng, oi l - f r ee, dry ai r . The uni t s
have a l l operated between 30 and 40 hours
per week on scheduled t e s t s si nce being
placed in operation. The maintenance has
been rout i ne with a minimum program being
the usual pr act i ce. The compressor cases
are opened about every two years for inspec-
t i on of t he r ot or s , s t at i onar y di f f user
passages, shaft seal s, gears, and bearings.
On one such occasion, several r i vet s were
tightened on one of the r ot or s, otherwise
t hese r out i ne Inspect i ons have di scl osed
nothing requi ri ng r epai r , replacement, or
adj ustment. About once a year coupl i ng
al i gnment i s checked and r eal i gned as
necessary. M otor inspections and resul t ant
'minor' repairs are more frequent because of
t he somewhat severe servi ce condi t i on of
dai l y s t a r t s and st ops. Prom an over al l
s t andpoi nt , t he cent r i f ugal compressor
plant has been remarkably trouble-free and
easy to maintain.
In order t o provide a useful pressure
level in the 21 inch hypersonic t est section,
i t was decided t o operate the compressor
pl ant at 45 atmospheres for maximum Mach
number t es t i ng. A future requirement for
increasing the supply pressure to 70 atmos-
pheres with the future addition of another
compressor was also included in the piping and
tunnel design. This report, however, deals
only with the compressors i ni t i al l y installed
for the 45 atmospheres service.
In order t o match a compressor plant t o
the tunnel, i t was necessary to fix the t est
section si ze. I ni t i al l y, an effect i ve ai r
stream of 256 in.
2
cross-section (16 in. by
16 i n. ) was s e l e c t e d. Lat er , t h i s was
increased to 290 in.
2
yielding approximately
equal hei ght and width in t he upper Mach
number range. Thus, the geometrical cross-
section required in the t est area, including
an est i mat ed boundary l ayer on a l l four
walls, i s about 21 in. by 21 in. With the
variable-height nozzle feature, the tunnel
can be adj usted for act ual boundary-layer
t hi cknesses and other operat i onal l i mi t s
to ut i l i ze the ai r supply in the best way.
Once the pressure, temperature, compression
r a t i o, and t e s t sect i on si ze were est ab-
lished, the mass flow or volume flow could be
r e a di l y c a l c ul a t e d for any given M ach
number condition. For instance, at M = 8.5
with supply conditions of 600 l b/ i n.
2
abs.
and 100P and a required compression r at i o
of 280, the diffuser exit volume i s 86,000
ftVmln at 100p or 14.8 lb/sec. Increasing
the supply temperature to 1000P reduces the
diffuser exit volume to about 53,000 ftVmln
at 100P and t he mass flow t o about 9.1
l b/ sec. With a few broad assumptions as t o
t unnel r equi r ement s and t he way t he com-
pr e s s or pl a nt might be ar r anged, i t was
evident t hat t he mass flow requi red over t he
ent i r e range at maximum densi t y would be in
t he range of 9 t o 18 lb of a i r / s e c .
In consi deri ng t he dr y- ai r requi rement s
for t he hyper soni c t unnel , l e t us b r i e f l y
review t he dr y- a i r system and oper at i onal
l i mi t a t i ons for t he e xi s t i ng JPL t unne l s .
M ost t e s t s in t he 12 inch and 20 inch t unnel s
u t i l i z e t he a i r at -10F t o +10F dewpoint.
A l ar ge, act i vat ed alumina dryer oper at i ng
a t at mos pher i c p r e s s u r e and c a pa bl e of
pr ovi di ng -40P dewpoi nt a i r i s used t o
supply ai r t o both t unnel s . Under t ypi c a l
operating condi t i ons, i t has been determined
t ha t t he alumina can hol d 2 t o 3% of i t s
own weight in water. Although t he hypersonic
tunnel wi l l requi re t he same general dryness
of a i r , t he expect ed da i l y d r y - a i r usage
wi l l not be as g r e a t as f or t he o t h e r
t unne l s , as t he hi gh- pr es s ur e compressor
plant i s a form of ai r dryer in i t s el f . For
example, ai r s at ur at ed with water vapor at
600 l b / i n .
2
and 100F when expanded t o
atmospheric pressure at 100F has a dewpoint
of about 0F or a water t o ai r weight r a t i o
of 11 x 10"
u
. Thus, adequate drying may be
pr ovi ded by compressi on al one for suppl y
pr es s ur es of 400 l b / i n .
2
or hi gher . The
water i s removed from the compressed ai r in
t he compressor af t er cool er s . However, t h i s
gener al problem i s s t i l l under st udy, and
i t i s l i kel y t hat some supplementary hi gh-
pressure dryer wi l l be requi red.
Both exi st i ng supersoni c t unnel s u t i l i z e
quick-acting by-pass valve arrangements which
allow t he supersoni c flow t o be est abl i shed
i n a matter of a few seconds. The compressor
pl ant i s normally operated at ful l compression
r a t i o with atmospheric supply pr essur e and
run through a by-pass ci r cui t before t he main
t unnel a i r val ve i s opened. The main a i r
valves are operated by ai r cyl i nder s in two
seconds, t hus reducing l oads on t he models
and support s. After t he t unnel i s s t ar t ed,
t he ci r cui t i s rapi dl y brought t o t he desi red
oper at i ng pr es s ur e. The same concept was
desi r ed for t he hypersoni c t unnel al t hough
i t was r e a l i z e d t h a t s uppl y p r e s s u r e s
appreciably above atmospheric would probably
be r equi r ed for s t a r t i n g t he hi gher M ach
numbers. I t was decided t o l ocat e the quick
a c t i ng main a i r val ve for t he new t unnel
between t he heat er and t he suppl y tank t o
reduce t he ai r vel oci t y shock on the i nt er nal
par t s of t he heat er . The quick act i ng val ve
then became known as t he ' hot val ve' as i t
had t o be designed for t he maximum operat i ng
temperature of 1350F.
Agai n, as a r e s u l t of o p e r a t i o n a l
exper i ence wi t h t he e x i s t i n g t unne l s , i t
was s t r ongl y recommended t ha t a t o t a l com-
pr essor pl ant and t unnel cont r ol cent er be
provided near t he t es t sect i on. The exi st i ng
20 i nch t unnel c ont r ol c e nt e r i s used t o
operat e t he compressors and main ai r val ves
remotely, t o cont rol pressure and temperature
l evel s, t o cont rol fast s t a r t s and st ops, t o
oper at e t he wind t unnel models, t o program
t he model through var i ous or i e nt a t i ons , t o
read bal ances, and t o observe t he model and
flow opt i cal l y, Such an operat i on, of course,
r e qui r e s s e ve r a l per s ons , one or more of
whom are compressor-plant operat ors, However,
t he value of knowing di r ect l y what the ot her
members of t he cont r ol cent er are doing and
being aware of t he i r operat i ng problems has
proved i nval uabl e on many occasi ons. Thus,
with t he added r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s of heat er
cont rol for maintaining t he proper operat i ng
t emper at ur e as wel l as t he mul t i t ude of
cool i ng c i r c u i t r y t o be moni t ored, i t was
evi dent t h a t a t o t a l c o n t r o l c e nt e r was
e s s e n t i a l for t he hyper soni c t unne l . I t
shoul d be not ed t h a t a l l a u x i l i a r y com-
pr essor pl ant appar at us i s cont r ol l ed from
auxi l i ar y panel s in the compressor rooms and
not from t he c ont r ol c e nt e r . I nt e r l oc ks
pr event improper ope r a t i on of compressor
pl ant equipment not d i r e c t l y monitored at
the cont rol cent er.
In or der t o pr ovi de t he neces s ar y a i r
suppl y, t he fol l owi ng maj or and a uxi l i a r y
equipment i t ems were r equi r ed for t he new
t unnel :
1) Compr essor s - t o boos t t he maximum
pressure from t he exi st i ng pl ant t o 45
atmospheres
2) Ai r Heat er - t o i nc r e a s e t he suppl y
ai r temperature from 100F t o 1350P
3) Tunnel Af t er cool er - t o cool t he hot
tunnel di scharge ai r from approximately
1350 t o 100F b e f o r e t h e a i r i s
returned t o t he compressor pl ant
4) Ai r Pi pi ng and Valves - t o al l ow best
ar r angement s of compr essor s t o meet
t he t unnel r equi r ement s and a l s o t o
pr ovi de a qui c k- a c t i ng col d by- pas s
for t he main a i r flow
5) Cooling Towers, Water Pumps, and Water
Pi pi ng - suf f i ci ent t o provide adequate
cool i ng for t he new compressor a f t e r -
cool er s , t he t unnel a f t e r c ool e r , and
t o cool t he wat er - j acket ed hypersoni c
tunnel
6) Central cont rol panel .
After i nvest i gat i ng several arrangements
of t he exi s t i ng cent r i f ugal compressors and
a v a i l a b l e h i g h - p r e s s u r e commer ci al com-
pr essor s, t he compressor st agi ng as i ndi cat ed
i n Fi gure 6 was s el ect ed because i t s a t i s -
f a c t o r i l y handl ed t he mass flow, pr ovi ded
t he hi ghest compression r a t i o , and r equi r ed
t he fewest changes in t he e xi s t i ng pi pi ng.
With t h i s pl ant i t i s possi bl e t o del i ver t he
desi r ed mass flow t o t he new compressors at
62 l b / i n .
2
a bs , 100P, and 3500 f t Vml n
a c t u a l d i s c h a r g e vol ume. The r e q u i r e d
a d d i t i o n a l compressi on r a t i o of t e n (600
l b / i n .
2
abs/ 60 l b / i n .
2
a bs . ) coul d not be
produced economically i n a s i ngl e e xi s t i ng
commercial compressor desi gn. However, i t
could be achieved with two new compressors
arranged in s er i es , each producing a port i on
of t he r equi r ed compression. The new uni t s
were des i gnat ed J and K, K bei ng t he l a s t
s t a ge . Commercial e f f i c i e n c i e s c ur r e nt l y
obt ai nabl e i ndi cat ed t hat a 2000 horsepower
d r i v e r would be r e qui r e d f or each u n i t .
Synchronous motors wi t h a power f act or of
uni t y were agai n s el ect ed because of pr i ce
and because of t h e i r be ne f i c i a l ef f ect on
t he o v e r a l l e l e c t r i c power b i l l . Speed-
I nc r e a s i ng gear i ng was s pe c i f i e d, as t he
range of compressor speeds vari ed from 8000
t o 12,000 rpm depending upon t he manufacturer
sel ect ed. El ect r i cal switchgear was sel ect ed
for a c r os s - t he - l i ne s t a r t i n g , following t he
pat t er n es t abl i s hed by t he 4000 horsepower
(A, B and C) compressor i ns t a l l a t i on.
The hi gh- pr e s s ur e compressors s e l e c t e d
had performance c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s as shown in
Fi gure 7. The new compressor equipment as
well as t he exi s t i ng items are given in Table
1. A phot ogr a ph of t h e J-K compr es s or
i ns t a l l a t i on i s shown in Figure 8. A volume-
sensing, automatic by-pass system manufactured
by Republic Instrument Company was purchased
for each new compressor. The by-pass val ve
was t o open j u s t f a r enough t o keep t he
compressor out of pumping whenever t he c i r -
cui t volume was reduced below a predetermined
minimum r egar dl es s of pr essur e l evel . This
system has worked well si nce i t s i ns t a l l a t i on.
At t hi s poi nt , i t may be of some i nt er es t
t o r e l a t e t he gener al method used t o s el ect
t he bes t compr essor ar r angement f or t h i s
pa r t i c ul a r t unnel . The method i s a s or t of
educated t r l a l - a n d - e r r o r process appl i cabl e
t o most compressor matching problems. I t I s
necessar y t o know t he r e l a t i ons hi p between
compression r a t i o and i nl e t volume for each
a i r compressor being consi dered. The i nl e t
volume di vi ded by t he compression r a t i o i s
then equal t o t he di schar ge volume provided
t he di s c ha r ge a i r i s cool ed t o t he i n l e t
t emperat ure. Because t he ai r volume passi ng
t hr ough t h e p l a n t becomes s u c c e s s i v e l y
smal l er, t he f i r s t t r i a l arrangement cons i s t s
of ar r angi ng t he compressors in a t ype of
s e r i e s s t a gi ng wi t h s uc c e s s i ve l y s mal l er
volume compressors or smal l er volume groups
pl aced s uc c e s s i ve l y al ong t he a i r st r eam.
The over al l pl ant compression r a t i o can then
be computed by f ol l owi ng an assumed i n l e t
volume t hrough t he pl ant t o t he f i nal d i s -
charge volume. If estimated pressure l osses
between st ages ar e included in t he cal cul a-
t i on, t he pl ant i nl e t volume di vi ded by t he
p l a n t d i s c h a r g e vol ume wi l l y i e l d t h e
avai l abl e compression r a t i o.
In order t o have a sat i sf act or y operat i ng
c ondi t i on, each compressor must have an
intake volume somewhere between t he 'pumping
l i mi t ' and t he volume cor r espondi ng t o a
compression r at i o of 1.0. The pumping l i mi t
i s def i ned as t he minimum flow which t he
compressor can t ol e r a t e and s t i l l produce a
cons t ant flow or compressi on r a t i o . The
pumping l i mi t can be determined experimentally
f or c e n t r i f u g a l c ompr e s s or s by s l owl y
decreasi ng the i nl e t flow unt i l an unsteady
flow phenomenon i s evidenced by the rapid f l uc-
t uat i on of i nl e t or di scharge pr essur es or
f l uct uat i on of input power, or sometimes by
a pounding in the piping or compressor. This
i s o b v i o u s l y an i mp r a c t i c a l o p e r a t i n g
condi t i on. On t he ot her hand i f t he volume
t o a gi ven s t a ge i s more t han t he i n l e t
volume corresponding t o a uni t -compressi on-
r a t i o volume, t he pr evi ous s t a ge wi l l be
forced t o a hi gher compression r a t i o t hus
changing t he i nl e t volume t o t he pr evi ous
st age.
A sample cal cul at i on for t he seven-st age
hyper s oni c compressor pl a nt i s shown i n
Table 2. Case 1 shows an assumed condi t i on
of i ns uf f i c i e nt volume flow, whereas case
2 i ndi cat es too much volume flow; t her ef or e,
nei t her i s a possi bl e condition of operat i on.
The volume sel ect ed for case 3 does r e s ul t
in a possi bl e operat i ng condi t i on. Several
other flow values can be used t o develop the
curve of compression r a t i o vs volume. Then,
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of any ot he r p l a n t
arrangement can be computed for comparison
and t he best arrangement sel ect ed. In order
t o es t i mat e t he over al l compression r a t i o
avai l abl e t o the wind tunnel nozzl e-dl ffuser
assembl y, i t was necessar y t o es t i mat e a
var i et y of I nt er s t age, heat exchanger, and
pi pi ng l o s s e s . As a gener al r u l e , a 3%
pr essur e r a t i o l oss i s ant i ci pat ed between
each stage of compression at each compressor
desi gn volume. Pr essur e l os s es for ot her
volume flow r at es were cal cul at ed in propor-
t i on t o the dynamic pressure exi st i ng. This
3% l os s has been f a i r l y well ver i f i ed with
compressor pl ant t es t i ng. The tunnel af t er -
cooler pr essur e r a t i o l oss was est i mat ed by
t he manufacturer and by JPL. This value was
t aken t o be t en t i mes t he dynamic pr es s ur e
at t he i n l e t . Other assumptions Incl ude a
p r e s s u r e g a i n i n t h e f i x e d s u b s o n i c
di ffuser of only one-half the dynamic pressure
head at t he i nl et area t o t he fixed di ffuser.
Another l os s occurred in a gr i d- t ype model
cat cher l ocat ed j us t upstream of t he a f t e r -
cool er i nl e t ; t h i s was taken as fi ve t i mes
t he dynamic pr essur e head j us t upstream of
t he gr i d. Thus with t hese var i ous assump-
t i ons and compressor performance curves, t he
a va i l a bl e t unne l compressi on r a t i o cur ve
shown in Figure 9 was developed.
The Kewanee Ross t unnel af t er cool er s e l -
ected was of r at her speci al design t o wi t h-
stand t he high t emperat ures involved and t o
provide a high degree of r e l i a b i l i t y agai nst
water l eaks. Wolverine ' l o- f i n' admi ral t y
metal 'U' tubes are hung ver t i cal l y with a l l
water connections at t he t op. The t ubes ar e
welded t o t he t op t ube sheet t o i ns ur e a
t i ght water j oi nt under var i ous condi t i ons
of expansion. The 1664 t ubes have 6800 f t
2
of area and are designed for a cooling water
r equi r ement of 2400 ga l l ons per mi nut e.
Also, a flow of 1200 gallons/min i s requi red
t o cool t he upstream port i on of t he a f t e r -
cooler s he l l .
The qui ck- st ar t i ng valve requi red between
t he heat er and t he suppl y s ect i on was not
commercially avai l abl e because of t he 1350F
operating temperature. The basi c speci f i ca-
t i o n s of t he val ve c a l l e d for t wo-second
operation with an hydraul i c cyl i nder act uat or
and t i ght shut off with an upstream pr essur e
of 400 lb/in. In addition, the valve
should be able to withstand and shut off
against a future system pressure of 1000
l b/ i n. The most convenient piping l ocat i on
was in a 90 elbow formed by t he ve r t i c a l l y
downward h e a t e r d i s c h a r g e l i n e and t h e
hori zont al i nl et pipe attached t o the supply
s e c t i o n . Thus, an angl e val ve was most
de s i r a bl e . In or der t o keep t he pr es s ur e
dr op low f or low M ach number o p e r a t i o n
(5 < M < 6) and t o conform with t he r e s t of
the pi pi ng, a 10 inch i nt ernal -di amet er valve
8
was r equi r ed. In order t o si mpl i fy t he
design, a globe or plug-type valve was con-
sidered acceptable. Westinghouse El ect r i c
Corporation designed and fabricated the valve.
Design features included internal insulation
and Inconel-X alloy for the valve seat, valve
plug and valve stem.
The cool i ng water system for t he new
compressors, tunnel and tunnel aftercooler
was divided i nt o two par t s . The t unnel ,
consi st i ng of the t hroat blocks, nozzle,
t es t sect i on and di ffuser, i s cooled with
treated di s t i l l ed water in order to prevent
any chemical deposit build-up at the 'hot
spot s' . Any compressor plant heat exchanger
which comes in contact with ai r at 400P or
hot t er, such as the tunnel aftercooler, i s
al so on the di s t i l l ed- wat er system. All
other cooling j obs are supplied with water
from a separate, treated raw-water ci r cui t .
A new cool i ng tower with a 4000 gal l / mi n
di st i l l ed-wat er section and a 7000 gall/mln
raw-water section has been installed to meet
these needs. The resultant water pumps for
t hi s system t ot a l nearly 1000 horsepower.
The remainder of the auxiliary equipment i s
essent i al l y standard with al l high pressure
ai r items having ASME const ruct i on. Each
compressor in the ci r cui t i s protected by a
r el i ef valve on the discharge t o prevent
over pr essur e damage. A check val ve i s
i nst al l ed upstream of the heater to prevent
any reversal of hot airflow back i nt o the
compressor plant in the event of an emer-
gency shutdown or el ect r i cal power outflow
to the compressor plant.
The central control panel combining tunnel
and primary compressor controls was designed
by JPL and fabricated by the Panelit Company.
The cont r ol cent er i s i ns t al l ed with t he
model and tunnel controls about twenty feet
from the t es t section location. Figure 10
i s a photograph of the control center taken
during i nst al l at i on. The tunnel t est section
will be vi s i bl e through the sloping gl ass
windows on the ri ght end of the panel. The
panel sect i ons marked 1, 3 and 5 in t hi s
figure are for compressor plant control and
f e a t ur e gr aphi c panel s of a l l t he a i r
c i r c ui t r y. The t r apezoi dal shapes con-
taining gauges each represents a centrifugal
compressor. All compressor and valve con-
t r ol s required to set the plant for a given
ci rcui t are located on the graphic panel at
the proper schematic location.
After the compressor plant i s operating
at desi red compression r a t i o through t he
tunnel by-pass, the actual st ar t i ng of the
tunnel i s accomplished by the remote controls
located waist high on t he sloping shelf,
section 1, at the center of the panel. The
plant pressure cont rol s and gauges are in
the same area. The ai r temperature (heater
cont rol s) are located in sect i on 2 in the
vert i cal panel. The large precision bourdon-
tube gauges in section 4 are for determination
of supply pressure for vari ous operat i ng
ranges. With t hi s arrangement of controls
and indications, i t i s hoped that eventually
a single operator st at i oned at panel 1 can
control both the compressor plant and heater
cont rol s. Other operators from the tunnel
crew are required for the tunnel and model
controls located In panels 4, 6 and 8.
One of the important reasons for a single
operator to control both pressure and tem-
perature becomes evident when i t is realized
t hat heat i ng t he ai r provi des the tunnel
with more volume in accordance with t he
absolute temperature r a t i o ( T
n o t
/ T
c o l d
) ,
but t he a b i l i t y of t he t unnel t hr oat t o
accept flow i s limited t o the speed of sound
or t he s quar e- r oot of t he same r a t i o ,
^hot ^col d)
Th e n e t
effect i s that supply
pressure Increases as the supply temperature
i s increased unt i l maximum plant compression
r a t i o i s achieved. For high Mach number
operation where maximum temperatures are
required, the compressor plant can readily be
forced into a 'pumping' condition because of
the reduced ' cold' flow requirements which
t he compressor pl ant f eel s ahead of t he
heater. For these operations, i t i s necessary
to by-pass part of the flow around the tunnel
through a trimmer ci r cui t t o maintain the
compressors in a s t abl e operat i ng range.
Therefore, the si ngl e compressor operator
at panel 1 wi l l be required t o coordinate
the cr i t i cal parameters of pressure, tem-
perature, and by-pass trimmer flow.
The interlocks in the tunnel compressor
plant are f ai r l y numerous although i t i s
desirable t o hold them to a minimum. For
instance, whenever the tunnel or compressors
are stopped, the el ect r i c heater should be
shut off; whenever the main tunnel ai r valve
is opened, the by-pass valve must be closed,
et c. Serious t unnel damage can occur i f
cooling water flow i s stopped unknowingly;
therefore, automatic interlocks are required
to open the heater el ect ri cal ci rcui t s if the
water flow stops or any part exceeds i t s safe
temperature. A separate handbook det ai l i ng
the operation of al l tunnel and compressor
plant i nt erl ocks i s being developed. The
fi rst requirement of interlocks i s that they
protect personnel, and the second i s t hat
they protect the f aci l i t y. Third pr i or i t y
i nt erl ocks will prot ect the tunnel models
and associated temporary t est apparatus.
The l i nes of const ant Mach number in
Figure 9 r adi at i ng from the or i gi n were
calculated from a simple continuity equation
for sonic flow through the tunnel t hroat
based on an ef f ect i ve area in t he t e s t
section of 290 i n.
2
. Symbols on these lines
i ndi cat e est i mat ed t unnel requi rement s.
The proposed new arrangement readily encom-
passes al l the desired operating conditions
in the desired Mach range. All el evat ed
temperatures shown are for a six-degree local
expansion without condensation except for the
heat er-l i mi t ed 1335 for Mach 9 which i s
believed to be adequate for a three-degree
local expansion. Where the Mach l i nes do
not have sufficient volume to intersect the
ver t i cal port i on of the compressor plant
curve, the plant trimmer by-pass ci r cui t
must be used. It is interesting to note that
the compression r at i o is decreased from 420
t o 155 if the l ast stage (Compressor K) i s
omitted from the pl ant . Approximately the
same decrease occurs i f t he f i r s t st age
(Compressors A and B) is eliminated plus the
fact that the diffuser exit volume is halved
in t hi s case. The excess compression rat i os
avai l abl e are shown in another manner in
Figure 11. It should be pointed out that the
s o- cal l ed excess compression r a t i o can
quickly disappear if appreciable tunnel leaks
exi st in ei t her t he high or low pressure
parts of the ci rcui t . When ai r i s bled into
or out of the ci rcui t to change the pressure
l evel , the over al l compression r a t i o i s
t emporari l y decreased unt i l the desi red
pressure l evel i s obt ai ned, and the a i r
bleed-in or bleed-out is ended. For cr i t i cal
Mach number operations where the compression
rat i o is j ust sufficient, the maximum bleed-
in rat es must be reduced and monitored very
closely in order to prevent flow breakdown
due to loss of compression rat i o. A typical
supply pressure build-up from 100 l b/ i n.
2
to
400 l b/ i n.
2
for Mach 7 operation may take
five or six minutes. The maximum supply
pressures expected for both hot and cold
operation are shown in Figure 12.
4.2 Air Heater
The design of an ai r heater for a hyper-
sonic wind tunnel capable of continuous
operation poses several interesting and con-
f l i ct i ng problems. Fi r s t , an energy con-
version system must be employed that is both
pr act i cal and economical operat i ng on a
continuous basis. This immediately rules out
heat st orage systems t hat have been used
successfully for i nt er mi t t ent l y operating
f aci l i t i es with t hei r attendant low i ni t i al
and operating costs. Second, the ai r heating
system, although capabl e of cont i nuous
operat i on, must be designed for repeated
cycles of on-off duty with a minimum of time
allowed for the heater t o reach operating
equilibrium for each cycle. This is essential
for a wind tunnel appl i cat i on where many
configuration changes are made to the t est
model each day. Third, if the wind tunnel
i s to be used for steady-state heat transfer
measurements on aerodynamic models, i t i s
essent i al that during the time i t takes to
make t he heat t r ans f er measurements t he
t unnel ai r temperature should remain as
constant as possible. Fourth, i t is desirable
to have a heater that will require a minimum
of maintenance with a service l i fe equal to
t he useful l i f e of t he r e s t of the wind
10
t u n n e l . .These f our f e a t u r e s a r e seldom
found i n any one heat i ng system. In f act ,
i n t he megawatt heat i ng range, t he economical
and s t a b l e o u t l e t t emper at ur e a i r he a t e r s
ar e i n gener al very slow t o warm up, cool
down, and r espond t o changes i n h e a t i n g
load. There are many types of heat er s bui l t
commercially t hat can heat a i r t o 1000F at
1000 l b / i n .
2
gauge, but t he problem a r i s e s
i n fi ndi ng one t ha t can respond t o changes
i n load f a s t enough and yet c ont r ol wel l
enough at any gi ven l oad. For an i n i t i a l
survey of a i r he a t e r s for t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
wind t unnel appl i cat i on, a response r a t e of
fi ve mi nut es from no load t o f ul l load was
de s i gna t e d and a s e r v i c e l i f e of 10, 000
cycl es of on-off duty of one hour per cycl e
was sought.
A survey of commercial heat i ng companies
i ndi cat ed t h a t t he fol l owi ng t ypes of a i r
heat er s were avai l abl e in 1954:
A. Di rect Heating
1. El ect r i c
(a) Direct Immersion:
Encased or bar ribbon
(b) Tubular Nichrome or Inconel
2. Combustion Gas Generator
B. I ndi r ect Heat i ng
1. Condensing Vapor:
Steam or Dowtherm
The d i s t i n c t i o n i s made her e t h a t with
di r ect heat i ng t he heat i ng element i s immersed
i n, or i s in i nt i mat e cont act with, t he a i r
t o be heated, but t he heat i ng element does not
have t o support appreci abl e pressure di f f er -
ent i al across i t s e l f as t he ent i r e element i s
cont ai ned in a hi gh- pr e s s ur e ve s s e l . I n-
di r ect heat i ng i s , t her ef or e, consi dered t o
be any heat i ng technique wherein t he generated
heat must be conducted through t he wal l s of
a pr es s ur e ves s el s uppor t i ng t he pr es s ur e
di f f e r e nt i a l of t he hi gh- pr essur e a i r which
i s t o be heated and contained wi t hi n i t .
A. Di rect Heaters
El e c t r i c a l immersion heat i ng i s t he most
common example of t he di r e c t - he a t i ng t ype.
S e v e r a l t y p e s of e l e c t r i c a l i mmer si on
heat er s are avai l abl e e i t he r of t he encased
type where t he r es i s t ance wire elements ar e
i nsul at ed and encased t o pr ot ect them from a
corrosi ve medium, or of t he bare wire or ribbon
t ype where t he a i r t o be heat ed c i r c u l a t e s
over a ceramic col l form on which r es i s t ance
wire or ribbon has been wound. Another t ype
of e l e c t r i c a l heat er has t he form of a con-
v e n t i o n a l s h e l l and t ube he a t exchanger
wherein t he t ubes are made of an e l e c t r i c a l
r e s i s t i v e element l i ke Nichrome or Inconel
and t he a i r t o be heat ed flows t hrough t he
t ubes. The t ubes themselves are e l e c t r i c a l l y
i ns ul at ed from each ot her as wel l as from
t he pr es s ur e ves s el s he l l and ar e d i r e c t l y
he a t e d by pa s s i ng an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t
through them.
2. Forced Convection Heat Exchanger
(a) Combustion Gas Generator
(b) Turboj et Engine
3. Radiant Furnaces
(a) St at i onar y Steam Boiler Type
(b) Oi l Refinery Process Type
(c) Speci al Purpose
4. Regenerative Forced Convection Heat
Exchanger
For an a p p l i c a t i o n where t he chemi cal
composi t i on of t he t e s t i n g medium I s not
c r i t i c a l , a small amount of chemical fuel can
be appr opr i at el y burned i n a combustion gas
ge ne r a t or and t he pr oduct s of combust i on
added t o cold a i r t o d i r e c t l y heat t he a i r
t o t he desi red temperature in t he wind t unnel .
However, f ue l s c o n t a i n i n g hydr ogen form
water vapor when burned with a i r ; t h i s must
be removed from the ai r before t he expansion
nozzle t o avoid water condensation phenomena
in t he wind t unnel .
11
B. I ndi r ect Heaters
There are many var i at i ons of t he i ndi r ect
heat i ng method a v a i l a b l e . A very common
example i s the shel l and tube heat exchanger
where t he a i r t o be heat ed passes t hrough
t he tubes and t he heat i ng medium i s a vapor
l i ke steam or an organic fluid l i ke Dowtherm
which condenses on t he out si de of t he t ubes.
The condensat i on t emper at ur e can be con-
t r o l l e d very pr e c i s e l y by c ont r ol l i ng t he
t ot a l pressure of t he condensing f l ui d, and
consequently, t he out l et ai r temperature can
be cont r ol l ed very eas i l y. Dowtherm cannot
be used in excess of 750P, however, and t he
s at ur at i on pr essur e for steam at 1000F i s
i n excess of 1000 l b/ i n.
2
gauge, r equi r i ng
t ha t t he e n t i r e heat exchanger syst em be
operated at high pr essur e.
Another var i at i on of t he shel l and tube heat
exchanger uses as a heat source the combustion
gases of almost any hydrocarbon-ai r burner
combination and t r ans f er s heat t o the ai r by
forced convection in passi ng over t he high-
pr essur e t ubes cont ai ni ng t he a i r for t he
wind t unne l . Obs ol et e t u r b o j e t and gas
t ur bi ne engi nes can r eadi l y be adapted for
use as a sour ce of hot gas for t he above
type of heat exchanger by those organi zat i ons
t o whom they may be r eadi l y avai l abl e.
The va s t ma j o r i t y of commer ci al a i r
h e a t e r s i n t he megawatt r ange, however,
are adapt at i ons of heat er s used in i ndust r i al
steam superheat er s er vi ce and oi l r ef i ner y
process heating appl i cat i ons. These heat er s
t r ansf er heat generated by gas or oi l burners
most l y by r a d i a t i o n t o banks or c o i l s of
high-pressure tubing cont ai ni ng the ai r t o be
heated. The heat er s themselves are massive
s t r u c t u r e s of s t e e l and f i r e br i ck wi t h
consi derabl e quant i t i es of high temperature
al l oy t ubi ng. They must be warmed up and
cooled down slowly and respond t o changes in
heating load or out l et temperature r el at i vel y
slowly. Special cont r ol t echni ques must be
employed t o minimize t he thermal i ne r t i a of
such heat er s i f t he i r appl i cat i on t o a wind
t unnel i s t o be consi dered f eas i bl e. How-
ever, for s peci al a ppl i c a t i ons , t her e ar e
one or two compani es t h a t have modi f i ed
t he i r r adi ant heat er desi gn t o improve t he
r at e of response of t he heat er t o changes in
load but only at some s a c r i f i c e in over al l
effi ci ency.
One ot her heat i ng t echni que shoul d be
ment i oned at t h i s poi nt f or t he sake of
completeness. This i s t he r egener at i ve type
of cycl e. Since a l l t he heat added t o t he
wind t unnel ai r pri or t o t he expansion through
t he nozzl e must be removed from t he a i r
before i t can be r e c i r c ul a t e d t hrough t he
compressor system, i t i s l ogi cal t o consider
recovering some of t he wasted heat downstream
from t he wind t unnel and adding i t t o t he
a i r upst ream from t he wind t unne l . Thi s
could be done with a forced convection heat
exchanger by blowing t he low-pressure hot ai r
over a s et of finned t ubes cont ai ni ng t he
hi gh- pr essur e cold a i r and r ecover i ng most
of t he energy cont ai ned i n t he a i r t o be
r e c i r c u l a t e d . A s mal l h e a t e r coul d be
i ns t a l l e d upstream from t he wind t unnel t o
s t a r t t he process and mai nt ai n t he desi r ed
t emperat ure of t he a i r at equi l i br i um con-
di t i ons . The time r a t e of response of such
a regenerat i ve type system, however, i s much
i n doubt due p r i ma r i l y t o t he amount of
connecting piping t hat must be heated as well
as t he amount of heat t o be absorbed in t he
wind t unne l s t r u c t u r e I t s e l f dur i ng t he
pr oces s of approachi ng a new e qui l i br i um
operat i ng condi t i on.
Si nce an e l e c t r i c immersion he a t e r of
unique design was act ual l y sel ect ed for t hi s
wind tunnel appl i cat i on, a di scussi on of t he
t echni cal advantages of t hi s type of heating
over t he ot her t ypes i s i n or der . The a i r
t o be heated passes di r ect l y through or over
t he e l e c t r i c a l heat i ng elements immersed in
t he hi gh-pressure ai r stream contained within
a pr essur e ves s el . This t echni que has t he
following advantages:
(1) The heat t r ansf er problem i s separat ed
from t he pr e s s ur e v e s s e l pr obl em.
The design of t he heat i ng elements and
t he ai r f l ow channel i ng can be qui t e
i ndependent of t he f a c t t h a t t he
12
ent i r e system must operate at high
ai r pressure si nce i t al l operat es
at high pr es s ur e. Li kewi se, t he
pr es s ur e ve s s e l sur r oundi ng t he
heater can be designed solely to take
the pressure load without t he com-
plication of having simultaneously to
transfer a significant amount of heat
through the walls.
(2) Since the heat i ng elements are not
required to bear any pressure load,
they can be designed to that the ai r
optimally while minimizing any thermal
shock or thermal st ress problem.
(3) The ent i re heater and control system
can be designed pri mari l y for fast
response to changes in desired outlet
temperature, by minimizing the thermal
i n e r t i a of t he heat t r a ns f e r r i ng
elements.
(4) The system can be designed for sim-
pl i ci t y of operation and si mpl i ci t y
of cont rol since t he ent i r e system
can be el ect r i cal in operation from
the temperature sensing elements t o
the final heating element; also con-
vent i onal i ndus t r i al servo-cont rol
systems can be u t i l i z e d t o t h e i r
fullest advantage.
(5) Since the heating elements themselves
are but a small part of the ent i r e
heating and control system and since
they bear no si gni fi cant mechanical
load, they can be very conservatively
designed at no great increase in t ot al
heater expense. Consequently, modif-
i cat i ons in desi gn and oper at i ng
techniques may be performed more easily
and cheaply t o improve the overal l
heater system performance for future
extended wind t unnel appl i cat i ons
than for some ot her a i r he a t e r s .
Therefore, t hi s system should be able
t o keep pace wi t h t he p o s s i b l e
ext ens i on of t he wind t unnel t o
great er c a pa bi l i t i e s as experience
with the present operating limitations
is gained.
There are at l east three types of el ec-
t r i c a l c ont r ol systems t ha t have been
recommended for the el ect r i cal r esi st ance
heating system in the megawatt range. They
are: (1) the full saturable reactor system;
(2) the l oad-rat i o-cont rol system; and (3)
t he mul t i pl e- ci r cui t breaker system. For
t he f i r s t system a s at ur abl e r eact or i s
employed t o control the energy input to the
heater from the minimum heating load to the
maximum load in an i nfi ni t e number of steps.
This type of control offers the fewest com-
pl i cat i ons in operation and the best load
control over the ent i re heating range. The
second type, the load-ratio-control system,
i s an automatic tap-changing technique used
on a step-down transformer. Tap changing
can be done under load and t hi s effectively
changes the turns rat i o of the transformer to
vary in small increments the voltage applied
across the heater load. The advantage of
t hi s system over a ful l sat urabl e react or
system i s t hat l oad- r at i o- cont r ol t r ans -
formers have been built for larger loads than
any saturable reactor system t o dat e. The
t hi r d t ype, the mul t i pl e c i r c ui t breaker
system, i s somewhat cheaper than the other
two but somewhat more cumbersome to operate.
In t hi s system the heat i ng elements are
el ect r i cal l y subdivided i nt o many groups,
each connected through a ci r cui t breaker to
t he power source. Control of t he heat er
output i s then accomplished by t urni ng on
suffi ci ent groups of heating elements with
the ci rcui t breakers until the desired heater
output i s obtained. If a small sat urabl e
r e a c t or i s s ubs t i t ut e d for one c i r c u i t
breaker, then a continuously variable power
Input to the heater can be obtained over the
ent i re range by using the saturable reactor
at al l times and adding di scret e increments
of power through the other ci r cui t breakers
as needed.
For t hi s part i cul ar appl i cat i on, a ful l
saturable reactor control system was selected
for two reasons: f i r s t , for i t s si mpl i ci t y
of operat i on, and second, for I t s almost
i nfi ni t e control resolution.
Most of the commercial ai r heaters, other
than the el ect ri cal immersion heaters, t rans-
13
fer heat from a low-pressure, high tempera-
t ur e source through t he wal l s of hi gh-
pressure tubing containing the ai r to be
heated. This means t hat the walls of the
tubing must be of s ui t abl e mat er i al and
thickness to retain adequately the pressure
at t hese high metal t emper at ur es while
si mul t aneousl y conduct i ng s i g n i f i c a n t
quantities of heat through the walls. There
are circumstances where thermal s t r es s es
become appreciable for even st eady- st at e
duty and thermal shock considerations become
important during fast warm-up attempts.
Tubing material propert i es det er i or at e
very rapidly for metal temperatures much
over 1000F. In fact, the yield strengths
of the more useful materials have fallen so
low t hat they cannot be used as pressure
vessel materials for metal temperatures in
excess of 1500P. Since the metal tempera-
tures must exceed the local air temperatures
by several hundred degrees Fahrenheit to do
an economical heating Job, and making allow-
ances for some uncertainty in prediction of
heat transfer patterns in these large complex
heaters and furnaces, i t i s reasonable to
conclude t hat these types of heat er s are
most pract i cal and economical for maximum
outlet air temperatures less than 1100-1200P.
One can al so concl ude t ha t i t i s very
di ffi cul t , if not impossible, to modify simply
and economically, these types of heat ers
for extension to higher ai r temperatures if
the need should ari se.
These types of heat ers lend themselves
mostly to st eady-st at e operation for long
periods of time since t hei r large quantities
of thick walled tubing do well to maintain
stable outlet ai r temperatures, but do not
lend themselves to quick warm-up and shut-down
periods nor to rapid changes of load. For
application to a model-testing wind tunnel
cycle, i t seems almost imperative t hat a
subst ant i al l y fast er load and temperature
control system be employed than that generally
available for the more conventional steady
load applications. One such control scheme
could be a by-pass ai r temperature control
system wherein the f r act i on of a i r t hat
passes through the heat er i s heated t o a
temperature higher than actually' desired at
the wind tunnel. The rest of the ai r by-passes
the heater ent i rel y and temperature control
at the wind tunnel is achieved by mixing the
two streams in the proper proportions. This
scheme essentially removes the heater i nert i a
from the temperature control loop and allows
for appreci abl y f ast er response t o load
changes.
For t hi s particular wind tunnel, a heater
was needed to meet the steady-state heating
requirements of Figure 13. I t was desired
t hat the heat er be capable of continuous
operation at any point within the envelopes
indicated. The lower limit of the curves
corresponds t o t he minimum t e s t sect i on
pressure at which i t was estimated that the
compressor plant and diffuser combination
would operate and t est section temperature
t hat would j ust preclude ai r condensation
at t hat pressure. The upper limit corres-
ponds t o the maximum t est section pressure
t hat t he par t i cul ar compressor plant con-
figuration could deliver at each Mach number
and a t es t section temperature t hat would
allow a 6 furt her expansion around t he
t est model without ai r condensation at t hat
poi nt . These oper at i ng envelopes were
determined for the wind tunnel with a t es t
section of 256 i n.
2
area and the heater and
other equipment actually purchased on t hi s
basis. When the additional compressors were
purchased, i t became obvious that a sl i ght l y
larger wind tunnel could be operated with
t hi s compressor plant, and since each subse-
quent item t o be purchased had the ext r a
capabi l i t y bui l t in, the tunnel si ze was
increased to 290 i n.
2
.
The heat t ransfer design point for t hi s
heater occurs at that Mach number and maximum
pressure operation for which the 1000P out-
l e t temperature i s f i r s t requi red, i . e . ,
M = 7.25. The pressure drop design point
occurs at the minimum Mach number where the
volume flow i s gr eat est . The preliminary
heat er survey i ndi cat ed t ha t t he best
estimated temperature control was 2P at
the 1000F l evel , and the best estimate of
14
response time was approximately five minutes
from zero t o full load with a minute or two
more for temperature st abi l i zat i on. None of
t he heat er manuf act ur er s would commit
themselves on the ser vi ce l i f e of t he i r
heat er with a duty cycle as requi red for
t hi s wind tunnel.
A pi ct or i al representation of the heater
t hat was purchased to meet t he following
specification is given in Figure 14. Here:
Inlet ai r temperature
Maximum outlet ai r
temperature
Heating capacity
Maximum inlet ai r
pressure
Maximum ai r pressure
differential through
heater
= 100P
= 1350F
= 4200 kw
1000 l b/ i n.
2
gauge
= 10% of supply
pressure at
that operating
po int.
This is an el ect r i cal heater manufactured
by the Foster-Wheeler Corporation of New
York City and is similar in appearance t o a
shell and tube heat exchanger. The Nichrome
tubes are al l el ect r i cal l y interconnected
as resi st ance heating elements and the ai r
passes down the heater through the t ubes.
The tubes are insulated from each other and
from the top tube support sheet by quartz
insulators. The tubes are suspended from the
top tube support sheet and arc free to expand
downward when heated. The intermediate and
bottom tube sheets merely position the tubes
r e l a t i ve t o each ot her and t he pr essur e
vessel. The wind tunnel ai r temperature i s
controlled from thermocouples located in the
outlet neck of the heater which, through an
appropriate servo-loop, cont rol the el ec-
t r i cal input t o the heater with a saturable
reactor capable of handling the full heater
cur r ent at 2300 vol t s . In t hi s manner,
complete control of heater Input from 5 t o
115% of full load can be smoothly and quickly
obt ai ned. To obt ai n t he quick warm-up
operation desi red, the el ect r i cal cont rol
system was designed for 4200 kw input, thus
allowing considerable over-current t o help
reach the full load condition quickly.
The pr es s ur e s he l l of t he heat er i s
internally insulated to minimize heat storage
in the shell for quick warm-up and shut-down
as well as t o minimize heat l osses t o the
atmosphere and allow the use of lower tem-
perature material.
The JPL uni t was designed qui t e con-
servatively with an air temperature of 1000P
being obtained with a maximum element tem-
perat ure of 1230F. Since Nichrome as a
resi st i ve heating element can be operated for
an I ndef i ni t e peri od of time in a i r at
1600P with no deleterious effects, i t seems
possible that the JPL heater can yield outlet
ai r temperatures appreciably in excess of
1000P at reduced ai r f l ow i f de s i r e d.
Figure 1 Indicates the maximum ant i ci pat ed
performance of t hi s heater for the large wind
tunnel (290 i n.
2
) for the 4200 kw saturable
reactor and for a 1600P Nichrome tempera-
t ur e. Higher ai r temperatures than t hese
can be achieved by allowing the Nichrome
tubes t o exceed even the 1600F figure if
longevity i s not of prime concern since the
Nichrome wi l l only oxidize at a somewhat
fast er rat e and reduce an already hard-t o-
estimate l i f e.
4.3 Shakedown Operations
In order to minimize the overall shake-
down time and to protect the throat blocks,
the i ni t i al checkout or shakedown runs of the
new compressors, ai r heat er , and supply
section were accomplished independently from
the rest of the tunnel. The components were
operated 'open ci r cui t ' (exhausting supply
sect i on ai r t o t he atmosphere) at r at ed
pressure and temperature ut i l i z i ng t hose
parts of the ci r cui t which normally operate
above atmospheric pressure plus a discharge
o r i f i c e . The a i r pat h consi st ed of an
atmospheric i nl e t t o compressor P, then
successively through the following pieces of
equipment: compressors G, J, K, the heater,
15
t h e 10- i nch hot val ve el bow, t h e s uppl y
t ank, and a t unnel t hr oa t ar ea s i mul a t or
or i f i c e t o an atmospheric exhaust muffl er.
A photograph of t he hot a i r por t i on of t he
simulator c i r c ui t i s shown in Figure 15.
The compressor pl ant had been previ ousl y
t es t ed t o maximum pr essur e and, af t er some
i n i t i a l modi f i cat i ons , oper at ed s a t i s f a c -
t or i l y. The simulator t e s t s did reveal some
gaps i n t he hot val ve i nt e r na l i ns ul a t i on
which required modification.
The i n i t i a l o p e r a t i o n of t he h e a t e r
i ndi cat ed t ha t t he di f f er ence between t he
t ube wal l t emper at ur e and t he o u t l e t a i r
t emper at ur e was at l e a s t t wi ce as hi gh as
expect ed. Subsequent i ns pe c t i on of t he
h e a t e r d i s c l o s e d t h a t t h e t o p q u a r t z
i n s u l a t o r had cracked and was l eaki ng i n
several pl aces, and al so t hat t he t ube seal
r i ngs were not making an adequate seal with
t he t op s heet . I t was evi dent t h a t some
7 t o 10% of t he ai r was by-passing t he heat er
el ement s which was about t h e amount of
l eakage necessar y t o account for t he high
tube wall temperatures. Subsequent operat i on
has been with t he tube bundle seal ed at t he
t op s h e e t wi t h a c ombi na t i on of h i g h -
t emper at ur e s i l i c a cement and an as bes t os
s t r i p ret ai ned agai nst t he i nsi de surface of
the heat er s hel l . The l at es t t e s t s i ndi cat e
t hat t he or i gi nal l y expected performance wi l l
be r eal i zed. A more permanent modi fi cat i on
wi l l be i ncor por at ed i n t he near f ut ur e .
The cont r ol , sensing devi ces, and automatic
safet y devices a l l worked properly af t er t he
us ua l i n i t i a l pe r i od of adj us t ment and
cal i br at i on.
The temperature di s t r i but i on of t he supply
tank discharge rect angl e, sized t o match t he
upstream t hr oat s ect i on (4 i n. by 17 i n . ) ,
has been very encouraging. The hot pi pi ng
and supply tank were a l l run with i nt e r na l
i nsul at i on, i nt er nal channel conf i gur at i on,
and e xt e r na l wat er cool i ng i n t he exact
manner planned for t he act ual t unnel opera-
t i on. Pl ot s of t he t emper at ur e p r o f i l e s
f or s e ve r a l s i mul a t or r uns ar e shown i n
Figure 16.
However, a survey of t he ve l oc i t y d i s -
t r i but i on in t he supply sect i on i ndi cat ed a
non- s ymmet r i cal p a t t e r n about t he a x i a l
c e n t e r l i n e . The d i s t o r t e d flow p a t t e r n
appears t o or i gi nat e with t he 90 hot val ve
elbow, j us t upstream. A per f or at ed coni cal
pl at e and fi ne screen were i ns t al l ed in t he
upstream end of t he supply sect i on t o cor r ect
t hi s condi t i on.
In order t o check t he over al l compression
r a t i o of t he pl ant , t he tunnel by-pass c i r c ui t
has been used as a closed r et ur n with a high
pressure or i f i c e pl at e si mul at i ng a maximum
M ach number t unnel t h r o a t . A compression
r at i o of s l i ght l y over 400 was r eal i zed with
a supply pr essur e of 500 l b / i n .
2
abs. The
t e s t f ur t he r i ndi c a t e d t ha t t he proposed
method of s t a r t i n g t h e p l a n t wi t h p r o -
gr es s i vel y l a r ge r compressors i n sequence
was highly s at i s f act or y.
5. TUNNEL
5. 1 Nozzle Contour Design
The nozzl e geometry ( sol i d t hr oat block
geomet ry and t h r o a t h e i g h t s , l e ngt h of
f l e x i b l e p l a t e por t i on of nozzl e, nozzl e
e xi t hei ght and wi dt h, amount of s i dewal l
divergence, t hi ckness of the f l exi bl e pl at e,
and t he j ack spacing and l ocat i on) , hei ght ,
width, and t he degree of flow uniformity de-
s i r ed in t he t e s t s ect i on, and t he var i ous
boundary layer t hi cknesses (displacement and
t o t a l ) ar e a l l I nt er dependent ; t he r e f or e
i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s e s ( c a l c u l a t i o n s and
deci si ons) must be used in order t o est abl i sh
t he f i nal nozzle geometry. Once t he nozzl e
geometry has been f i na l i z e d, t he de t a i l e d
nozzle contour cal cul at i ons can be made.
The b a s i s of t he g r a p h i c a l - a n a l y t i c a l
procedure for t he design of a two-dimensional
s uper s oni c (or hyper s oni c) nozzl e by t he
method of char act er i s t i cs has been thoroughly
t r eat ed in papers by Prandt l and Busemann
5
,
Pucket t
6
, Poel sch
7
, and many ot he r s . The
modification of t hei r general method In order
t o make i t a p p l i c a b l e t o f l e x i b l e - p l a t e
16
nozzles i s discussed by Ri i se
8
. For t hi s
report only the sal i ent features of Refer-
ence 8 will br briefly mentioned.
The charact eri st i cs network is st art ed at
the inflection point with the assumption of
r adi al flow which has been experimentally
shown t o exi s t
9
. The method described by
Riise lengthens the nozzle over the former
methods by including a par t i al cancellation
region j ust downstream from the i nfl ect i on
point (see Figure 17) which is forced into a
shape t hat can be closely approximated by a
series of cubic equations, hence can be quite
well matched in contour by a pin-supported,
flexible pl at e. This pseudo-cubic shape has
zero curvature at the inflection point, and
through t he i nf l ect i on poi nt t he second
deri vat i ve i s continuous. When the length
of the par t i al cancel l at i on region i s not
near i t s minimum, the flexible plate can very
adequately match the calculated nozzle shape
in the complete cancellation region which i s
determined ent i r el y by the char act er i st i cs
network.
The use of a solid t hr oat block imposes
severe l i mi t at i ons on the variables used in
desi gni ng a cont i nuous - cur vat ur e, a l l -
f l exi bl e pl at e nozzle. The choice of the
expansion angle, the vert i cal height of the
t hr oat block, and t he nozzle length (see
Figures 17 and 18) uniquely determines the
r at i o of the par t i al cancellation region to
the complete cancel l at i on region and the
nozzle exit effective area for each desired
t est section Mach number and chosen boundary
layer displacement thickness if the calculated
nozzle length (aerodynamic length) ends at
t he downstream end of the f l exi bl e pl at e.
Ther ef or e, much car e must be t aken in
choosing the sol i d block geometry and the
length of the flexible plate In order that a
s at i s f act or y t es t sect i on ef f ect i ve area
(the cross-sect i on geometric area l ess the
area of t he displacement boundary l ayer)
over the Mach number range can be obtained.
As the sidewall plates are divergent, i t
would not be pr act i cal to seal the t hroat
area s uf f i c i e nt l y by t he very necessary
metal-to-metal seal principle if the throat
blocks were rot at ed in order to change the
expansion angle to the aerodynamic optimum
set t i ng at each Mach number. The expansion
angle of the t hr oat block i s t o be kept
constant throughout t he Mach number range
even though t hi s does l i mi t the number of
variables in the design of the aerodynamic
nozzle contours. Such a r es t r i ct i on does
not mat eri al l y compromise the aerodynamic
length of the nozzle (relative to the length
of the flexible plate) and the corresponding
nozzle exit effective area relationship. The
ove r a l l nozzl e l engt h could have been
decreased by using an expansion angle larger
than 8% (half angle). One of the factors
which dictated the choice of t hi s 8& angle
is that i t was fel t that a smaller expansion
rate would introduce less undesirable second-
ary flow effects along the sidewalls than a
l arger r at e of expansion. The r es ul t i ng
longer nozzle family (for apart i cul ar nozzle
exi t effect i ve area longer than would have
been obtained for a larger expansion angle)
appears to be a favorable compromise. During
the I ni t i a l design period, provisions had
been made to make i t possible to set in some
other expansion angle (such as a 3 angle for
a wedge nozzle or a 12 angle for a more rapid
expansion of a contoured nozzle) if i t should
t urn out t hat t he S'n
0
angle proved t o be
unsat i sfact ory. I t should be pointed out
that a change in the expansion angle would
necessitate r ef i t t i ng the throat block sides
in order t o effect a met al -t o-met al seal
(see Section 5.5) with the diverging si de-
plate tongues.
The t es t sect i on effect i ve area can be
increased simply by allowing the aerodynamic
nozzle to end further downstream than the end
of the flexible pl at e, resulting in a fore-
shortened nozzle. This i s done in the case
of the tabulated Mach 8 contour (Table 3),
and resul t s In gradually decreasing the s t at i c
pressure downstream of the t e s t rhombus.
(The s t at i c pressure in the rhombus is uni-
form). As the aerodynamic nozzle i s shortened
rel at i ve to the length of the flexible plate,
the t est section effective area is decreased.
Nat ural l y, If the aerodynamic nozzle ends
17
upstream of the end of the flexible pl at e,
there i s no detrimental effect to the flow
downstream from the t es t rhombus as t he
boundary layer growth is fairly linear.
the nozzle with i t s being zero at the throat.
Actually, existence of the boundary layer at
the throat will increase the Mach number at
M = 8 by approximately AM = 0.04.
The sidewalls are each diverged by about
)4
0
in order to compensate for the boundary
layer displacement thickness growth at M = 8
at maximum supply pressure. For t hi s condi-
tion the only correction that need be made
t o the contoured nozzle design i s for the
boundary layer on the contoured surface
i t sel f . The method of char act er i st i cs i s
used to determine the coordinates of the
fluid channel; then the vert i cal coordinate
i s increased by the proper amount in order
t o account for the displacement boundary
layer. This corrected vert i cal coordinate
(y) along with t he or i gi nal hor i zont al
coor di nat e (x) gi ves t he shape of t he
fl exi bl e pl at e (nozzle wal l ). Generally,
the sl dewal l would be over-expanded for
lower Mach numbers, and the correction that
would be made to the fluid channel contoured
wall would be less than the amount necessary
t o correct for the boundary layer on the
contoured wall. The opposite i s t rue for
Mach numbers above 8. Similar correct i on
procedures are used as the boundary layer
thickness i s varied due t o a change in the
unit Reynolds number. If the sidewalls were
par al l el , then in order to obtain constant
s t a t i c pr essur e along t he t e s t - s e c t i o n
cent erl i ne, i t would be necessary t o over-
expand the contoured walls greatly t o com-
pensate for the boundary layer on the si de-
walls. This would r esul t in a decreasing
st at i c pressure away from the centerline in
a vert i cal direction and an increasing one
in the horizontal direction. The diverged
sidewalls tend t o minimize these gradients
when the sidewall divergence does not exactly
match the sidewall boundary layer. Linear
boundary layer displacement thickness growth
i s assumed from the t hroat t o the end of
All calculations required for the nozzle
contour coordinates were carried out on the
EDC 205 di gi t al computer at JPL
10
It has a
4080 t en- di gi t group memory: a fourth i s
used for the i nst ruct i ons, a fourth for the
actual cal cul at i ons ( i t i s able t o handle
t he c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s network between the
cent er l i ne to the wall at the Infl ect i on
point region with as many as 45 divisions);
and a hal f for t he s peci al l y cal cul at ed
(also on the EDC) seven-place Prandtl-M eyer
flow angle tables as a function of the Mach
angle. The five-place tables of Reference 11
were not accurate enough to give consistent
r e s ul t s as t he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s network
di vi si ons were varied at a speci fi c Mach
number or as the Mach number was varied for
a constant number of charact eri st i c network
divisions.
The time required to calculate the nozzle
coordinates by use of the char act er i st i cs
method increased rapi dl y as the number of
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c network d i v i s i o n s was
increased* . Therefore, i t was quite important
to determine the minimum number of divisions
that would yield good resul t s for the calcu-
lations of the nozzle coordinates. Figure 19
shows the error in the exi t height of the
nozzle as the number of charact eri st i c net-
work di vi si ons i s vari ed. It was decided
that a 20 division network would be adequately
accurat e without being excessi vel y time
consuming t o cal cul at e. The EDC was al so
used to calculate the nozzle coordinates at
specified j ack l ocat i ons from the nozzle
coordinates as determined by the method of
characteristics. This process required about
0.1 hour, and t hi s also included the calcu-
lation of the lengths of the j acks supporting
' For a t ypi cal nozzle cal cul at i on:
Divisions
10 2U 30 40
Time (hr) I 0.2 | 0.5 1.5
3. 5
18
the flexible plate (j ack beam pin centerline
to fl exi bl e-pl at e pin centerline distance).
An attempt has been made to complete al l
the necessary nozzle coordi nat e and j ack
length cal cul at i ons pr i or t o t he act ual
cal i br at i on of the flow in the nozzle. In
addition t o the calculated nozzles for the
standard operating conditions (standard Mach
numbers, maximum supply pressure, normal
supply temperatures) calculations were made
for the following addi t i onal condi t i ons:
(1) vari at i on of the average boundary layer
displacement t hi ckness due t o changes in
supply pr es s ur es and t emper at ur es; (2)
possible error up t o 20% in the predicted
boundary layer displacement thickness; (3)
change in the t es t - s ect i on Mach number by
varyi ng t he t e s t - s e c t i on ef f ect i ve area
while holding the t hroat -hei ght constant;
and (4) a manufacturing change in the throat
heights from the design heights.
Tables 3 and 4 (M = 8 and normal operating
conditions) show the centerline Mach number
and the nozzle wall Mach number and coordin-
ates as determined by the method of character-
i s t i c s and the nozzle wall coordinates at
each j ack location. Also tabulated are the
r a t e of change in t he nozzl e v e r t i c a l
coordinate at each j ack location for a change
in the average boundary layer displacement
t hi ckness from the predi ct ed value (20%
range) and for a change in the exi t Mach
number (0.2 range) from M = 8 with t he
t hroat height remaining constant while the
t es t section effective area vari es accord-
i ngl y. As can be seen in Table 3, t he
vert i cal coordinate (half-height) at the end
of t he f l exi bl e pl at e must be changed by
about 0.5 i n. in order t o a l t e r t he t e s t
section Mach number by AM = 0.1 and must be
changed by about 0.3 in. t o correct for a
10% var i at i on on pr edi ct i on er r or in the
average boundary layer displacement t hi ck-
ness.
5.2 Boundary Layer Estimation
In a hyper soni c wind t unnel of t h i s
general si ze, i t i s important t o know the
thickness of the turbulent boundary layer in
order to choose the general tunnel geometry
and to design the nozzle contour; i t i s even
more important than in a supersonic wind
tunnel of comparable size because the boundary
layer thickness in proportion t o the tunnel
dimensions i ncreases with increasing Mach
number. However, the accuracy to which the
boundary l ayer al ong t he nozzl e can be
calculated by the usual method of applying
the von Karman momentum t hi ckness growth
equation becomes i ncreasi ngl y l ess as the
Mach number Increases, especially for Mach
numbers above 5 with cooled tunnel walls.
This r el at i ve i nabi l i t y to calculate the
boundary layer in a two-dimensional hyper-
sonic wind tunnel i s due to several factors:
(1) the uncertainty in the values of the fl at
plate turbulent skin friction; (2) the effect
of favorable pressure gradient on the f l at
pl at e skin f r i ct i on coef f i ci ent ; (3) t he
variation of experimental values fron tabu-
l at ed
12
r at i os of the boundary layer momentum,
displacement, and t ot al thicknesses; (4) the
ef f ect of t he l ar ge pr es s ur e gr adi ent s
cross-wise t o the flow along the sidewalls.
Because of the unknown significance of these
problems and because the nozzle contour i s
adj ustable, i t was decided that values extra-
pol at ed from exper i ment al l y determined
boundary layer thicknesses would be at least
as rel i abl e as the calculated values, and as
a consequence, very l i t t l e effort was expended
in calculating the boundary layer thickness
by the usual method of momentum thickness
growth.
The pri nci pl e of scaling-up the boundary
layer from one supersonic wind tunnel to a
larger, similar tunnel was proven to be sound
by comparing measured boundary layers from
the JPL 12 in. supersonic wind tunnel with
t hose in t he JPL 20 i n. supersoni c wind
19
t unnel
1 3
. This was done for both the short *
and l ong n o z z l e s , n o z z l e and s i d e wa l l
cent er l i ne, and al so of f - t he- cent er l i ne for
the si dewal l s. At f i r s t , t he method of wind
t unnel boundary layer t hi ckness cor r el at i on
was simply t he di mensi onl ess coef f i ci ent 8
vs Mach number where
W ;
_ ' ' ^measur ed
I =
8* ( Re)
1 / s
, / 5
S* i s t he boundary layer displacement t hi ck-
ness, Re i s t he uni t t e s t sect i on Reynolds
number, a ndxi s t he hori zont al di st ance from
t he t h r o a t t o t he downstream end of t he
nozzle where 8* i s measured. This method of
c o r r e l a t i o n i s q u i t e s i mpl e and f a i r l y
s at i s f act or y. But 15 determined for a p a r t i -
cul ar nozzl e in a wind t unnel var i es about
5% as Re i s changed by a f act or of t hr e e .
Si nce t he expr es s i on 6 i s based upon t he
simple equat i on of Bl asi us r e l a t i ng incom-
pr essi bl e t urbul ent boundary layer di spl ace-
ment t h i c k n e s s t o t he o v e r a l l Reynol ds
number, i t was f e l t t h a t more a c c u r a t e
boundary layer formulation should be used at
t he Reynolds numbers in quest i on, such as
Coles' t abul at i on
The val ues of ( Wx )
vs Re
x
from Coles' t a bl e s are used In cor r e-
l at i ng the boundary layer displacement t hi ck-
ness of supersonic and hypersonic wind t unnel s.
The c o r r e l a t i o n par amet er 8* /8 as a
function of Mach number has been experimen-
t a l l y shown in t he JPL 20 inch super soni c
wind t u n n e l
1 3
t o be independent of Re f or
otherwise constant condi t i ons, and t o within
5% t akes car e of t he s cal e ef f ect between
s i mi l ar nozzl es of t he two JPL super soni c
wind t unnel s.
The par amet er S* /S* i s a c t u a l l y t he
r a t i o
( Wx)
Coles
where t he quant i t i es in t he numerator are as
defi ned i n t he precedi ng paragraph and t he
denomi nat or i s t aken from Fi gur e 20
;
as a
function of Re
x
(or xRe) where x and Re are
also defined in the preceding paragraph.
In Figure 21 t her e ar e pl ot t ed val ues of
6* /8* vs Mach number for vari ous supersoni c
and hypersoni c wind t unnel s i ncl udi ng dat a
from t he JPL 3/8 scal e hypersonic wind t unnel .
The estimated cei l i ng cent er l i ne cor r el at i on
paramet er was det ermi ned by e xt r a pol a t i ng
t he JPL 20 inch supersoni c wind t unnel dat a
above M = 5 using t he JPL 3/8 scal e hypersonic
wind t unnel dat a as a guide. Cross-sect i onal
boundary l a ye r d a t a obt a i ne d i n s e ve r a l
two-dimensional t unnel s for 4 <M < 8 i ndi cat e
t hat the average boundary layer displacement
t h i c k n e s s at t h e end of t h e n o z z l e i s
approximately 75% of t he cei l i ng cent er l i ne
boundary l ayer di spl acement t hi cknes s . I t
i s t hi s average W8 * curve t hat i s used for
est i mat i ng t he average boundary l ayer d i s -
placement t hi ckness (8*
vg
)
a t t h e e n d o f t h e
nozzle in t hi s hypersonic wind t unnel . This
75% r el at i onshi p has al so been i nferred from
t he measured geomet ri c A/A* r a t i o and t he
t es t - s ect i on Mach number in t he JPL 20 inch
supersonic wind t unnel (see Figure 21). I t
should be not i ced t ha t a si mi l ar curve for
t he experimentally measured 8* (perimeter)
average val ue of t he boundary l ayer d i s -
placement t hi ckness at t he end of t he nozzle)
of axi al l y symmetric (contoured and coni cal )
nozzl es cr osses t h i s JPL curve of 8* _ for
avg
our two-dimensional hypersonic wind tunnel.
The significance of this crossing is not yet
apparent. The ceiling centerline, 8*. is
taken to be 4/3 (8* _ ) , and the sidewall is
6/5 (8* ) (these approximate ratios have avg
ISi
been estimated from experimental data ) .
The short nozzles are similar for the two tunnels as are also the long nozzles. The long nozzles are
about 25% longer than the short nozzles. For M < 2.2 the 20 inch tunnel test section height is about
1.7 times that of the 12 Inch tunnel. For M
>
2.2 it is about 2.2 times as the height of the 12 inch
tunnel is only 9 inches Instead of 12 inches for the lower Mach number range.
20
The r a t i o of t he t o t a l boundary l ayer
t hi ckness t o t he displacement t hi ckness
(8/8* ) i s indicated by experimental data in
Figure 22 along with the assumed JPL design
curve. This r at i o i s very nearly equal to
2.0.
t hat i t s thickness vari es as the 4/5 power
of the horizontal distance from the t hroat
15
.
The displacement thickness along the contoured
walls of the nozzle i s f ai r l y l i near from
the throat to the nozzle exi t
1 5
.
Prom the preceding assumptions the t es t -
sect i on geometric and useful hei ght s and
widths at t he end of t he nozzl e can be
determined for the tunnel. Figure 23 shows
the estimated boundary layer t hi ckness at
the end of the nozzle while Figure 24 shows
the corresponding heights and widths for an
effective nozzle exit area of 290 i n.
2
. For
a nominal Mach 8 t hroat height, the t e s t -
sect i on geometric and useful hei ght s are
shown in Figure 25 as the nominal nozzle exit
effective area i s varied from 13 x 17 in.
2
to 21 x 17 i n.
2
. It i s expected t o operate
normally at t he ef f ect i ve design area of
17 x 17 i n .
2
and t o use the var i at i on in
area for special-purpose running conditions.
The predicted cross-sectional wall boundary
layer di st r i but i on for M = 8 at the nozzle
exit i s shown in Figure 26.
Up to now the boundary layer estimations
are t ent at i ve, and nozzle contours have been
computed to account for possible variations
of the actual boundary layer from the pre-
dicted values. However, recent t est s in the
3/8 scal e model tunnel i ndi cat e t hat t he
boundary layer thickness estimate used for
the nozzle contour design i s within 10% of
the actual value of Sj
y g
. Since excellent
agreement was obtained in scal i ng the JPL
12 inch supersonic wind tunnel boundary layer
measurements to the JPL 20 inch supersonic
wind t unnel (at scal e f act or s of 1.7 and
2.2), i t is expected that similar agreement
should be r e a l i z e d when s cal i ng up t he
boundary layer r es ul t s (both inferred and
measured) of the 3/8 scale hypersonic wind
tunnel to the 21 inch hypersonic wind tunnel
(a scale factor of 2. 7).
5.3 Diffuser Aerodynamic Design
The di f f us e r desi gn i nc or por a t e s a
single-j ack, variable second throat with no
provi si on for ai r i nj ect i on. A var i abl e
second throat is desirable because at f i r st
the di ffuser performance improves as the
second throat is decreased in area from that
r equi r ed for s t a r t i n g . There ar e two
di s t i nct advantages in having a var i abl e
second t hroat : (1) the run vari abl e of the
configuration being t est ed may resul t in a
decrease in the diffuser performance, possibly
enough t o cause l oss of flow in the t e s t
section unless a large compression r at i o in
excess of that necessary for st art i ng exi st s;
(2) if the compressor pl ant i s unable t o
st ar t the tunnel because a cert ai n t est i ng
configuration is excessively detrimental to
t he di ffuser performance, then the usual
compressor pl ant may be augmented with
additional compressors or other st art i ng aids
(such as a vacuum sphere) in order to st ar t
the tunnel. After the tunnel i s started, if
t he di f f us e r performance i s i ncr eased
suffi ci ent l y be decreasing the area of the
second throat, then the st art i ng aid i s not
needed to run the tunnel.
A single-j ack throat design was chosen in
preference to a double-j ack throat although
the l at t er i s more ver s at i l e. (A double-
j ack t hroat di ffuser can have a const ant -
ar ea channel t hr oat r a t he r than j us t a
single-point t hroat , see Figure 27). The
efficiency of the double-j ack throat diffuser
does not appear to be significantly different
from that of the single-j ack throat diffuser
16
.
Once t he boundary layer displacement
thickness has been determined or estimated
at the nozzle exi t , i t s growth along the
t est -sect i on walls i s estimated by assuming
At the time the compressor plant had to
be chosen, very l i t t l e information was avail-
able on the increase of diffuser performance
with ai r i nj ect i on. As a r es ul t , i t was
21
decided to match* the compressor plant over
the Mach number range to the tunnel require-
ments, volume, and compression ratio, with
the compression ratio requirements based upon
a long, s i n g l e - j a c k , v a r i a b l e - t h r o a t
diffuser with no air-injection provisions.
Lately, there has been a great deal of
information published on the improvement of
diffuser performance by the use of air
injection
17
. A cursory examination of such
data indicates that in the Mach number range
5 to 9 there may be little, if any, economic
justification for the use of compressors to
provide for air injection into the diffuser
rather than for the design of a primary plant
that operates at a higher compression ratio
keeping the diffuser design relatively simple.
The diffuser is patterned after the NOL
d i f f u s e r
1 6
and is similar to the NASA
Langley 11 inch hypersonic wind tunnel
diffuser
18
. The relative shapes of these two
diffusers are indicated in Figure 27 along
with the JPL 3/8 scale and 21 inch hypersonic
wind tunnel diffuser.
involved in predicting the diffuser perform-
ance of the 21 inch hypersonic wind tunnel
from that of the 3/8 scale hypersonic wind
tunnel will not have an adverse effect on the
expected operation of the 21 inch hypersonic
wind tunnel.
5.4 Cooling
There are four reasons for cooling the
air-confining channel of t hi s wind tunnel:
(1) To maintain dimensional st abi l i t y of
t he c r i t i c a l components for a l l
operating conditions
(2) To minimize the time for the system
t o achieve s t eady- s t at e operat i ng
temperatures
(3) To reduce thermal s t r e s s e s during
transient operation
(4) To maintain the metal surfaces within
t he temperature range for the seal
systems to be reliably effective.
Experience has shown t hat di f f us er
efficiency may not be independent of the
diffuser scale, even if the t est section and
nozzle lengths are also scaled in the same
manner. Parameters such as the boundary
layer thickness rel at i ve to the diffuser inlet
dimensions and the boundary layer Reynolds
number based upon the momentum t hi ckness
or the distance from the nozzle t hroat t o
t he di f f us e r ent r ance may af f ect t he
di ffuser performance. The i ncl usi on of
support systems and models further confuses
the predicted diffuser performance problem
19
.
Generally, the optimum diffuser performance
i s for the empty t est section, and any gear
in the tunnel decreases the efficiency of the
di f f us e r . The amount of decr eas e i s
dependent upon the cl ean-t unnel diffuser
efficiency and the shape, si ze, at t i t ude,
and l ocat i on of a model and i t s support
system. I t i s f e l t t hat t he unknowns
There are several regi ons in the wind
tunnel where the rat e of heat transfer from
t he hot a i r t o the confining channel i s
important to the overall successful operation
of the t est faci l i t y.
Upstream of the expansion nozzle i t sel f,
the supply section smooths out the turbulent
hot a i r from the heat er so t hat uniform
ve l oc i t y and t emper at ur e ar e obt ai ned
before expanding the ai r to the t est section
vel oci t i es. As the ai r flows through t hi s
section at a very low velocity, t hi s section
acts as a heat sink and can introduce a very
high heat i nert i a component into the stagna-
t i on temperature cont rol c i r c ui t . I t i s
here, upstream of the expansion nozzle, that
the stagnation temperature must be controlled
quickly and accurately if t es t conditions
are to be maintained constant during opera-
tion.
The volume of ai r t hat passes through the t e s t sect i on i s very l i t t l e l es s than t he out put of t he
compressor pl ant .
22
In the expansion nozzle the maximum heat
transfer rat e i s found in the sonic throat
regi on. Flow in t h i s region i s at high
velocity and r el at i vel y high pressure which
yields high heat transfer rat es at j ust the
region where the flow channel is of minimum
cross-section and the closest tolerances on
size, shape, and uniformity must be maintained.
Downstream from t he t hr oat r egi on, t he
pressure level decreases rapidly as the flow
expands to higher Mach numbers and the heat
transfer rates decrease appreciably until at
the t es t sect i on proper the heat t ransfer
r at es are qui t e nominal. In the di ffuser
the heat transfer rates increase to a maximum
again in the second throat region, but since
the pressure level is not comparable to the
pressure level in the f i r s t t hroat region,
t he heat t r ans f er r a t e i s not nearl y as
severe.
The mechanical design of the nozzle of
t hi s wind tunnel i s predicated upon limiting
the deflection under load of the components
to produce the desired uniform flow charac-
t e r i s t i c s in the tunnel t est section. The
heating of the air-wetted surfaces of these
components by the passage of hot ai r through
the tunnel complicates the design problems
considerably. In addi t i on, i f the ent i r e
st r uct ur e of t he tunnel i s uncooled, the
time i t would take for the tunnel t o reach
operating equilibrium at high ai r tempera-
tures would be prohi bi t i vel y long. There-
fore, i t was decided t o cool al l the wind
tunnel as much as pract i cal to minimize the
excursions of component temperatures from hot
to cold operation and reduce the st ruct ural
deflection problems due to large temperature
changes. The problems as s oci at ed with
working on a model in a 'hot box' are also
eliminated. It was also reasoned that t hi s
could best be accomplished by cooling the
ai r-wet t ed surfaces of the wind tunnel as
close to the air-wetted surface as possible
rather than on the outside surface of each
component. This design philosophy thus
should yi el d a hot - a i r wind t unnel with
al most as much s t a b i l i t y of c r i t i c a l
dimensions during operation as the conven-
tional supersonic wind tunnel, and also with
a minimum of time t o achieve equilibrium
operating temperatures. Then the experience
previously gained in the design and operation
of convent i onal supersoni c wind t unnel s
would be more appl i cabl e t o t he design
problems and operating techniques of the hot-
ai r wind tunnel.
The calculation of the heat t ransfer t o
the confining walls of a hypersonic nozzle
i s a boundary layer problem with vari abl e
free-stream velocity and wall temperature.
The method used in the design of t hi s wind
tunnel was t hat developed by Si bul ki n
2 0
.
His method is an approximate solution for a
turbulent boundary layer and, in part of the
analysis at l east , assumes an incompressible
flow. The analysis i s based on the simul-
t aneous s ol ut i on of t he boundary l ayer
momentum and energy i nt egral equations and
employs several simplifying assumptions,
the most important of which is the approxi-
mation that the boundary layer velocity and
t ot al temperature profiles and skin friction
coef f i ci ent are independent of pr essur e
gradient.
Although the flow in supersonic nozzles
i s not incompressible, an adaptation of the
aforementioned r es ul t , termed t he quasi -
incompressible sol ut i on, i s suggested for
calculating the heat transfer to such nozzles.
To estimate quickly the maximum rat e of heat
t ransfer which occurs near the t hroat of a
supersonic nozzle, a t hroat approximation
i s developed which involves only the nozzle
supply conditions, throat opening, and throat
radius of curvature. This approximation Is
based upon the observation t hat , with the
free-stream velocity increasing monotonically
with distance down the nozzle, the previous
history of the boundary layer has a rapidly
diminishing effect on downstream values of
the boundary layer thickness. Consequently,
the actual velocity distribution upstream of
the nozzle throat is approximated by a linear
ve l oc i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n havi ng t he same
magnitude and gradi ent as at t he nozzle
throat. Then i t i s assumed that the boundary
layer begins t o develop at the point where
t hi s hypothetical velocity f i r st departs from
23
zero. This then yields:
. U / 5
Tj
/ u
( t * L* )
1 / 1 0
from which i t can be seen t hat t he heat
transfer coefficient in the throat region is
strongly dependent upon the nozzle supply
pressure, weekly dependent upon nozzle supply
temperature, and very weakly dependent upon
t hr oat hei ght and r adi us of cur vat ur e.
However, the supply temperature i s very
important in the overall problem because the
important item from the design point of view
i s the wall temperature, which i s di rect l y
related to the supply temperature.
In general, when determining the heat
transfer coefficient t hi s way, the physical
propert i es of ai r are evaluated at a mean
temperature which i s also a function of the
wall temperature. Consequently, the heat
transfer coefficient and heat flux rate were
determined by an i t er at i ve procedure using
the appropriate physical properties of the
wall material and the cooling medium actually
employed for successive approximations of
the wall temperature unt i l the solution closed
wi t hi n the desi r ed accuracy. This was
essential in the throat region where the air
heat transfer coefficient was suffi ci ent l y
high relative to the thermal conductivity of
the wall material and the coolant that the
local wall temperature varied appreciably
throughout the t hroat region and departed
significantly from the bulk coolant tempera-
t ure. For the rest of the wind tunnel, the
air heat transfer coefficient was sufficiently
low r el at i ve t o the wall and coolant pro-
pert i es that the wall could be maintained
very close to the coolant bulk temperature,
and the mean temperature used in the deter-
mination of the air heat transfer coefficient
was unaffected by the actual heat transfer
rate.
The r es ul t s of t hese cal cul at i ons are
shown in Figure 28, wherein the local ai r
heat t r a ns f e r coef f i ci ent and recovery
temperature are pl ot t ed along the tunnel
axis for M = 8, T
n
= 1000P, and P
Q
= 650
l b/ i n.
2
abs. These operating condi t i ons
develop the maximum heat transfer coefficient
for t he design range of operat i on of the
wind tunnel.
Since the peak heat transfer coefficient
at the nozzle throat is of the order of that
achieved in a rocket nozzle, the properties
of the material to be used as the air-wetted
surface in the tunnel throat are of consider-
able importance for a continuously operating
wind t unnel . The following c r i t e r i a were
e s t a bl i s he d for t he comparison of t he
several available materials for the t ask.
Fi r s t , an upper l i mi t t o t he oper at i ng
t emperat ure range of each mat er i al was
determined by cal cul at i ng the temperature
ri se that a completely restrained metal could
undergo without t he compressive s t r e s s
exceeding the el ast i c limit (o-
c
). This was
estimated as:
( 1 " fj )cr
R
a E
Second, the maximum thickness of a sheet of
conducting material separating the hot ai r
in the throat from the coolant was estimated
for each material using the above determined
maximum allowable metal temperature (T
a
) and
several reasonable values of coolant tempera-
t ur e (T
c
) and flow r at e. The mat er i al s
appr opr i at e for t h i s use could then be
determined as those which could, among other
things, conduct the necessary amount of heat
from the ai r boundary layer t o the coolant
stream without exceeding either t hei r el ast i c
limit or practical sheet thicknesses.
The physi cal pr oper t i es and maximum
al l owabl e surface t emperat ure (T ) for
sever al of the mat er i al s considered are
l i s t ed in Table 5. An evaluation of the
overall heat transfer coefficient and heat
flux rat e was used to determine the maximum
thickness for each material assuming a one-
dimensional heat transfer model and a coolant
heat t r a n s f e r c oe f f i c i e nt ( h
c
) of 4
Bt u/ sec-ft
2
-P. This can be obtained with
water as the coolant flowing nominally at
120 ft/sec. Sibulkin' s throat approximation
24
approximation was used t o estimate the ai r
heat transfer coefficient.
The r e s ul t s of t hese cal cul at i ons are
plotted in Figure 29 as a function of Mach
number for t he maximum ai r heat t r ansf er
coefficient expected for each Mach number of
operation. From t hi s figure i t can be seen
that with these cr i t er i a the beryllium-copper
mat eri al s are appreci abl y bet t er for t he
ent i r e range of tunnel operation than the
other materials.
In Figure 30 the calculated air-wetted-
surface temperature of t he hi gh-st rengt h
beryllium-copper material is plotted against
water-coolant vel oci t y for several sheet
thicknesses and the maximum air heat-transfer
coef f i ci ent . From t hi s fi gure i t can be
seen that for a sheet thickness of 0.10 i n. ,
a water velocity in excess of 100 ft/sec is
necessary to maintain the surface temperature
less than the maximum allowable. It can also
be seen that increasing the water velocity
of f er s only l i mi t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s for
improvement.
On the basi s of t hese dat a, the high-
strength Be-Cu with a 0.10 In. thickness was
s el ect ed for t he t hr oa t mat er i al . The
hi gh-st rengt h Be-Cu was preferred t o t he
high-conductivity Be-Cu for the following
reasons:
(1) The 0.10 i n. t hi ckness was thought
to be adequate for ease in fabrication
(2) The harder mat eri al should be more
r e s i s t a n t t o er osi on and sur f ace
scratching
(3) Most important of al l , the available
Information and fabricating experience
with Be-Cu has been mostly obtained
with the high-strength material.
Figure 31 Indicates the anticipated tempera-
tures and heat flux r a t e s in t he t hr oat
region as well as the throat i t sel f for the
final design selected.
Since the f r i ct i on pressure l osses of
water flowing in excess of 100 f t / sec are
large, the height of the cooling passages in
the t hroat region i s contoured t o vary the
water velocity as necessary to maintain ade-
quate heat transfer yet minimize overall pres-
sure losses. The entire throat region water
ci r cul at i ng system i s pressuri zed t o 300
l b/ i n.
2
t o avoid cavi t at i on problems In
t he hi gh- ve l oc i t y, l ow- s t a t i c pr essur e
regions.
If the supply section pressure vessel can
be maintained cool, several advantages are
real i zed. Fi r st , thermal expansion of the
vessel can be minimized and the forces acting
on the throat block and tunnel nozzle posi-
t i oni ng equipment minimized. Second, the
thermal i nert i a of t hi s large mass of metal
can be removed from the temperature control
ci r cui t . Third, the pressure vessel can be
fabricated of cheaper and more easily workable
mat eri al . Consequently, for t hi s t unnel ,
the supply section pressure vessel is water-
cooled on the exterior and thermally Insulated
on the i nt er i or . A t hi n metal f ai r i ng i s
used to channel the hot ai r through the supply
section with insulation inserted between i t
and the water-cooled walls.
The ai r heat transfer coefficient at al l
tunnel st at i ons other than the throat region
i s suf f i ci ent l y small t hat conventionally
t r eat ed water ci r cul at i on at 10 f t / sec or
l ess can maintain the ai r-wet t ed surfaces
wi t hi n a few degrees of t he water bulk
temperature and maintain the desired tunnel
dimensional st abi l i t y.
In the t hr oat region the cooling water
flows in contact with a metal surface t hat
may be as warm as 160P. I t i s t herefore
essent i al that t hi s cooling water system be
treated completely to minimize the number of
i ons pr esent t hat could form s cal e and
increase the metal temperatures beyond that
des i r abl e. For t hi s system di s t i l l e d or
de-ionized water with ant i -corrosi ve addi-
t i ves will be used in a separate, closed-loop
recirculating system.
25
5.5 M echanical Design
The supply tank and t r ans i t i on flange
are st andar d ASME code r at ed pr es s ur e
vessels (28 in. O.D.) for 1000 l b/ i n.
2
and
1000F. Air velocity varies between 5 and
20 ft / sec, depending upon the Mach number,
and i s gradually conveyed toward 4 in. by
17 in. opening in the exposed, fixed refer-
ence face of the t r ansi t i on flange. Heat
transfer rates and calculations of thermal
s t r e s s e s i ndi cat ed t ha t an i nt e r na l l y
insulated, externally cooled tank could be
expected to have low heat loss, fast response
because of small internal mass to heat, and
t o require l i t t l e cooling. Typical cooled
sections are shown in Figure 32. Performance
t o date has more than met expect at i ons;
passing 1000P ai r , the pipe outer wall
surface remains at water temperature at al l
points. Cooling is also provided in the face
of the t ransi t i on flange for the pivot bar
and si depl at e tongue seal s which contact
there (see Figure 32).
Heater attachment t o the supply tank
i s as shown in Figure 15. The heater i s
supported (95%) on springs carried on long
rods which allow horizontal thermal t ravel
of 1.5 i n. pl us heat er s he l l v e r t i c a l
growth. Slow hor i zont al motion of t he
heater is allowed, but should an earthquake
occur, hydraulic snubbers t i e the heat er
solidly to the heavy t russ.
The height of t he angle valve support
determines t he angular alignment of the
t ransi t i on flange face; the two horizontal
pins determine i t s absolute height and rota-
tion (see Figure 32). Fixing of the lower
j ack beam by a double column gives the nozzle
a fixed centerline reference with respect to
the t r ans i t i on flange in the main frame.
The upper beam assumes a position air-off that
is determined by the el ast i c forces involved,
and by proper shimming under cams that act
against the heavy si depl at e, i s restrained
t o hold that posi t i on air-on (Figure 33).
The nozzle side pl at es extending from up-
stream of the nozzle throat to downstream of
t he t e s t i ng ar ea funct i on as a ' spacer
block' between the j ack beams to eliminate
air-on to air-off changes in nozzle shape and
at the same time determine the axial station
of the t est section by means of a pin and i t s
angular ori ent at i on by an addi t i onal pair
of cam clamps as i l l ust rat ed in Figure 34.
The most di ffi cul t part of the tunnel to
produce were the throat blocks: an analytic
curved surface machined t o a t ol erance of
0.0002 i n . , car r yi ng cool i ng water at
120 f t / sec. and of suffi ci ent r i gi di t y t o
keep the throat s l i t parallel under a supply
pressure of 1000 l b/ i n. The JPL t hroat
block design and the mating j oi nt of the
flexible plate are shown in Figure 35. Prom
simple one-dimensional (area ratio) consider-
ations with Ap/P = 0.5%. the throat height
may not vary more than 0.4% or about 0.0004
i n. at IH - 8. This means t hat t he a i r -
wetted surface at the throat of each block
may vary from a st rai ght line not more than
0.0002 i n. During f abr i cat i on of t hese
throat blocks, the one-dimensional considera-
t i ons used in determining the t ol er ances
were checked and found valid
28
. As the throat
opening al s o had t o be hel d t o a t r ue
rectangle within the above t ol erances, i t
was decided t hat only t he 'gauge block'
pri nci pl e could hope t o give the accuracy
and repeat abi l i t y required (see Figure 36).
The addition of 'angle blocks' and a 'pivot
bar' provided the means to vary the inflection
angle from 3 to 12. It is readily apparent
that changing the spacer blocks varies the
throat height; in a similar manner, varying
t he angle blocks changes the I nf l ect i on
angle, as shown in Figure 37. The gauge
block design provides the necessary stiffness
for the t hroat block assembly t o keep the
def l ect i ons t o a minimum under the high
supply pressure. To achieve t hi s necessary
s t i f f ne s s , heavy ' back-up' bl ocks were
developed t o which the t hroat blocks were
securely fastened (keyed and screwed). The
proj ecting ears of the back-up blocks then
became surfaces which were f i t t ed t o the
'gauge' or spacer blocks (cf. Figures 35 and
36). It should be observed t hat the same
degree of accuracy is required on the back-up
blocks as on the throat blocks themselves.
26
M atching pairs of spacer blocks and angle
blocks, to give absolutely paral l el surfaces
between back-up blocks (against which are
fastened the t hroat blocks), i s simple in
theory but Very di ffi cul t of accomplishment.
I t was necessary t o load the through bol t s
(and swing bolts) by hydraulic means to give
the necessary uniform)and repeatable clamping
force.
The t hr oat blocks, in addi t i on to the
st andar d pneumatic seal t o atmosphere,
incorporate a metal-to-metal seal between
themselves and the sideplate tongues in the
area of the throat. This feature i s necessary
t o maintain flow qual i t y and prevent blow-
by along the edges due to the large pressure
gradient. A redundancy exi st s in the throat
block assembly, in t hat , while the basic
setting is achieved through the use of gauge
blocks, the throat blocks are also positioned
by two upper and two lower j acks. These f i r st
two j acks have been found necessary for
set t i ng and handling the heavy blocks when
they are Independent of each other.
Several methods were i nvest i gat ed and
numerous t es t s performed to determine the
best method of contour cut t i ng. M illing,
j i g bor i ng, and cont our gr i ndi ng were
evaluated (Figs. 38, 39, and 40). M illing,
using 18 inch wide slab cut t er s running on
edge templates or el ect roni cal l y following
a template, held no hope of obtaining the
necessary squareness or accuracy
28
. Ji g
boring could meet the t ol er ances, but the
man-hours required, some 600-700 per pair of
blocks, and the possi bi l i t y of a mistake and
i t s ser i ous effect on the whole program,
rul ed t hi s method out. Contour grinding
was used aft er preliminary t est i ng showed
tolerances could be sat i sfact ori l y controlled
t o generate the desired surface (Fi g. 41).
The blocks were mounted on a fi xt ure shown
in Figure 42 and passed under the dressed
wheel ( act ual l y one wheel for t he curved
section and one for the st r ai ght sect i on).
An edge coupon was then checked by means of
an optical comparator after each pass; t hi s
process was repeated several times unt i l the
necessary accuracy was obtained.
Throat block water passage design, t o
handle water at a maximum vel oci t y of 120
f t / sec required reasonable cl eanl i ness of
the grooves. It was experimentally det er-
mined t hat a minimum of 240 l b / i n .
2
was
required to suppress cavitation in the area
of the discharge manifold on the f l exi bl e
pl at e. As can be seen in Figure 35, the
t hr oat block cooling water flows through
t he t hr oat bl ock- f l exi bl e pl at e j oi nt t o
minimize the mismatch due to di f f er ent i al
expansi on. Thi s J oi nt i s r equi r ed t o
f a c i l i t a t e contour grinding of the t hroat
blocks and allow a change in material. This
j oi nt must be as near perfect as possible.
The fl exi bl e pl at es are positioned by a
number of l ar ge, mechanically repeat abl e
j acks. The maximum j ack spacing is determined
by l i mi t i ng the scal l opi ng (caused by a 1
atmosphere pressure difference and al so a
function of pl at e thickness) of the pl at e
between j acks. In the par t i al cancellation
regi on of t he nozzl e, t he j acks must be
spaced cl oser t o give a minimum mismatch
between aerodynamic and el ast i c shapes
8
. For
the t est section st at i c pressure distribution
t o be repeatable at M = 8 to within Ap/P =
0.5%, i t i s necessary to have the accumulated
t ot a l slope error of 0.013 (cf. Ref. 8.
Fig. 12). Since there can be two reflections
on the f l exi bl e wal l , t he allowable con-
t r i but i on of each i s 0.0065. For a j ack
spacing of 5 i n. , the j ack r epeat abi l i t y
requirement is then 0.0004 in. (cf. Ref. 8,
Pig. 14).
I t i s d e s i r a b l e , though not always
possi bl e, to limit maximum st r esses in the
flexible plate to the proportional limit of
the mat eri al used for the sake of repeat -
abi l i t y. Normally t hi s maximum s t r es s as
well as maximum j ack load occurs when one
makes a correction on one j ack only. Jack
loads and plate st ress for various corrections
are shown as a function of j ack spacing for
t he 21 i n. hypersoni c wind t unnel n i n.
thick plate in Figure 43. These stresses are
additive to those existing in the plate due
t o i t s curvature and scalloping. To insure
uniform section propert i es in the fl exi bl e
27
pl a t e , i t was made of s ol i d mat er i al with
soft copper cooling tubes soldered on t o t he
back si de t o provide cooling (Fig. 44). The
smal l t hermal bow due t o t he t emper at ur e
gradi ent can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y overcome by
providing s uf f i ci ent s t i f f ne s s in t he j ack
yokes and pi ns. When t he f l exi bl e pl at e i s
qui t e t hi n, as i s requi red in regions of high
curvat ure, i t i s des i r abl e t o have t he lugs
machined i nt e gr a l wi t h t he p l a t e . In t he
21 i n. hype r s oni c wind t u n n e l t he onl y
region of high curvat ure i s contained within
t he sol i d t hroat block sect i on of the nozzle.
For t he remainder of i t s l engt h, cur vat ur e
of t he f l e x i b l e p l a t e i s r a t h e r s mal l
(0.004 i n. "
1
at t he most c r i t i c a l condi t i on)
a l l o wi n g use of n i n . t h i c k , Rockwel l
C 38 - 40. type 403, s t a i nl e s s s t eel as t he
pl at e mat eri al . With t hi s mat eri al t hi ckness
and wi t h t he j a c ks l ocat ed normal t o t he
pl a t e , i t was s t r u c t u r a l l y sound t o at t ach
t he lugs t o the pl at e by screws (Pig. 44).
The j ack desi gn r e qui r e d, bes i des t he
0.0004 in. r epeat abi l i t y previously mentioned,
an oper at i ng load of 18,000 l b in a 5 i n.
space and the a bi l i t y t o change j ack s et t i ngs
whi l e ope r a t i ng t he t unne l ( c a l i b r a t i o n
requi rement ). After a st udy of manual and
e l e c t r i c a l ope r a t or syst ems showed them
l a c ki ng i n o p e r a t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y , an
hydraulic j ack was developed (See Figure 45).
In t h i s d e s i g n a worm and ge a r t u r n a
pr eci s i on micrometer screw wi t hi n a fi xed
n u t . A count er on t he worm s haf t r e a ds
i nches t o t he n e a r e s t 0. 001 i n. whi l e a
di a l mounted di r e c t l y on t he screw reads t o
0. 0001 i n. The hydr a ul i c p i s t o n rod i s
ext ended c onc e nt r i c a l l y t hrough t he l ead
screw t o a posi t i ve connection on the f l exi bl e
p l a t e . Back l ash i s el i mi nat ed from t he
system because t he j ack i s loaded in only
one di r ect i on by the hydraul i c cyl i nder. The
design adapts t o becoming a s t r a i ght mech-
ani cal j ack as shown in Figure 45. Calcula-
t i ons i ndi cat e t hat t he f l exi bl e pl at e need
only be supported at each end when changing
Mach number ai r - of f . Two mechanical j acks
a t each end s e t de s i r e d t h r o a t and t e s t
sect i on hei ght s and sl opes. Thereaft er, a l l
s i xt e e n micrometer st ops ar e r a pi dl y s e t ,
and t he hydraul i c pressure i s brought slowly
from zero t o 1500 l b / i n .
2
t o draw t he pl at e
agai ns t t he micrometer screw s t ops . Four
j a c ks out of t he s i xt e e n have mechani cal
st ops on a double ended pi st on rod (Pig. 45)
t h a t pr event nozzl e c ol l a ps e i n event of
hydraul i c system f ai l ur e; only flow qual i t y
i s l ost unt i l t he t roubl e can be correct ed.
To provi de for boundary l ayer growth on
t he nozzl e si dewal l s and t o achieve a more
uniform flow i ncl i nat i on in t he hor i zont al
pl ane, t he si dewal l s are di verged about n
on e i t h e r s i de . They ar e al s o cont i nuous
from upstream of t he t hr oat t o beyond t he t e s t
sect i on so as t o el i mi nat e any aerodynamic
i nt erference due t o mechanical imperfections
of aremovable j oi nt . To expedi t e operat i onal
us e of t h e t u n n e l , t he s i d e p l a t e s a r e
removable from upstream of t he t hr oat t o well
pas t t he t e s t s e c t i on ar ea, exposi ng a l l
functional par t s of t he nozzl e. Construction
of t he nozzle si depl at es i s of a conventional
welded ribbed st r uct ur e supporting t he cooled
i nner pl a t e ( Pi g. 46) . A t y p i c a l c r o s s -
s ect i on of one of t hese pl at es i s shown in
Fi gure 47. These pl a t e s are f abr i cat ed by
copper brazing a s t ai nl es s pl at e over a mild
s t e e l backi ng p l a t e i n which t he cool i ng
passages have been machined. The Hortenclad*
process was used which makes use of a vacuum
between t he two pl at es which are seam welded
ar ound t h e edges t o pr ovi de an ' i n e r t
at mosphere' and uniform clamping pr es s ur e
duri ng t he furnace brazi ng oper at i on. The
maximum d e f l e c t i o n under one at mospher e
pr essur e load was designed t o be l es s t han
0.001 i n. between suppor t s. Two pai r s of
model and support access doors ar e mounted
on double hi nges which permit s t r a i ght - out
pul l -over guide pi ns for removal. 18 i n. and
12 i n. diameter f used- si l i ca windows wi l l be
mounted in interchangeable access doors. The
window mounting (Fi g. 48) l eaves t he di sk
f r ee of t her mal s t r e s s and abl e t o expand
The Hortenclad process of Chicago Bridge and Iron Company
28
at wi l l while s t i l l mai nt ai ni ng maximum
edge thickness against pressure loads.
The extension of the si depl at e t o cover
the throat blocks necessitated a construction
that could handle high heat transfer and s t i l l
have the required fl exi bi l i t y to achieve the
met al - t o- met al seal on the si des of t he
t hroat block. The sealing forces are pro-
duced by hydraul i c pi st ons oper at i ng at
10,000 l b/ i n.
2
; they are contained within
the spacer blocks and provide balanced loads
on ei t her si de of t he assembly. This i s
i l l u s t r a t e d in Fi gure 49. The t ongues
consist of a beryllium-copper cover sheet,
vacuum-brazed to a monel block and then
hardened to develop the full strength of the
beryl Hum-copper. The tongue is machined to
a varyi ng t hi ckness consi st ent with i t s
shape and support points in order that i t may
conform to the throat contour when subj ected
to load by the spacer block pistons. Water,
supplied from a special manifold on the side-
plate proper at 600 l b/ i n.
2
, follows a 'U'
shaped path through the tongue at 120 ft/sec
maximum, and ret urns t o the high pressure
system (Fig.50). The j oining of the tongue
t o the si depl at e must provide a ve r t i c a l
vacuum-t i ght j oi nt between t he cool i ng
passage 0-ring and the ai r surface and pro-
duce an ai r surface j oi nt that i s ' perfect'
and wi l l not cause a di st urbance t o the
airflow.
The actual t est section i s a simple and,
i f necessary, expendable por t i on of t he
tunnel that can be modified to meet particular
t e s t demands. The simple s t r uc t ur e i s
designed to give maximum access to the t est i ng
area. The top and bottom, except for a few
st ruct ural areas, contain holes sealed with
expendable pl at es. The si des of the t e s t
section are i nt egral with the nozzle si de-
plates, and when the sideplates are removed,
models 5 or 6 ft in length can eas i l y be
accommodated. A photograph taken during
construction is shown in Figure 34 and shows
the t es t sect i on about as i t would appear
with a sideplate removed. The t est section
i s supported from above, as may be seen in
Figure 34, on ' f l exi bl e' supports. Pinal
alignment is obtained from the nozzle si de-
pl at es as shown in Figure 34. The only
mechanical l i nk between t he nozzl e and
di ffuser occurs in the t es t section where
light, vented, st ai nl ess steel fairing plates
carry the airflow from the nozzle exit to the
forward opening of t he di ffuser i nt er nal
pl at es, a di st ance of approximately 6 ft .
All thermal growth and mechanical t ravel of
both the nozzle and diffuser are absorbed
in the center of these fai ri ng pl at es in a
s l i p j oi nt which i s supported by a simple
j ack in the t est section.
The diffuser is a sealed box within which
movable plates operate to produce the desired
area r a t i os (Fi g. 51). The box concept
f a c i l i t a t e s t he s eal i ng of t he movable
internal plates while reducing their operating
loads. The diffuser i s anchored t o ground
near i t s forward end and expands downstream.
The diffuser unit i s hinged toward i t s rear
(Pi g. 52) and may be r ot at ed 11 about
t hi s point providing unobstructed access to
the rear of the t est section for extra long
models and opt i cal alignment. The main
st ruct ural cr i t er i on was to provide a large
mass of metal t o absorb the vi brat i on and
sound. Relief valves located in the diffuser
sideplates ahead of the second throat and set
t o s t a r t opening at 2 t o 4 l b/ i n.
2
above
atmosphere were provided t o prevent high
internal pressures in the tunnel should the
second t hr oat become blocked (by model,
second throat pl at es, et c. ) . Cooling of al l
plates in the diffuser is again through use
of the Hortenclad system of providing water
grooves Just under t he ai r-wet t ed surface
with addi t i onal water passages near t he
diffuser t hroat .
All pneumatic seals and water connections
on the internal pl at es, as well as al l seals
around the pressure box, can be inspected or
changed by removing the two si depl at es on
either side of the diffuser. Access to the
second throat is provided by 30 in. diameter
doors. Various mechanical and el ect r i cal
operators for the second throat drive system
were investigated, but al l proved lacking in
ei t her accuracy, safety, power, or time of
29
action. Pinal design i s an off-on, high-
speed, low-speed, hydraulic servo system
t hat wi l l maintain pl at e posi t i on within
1/32 of an inch. If small position errors
occur, the smaller, low-speed system corrects;
whereas for large control signals, both the
high and low speed s ect i ons oper at e in
par al l el unt i l the set point i s cl osel y
approached, at which time the high speed
system cut s out and the slow speed si de
completes the posi t i oni ng. Second t hr oat
position feedback i s by indicators connected
directly to the second throat hinge system.
Connection of the diffuser to the aft er-
cooler is by means of two sections of cooled
pi pe s epar at ed by an expansi on j o i n t
(Pig. 52). The divergence of a 5 half-angle
i s carried through the expansion j oi nt and
transition cone to discharge into the after-
cooler. Maximum velocities in the t ransi t i on
pipe of over 1200 ft/sec led to the abandon-
ment of internal insulation for control of
the thermal growth of t hi s piping in favor
of a complete welded water j acket . The
bellows of the expansion j oi nt , although
Isolated from the direct airflow by a vented
f ai r i ng, never t hel es s runs hot and i s ,
necessarily, of st ai nl ess st eel . The model
catcher i s located in the downstream end of
the t r a ns i t i on cone j us t forward of t he
entrance to the aftercooler. This unit i s a
ring with a center grid of heavy st ai nl ess
steel plates welded to form 5% in. squares.
The upstream face is covered with a grid of
smaller bars on edge while the rear face i s
covered with several l ayers of l i ght and
heavy screen designed t o hold any small
pi eces t hat may get through the forward
gri d. The ent i r e uni t i s keyed i nt o the
cone section in such a manner as to accommo-
date al l thermal expansion; the catcher i s
required to operate at essent i al l y tunnel
supply temperature.
5.6 Seals
I nf l at abl e s eal s are used in a l l t he
movable tunnel part s wherever ai r leakage
cannot be t ol er at ed. I t has been t rue in
JPL' s exper i ence t hat wherever a wel l
designed inflatable seal holds i t s pressure
there will be no leak in that area.
Solid seals in a properly designed groove
can seal sat i sf act or i l y in long continuous
l engt hs. This i s t e s t i f i e d t o by t hei r
popularity and dependability as ' 0' ri ngs.
A disadvantage ar i s es in t hat a properly
designed '0' ring groove for the sideplate,
for instance, has l i t t l e Inclination to retain
t he seal when t he mating par t i s not in
pl ace. In many such t unnel uses, i t i s
di ffi cul t to be certain t hat such a seal i s
properly in place when the parts are finally
in running position.
A two-dimensional, variable Mach nozzle
naturally requires seals which:
(1) Seal against other seals
(2) Seal in 90 corners
(3) Seal large var i at i on of gaps where
t he r e i s room for onl y a smal l
diameter seal
(4) Seal l ar ge var i abl e gaps agai nst
unlubricated surfaces and s t i l l do
not r est r ai n r el at i ve motion (as in
diffuser plate)
(5) Can be replaced by pul l i ng through
i t s groove without disassembling parts.
Solid seals which perform poorly under most
of the above conditions were not considered
seriously upstream of the diffuser.
The hi gh- pr essur e area of the t unnel
contains high-temperature ai r under normal
operating conditions. If a small leak were
to develop, a sonic throat would be formed,
and the seal material would be destroyed by
the high temperature. This leak would quickly
spread over the ent i re high pressure peri -
meter. Infl at abl e seal s are used in t hi s
area.
During the investigation of flow in the
throat region for the hypersonic nozzle
9
, It
30
was found that a slight misalignment between
the t hroat blocks causing a 0.002 in. gap
between the block and the si depl at e at the
t hr oat would make the flow unacceptable.
This was caused by high-pressure ai r leaking
through t hi s gap between the seal and the
intended ai r-wet t ed surface. Par t i cul ar
attention was paid to t hi s area in the design
of the JPL 21 in. tunnel. Hydraulic pistons,
bui l t i nt o the throat-block spacers, press
the sideplate into Intimate contact with the
throat block in the vi ci ni t y of the t hroat .
There i s some bui l t -i n protection to prevent
flow around the edges of the throat at high
temperatures In that the air-wetted surface
i s the hot t est part of the throat block and
wi l l nat ur al l y expand t o exer t pressure
against the sidewall. Although not depended
upon in the design, i t will probably permit
some small margin for error.
A leak Into the tunnel in the low-pressure
area of the nozzle or t est section will both
contaminate the tunnel ai r and cr eat e an
aerodynamic disturbance that will adversely
affect t he qual i t y of airflow in the t es t
sect i on. This may seri ousl y r e s t r i c t t he
usefulness of any measurements on the model
being t es t ed. I nf l at abl e seal s are used
in t hi s area.
The diffuser i s probably the most di f f i -
cult part of the tunnel to seal effectively
since the diffuser plate movements are large
in magnitude (both transverse and angular)
and t ake pl ace while the seal s are under
pressure performing their function of closing
gaps which are large and vari abl e. A seal
l eak here wi l l decr ease t he ef f i ci ency
(pressure recovery) obtainable In the diffuser
and i s a ser i ous concern when compression
r a t i o may not be suf f i ci ent t o est abl i sh
flow past a par t i cul ar model and support.
Inflatable seals are being used in the parts
of the diffuser where rel at i ve motion takes
place with vari at i on in gaps. Solid seal s
ar e used in t he remai ni ng pa r t s of t he
diffuser.
An attempt was made to standardize pro-
cedures in seal design for t hi s tunnel.
Fi gur es 53 t o 60 show s ol ut i ons t o t he
det ai l design problems encountered in the
i ncorporat i on of I nf l at abl e s eal s in the
hypersonic tunnel.
Silicone rubber is the basic seal material
in use at the present time. Various compounds,
additives, and cures are able to change the
fi nal shore hardness as required for seal
uses. Natural and neoprene rubbers with many
of t hei r combinations have been tried in the
past. In terms of tunnel down-time for seal
repair s i l a s t i c rubbers have been found t o
be s ubs t ant i al l y more r e l i a bl e . Quality
cont r ol was not found t o be adequate by
commercial suppl i ers of finished s i l as t i cs
so a small shop was set up within the Labora-
t or y t o produce t he t ubi ng, s eal caps,
corners, and various special die cast part s
required in the seal system. The inflatable
seal tube is about 50-shore hardness while
the seal caps are held t o about 70-shore.
Corner inserts are made of the softest mixture
avai l abl e which at present i s about 35-40
shore. Where sl i di ng seals are required as
in the diffuser, the caps are made of teflon.
Pressures used in the i nfl at abl e sealing
tubes are usually 200-300 l b/ i n.
2
above the
pressure to be sealed. This will vary some-
what with the final hardness of the s i l as t i c
tube and the gap to be sealed.
6. INSTRUMENTATION
6. 1 Cal i br at i on Equipment
Because t he ai rfl ow c a l i br a t i on of a
wind tunnel i s t ypi cal l y const ri ct ed by a
l at e tunnel fabrication completion date and
by the need for an earl y operational date,
i t is advantageous to put considerable effort
into making efficient use of the calibration
time. To cal i br at e the tunnel flow, i t i s
necessary to provide a cal i brat i on probe t o
t raverse the nozzle axl al l y. Two types of
measurements are made with the probe: (1)
free-stream pi t ot pressure for the purpose
of def i ni ng j ack i nf l uence r egi ons and
determining Mach number di s t r i but i on, and
31
(2) di f f e r e nt i a l pr essur e acr oss a cone or
wedge for t he purpose of det ermi ni ng flow
i ncl i nat i on. The axi al t r aver se range extends
from downstream of t he t unnel window 6 ft
upstream i nt o t he nozzl e. To minimize t he
length of cal i br at i on peri od, t he following
c a p a b i l i t i e s have been desi gned i nt o t he
probe:
(1) Five si mul t aneous, cont i nuous - t r ace
pr es s ur e sur veys can be t aken in a
si ngl e axi al t r aver se by pl ot t i ng t he
output of fi ve pressure t ransducers.
(2) The pr essur e lag time has been mi ni -
mized by mounting t he fi ve pr essur e
t r ansducer s i ns i de t he wat er-cool ed
head of t he probe.
(3) Remotely act uat ed cut - of f val ves are
mounted i n t he head of t he probe t o
i s ol at e t he long pressure l i nes from
t he t ransducers t o t he micromanometers
out si de t he t unnel . The micromano-
met er s a r e used t o c a l i b r a t e and
z e r o - s e t t h e t r a n s d u c e r s unde r
o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . ( Th i s
e l i mi n a t e s t he e x c e s s i v e l y l a r g e
pressure lag which would r es ul t i f t he
l ong l i n e volume was r e t a i n e d i n
the system during a t r aver s e) .
(4) Remote r o l l of t he probe about i t s
axi s i s provided t o allow changes of
t he pr e s s ur e - r a ke o r i e n t a t i o n from
t he v e r t i c a l t o h o r i z o n t a l pl a ne
without stopping t he t unnel .
(2) Cut-off valve
(3) Pressure transducer performance ( t e s t s
were made in 3/8 scal e model t unnel ) .
6.2 M odel Support
In or de r t o c a r r y out a wind t u n n e l
program for t he purpose of i nvest i gat i ng t he
aerodynamic c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s of a confi gura-
t i o n , i t i s neces s ar y t o pr ovi de a model
support syst em. A gi ven t e s t program may
r equi r e t ha t t he model pos i t i on be fixed i n
t he t unnel i n which case t he model support
would consi st of a simple br acket ; however,
a l arge port i on of t he program wi l l r equi r e
t ha t t he model pos i t i on, or a t t i t u d e with
r espect t o t he a i r stream, be vari ed duri ng
a run. Experience has i ndi cat ed t hat i t i s
i mpr act i cal t o at t empt t o desi gn a s i ngl e
support system t o s at i s f y a l l t e s t r equi r e-
ments. The model support system planned for
t hi s tunnel should prove adequate for a l arge
maj ority of t he t e s t s . Four basi c t ypes of
suspension systems were eval uat ed:
(1) Half-span crescent
(2) Half-span ar t i cul at ed s t r ut
(3) Pul l -span ar t i cul at ed s t r ut
(4) Half-span fixed s t r ut r ot at i ng about
a point out si de t he t unnel .
Sketches of t he conf i gur at i ons are shown
i n Fi gures 62 and 63. The important desi gn
paramet ers which were used t o eval uat e t he
systems were:
Fi gur e 61 shows t he c a l i b r a t i o n probe
mounted in the t unnel with the pressure rake
ori ent ed i n t he ve r t i c a l plane. Because of
t he over al l complexity of the design, i t was
considered advi sabl e t o const ruct models of
c r i t i c a l component s f or t he pur pos e of
e va l ua t i ng per f or mances under s i mul at ed
o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . The component s
successful l y checked were:
(1) The hydr aul i c axi al dr i ve system and
cooling water flow di s t r i but i on
(1) Abi l i t y t o pi t ch t he model about any
a x i s a l o n g i t s c e n t e r l i n e wi t h
minimum ve r t i c a l or axi al t r ans l at i on
(2) Simplest possi bl e mechanical arrange-
ment avoi di ng j o i n t s or bear i ngs in
t he hot tunnel flow
(3) Locat i on and arrangement such as t o
provide adequate space for a mounting
st i ng, i . e . , allow for a maximum st i ng
length
32
(4) Maximum angl e- of - at t ack range
(5) Ease of I ns t a l l a t i on of models, s t i ng,
wires, and coolant l eads
(6) M inimum ma i n t e n a n c e and e a s e of
maintenance
(7) M inimum f r o n t a l a r e a and minimum
adverse effect on t he t unnel di f f user
based on a compilation of experi ment al dat a
shown in Fi gure 64. The val ues were a r b i -
t r a r i l y f i xed by c hoos i ng N/qA ^ 3 f or
q = 3. 5 l b / i n .
2
and A = 100 i n .
2
The emer-
gency shutdown s i de f or ce e s t i ma t e act i ng
acr oss t he support system i s 1100 l b. This
val ue was obt ai ned usi ng t he dat a from t he
r ef er ences i n Fi gure 64, i . e . , (N/qA)aj _
90
o
2; 1.5 f or q = 3. 5 l b / i n .
2
and A = 210
i n
2
.
(8) Ease of a n g l e - o f - a t t a c k dr i ve and
i ndi cat i on.
After comparing t he four systems on t h i s
basi s and on general mechanical compat abi l i t y
t o t he t unnel design, i t was decided t hat t he
crescent -t ype support (Fig. 62) would be t he
best over al l compromise. In addi t i on t o t he
p i t c h d r i v e s ys t e m, i t was c o n s i d e r e d
advi s abl e t o pr ovi de a system t o r o l l t he
model dur i ng a r un. Typi cal r eas ons for
r ol l i ng a model ar e t o minimize t he amount
of model i n s t r u me n t a t i o n and t o make i t
possi bl e t o t e s t t he model in combined pi t ch
and yaw a t t i t ude s . I t i s al s o necessary t o
pr ovi de an adequat e pas s age t hr ough t he
suppor t syst em f or model pr e s s ur e l e a ds ,
e l e c t r i c a l wi res, and cool i ng l i nes .
The t o t a l de s i gn l oads f or t he model
s us pens i on syst em were di vi de d i n t o two
components:
(1) Air loads act i ng on t he model
(2) Ai r l o a d s a c t i n g on t h e s u p p o r t
system.
The l oad e s t i ma t e s
2 9
ar e based on t he
aggregate forces which would be developed by
hypot het i cal maximum si zed models, both for
s t e a d y - s t a t e r unni ng and emergency condi -
t i o n s . The maximum model r unni ng l oad
e s t i ma t e s ar e
3 0
"
3 1
* : Li f t = 120 l b, Drag =
120 l b, and Side Force = 60 l b.
The emergency st oppi ng loads ( i . e . , l oss
of flow at maximum supply pr essur e) for t he
models ar e normal f or ce (N) = 1000 l b and
s i de f or ce = 500 l b. These es t i mat es ar e
6. 3 Force Balances
The gener al purpose of a force bal ance
system i s t o measure s t andar d aerodynamic
forces and moments. In some cases t he t e s t
program may requi re t hat only two components
such as l i f t and pi t chi ng moment be measured;
however , i t i s more of t e n n e c e s s a r y t o
measure a l l si x components in order t o define
completely t he aerodynamic performance of a
given conf i gur at i on. The following general
t ypes of balance systems could i n pr i nci pl e
s a t i s f y t he 21 i n. hypersoni c t unnel force
balance requirements:
(1) I n t e r n a l b a l a n c e (mount ed i n s i d e
model)
(a) Hi g h - t e mp e r a t u r e b a l a n c e (no
cooling)
(b) Cooled balance
( 2; Ext ernal balance (ext ernal t o t unnel )
(3) Co mb i n a t i o n e x t e r n a l - i n t e r n a l
balance.
The high-temperature i nt er nal balance was
considered f i r s t due t o i t s r e l a t i ve si mpl i -
c i t y , but was di scar ded because t he s t a t e -
of - t he- ar t in hi gh-t emperat ure st r ai n- gauge
t echni ques has not progressed t o t he poi nt
where t he accuracy was considered accept abl e.
The cooled i nt e r na l bal ance c ons i s t s in
p r i n c i p l e of a s t a nda r d ' c ol d' i n t e r n a l
bal ance encl osed i n a p r o t e c t i v e cool i ng
j a c k e t . One of t he maj or desi gn problems
i nherent in t h i s scheme i s fi ndi ng a method
of making t he cool i ng l eads compliant so as
33
not t o cause l a r g e i n t e r a c t i o n e r r o r s ,
par t i cul ar l y in t he chord force measurement.
To i nves t i gat e t h i s t ype, a five-component
(no chord force) balance has been designed,
fabri cat ed, and cal i br at ed. A bench cal i br a-
t i on has been car r i ed out under t he simulated
temperature environment, and the r es ul t s show
t hat the performance i s not adversely affected
by t emper at ur e. The bal ance I s shown i n
Fi gure 65. The desi gn of a cool i ng j acket
for a st andard commercially avai l abl e s i x -
component balance i s al so being i nvest i gat ed.
Due t o t he problems as s oci at ed with t he
design of a successful six-component i nt er nal
balance for t he hypersonic tunnel environment,
consi derat i on has been given t o the ext ernal
balance confi gurat i on. The obvious advantage
of an ext ernal balance confi gurat i on i s t he
vi r t ua l el i mi nat i on of t he hi gh-t emperat ure
environment for t he balance proper. The JPL
20 i n. supersonic t unnel has a six-component
ext er nal bal ance system which i s used, t o
t he v i r t u a l e xc l us i on of i n t e r n a l f or ce
bal ances , for a l l f or ce t e s t s . The pas t
seven year s of ope r a t i ng exper i ence have
shown the balance t o be an extremely ver s at i l e
and useful piece of equipment with only one
maj or l i mi t at i on. This l i mi t at i on i s in t he
accur acy of moment measur ement s and i s
imposed not by the balance system i t s e l f but
by t he model suspensi on syst em. Thi s i s
because t he mechanical posi t i oni ng r equi r e-
ments are almost impossible t o achieve under
a l l t ypes of l oadi ngs. A hypersonic t unnel
e x t e r n a l ba l a nc e would have a d d i t i o n a l
problems due t o t he de f l e c t i ons caused by
t emperat ure ef f ect s coupled with t he aer o-
dynamic need for l onger and more f l e xi bl e
s t i n g s . Fi g u r e 66 shows t h e g e n e r a l
arrangement of t he 20 i n. super soni c .wind
tunnel six-component ext er nal balance system.
In view of t he compounded problems involved
wi t h t he moment meas ur ement s , t he s i x -
component ext ernal balance confi gurat i on was
not considered pr a c t i c a l for t he hypersonic
t unnel .
To el i mi nat e some of t he maj or problems
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h bot h t he I n t e r n a l and
ext er nal balance conf i gur at i on, a combined
ext ernal and i nt er nal balance was considered.
Thi s c o n f i g u r a t i o n c o n s i s t s of a t h r e e -
component e x t e r n a l f or ce bal ance ( l i f t ,
drag and s i de forces) in combination with a
three-component, water-cooled i nt er nal moment
b a l a n c e ( p i t c h i n g , yawi ng and r o l l i n g
moments). Thi s bal ance does not r e qui r e
accurate model posi t i oni ng and should provide
maximum performance by combining t he hi gh
accuracy ext ernal balance force measurements
( as demonst r at ed i n Reference 35) wi t h a
t a i l o r e d i n t e r n a l moment bal ance t o gi ve
maximum accuracy for t he p a r t i c u l a r model.
A pr e l i mi na r y des i gn st udy r eveal ed two
maj or problems: (1) In order t o minimize t he
aerodynamic e f f e c t s of t he model suppor t
s t i ng which i s shrouded by t he wi ndshi el d,
i t was necessar y t o provi de a compl i cat ed
wi ndshi el d dr i ve system al ong with a very
sophi st i cat ed st i ng-wi ndshi el d t racki ng servo
and f oul i ng system; and (2) t he l ar ge s i z e
of t he wi ndshi el d neces s ar y t o house t he
cooling system and remote r o l l device could
damage t he t unnel di f f us er performance t o
t he ext ent t ha t t he compressor pl ant com-
pressi on r a t i o avai l abl e would be I nsuf f i ci ent
t o s t a r t t he t unnel . I t i s believed t hat t he
combination, i nt er nal - ext er nal balance would
be t he most accurat e, but bet t er information
on the aerodynamic i nt er f er ence of t he s t i ng
support i s requi red t o j us t i f y t he need for
high accuracy and r es ul t i ng complexity.
6.4 M anometers
Pr e s s u r e measur ement s i n t he 21 i n .
hypersonic tunnel may be divided i nt o several
gener al c a t e gor i e s of r e l a t e d p r e s s u r e s .
Tabl e 6 d e s c r i b e s each ge ne r a l c a t e gor y
along with the expected pressure range. The
requi red accuracy with which pressures are t o
be measured var i es widely between cat egor i es.
For example, measurements of t e s t - s e c t i o n
p i t o t p r e s s u r e made f or t he pur pos e of
det ermi ni ng f r ee- st r eam Mach number should
be a c c u r a t e t o 0. 1% of P'
Q
, whi l e t unne l
di f f user and nozzle s t a t i c s used for opera-
t i ona l l y monitoring t unnel flow need not be
b e t t e r t han 1 t o 5 mm Hg or s i l i c o n e o i l ,
depending on t he or i f i ce l ocat i on. A det ai l ed
study of vari ous possi bl e types of manometers
34
led t o the s el ect i on of i nst rument s shown in
Table 7, which shoul d s a t i s f y t he ove r a l l
requirements as pr esent l y vi sual i zed.
The hi gh pr e s s ur e gauges and a t r a n s -
ducer wi l l be pur chas ed commer ci al l y as
r e qui r e d and wi l l be used f or measur i ng
pressures in excess of 1700 mm Hg.
The raultitube manometers wi l l be designed
and f a b r i c a t e d t o meet t h e f o l l o wi n g
speci f i cat i ons:
(1) The manomet er r ange or h e i g h t i s
1000 mm
(2) There wi l l be t en molecular banks of
10 t ubes per bank
(3) 2 t o 10 banks may be j oi ned t oget her
and pl aced on a common manifold and
scal e reference
(4) The r ef er ence pr essur e may be e i t he r
vacuum or atmospheric
(5) The manometer f l u i d may be e i t h e r
mercury or s i l i cone oi l
(6) A f l oa t - t ype check val ve i s mounted
at t he t op of each tube for overflow
pr ot ect i on
(7) Each bank i s manual l y por t a bl e and
compact so t ha t i t can be pl aced as
c l os e t o t he t unne l as pos s i bl e t o
short en t he pr essur e l eads and mi ni -
mize t he s e t t l i n g time lag
(8) Det achabl e back l i ght i ng assembl i es
wi l l provi de t he necessar y l i ght t o
r e c or d t he d a t a by camer a. (JPL
experience has shown t hat t he over al l
recording accuracy i s 1 mm when hand-
read and 5 mm when photographed).
Fi gure 67 i s a sket ch of a t ypi c a l 10-t ube
modular uni t .
The pr eci s i on micromanometer i s a s i ngl e
pr e s s ur e - s e ns i ng i nst r ument used when t he
a c c ur a c y of t h e mu l t i t u b e manomet er i s
i ns uf f i c i e nt . There ar e s ever al di f f e r e nt
makes avai l abl e commercially which could be
used f or t h i s pur pos e . The p a r t i c u l a r
t ype micromanometer which has been used
e xt e ns i ve l y at JPL for pr e c i s i on pr es s ur e
measurements i s a Wallace and Ti er nan No.
PA-187, Pr eci si on Cal i br at i ng St andard, and
t h i s t ype wi l l be used for t he hyper soni c
t unnel appl i cat i on.
The s peci al l ow- pr essur e manometer wi l l
be used when a speci f i c t e s t r equi r es an even
hi ghe r a c c ur a c y of measurement t ha n i s
a v a i l a b l e wi t h t he Wal l ace and Ti e r na n
micromanometers. When t h i s need a r i s e s , i t
wi l l be necessar y t o devel op a s peci al i zed
i nst rument t a i l or e d t o meet t he p a r t i c u l a r
requirement.
In addi t i on t o t he manometers descr i bed
above, some f ut ur e c ons i de r a t i on i s bei ng
gi ven t o a mul t i pr es s ur e measuri ng syst em
(MPMS) s i mi l a r t o t he 20 i n. s u p e r s o n i c
t unnel system
36
. A MPMS system would supply
d i g i t a l pressure dat a pr es ent at i on duri ng a
run and would e l i mi na t e t he l abor i ous and
time consuming film pr ocessi ng r equi r ed i n
t h e mu l t i t u b e p r e s s u r e manomet er d a t a
reduct i on.
6.5 Schl i eren System
The Schl i eren design problem di f f er s from
t hat for a t ypi cal Schl i er en system in t hat
t he a i r dens i t y i s consi der abl y lower t han
t he a i r densi t y in most supersoni c t unnel s .
The low densi t y l evel demands a consi derabl y
more s e n s i t i v e opt i c a l system; t he r e f or e ,
t he f o l l o wi n g s t e p s have been t a ke n i n
support of anopt i cal desi gn. (1) The opt i cal
path can be ei t her Newtonian or Herschelian;
(2) a l a r ge , i s ol at ed mass cement mounting
p e d e s t a l has been pr ovi ded t o mi ni mi ze
possi bl e t unnel vi br at i on di st ur bances; (3)
i n t e r f e r e n c e from c o n v e c t i o n c u r r e n t s
or i gi nat i ng on t he out si de of t he hot t unnel
windows or anywhere i n t he l i g h t pat h i s
el i mi nat ed by encl osi ng t he e n t i r e opt i c a l
system in a vacuum chamber; and (4) t he system
may be o p e r a t e d as an ' i n t e r f e r e n t i a l
35
Sc h l i e r e n '
3 7
'
3 8
. Fi gure 68 i s a schematic
layout of the Schl i eren system.
6.6 Heat Transfer Equipment
Heat t r ans f er r a t e s wi l l be measured in
two di fferent manners:
(1) By means of t he s o- cal l ed t r a ns i e nt
heat t r ansf er method which involves a
t hi n ski n model with t hermocoupl es
attached at poi nt s of i nt er es t .
This scheme gener al l y r equi r es a
model cooling system and a pr ot ect i ve
shi el d around t he model which can be
quickly j et t i s oned t o expose the model
surface t o t he airflow.
(2) By the s t eady- s t at e heat t r ans f er or
heat meter system which involves t he
i n s t a l l a t i o n of a mi n i a t u r i z e d
t her mopi l e on t he model sur f ace t o
measure t he s t e a d y - s t a t e heat flow
r a t e t h r o u g h t h e p i l e i n t o t h e
i nt er nal cooling system
39
.
In addi t i on t o the heat t r ansf er measure-
ments, i t wi l l be of I n t e r e s t t o measure
st agnat i on t emperat ure; t her ef or e, research
I s cur r ent l y being conducted t o develop an
accurat e and useful st agnat i on t emperat ure
probe. Numerous experiments conducted with
a l arge var i et y of probes usual l y r es ul t in
recovery fact ors t hat vary si gni f i cant l y with
s t agnat i on t emper at ur e, M ach number, and
Reynolds number. Thus, a probe i s of only
qual i t at i ve value unl ess a complete cal i br a-
t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e . The pur pos e of t he
present program i s t o develop a probe which
would not requi re such extensive cal i br at i on.
The gener al t ype of i nst rument consi dered
in t h i s study c ons i s t s of a s i ngl e, vented
shi el d surrounding a sensi ng thermocouple.
The s h i e l d i s used t o d i r e c t t he fl ow,
minimize r a di a t i on l os s e s , mai nt ai n known
flow conditions around the thermocouple, and
minimize heat l oss from t he ai r sample being
measured. Theoret i cal anal ysi s of probes of
t h i s t ype shows t ha t t he maj or l os s es ar e
from the conduction heat t r ansf er along t he
thermocouple wires i nt o the base of t he probe
and from r adi at i on heat t r ansf er t o the cool
s h i e l d . In an e f f o r t t o de t e r mi ne and
e l i mi na t e t hes e l os s e s , a probe has been
bui l t with a small nichrorae wire heat er in
t h e base and a second he a t e r around t he
out si de of t he s hi el d. Addi t i onal thermo-
coupl es were at t ached t o t he I nsi de of t he
shi el d and embedded in t he base. In a t e s t
conduct ed at a M ach number of 5. 8 and a
supply temperature of 250P, a probe recovery
f act or of 1.0 was obt ai ned over a range of
Reynolds numbers by t he simultaneous heat i ng
of t he s h i e l d and base u n t i l a l l t h r e e
t hermocoupl es ( a i r , base, s hi e l d) agr eed.
Very small boundary layer probes of t hi s type
are now under development"
0
for use where the
wall temperature i s very much di f f er ent from
t he supply t emperat ure, i . e . , t unnel wal l s
and cooled models.
6.7 Data Handling
The fundamental syst em c ons i s t s of an
i nf or mat i on scanner and paper - t ape punch
(60 d i g i t s per second) which i n t e r r o g a t e s
a l l t he i nformat i on sour ces i n successi on
and punches t he Informat i on s e r i a l l y i nt o
paper t a p e
4 1
. The I nf or ma t i on s our c e s
t hemsel ves cons i s t of manual keyboards and
aut omat i c d i g i t i z e r s . Typi cal i nformat i on
which wi l l be aut omat i cal l y d i g i t i z e d ar e
s t r ai n gauge outputs from force balances and
pressure t ransducers and t e s t var i abl es such
as model angl e- of - at t ack and r o l l posi t i on.
All t e s t information which i s not automatic-
a l l y d i g i t i z e d i s manually ent er ed in t he
keyboar ds so t h a t t he r a w- da t a t a pe i s
complete. The raw dat a are displayed at the
t unnel in two forms: (1) All dat a are typed
by a Pl exowr i t er or a Burroughs e l e c t r i c
t ypewri t er, and (2) twelve sel ect ed var i abl es
may be pl ot t ed aut omat i cal l y. All of t he
da t a ar e reduced at t he Labor at or y on an
EDC-205 d i g i t a l comput er . Dat a wi l l be
reduced ei t her ' on- l i ne' or in dai l y batches.
The two basi c reasons for ' on- l i ne' f i nal
dat a pr e s e nt a t i on ar e: (1) t o shor t en t he
l engt h of time necessary t o publ i sh a f i nal
dat a r epor t , and (2) t o provi de addi t i onal
36
information with which t o Improve t he t es t i ng
e f f i c i e n c y . In many c a s e s t h e p h r a s e
' o n - l i n e ' d a t a p r e s e n t a t i o n c onnot e s a
poi nt - by- poi nt or r eal time computation and
d i s p l a y of t he f i n a l c o e f f i c i e n t s as t he
run pr ogr es s es . Due t o t he f act t ha t t he
20 i n. s upe r s oni c t unne l and t he 21 i n.
hypersonic tunnel must share t he EDC di gi t a l
computer while running si mul t aneousl y, only
one t unnel can be ' o n - l i n e ' i n r e a l t i me.
Data from t he ot her t unnel may be processed
on demand as a batch cal cul at i on and presen-
t at i on.
t he s t a t i c pr essur e t o reduce t he number of
j acks r equi r ed. A f l e xi bl e - pl a t e t hi ckness
of !4 i n. was chosen as p r a c t i c a l , and onl y
t en j acks were t hen needed on t he f l e xi bl e
pl at e i nst ead of si xt een as used on t he l ar ge
t u n n e l . The s i d e wa l l di ve r ge nc e a n g l e
di f f e r s from t he f ul l s cal e t unnel but was
c a l c u l a t e d from t he same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
t o match t he di s pl acement boundary l a ye r
sl ope at t he end of t he f l e xi bl e pl a t e for
M = 8. 0, T
0
= 850F, and p
Q
= 500 l b / i n .
2
gauge. The r e s ul t i ng di vergence i s 0.0145
i n. per inch per wal l .
7. MODEL TUNNEL
7. 1 Design
An exper i ment al program was I n i t i a t e d
dur i ng t he desi gn phase of t he f ul l s cal e
wind t unnel t o i n v e s t i g a t e r e a l i s t i c a l l y
some of t he depar t ur es from exi st i ng exper i -
ence which were pr edi cat ed by t he pr essur e,
temperature and Mach number. I t was decided
t o bui l d a s c a l e model t unne l which was
r epr esent at i ve of t he 21 i n. hypersonic wind
t u n n e l i n a l l i mpor t a nt me c ha ni c a l and
aerodynamic aspect s. Thi s t unnel was t o be
si zed t o match t he e xi s t i ng power pl ant of
t he Hypersonic Laboratory at t he Guggenheim
Aer onaut i cal Labor at or y of t he Ca l i f or ni a
I n s t i t u t e of Technol ogy i n or der t h a t i t
might provide a useful research f a c i l i t y af t er
compl et i on of t he des i gn i n v e s t i g a t i o n s .
Study of t he GALCIT compressor pl ant perform-
ance t oget her with t he JPL est i mat ed pressure
r a t i o r equi r ement s l ed t o a s i z e t h a t i s
approximately 3/8 t hat of t he 21 i n. hyper-
soni c wind t unnel . Fi gur es 69 and 70 ar e
phot ogr a phs of t h e c ompl e t e , i n s t a l l e d
t unnel .
Prom t hese general requi rement s a design
evol ved whose aerodynamic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
di f f er ed but s l i g h t l y from t he f u l l - s c a l e
t unnel desi gn. The nozzl e p o t e n t i a l flow
cont our was ge ome t r i c a l l y s cal ed and t he
boundary l ayer cor r ect i on computed from t he
same c r i t e r i a . The flow non-uniformity from
mismatch of t he f l exi bl e pl at e contour t o t he
aerodynamic cont our was r el axed t o 1% of
Space l i mi t a t i o n s r e q u i r e d t h a t t he
t unnel be somewhat s hor t er than 3/ 8 s c a l e .
Ther ef or e, t he l engt h of t he c ons t a nt - a r e a
channel, or t e s t sect i on, was reduced from 5
t o 2 c a l i be r s and t he second di f f user pl at e
short ened from 10 t o 8 c a l i be r s (see Fi gure
27 for comparison). In addi t i on, no subsonic
di ffuser was i ncorporat ed, t he two-dimensional
d i f f u s e r d i s c h a r g i n g d i r e c t l y i n t o t he
t unnel a f t e r c ool e r . These depar t ur es must
each a f f e c t t h e o v e r a l l p r e s s u r e r a t i o
requi red t o s t a r t and run t he t unnel ; however,
t he shor t er t e s t sect i on of t he model tunnel
shoul d r educe t he r equi r ement whi l e t he
e f f e c t of t he l a t t e r two d i f f e r e n c e s i s
probably adverse. These di f f er ences are not
considered l arge enough t o keep t he r es ul t i ng
o v e r a l l pr e s s ur e r a t i o r equi r ement s from
being r epr es ent at i ve.
The most c r i t i c a l par t of t he hypersoni c
wind t unnel i s t he t hr oat regi on, and main-
t ai ni ng const ant geometry i s consi dered t he
most d i f f i c u l t mechani cal pr obl em. The
t hr oat - pos i t i oni ng mechanism of t he model i s
e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o t he f u l l - s c a l e
desi gn di scussed previ ousl y and i s shown in
Fi gures 71 and 72. Only one pai r of spacer
bl ocks was made f or t he model, but t h i n ,
changeabl e shims ar e provi ded t o vary t he
t hr oat opening. These shims can be seen in
Figure 71 between t he spacer block and upper
angle block.
The t hr oat bl ocks and s i de pl a t e t ongues
for t he model t unnel are of e s s e nt i a l l y one-
pi ece c ons t r uc t i on. Ber yl l i um- copper was
37
used for t he r e a s ons pr e s e nt e d e a r l i e r ;
however, the cool i ng passages were produced
by dr i l l i ng s t r a i ght - l i ne , round holes in the
blocks as shown in Figure 73. This was done
t o simplify fabri cat i on with some compromise
in t he cooling.
The cooling scheme for t he f l exi bl e pl at es
i s e s s e n t i a l l y t he same as for t he 21 i n.
t unnel (Fig. 71). For t he remainder of t he
t unnel , i t was not f el t necessary t o simulate
t he geometry of the cooling passages. There-
f or e, t hese pa r t s ar e a l l cooled by wat er
c i r c u l a t i n g t hr ough copper t u b e s s o f t -
soldered t o t he back side of the par t s . The
cool i ng t ubes of t he nozzl e s i de pl a t e s may
be seen in Figure 74. Suffi ci ent cooling i s
provi ded t o prevent undue d i s t o r t i o n from
t her mal s t r a i n s and t o pr ot e c t t he s e a l s
from over-heat ing.
The general seal i ng scheme i s represent a-
t i v e , di f f e r i ng pr i ma r i l y i n s i z e and i n
some d e t a i l s of a p p l i c a t i o n . Si nce t he
mechanical par t s had been reduced consi der-
abl y, i t was i mpos s i bl e t o mai nt ai n t he
f ul l - s cal e seal di amet ers. The l ar gest seal
permissible in t he c r i t i c a l part of t he t hr oat
bl ock or al ong t he edge of t he f l e x i b l e
pl at e was 1/8 i n. O.D. Since 1/16 i n. I.D.
was necessary t o permit s uf f i ci ent l y st urdy
s e a l connect or s , t he r e s u l t i n g t ube wal l
t hi cknes s i s 1/32 i n . , which c r e a t e s many
oper at i onal problems t ha t a t hi cker - wal l ed
tube would not.
The j acks for t he model tunnel are simple
mechanical j acks r at her than t he hydr aul i cal l y
l oaded, mi cr omet er s t op ar r angement . A
number of t hes e mechani cal j acks e xi s t e d
from a previous GALCIT f l exi bl e- pl at e tunnel
and these were duplicated in order t o provide
t he model' s f ul l complement. The j ack screw
yoke i s pin-connected t o a lug bolted t o t he
f l exi bl e pl at e. This screw passes through a
r ot at abl e nut enclosed In a r ect angul ar box
which i s pi n-connect ed t o t he main support
framework. Thus, t he j ack can be made t o
extend or r et r act by r ot at i ng the nut.
The compressor pl ant avai l abl e at GALCIT
for t he model t unnel has been used for a
number of years t o dri ve one or t he ot her of
two pa r a l l e l wind t unnel s. This tunnel was
i nst al l ed in leg 2, leg 1 being the or i gi nal
GALCIT 6 i n. by 6 i n . , M = 5. 8 hypersoni c
t unnel . The f i r s t five st ages are a l l r ot ar y
vane compr essor s. Each of t he f i r s t two
st ages consi st s of fi ve machines in pa r a l l e l .
The s i xt h st age cons i s t s of two pi st on- t ype
compr es s or s i n p a r a l l e l . Al l of t h e s e
machines are posi t i ve displacement in nat ure
so t he compressors r equi r e an i nt ake volume
flow of 7550 ftVmin independent of pressure
r a t i o. The dryer cont ai ns s i l i c a gel and i s
in t he c i r c ui t cont i nuousl y. A complicated
ser i es of oi l separat ors and f i l t e r s follows
t he f i nal st ages in order t o remove t he oi l
put i nt o t he ai r by the compressor l ubr i cat i on
systems. This removal i s qui t e successf ul .
A steam heat exchanger i s avai l abl e for use
with e i t he r l eg and wi l l provide st agnat i on
temperatures up t o 300F. All ear l y runs of
t he model t unnel were made with t h i s heat er
onl y. For l eg 2, an e l e c t r i c he a t e r i s
a v a i l a b l e which can pr ovi de s t a g n a t i o n
temperatures up t o 1100P. The ai r i s heated
by pa s s i ng t hr ough s u c c e s s i v e g r i d s of
ni chrome wi r e which conduct a l t e r n a t i n g
current cont rol l ed by a sat ur abl e r eact or .
The t emperat ure di s t r i but i on of t he a i r
leading t he e l e c t r i c heat er was i nvest i gat ed
and found t o be unacceptable. Vari at i ons in
excess of 100F were observed at an average
temperature of 1000P. A mixer was devised
whose out put was a uniform t emperat ure a i r
stream at 10F. The desi gn of t h i s mixer
was developed empi ri cal l y through t e s t s made
In t he presence of a simulated tunnel t hr oat
t o e n s u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o n d i t i o n s .
Fi gure 75 shows t he desi gn t o demonst rat e
t he el abor at i on requi red and i s not necess-
a r i l y recommended for ot her i n s t a l l a t i o n s .
The or i gi nal mixer out l et duct had an expand-
ing st ep about 1 i n. upstream of t he t hr oat .
The separ at i on produced on t he si dewal l s by
t h i s d i s c o n t i n u i t y di d not r e - a t t a c h and
r e s u l t e d i n s epar at ed flow i n t he nozzl e
unt i l t he par t s were re-machlned t o provide
di scont i nui t y- f r ee surfaces.
38
7.2 Operation
A number of obser vat i ons can be made
concerning the operation of the tunnel apart
from t he out r i ght aerodynamic r e s u l t s
obtained.
The seals. In general, were satisfactory.
Air out-leaks were never encountered in the
high-pressure, high-temperature areas around
the t hroat region. Stagnation condi t i ons
were char act er i s t i cal l y 250 l b/ i n.
2
gauge
and 900P at M = 8, and the seal ci r cui t s
which run upstream of t he t hr oa t were
i nfl at ed t o 500 l b/ i n.
2
gauge. The teflon
seal caps sealed very well, did an excellent
j ob of protecting the i nfl at i on tubing, and
gave l i t t l e trouble where they were required
t o j oi n against molded s i l a s t i c caps (see
Figure 71 for example). The various molded
silicone rubbers parts were also satisfactory,
even where used when some motion was required.
The maj ority of the troubles with the seal s
- and these were frequent - occurred where
the physical i nst al l at i on was not representa-
t i ve of the 21 in. tunnel design. One seal
in particular gave considerable trouble, and
i t i s ent i r el y non- r epr esent at i ve. This
s eal , shown in Figure 76, i s cal l ed t he
bulkhead seal since i t seals the low-pressure
area of the t est section from the rel at i vel y
high-pressure area on the back side of the
diffuser pl at es. This seal , which was made
of 1/8 in. si l i cone rubber sheet supported
by thin st ai nl ess st eel sheets and stiffened
l at er al l y with s t eel bars, was eventually
replaced by i nf l at ed seal c a r r i e r s which
formed a cyl i ndri cal j oi nt . Rapid adj ust-
abi l i t y of the diffuser entrance height was
sacrificed by t hi s new design, but a large
increase in seal r el i abi l i t y was obtained.
This new seal can be seen in Figure 77.
Early In the tunnel investigation program,
i t became apparent t hat t he est i mat es of
t he s t a r t i ng pressure r a t i o requirements
based on NOL r e s u l t s
1 6
were opt i mi s t i c.
The f i r st attempts to est abl i sh flow in the
tunnel were unsuccessful. It was recalled
that on one occasion a very marginal i nl et
model had been st art ed at the University of
Southern Cal i forni a Engineering Center by
introducing a small amount of water into the
supply sect i on. Therefore, a device was
i ns t al l ed t o i nj ect water i nt o t he duct
between the thermal mixer and the wind tunnel
t hroat . This i s shown diagrammatically in
Figure 75. The cylinder capacity is about
three cubic inches.
The r e s ul t s obt ai ned with t hi s water
inj ector were very encouraging. Configura-
tions which would not st ar t at any diffuser
set t i ng were repeatedly and easi l y st ar t ed
by inj ecting water. Although no attempt has
been made to study the physics of t hi s s t ar t -
ing process, a few observations can be made.
I t was noted t hat during the period when
water was bei ng i nj ect ed, t he si dewal l
s t at i c pressure increased at those ori fi ces
which were already in supersonic flow. I t
was found t hat about 10% was the l i mi t t o
which the pressure r at i o could be reduced
below t hat requi red t o s t a r t a model and
support under normal operating condi t i ons
and s t i l l successful l y s t a r t with water.
However, the water i nj ect i on permitted no
reduction in pressure r at i o for the cl ear
tunnel. Speculations concerning the process
involved include a pulse of increased supply
pressure, hence compression r a t i o due t o
water vaporization, effect of heat rel ease
by water condensation, or simply a sharp
di st urbance in the separated nozzle flow
which permits st art i ng.
The cooling provided by the design was
sufficient in al l respects. No seal failure
could ever be at t r i but ed t o excessive tem-
pe r a t ur e s . The windows are of ' Vi cor'
material and are edge mounted with a ceramic-
like cement which expands when i t set s. No
window f ai l ur es were experienced although
t he inner surface of t he mounting cement
cracked and chipped. Outside window tem-
perat ures were about 200F with the edges
about 20F cooler than the center. Tempera-
tures were observed on various parts of the
tunnel using temperature- sensi t i ve pai nt s
and thermocouples. These were general l y
found to be sat i sfact ory and as predicted.
The out l et flange of the GALCIT heater i s
39
not adequately cooled, however; some of the
cr i t i cal upstream parts were heated more than
i s expected for t he l ar ge t unnel . The
upstream face of the t hroat spacer blocks
was found to be 315F, primarily from radia-
tion, although the average temperature on the
surfaces of these blocks was about 150F.
The swing bol t t emperat ures vari ed from
about 200F at t hei r upstream end to 130P
at the center and room temperature at the
downstream end. The r est cf the upstream
structure remained about room temperature on
the external surfaces.
The aerodynamic requi rement s impose
severe rest ri ct i ons upon the misalignment and
non-rectangularity of the throat. The throat
height was determined by a set of ten brass
feeler gauges ground in thickness increments
of 0.0001 in. It was found that a pair of
f eel er s could be sel ect ed such t hat t he
smal l er one sl i pped eas i l y through t he
throat while the next larger would not go at
a l l . This technique appears t o be qui t e
s a t i s f a c t or y. The t hr oat was act ual l y
adj usted toaunlform height by differentially
tightening the through bolts.
The bolting up of the t hroat i s accom-
plished by the following procedure. All
parts are assembled in t hei r proper rel at i on-
ship and the throat block j acks tightened to
a moderate compressive load. The sideplates
are then placed in position and the swing
bolts tightened moderately. The spacer block
pistons are then slowly energized to bring
the t hroat blocks i nt o l at er al alignment.
The through bolts are now tightened with a
torque wrench to full load. The sideplates
could now be removed i f desired (Pig. 78).
Finally, the swing bolts which are the axial
nozzle r e s t r a i nt s are t i ght ened fi rml y.
Some non-repeat abi l i t y of Mach number was
experienced following throat disassemblies.
These non-repeats were equivalent to changes
in throat height of 0.002 in. or less. Since
el as t i c deformation of the t hroat spacing
parts does occur under the tightening loads
required, i t was fel t that a certain amount
of t hi s variation could be attributed to the
uncertainties attendant upon tightening bolts
with a torque wrench. For the ful l scal e
t unnel , very short st roke, hydraul i cal l y
actuated washers are used t o eliminate the
uncert ai nt i es of thread fri ct i on. Similar
hydraulic washers will also be used to load
the swing bol t s which posi t i on the ent i r e
throat assembly and si depl at es against the
face of the contraction flange.
The nozzle shape i s set into the flexible
plate by optical means. A precision optical
leveling instrument i s est abl i shed on the
c e nt e r l i ne pl ane of t he t hr oat bl ocks
0.001 in. A special fixture is then used
which establishes a precise optical tooling
scale plumb (see Figure 79) with i t s origin
touching the edge of the flexible plate at a
known station along the plate (approximately
each j ack attachment point). The fixture i s
positioned stationwise by bearing agai nst
t ool i ng but t ons i ns er t ed i nt o t he j ack
attachment pin holes. The j ack extension is
then adj usted unt i l the proper ordinate i s
est abl i shed. Because the j acks a l l have
appreciable backlash, a stiff, free-supported
beam was established above and below the two
sets of j acks and 0.0001 in. resolution dial
i ndi cat ors were attached t o ri de on these
frames in such a way as to indicate motion of
the end of t he j ack normal t o the t unnel
centerline. After the tunnel is started, the
j ack nuts are turned unt i l these indicators
return to the original reading. Changes in
j ack set t i ng during the nozzle cal i brat i on
were made using these indicators.
This t unnel design r equi r es t hat t he
s i depl at es seal met al -t o-met al with t he
edges of the throat block in order that there
be no leakage path by the throat due to the
large pressure gradient. Before running the
tunnel, blue pigment was applied to the lands
of the throat blocks and the sideplate tongues
were loaded agai nst them with the spacer
block hydraulic pistons. i t was found that
good contact could be obtained with al l four
surfaces at hydraulic pressure above 3000
l b/ i n.
2
. This problem was also investigated
while running with a mul t i pl e- pi t ot rake
mounted about 6 in. downstream of the throat
with the tubes in the horizontal cent erl i ne
40
plane. The hydraulic pressure was increased
incrementally and the rake pressures were
read. The pi t ot rake indicated const ant -
flow conditions at al l pressures above 3500
l b/ i n.
2
. To supply some margin of safety,
the spacer block pistons are always loaded
to 4500 l b/ In.
2
. To investigate the magnitude
of t hi s throat leak effect, a small piece of
0.0005 i n. t hi ck tape was appl i ed t o one
t hroat block land with i t s edge about 1/8
in. removed from the contoured surface at the
throat st at i on. The effect of the leak thus
produced was readily observed with the pi t ot
rake previously mentioned.
7.3 Performance
During the program of nozzle calibration,
a study was made of the effect of vari at i on
of st agnat i on t emperat ure upon both t he
nozzle sidewall s t a t i c pressures and t he
free-stream pi t ot pressures. The r es ul t s
are presented to show the general Influence
of supply temperature upon t hese common
cal i br at i on parameters. The measurements
were made at Mach 8.25 and a supply pressure
of 250 l b / i n .
2
gauge wi t h a r e s u l t i n g
equilibrium sat urat i on temperature for ai r
of about BOO
0
?"
2
. In Figure 80 t here i s
shown t he measured a xi a l v a r i a t i o n in
cent erl i ne pi t ot pressure. I t can be seen
that for temperatures above the sat urat i on
temperature the effect s are small and the
Mach number decrease is predictable from the
attendant change in boundary layer thickness.
At t emper at ur es below t he s a t u r a t i o n
temperature, however, the effect i s much
more pronounced and soon r es ul t s in large
de vi a t i ons from t he condens at i on- f r ee
pressure di st ri but i on. It appears then that
no gross cool i ng below t he equi l i br i um
sat urat i on temperature can be permitted if
sensible pi t ot pressure measurements are to
be made.
In Figure 81 are shown the var i at i ons
observed in si dewal l c e nt e r l i ne s t a t i c
pressures in the expanding port i on of the
nozzle. Here the t heor et i cal equilibrium
sat ur at i on temperatures are approximately
730F for st at i on 23.47 and about 570F for
st at i on 12.94. I t can be seen t hat these
s t at i c pressures begin to deviate at about
the same stagnation temperature although the
l ocal equilibrium sat urat i on temperatures
are markedly different. As compared t o the
axial pi t ot pressures, considerable reduc-
t i on in supply temperature was made before
measurable devi at i ons appeared in t hese
pressures.
Axial pi t ot pressure surveys were al so
made at various stagnation pressures with a
constant st agnat i on temperature of 850F.
The resul t of these surveys i s presented in
Figure 82. The charact er of the pressure
distribution i s essentially unchanged for the
surveys at 338 and 167 l b/ I n.
2
abs, and the
change in Mach number agrees very cl osel y
with the estimated change in boundary layer
thickness. I t Is believed that the lowest
pressure shown, 60 l b/ i n.
2
abs, permitted a
laminar boundary layer t o grow in at l east
part of the nozzle, which may account for the
fact that there was no further average Mach
number change. A large change in the pressure
di s t r i but i on al so r esul t ed from t hi s low
pressure.
Since the changes in Mach number can be
accounted for by t he changes in boundary
layer thickness and since the character of
the pressure di s t r i but i on i s es s ent i al l y
unaffected, i t i s believed that throat di s-
t or t i ons due to vari at i on in ei t her supply
pressure or temperature are negligible.
Boundary layer pi t ot pressure surveys
were made in t he t e s t sect i on t o obt ai n
displacement thickness information necessary
for the nozzle calculations, useful t est i ng
si ze, and compressor plant considerations.
They were not intended as a definitive study
of the hypersonic wind tunnel boundary layer.
A t ypi c a l measured pr of i l e i s shown in
Figure 83a together with laminar and turbu-
lent pr of i l es cal cul at ed with a 1/7-power
velocity di st ri but i on and assuming a constant
stagnation temperature throughout. I t can
be seen t hat t he measured pr of i l e agrees
f ai r l y well with the cal cul at ed t urbul ent
profile, and when i t s velocity di st ri but i on
41
i s deduced using a modified Persh-Crocco
1 2
t emper at ur e d i s t r i b u t i o n , t he r e s u l t i n g
pr of i l e follows an approxi mat el y 1/5-power
function. Pr of i l es were al so taken at other
s t a t i o n s in t he t unnel and pr ogr e s s i ve l y
approached a l i near pi t ot pressure di s t r i bu-
t i on as t he Mach number decreased (Pig. 83b).
Roughnesses of var i ous s or t s were added t o
t he wal l s of t he channel upst ream of t he
nozzl e t h r o a t , and whi l e t hey i nf l uenced
t he boundary l ayer t hi cknes s , t hey di d not
i nfl uence i t s shape. For t hese reasons i t
was f e l t t h a t t h e boundary l a y e r s were
purely t urbul ent . The r es ul t of determining
displacement t hi ckness from t hese measurements
has previously been discussed in t he sect i on
on nozzl e de s i gn and 8* e s t i ma t e s ( cf .
Fi g. 22). Careful expl orat i on of the boundary
l ayer cl ose t o t he wall reveal ed a smooth,
c ont i nuous v a r i a t i o n i n p i t o t p r e s s u r e
(measured on an oi l manometer) when i nc r e -
ments of 0.010 i n. were used. No evi dence
of separat i on was found.
The o v e r a l l wind t unne l s t a r t i n g and
running pressure r a t i o c ha r a c t e r i s t i c s were
al so i nvest i gat ed. I t was found, general l y,
t h a t cons i der abl y hi gher pr e s s ur e r a t i o s
were r equi r ed for s t a r t i n g t han had been
a nt i c i pa t e d, but t ha t t he minimum runni ng
est i mat es were more near l y cor r ect . Figure
84 shows a summary pl ot of a por t i on of t he
dat a obt ai ned. Only t hose conf i gur at i ons
which could be st ar t ed without water i nj ect i on
ar e shown except for t he f ul l - span ve r t i c a l
support with spher e. The minimum runni ng
requirement for t hi s confi gurat i on i s shown,
as i t was t he hi ghes t of a l l t hose which
r equi r ed wat er f or s t a r t i n g . The f i l l e d
symbol s, t h e r e f o r e , show t he s pr e a d of
r unni ng r equi r ement s f or a l l models t ha t
were s t a r t e d by any method. Thi s suppor t
i s shown in Figure 85 in conj unction with a
mi ssi l e model. The GALCIT ogive model and
support appear in Figure 86 while t he si ngl e
tube axi al drive i s shown in Figure 87. The
one poi nt shown at Mach 9 i s an i nci dent al
point where i t was observed t hat t he t unnel
had s t ar t ed. I t i s not necessar i l y a minimum
val ue. I t should be mentioned t hat no quick-
a c t i ng val ves ar e provi ded i n t he GALCIT
c i r c ui t si nce t hey would not be compat i bl e
with t he GALCIT heat er . St ar t i ng pr es s ur e
r a t i o s were always reached very sl owl y as
t he heat er output temperature was i ncreased.
I t i s hoped t ha t t he quick, surge pr es s ur e
r a t i o s t a r t s planned for t he l ar ge t unnel
wi l l l ower t h e s t a r t i n g p r e s s u r e r a t i o
r equi r ement s below t hose observed for t he
model t unnel .
The cal i br at i on of t h i s model t unnel was,
i n addi t i on t o det er mi ni ng t he qua l i t y of
airflow produced by a nozzle of t hi s t ype, t o
check out the procedures and i nst rument at i on
f or use i n t h e f u l l - s c a l e t u n n e l . The
i nst r ument at i on used cons i s t s of four maj or
uni t s:
(1) P l o t t i n g t a b l e c a pa bl e of making
cont i nuous t r aces of t hr ee pr essur es
or pressure di fferences (Fig. 88)
(2) Fi ve-t ube pi t ot probe head (Fi g. 89)
capable of being r ot at ed 360 in 90
increments
(3) Conical probe head with pi t ot at t i p
and four or i f i c e s at 90 around cone
f o r me a s u r i n g f l ow i n c l i n a t i o n
(Pi g. 90). This probe has a di f f e r -
e n t i a l pr e s s ur e t r a ns duc e r In t he
head t o check i t s oper at i on in t he
tunnel environment. The purpose of an
i nt e r na l l y mounted t r ansducer i s t o
decrease pr essur e lag time by mi ni -
mizing t he pressure l i ne length
(4) Axi al t r a v e r s i n g gear c a pa bl e of
t r aver si ng from 17 in. upstream of t h
end of t he f l e xi bl e pl a t e t o 10 In.
downstream. (The t hr oat i s 52. 5 i n.
upstream from the end of t he f l exi bl e
pl a t e ) .
Absolute pr essur es are measured with mercury
us i ng a Wal l ace and Ti e r n a n P r e c i s i o n
Cal i br at i ng Standard.
Si nce t h i s i s a f l e x i b l e - p l a t e t unnel ,
t he same general method of c a l i br a t i on t hat
was used successf ul l y in t he JPL supersoni c
wind t unne l s I s a p p l i e d
4 3
. An I mpor t ant
42
difference between a supersonic and hyper-
sonic tunnel from a cal i brat i on standpoint
i s t hat , in the l a t t e r , l ess of t he t es t
rhombus i s avai l abl e t o probe t r avel . To
compensate for t hi s rel at i ve lack of center-
l i ne dat a, great er consi derat i on must be
given to the off-centerline information.
In c a l i b r a t i n g , t he f i r s t or der of
business, after the recorded data have been
determined to be r el i abl e, i s to construct
the j ack influence curves. This procedure i s
described in det ai l in Ref. 43. Sufficient
Influence data were obtained t o construct
the char act er i s t i c influence net as shown
In Figure 91. This was scribed on l uci t e
t o the same hori zont al scal e used on the
plotting t abl e. By superimposing the influ-
ence net on the pressure di s t r i but i on, i t
becomes apparent, with practice, which Jacks
t o move in order to improve the flow. This
is an i t erat i ve procedure in which acceptable
r e s ul t s can be achieved in a few hours'
running time. Figure 92 i l l u s t r a t e s the
flow qual i t y obtained using the i t er at i on
process in the M = 8.25 nozzle shape. The
same method of correction can be applied in
improving t he symmetry of t he flow as
measured on the pi t ot tubes above and below
the centerline. Figures 92 and 93 i l l ust r at e
t he improved symmetry r esul t i ng from the
noted asymmetrical j ack movement. The
deviation in the cent erl i ne traverses between
t he two passes (probe ve r t i c a l l y up and
probe vert i cal l y down) is believed t o be due
t o non- r e pe a t a bi l i t y of t he e l e c t r oni c
instrumentation and to the simplified design
of t he t r aver s i ng gear which causes t he
cent er l i ne probe t o t r aver s e a s l i ght l y
di fferent path for each r ot at i on angle of
the probe (0 t o 360).
Figure 94 demonstrates t hat a desi red
Mach number may be set t o ri gi d t ol erances
i f r equi r ed. During t he c a l i br a t i on of
M = 8.25, Jack No.7 upper has been retracted
t o i t s l i mi t . Figure 94 shows graphically
t he r e s u l t s of t he Mach change (desi gn
M = -0. 05) put i nt o the tunnel t o regai n
some freedom of motion on Jack No. 7.
After the i n i t i a l runs at M = 8.25, an
M = 8 contour was set into the tunnel with a
throat height which fel l within the range of
an exi st i ng set of t hr oat feel er gauges.
The reason for t hi s change was to provide a
means of checking the throat height when we
returned to t hi s Mach number l at er for a flow
r e p e a t a b i l i t y check. The j ack count er
readings were al so recorded t o r eset the
physical contour for t hi s check.
The t unnel was t hen run at M = 6. 0
(Pig. 95) and M = 9.5 (Fig. 96). Compara-
t i vel y l i t t l e effort was expanded to smooth
the M = 9.5 flow, since the GALCIT heater
does not have sufficient capacity to produce
one-phase flow at t hi s Mach number. Our
purpose was t o see i f any unant i ci pat ed
calibration problems might present themselves
at higher Mach numbers.
After M = 6 and M = 9.5 runs, the M = 8
nozzle was r eset i nt o the tunnel and the
flow repeat abi l i t y check made. The r esul t s
are shown graphically in Figure 97.
This Mach number (M = 8) was then cal i -
brat ed in a normal manner with the flow
noted in Figure 98 achieved.
Upon continued running at t hi s set t i ng, a
gradient appeared in the pressure distribution
(Fig. 99). This gr adi ent appears t o be
permanent as i t has remained through many
weeks of running and several minor disassem-
bl i es of the t unnel . The reason for t hi s
trouble has not been determined although i t
i s believed to be mechanical. If t hi s i s
true then the likelihood of i t s occurrence
in the full-scale tunnel is very small, since
t he r e l a t i ve r i g i d i t y designed i nt o t he
21 i n. t unnel i s much gr eat er than t hat
which exi st s In the 3/8 scale tunnel.
Flow Inclination (of the flow distribution
shown in Figure 99) as measured with the 90
coni cal probe i s pl ot t ed in Figure 100.
Absolute flow i ncl i nat i on i s assumed t o be
the difference between the plotted curve and
the curve faired through the measured probe
i nc l i na t i on. This i s t r ue only i f t he
43
cent erl i ne of the cone axis is coincident
with the aerodynamic cent er l i ne and the
probe i ncl i nat i on i s the same ai r - of f t o
ai r - on. Since t he curves are so nearl y
coi nci dent , t hese assumptions ar e, for
practical purposes, probably true.
General conclusions from the calibration
of 3/8 scal e, two-dimensional hypersonic
nozzles are the following:
(1) Constant wall expansion angle nozzle
families are pract i cal for the Mach
range t est ed. I t i s not necessary
to complicate the throat block design
by r e qui r i ng t hat t h i s angl e be
variable.
(2) The t est rhombus can be adequately
calibrated even though a r el at i vel y
small portion of the rhombus length
i s t raversed. This i s accomplished
by making i ncr eased use of off-
centerline data.
(3) For dependabl e r e p e a t a b i l i t y of
high-quality airflow, the mechanical
positioning of the flexible plate and
t h r o a t block assembly should be
extremely accurat e. This requi res
minimum defl ect i on and backlash in
the positioning mechanism.
(4) I t i s qui t e possible t hat the Mach
number range of a two-dimensional
nozzle may be pushed up to 10.
(5) Principles and methods used in cal i -
brating the flexible-plate hypersonic
wind tunnel are essent i al l y the same
as those used in the JPL supersonic
wind tunnels.
44
REFERENCES
1. Coles, D.L.
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47
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49
Flow Calibration Instrumentation
Matthews, Malcolm L. An Experimental I nvest i gat i on of Viscous Effect s on St a t i c and
Impact Pressure Probes in Hypersonic Flow. California Institute
of Technology, Pasadena, California, GALCIT Hypersonic Research
Memo No. 44, June, 1958.
Centolanzi, Frank J. Char act er i s t i cs of a 40 Cone for M easuring M ach Number, Total
Pressure, and Flow Angles at Supersonic Speeds. NACA TN 3967,
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chus et t s I n s t i t u t e of Technology, Cent er of Anal ysi s, Tech.
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Per r i , Antonio
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Ordnance La bor a t or y, White Oak, Si l v e r Spr i ng, M aryland,
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M easuring Systems I ncor por at i ng Ca p i l l a r i e s . NACA TN 2793
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St a gna t i on Temper at ur e Pr obes f or Use at High Super s oni c
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50
Scadron, M.D.
Warskowsky, I.
Goldstein, D.L.
Scherrer, R.
Groves, J.C.
Quiel, N.R.
Glawe, G.
Ladenburg, Lewis
Pease, Taylor
Nussel t Numbers f or Base-Wire Thermocouples i n Hi gh-Vel oci t y
Air Streams and Anal yt i c Approximation of Conduction and Radia-
t i on Er r or s. NACA TN 2599, January, 1952.
Design and Cal i br at i on of a Total-Temperature Probe for Use at
Supersonic Speeds. NACA TN 1885, May, 1949.
Impact Pr essur e and Total-Temperature I nt e r pr e t a t i on at Hyper-
sonic M ach Number. Cal i f or ni a I ns t i t ut e of Technology, Pasadena,
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Radiation and Recovery Correct i ons andTime Constants of Several
Chromal-Alumel Thermocouple Probes i n High Temperat ure, High
Velocity Gas Streams. NACA TN 3766, October. 1956.
Physi cal M easurements i n Gas Dynamics and Combustion, Vol. IX
High Speed Aerodynamics andj et Propul si on. Pri ncet on Uni versi t y
Press, Pri ncet on, New Jersey, 1957.
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Diggins, J. L.
Lange, A.H.
Goldbaum, G.C.
Lukasiewicz, J.
Spegel, J.M.
et alii
Hunczak, H.R.
Rousso, M.D.
De Leo, R.V.
Huerta, J.
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Wind Tunnel s . U. S. Naval Ordnance Labor at or y, White Oak,
Si l ver Spring, M aryland, NAVORD Rep. 2421, December, 1952.
Comparison of Theor et i cal and Experi ment al Performance of a
Vari abl e-Geomet ry Di f f us er at M = 5. Uni ve r s i t y of Texas,
DRL-331. June, 1953.
Di ffusers for Supersoni c Wind Tunnels. Jour . Aero. Sc i . , Vol.
20, No. 9, September, 1953.
Appl i c a t i ons of Auxi l i a r y Ai r I n j e c t o r s t o Super s oni c Wind
Tunnels. NACA RM A53101, November. 1953.
St a r t i n g and Oper at i ng Li mi t s of Two Super soni c Wind Tunnels
Ut i l i z i n g Au x i l i a r y Ai r I n j e c t i o n Downstream of t he Test
Sect i on. NACA TN 3262, September, 1954.
Experimental Eval uat i on of Supersoni c Wind Tunnel Performance
with Sol i d Wall Test Sect i on - Supersoni c Di ffuser-Scavengi ng
Scoop Combinations. U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak,
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Document AD-88602).
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t he 5x5 i n. P i l o t Blow-Down Wind Tunnel . AGARD Report 92,
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Hast i ngs, S.
Roberts, R.
Analysis of the Performance of a Two-Dimensional, Variable-Area
Super soni c Wind Tunnel Di f f user wi t h and wi t hout Scavengi ng
Scoop and M odel, U.S. Naval Ordnance Laborat ory, White Oak,
Si l ver Spring, M aryland, NAVORD Rep. 4384, May, 1957.
51
Miscellaneous
Winkler. E.M.
Anon.
Stepanoff, A.J.
Langford, J.M.
Haddock, G.
Haddock, G.
Strong, H.
Schaper, P.
Barnett, R.
Schaper, P.
Wilson. M.N.
Sibulkin, M.
Haddock, G.
McKinnon, C.
Dayman, J r . , Bain
NOL Hyper soni c Tunnel No. 4 Re s u l t s I V: High Suppl y Temperat ure
M easurement and Cont r ol . U. S. Naval Ordnance Labor at or y, White
Oak, Si l v e r Spr i ng, M aryl and, NAVORD Rep. 2574, Oct ober , 1952
Repor t on Ai r Handl i ng Equi pment f or a Hyper s oni c Wind Tunnel
f o r Supe r s oni c Wind Tunnel s Br anch, Ba l l i s t i c Res ear ch Labor a-
t o r i e s , Aber deen P r o v i n g Gr ound, M ar yl and. Or dnance Cor ps
Cont r a c t DA-30-069-ORD-1318, P r o j e c t No. TB3-0118, December,
1954.
Tur bobl ower s.
car d 55- 6546) .
John Wiley and Sons, 1955 ( Li br a r y of Congr es s
Tes t Re s u l t s of I n s u l a t i o n M a t e r i a l f o r He a t e r HE-2. Ar nol d
En g i n e e r i n g Devel opment Ce n t e r , Tul l ahoma, Te n n e s s e e . Ai r
Research and Development Command, J ul y, 1954.
Ai r Heat i ng and Cool i ng F a c i l i t i e s f or t he Pr oposed 16 x 16 i n.
Hype r s oni c Wind Tunne l . JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT 21- T2,
Sept . 1953.
Pr e l i mi n a r y Desi gn of t he Hyper s oni c Wind Tunnel Af t e r c o o l e r .
JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT 21-T5, M arch 1954.
S e l e c t i o n of Hi gh P r e s s u r e Ce n t r i f u g a l Ai r Compr es s or s J and
K f or t he Hyper s oni c Wind Tunnel . JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT
21-T13, Sept ember 1954.
Per f or mance of t he JPL Hyper s oni c Wind Tunnel and Power Pl a n t
I nc l udi ng Pr e s s ur e Dr ops. JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT 21-T24,
Apr i l 1955.
A S t a r t i n g Syst em of t he Hyper s oni c Wind Tunnel Usi ng a Vacuum
Spher e. JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT 21-T25, M arch 1955.
Out l i ne of t he Development of t he Nozzl e J ack Ac t ua t i on Syst em
f or t he JPL 21 i n. Hyper soni c Wind Tunnel . JPL I n t e r n a l M emor-
andum HWT 21-T30, Oct ober , 1955.
Thermal De f l e c t i on and S t r e s s Ca l c ul a t i ons f or t he HWT Si de wa l l .
JPL I n t e r n a l M emorandum HWT 21-T32, Febr uar y 1956.
Co o l i n g t h e 21 i n . Hy p e r s o n i c Wind Tu n n e l . JPL I n t e r n a l
M emorandum HWT 21-T35, M arch 1956.
P r e d i c t i o n of Bl o c k i n g i n t h e Su p e r s o n i c Wind Tunnel Dur i ng
an At t empt ed S t a r t . JPL Rep. No. 20-109, June 1957.
52
TABLE 1
JPL Centrifugal Compressor Pl ant
Compressor
Uni t
a
H
+A
<D
H
a
*
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
J
K
I n t a k e
Volume
f t
3
/ mi n
57,000
57,000
57. 000
14,000
8,000
14,000
8,000
3.500
1,075
M ax
Di sch
Pr e s s
l b / i n .
2
abs
37
37
37
33
67
33
67
250
715
M ake*
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
I-R
Speed
i nc r e a s i ng
ge a r i ng
Ra t i o
3570/900
3570/900
3570/900
6250/1775
7700/1775
6250/1775
7700/1775
8900/1200
8900/1200
M ake
GE
GE
GE
W
W
w
w
w
w
t t e c t n c ar xve mot ors
( 3 phas e, 60 c yc l e )
Horsepower
4000
4000
4000
1000
1000
1000
1000
200
200
Type
Synchr
I.O.P.F.
Synchr
I.O.P.F.
Synchr
I.O.P.F.
Induction
Induction
Induction
Induction
Synchr
I.O.P.P.
Synchr
I.O.P.F.
M ake
W
W
W
GE
GE
GE
GE
GE
GE
E l e c t r i c a l
s wi t chgear
( a c r os s l i ne
s t a r t )
Vol t age
4160
4160
4160
2300
2300
2300
2300
4160
4160
M ake
ITE
ITE
ITE
GE
GE
GE
GE
GE
GE
GE Ge n e r a l E l e c t r i c Company
I - R I n g e r s o l l Rand Company
ITE I . T . E. Company
W Westinghouse Electric Corporation
TABLE 2
Sampl e C a l c u l a t i o n f o r New Tunne l Co mp r e s s o r P l a n t
Ai r
Heat er
V , P
o' o
<
TQ = 100P
Supply
Sect i on
P V r
e -

e
o^d
Nozzle
Tunnel
Diffuser
After
Cooler
'7 " e " 9 " 10 " n is " 13 'iu
2^ [ 5 15 E3>
Compressors
Case
1
2
3
Ve
92,000
116.000
100,000
P
e -
p
l
P
e
14.3%
23.0%
17.0%
Vi
107,000
134,000
120.000
Pg/P,
2. 42
2. 12
2.34
v
?
44, 200
63, 200
51, 200
P
J - P ?
P
2
2.2%
3.5%
2.7%
v
3
45, 300
65, 300
52, 500
P4/ P3
2. 47
2. 18
2. 43
Vu
18, 300
29, 900
21, 600
P
u - * t
P
u
1.7%
3.2%
2.2%
v
5
18, 700
30, 900
22. 100
P4 / P5
2. 18
1.00
2. 08
v
6
8,570
30, 900
10,600
Case
1
2
3
P
. -
p
7
1.6%
3.6%
2. 1%
V7
8,700
32, 100
10,900
P 8 / P 7
2. 28
Volume
2. 24
Ve
3, 820
Pe -
p
9
p
e
1.0%
v.
3. 860
t oo gr eat for V Compressor
4, 860 1.6% 4, 950
Pi o/ P, V10
Pi o -
p
n
p
i o
Vu P i ? / P n Vl 2
P - P
r
1 2
r
1 3
P
l ?
Volume t oo small for 'G' Compressor
2. 2 2. 250 1.1% 2, 280 3. 58 637 1.9%
Case
3
V
13
650
P
l u /
P
l 3
2. 77
P
V
l u
234
p
i u " Po
1.3%
v
o
238
- %
420
Nomenclature
V, Volume, CFM, subscript denotes location
P, Abs. Pressure, subscript denotes location
%, indicates percent interstage pressure loss
R, overall available compression ratio
a
Lzeey
M M 1
S9E
HM ' f
t t t l l
0815 E
HP

EI CO
U 6 i c
U t i
1
!
ZIOEE
08S0' C
S 8 I 8 I
5

OOO 9
666 1
166 1
66 1
1,86 1.
816 L
896 1
9S6 1
: M I
926 1
906 1
888 1
998 1
W l
8 1 8 1
161 1
E 9 1 1
I t i 1
669 1
ON
I'm

OHSOI
SC6I - 0I
BBSt ' OI
EEEVOI
KBE' OI
81> K 01
I WE O I
600E 01
> -SC 01
1I0E 01
S Z 1 I 0 I
E S H O I
1E80 0I
WI OOI
M I O 01
OEM 6
6C98 6
S6E8 6
1 S 1 1 6
1189* 6
9909 ' 6
I BI S 6
I 8 9 ' 6
I 6E' 6
601> E'6
C OD
t
Q
9089' 6SI
SE96 191
E06E SSI
S 6 I S ZS I
9 K 9 6 H
9669 9I
1918 EH
C6 S 9 E H
SSES OH
SEVE1EI
E1Z9SE1
SOSO' EI
Z9 S1 0 EI
9 8 1 E1 ZI
0 8 1 E1 ZI
ZES6EZI
968V0ZI
10EI 611
ES66 911
ESt r - ' El I
8E88 0 I I
6 9 M 6 0 I
0600' 901
0E18ZOI
61 9 CO I
( H I )
z

aizzoN
OJv JO P"S
11J
u JO poa
BI ior
i i <-r
9i m r
si -> r
H " M f
uo) t oi o- j
Q
I M I
OU' t
OESOE
S ZS 9 I
U K ' I
ZWB 0
C91S 0
HP
-5

OSBSI
099 E I
S 6 E I I
1616 0
SSOt 0
0S61- 0
SSCEO
9P
"5

999 l
0E9 1
M S I
SSS 1
9 I S 1
S l ' l
EEI - 1
C6E 1
I S E ' l
I I E l
HE 1
! t ! t
61 1
K i t
9i r i
810 l
Ol O' I
00 1
996 9
eze'8
6 8 ' 9
1S8 9
ON
ci-TOI

S I K 6
CSBO 6
Z9Z0 6
M Ct ' B
BSB1 8
E019 8
HEED 8
0 I S ' 8
CE1C 8
661E 8
CC60 8
1806 1
Z E Z i l
9111 1
I BES' l
6 1 E' l
0 6 S 1 1
OI ZI ' l
1696 9
M 9 1 9
H 6 S 9
99V 9
6Z0' 9
E S I Z S
18C0 9
WW' S
1011 s
M W S
aiv s
( I )
f

9 9 K 66
1 1 E8 S6
O M C H
0 K E6
9E06 88
IZ9 98
soul- in
SZI ZB
OSSB 81
8 E I 6 U
M - Z1S1
M Z 1 Z 1
OSSB 69
M I D 69
SM I 19
S69V W
8 > M I 9
1 0 SVI 9
9SCS6S
EtOE I S
E S 8 6 K
E6CCE5
M SB' ZS
9 EI B0 S
I9SS 8
616 B
OtC'9>
sen s
SES' E
( H I )
i

EI " . Of
JI me
I I > Pf
oi ior
6 ". M f
8 13f
I v t
UOI J OJ O- ;
Q
SICE 0
1ZH 0
I S M 0
0100 0
0
9

t t n o
SE10 0
1I Z0 0
OEOO 0
0
oou -
saqoai
SP
~5
Q
S M ' 9
I Ct ' B
M L B
9 H 9
1 0 1 ' 9
199 9
9Z9' 9
t-SS 9
I K 9
1 6 ' 9
ZS' 9
901- 9
0 9 ' 9
I ' 9
S9Z' 9
U Z
-
9
891 9
611 9
8 9 0 ' 9
8 1 0 ' 9
196 S
S I 6 S
B I S
I I S S
6 S 1 S
ON
M inn

O I K S
6 9 6 ES
M I I ' S
H 1 0 S
6 CM '
1011 l>
1009 -y
8
HSE' I>
1C1E 1-
a n t
6096
H I S
1-999
9 0 E9 E
09CSE
E06E E
I6SC
U E I E
6010 E
I0E6 E
1E68 C
CIS1 C
CE19C
8 6 9 S Z
LOLy t
OBIE' C
SS8CC
H66I l
( " I )

0888 Elr
C61'I1>
EI I E0 1 -
8861' 6
069' BE
EEEZ' IE
C8EB l
BCOSK
E5 M EE
t i t l EE
ZEOO'CE
6t -t 8 OE
8 1 1 ' 6 !
HS9 8E
168E8C
EEE9 IE
06S9 9E
86E1 SC
6 Zl - 8 t E
9966 EC
I 6EI EC
1681 EE
esi* cc
E M 9 I C
9E86 0C
9 SI C0 E
1B19 6I
9110 61
BS6' 8I
CI)
X

9 V t
S l f
y i ^r
E l o i r
,OTOd
aoi.aaij ai
u o u v i o - j

S M O = . 1 I = V
t * I
! = X O S I = "* * S
8J<>qHBM ( > l l | puv BSi u ; p J o o 3 J n o i u n j d|ZZOM 8 = 1
c a i a v i
55
TABLE 4
M S Nozzle Ce n t e r l i n e M ach Number Di st r i b u t i o n
Radi al Flow M ach No. al ong g f or 18.U9 < x < 38. 52

( i n . )
38. 5172
40. 1850
41. 9188
43. 7182
45. 5825
47. 5108
49. 5016
51. 5532
53. 6635
55. 8302
58. 0503
60. 3210
62. 6386
64. 9996
67. 3999
69. 8357
72. 3024
74. 7958
77. 3113
79. 8446
82. 3909
84. 9462
87. 5061
90. 0667
91. 7628
Ce n t e r l i n e
M ach
No.
7. 009
7. 082
7. 154
7. 223
7. 291
7. 356
7. 419
7. 479
7. 536
7. 591
7. 643
7. 691
7. 737
7. 779
7. 818
7. 853
7. 884
7. 912
7. 936
7. 957
7. 973
7. 986
7. 995
7. 999
8. 000
56
T A B L E 5
Physical Properties
M at eri al
High Conductivity Be-Cu*
High Strength Be-Cu*
Electrolytic Copper*
A-286 Stainless Steel
Iron-Nickel (42%)
Invar '36'
Telnlc Bronze
Chromium-Copper 999
Tungsten
K
Btu
Sec Pt P
3.61xl0"
2
1.86xl0"
2
6.28x10"
2
2.86xl0"
3
1.72X10"
3
1.68X10"
3
3.40xl0"
2
5.20xl0'
2
2.40X10"
2
a
(Op-l)
9.8xl0'
6
9.4x10"*
9.8xl0'
6
9.64x10"*
2.9x10'****
1.75X10'****
9.8x10"*
9.8x10'*
2.5x10'*
E
lb/in.
2
16x10*
19x10*
16x10*
29x10*
22x10*
21x10*
16x10*
17x10*
52x10*
a
c
Elastic
limit
l b / i n .
2
60xl0
3
80xl0
3
8xl0
3
*
85xl0
3
22xl0
3
*
19x10
s
*
30xl0
3
*
36xl0
3
*
35xl0
3
* *
T
a
=
T +
<
1
" ^ r ,
c
aE
(F)
368
413
136
313
341
462
234
251
288
References
21
21
22
23
24
24
25
22
26.27
* Nominal composition: 0.50% beryllium, 2.5% cobalt, balance copper
* Nominal composition: 1.90% beryllium, 0.25% cobalt, balance copper
* Allegheny-Ludlum alloy
* 8 0 % of yield strength
5 0 % of ultimate tensile strength
* Interpolated value
57
TABLE 6
Pressure Ranges
Cat egor y
1. Nozzle static pressure distribution
2. Model inlet pressure recovery (~ 20% P
Q
)
3. Tunnel diffuser wall pressures
4. Test section pitot pressure
5. Model surface static pressure
6. Test section static pressure
Approxi mat e Pr e s s ur e Range
(mm-Hg abs)
1 to 17,000
100 to 10,000
1 to 1,000
20 to 400
0.1 to 100
0.3 to 10
TABLE 7
Ranges and Least Readings
Type M anometer
1.
2.
3.
4.
High pressure gauges and transducers
Multitube fluid manometers
a. Pilled with Hg
b. Pilled with silicone oil
Micromanometers
Special low pressure
Range
(mm Hg abs)
20,000
1,000
60
800
1
Least Readi ngs
(mm Hg abs)
Vi% of full scale
1.0
0.1
0.01
(0.001)
58
TUBEWALL TEMP. LIMITED
1500
1000
SUPPLY
TEMPERATURE
F
500
v
LOCAL EXPANSION
WITHOUT
CONDENSATION
8
MACH NUMBER
Pig.1 Supply temperature vs Mach number
59
100
50
10
5
Re x 10 "
6
0. 5
0.1
0. 05
50 FOOT FLIGHT VEHICLE
100, 000 FEET
ALTI TUDE
3 FOOT MODEL
150, 000
200, 000
2 5 0 , 0 0 0
6 7 8
MACH NUMBER
Fig.2 Reynolds number vs Mach number
60
ELECTRIC HEATER
NOZZLE
SECTION
TEST I
SECTION
Fig.3 General arrangement of the 21 in. hypersonic wind tunnel
HEATER
WIND TUNNEL
EVENS FLOW
OF MR
SPEEDS
UP MR
CONSTANT
FLOW
OF MR
SLOWS
DOWN
MR
COOLS MR
M
Fig.4 Schematic arrangement of air flow
62
COMPRESSORS A, B AND C
'I
100
P, = 13,6 P SI A
2.6
2.4
2 2
2. 0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
R.
H.R
P.L.
... 1
1
D.C
1.
H.R
9 0 0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
V, C F M X l O
3
COMPRESSORS D AND F
T, = 70 V
P| = 14.1 PSI A
2.4
2.2
R.
2.0
1.6
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
R.
H.R
PL.
1
O.C.
L
V, CFM X 10
- 3
H.R
1000
8 0 0
600
400
200
0
10 12 14 16 18 70
COMPRESSORS E AND 6
o_
T, * 70
14.1 PSI A
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
R.
H.R
RL.
1
N
v
\
>
O.C.
1
H.R
8 0 0
600
400
200
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
V, CFM X I 0 '
3
1. R Indicates compression ratio, i.e. discharge air pressure/inlet pressure
2. H.P. Indicates required compressor horsepower
3 V Indicates compressor inlet volume, (at I. and P.)
Us D.C. Indicates design condition volume
5. P.L. Indicates pump limit on minimum volume stable operation
Pig.5 Individual compressor performance for existing units
AIR
H E A T E R
- M -
T U N N E L
M -
21" H Y P E R S O N I C
W I N D T U N N E L
B Y P A S S
P L A N T T R I M M E R
M
A F T E R
C O O L E R
(N E W C O M P R E S S O R S )
^s^
B
NEW PI PI NG
EXI STI NG PI PI NG
Fig.6 Arrangement of compressors
s
64
COMPRESSOR J
4. 0
3.0
2. 0
1.0
T, = 100 F
P. = 6 2 . 0 PSI A
H.R "
RL. D.C.
1
H.R
2 0 0 0
1000
- 3
V, CFM X 10, MEASURED AT I NLET CONDITIONS T
(
ft P,
3. 0
2. 0
1.0
COMPRESSOR K
T, = 100 F
R
H.P
P, = 2 0 2
RL.
D.C.
1
PSI A
H.R
2 0 0 0
1000
.4 .8 1.2 1.6 2. 0
- 3
V, CFM X 10, MEASURED AT I NLET CONDI TI ONS T, ft P,
Pig.7 Individual compressor performance for new units
Pig.8 High-pressure compressors
s
66
A
8
C
D
E
F G J K
R, COMPRESSI ON
RATI O
O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
- 3
V. CFM X 10 AT 100 F, I NLET
VOLUME TO COMPRESSOR
PLANT
100
1225
F AND
MAXI MUM AVAI LABLE
FROM PLANT
8, 100 V
M- 7 , 8 70 F
MAX. R COMPR. "K"
IS NOT USED
7, 100 *F
6, 5 4 0 F
' 6 , 100 F
0
0
i
START
RUN
MAX. COMPR. RATIO
FOR GIVEN
MACH NO.
CONDI TI ON
Fig.9 Estimated compression ratios available and required
Fig.10 Control center of hypersonic wind tunnel
-J
68
COM PRESSI ON
RATI O
REQ' D TO RUN
T
MACH NUMBER
HOT (6 EXR)
TEMP.
M
F
5
2 4 0
6
540
7
870
8
1225
9
1335
Fig.11 Estimated compression ratio vs Mach number
69
7 0 0 -
6 0 0 -
500
P
e
,MAX.
PSIA
400
300-
200-
100-
0 -
R,, HOT
6EXP.v
K-P
0
, COLD 100 F
M
9
6
7
8
9
To
2 4 0 F
540 F
8 7 0 F
I 2 2 5 F
I 335F
"
-
1
6
1
7
MACH NUMBER
1
8
1
9
Fig.12 Maximum supply pressure vs Mach number
70
1 5 0 0 -
1000-
Tt-F
500-
r
if
A : :.: ; : :. y j r
w
C-UNHEATEO AIR
THROUGH TUNNEL
20
10
W-lb/ tec.
- HHe
5 6 7 8 9
M
5 6 7 8 9
60-
V, -f t
5
/ i
40-
20-
0-
1
c
^
a a ^ ^ " |
1
i i c
6 7 8 9
M
Fig.13 Range of heater operating variables
71
AIR TEMR 100 F.
PRESSURE SHELL
NSULATION
TUBE BUNDLE
ASSEMBLE
AIR IN UPPER CHAMBER
FLOWS THRU TUBES
(HEATING ELEMENTS)
TO EXIT CHAMBER
AIR TEMP. 1350 F.
Pig.14 Electric heater
1
ATMOSPHERIC
MUFFLER
i
Pig.15 Heater and tunnel simulator
73
4 '
- 5 "4
- 5 - 4
17"
- 4
- 5
- 3 - 3 5 - 8
- 5 - 5 - 2
-6 -9
- 4 - 5 - I
6 -10-18
TEST CONDI TI ONS: M=7 . 6 (RUN 25 11- 11- 58)
T
0
70 0 F AND P
0
=I I 9 P S I A
NUMBERS PLOTTED SHOW F VARI ATI ONS
FROM 7 0 0 *F
TJ
1.1"
r
17'
- 15- 1 - I
t
- 5 - 2 - 2
I - I - I
I ! -I
40 -6 0
- 7 0 -15 - B

IT
\ -
f
( R E MA I N D E R OF
CROSS S E C T I ON
WI TH I 4 V )
4
- 0- 5- 20
+4
2 * 4 3
t 3 +4 * 4

5 +4 * 5

I - 4 0 - 20
TEMP. S U R VE Y OF C O R N E R S
. 6"
TEST CONDI TI ONS M s 7. 6
(RUN 4 0 I - 21 - 59)
T
0
* 1000 F AND P
0
5 7 3 PSI A
NUMBERS SHOW VARI ATI ONS FROM 1000 F
Fig. 16 Temperature distribution at supply section outlet
10 INCHES
SOL I D
THROHT
BI OCK
PpiRTlRL
CRNCFLLRTI ON
REGI ON .
CoMPLfTlT
CBIMCELLBTIOVI
RE&I OM
r
IVJ-IT Hni F- HEI GHT
CHHsncTERi sTi rs
KlCTwORK
I JC
Ft E^i BLr PL RT E
LEtJ&TH OF N0Z2LE"
Fig.17 Components of the hypersonic nozzle (M = 8)
1 INCH
START OF FLEXI BLE
PORTION OE NOZHLE
T U U N L
C L OS I L-r R P P R O X I M B U S
fs CuBi C EVQURTI OKJ
Fig.18 Throat-block region nomenclature
76
.coi
19 IOO
NUMB E R OF CHHHfttTtRiiTic NE T V RK DI V. SWNS
Pig.19 Effect of the number of characteristic network divisions on the nozzle fluid channel
exit height
Fig.20 Col e' s incompressible t urbul ent boundary l ayer- (no heat t r ansf er Ref.14)
53
10
O JPL 2 0 - I N SWT ( 2 - D i " roHTOOBto No)
A GRLCIT HWT LEG 1 ( 2 - D I M CONTOURED NO?)
D GRLCIT H U T LEG E ( 2 - D I M CONTOURED NO)
V LEIN&IEY IO-IM HWT ( 2- TJI M CONTOURED No?)
O JPL %- S C R L E HWT ( ? - D I M CowTOuREti N )
o NOL 8- I M HWT i Rx SYM MO?)
RETDC 5 0 - I N M=7 (CokiCBi MOH)
REDC 5 0 - I N M ^ 8 ( CONI CAL Noz)
RPG <b-IN HWT O x S Y MMQ?)
PIBRL 12- I H HWT( Rx SYM NOZ)
FROIVI DI RECT MERSUPEI YI EWTS OF V / RL U feootoDfla TY LAYER
M E R S U P E M E N T S AT TIOT) OF WOZ-ZLE
NowiiktnL CuCvr FOR Ct mw i C^
BOOHOBRY LHVCS MtHSURtNa -l Kl TS
Tw ~ TUNWI L WBLL T EMF ERBT ORE
T, = FREESTffrftM STBTIC T E M P
Fig.21 Tunnel wall boundary layer correlation of various supersonic and hypersonic wind
tunnels
'6*
O JPL 2 0 - I N S WT ( LONG Noi Fi - 0
A SJOL 12- CM H WT ( WEDGE NOZZLE)
D J PL y & - 5CRLE H W T
~f Pi BRL 12- 1* H WT ( f l x . SYM. No z)
WHEN / V. NOT INDICATED , TUNNEL VOALLS WOT COOLED
J PL HWT
DESI &N CURVE
Pi g. 22 Exper i ment al l y measured r a t i o of t o t a l boundary l ayer t hi c kne s s t o di spl acement
boundary l ayer t hi c kne s s
w
80
NORMAL MOT OPHRRTI OM
M A X I M U M SUPPLY PRESSURE
6
t t n\
Fig.23 Estimated boundary layer thicknesses at end of flexible plate
N O M I M R L B * ~ I 7 < 1 7 I N * '
?2
^ 0
IS
h
(n0
I . J
14
I
l O
h*
I I
C5T T EST SECTION) MBCH NBRS
FOR DESI CM TURCOT HEI GHTS
| I
! _ j i i
(INI
22
20
18
Id
i ?
10
NORMA L Hoi OPLPBT ON
M M . 5>ipput PRESSURE.
1
1
^
UJ,
_ ur
e
1
1
r^
n
- i
M B C H
5 i, 7 8 H
MlltH
Fig.24 Estimated dimensions at end of nozzle, JPL 21 in. hypersonic wind tunnel
82
MoRMfiL HOT C P I B H T I ON
M A X I M U M SUPPLY Pi t essuw e
NctviiufiL EFFECTI VE W' . CTH - l"7 I N.
T H R J P T HEI &HT C. Ci O IKJ.
13 15 l? II
N OMI I I B L EFf ECTl UE HEI GHT ( i N. )
21
Fig.25 Estimated test-section heights at end of flexible plate
83
NOR-MPV HOT OPERATI ON Mn / i Mi M SUPPLY Pi?ESSoi?e
I 1 IW-H
5 I DC
Wf l LL
RV6 WftLL b
6 CONTOUR
hg 20. 60mc h
Wg * 19. 49 inch
2
Ag 401 i nch
he * 16.97 inch
We = 17.03 inch
Ae 2 9 0 i nch
hu = 12. 64 i nch
Wu 12. 36 inch
2
Fig.26 Estimate of boundary layer contour in test section at end of flexible plate at M = 8
CHLIBEF*S
CO
1 10
JPL 2 1 - I N HWT
1 CRLI BER= 2 0 . 8 8 I M
NOZBLE
I
I
" ' ' ' "" '
: , , x
i . i i
: :
;
:
'
1
1 TEST SECTIOHW
I-
JPL %- S C R L E HWT
1 CBLI BER = 7.40 I N
NOL 12-CM HWT
I CBLI BER 4. 73 in.
s^amasmaaaaaaam
- yy- M - r v
: : r y < . . y
NASH LBN6LET I I - I N HWT
1 CBl , Bt R= 1 0 . 5 1 IN- I
DIFFUSE t
ENTRANCE
Fig.27 Comparison of several hypersonic wind tunnel diffusers
U.
0
i
M
1
O

m
3
*-
CD
***
t -
Z
UJ
u
u.
l i .
Ul
o
o
K
UJ
u.
(0
z
<
1-
<
UJ
X
(T
<
0.8 -
0.7 -
0.6 -
0.5 -
0.4 -
0.3 -
0.2 -
0.1 -
0 -
\ j OIFFUSER
THROAT
10
I
15
hxlO
(CHANGE OF SCALE FACTOR)
I I I I I I
20 25 30 35 40 45 50
DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM OF THROAT ( f t )
Fig.28 Local air heat transfer coefficient for = 8, T
0
= 1000P and p
Q
= 650 lb/in.
2
abs
86
SKIN THI CKNESS
(W) INCHES
5.0
1.0
.5
.1
. 05
.01
.005
.001
M
6
7
8
9
Po
PSI
172
4 2 6
6 4 4
6 4 6
To
F
548
872
1000
1300
HIGH CONDUCTIVITY Be Cu
i
HIGH STRENGTH Be Cu
DESIGN POINT
I
INVAR 36
5 7 8
MACH NUMBER
Fig.29 Permissible skin thickness at nozzle throat
87
MAX. METAL TEMR
AT THROAT F-
MACH NUMBER =
WATER
To *
Po =
TEMP. '
8. 0
IOOO
670
100
F
PSI
F
500
4 0 0
3 0 0
2 0 0
50
100 150
WATER VELOCITY F P S
Pig.30 Effect of cooling water velocity on throat temperature
88
WATER PASSAGE-DESIGN VELOCITY 120fps mox
ea
i . 500
u
6
a :
I
u.
UJ
400
300
200
100
u.
o
I
CL
z
UJ
400
*-T,
< - %
DISTANCE DOWNSTREAM
Fig.31 Maximum anticipated heat flux rate and metal temperatures in throat region
89
SWING
BOLTS
STEEL WATER TUBES
WELDED TO OUTSIDE
PRESSURE SHELL
REFRASIL INSULATION
SCREEN AND PREFRATED
LINER
FLEXURE
SUPPORT
MOUNTING PINS
INSULATION LINER
WATER PASSAGE AROUND
4X17 OPENING TO
COOL SEALS
TRANSITION FLANGE
WATER TUBES
Pig.32 Cooling of supply section flange

THROAT BLOCK
ASSEMBLY
SUPPLY TANK
FLEXURE
SUPPORT
UPPER JACK
BEAM
MAIN FRAME
UPPER JACK BEAM SUPPORT
VERTICAL OPTICAL
PATH
21
s
NOM
Fig.33 General nozzle arrangement and jack beam support system
Fig.34 Nozzle jacks and test section in position during fabrication
92
HOLD DOWN BAR FOR
WATER PASSAGE MOLDS
NOTE: HOLES DRILLED
THIS LENGTH
MI NI MUM WATER
PASSAGE AT THROAT REGION
BE- CU TOP OF
THROAT BLOCK
PI VOT BAR
WATER COOLED
BACK UP BLOCK
WATER INLET
Pig.35 Throat-block det ai l s
93
JACK 1
ATTACHMENT
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER FOR
SIDE PLATE TONGUE
WATER PASSAGES
TO THROAT BLOCK
ANGLE BLOCKS
SPACER BLOCK
THROUGH BOLTS
Pig.36 Assembly, of back-up blocks with spacer and angle blocks during manufacturing to
check mounting surfaces
2
DISTANCE SAME
FOR ALL ANGLES
TOTAL
ANGLE BLOCK
THROAT BLOCK
ASSEMBLY
TOTAL
Pig.37 M ethod of changing i nf l ect i on angles
95
SUPPORT
TRAVEL OF
SPI NDEL AND
SUPPORT
WIDE SLAB
TRAVEL OF
MI LL BED
TEMPLATE
Pig.38 Contouring of throat blocks using template followers
96
INDICATOR TO
COORDINATE
SET VERTI CAL
SPI NDLE
BORER
LLLLLU
TRAVEL OF
AUTOMATI C
JIG BORER
Pig.39 Contouring of throat blocks using the jig borer technique
97
CONTOUR WHEEL ON
SPI NDLE OF GRINDER
2 0 " 0. D. X 6" THICK
DRESSED FROM
2 X TEMPLATE
81/ 2 FI XTURE
FOR HOLDING
THROAT BLOCKS
TRAVEL OF GRINDER BED
Pig.40 Contouring of throat blocks using the contour grinder technique
s
j V* TRA* YVa
A CONTOUR CUT OW Tits B.OlM vR
O CONTOUR t RoOHC,
. 0005"
af^Nfttxnc ,tCTioio OF THVaDRT fcL0CK 0U8K*.
A
mt,. DOV* . I T> .
-OOI
Pig.41 Comparison of machining methods for cutting throat-block contour
99
Pig.42 Contour grinding throat blocks
100
I
k
9
4sOta
>
^ 3000
t
i
Q
^ 2000
o
i m
0
mJACAT COA OS C 4 c / 3 & g y f i 2> /S ^ CAc e ^ e / J T
s ^.
j&J., " ^
se i t 7* s.z
v.
V)
kj
V
K
n
K
o
SC< T ^ T T f f J S r ^ . r C^4VJ/ / VS a ?a V<5>/'-Vi7 . W - * - * -
1
6 - . o/ O
Pig.43 Jack loads and plate stresses
SOFT SOLDER
r~\
-THIN WALL COPPER
S
STAINLESS STEEL
FLEXI BLE PLATE
Fig.44 Cooling and lug attachment to flexible plate
102
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
CYLINDER SUPPORT
INDICATOR
MICRO
SWI TCH
LEAD SCREW
PISTON ROD
SCALE
GEAR HEAD
BODY
DOUBLE THRUST
BEARINGS
FULL HYDRAULIC JACK
MECHANICAL CONVERSION
Fig-45 Hydraulic jack design and mechanical model
Fig.46 Nozzle sideplate during preliminary machining
104
1
FI NI SH MACHINE LINE
h-H
1 inch
STAINLESS STEEL
MILD STEEL
COPPER BRAZE LINE-
Pig.47 Sample of sideplate cooling passages
105
COOLING WATER TYP.
COMPRESSION GASKET
INSULATOR
RETAINER AND RING
ADJUSTABLE SCREW
CLEARANCE IS 0. 003
WATER COOLED FRAME
SEAL
Pig.48 Window mounting

SIDEPLATE
TONGUE
SWING BOLT
WATER COOLING
PASSAGES
THROAT BLOCK
HYDRAULIC
LOADER
INFLATABLE SEAL
SPACER BLOCK TO
SET THROAT HEIGHT
HYDRAULIC CLAMPING
PISTON
METAL-TO-METAL
SEAL
BACKUP BLOCK CLAMPING BOLT-
Pig.49 Method of clamping sideplate tongue for metal to metal seal at throat
BE-CU COVER SHEET 405 STAINLESS CLADDING
PLAN SECTION SHOWING
WATER FLOW THRU PASSAGES
Pig.50 Sideplate tongue cooling
g
TURNBUCKLE FOR
ENTRANCE HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT
HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
FOR THROAT HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT
TURNBUCKLE FOR
EXIT HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT
Pig.51 Adj ustable diffuser
109
WINDOWS FOR
ACCESS ond FLOW
OBSERVATIONS
\j\ iiTW
n

n
* / ^
RELI EF, - - * - !
V A L V E S ^ i J
HYD. COMPONENTS
DISCHARGE PIPING
WATER COOLED
EXPANSION JOINT
O O O
O O O O
ooo
oo
ooo
ooo
* = * ' U U U
SECOND THROAT LOCATION
GROUND ANCHOR AREA FOR FEEDING ALL
AUXI LI ARY SERVICES
THROUGH FLOOR
FLOW
ROTATION FOR
DIFFUSER
Pig.52 Diffuser exterior characteristics and discharge piping
SEAL CAP 80 SHORE
D 1
INFLATABLE TUBE 40 SHORE
Pig. 53 Standard i nf l at abl e seal , seal cap and seal groove
110
JOINT MUST BE CLOSED
AND BORE FAIRED
ACCESSABLE AREA CONNECTOR
LI MI TED ACCESS CONNECTOR
Pig. 54 Seal connectors
I l l
STANDARD SEAL CAP-
STANDARD
MOLDED CORNER
30 SHORE
Pig.55 Standard seal corner
112
HIGH PRESSURE
SEAL
am?
r
<
v
- - N
\
-v-
- y
s
m
v
f
\ r
I \
N.
. - ' V-
LOW PRESSURE
SEAL
^ f v -
*>
' - - :
,
' V - .
1
ft-
' ' ' ;
3D
SPECIAL MOLDED CAP
80 SHORE
SARAN-TEFLON OR SOFT
METAL TUBING INSERT
SECTION A-A
Fig.56 High-pressure/low-pressure seal junction
113
SECTION A - A
Fig. 57 Seal cross-over
114
TEFLON
SECTION-MAX. ANGLE
X
. ^ . ^
W
. -
<
. . v i r Y ^ / . >
y
h
<
| j J l i i ' "* l l r V' TY f, . , ' , . V. ' : v^
r i
. M -, . . . -. L-. ^?; r-. ' -a, . RVJ. . -.
?
-. . .
=gt
I
PROFI LE- MI N. ANGLE
Fi g. 58 Small angle-hinge seal
115
TEFLON
SPECIAL MOLDED INSERT
40 SHORE
PROFI LE-MI N. ANGLE
Pig.59 Large angle-hinge seal
116
I
mmm& m.
U U a U U M M
fa&j m* im M im
OI FFUSER
^ i ^ ^ ^ i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ w
I I
V
TEST
SECTION
I NFLATABLE SEAL
AI R
WATER
Pig.60 Test section to diffuser seal
CONDUIT CONTAINING WATER MANI FOLDS,
PRESSURE AND WIRE LEADS.
FRONT SUPPORT AND ROLL ACTUATOR
TRANSDUCER MOUNT
(5-TRANSDUCERS)
O-RING TYPE SHUT-OFF VALVE UNIT ( 5-VALVES)
WITH S PRESSURE LEADS TO MANOMETER
Pig.61 Calibration probe
PI TCH ANGLES
REMOTE ROLL
LEADS AND COOLING
Pig.62 Half-span crescent model support
FULL SPAN ARTICULATED
STRUT SUPPORT
HALF SPAN FIXED
STRUT SUPPORT
HALF SPAN A R T I C U L A T E D
STRUT S U P P O R T
Fig.63 Alternate model support systems
120
NORMAL SHOCK PRESSURE RI SE- ^
O PT. MU6U < - 0
A UAC ^ 0 REP. UAR- 039
D BRL < 0* KRIEGER REP.
V RAE 9-IN SWT AGARD REP. 65
O BOEING AXI-SYM. NOZZLE ( 0 0 * 0 * )
BOEING AXI-SYM. NOZZLE ( a * 11)
D> STOCKHOLM 22- c m SWT - REF. 6 . 6 - ( 0<CO<I O)
STARTING AND STOPPING NORMAL FORCE ( N) LOADS
a - 0 UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED
4> - 0 INDICATES LIFTING SURFACE PARALLEL TO CURVED
6
5
4
3
N
qA
2
1
0
NOZZLE WALL
DATA LIMITS ONLY ARE PLOTTED
^ ~ % S . " * mf % n m\ T " Am 1 mm 1 * % ^ - > A ^ P " mW tfa m a . * i a a gfr
EXPR. DATA INDICATES THAT
( \ S 1/ 2^
\ ^ / " " i7w ^ ^ l " / *p " W

A-MODEL PLAN FORM AREA , q - DYNAMIC PRESSURE
/ oot
f "I
* <
2Q-C60-
A c^o<
~LJ "
J
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ . j j ^ ^ ^ l ^ M
31 A
.__.___ ^
4 j t j f
W - a f
^
f
+
I 4 i
T i l l
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6
MACH
Pi g. 64 Model s t a r t i n g a nd st oppi ng l oa ds
r
i
121
ROLL SECTION
FWD BENDING BEAM
a nd STRAIN GAGE
AFT BENDING BEAM
a nd STRAIN GAGE
WATER
OUT
GAGE SECTIONS ARE PROTECTED BY
THE HEAT SHIELD WHICH IS ATTACHED
TO THE STING ONLY. THIS ALLOWS
THE BALANCE TO MOVE.
Pig. 65 Water cooled 5-cotnponent i nt er nal force balance
122
TEST SECTION WINDOW
SUSPENSION
SYSTEM
WINDSHIELD
BALANCE TANK
SUSPENSION
SECTION
BALANCE
SECTION
LOAD CELLS
D - DRAG
S - SIDE
L - L I F T
Y - YAW
P-PITCH
R- ROLL
Fig.66 The 6-component external balance and support system
123
PRESSURE I NLETS
LUIMiU
mmm
!lfvtlt
- 0
- I -
- 2
mrwtr
10 TUBES
PER BANK
TOGGLE
VALVES
0 RING
SEAL
VACUUM
PUMP
TUBE
SCALE
BOARD
LIGHT
FI XTURE
FLOAT CHECK
VALVE
99
100
n
f n i - i i
immmm-
0 RING
SEAL
Pig. 67 Schematic layout of modular manometer uni t
VACUUM ENCLOSURE
12" OIA. F / I O MIRROR
B H ' 6 LI GHT SOURC
PROTECTI VE WINDOW
CONDENSING LENS
SECOND ELEMENT
PLANE MIRROR
EGATI VE LENS
F L I P- OUT " MI RROR
CAMERA BACK
GROUND 6 L AS
SCREEN
POL ARI ZER
IMAGE ROTATO
PLANE MIRROR ( SOLI OLI NES- NEWTONI AN
SYSTEM. BROKEN LI NES - HERSCHELI AN SYSTEM
KNI FE EDGE SL I T OR BABI NET COMPENSATOR
PLANE MIRROR
OBJECTI VE LENS( BROKEN L I NES SHOW
MOVEMENT FOR FOCUSI NG)
CONDENSING LENS, SECOND
ELEMENT
SOURCE SLI T OR BABI NET
COMPENSATOR
- FLI P- OUT" MIRROR FOR
PROJECTING LINE OF SIGHT
VERTICALLY UPWARD TO
SPARK GAP SOURCE
PLANE MIRROR
( NOTE: SOLID LINES-NEWTONIAN
SYSTEM', BROKEN LI NES"
HERSCHELI AN SYSTEM)
POL ARI Z ER
Pig.68 Schematic layout of Schlieren system
125
Pig.69 3/8 scale model tunnel with sideplates removed
to
C J
Fig.70 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle
Pig.71 3/8 scale model tunnel throat assembly
to
128
Fig.72 3/8 scale model tunnel throat blocks
.188 DIA. DRILL (CONTOURED NOSE) x 3.5 DEEP,
C'DRILL .281 DIA. (TAPERED LEAD) x 3. 0 DEEP, 16 HOLES
SECTION A-A
Pig.73 3/8 scale hypersonic wind tunnel throat-block sections
s
to
o
Pig.74 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle with sideplate closed
16- 1/4 DIA. HOLES
THREE HALF ELLIPSES
AT ANGLE OF ATTACK
8 BLADES AT ANGLE
OF ATTACK
120 DECREASING
DIA. HOLES
SUPPLY TEMPERATURE
HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
Pig.75 3/8 scale model tunnel: thermal mixer and water injector
132
Ww '^%L \ WmW H L ^ i ^ ^ . M ni S
^ . ^ ^ ^ p ' ^ ^ m\\\Wkm
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ s \ m\ ^ mmm\
S
*
t >
^ ff
11
WsW^^^y^
W * ^ ^ . m\a^ss\^s^> m B f M ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ P ^ ^ B
1 L l ^
i r . ^^3l i ! ' J
r _
3
!
1
l ^ ^ g
am * - *
r f ^ r t i i i ' \ i _ .
I V * ^ ^ g T ~ ,M ^n^- ^J
Pig.76 3/8 scale model tunnel diffuser entrance
Fig.77 3/8 scale model tunnel modified bulkhead seal
CO
CO
134
APPROX.INTERNAL CONTOUR
FLOW
-.
SIDE PLATE TONGUE
BACK UP BLOCK EAR
SWING BOLT
Fig. 78 Throat-block and si depl at e assembly
Fig.79 3/8 scale model tunnel nozzle alignment fixture
CO
Ol
-20
-16
f Pitot pressure
deviation
(percent)
-12
-8
-4
in * s i 250 psig
40 44 48
Station (in.)
52 56 60
Ivm
-
0
A
D
V
0
a
a
cf
o
<f
*
.
+
(P)
1000
900
800
700
600
600
550
520
500
500
450
450
400
300
200
Run
185
T
184
185
185
184
185
1
\
CO
OS
Running
Sequence
9
8
7
6
4
5
15
2
3
10
1
14
11
12
13
JPL -Scale HUT
Runs 184-185
64
Fig.80 Deviation of center line of pitot pressure from that measured at 1000 F supply section
temperature
137
Sidewall {
Static Pressure
(mm DC)
abs
JPL g -Scale HWT
Run 185 10-7-58
Stn.
23.47
21.19
18.88
17.00
15.03
12.94
Mach per p/p
Q
-7.0
-7.2
-7.4
-7.6
-7.8
Pig. 81 Effect of supply section temperature on the sldewall center line static pressures
Axial Station (inches)
p
0
(psia) Run
0 338 175 B
A 167 175 E
60 175 P
CO
co
ApJ/p
0
4
(percent)
-2
58
EJ
O ET
3 S"
U
9 G
g H A
cr
o
a
0

0Q-
p
HT
EJ
<f> g cj) g I I
56 54 52 50 48 46 44
Pig.82 Deviation of center line pitot pressure from that measured at 264 lb/in.
2
abs
supply pressure, M ? 8.25, T
0
= 850F
139
1.0
PJ
Run 60B
, = 8.17
P
0
= 264 psi
T = 100OF
Celling (
Station 47
'.99
2.03"
0. 957"
Pig.83(a) 3/8 scale model tunnel boundary layers
1.0

O
i
Q G
rj rCrO
0
-O-
0
-O-
o
.2 .4 .6 . 8 1.0
Run 70A
M, =6.56
P
0
- 264 psia
T
0
= 1000F
North Wall (
Station 8
8
9
= 0.220"
S* = 0.079"
i.a
Pig.83(b) 3/8 scale model tunnel boundary layers
140
700
600
500
400
300
200
COMPRESSION
RATIO
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
4. 0 5.0 6.0 7.0
MACH NUMBER
8. 0 9.0
10.0
Fig.84 7 in. model tunnel starting and running compression ratio
Pig.85 3/8 scale model tunnel vertical support with missile model
a -
to
Fig.86 3/8 scale model tunnel vertical support with GALCIT ogive
Pig.87 3/8 scale model tunnel single-tube axial traverse
s
Pig.88 3-pen pl ot t i ng t abl e
Fig.89 5-tube pitot pressure probe
Fig.90 Flow inclination probe
UPSTREAM LIMIT DOWNSTREAM LIMIT.
PROBE TRAVEL
JACK
I I
45 50 55
STATION - INCHES
Fig.91 Characteristic influence net-3/8 scale hypersonic wind tunnel M = 8.0 contour
: : : : : : : :
: : : .
:
: : : : : : : ; : : : ^
x ._ _i- . : : : : :
_
: : : : i i i : i i : x : i m i i * b":: _t _ : x i i2.i'iiz
r

- i - - - - - i , , _ i _
:
_ L . J _ _ V . ' : I ' _ _i _ _ u "
-- - - - : . : : . : : : _: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : t : : ; : : : : : : : : : : :
_. . _, . . . . . . ,. _ x _. \ . \ \ : : : x x
4
- x +
_ _a- x __ _ : x -i- ----- X-+-X xx i i : : : : ^ i i c / E a t . i
- - T
: :
- t r - - - . " i i \ i i a . i ' . i i , %j Ai ' l : : : : : :
" i l l ' 1 T 1 1 i I
f '
!
" " i
a
1
i i i i
r I I I I I I 1
X
:
" X - i - -----t g _ -+- f t : - - ; X X X i TJX i X _i _l l X- ^ X X X X

i 1 i : 1 1 : , Jtt i \ * l f t r * ' \ t M
: : ! ' : [J .. v^+. ' ' -rr^- | : : : f : 4i i i x f =: ?
a
i ^ i >^ X- , = - - t : ^ ! : - i : i x x x x x x x
1 I - . . . , 1
. : : ~: : :
_
" : : : J T - - / &.
! f
'
!
" "
, _
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - : : : : : : : : : : : : : : A - S T ' ' * i | j
_ _ + _,_ ^ . I ' t e t r t /
-- - i 1 - - i
-
i 1 1\ h~~i r H 1 !i 1i' 1 1 1 1 1
I ' ' LW t l ' H44-T. UJJ i ' I ' '
!
h ' ' P ' N ' ' ' L '
----- f " - - - ^ x j ; . ^ 7 " " " " " - - s i : ; - Z ^ ^ : " ! : : : : : ::::!:::!|3:|:::!:-!!ia !!::::::::c:::::
: : : : : : : - - - - - - -- -- ---- _ _- ZL : : : X : _ : : : _ _ : :
I::::::::: : " : : : : : i i i : : _:
_
: : : i iiin
;
^~i_ i i i - iiiim __ _-.: :

^gg=: --=-3t -H-t *= ^j-^- 1 \~A j i - - j h
-
* " "
1
" ' i i i "
-
i i i i i " " "
^> ^ "" Sitk" - ^^^ Tpfetr IjlN mi l
4
-/ / i sw y ^ ^ " ^ : : : ^ ^ ~^ r- ^-^: : : : : : :
: : : :
|:
: :
=: =!
:
: s: ! s: ": : : : : : : : : ! ! : ! : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ;
L ** " ' " - _a _^_ X
<
) . - " > , I - - - X - - - - -
" " - : " i i : X ^ ^ - =
v
a . x - t u - X
_ . . . ; . : . _ _ _ _i_ x_ x x ; ; t + \ i $ . . i l . _
^ ^_ _^_ _ . - ._ __ __p . . ^ . . . . . . .
i
i i i
. a
- _
- - - - - - . - _ _ . . _ ._ . . . . _. -a . -+_ x x x - I - : : : : : : : : : . . . . . ,
. . . --4--U X T
r
f . . . . . X
.. 1 1 j . . .
aCa
00
Fig.92 Initial calibration of IK = 8.25 nozzle without symmetry correction
1 2 1 Z
;izr
'*'
auj
Fig.93 Initial calibration of M = 8.25 nozzle symmetry correction in as noted
.ta
C D
. - - - - _ - . - _ - . - - . . m. . . . . m- - - - ^ _ _ a . _ _ _ j _ _ j _ - . _ . _ _ _ _ . _^ _j_ . . _p P T T " X 1 " X ' J
1 F
T "^ TT '" T " TI
: . . _,_ '
!
- i - - - \ X- 1- - U " X ^ - T X - H ' ( -i . i +- -+-
i h ' " ' ^ X i + x
- 1-
^"' " i
X ' I I ^ ^ ^ _ l t -.- X- +- --! -a -
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Fig.97 Repeatability check M = 8 nozzle
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Pig.98 Intermediate calibration of M = 8 nozzle
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On peut se procurer des exemplaires des publications
de 1' AGARD aux adresses suivantes.
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*
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