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TRADE AND ENVIRONMENT REVIEW 2013

MAKE AGRICULTURE TRULY SUSTAINABLE NOW FOR FOOD SECURITY


IN A CHANGING CLIMATE
TRADE AND ENVIRONMENT REVIEW 2013
MAKE AGRICULTURE TRULY SUSTAINABLE NOW FOR FOOD SECURITY
IN A CHANGING CLIMATE
UNI T ED NAT I ONS CONF ERENCE ON T RADE AND DEVEL OPMENT
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KEY MESSAGES
The 2008 food crisis was an important catalyst for realizing the need for a fundamental transformation and questioning
some of the assumptions that had driven food, agricultural and trade policy in recent decades. However, actual results
achieved since 2008 suggest that a paradigm shift has started, but is largely incomplete. Priority remains heavily focused on
increasing industrial agricultural production, mostly under the slogan growing more food at less cost to the environment.
The perception that there is a supply-side productivity problem is however questionable. Hunger and malnutrition are mainly
related to lack of purchasing power and/or inability of rural poor to be self-suffcient. Meeting the food security challenges
is thus primarily about empowerment of the poor and their food sovereignty. Furthermore, the current demand trends for
biofuels, concentrate animal feed, excessively meat-based diets and post-harvest food waste are regarded as given, rather
than challenging their rational.
The fundamental transformation of agriculture may well turn out to be one of the biggest challenges, including for
international security, of the 21st century. Much slower agricultural productivity growth in the future, a quickly rising
population in the most resource-constrained and climate-change-exposed regions (in particular in sub-Saharan Africa and
South Asia) and a burgeoning environmental crises of agriculture are the seeds for mounting pressures on food security
and the related access to land and water. This is bound to increase the frequency and severity of riots, caused by food-price
hikes, with concomitant political instability, and international tension, linked to resource conficts and migratory movements
of staving populations.
The world needs a paradigm shift in agricultural development: from a green revolution to an ecological
intensifcation approach. This implies a rapid and signifcant shift from conventional, monoculture-based and high-
external-input-dependent industrial production towards mosaics of sustainable, regenerative production systems that also
considerably improve the productivity of small-scale farmers. We need to see a move from a linear to a holistic approach in
agricultural management, which recognizes that a farmer is not only a producer of agricultural goods, but also a manager
of an agro-ecological system that provides quite a number of public goods and services (e.g. water, soil, landscape, energy,
biodiversity, and recreation).
The required transformation is much more profound than simply tweaking the existing industrial agricultural system.
Rather, what is called for is a better understanding of the multi-functionality of agriculture, its pivotal importance for pro-poor
rural development and the signifcant role it can play in dealing with resource scarcities and in mitigating and adapting to
climate change. However, the sheer scale at which modifed production methods would have to be adopted, the signifcant
governance issues, the power asymmetries problems in food input and output markets as well as the current trade rules for
agriculture pose considerable challenges.
Elements and key achievements of the required transformation of agriculture, elaborated upon by the authors of this
Review, include:
- Increasing soil carbon content and better integration between crop and livestock production, and increased incorporation
(not segregation) of trees (agroforestry) and wild vegetation.
- Reduction of direct and indirect (i.e. through the feed chain) greenhouse-gas emissions of livestock production.
- Reduction of indirect (i.e. changes in land-use-induced) GHG emissions through sustainable peatland, forest and grassland
management.
- Optimization of organic and inorganic fertilizer use, including through closed nutrient cycles in agriculture.
- Reduction of waste throughout the food chains.
- Changing dietary patterns towards climate-friendly food consumption.
- Reform of the international trade regime for food and agricultural products.
In pursuing a fundamental transformation of agriculture, one should take into account systemic considerations
in particular (i) the need for a holistic understanding of the challenges involved due to inter-linkages between sometimes
competing objectives; (ii) the merits and demerits of single climate-friendly practices versus those of systemic changes (such
as agro-ecology, agro-forestry, organic agriculture); and (iii) the need for a two-track approach that drastically reduces the
environmental impact of conventional agriculture, on the one hand, and broadens the scope for agro-ecological production
methods, on the other.
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EMBARGO
The contents of this Report must not be
quoted or summarized in the print,
broadcast or electronic media before
18 September 2013, 17:00 hours GMT
KEY MESSAGES
The 2008 food crisis was an important catalyst for realizing the need for a fundamental transformation and questioning
some of the assumptions that had driven food, agricultural and trade policy in recent decades. However, actual results
achieved since 2OO8 suggest that a paradigm shift has started, out is largel] incomplete. Priorit] remains heavil] focused on
increasing industrial agricultural production, mostl] under the slogan "growing more food at less cost to the environment".
The perception that there is a suppl]-side productivit] proolem is however questionaole. Hunger and malnutrition are mainl]
related to lack of purchasing power and/or inaoilit] of rural poor to oe self-suffcient. Neeting the food securit] challenges
is thus primaril] aoout empowerment of the poor and their food sovereignt]. Furthermore, the current demand trends for
oiofuels, concentrate animal feed, excessivel] meat-oased diets and post-harvest food waste are regarded as given, rather
than challenging their rational.
The fundamental transformation of agriculture may well turn out to be one of the biggest challenges, including for
international security, of the 21st century. Nuch slower agricultural productivit] growth in the future, a quickl] rising
population in the most resource-constrained and climate-change-exposed regions (in particular in suo-8aharan Africa and
8outh Asiaj and a ourgeoning environmental crises of agriculture are the seeds for mounting pressures on food securit]
and the related access to land and water. This is oound to increase the frequenc] and severit] of riots, caused o] food-price
hikes, with concomitant political instaoilit], and international tension, linked to resource conficts and migrator] movements
of staving populations.
The world needs a paradigm shift in agricultural development: from a green revolution to an ecological
intensifcation approach. This implies a rapid and signifcant shift from conventional, monoculture-oased and high-
external-input-dependent industrial production towards mosaics of sustainaole, regenerative production s]stems that also
consideraol] improve the productivit] of small-scale farmers. we need to see a move from a linear to a holistic approach in
agricultural management, which recognizes that a farmer is not onl] a producer of agricultural goods, out also a manager
of an agro-ecological s]stem that provides quite a numoer of puolic goods and services (e.g. water, soil, landscape, energ],
oiodiversit], and recreationj.
The required transformation is much more profound than simply tweaking the existing industrial agricultural system.
Rather, what is called for is a oetter understanding of the multi-functionalit] of agriculture, its pivotal importance for pro-poor
rural development and the signifcant role it can pla] in dealing with resource scarcities and in mitigating and adapting to
climate change. However, the sheer scale at which modifed production methods would have to oe adopted, the signifcant
governance issues, the power as]mmetries' proolems in food input and output markets as well as the current trade rules for
agriculture pose consideraole challenges.
Elements and key achievements of the required transformation of agriculture, elaborated upon by the authors of this
Review, include:
- lncreasing soil caroon content and oetter integration oetween crop and livestock production, and increased incorporation
(not segregationj of trees (agroforestr]j and wild vegetation.
- Reduction of direct and indirect (i.e. through the feed chainj greenhouse-gas emissions of livestock production.
- Reduction of indirect (i.e. changes in land-use-inducedj 0H0 emissions through sustainaole peatland, forest and grassland
management.
- 0ptimization of organic and inorganic fertilizer use, including through closed nutrient c]cles in agriculture.
- Reduction of waste throughout the food chains.
- Changing dietar] patterns towards climate-friendl] food consumption.
- Reform of the international trade regime for food and agricultural products.
In pursuing a fundamental transformation of agriculture, one should take into account systemic considerations
in particular (ij the need for a holistic understanding of the challenges involved due to inter-linkages oetween sometimes
competing oojectives, (iij the merits and demerits of single climate-friendl] practices versus those of s]stemic changes (such
as agro-ecolog], agro-forestr], organic agriculturej, and (iiij the need for a two-track approach that drasticall] reduces the
environmental impact of conventional agriculture, on the one hand, and oroadens the scope for agro-ecological production
methods, on the other.
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
hoIa
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Oopyr|ght n|ted Nat|ons, 2013
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ForaWord
Not |ong ater the 2008-2009 ood pr|ce cr|s|s, h|gh and vo|at||e ood pr|ces are back |n the |nternat|ona| agenda
creat|ng renewed concerns or wor|d ood secur|ty. Once aga|n, d|scuss|ons are most|y ocused on suggest|ng
qu|ck-fxes ||nked to some spec|fc contr|but|ng actors, such as ood pr|ce specu|at|on or the |ncreas|ng use
o b|o-energy. lnsufc|ent attent|on |s be|ng pa|d to the act that the |ncreas|ng energy |ntens|ty o agr|cu|tura|
product|on and the d|rect and |nd|rect ||nk between agr|cu|tura| and ue| pr|ces was among the under|y|ng
actors that tr|ggered the 2008 cr|s|s and now contr|butes aga|n to the current round o ood pr|ce esca|at|on.
Furthermore, the recent drought aect|ng the ma|n S gra|n product|on zones, putt|ng upward pressure on
|nternat|ona| gra|n pr|ces, |s an |nc|dent now |ncreas|ng|y requent and w|despread w|th g|oba| warm|ng. As th|s
Pev|ew h|gh||ghts, agr|cu|ture |s not on|y ch|e1y aected by g|oba| warm|ng but a|so one o |ts dr|v|ng orces.
Qu|ck fxes w||| not be ab|e to eect|ve|y dea| w|th the comp|ex |nterp|ay between energy |ntens|ty, greenhouse
gas em|ss|ons, g|oba| warm|ng and ood secur|ty needs. Pather, what |s ca||ed or |s a better understand|ng o
the mu|t|-unct|ona||ty o agr|cu|ture, |ts p|vota| |mportance or pro-poor rura| deve|opment and the s|gn|fcant ro|e
|t can p|ay |n dea||ng w|th resource scarc|t|es and |n m|t|gat|ng and adapt|ng to c||mate change.
Desp|te s|gn|fcant |ncreases |n agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty and the act that the wor|d current|y a|ready produces
sufc|ent ca|or|es per head to eed a g|oba| popu|at|on o 12-14 b||||on, hunger has rema|ned a key cha||enge.
Around one b||||on peop|e chron|ca||y suer rom starvat|on and another b||||on are ma|-nour|shed. Some 70 per
cent o these peop|e are themse|ves sma|| armers or agr|cu|tura| |aborers. Thereore, hunger and ma|-nutr|t|on
are not phenomena o |nsufc|ent phys|ca| supp|y, but resu|ts o preva|||ng poverty, and above a|| prob|ems o
access to ood. Enab||ng these peop|e to become ood se|-sufc|ent or earn an appropr|ate |ncome through
agr|cu|ture to buy ood needs to take center stage |n uture agr|cu|tura| transormat|on. M|||enn|um Deve|opment
Goa| number one |s bound to be m|ssed, ma|n|y because agr|cu|ture has not rece|ved the attent|on |t deserves
or ach|ev|ng ood secur|ty and as an eng|ne o susta|nab|e econom|c, soc|a| and env|ronmenta| deve|opment
|n deve|op|ng countr|es.
No doubt, the 2008 ood-pr|ce cr|s|s |ed to a reversa| o the |ong-term neg|ect o agr|cu|ture as a v|ta| econom|c
sector |n deve|op|ng countr|es. A|so, the dec||n|ng trend o pub||c und|ng or agr|cu|ture was arrested and some
new und|ng has recent|y been comm|tted. However, the |mp|ementat|on o these comm|tments |acks way
beh|nd requ|rements. One does ne|ther see the necessary |eve| o urgency nor the po||t|ca| w||||ngness, rom the
|nternat|ona| commun|ty, or drast|c changes. Pr|or|ty rema|ns heav||y ocused on |ncreas|ng product|on (most|y
under the s|ogan "more w|th |ess"). The current|y pursued approach |s st||| very much b|ased towards expans|on
o "somewhat-|ess-po||ut|ng" |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture, rather than more susta|nab|e and aordab|e product|on
methods. lt |s st||| not recogn|zed that a parad|gm sh|t |s requ|red, |n part|cu|ar accentuated by the |ncreas|ng
pressures com|ng rom c||mate change m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on. As correct|y h|gh||ghted |n the Pev|ew, g|oba|
warm|ng |s a threat mu|t|p||er - |t compounds, supp|ements or re|norces other threats so that the b|o-phys|ca|
vu|nerab|||ty o agr|cu|ture |ncreases |mpact|ng the most vu|nerab|e peop|e |n the wor|d.
S|ow|ng agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty growth |n the uture, h|gh popu|at|on growth |n the most resource-constra|ned
and c||mate-change-exposed reg|ons and a burgeon|ng env|ronmenta| cr|ses |n agr|cu|ture are the seeds or
mount|ng pressures on ood secur|ty and the re|ated access to |and and water. Th|s |s bound to |ncrease the
sever|ty and requency o r|ots, or|g|nated by ood pr|ce |ncreases, w|th concom|tant po||t|ca| |nstab|||ty, and
|nternat|ona| tens|on, caused by resource con1|cts and m|gratory movements o starv|ng popu|at|ons. Thus, the
undamenta| transormat|on o agr|cu|ture may we|| turn out to be one o the b|ggest cha||enges, |nc|ud|ng or
|nternat|ona| secur|ty, o the 21st century.
ln paragraph 108 o the P|o20 Dec|arat|on, adopted |n June 2012, Heads o State reafrm the|r "comm|tments
regard|ng the r|ght o everyone to have access to sae, sufc|ent and nutr|t|ous ood, cons|stent w|th the r|ght
to adequate ood and the undamenta| r|ght o everyone to be ree rom hunger. (They) acknow|edge that ood
Foreword
|v
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
secur|ty and nutr|t|on has become a press|ng g|oba| cha||enge and, |n th|s regard, (they) urther reafrm (the|r)
comm|tment to enhanc|ng ood secur|ty and access to adequate, sae and nutr|t|ous ood or present and uture
generat|ons." lt |s h|gh t|me or these comm|tments to come to rea||ty beore the MDGs' dead||ne o 2015.
ln th|s Trade and Env|ronment Pev|ew, more than 50 |nternat|ona| experts have contr|buted the|r v|ews to a
comprehens|ve ana|ys|s o the above-out||ned cha||enges and the most su|tab|e strateg|c approaches or
dea||ng ho||st|ca||y w|th the |nter-re|ated prob|ems o hunger and poverty, c||mate change, econom|c, soc|a|
and gender |nequ|ty, poor hea|th and nutr|t|on, and env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty. The authors and the NOTAD
secretar|at are |ook|ng orward to an |nsp|r|ng d|a|ogue w|th readers o th|s Pev|ew on one o the most |nterest|ng
and cha||eng|ng sub|ects o present deve|opment d|scourse.
Geneva, March 2013. Oar|os Perez de| Oast|||o,
Oha|rman Oonsort|um Board,
G|oba| Pesearch Partnersh|p or
a Food Secure Future (OGlAP).
v
0onIanIs
Foreword, Oar|os Perez de| Oast|||o, Oha|rman, Oonsort|um Board, OGlAP .................................................... |||
Acknow|edgements .......................................................................................................................................... x|
Acronyms and abbrev|at|ons ............................................................................................................................ x||
Chapter 1. Key DeveIopment ChaIIenges of a FundamentaI Transformation of AgricuIture ................. 1
Lead Art|c|e: Agr|cu|ture at the crossroads: assur|ng ood secur|ty |n deve|op|ng countr|es under the
cha||enges o g|oba| warm|ng ...................................................................................................................... 2
L|||c| |c//mann, LNC7/D sec|e|a||a|
A. lntroduct|on ...................................................................................................................................... 2
B. Agr|cu|ture - a key dr|ver and a ma|or v|ct|m o g|oba| warm|ng ..................................................... 2
O. Pequ|red undamenta| transormat|on o agr|cu|ture ...................................................................... 7
D. The parad|gm sh|t has started, but |s |arge|y |ncomp|ete .............................................................. 7
Oommentary l: Agr|cu|ture: A un|que sector |n econom|c, eco|og|ca| and soc|a| terms ................................. 9
Jean Fe,oe|, /moassaoc|, Fc|me| |e|manen| Peo|esen|a||.e c/ |0emoc0| |c ||e LN ano A7O |n Gene.a
Oommentary ll: Oonceptua| and pract|ca| aspects o c||mate change m|t|gat|on through agr|cu|ture:
reduc|ng greenhouse gas em|ss|ons and |ncreas|ng so|| carbon sequestrat|on ..................................... 13
/. V0||e| ano /. Ga|||ne|, Pesea|c| |ns|||0|e c/ O|an|c /||c0||0|e (F|5|;, S.||ze||ano
Oommentary lll: The potent|a| o susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture or c||mate change adaptat|on .............................. 16
/. V0||e| ano L. N|||, Pesea|c| |ns|||0|e c/ O|an|c /||c0||0|e (F|5|;, S.||ze||ano
Oommentary l\: Food, c||mate change and hea|thy so||s: The orgotten ||nk ................................................. 19
GP/|N
Oommentary \: M|t|gat|ng c||mate change w|th so|| organ|c matter |n organ|c product|on systems ............. 22
/no|e |e0, ||es|oen|, |n|e|na||cna| Feoe|a||cn c/ O|an|c /||c0||0|a| Vc.emen|s (|FO/V;
Oommentary \l: Agroeco|ogy: A so|ut|on to the cr|ses o ood systems and c||mate change ....................... 34
O||.|e| oe Sc|0||e|, LN Soec|a| Paooc||e0| cn ||e P||| |c Fcco
Oommentary \ll: Promot|ng res|||ent agr|cu|ture |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca as a ma|or pr|or|ty |n
c||mate-change adaptation ........................................................................................................................ 39
Va|c0s |ao|an, C||n.e |/e/||a-Soe|anza, ano |mme Sc|c|z, Ge|man De.e|comen| |ns|||0|e
Oommentary \lll: Y|e|d and y|e|d qua||ty o ma|or cerea|s under c||mate change .......................................... 46
|e||a |c, ano /no|eas Fanme|e|, Ln|.e|s||, c/ |c|en|e|m, |ns|||0|e /c| |anoscaoe ano ||an| Fcc|c,
Oommentary lX: Oomparat|ve ana|ys|s o organ|c and non-organ|c arm|ng systems:
a cr|t|ca| assessment o arm proftab|||ty .................................................................................................. 50
Ncem| Nemes, F/O
Oommentary X: Strengthen|ng res|||ence o arm|ng systems: A prerequ|s|te or susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| product|on .............................................................................................................................. 56
V|0e| / /|||e||, Ln|.e|s||, c/ Ca||/c|n|a, 5e||e|e,, ano |a|.|z |cc|a/|an, F/O
Oommentary Xl: Democrat|z|ng contro| o agr|cu|ture to meet the needs o the twenty-frst century ........... 61
Va|c|a |s|||-F||eman, |es||c|oe /c||cn Ne|.c|| Nc||| /me||ca
Oommentary Xll: Agr|cu|ture, ood and energy ............................................................................................... 68
G0nna| P0no|en, G|c||n| /5 Ccns0||anc,, S.eoen
Oontents
v|
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Oommentary Xlll: Susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and o-gr|d renewab|e energy ...................................................... 72
Vae-Aan |c, |ns|||0|e c/ Sc|ence |n Scc|e|,, |cnocn
Oommentary Xl\: So|| Eros|on: A threat to ood secur|ty and c||mate change ............................................... 77
Da.|o ||men|e| ano V|c|ae| 50|ess, Cc||ee c/ /||c0||0|e ano ||/e Sc|ences, Cc|ne|| Ln|.e|s||,,
|||aca, Ne. Yc||
Oommentary X\: Oompet|t|on or water or agr|cu|ture through 2050 ............................................................ 82
5|en| 5ce||e||, |no0s|||a| Fccncm|cs, |nc., ano |enne|| S||zeoe|, Vassac|0se||s |ns|||0|e c/ 7ec|nc|c,
Oommentary X\l: The |mpact o agr|ood supp|y cha|ns on greenhouse gas em|ss|ons:
The case o a coee va|ue cha|n between Tanzan|a and Germany .......................................................... 86
F. ||a|n, |. ||nne ano V. Gaeo|e|, G|Z, Ge|man,
Oommentary X\ll: Food waste reduct|on: A g|oba| |mperat|ve ....................................................................... 91
J0||an |a|/||, |||nc|oa| Pesc0|ce /na|,s|, Oa|oene |c|||ns, /,|eso0|,, Ln||eo ||nocm, ano
Va|| 5a|||e|, Soec|a| /o.|sc|, Aas|e ano Pesc0|ces /c||cn ||c|amme, 5ano0|,, Ln||eo ||nocm
Oommentary X\lll: The ro|e o susta|nab|e consumpt|on |n oster|ng a undamenta|
transormat|on o agr|cu|ture ...................................................................................................................... 95
|0c|a Pe|sc|, Ccoen|aen 50s|ness Sc|cc|, Denma||
Oommentary XlX: Food saety and system|c change: L|m|tat|ons o ood contro|s or
saeguard|ng ood saety ......................................................................................................................... 102
J0||a Ja|sc|e, |c||c, O//ce| Fcco, Feoe|a||cn c/ Ge|man Ccns0me| O|an|sa||cns
Peerences ....................................................................................................................................... 108
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 132
Chapter 2. Livestock Production: A CIimate Change and Food Security Hot Spot ............................ 137
Lead Art|c|e: L|vestock product|on and ood secur|ty |n a context o c||mate change, and
env|ronmenta| and hea|th cha||enges ...................................................................................................... 138
/n||a |oe|, Feoe|a||cn c/ Ge|man Sc|en||s|s ano 7co|as Pe|c|e||, Ge|man.a|c|
A. Eects o |nexpens|ve energy and n|trogen ert|||zers .................................................................. 139
B. Susta|nab|||ty requ|res a new defn|t|on o the terms product|v|ty and growth ............................ 142
O. The ro|e o agr|cu|tura| and trade po||cy |n the |ndustr|a||zat|on o an|ma| product|on ................ 143
D. P|sks assoc|ated w|th se|ect|ve breed|ng or h|gher product|v|ty ................................................ 145
E. The push or b|osecur|ty poses a threat to an|ma| and consumer protect|on ............................ 146
F. Deorestat|on and an|ma| eed product|on .................................................................................. 147
G. Grass|ands and rum|nants: an examp|e o m|sconcept|ons and opportun|t|es ......................... 148
H. Grass|ands o the wor|d ............................................................................................................... 150
l. G|oba| |andscape gardeners ....................................................................................................... 151
J. Oatt|e as |dea| users o eed ........................................................................................................ 151
Oommentary l: Excess|ve |ndustr|a||zat|on o ||vestock product|on: The need or a new
agr|cu|tura| parad|gm ............................................................................................................................... 154
F||eo||c| Os|enoc|//, Deo0|, C|a||man, /||c0||0|a| Ccmm|||ee c/ ||e Ge|man |a|||amen|
Oommentary ll: Why |ndustr|a| ||vestock arm|ng |s unsusta|nab|e ............................................................... 157
Jc,ce DS||.a, Ccmoass|cn |n Ac||o Fa|m|n
Oommentary lll: lntegrated crop, ||vestock and energy management: The case o b|ogas |n
rura| Eth|op|a ............................................................................................................................................. 161
S|an|e, G.a.0,a, |nc.|eoe Vanaemen| Ccc|o|na|c|, |a||ne|s||o /c|
De.e|comen| |n|||a||.e 7|0s|, Z|moao.e
Peerences ....................................................................................................................................... 165
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 169
v||
Chapter 3. The RoIe of Research and TechnoIogy and Extension Services ....................................... 171
Lead Art|c|e: The ro|e o research, techno|ogy and extens|on serv|ces |n a undamenta|
transormat|on o agr|cu|ture .................................................................................................................... 172
|ans P. |e||en, ||es|oen|, V|||enn|0m |ns|||0|e
A. lntroduct|on ................................................................................................................................... 173
B. Agr|cu|tura| product|on and va|ue added .................................................................................... 176
O. L|vestock product|on, nutr|t|on and ||ve||hoods ........................................................................... 176
D. GHG em|ss|ons............................................................................................................................ 177
E. Enab||ng cond|t|ons ..................................................................................................................... 177
F. The way orward........................................................................................................................... 177
Oommentary l: Eect|ve extens|on serv|ces or system|c change: Ach|evements and barr|ers to
|mp|ementat|on .......................................................................................................................................... 180
|a0|ens ||e||, Ccmm0n|ca||cn ano |nnc.a||cn S|0o|es, Aaen|nen Ln|.e|s||,, 7|e Ne||e||anos.
Oommentary ll: Oomb|n|ng |nd|genous Ar|can know|edge w|th modern know|edge systems or
ood secur|ty |n chang|ng c||mat|c cond|t|ons: Oha||enges and prospects ............................................. 184
|.O |a,a, ano Y. N. Se|e||, ||S Cen||e c/ Fce||ence, Nc|||-Aes| Ln|.e|s||,, Vmaoa||c, Sc0|| //||ca
Oommentary lll: The symb|os|s between modern sc|ence and trad|t|ona| know|edge or
enhanc|ng ood secur|ty and c||mate change adaptat|on ....................................................................... 188
S.V. Vo0|0, |en,a /||c0||0|a| Pesea|c| |ns|||0|e, Na||cna| 5ee/ Pesea|c| Cen||e, ano |.S. |cse,,
Deoa||men| c/ /n|ma| Sc|ences, Fe||cn Ln|.e|s||,, N/c|c, |en,a
Oommentary l\: Address|ng the causes o |and degradat|on, ood and nutr|t|ona| |nsecur|ty and
poverty: A new approach to agr|cu|tura| |ntens|fcat|on |n the trop|cs and subtrop|cs ............................ 192
Pce| P5 |ea|e,, /|c/c|es||, ano Nc.e| C|cos Ln||, Sc|cc| c/ Va||ne ano 7|co|ca| 5|c|c,,
James Ccc| Ln|.e|s||,, Ca||ns, /0s||a||a
Oommentary \: Adapt|ng to c||mate change and |mprov|ng househo|d ood secur|ty |n
Ar|ca through agroorestry: Some |essons rom the Sahe| ..................................................................... 199
C|||s Pe|/, Fac||||a|c| //||can Pe-|een|n |n|||a||.es, Cen||e /c| |n|e|na||cna| Cccoe|a||cn,
F|ee Ln|.e|s||,, /ms|e|oam
Oommentary \l: Genet|c eng|neer|ng and b|otechno|ogy or ood secur|ty and or
c||mate change m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on: Potent|a| and r|sks ............................................................... 203
Jac| /. |e|nemann, Cen||e /c| |n|e|a|eo Pesea|c| |n 5|csa/e|, ano Sc|cc| c/
5|c|c|ca| Sc|ences, Ln|.e|s||, c/ Can|e|o0|,, C|||s|c|0|c|, Ne. Zea|ano
Peerences ....................................................................................................................................... 211
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 218
Chapter 4. The RoIe of Changes in Land Use ...................................................................................... 219
Lead Art|c|e: Key |mp||cat|ons o |and convers|ons |n agr|cu|ture ................................................................. 220
|ans |0|n|, 7|cmas 5|e0, |e|e| Vesse||| ano 5|||||e |c||ne|, Cen||e /c| De.e|comen| ano
Fn.||cnmen|, Ln|.e|s||, c/ 5e|n, S.||ze||ano
A. lntroduct|on ................................................................................................................................... 220
B. Land convers|ons or b|oue| product|on ..................................................................................... 222
O. Land convers|on or ||vestock product|on ................................................................................... 225
D. Oonvers|ons due to sma||-sca|e arm|ng and rura| poverty ......................................................... 228
E. lmp||cat|ons o |and convers|ons or ood secur|ty ...................................................................... 232
Oommentary l: Land grabb|ng and uture con1|cts ...................................................................................... 234
Nn|mmc 5asse,, Fec0||.e D||ec|c|, Fn.||cnmen|a| P|||s /c||cn, C|a||, F||enos c/
||e Fa||| |n|e|na||cna|, ano ccc|o|na|c|, O||.a|c| |n|e|na||cna|
Oontents
v|||
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Oommentary ll. Eva|uat|on o |and |nvestment dea|s |n Ar|ca: Pre||m|nary fnd|ngs .................................... 238
/n0|ao|a V|||a|, Oa||ano |ns|||0|e
Peerences ....................................................................................................................................... 244
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 249
Chapter 5. The Importance of InternationaI Trade and Trade RuIes for
Transforming GIobaI AgricuIture ........................................................................................ 251
Lead Art|c|e: The |mportance o |nternat|ona| trade, trade ru|es and market structures ............................... 252
||m || C||n, 7|||o Ac||o Ne|.c||, ano Va|||n ||c|, Sc0|| Cen||e
A. lntroduct|on .................................................................................................................................. 252
B. Structura| ad|ustment and |mport ||bera||zat|on ........................................................................... 253
O. lmba|ance |n trade ru|es govern|ng agr|cu|ture ........................................................................... 256
D. lmba|ance |n market structures ................................................................................................... 258
E. Env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty ........................................................................................................ 259
F. A trade ramework support|ve o ood secur|ty and susta|nab|||ty .............................................. 261
Oommentary l: Ensur|ng ood secur|ty and env|ronmenta| res|||ence The need or
support|ve agr|cu|tura| trade ru|es............................................................................................................ 266
N||c|a| F0c|s, Ne0s Fc0noa||cn ano L|||c| |c//mann, LNC7/D sec|e|a||a|
Oommentary ll: From dump|ng to vo|at|||ty: The |essons o trade ||bera||zat|on or agr|cu|ture .................... 276
5en |||||s|cn ano |a|en |ansen-|0|n, |ns|||0|e /c| /||c0||0|e ano 7|aoe |c||c,
Oommentary lll: Peth|nk|ng ood secur|ty strateg|es |n t|mes o c||mate change: The
case or reg|ona||zat|on o agr|cu|tura| trade and |oca| markets .............................................................. 280
C|||s||ne C|emn||z, |e|n||c| 5c|| Fc0noa||cn, ano 7||man San|a||0s, Ge|man.a|c|
Oommentary l\: Gett|ng armers o the treadm|||: Address|ng concentrat|on |n agr|cu|tura|
|nputs, process|ng and reta|| markets ...................................................................................................... 285
F|en||a C. Danc, /c||cn G|c0o cn F|cs|cn, 7ec|nc|c, ano Ccncen||a||cn
Oommentary \: Soar|ng o|| and ood pr|ces threaten aordab|e ood supp|y .............................................. 290
P|c|a|o |e|noe|, |cs| Ca|ocn |ns|||0|e
Oommentary \l: A cr|t|ca| ana|ys|s o commod|ty and ood pr|ce specu|at|on ............................................. 293
D||| V0||e|, F|nance F|||cs
Oommentary \ll: Let the good products grow and 1ow ............................................................................... 297
Sco||a 7.a|c, LNC7/D sec|e|a||a|
Oommentary \lll: Oommun|ty-supported organ|c product|on: The case o the Peg|ona|
\a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der Oorporat|on |n southern Germany ..................................................... 301
C|||s||an ||ss, Pe|cna| va|0e-aooeo C|||zen S|a|e|c|oe| Cc|oc|a||cn
Oommentary lX: The SEKEM |n|t|at|ve: A corner p|||ar or the commun|ty .................................................... 305
|e|m, /oc0|e|s| ano Va||||as |e||e|, SF|FV, F,o|
Peerences ....................................................................................................................................... 311
Notes ................................................................................................................................................ 318
Tab|as
Ohapter 1
1. Agr|cu|tura| |abour product|v|ty .................................................................................................................. 70
2. Green potent|a| o organ|c agr|cu|ture and anaerob|c d|gest|on |n Oh|na ................................................. 75
3. Green potent|a| o Dream Farm 2 .............................................................................................................. 75
4. Percentage o agr|cu|tura| water threatened |n the geopo||t|ca| reg|ons, n|ne scenar|os .......................... 84
|x
Ohapter 2
1. Oost-beneft ana|ys|s o b|ogas p|ants compared w|th d|erent trad|t|ona| sources o
househo|d energy |n Eth|op|a .................................................................................................................. 163
Ohapter 3
1. Green scenar|o 2: lmpact o green |nvestments |n agr|cu|ture (amount|ng to 0.16 per cent o GDP) ..... 176
2. Ohanges |n ood secur|ty |n Argent|na ...................................................................................................... 204
Ohapter 4
1. G|oba| |and use and cover types, and ma|or spat|a| changes ................................................................. 221
2. Growth o ||vestock and shares o d|erent ||vestock, by reg|on, 19802009 .......................................... 225
3. Assessment o sma||-sca|e versus |arge-sca|e arm|ng at the g|oba| |eve| .............................................. 229
4. Samp||ng o arm|and |ease ees, by |and dea| ........................................................................................ 240
5. Samp||ng o average arm|and pr|ces, by se|ected countr|es, 2010 ........................................................ 241
Ohapter 5
1. lmport surges o se|ected commod|t|es, and the|r |mpact on |oca| product|on vo|ume, var|ous years ... 254
2. Wor|d's top 10 seed compan|es, 2009 ..................................................................................................... 285
3. Wor|d's top 10 agrochem|ca| compan|es, 2009 ....................................................................................... 285
4. Wor|d's top 10 ood and beverage compan|es, 2009 .............................................................................. 286
5. Wor|d's top 10 ood reta||ers, 2009 ........................................................................................................... 286
6. Key susta|nab|e management cr|ter|a ....................................................................................................... 302
7. Overv|ew o key |nvestments o Peg|ona| \a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der Oorporat|on ....................... 303
8oxas
Ohapter 1
1. The concept o adaptat|on ......................................................................................................................... 17
2. D|fcu|t|es |n ana|ys|ng y|e|ds rom comparat|ve stud|es .......................................................................... 51
3. Proftab|||ty o organ|c cotton product|on ................................................................................................... 53
4. Examp|es o env|ronmenta| costs .............................................................................................................. 54
5. Po||cy opt|ons to support a trans|t|on to susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture ............................................................... 62
6. Oorporate |n1uence over pub||c po||cy ...................................................................................................... 62
7. Pevo|v|ng door ........................................................................................................................................... 64
Ohapter 2
1. Key fnd|ngs o the European N|trogen Assessment ............................................................................... 141
2. Peasons or the |nsufc|ent percept|on o the potent|a| o susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture to
contr|bute to ood secur|ty and susta|nab|e rura| deve|opment ............................................................. 147
3. Erroneous conc|us|ons on extens|ve and |ntens|ve ||vestock product|on systems due to
|||-defned system boundar|es ................................................................................................................. 149
4. Twe|ve arm an|ma| we|are cr|ter|a .......................................................................................................... 159
5. The fve reedoms ..................................................................................................................................... 160
Ohapter 3
1. Broker|ng the South-Amer|can Papa And|na susta|nab|e va|ue cha|n |nnovat|on network ..................... 181
2. lnnovat|on broker|ng or |nc|us|ve, demand-dr|ven research and |nnovat|on |n lnd|a:
Nat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| lnnovat|on Programme .......................................................................................... 182
Ohapter 5
1. The |mpact o trade ||bera||zat|on |n Ghana ............................................................................................. 255
2. The treadm||| o externa|-|nput |ntens|ve product|on: exper|ence o a soy armer |n Argent|na ............... 270
3. So|| ert|||ty and the |mportance o humus ............................................................................................... 271
4. Avo|d|ng conus|on on the terms "reg|ona|" and "|oca|" ......................................................................... 272
Oontents
x
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
F|guras
Ohapter 1
1. Deve|opment o ood and ert|||zer pr|ces, 19702010 ................................................................................ 3
2. Top 25 GHG em|tt|ng countr|es rom agr|cu|ture ........................................................................................ 4
3. LDO GHG em|ss|ons by sector, 2005 .......................................................................................................... 4
4. Pro|ected c||mate-change-caused changes |n agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty by 2080,
|ncorporat|ng the eect o carbon ert|||sat|on ............................................................................................ 5
5. System|c embedd|ng o c||mate-r|end|y agr|cu|ture ................................................................................... 6
6. Ghana ch|cken product|on and |mportat|on, 20022007 .......................................................................... 10
7. Ha|t|: P|ce product|on and |mports, 1980, 2004, 2009 .............................................................................. 11
8. Oustom tar|s |n the E and the Western Ar|can Econom|c and Monetary n|on (EMOA) .................. 11
9. Oontr|but|on o the g|oba| ood product|on system to tota| GHG em|ss|ons ............................................ 20
10. Land or agr|cu|tura| use, 19602010 ........................................................................................................ 42
11. OO
2
em|ss|ons rom |and-use change |n se|ected deve|op|ng reg|ons, 18502009 ................................ 42
12. Structure o the g|oba| seed |ndustry over the per|od 19962008 ............................................................. 63
13. SAlD-unded Agr|cu|tura| B|otechno|ogy Support Pro|ect (ABSP-Phase ll): target countr|es,
GE crops |n deve|opment and pro|ect partners ....................................................................................... 65
14. Dream Farm 2: an |ntegrated ood and energy system ............................................................................ 74
15. Tota| pro|ected mun|c|pa| water use |n OEOD versus non-OEOD countr|es, 20052050 ......................... 82
16. Water w|thdrawa|s or agr|cu|ture as a percentage o mean annua| runo |n 2000 .................................. 83
17. Overv|ew o OO
2
sequestrat|on and GHG em|ss|ons |n a crop-based va|ue cha|n .................................. 87
18. Oarbon ootpr|nt a|ong the va|ue cha|n or one brewed cup o Tch|bo Par|ty Machare Pr|vate Ooee .... 88
19. Oarbon ootpr|nt |n prepar|ng a cup o coee ........................................................................................... 89
20. On-arm em|ss|ons, by category, o 25 arms |n Baragw|, Kenya .............................................................. 90
21. Growth rate o meat consumpt|on over the past 40 years ........................................................................ 96
Ohapter 2
1. Wor|d ert|||zer consumpt|on, 19602005 ................................................................................................. 140
2. E |mports o soybean cake and soybeans 19611965 to 20062008 .................................................. 142
3. Area under soy cu|t|vat|on: se|ected countr|es, 19912007 .................................................................... 143
4. The |mportance o cow |ongev|ty to protect the env|ronment, the c||mate and the economy ................ 152
Ohapter 3
1. The cyc|e o |and degradat|on and soc|a| depr|vat|on ............................................................................. 193
2. A representat|on o the y|e|d gap |n agr|cu|ture, and the steps needed to c|ose the gap ...................... 194
3. Procedures or c|os|ng the y|e|d gap ....................................................................................................... 195
4. lncome generated rom tree sa|es by v|||age nurser|es assoc|ated w|th rura| resources centres |n
north and north-west reg|ons o Oameroon ater 2, 5 and 10 years ...................................................... 197
5. Degrees o comm|tment to GM agr|cu|ture (est|mates or 2007) ............................................................ 205
6. Oomparat|ve y|e|ds |n GM adopt|ng and non-adopt|ng agr|cu|tura| systems, 19952009 ..................... 206
7. Food secur|ty |n GM and non-GM adopt|ng countr|es |n South Amer|ca compared, 19922007 .......... 207
Ohapter 4
1. Actua| and potent|a| benefts rom agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es accord|ng to current agr|cu|tura| potent|a| ...... 231
Ohapter 5
1. Deve|opment o ood and ma|n agr|cu|tura| |nput pr|ces, 2003 to m|d-2008 .......................................... 269
2. Evo|ut|on o ood and ue| pr|ces, 20002009 ......................................................................................... 290
3. Oorre|at|on between the number o OTO contracts and commod|ty pr|ce deve|opment, 20062009 ... 294
4. Deve|opment o the pr|ce o o|| (WTl), 20072011 ................................................................................... 294
5. Oorre|at|on between share and commod|ty pr|ces, Sept. 2007Sept. 2011 ........................................... 295
x|
6. Evo|ut|on o product|on and consumpt|on o wheat ................................................................................ 296
7. The conceptua| structure o Peg|ona| \a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der Oorporat|on ........................... 302
8. SEKEM's act|v|t|es based on |ts v|s|on or Egypt ..................................................................................... 306
9. The Susta|nab|||ty F|ower ......................................................................................................................... 308
Ac|noW|adgamanIs
Th|s Trade and Env|ronment Pev|ew was ed|ted and comp||ed by |r|ch Homann, Sen|or Trade Po||cy Adv|sor,
Ofce o the D|rector, D|v|s|on on lnternat|ona| Trade |n Goods and Serv|ces, and Oommod|t|es. Frank Grothaus
ass|sted |n proo-read|ng the manuscr|pt. lt was prepared or pub||sh|ng by Pae Dent, w|th ass|stance on
graph|cs by Soph|e Oombette and Nadege Had|em|an. The manuscr|pt was |anguage ed|ted by Praveen Bha||a.
Acknow|edgements
x||
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Acronyms and abbrav|aI|ons
AAAS Amer|can Assoc|at|on or the Advancement o Sc|ence
AATF Ar|can Agr|cu|tura| Techno|ogy Foundat|on
AbL Assoc|at|on or susta|nab|e, |.e. more soc|a||y and env|ronmenta||y benefc|a| agr|cu|ture
(Arbe|tsgeme|nschat bauer||che Landw|rtschat/ Germany)
ABSP Agr|cu|tura| B|otechno|ogy Support Pro|ect
AOP Ar|can, Oar|bbean and Pac|fc countr|es
AF agroorestry
AFTPs agroorestry tree products
AHBFl A Harvest B|otech Foundat|on lnternat|ona|
AKST agr|cu|tura| know|edge, sc|ence and techno|ogy
AoA Agreement on Agr|cu|ture (o the WTO)
APl Ar|can Pe-green|ng ln|t|at|ve
APOS As|an Peg|ona| Organ|c Standard
ASALs ar|d and sem|-ar|d |ands
ASAPEOA Assoc|at|on or Strengthen|ng Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch |n Eastern and Oentra| Ar|ca
ASEAN Assoc|at|on o Southeast As|an Nat|ons
ASPO Assoc|at|on or the Study o Peak O|| & Gas (n|ted States)
A\PDO The Word \egetab|e Oenter
BA bus|ness as usua| (scenar|o)
BP Federa| lnst|tute or P|sk Assessment (Germany)
b|rr Eth|op|an currency
BlS Bank or lnternat|ona| Sett|ements
BMELF German Federa| M|n|stry or Food, Agr|cu|ture and Forests (s|nce 2001 known as the Federa|
M|n|stry or Food, Agr|cu|ture and Oonsumer Protect|on)
BPlO group|ng that reers to the countr|es Braz||, the Puss|an Federat|on, lnd|a and Oh|na
BSE bov|ne spong|orm encepha|opathy (mad cow d|sease)
BSl Br|t|sh Standards lnst|tut|on
Bt bac|||us thur|ng|ens|s
BTl Boyce Thompson lnst|tute
B\L Federa| Ofce o Oonsumer and Food Saety (Germany)
O carbon
O
3
photosynthet|c pathway
O
4
carbon fxat|on (photosynthet|c pathway)
OAFTA Oentra| Amer|ca-Dom|n|can Pepub||c-n|ted States Free Trade Agreement
OAP Oommon Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy
OAPE Oooperat|ve or Ass|stance and Pe||e
OAWMA comprehens|ve assessment o water management |n agr|cu|ture
OBD Oonvent|on on B|o|og|ca| D|vers|ty
OBOT Oh|cago Board o Trade
OO c||mate change
OOP Oomm|ttee on Oommod|ty Prob|ems (FAO)
OOTEO Oorne|| n|vers|ty: Oo||ege o Agr|cu|ture and L|e Sc|ences
ODE Oentre or Deve|opment and Env|ronment (n|vers|ty o Bern, Sw|tzer|and)
ODM O|ean Deve|opment Mechan|sm
OEO ch|e execut|ve ofcer
OETlM Oentre Europe - T|ers Monde
OFAP O||mate Forecast|ng or Agr|cu|tura| Pesources (pro|ect)
OFS Oomm|ttee on Wor|d Food Secur|ty (FAO)
OFS-HLPE H|gh Leve| Pane| o Experts on Food Secur|ty and Nutr|t|on to the FAO Oomm|ttee on
Wor|d Food Secur|ty
OGO Oh|nese construct|on company owned by SlNOPEO
OGlAP Oonsu|tat|ve Group on lnternat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch
OH
4
methane
OlF cost, |nsurance and re|ght
OlFOP Oenter or lnternat|ona| Forestry Pesearch
OlMMYT lnternat|ona| Ma|ze and Wheat lmprovement Oenter
x|||
OlP lnternat|ona| Potato Pesearch Oenter
OlPAD Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch or Deve|opment Oentre (France)
OlS Oommonwea|th o lndependent States
OlWF Oompass|on |n Wor|d Farm|ng
OLlPN ll hydro|og|c mode|
ON\ convent|ona| system
OO
2
carbon d|ox|de
OO
2
e/ OO
2
-eq carbon d|ox|de equ|va|ent
OOPAF Western and Oentra| Ar|can Oounc|| or Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch and Deve|opment
OOPOS Oommon Ob|ect|ves and Pequ|rements or Organ|c Systems
Orad-L Oaparo Penewab|e Agr|cu|ture Deve|opments Ltd.
OPO Ohem|ca| Pubber Oompany Press
OPF Oorne|| Pesearch Foundat|on
OPl Oopenhagen Pesource lnst|tute
OPl O||mate P|sk lndex
OPP Oonservat|on Peserve Program
OSD N Oomm|ss|on on Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
OSE Oooperat|ve o SEKEM Emp|oyees
OSlPO Oommonwea|th Sc|ent|fc and lndustr|a| Pesearch Organ|zat|on
OSP Oonservat|on Stewardsh|p Program
OT Oompost t|||zat|on Tr|a|
DAO Deve|opment Ass|stance Oomm|ttee (o the OEOD)
DAP d|ammon|um phosphate
DEFPA Department or Env|ronment, Food and Pura| Aa|rs (n|ted K|ngdom)
DlTO D|v|s|on on lnternat|ona| Trade |n Goods and Serv|ces, and Oommod|t|es (NOTAD)
DOK tr|a|s b|odynam|c-b|oorgan|c-convent|ona| (compar|son)
EAOO Wor|d Banks Econom|cs o Adaptat|on to O||mate Ohange ana|ys|s
EAOPS East Ar|can Organ|c Products Standard
EBDA Egypt|an B|odynam|c Assoc|at|on
EO European Oomm|ss|on
EEA European Env|ronment Agency
EED Ohurch Deve|opment Serv|ce (Germany)
EESPO Eth|op|an Energy Study and Pesearch Oenter
EFPs env|ronmenta| 1ow requ|rements
EFSA European n|on Food Saety Author|ty
EHEO e.co|| bacter|um
EJ exa|ou|e
EMBO European Mo|ecu|ar B|o|ogy Organ|zat|on
ENA European N|trogen Assessment
EPEDPO Eth|op|a Pura| Energy Deve|opment Assessment and Promot|on Oenter
EPOl energy return on energy |nvested
ESMAP Energy Sector Management Ass|stance Programme (NDP/ Wor|d Bank)
ETB Eth|op|an b|rr
ETO Group Eros|on, Techno|ogy and Ooncentrat|on Group
E European n|on
Eurostat European Stat|st|ca| Ofce
FAO Food and Agr|cu|tura| Organ|zat|on o the n|ted Nat|ons
FAOSTAT Stat|st|cs D|v|s|on o the FAO
FAPA Forum or Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch |n Ar|ca
FAT Sw|ss Pesearch lnst|tute or Agr|cu|ture and Agr|cu|tura| Eng|neer|ng
FAWO Farm An|ma| We|are Oounc||
FAZ Frankurter A||geme|ne Ze|tung (a nat|onw|de German newspaper)
FDl ore|gn d|rect |nvestment
FFS armer fe|d schoo|s
F|BL Pesearch lnst|tute or Organ|c Agr|cu|ture (Sw|tzer|and)
FlSP Farm lnput Subs|dy Program
FOB ree on board
FPlF Fore|gn Po||cy |n Focus
Acronyms and abbrev|at|ons
x|v
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
FPs ood product|on un|ts
FSO ood supp|y cha|n
FST arm systems tr|a|
t. eet
FTA(s) ree trade agreement(s)
F\O Food and \eter|nary Ofce (E)
G 8 group o 8 deve|oped countr|es
GAP good agr|cu|tura| pract|ce
GATT Genera| Agreement on Tar|s and Trade
GOMs genera| c|rcu|at|on mode|s
GOMs g|oba| c||mate mode|s
GDP gross domest|c product
GE genet|ca||y eng|neered/ genet|c eng|neer|ng
GEA Green|ng the Economy w|th Agr|cu|ture
GEF G|oba| Env|ronment Fac|||ty
GEO G|oba| Env|ronment Out|ook (NEP pub||cat|on)
GFPAS G|oba| Forum or Pura| Adv|sory Serv|ces
GHG greenhouse gas (em|ss|ons)
GlGA German lnst|tute or G|oba| and Area Stud|es
GlZ German Agency or lnternat|ona| Oooperat|on
GLP g|oba| |and pro|ect
GM genet|ca||y mod|fed
GMO genet|ca||y mod|fed organ|sms
GOMA G|oba| Organ|c Market Access pro|ect (FAO, lFOAM & NOTAD)
GPl G|oba| Peport|ng ln|t|at|ve
GPO go|den r|ce on||ne
Gt g|gaton
GTZ German Agency or Techn|ca| Oooperat|on (now GlZ, see above)
GWP g|oba| warm|ng potent|a|
ha hectare(s)
Hg hectograms
HLPE H|gh-|eve| Pane| o Experts on Food Secur|ty and Nutr|t|on (FAO)
HPO Human P|ghts Oounc||
lAASTD lnternat|ona| Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and Techno|ogy or Deve|opment
lAP lnternat|ona| Assoc|at|on or Partnersh|p |n Eco|ogy and Trade
lATP lnst|tute or Agr|cu|ture and Trade Po||cy
lOGEB lnternat|ona| Oenter or Genet|c Eng|neer|ng and B|otechno|ogy
lOPAF lnternat|ona| Oentre or Pesearch |n Agroorestry
lOPlSAT lnternat|ona| Orops Pesearch lnst|tute or the Sem|-Ar|d Trop|cs
lOT(s) |normat|on and commun|cat|on techno|ogy (-|es)
lOTSD lnternat|ona| Oentre or Trade and Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
lEA lnternat|ona| Energy Agency
lEOA lnternat|ona| Eros|on Oontro| Assoc|at|on
lEP lnst|tut d'Econom|e Pura|e
lFAD lnternat|ona| Fund or Agr|cu|tura| Deve|opment
lE lnst|tute or Energy and Env|ronment (Germany)
lFOAM lnternat|ona| Federat|on o Organ|c Agr|cu|tura| Movements
lFPPl lnternat|ona| Food Po||cy Pesearch lnst|tute
lGBP lnternat|ona| Geosphere-B|osphere Programme
llED lnternat|ona| lnst|tute or Env|ronment and Deve|opment
llTA lnternat|ona| lnst|tute o Trop|ca| Agr|cu|ture
lK |nd|genous know|edge
lKS |nd|genous know|edge stud|es/ systems
lLO lnternat|ona| Land Ooa||t|on
lLPl lnternat|ona| L|vestock Pesearch lnst|tute (Ar|ca-based)
lLO |nd|rect |and use changes
lMAP g|oba| M&A organ|zat|on
lMF lnternat|ona| Monetary Fund
xv
lNBl Oentre or lntegrated Pesearch |n B|osaety
lNSAH lnst|tut du Sahe|
lP |nte||ectua| property
lPOO lntergovernmenta| Pane| on O||mate Ohange
lPGPl lnternat|ona| P|ant Genet|c Pesources lnst|tute
lPM |ntegrated pest management
lPPO lntegrated Po||ut|on and Oontro| (E d|rect|ve)
lPPs |nte||ectua| property r|ghts
lPl lnternat|ona| Pesearch lnst|tute or O||mate Pred|ct|ons
lPOOB lnternat|ona| Pequ|rements or Oonorm|ty Assessment Bod|es
lPPl lnternat|ona| P|ce Pesearch lnst|tute
lSAAA lnternat|ona| Serv|ce or the Acqu|s|t|on o Agr|-B|otech App||cat|ons
lSlS lnst|tute o Sc|ence |n Soc|ety
lSO lnternat|ona| Organ|zat|on or Standard|zat|on
lSOFAP lnternat|ona| Soc|ety o Organ|c Agr|cu|ture Pesearch
lTO lnternat|ona| Trade Oentre o NOTAD/ WTO
lWMl lnternat|ona| Water Management lnst|tute
kca| k||oca|or|e
KDGOBP Kenya Da|ry Goat and Oapac|ty Bu||d|ng Pro|ect
kg(s) k||ogram(s)
km
3
cub|c k||ometer
kWh k||owatt hour
LAP L|bya Ar|ca lnvestment Porto||o
|bs/ac pounds per acre
LDO/LDOs |east deve|oped country/ -|es
LEAD L|vestock, Env|ronment and Deve|opment ln|t|at|ve
LED ||ght-em|tt|ng d|ode
LEG organ|c |egume system
LHS |et hand s|de
LLO ||m|ted ||ab|||ty company
LTAP |ong-term agroeco|og|ca| research
LOOG Land se O||mate Ohange Peport (to the We|sh Assemb|y Government)
M&l mun|c|pa| and |ndustr|a|
MAP mean annua| runo
MDG(s) M|||enn|um Deve|opment Goa|(s)
MEA M|||enn|um Ecosystem Assessment
MENA M|dd|e East and North Ar|ca (reg|on)
MJ mega|ou|es
mm m||||meter
Mt megatons
N n|trogen (|n so||)
N(r) react|ve n|trogen
N
2
n|trogen (mo|ecu|e o two atoms)
N
2
O n|trous ox|de
NAFTA North Amer|can Free Trade Agreement
NAlP Nat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| lnnovat|on Programme (o the lnd|an Oounc|| o Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch)
NAS Nat|ona| Academy o Sc|ences (S)
NASA Nat|ona| Aeronaut|cs and Space Adm|n|strat|on
NBPE Nat|ona| B|ogas Programme Eth|op|a
NOAP Nat|ona| Oenter or Atmospher|c Pesearch (n|ted States)
NOOP Sw|ss Nat|ona| Oentre o Oompetence |n Pesearch
NFA Nat|ona| Food Adm|n|strat|on (o Sweden)
NGO non-governmenta| organ|zat|on
NH
3
ammon|um
NNPO N|ger|an Nat|ona| Petro|eum Oorporat|on
NO n|tr|c ox|de
NPP (g|oba|, terrestr|a|) net pr|mary product|on
NP\ net present va|ue
xv|
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
NE n|trogen use efc|ency
ODA ofc|a| deve|opment ass|stance
ODl Overseas Deve|opment lnst|tute
OEA Env|ronmenta| Assessment o Ogon||and
OEOD Organ|zat|on or Econom|c Oo-operat|on and Deve|opment
OEOD-DAO OEOD Deve|opment Ass|stance Oomm|ttee
OGSs organ|c guarantee systems
Ol Oak|and lnst|tute
OTO over-the-counter (transact|ons)
OTDS overa|| trade-d|stort|ng support
PANNA Pest|c|de Act|on Network North Amer|ca
PAS Pub||c Ava||ab|e Spec|fcat|on
PBS Program or B|od|vers|ty
POF Product Oarbon Footpr|nt
PEP phosphoeno| pyruvate
PGA phosphog|ycerate
PGS part|c|patory guarantee system
PlOTlPAPA lnternat|ona| Potato Late B||ght Test|ng Program
ppm parts per m||||on
PPAl Pr|nc|p|es or Pespons|b|e Agr|cu|tura| lnvestment
PSDA Pr|vate Sector Deve|opment |n Agr|cu|ture
P\ photovo|ta|c
PwO Pr|cewaterhouse Ooopers
P&D research and deve|opment
PASFF Pap|d A|ert System o Food and Feed (E)
PEDD reduct|on o em|ss|ons rom deorestat|on and orest degradat|on
PEN21 Penewab|e Energy Po||cy Network or the 21st Oentury
PHS r|ght hand s|de
PNE German Oounc|| or Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
PS Poya| Soc|ety
PSB Poundtab|e on Susta|nab|e B|oue|s
PuBP r|bu|ose b|sphosphate
P\AOSO Peg|ona| \a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der Oorporat|on
S/SE South/ South East
SAN Susta|nab|e Agr|cu|ture Network
SANOO D|rectorate Genera| or Hea|th and Oonsumer Aa|rs (European Oomm|ss|on)
SAP Spec|a| Adm|n|strat|ve Peg|on
SAPD susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and rura| deve|opment
SOAP Stand|ng Oomm|ttee on Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch (o the European Oomm|ss|on)
SONT Somat|c Oe|| Nuc|ear Transer (c|on|ng)
SOOPE Sc|ent|fc Oomm|ttee on Prob|ems o the Env|ronment
SOOPE Susta|nab|e Oonsumpt|on Pesearch Exchange
SDF SEKEM Deve|opment Foundat|on
SDT spec|a| and d|erent|a| treatment
SEKEM anc|ent Egypt|an or "v|ta||ty rom the sun"
SNNPP Southern Nat|ons Nat|ona||t|es and Peop|es Peg|on
SN\ Nether|ands Deve|opment Organ|zat|on
SOO so|| organ|c carbon
SOFA The State o Food and Agr|cu|ture (FAO pub||cat|on)
SOM so|| organ|c matter
SP spec|a| products
SPES Spec|a| Peport on Em|ss|ons Scenar|os (lPOO)
SSA sub-Saharan Ar|ca
SSG spec|a| agr|cu|tura| saeguard
SSM spec|a| saeguard mechan|sms
S\O Sc|ent|fc \eter|nary Oomm|ttee (E)
t OO
2
-eq tons o carbon d|ox|de equ|va|ent
TED Trade, Env|ronment, O||mate Ohange and Deve|opment (Branch o NOTAD)
xv||
TEP Trade and Env|ronment Pev|ew
toes tons o o|| equ|va|ents
tonnes O ha-1 tonnes o carbon per hectare
E n|on europeenne
EMOA Western Ar|can Econom|c and Monetary n|on
K n|ted K|ngdom
N n|ted Nat|ons
N DESA N Department o Econom|c and Soc|a| Aa|rs
NOTAD n|ted Nat|ons Oonerence on Trade and Deve|opment
NDP n|ted Nat|ons Deve|opment Programme
NEP n|ted Nat|ons Env|ronment Programme
NESOO n|ted Nat|ons Educat|ona|, Sc|ent|fc and Ou|tura| Organ|zat|on
NFOOO n|ted Nat|ons Framework Oonvent|on on O||mate Ohange
NGO n|ted Nat|ons G|oba| Oompact
NlSlST n|ted Nat|ons lnternat|ona| Sc|ent|fc lnormat|on System
N-NADAF n|ted Nat|ons New Agenda or the Deve|opment o Ar|ca
NPlSD n|ted Nat|ons Pesearch lnst|tute or Soc|a| Deve|opment
NSO n|ted Nat|ons Stat|st|ca| Ofce
S OPS n|ted States Oongress|ona| Pesearch Serv|ces
S/ SA n|ted States o Amer|ca
SAlD .S. Agency or lnternat|ona| Deve|opment
SDA n|ted States Department o Agr|cu|ture
SFDA n|ted States Food and Drug Adm|n|strat|on
W n|vers|ty o W|scons|n
\AM ves|cu|ar arbuscu|ar mycorrh|zae (ung|)
\EETO \o|umetr|c Ethano| Exc|se Tax Ored|t (S)
\ZB\ Federat|on o German Oonsumer Organ|sat|ons (\erbraucherzentra|e Bundesverband)
WAPDA West Ar|ca P|ce Deve|opment Assoc|at|on
WB Wor|d Bank
WFP N Wor|d Food Programme
WHO Wor|d Hea|th Organ|zat|on
WMO Wor|d Meteoro|og|ca| Organ|zat|on
WOOAT Wor|d Overv|ew o Oonservat|on Approaches and Techno|og|es
WPAP Waste and Pesources Act|on Programme
WPl Wor|d Pesources lnst|tute
WSO Wor|d Sh|pp|ng Oounc||
WTl West Texas lntermed|ate (o|| pr|ce)
WTO Wor|d Trade Organ|zat|on
WE water use efc|ency
yr year
xv|||
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Exp|anaIory noIas
CIassication by country or commodity group
The c|ass|fcat|on o countr|es |n th|s Pe.|e. has been adopted so|e|y or the purposes o stat|st|ca| or ana|yt|ca|
conven|ence and does not necessar||y |mp|y any |udgement concern|ng the stage o deve|opment o a part|cu|ar
country or area.
The ma|or country group|ngs used |n th|s Pe.|e. o||ow the c|ass|fcat|on by the n|ted Nat|ons Stat|st|ca| Ofce
(NSO). They are d|st|ngu|shed as:
Deve|oped or |ndustr|a|(|zed) countr|es: the countr|es members o the OEOD (other than Mex|co, the Pepub||c
o Korea and Turkey) p|us the new E member countr|es and lsrae|.
Trans|t|on econom|es reers to South-East Europe and the Oommonwea|th o lndependent States (OlS).
Deve|op|ng countr|es: a|| countr|es, terr|tor|es or areas not spec|fed above.
The terms "country" / "economy" reer, as appropr|ate, a|so to terr|tor|es or areas.
Peerences to "Lat|n Amer|ca" |n the text or tab|es |nc|ude the Oar|bbean countr|es un|ess otherw|se |nd|cated.
Peerences to "sub-Saharan Ar|ca" |n the text or tab|es do not |nc|ude South Ar|ca un|ess otherw|se |nd|cated.
For stat|st|ca| purposes, reg|ona| group|ngs and c|ass|fcat|ons by commod|ty group used |n th|s Pe.|e. o||ow
genera||y those emp|oyed |n the NOTAD Handbook o Stat|st|cs (n|ted Nat|ons pub||cat|on, sa|es no. E/F.08.
ll.D.18) un|ess otherw|se stated. The data or Oh|na do not |nc|ude those or Hong Kong Spec|a| Adm|n|strat|ve
Peg|on (Hong Kong SAP), Macao Spec|a| Adm|n|strat|ve Peg|on (Macao SAP) and Ta|wan Prov|nce o Oh|na.
Other notes
The term "do||ar" ($) reers to n|ted States do||ars, un|ess otherw|se stated.
The term "b||||on" s|gn|fes 1,000 m||||on.
The term "tons" reers to metr|c tons.
Annua| rates o growth and change reer to compound rates.
Exports are va|ued FOB and |mports OlF, un|ess otherw|se spec|fed.
se o a dash () between dates represent|ng years, e.g. 19881990, s|gn|fes the u|| per|od |nvo|ved,
|nc|ud|ng the |n|t|a| and fna| years.
An ob||que stroke (/) between two years, e.g. 2000/01, s|gn|fes a fsca| or crop year.
A dot (.) |nd|cates that the |tem |s not app||cab|e.
Two dots (..) |nd|cate that the data are not ava||ab|e, or are not separate|y reported.
A dash (-) or a zero (0) |nd|cates that the amount |s n|| or neg||g|b|e.
Dec|ma|s and percentages do not necessar||y add up to tota|s because o round|ng.
2
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Absl|acl
The prob|ems o c||mate change, hunger and poverty, econom|c, soc|a| and gender |nequ|ty, poor hea|th
and nutr|t|on, and env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty are |nter-re|ated and need to be so|ved by |everag|ng
agr|cu|ture's mu|t|-unct|ona||ty. Aga|nst th|s background, a undamenta| transormat|on towards c||mate-
r|end|y agr|cu|ture, cons|st|ng o a mosa|c o agro-eco|og|ca| product|on pract|ces, must become the new
parad|gm, but |t shou|d not comprom|se other very |mportant deve|opment ob|ect|ves:
Address|ng the equ|ty cha||enge, notab|y ood secur|ty and armer ||ve||hoods.
Enhanc|ng susta|nab|e product|v|ty, based on a new, system|ca||y d|erent defn|t|on that ocuses on
tota| arm output |nstead o product|v|ty per un|t o |abour, and
Strengthen|ng res|||ence to resource and energy scarc|ty and c||mate change.
lt |s thereore |mportant to th|nk |n systems, rather than overemphas|z|ng a c||mate ocus.
Load Art|c|o: AG|CUL1UL A1 1HL CO55OAD5: A55U|NG
|OOD 5LCU|1Y |N DLvLLO|NG COUN1|L5
UNDL 1HL CHALLLNGL5 O| GLOBAL wAM|NG
u|||ch hollmauu
uhCTA sec|ela||al
A. InIroducI|on
O||mate change (OO) has the potent|a| to damage
|rrevers|b|y the natura| resource base on wh|ch
agr|cu|ture depends, w|th grave consequences or
ood secur|ty. OO cou|d a|so s|gn|fcant|y constra|n
econom|c deve|opment |n those deve|op|ng countr|es
that |arge|y re|y on agr|cu|ture (or more |normat|on,
see L|m L| Oh|ng, 2010). Thereore, meet|ng the
dua| cha||enge o ach|ev|ng ood secur|ty
1
and
other deve|opmenta| co-benefts, on the one hand,
and m|t|gat|ng and adapt|ng to OO, on the other,
requ|res po||t|ca| comm|tment at the h|ghest |eve| or a
undamenta| and urgent transormat|on o agr|cu|ture.
ln act, t|me |s gett|ng the most |mportant scarc|ty
actor |n dea||ng w|th OO (Homann, 2011).
The NOTAD Trade and Env|ronment Pev|ew 2013
g|ves an opportun|ty to more than 50 experts to
ana|yze var|ous spec|fc aspects o the undamenta|
transormat|on o agr|cu|tura| product|on methods
and systems requ|red or dea||ng w|th the ser|ous
cha||enges emanat|ng rom g|oba| warm|ng and the
trade os to be made |n enhanc|ng the m|t|gat|on and
adaptat|on potent|a| o agr|cu|ture as part and parce|
o a pro-poor deve|opment approach |n agr|cu|ture
u||y exp|o|t|ng agr|cu|ture's mu|t|-unct|ona||ty.
8. Agr|cu|Iura - a |ay dr|var and a major
v|cI|m oI g|oba| Warm|ng
As most o the greenhouse gases (GHG), w|th
the except|on o methane, have a ha| ||e o over a
hundred years, g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons w||| have to
peak by 2020 and drop by 75-80 per cent |n the per|od
to 2050 to ||m|t g|oba| warm|ng to 2 degrees (The
O||mate Group, 2008: 19).
2
Yet, tota| GHG em|ss|ons
or 2010 are est|mated to have |ncreased by more than
6 per cent, a h|stor|ca| record (The Guard|an, 2011,
and lEA, 2011a: 7), o||owed by an est|mated |ncrease
o 3.2 per cent |n 2011.
3
A|so, accord|ng to est|mates
o ana|ysts at Pr|cewaterhouse Ooopers (PwO), g|oba|
carbon |ntens|ty (|.e. carbon em|ss|ons per un|t o
GDP) has |ncreased or the frst t|me |n many years.
"lnstead o mov|ng too s|ow|y |n the r|ght d|rect|on,
we are now mov|ng |n the wrong d|rect|on", sa|d one
3
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
1,000
5,000
,000
Z,000
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020
N
2
0 Varure
N
2
0 3o| | s
N
2
0 8urr| r
Cl
1
R| ce
Cl
1
Varure
Cl
1
Erler| c
Cl
1
8urr| r
o the PwO ana|ysts. ln pr|nc|pa|, we o||ow the GHG
em|ss|ons trends under the worst case scenar|o o the
lntergovernmenta| Pane| on O||mate Ohange (lPOO)
and the lnternat|ona| Energy Agency (lEA) (F|nanc|a|
T|mes, 2011: 1).
4
Agr|cu|tura| em|ss|ons o methane (OH
4
) and n|trous
ox|de (N
2
O), wh|ch account or over 90 per cent o
tota| agr|cu|tura| GHG em|ss|ons, grew by 17 per cent
|n the per|od 19902005 (lPOO, 2007a: 499), rough|y
proport|onate, or |nstance, to the |ncrease |n g|oba|
cerea|s' product|on vo|ume, but about three t|mes
as ast as product|v|ty |ncreased |n g|oba| cerea|s'
product|on.
5
These GHG em|ss|ons are pred|cted
to r|se by 35-60 per cent by 2030 |n response to
popu|at|on growth and chang|ng d|ets |n deve|op|ng
countr|es, |n part|cu|ar towards greater consumpt|on
o rum|nant meats and da|ry products, as we|| as
the urther spread o |ndustr|a| and actory arm|ng,
part|cu|ar|y |n deve|op|ng countr|es (lPOO, 2007a:
63). ln other words, |nstead o cutt|ng agr|cu|tura|
em|ss|ons by some 40 per cent by 2030, |n rea||ty we
o||ow exact|y the oppos|te trend.
As can be seen rom fgure 1, the recent and uture
r|se |n g|oba| agr|cu|tura| GHG em|ss|ons |s ma|n|y
occurr|ng |n deve|op|ng countr|es. ln 2005, the
|atter accounted or three quarters o n|trous ox|de
and methane em|ss|ons |n the agr|cu|tura| sector.
These em|ss|ons are ma|n|y caused by some 15-20
deve|op|ng countr|es (see fgure 2). The countr|es
|n fgure 2 cause over 70 per cent o agr|cu|tura|
em|ss|ons wor|dw|de. A|though the |east deve|oped
countr|es (LDOs) are not a s|gn|fcant contr|butor to
g|oba| agr|cu|tura| em|ss|ons, the |atter account or the
bu|k o nat|ona| GHG em|ss|ons (as can be seen |n
fgure 3, |n LDOs agr|cu|ture-re|ated GHG em|ss|ons
account or about 70 per cent o tota| GHG em|ss|ons).
G|oba| warm|ng |s a threat mu|t|p||er, |.e. compound|ng,
supp|ement|ng or re|norc|ng other threats so that the
b|o-phys|ca| vu|nerab|||ty o agr|cu|ture |ncreases.
The ma|n |mpact o g|oba| warm|ng on agr|cu|tura|
product|on can be summar|zed as o||ows:
6
H|gher temperatures aect p|ant, an|ma| and
armers' hea|th,
7
enhance pests and reduce water
supp|y |ncreas|ng the r|sk o grow|ng ar|d|ty and
|and degradat|on.
Mod|fed prec|p|tat|on patterns w||| enhance water
scarc|ty and assoc|ated drought stress or crops
and a|ter |rr|gat|on water supp||es. They a|so reduce
the pred|ctab|||ty or armers' p|ann|ng.
The enhanced requency o weather extremes
F|gura 1: EsI|maIad h|sIor|ca| and projacIad n|Irous ox|da and maIhana am|ss|ons |n Iha agr|cu|Iura| sacIor oI
dava|op|ng and dava|opad counIr|as, 1990-Z0Z0, |n Ihousand I 0
Z
-aq
Sc0|ce: lPOO (2007a: 504).
e.eloi| cou|||ie: e.eloe cou|||ie:
4
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
F|gura Z: Top Z6 h am|II|ng counIr|as Irom agr|cu|Iura (IoIa| and par-cap|Ia am|ss|ons |n 0
Z
-aq Ior Iha yaar Z000*)
F|gura 3: L0 h am|ss|ons by sacIor, Z006 (par canI oI IoIa| am|ss|ons)
Sc0|ce: Wor|d Pesources lnst|tute, quoted |n Mu||er et a|. (2011a).
Nc|e. * OO
2
em|ss|ons are confned to oss|| ue| combust|on on|y.
Sc0|ce: NOTAD (2010: 127).
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Fu| l| v e er| ss| ors
1
lrduslr| a| processes
1
Trarsporlal| or
3
E| eclr| c| ly ard |eal
2
0l|er l ue| corousl| or
1
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28
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l oreslry
13
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2
w asle
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Erery
12
5
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
may s|gn|fcant|y |n1uence both crop and ||vestock
product|on.
8
lt may a|so cons|derab|y |mpact or
destroy phys|ca| |nra-structure or agr|cu|ture.
9
Enhanced atmospher|c concentrat|ons o OO
2

may, or a ||m|ted per|od o t|me, |ead to 'natura|'
carbon ert|||zat|on and thus a st|mu|us to crop
product|v|ty.
10
H|gher temperatures go hand |n hand w|th h|gher
ozone concentrat|ons. Ozone |s harmu| to a||
p|ants but soybeans, wheat, oats, green beans,
peppers, and some types o cotton are part|cu|ar|y
vu|nerab|e (FAO, 2012a).
G|oba| warm|ng w||| a|so negat|ve|y |mpact the
nutr|t|ona| qua||ty
11
o some ood, |n part|cu|ar
the prote|n and m|cronutr|ents' content (or more
|normat|on, see the comment o Hogy and
Fangme|er |n th|s Ohapter).
12

H|gher temperatures are ||ke|y to |ncrease the
exposure o p|ants and an|ma|s to d|seases and
pests, thus |ncreas|ng product|on and hand||ng
|osses.
13
Sea |eve| r|se |s ||ke|y to |n1uence trade |nra-
structure or agr|cu|ture, may |nundate produc|ng
areas and a|ter aquacu|ture product|on cond|t|ons.
G|oba| warm|ng |s not un|orm|y prob|emat|c. lt w|||
|ead to |mproved crop product|v|ty |n parts o the
trop|ca| h|gh|ands and extend cropp|ng per|ods or
a||ow mu|t|p|e harvests |n temperate zones (FAO,
2012a).
The above-ment|oned r|sks and stress actors act
|nd|v|dua||y, but we w||| a|so see |ncreas|ng stress
comb|nat|ons. There |s a great dea| that |s as yet
unknown about how such stresses may comb|ne,
thereore, more research on the |nteract|ons between
d|erent ab|ot|c and b|ot|c stresses |n key agr|cu|tura|
systems |s urgent|y requ|red (FAO, 2012a).
Furthermore, temperature |ncreases are ||ke|y to have
non-||near eects on y|e|ds and ood qua||ty.
O||mate ca|am|t|es are ||ke|y to h|t the poor segments
o the popu|at|on and poor countr|es part|cu|ar|y
hard as the|r adapt|ve capac|ty and res|||ence
14
|s the
|owest. We||-o segments o the popu|at|on can 'buy'
ood secur|ty, at |east |n the short run (FAO, 2012a: 3).
The |mpact o g|oba| warm|ng has s|gn|fcant
consequences or agr|cu|tura| product|on and trade
o deve|op|ng countr|es as we|| as an |ncreased r|sk
o hunger. Pre||m|nary est|mates or the per|od up to
2080 suggest a dec||ne o some 15-30 per cent o
agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty |n the most c||mate-change-
exposed deve|op|ng-country reg|ons - Ar|ca, South
As|a and Oentra| Amer|ca
15
(see fgure 4).
16
For some
countr|es |n these reg|ons, tota| agr|cu|tura| product|on
cou|d dec||ne by up to 50 per cent. Accord|ng to FAO
(2012a: 43), "|n some |ocat|ons, a comb|nat|on o
temperature and prec|p|tat|on changes m|ght resu|t
|n comp|ete |oss o agr|cu|tura| act|v|ty, |n a ew
|ocat|ons, agr|cu|ture m|ght become |mposs|b|e".
17

F|gura 4: ProjacIad c||maIa-changa-causad changas |n agr|cu|Iura| producI|v|Iy by Z0B0, |ncorporaI|ng Iha aIIacI oI
carbon IarI|||saI|on
Sc0|ce: O||ne (2007) and Yohn et a|. (2007).
Sc0|ce: O||ne (2007) and Yohe (2007)
n.a.
>25
15 to 25
5 to 15
0 to 5
-5 to 0
-15 to -5
-25 to -15
<-25
6
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
The poorest armers w|th ||tt|e saeguards aga|nst
c||mate ca|am|t|es oten ||ve |n areas prone to natura|
d|sasters. More requent extreme events w||| create
both a human|tar|an and a ood cr|s|s (FAO, 2009a).
Agr|cu|ture prov|des essent|a| nour|shment or peop|e
and |s the necessary bas|s or many econom|c
act|v|t|es. ln a |arge number o deve|op|ng countr|es,
agr|cu|ture accounts or between 20-60% o GDP
18

and prov|des the ||ve||hoods or approx|mate|y 2.6
b||||on peop|e (|.e. some 40% o g|oba| popu|at|on)
(FAO, 2012a). What |s more, accord|ng to De Janvry
and Sadou|et (2009), agr|cu|ture-dr|ven growth |s
three t|mes more ||ke|y to reduce poverty than GDP
growth |n other sectors o the economy.
The current system o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture, product|ve
as |t has been |n recent decades, st||| |eaves about
1 b||||on peop|e undernour|shed
19
and poverty
str|cken, 70% o whom ||ve |n rura| areas.
20
M|||enn|um
Deve|opment Goa| (MDG) one a|ms at erad|cat|ng
extreme hunger and poverty. One o the most eect|ve
ways o ha|v|ng both the number o hungry and poor
by 2015 |s to take the necessary steps o trans|t|on
towards more susta|nab|e orms o agr|cu|ture that
nour|sh the |and and peop|e and prov|de an opportun|ty
or decent, fnanc|a||y reward|ng and gender equa|
|obs. Meet|ng hea|th targets rom MDG 3 and 6 are
a|so ||nked to ma|or changes |n agr|cu|ture, resu|t|ng
|n a more d|verse, sae, nutr|t|ous and aordab|e d|et.
Thereore, the prob|ems o c||mate change, hunger and
poverty, econom|c, soc|a| and gender |nequ|ty, poor
hea|th and nutr|t|on, and env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty
are |nter-re|ated and need to be so|ved by |everag|ng
agr|cu|ture's mu|t|-unct|ona||ty (Herren et a|., 2011).
Aga|nst th|s background, c||mate-r|end|y agr|cu|ture
must become the new parad|gm, but |t shou|d not
comprom|se other very |mportant deve|opmenta|
ob|ect|ves:
Address|ng the equ|ty cha||enge, notab|y ood
secur|ty and armer ||ve||hoods.
Enhanc|ng susta|nab|e product|v|ty, based on a
new, system|ca||y d|erent defn|t|on that ocuses
on tota| arm output |nstead o product|v|ty per un|t
o |abour.
21
Strengthen|ng res|||ence to resource and energy
scarc|ty and c||mate change, and
Pe1ect|ng and cap|ta||z|ng on the mu|t|-unct|ona||ty
o agr|cu|ture.
F|gura 6: 8ysIam|c ambadd|ng oI c||maIa-Ir|and|y agr|cu|Iura
Sc0|ce: Herren (2012).
0. 0o:i|e i|ec|io|
S. SI|e i|ec|io|
R. Rei|lo|c| loo
B. BIlI|ci| loo
7
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
lt |s thereore |mportant to th|nk |n systems, rather than
overemphas|z|ng a c||mate ocus (see fgure 5).
0. aqu|rad IundamanIa| IransIormaI|on
oI agr|cu|Iura
To understand the d|rect|on and structure o the
requ|red undamenta| transormat|on, |t |s |mportant
to apprec|ate the patterns o the techn|ca| c||mate
m|t|gat|on potent|a| |n agr|cu|ture. Accord|ng to the
ourth assessment report o lPOO (2007a: 515), 89
per cent o the techn|ca| m|t|gat|on potent|a| |s re|ated
to so|| carbon sequestrat|on, about 9 per cent ||nked
to m|t|gat|on o methane and on|y about 2 per cent
t|ed to m|t|gat|on o n|trous ox|de em|ss|ons rom
so|| (corre|at|ng w|th n|trogen ert|||zer use). As the
wor|d current|y o||ows the worst case scenar|o o
GHG em|ss|ons pro|ected by lPOO and lEA (|.e.
|mp|y|ng a g|oba| warm|ng o 4-6 degrees Oe|s|us),
c||mate res|||ence and adaptat|on, |n comb|nat|on
w|th product|v|ty |ncreases, shou|d be pr|or|t|zed.
ln genera|, GHG em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|ture can
be reduced by change o product|on systems and
management pract|ces that |n many cases a|so oster
product|v|ty and enhance res|||ence (FAO, 2012a).
Aga|nst th|s very background, the requ|red
transormat|on o agr|cu|ture needs to meet the
o||ow|ng ob|ect|ves and approaches, wh|ch are
urther e|aborated on by the authors o th|s Pev|ew:
22
lncreas|ng the so|| carbon content, comb|ned w|th
c|osed nutr|ent cyc|es
23
and an |ntegrated approach
to agr|cu|tura| product|on.
24
Peduct|on o d|rect and |nd|rect (|.e. through the
eed cha|n) GHG em|ss|ons o ||vestock product|on.
Peduct|on o |nd|rect (|.e. changes |n |and-use-
|nduced) em|ss|ons through susta|nab|e peat|and,
orest and grass|and management.
Opt|m|zat|on o organ|c and |norgan|c ert|||zer
use, |nc|ud|ng through c|osed nutr|ent cyc|es |n
agr|cu|ture.
Peduct|on o waste throughout the ood cha|ns.
Ohang|ng d|etary patterns towards c||mate-r|end|y
ood consumpt|on.
Peorm o the |nternat|ona| trade reg|me or ood
and agr|cu|tura| products.
ln |mp|ement|ng the above-out||ned e|ements o a
undamenta| transormat|on o agr|cu|ture, one shou|d
not over|ook:
1. The |nter||nkages between the e|ements.
2. The mer|ts and demer|ts o s|ng|e c||mate-r|end|y
pract|ces versus those o system|c changes
(through agro-eco|ogy, agro-orestry, organ|c
agr|cu|ture).
3. The need or a two-track approach:
(|) reduc|ng env|ronmenta| |mpact o convent|ona|
agr|cu|ture, and
(||) broaden|ng scope or and urther deve|op|ng
agro-eco|og|ca| product|on methods.
. Tha parad|gm sh|II has sIarIad, buI |s
|arga|y |ncomp|aIa
Z6

The ood cr|s|s o 2008 was an |mportant cata|yst or
rea||z|ng the need or undamenta| transormat|on
and quest|on|ng some o the assumpt|ons that had
dr|ven ood and agr|cu|tura| po||cy |n recent decades.
The cr|s|s |ed to a reversa| o the |ong-term neg|ect
o agr|cu|ture as a v|ta| econom|c sector. A|so, the
dec||n|ng trend o pub||c und|ng or agr|cu|ture was
arrested and some new und|ng secured, wh|ch,
however, |s st||| much beh|nd comm|tments and
requ|rements. Some o the add|t|ona| und|ng |s
now more open to country-|ed programs w|th strong
state |nvo|vement. ln th|s context, some o the
add|t|ona| und|ng goes to |mportant areas, such as
sma||ho|der support, ro|e o women |n agr|cu|ture, the
env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture, |nc|ud|ng c||mate
change, and weakness o |nternat|ona| markets.
However, we ne|ther see the necessary |eve| o urgency
nor po||t|ca| w||||ngness or drast|c change. Pr|or|ty
rema|ns heav||y ocused on |ncreas|ng product|on
(most|y under the s|ogan "more w|th |ess"). The
current|y pursued approach |s st||| very much b|ased
towards expans|on o "somewhat-|ess-po||ut|ng"
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture, rather than more susta|nab|e
and aordab|e product|on methods. A|so, the ma|n
prob|em o hunger |s st||| not apprec|ated - access to
aordab|e ood |n rura| areas, the |ack o means o
product|on and access to resources or sma||ho|ders.
One does st||| not recogn|ze that a parad|gm sh|t
|s requ|red, resu|t|ng rom (|) deepen|ng |ntegrat|on
o ood, energy and fnanc|a| markets, (||) resource
constra|nts / p|anetary boundar|es, and (|||) the
|ncreas|ng r|sk caused by c||mate change. The current
demand trends or b|oue|s, excess|ve|y meat-based
d|ets and post-harvest ood waste are regarded as
g|ven, rather than cha||eng|ng the|r rat|ona|. There |s
a|so ||tt|e recogn|t|on o the preva|||ng market power
asymmetr|es |n ood |nput and output markets. F|na||y,
there |s too ||tt|e and too |ate progress on restr|ct|ons
and the deve|opment o regu|at|on on |and grabs.
26

The st||| unreso|ved reorm agenda |tems are:
27
8
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Peduce ue|-|ntens|ve, externa| |nput-dependent
agr|cu|tura| product|on methods towards agro-
eco|og|ca| pract|ces, recogn|z|ng the mu|t|-
unct|ona||ty o agr|cu|ture.
D|scourage |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on and
assoc|ated mass|ve use o concentrate eed.
D|scourage expans|on o b|oue| product|on:
d|scont|nue b|end|ng quotas, reduce subs|d|es,
rev|se trade restr|ct|ons.
28
Peduce fnanc|a| specu|at|on (|.e. fnanc|a||zat|on
o ood markets) and ||m|t |rrespons|b|e |and
|nvestments (see the commentary o Mu||er |n
Ohapter 5).
Peorm g|oba| agr|cu|tura| trade ru|es, g|v|ng
greater po||cy space or assur|ng nat|ona| ood
sovere|gnty, c||mate-change adaptat|on/res|||ence,
reth|nk ocus on |ntegrat|ng sma||ho|ders |nto
g|oba| supp|y cha|ns (see Ohapter 5).
Peduce ood pr|ce vo|at|||ty, w|thout bedd|ng
exc|us|ve|y on hedg|ng opt|ons.
29
ln essence, as po|nted out by Naerstad (2011: part ll,
p. 65), "a more rad|ca| transormat|on o agr|cu|ture
|s needed, one gu|ded by the not|on that eco|og|ca|
change |n agr|cu|ture cannot be promoted w|thout
comparab|e changes |n the soc|a|, po||t|ca|, cu|tura|
and econom|c arenas that a|so conorm agr|cu|ture".
9
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Agr|cu|ture has to be put at the heart o any poverty
reduct|on strategy. lt |s a mu|t|d|mens|ona| sector
d|rect|y ||nked to the fght aga|nst hunger and
ma|nutr|t|on and to ood secur|ty. At the same t|me,
|t |s strong|y |n1uenced by |nternat|ona| trade,
fnance, deve|opment cooperat|on and, |ncreas|ng|y,
|t |s aected by c||mate change and env|ronmenta|
degradat|on. Th|s d|vers|ty o unct|ons and act|v|t|es
requ|res that |ssues re|at|ng to agr|cu|ture be treated
|n a ho||st|c manner, and that the cha||enge o po||cy
coherence be tack|ed both at nat|ona| and |nternat|ona|
|eve|s (or more deta||, see Feyder, 2010).
Hunger and ma|nutr|t|on are the ma|n causes o
morta||ty |n the wor|d today. Each day, they k||| about
25,000 peop|e, most|y ch||dren. As a resu|t, the|r r|ght
to ||e and the|r r|ght to ood are most 1agrant|y v|o|ated.
The |nternat|ona| commun|ty agreed to wage war on
th|s scourge o human|ty when Heads o State and
Government adopted the M|||enn|um Deve|opment
Goa|s (MDGs). The frst goa| comm|tted to ha|ve
by 2015 the proport|on o the wor|d's popu|at|on
suer|ng rom hunger and ma|nutr|t|on some 840
m||||on peop|e.
However, 10 years |ater more than a b||||on peop|e
one person |n seven are st||| suer|ng rom hunger
and ma|nutr|t|on. Th|s |s undoubted|y one o the most
|etha| eects o the wor|d ood and fnanc|a| cr|ses,
together w|th the econom|c recess|on o the past ew
years. These cr|ses have reversed the ormer trend
o a decreas|ng number o peop|e suer|ng rom
hunger and ma|nutr|t|on. But the FAO a|so stresses
that th|s trend, observed beore the cr|ses, wou|d not
|n act have been sufc|ent to ach|eve the frst o the
M|||enn|um Deve|opment Goa|s.
Paradox|ca||y, most o the v|ct|ms o hunger and
ma|nutr|t|on res|de |n rura| areas. Accord|ng to the
FAO, 50 per cent o them are sma|| peasants, 20 per
cent are |and|ess, 10 per cent are nomad|c herdsmen
or sma|| fshermen and 20 per cent ||ve |n c|ty s|ums.
On|y a sma|| m|nor|ty suer because o war or c|v||
con1|ct. And whereas |n the E the arm|ng popu|at|on
const|tutes on|y 5 per cent o the tota| popu|at|on, |t |s
about 50 per cent |n Oh|na, 60 per cent |n lnd|a and
between 60 and 80 per cent |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca
(Feyder, 2010: 16-17).
Th|s rura| soc|a| c|ass |s, above a||, oten a v|ct|m o
marg|na||zat|on and exc|us|on rom |ts govern|ng
c|asses (po||t|ca|, econom|c and fnanc|a|) as we|| as
rom the urban m|||eu where there |s a concentrat|on
o power and know|edge, and thereore money,
|nc|ud|ng unds or deve|opment. Oten the urban and
rura| wor|ds are separated by a cu|tura| abyss, w|th
the ormer d|sp|ay|ng |nd|erence, |ncomprehens|on
and contempt.
Hundreds o m||||ons o sma|| peasants, ma|n|y
women, cu|t|vate an average o between one and two
Absl|acl
More than one b||||on peop|e are suer|ng rom hunger and ma|nutr|t|on. Paradox|ca||y, most o them are |n
rura| areas, and on|y 20 per cent are |n c|ty s|ums, wh||e a sma|| m|nor|ty are v|ct|ms o war or c|v|| con1|ct.
Low pr|ces o ood products produced by sma||ho|der armers can aect the|r |ncomes and contr|bute to
poverty and hunger. On|y stab|e and a|r pr|ces w||| g|ve them |nd|spensab|e buy|ng power.
Adequate regu|at|on o agr|cu|tura| markets |s needed to sh|e|d sma|| producers rom |nternat|ona|
compet|t|on and dump|ng o ood |mports.
Fast deter|orat|ng ecosystems, c||mate change and water scarc|ty ser|ous|y threaten ood secur|ty. These
cha||enges can best be met through the adopt|on o agroeco|ogy, organ|c and other susta|nab|e arm|ng
methods.
Commontary |: Agr|cu|turo: A Un|quo 5octor |n Lconom|c,
Lco|og|ca| and 5oc|a| 1orms
Jeau leyde|
Ambassado|, lo|me| Pe|maueul Rep|eseulal|ve ol Lu/embou|g lo lhe uh aud wT0 |u Ceueva
10
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
hectares o |and and oten even |ess w|th hoes and
machetes, wh|ch are the on|y too|s at the|r d|sposa|.
By contrast, a Western European armer possesses
an average ho|d|ng o 40 hectares, cu|t|vated w|th
|ncreas|ng|y poweru| tractors and other mach|nery,
and emp|oys |arge quant|t|es o pest|c|des and
ert|||zers. Th|s a|so exp|a|ns the huge product|v|ty gap
|n agr|cu|ture between |ndustr|a||zed countr|es and
a number o emerg|ng countr|es, such as Braz||, on
the one hand, and the great ma|or|ty o deve|op|ng
countr|es on the other.
The fnanc|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture |s becom|ng a ma|or
new r|sk. Land-grabb|ng oten |eads to the expu|s|on
o vu|nerab|e rura| commun|t|es. F|nanc|a| specu|at|on
on ood commod|t|es cont|nues to be a ma|or cause
o the pr|ce surge and vo|at|||ty w|tnessed over the past
ew years (NOTAD, 2009, NOTAD and Ohamber o
Labour, \|enna, 2011). Th|s |ssue, qu|te r|ght|y, has
been at the top o the |nternat|ona| agenda and |n
G-20 meet|ngs.
The product|on o agro-ue|s takes more and more
|and away rom ood product|on. Yet, even though
the use o these ue|s contr|butes ||tt|e | at a|| to
reduc|ng OO
2
em|ss|ons, the|r product|on cont|nues
to soar.
One o the ma|n and more structura| causes o the
ood cr|s|s |s d|s|nvestment |n agr|cu|ture, a sector
that has |ong been neg|ected. Ofc|a| deve|opment
ass|stance to rura| and agr|cu|tura| deve|opment
dropped rom 18 per cent to 4 per cent between 1980
and 2004 (Feyder, 2010: 55).
Structura| ad|ustment po||c|es have |ed to mass|ve
trade ||bera||zat|on and the open|ng up o markets,
g|v|ng consumers access to cheap, |mported ood.
Meanwh||e, peasants have been encouraged to
concentrate on produc|ng export crops. However,
the 2008 ood cr|s|s has rad|ca||y cha||enged the
re|evance o th|s deve|opment mode|.
ln the deve|op|ng countr|es, espec|a||y the LDO's,
|mports o ch|cken, r|ce, tomato concentrate and m||k
powder have r|sen rap|d|y, ru|n|ng |oca| product|on
and the surv|va| cond|t|ons o tens o m||||ons o
peasant am|||es, not to ment|on the |oss o |obs |n
the crat and |ndustr|a| sectors, as they too have been
unab|e to w|thstand |nternat|ona| compet|t|on (fgure 6
and 7). The trade ba|ance |n ood products or |east
deve|oped countr|es moved rom a $1 b||||on surp|us
30 years ago, to a defc|t o $7 b||||on |n 2000 and $25
b||||on |n 2008 (Feyder, 2010: 72).

Thus, the dump|ng o ood onto deve|op|ng countr|es
has pena||zed domest|c producers who are orced to
se|| at reduced pr|ces to ewer buyers. Accord|ng to
NOTAD, the pr|ces o ood products and agr|cu|tura|
raw mater|a|s e|| by 73 per cent and 60 per cent,
respect|ve|y, between 1980 and 2003. ln 2003, the
pr|ce o coee was on|y 17 per cent o what |t had
been |n 1980, and that o cotton was 33 per cent (Nur|,
2005, p.352, see a|so FAO, 2011d, fgure 20). But wh||e
producers |n deve|oped countr|es can usua||y ca|| on
the|r governments or compensat|on (wh|ch, or many,
represents up to 60 per cent o the|r |ncome), armers
|n deve|op|ng countr|es have no such recourse, and
|ncreas|ng|y are unab|e to cover the|r costs. Th|s
dump|ng o cheap ood onto deve|op|ng countr|es has
resu|ted |n hunger or peasants and ma|nta|ns them
|n poverty (W|se, 2010). As a resu|t o th|s desperate
s|tuat|on, every year some 50 m||||on peop|e |eave the
rura| areas |n search o a|ternat|ve ||ve||hoods, |ead|ng
to uncontro||ed urban|zat|on.
ln the 1970s, Ha|t| was v|rtua||y se|-sufc|ent |n
r|ce product|on, wh|ch |s one o |ts ma|n stap|e
crops. However, as a consequence o |ts structura|
ad|ustment programme, the customs tar|, |nc|ud|ng
on r|ce |mported |nto Ha|t|, was reduced rom 50 per
cent to 3 per cent, mak|ng |t the most "||bera||zed"
country |n the wor|d! Today, |ess than 25 per cent o
|ts r|ce needs are met by |oca| product|on (fgure 7).
For years, |n severa| n|ted Nat|ons bod|es, |nc|ud|ng
F|gura 6: hana ch|c|an producI|on and |mporIaI|on,
Z00Z-Z007
Sc0|ce: FAOSTAT.
80,000 -
70,000 -
60,000 -
50,000 -
40,000 -
30,000 -
20,000 -
10,000 -
0 -
Chicken
production
T
o
n
s
Chicken
imports
2002 2007
11
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
as Oha|r o NOTAD's Trade and Deve|opment Board,
l have been denounc|ng th|s negat|ve |mpact on
agr|cu|tura| and |ndustr|a| deve|opment |n countr|es
||ke Ha|t|. At the beg|nn|ng o March 2010, ormer
n|ted States Pres|dent B||| O||nton, who |s current|y
the n|ted Nat|ons Secretary-Genera|'s Spec|a|
Pepresentat|ve or Ha|t|, pub||c|y acknow|edged
beore a n|ted States Senate comm|ttee that th|s
po||cy, wh|ch he supported as ormer n|ted States
Pres|dent, had been a m|stake. He made a s|m||ar
statement concern|ng agr|cu|ture |n Ar|ca when he
sa|d "we b|ew |t". He went on to suggest we draw
|essons rom these errors and he|p countr|es ||ke Ha|t|
to fnd the|r way back to se|-sufc|ency |n the ood
sector.
The so|ut|ons or eed|ng the grow|ng wor|d popu|at|on
and overcom|ng hunger and ma|nutr|t|on are comp|ex
and must take |nto account the d|vers|ty and mu|t|-
unct|ona||ty o agr|cu|ture, the spec|fc cond|t|ons o
each country, as we|| as c||mate change and |ncreas|ng
water scarc|ty. ln deve|op|ng the|r agr|cu|tura| po||cy,
governments shou|d seek the act|ve part|c|pat|on o
armers' assoc|at|ons.
S|nce 2008, var|ous |nternat|ona| conerences have
been stress|ng the need or renewed |nvestment |n
agr|cu|ture |n order to re|aunch agr|cu|tura| product|on.
More nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| unds are needed
to he|p |mprove rura| |nrastructures and ac|||tate
access to |nputs, cred|t and know|edge. As the
Wor|d Bank now argues, th|s wou|d not on|y |ncrease
agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty but a|so reduce poverty three
to our t|mes more rap|d|y than |n other sectors o the
economy (Wor|d Bank, 2008:7). But the comm|tments
made at the L'Aqu||a Summ|t o the G-8 |n 2009 to
reserve more than $20 b||||on over a three-year per|od
or |nvestment |n agr|cu|ture are ar rom be|ng u|f||ed.
A po||cy o a|r and stab|e pr|ces |s essent|a| to
enab|e peasants to emerge rom poverty and to
prov|de them w|th sufc|ent buy|ng power. Th|s a|so
requ|res adequate regu|at|on o agr|cu|tura| markets
so as to sh|e|d vu|nerab|e agr|cu|tura| producers
aga|nst dump|ng and pr|ce vo|at|||ty. ln part|cu|ar,
such regu|at|on shou|d protect agr|cu|tura| markets
|n deve|op|ng countr|es and espec|a||y |n the LDOs
and prov|de or the sett|ng up o proper|y managed
market|ng boards as we|| as a network o reserve
stocks at nat|ona| and reg|ona| |eve|s. lt has to be
noted that a number o |ndustr|a||zed countr|es and
|n part|cu|ar the E cont|nue to app|y customs tar|s
or the|r most sens|t|ve agr|cu|tura| products (cerea|s,
m||k powder, meat and sugar products) at |eve|s ar
beyond those app||ed by many deve|op|ng countr|es
and |n part|cu|ar LDOs (fgure 8).
ln order to |ntroduce these changes, the concerned
governments need to make max|mum use o the
1ex|b|||ty between app||ed and bound rates oered
under WTO ru|es. Th|s approach has to be understood,
accepted and even encouraged by a|| concerned
F|gura 7: ha|I|: |ca producI|on and |mporIs, 19B0,
Z004, Z009
Sc0|ce: FAOSTAT.
350,000 -
300,000 -
250,000 -
200,000 -
150,000 -
100,000 -
50,000 -
0 -
Rice
production
T
o
n
s
Rice
imports
1980 2004 2009
F|gura B: 0usIom Iar|IIs |n Iha E and Iha wasIarn AIr|can
Econom|c and NonaIary n|on (ENA)
Sc0|ce: Berthe|ot, 2008.
100 -
90 -
80 -
70 -
60 -
50 -
40 -
30 -
20 -
10 -
0 -
UE
C
u
s
t
o
m
s

t
a
r
i
f
f
s

(
p
e
r

c
e
n
t
)
UEMOA
C
e
r
e
a
l
s
M
i
l
k

p
o
w
d
e
r
S
u
g
a
r

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
s
M
e
a
t
12
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
part|es, |nc|ud|ng the Wor|d Bank and the lMF as
we|| as the |ndustr|a||zed countr|es, m|ndu| o the
cond|t|ons that |ed to the|r own deve|opment. S|m||ar|y,
b||atera| trade agreements w|th these countr|es shou|d
be based on the pr|nc|p|e o non-rec|proc|ty.
Many countr|es need to address the sens|t|ve |ssue
o agrar|an reorm, |nc|ud|ng access to |and, as a
necessary precond|t|on or re|aunch|ng agr|cu|ture
and ach|ev|ng a substant|a| reduct|on |n poverty,
o||ow|ng the examp|e o a number o East As|an
countr|es. The State m|ght guarantee the peasants
access to |and, but th|s does not necessar||y |nvo|ve
g|v|ng ownersh|p r|ghts to |nd|v|dua|s.
Ecosystems are deter|orat|ng at an unprecedented
rate, part|cu|ar|y the c||mate, water, b|od|vers|ty and
fsh resources. Sudden|y, peasants wor|dw|de have to
rea||ze, w|th unbe||evab|e bruta||ty, that the cond|t|ons
|n wh|ch they ||ve and work are deter|orat|ng ast:
eros|on |s advanc|ng and c||mate change |s aect|ng
cu|t|vat|on cond|t|ons and harvests. As a resu|t,
ood secur|ty, espec|a||y or the most vu|nerab|e, |s
becom|ng more uncerta|n. The deve|op|ng countr|es,
and above a|| the poorest and the |s|and countr|es,
wh|ch are the |east respons|b|e or these changes, run
the greatest r|sks. The h|gh-y|e|d mode| |n |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es |s now be|ng ca||ed |nto quest|on. There
are orm|dab|e cha||enges o adaptat|on, espec|a||y
or peasants around the wor|d. And |t |s becom|ng
c|ear that sma||-sca|e agr|cu|tura| un|ts are best ab|e
to meet th|s cha||enge: agroeco|ogy, organ|c arm|ng
and some other susta|nab|e product|on methods
that are respectu| o nature show the way towards
produc|ng more and better qua||ty ood, but w|th |ess
|nputs, wh|ch are most|y |oca||y ava||ab|e and based
on c|osed nutr|ent cyc|es.
13
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
ln genera|, reduc|ng GHG em|ss|ons and |ncreas|ng
sequestrat|on |n agr|cu|ture |s no easy task, e|ther
conceptua||y or |n pract|ce. But there are at |east fve
c|ear except|ons p|us one poss|b|e except|on at the
conceptua| |eve|.
F|rst, avo|d|ng open burn|ng o b|omass reduces
em|ss|ons. G|ven that open b|omass burn|ng |s the
th|rd |argest contr|butor o d|rect GHG em|ss|ons rom
agr|cu|ture account|ng or more than 10 per cent
ater n|trous ox|de em|tted rom ert|||zed so||s and
methane rom enter|c ermentat|on |n rum|nants, there
|s a cons|derab|e and undoubted m|t|gat|on potent|a|
||nked to th|s (Sm|th et a|., 2007b, Be||arby et a|.,
2008). ln most |ndustr|a||zed countr|es, open burn|ng
o b|omass |s proh|b|ted, but |n deve|op|ng countr|es
|t |s st||| common pract|ce.
Second, reduc|ng the g|oba| numbers o rum|nants
wou|d d|rect|y reduce the correspond|ng methane
em|ss|ons that account or about 30 per cent o
tota| d|rect GHG em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|ture (Sm|th
et a|., 2007b, Be||arby et a|., 2008). Th|s |s ma|n|y
an |ssue or |ndustr|a||zed ||vestock systems, and
not or sma||ho|ders. Due to carbon sequestrat|on
|n pastures, pastora| ||vestock systems can even be
carbon-neutra| | stock|ng rates are adequate|y |ow.
Th|rd, 3040 per cent o ood |s |ost g|oba||y, ma|n|y
as a resu|t o wastage |n |ndustr|a||zed countr|es
and by storage |osses |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
Avo|d|ng |osses and wastage wou|d thereore reduce
the output needed and the correspond|ng GHG
em|ss|ons (Godray et a|., 2010). G|ven the magn|tude
o |osses and wastage, reduc|ng them |s essent|a| |n
any eect|ve c||mate m|t|gat|on po||cy or agr|cu|ture.
Fourth, convers|on o pastures and/or orests to
agr|cu|tura| |and and o orests to pastures needs
to be reduced, as th|s |eads to h|gh OO
2
em|ss|ons,
o rough|y the same order as tota| d|rect agr|cu|tura|
GHG em|ss|ons (Sm|th et a|., 2007b, Be||arby et
a|., 2008). lnsoar as such |and-use change |s due
to an|ma| husbandry and eedstu product|on or
rum|nants, |dea||y th|s reduct|on shou|d be comb|ned
w|th reduced an|ma| numbers.
F|na||y, the m|t|gat|on potent|a| o carbon sequestrat|on
|n opt|ma||y managed agr|cu|tura| so||s shou|d be
exp|o|ted. Th|s potent|a| |s o the same order o
magn|tude as tota| agr|cu|tura| em|ss|ons (Sm|th et a|.,
2007a, Be||arby et a|., 2008). So|| carbon |osses can be
reduced and sequestrat|on |ncreased by app||cat|on
o organ|c ert|||zers, m|n|ma| so|| d|sturbance and
p|ant|ng |egume |eys |n crop rotat|ons.
Oonceptua||y, these fve aspects are uncontested,
but, regrettab|y, they are the on|y ones o such c|ar|ty
and |mportance. Address|ng the other most re|evant
em|ss|on sources |n agr|cu|ture (e.g. n|trous ox|de
em|ss|ons rom so||s, methane rom r|ce product|on,
manure management) |s oten h|gh|y comp|ex. There
are |nd|cat|ons that act|ons and strateg|es re|at|ng to
each o the sources may reduce em|ss|ons, but the
Absl|acl
M|t|gat|on |n agr|cu|ture needs to be based on two p|||ars:
Techn|ca||y, n|trogen |nputs shou|d be reduced, organ|c ert|||zers shou|d rep|ace synthet|c ert|||zers
and storage |osses shou|d be m|n|m|zed. lntegrated systems w|th c|osed, efc|ent nutr|ent cyc|es
shou|d be the order o the day |n the uture.
Soc|a||y, ood wastage shou|d be m|n|m|zed and meat consumpt|on reduced.
Commontary ||: Concoptua| and ract|ca| Aspocts of C||mato
Chango M|t|gat|on 1hrough Agr|cu|turo:
oduc|ng Groonhouso Gas Lm|ss|ons and
|ncroas|ng 5o|| Carbon 5oquostrat|on
A. N||e| aud A. Call|uge|
Resea|ch lusl|lule ol 0|gau|c Ag||cu|lu|e (l|BL), Sw|l/e||aud
14
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
h|gh degree o comp|ex|ty and context dependency
o the under|y|ng processes and the|r |nteract|ons
w|th other processes oten h|nder c|ear statements.
For examp|e, reduced n|trogen |nput tends to reduce
n|trous ox|de em|ss|ons, but cons|derat|ons o other
character|st|cs o a |ocat|on and cropp|ng system,
such as temperature, hum|d|ty, so|| type, crops and
ert|||zer types, may dom|nate, or reduced 1ood|ng
o r|ce fe|ds cuts methane em|ss|ons but tends to
|ncrease n|trous ox|de em|ss|ons. Neverthe|ess,
|nd|cat|ons are strong enough to ment|on reduced
n|trogen app||cat|ons as a s|xth rea||st|c opt|on: the
r|ght type, p|ace, rate and t|m|ng o n|trogen ert|||zer
app||cat|ons are |mportant (or more deta||s, see
Mu||er et a|., 2011a, Mu||er and Aubert, 2013).
Pegard|ng em|ss|ons rom energy use, agr|cu|ture
p|ays a m|nor ro|e: arm mach|nery accounts or on|y
3 per cent o d|rect agr|cu|tura| GHG em|ss|ons, wh||e
efc|ency |mprovements |n |rr|gat|on wou|d contr|bute
somewhat more, as |rr|gat|on accounts or about 7
per cent o em|ss|ons (Be||arby et a|., 2008). However,
reduct|on o energy use a|ong the agr|cu|tura| va|ue
cha|n has undoubted m|t|gat|on potent|a|. There are
s|gn|fcant em|ss|ons rom transport, process|ng
and storage, a|| o wh|ch are attr|buted by em|ss|on
|nventor|es to sectors other than agr|cu|ture. Thus,
|ncreas|ng efc|ency and reduc|ng the amount o road
and a|r transport wou|d cons|derab|y reduce em|ss|ons
rom the ood system (or more |normat|on on supp|y-
cha|n-re|ated GHG em|ss|ons, see comments by
Pundgren, Kra|n, L|nne, and Gaeb|er |n th|s chapter).
Pegard|ng transport, |t |s worth po|nt|ng out that there
|s s|gn|fcant m|sreport|ng o em|ss|ons |n nat|ona|
GHG |nventor|es, as |mports are not accounted or.
Nat|ona| boundar|es are the bas|s or em|ss|ons
account|ng, and "grey" embedded em|ss|ons |n
|mported product|on |nputs and consumpt|on goods
are added to the ba|ance o the countr|es o or|g|n.
Th|s cons|derab|y d|storts nat|ona| em|ss|ons rom the
ood systems o countr|es where |mports and exports
p|ay a cruc|a| ro|e.
W|th these remarks, we hope to have oered some
opt|ons at the conceptua| |eve|. At the pract|ca|
|eve|, there are some d|fcu|t|es, but d|erent|at|ng
three phases he|ps. Pract|ca| |mp|ementat|on means
oer|ng |ncent|ves, and estab||sh|ng mon|tor|ng and
enorcement mechan|sms.
Prov|d|ng |ncent|ves and enorcement are a cha||enge
|n many respects, but mon|tor|ng |s re|at|ve|y easy or
the fve proposa|s out||ned above: avo|d|ng burn|ng,
reduc|ng an|ma| numbers, avo|d|ng |osses and waste,
and prevent|ng deorestat|on and |and convers|on.
Mon|tor|ng so|| carbon changes can be more
demand|ng, but |t |s eas|b|e. G|ven the necess|ty o
undamenta| changes |n agr|cu|tura| product|on |n
order to |ncrease |ts susta|nab|||ty, these fve aspects
need to p|ay a centra| ro|e |n any m|t|gat|on po||cy
or agr|cu|ture. ln add|t|on, reduc|ng n|trogen |nputs
shou|d be a key po||cy target, and changes |n how
em|ss|ons rom |mports and exports are accounted
or are needed to enab|e unb|ased and more accurate
assessments o countr|es' em|ss|ons.
We do not touch on enorcement here, but what
o||ows are some remarks on act|ons that need to be
taken to move towards a more susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
system as out||ned above.
F|rst, open burn|ng o agr|cu|tura| waste shou|d be
proh|b|ted, as has been |mp|emented successu||y
by |ndustr|a||zed countr|es. lnormat|on and tra|n|ng,
and | necessary, even some fnanc|a| support shou|d
accompany such a ban. Th|s w||| part|y |n1uence weed
and pest management and a|ter some nutr|ent 1ows,
though some add|t|ona| |nvestment or |abour costs
may accrue (e.g. |n sugarcane w|thout pre-harvest
burn|ng). The b|omass not burned |s a va|uab|e
resource, wh|ch can be used as source mater|a| or
compost or mu|ch (|.e. as organ|c ert|||zer) or or
b|oenergy product|on. O|ear|y, these a|ternat|ve uses
need to be supported by |normat|on and tra|n|ng,
and perhaps a|so by |nvestment support. There may
be some opt|ons or obta|n|ng fnanc|a| ass|stance
rom the carbon markets (e.g. renewab|e energy or
compost|ng pro|ects under the O|ean Deve|opment
Mechan|sms).
Second, reduced an|ma| numbers and |and-use
change can be addressed on the producers' s|de
through opt|ma| stock|ng rates, efc|ent grass|and
management and pastora||sm, orest protect|on and
|and-use |eg|s|at|on. An opt|ma| comb|nat|on o crop
arm|ng and an|ma| husbandry produces the most
efc|ent nutr|ent cyc|es. However, reduc|ng an|ma|
numbers |s usua||y not an |ssue or sma||ho|ders
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, and an|ma| husbandry
|s essent|a| or the|r ood secur|ty. Act|ons on the
producers' s|de wou|d |nc|ude mak|ng |nputs more
expens|ve and, correspond|ng|y, |ncreas|ng output
pr|ces, wh|ch to some extent wou|d reduce demand.
On the demand s|de, |t |s pr|mar||y an |ssue on a g|oba|
sca|e, and concerns ma|n|y more wea|thy consumers,
15
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
whose |ncreas|ng demand or meat and da|ry
products needs to be d|scouraged. One poss|b|e way
to reduce demand wou|d be by |mpos|ng a "meat tax"
(t|ed to the em|ss|ons rom an|ma|s). lt |s, however,
quest|onab|e whether pr|ce |ncreases cou|d be h|gh
enough to ach|eve the necessary reduct|ons, there
a|so needs to be a d|scuss|on o consumer behav|our,
||esty|es and qua||ty o ||e, and how these are ||nked
to excess|ve consumpt|on, and meat consumpt|on |n
part|cu|ar.
The th|rd |ssue, c|ose|y re|ated to the |ssue o ood
wastage, concerns consumer behav|our and
percept|ons o qua||ty, reshness and needs, wh|ch are
dec|s|ve |n th|s respect. Mak|ng ood more expens|ve
(through |nterna||zat|on o a|| externa| costs) wou|d
he|p, but aspects o |ust|ce need to be kept |n m|nd, as
s|gn|fcant pr|ce |ncreases aect the reedom o cho|ce
o |ess wea|thy peop|e much more than that o wea|thy
peop|e. Thus, aga|n, susta|nab|e ||esty|es need to
become a ma|or cons|derat|on |n po||cy d|scuss|ons
(or a deta||ed d|scuss|on o these aspects, see the
commentary o Pe|sch |n th|s chapter).
The other aspect o wastage |s storage |osses |n many
deve|op|ng countr|es. ln these countr|es, |nvestment |n
storage and process|ng ac|||t|es and |normat|on and
tra|n|ng wou|d great|y he|p. Th|s shou|d be o pr|mary
|mportance, as |t wou|d reduce the needed |eve| and
|ntens|ty o act|ons on the other aspects ment|oned
here. Each un|t |oss avo|ded reduces pressure on
product|on. Thus |t |s |ess about add|t|ona| money
needed or these measures, than about a sh|t |n ocus
on where to channe| the money that a|ready 1ows |nto
agr|cu|ture and the ood system (see the commentary
o Parftt and Barthe| |n th|s chapter).
Fourth, reduced n|trogen |nputs can be ach|eved
through regu|at|on, o||ow|ng the examp|e o the
successu| E N|trogen D|rect|ve. Tax|ng |nputs |s
another opt|on: a heavy carbon tax wou|d serve a
s|m||ar goa|, due to the use o oss|| ue| or synthet|c
ert|||zer product|on. However, n|trogen regu|at|on
shou|d go urther than on|y |nput reduct|on. O|osed
nutr|ent cyc|es and |ncreased use o organ|c ert|||zers
shou|d be the fna| goa|, as th|s wou|d a|so have
h|gh|y benefc|a| eects on so|| carbon |eve|s and the
correspond|ng m|t|gat|on (see the commentary o Leu
|ater |n th|s chapter).
Th|s |s ||nked to eorts or |ncreas|ng so|| carbon
sequestrat|on. To ach|eve th|s, the necessary steps
|nc|ude abo||sh|ng subs|d|es or synthet|c ert|||zers
and support|ng organ|c ert|||zers, reduc|ng so||
d|sturbance |n t|||age operat|ons and p|ant|ng |egume
|eys |n crop rotat|ons. Support shou|d cons|st o both
|nvestment support and extens|on serv|ces (e.g. or
opt|ma| compost|ng and compost use). Add|t|ona|
benefts rom h|gher so|| carbon |eve|s |nc|ude
|mproved so|| structure, so|| ert|||ty and so|| ||e, wh|ch
contr|bute to water ho|d|ng and retent|on capac|ty
w|th correspond|ng pos|t|ve eects on c||mate change
adaptat|on (|.e. |ncreased res|stance to drought and
extreme weather events).
F|na||y, embedded em|ss|ons need to be made v|s|b|e.
Nat|ona| GHG |nventor|es shou|d be amended to take
|nto account |mports and exports |n order to obta|n a
u|| and more accurate p|cture o nat|ona| em|ss|ons,
and not over|ook the respons|b|||t|es o consumers
abroad.
16
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Adapt|ng agr|cu|ture to c||mate change |s unavo|dab|e.
For adaptat|on (on the concept, see box 1) to succeed,
|t |s necessary or arms to take concrete adaptat|on
measures, but a|so genera| |ong-term soc|eta| act|ons
are needed. Our comments here ocus ma|n|y on
adaptat|on measures or arms.
An aspect oten neg|ected |n current d|scuss|ons on
adaptat|on |n agr|cu|ture (d|scussed |n deta|| |n Mu||er,
et a|., 2012) |s that adaptat|on strateg|es a|so need to
oer arm|ng am|||es so|ut|ons outs|de agr|cu|ture |
agr|cu|tura| product|on becomes |mposs|b|e or them.
For examp|e, drought res|stant var|et|es and |mproved
efc|ency o water use wou|d he|p adaptat|on, but |n
some cases water ava||ab|||ty may become too |ow
to cont|nue w|th agr|cu|ture. ln such s|tuat|ons, the
key quest|on |s where agr|cu|tura| product|on may be
opt|ma||y |ocated over the next ew decades, where
|t may be better to abandon |t, and wh|ch ||ve||hood
a|ternat|ves w||| be ava||ab|e.
There are fve key |mpacts and character|st|cs o
c||mate change |n agr|cu|ture (e.g. Easter||ng et a|.,
2007, Meeh| et a|., 2007, Posenzwe|g and Tub|e||o,
2007):
O||mate change |mpacts w||| vary cons|derab|y by
reg|on: some reg|ons w||| be aected pos|t|ve|y, and
others negat|ve|y. However, changes |n product|on
cond|t|ons w||| occur everywhere, necess|tat|ng
adaptat|on. Peg|ons beneft|ng rom the pos|t|ve
eects o c||mate change shou|d be ab|e to take
u|| advantage o the|r changed c|rcumstances.
Water w||| become a key |ssue. ln some reg|ons
there w||| be |ncreased water scarc|ty and drought,
wh||e |n others extreme prec|p|tat|on, water |ogg|ng
and 1ood|ng w||| become more requent.
Pressure rom weeds, pests and d|seases w|||
|ncrease.
lncreas|ng numbers o extreme weather events
(e.g. heat waves and heavy prec|p|tat|on) w||| pose
a urther cha||enge to agr|cu|tura| product|on.
P|sks |n agr|cu|tura| product|on w||| |ncrease due
part|y to greater c||mate var|ab|||ty.
Adaptat|on |n agr|cu|ture needs to reduce exposure to
these |mpacts, as we|| as sens|t|v|ty and vu|nerab|||ty to
them. Th|s can be ach|eved by adopt|ng susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| product|on systems, such as agroeco|ogy,
agroorestry or organ|c agr|cu|ture (M||estad and
Absl|acl
Adaptat|on |n agr|cu|ture needs to be based on our p|||ars:
lncreas|ng so|| ert|||ty: th|s can be ach|eved by rep|ac|ng synthet|c ert|||zers w|th organ|c ert|||zers,
and monocu|tures w|th d|verse crop rotat|ons.
lncreas|ng b|od|vers|ty through d|verse measures such as crop rotat|ons, use o |oca| var|et|es, catch
crops, hedges and other |andscape e|ements. Th|s app||es to fe|d, arm and |andscape |eve|s. ln
add|t|on, the use o susta|nab|e and espec|a||y organ|c crop protect|on w||| oster b|od|vers|ty o
|nsects, weeds, earthworms and other organ|sms.
Prov|d|ng |normat|on and extens|on serv|ces to support susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces and organ|c
agr|cu|ture, agroeco|ogy and agroorestry.
Oreat|ng a |eve| p|ay|ng fe|d or susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture at the g|oba| |eve|. Th|s |nvo|ves abo||sh|ng
d|stort|ng subs|d|es, such as or synthet|c ert|||zers, and |nterna||zat|on o externa| costs.
Organ|c agr|cu|ture |s an |dea| so|ut|on as |t responds to the frst three p|||ars. ln add|t|on, g|oba| po||c|es,
and trade and compet|t|on |ssues need separate attent|on.
Commontary |||: 1ho otont|a| of 5usta|nab|o Agr|cu|turo for
C||mato Chango Adaptat|on
A. N||e| aud u. h|gg||
Resea|ch lusl|lule ol 0|gau|c Ag||cu|lu|e (l|BL), Sw|l/e||aud
17
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Darnhoer, 2003, Borron, 2006, N|gg||, 2009, E|-Hage
Sc|a|abba and Mu||er-L|nden|au, 2010, Mu||er et a|.,
2012).
There are many reasons why susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture |s
a system we|| su|ted to adaptat|on. F|rst, trad|t|ona||y |t
uses |oca||y adapted var|et|es and cropp|ng pract|ces,
and |t can thereore better ad|ust to |oca| var|ab|||ty o
c||mate change |mpacts.
Second, |t can respond to |ncreased water stress by
ma|nta|n|ng and |ncreas|ng so|| organ|c matter, as
th|s |ncreases the so||'s water ho|d|ng and retent|on
capac|ty. s|ng organ|c ert|||zers, such as compost,
and adopt|ng d|verse crop sequences, |n part|cu|ar
w|th |egume |eys, are |mportant means o ach|ev|ng
th|s. These are core pract|ces o susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture, and o organ|c agr|cu|ture |n part|cu|ar, w|th
|ts strong ocus on so|| ert|||ty, so|| qua||ty and p|ant
hea|th. The h|gher b|od|vers|ty |n organ|c agr|cu|ture
resu|t|ng rom an opt|ma| comb|nat|on o crops w|th
d|erent needs a|so contr|butes to opt|ma| water and
nutr|ent use.
Th|rd, h|gh b|od|vers|ty a|so he|ps reduce the
occurrence and sever|ty o weeds and pest outbreaks,
and p|ant and an|ma| d|seases (Sm|th et a|., 2011,
N|gg||, 2009). ln add|t|on, comp|ex crop rotat|ons
contr|bute to contro|||ng pests more eect|ve|y as they
break the|r ||e cyc|es. lmproved so|| ert|||ty and p|ant
hea|th urther reduce vu|nerab|||ty to pressures rom
|ncreased pests, weeds and d|seases (A|t|er|, Pont|
and N|cho||s, 2005).
Fourth, |mproved so|| qua||ty and h|gher content o
organ|c matter |n the so|| a|so reduce vu|nerab|||ty
to extreme events such as drought, 1ood|ng and
water-|ogg|ng, and eros|on (S|egr|st et a|., 1998,
F||essbach et a|., 2007, N|gg||, 2009, E|-Hage
Sc|a|abba and Mu||er-L|nden|au, 2010). ln add|t|on,
mu|ch|ng and cover crops are common pract|ces
|n susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture, bare a||ows are avo|ded
and eros|on |s correspond|ng|y reduced. Landscape
e|ements such as hedges or agroorestry prov|de
she|ter and avourab|e m|croc||mates, |mprov|ng
mo|sture management and capac|ty to adapt to h|gh
temperatures.
F|th, the h|gh b|od|vers|ty on susta|nab|y managed
arms (e.g. organ|c) a|so reduces the r|sk o tota|
product|on |osses due to c||mate change, and genera||y
|ncreases the res|||ence o agroecosystems (A|t|er| and
N|cho||s, 2006, Oampbe|| et a|., 2009). Through the
comb|nat|on o crop and ||vestock product|on as we||
as a |arger number o crops grown, tota| econom|c
a||ure can be avo|ded. Add|t|ona||y, the econom|c
r|sks are |ower or organ|c arms, as they use ewer o-
arm |nputs and correspond|ng|y |ncur |ower upront
costs. Pr|ce prem|ums, or |nstance resu|t|ng rom
cert|fed organ|c product|on, oer urther potent|a| or
|mprov|ng producers' econom|c s|tuat|ons. A|| these
aspects comb|ned prov|de |nexpens|ve but eect|ve
r|sk management strateg|es, |n part|cu|ar |nsurance
aga|nst crop a||ure (E|-Hage Sc|a|abba and Hattam,
2002, Eyhorn, 2007).
Agroeco|ogy, agroorestry and, |n part|cu|ar, organ|c
agr|cu|ture thus reduce .0|ne|ao||||, through r|sk
reduct|on based on d|vers|fcat|on o ||ve||hood
strateg|es, cropp|ng patterns and |ower |nput
costs. The ocus on so|| ert|||ty, so|| hea|th and h|gh
b|od|vers|ty reduces sens|||.||,. Th|s |s o part|cu|ar
re|evance or opt|ma| water management and or
opt|ma| strateg|es to cope w|th pests and d|seases.
Peduc|ng eocs0|e |s the most d|fcu|t, as th|s means
sh|t|ng cropp|ng |ocat|ons or abandon|ng agr|cu|ture
a|together |n some c|rcumstances.
How such undamenta| changes can be supported,
where necessary, needs urther research. However,
there are some read||y ava||ab|e strateg|es that reduce
vu|nerab|||ty and sens|t|v|ty, as br|e1y descr|bed be|ow.
F|rst, so|| ert|||ty needs to be bu||t up and so||
degradat|on ha|ted. For th|s, subs|d|es or synthet|c
ert|||zers shou|d be abandoned, where poss|b|e,
w|thout comprom|s|ng ood secur|ty. Where th|s |s an
|ssue, careu||y des|gned transormat|on rom synthet|c
8ox 1: Tha concapI oI adapIaI|on
We use the three concepts o "exposure", "sens|t|v|ty" and "vu|nerab|||ty" to rame adaptat|on |n agr|cu|ture. "Exposure"
descr|bes the ||ke||hood that a system w||| exper|ence certa|n cond|t|ons, such as drought (e.g. Sm|t and Wande|, 2006).
"Sens|t|v|ty |s the degree to wh|ch a system |s aected, e|ther adverse|y or benefc|a||y, by c||mate var|ab|||ty or change"
(lPOO, 2007b). "\u|nerab|||ty |s the degree to wh|ch a system |s suscept|b|e to, and unab|e to cope w|th, adverse eects
o c||mate change" (lPOO, 2007b).
18
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
to at |east part|y organ|c ert|||zers, redes|gned crop
rotat|ons w|th |egumes and p|ants w|th d|erent
root|ng depths, as we|| as c|osed nutr|ent cyc|es
shou|d be |mp|emented. The s|mu|taneous use o
synthet|c and organ|c ert|||zers may not be adv|sab|e
or c||mate change m|t|gat|on due to the resu|t|ng
h|gher n|trous ox|de em|ss|ons. However, part|cu|ar|y
|n a deve|opment context, adaptat|on |n agr|cu|ture |s
key, and m|t|gat|on must never comprom|se on th|s.
Second, b|od|vers|ty needs to be enhanced. Loca|
breed|ng programmes shou|d be estab||shed or
rev|ta||zed and supported, and armers shou|d be
ab|e to produce the|r own seeds. Pract|ces such as
agroorestry, and we||-des|gned crop rotat|ons need
to be supported. Landscape e|ements a|so contr|bute
to adaptat|on as they |mprove the m|croc||mate.
Payments or ecosystem serv|ces cou|d be one type
o fnanc|a| |ncent|ve mechan|sm to encourage these
pract|ces.
Th|s ||nks to the th|rd po|nt: |normat|on and tra|n|ng
are cruc|a| or successu| |mp|ementat|on o these
adaptat|on strateg|es. Susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces and organ|c agr|cu|ture, as a ho||st|c
agr|cu|tura| product|on system, re|y on the presence
o a cons|derab|e body o know|edge.
Fourth, to be successu|, adaptat|on strateg|es need
to be accompan|ed by po||cy and trade measures.
Mass|ve trade d|stort|ons, such as the current
subs|d|es or convent|ona| product|on (e.g. cotton |n
the n|ted States) need to be abo||shed. S|m||ar|y,
the market power o agr|bus|ness corporat|ons |n the
seed markets and |n p|ant protect|on |s a h|ndrance
that needs to be removed.
F|na||y, a|| externa| costs o agr|cu|tura| product|on
shou|d be re1ected |n the pr|ce. W|thout th|s,
convent|ona| product|on w||| a|ways have an una|r
compet|t|ve advantage due to d|storted product|on
costs that do not |nc|ude a|| the env|ronmenta| and
soc|a| costs o product|on. l those externa| costs were
to be |nc|uded |n convent|ona| product|on, |t wou|d
prove to be more cost|y than susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture.
19
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A. Food and c||maIa: p|ac|ng Iha
putt|a IogaIhar
Accord|ng to most stud|es, the contr|but|on o
agr|cu|tura| em|ss|ons the em|ss|ons produced on
the arm |s between 11 and 15 per cent o a|| g|oba|
em|ss|ons.
29
What oten goes unsa|d, however, |s that
most o these em|ss|ons are generated by |ndustr|a|
arm|ng pract|ces that re|y on chem|ca| (n|trogen)
ert|||zers, heavy mach|nery run on petro|, and h|gh|y
concentrated |ndustr|a| ||vestock operat|ons that
pump out methane.
The data or agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on a|so oten
neg|ect to take |nto account the contr|but|on o
|and-use changes and deorestat|on, wh|ch are
respons|b|e or near|y a fth o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons
(WPl, undated, lPOO, 2004). Wor|dw|de, agr|cu|ture
|s push|ng |nto savannahs, wet|ands, ce||aocs and
orests, and |s p|ough|ng huge amounts o |and. The
expans|on o the agr|cu|tura| ront|er |s the dom|nant
contr|butor to deorestat|on, account|ng or 7090 per
cent o g|oba| deorestat|on (FAO, 2008, Kann|nen
et a|., 2007). Th|s means that some 1518 per cent
o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons are produced by |and-use
change and deorestat|on or agr|cu|ture. And here
too, the g|oba| ood system and the |ndustr|a| mode|
o agr|cu|ture are the ch|e cu|pr|ts. The ma|n dr|ver
o th|s deorestat|on |s the expans|on o |ndustr|a|
p|antat|ons or the product|on o commod|t|es such as
soy, sugarcane, o|| pa|m, ma|ze and rapeseed. S|nce
1990, the area p|anted w|th these fve commod|ty
crops grew enormous|y, by 38 per cent (GPAlN, 2010).
These em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|ture account or on|y a
port|on o the ood system's overa|| contr|but|on to
c||mate change. Equa||y |mportant are the em|ss|ons
caused a|| a|ong the cha|n, rom when the produce
|eaves the arm unt|| |t |s consumed.
Food product|on |s the wor|d's |argest econom|c
act|v|ty, |nvo|v|ng more transact|ons and emp|oy|ng
more peop|e by ar than any other sector. Today, ood
|s prepared and d|str|buted us|ng enormous amounts
o process|ng, packag|ng and transportat|on, a|| o
wh|ch generate GHG em|ss|ons, a|though data on
such em|ss|ons are hard to fnd. Stud|es |ook|ng at
the E conc|ude that about one quarter o overa||
transportat|on |nvo|ves commerc|a| ood transport
(Eurostat, 2011). Scattered fgures on transportat|on
ava||ab|e or other countr|es, such as Kenya and
Z|mbabwe, |nd|cate that the percentage |s even
h|gher |n non-|ndustr|a||zed countr|es, where "ood
product|on and de||very accounts or 60-80% o the
tota| energy human p|us an|ma| p|us ue| used"
(Karekez| and Lazarus, 1995).

W|th transportat|on
Absl|acl
Agr|cu|ture |s start|ng to get more attent|on |n |nternat|ona| negot|at|ons around c||mate change. The
consensus |s that |t contr|butes 1015 per cent o a|| g|oba| anthropogen|c greenhouse gas (GHG)
em|ss|ons, mak|ng |t one o the key dr|vers o c||mate change. But |ook|ng at agr|cu|ture a|one |s not
enough, |t |s a|so necessary to |ook at the |arger ood system. Beyond the em|ss|ons that occur on the
arm, today's dom|nant |ndustr|a| ood system generates GHGs by transport|ng ood around the wor|d, by
deorestat|on to make way or p|antat|ons and by generat|ng waste. Pu|||ng together the ava||ab|e data on
these sources o em|ss|ons revea|s that the g|oba| ood system |s respons|b|e or around ha| o a|| g|oba|
GHGs. Thus |t |s the ood system as a who|e wh|ch |s at the centre o the prob|em o c||mate change.
l measures are taken to restructure agr|cu|ture and the |arger ood system based on ood sovere|gnty,
sma||-sca|e arm|ng, agroeco|ogy and |oca| markets, g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons cou|d be cut by ha| w|th|n a
ew decades. There |s no need or carbon markets or techno-fxes. What |s needed are the r|ght po||c|es
and programmes that br|ng about a sh|t rom the current |ndustr|a| ood system to a susta|nab|e, equ|tab|e
and tru|y product|ve one.
Commontary |v: |ood, C||mato Chango and Hoa|thy 5o||s:
1ho |orgotton L|nk
CRAlh
20
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
account|ng or 25 per cent o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons,
E data enab|e an est|mate a|be|t a conservat|ve one
or the contr|but|on o the transport o ood to GHG
em|ss|ons o at |east 6 per cent. S|m||ar|y, E data
der|ved rom stud|es on process|ng and packag|ng
o ood w|th|n the E show that these act|v|t|es
account or 1011 per cent o GHG em|ss|ons (Bo||a
and Pendo|ovska, 2011), wh||e rer|gerat|on o ood
accounts or 34 per cent o tota| em|ss|ons (Garnett
and Jackson, 2007), and ood reta|| or another 2 per
cent (Tassou et a|., 2011, \enkat, 2011, Bakas, 2010).
Based on the data or the E, and extrapo|at|ng rom
the scarce fgures that ex|st or other countr|es, we
can est|mate, conservat|ve|y, that at |east 56 per cent
o em|ss|ons resu|t rom ood transport, 810 per cent
rom ood process|ng and packag|ng, 12 per cent
rom rer|gerat|on and another 12 per cent rom reta||.
Th|s amounts to a tota| contr|but|on o 1520 per cent
o g|oba| em|ss|ons rom a|| these act|v|t|es.
Not a|| o what the ood system produces gets
consumed. The |ndustr|a| ood system d|scards up
to |a|/ o a|| the ood that |t produces |n |ts |ourney
rom arms to traders, to ood processors, to stores
and supermarkets. Th|s |s enough to eed the wor|d's
hungry s|x t|mes over (Stuart, 2009). Much o th|s
waste rots on garbage heaps and |andf||s, produc|ng
substant|a| amounts o GHGs. D|erent stud|es
|nd|cate that between 3.5 and 4.5 per cent o g|oba|
GHG em|ss|ons come rom waste, and that over 90
per cent o them come rom mater|a|s or|g|nat|ng |n
agr|cu|ture and |ts process|ng (Bogner et a|., 2008).
Th|s means that the decompos|t|on o organ|c waste
or|g|nat|ng |n ood and agr|cu|ture |s respons|b|e or
34 per cent o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons.
Oons|der|ng a|| these actors, |t wou|d appear that
the current g|oba| ood system, prope||ed by an
|ncreas|ng|y poweru| transnat|ona| ood |ndustry, |s
respons|b|e or around ha| o a|| anthropogen|c GHG
em|ss|ons between a |ow o 44 per cent and a h|gh
o 57 per cent.
8. Turn|ng Iha Iood sysIam ups|da doWn
O|ear|y, we w||| not reso|ve the c||mate cr|s|s | the
g|oba| ood system |s not urgent|y and dramat|ca||y
transormed. The p|ace to start |s w|th the so||. Food
product|on beg|ns and ends w|th so||. lt grows out
o the so|| and eventua||y goes back |nto |t to enab|e
more ood to be produced. Th|s |s the very cyc|e o
||e. But |n recent years humans have |gnored th|s v|ta|
cyc|e: we have been tak|ng rom the so|| w|thout g|v|ng
back.
The |ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture, wh|ch started |n
Europe and North Amer|ca and was |ater rep||cated
|n the Green Pevo|ut|on that took p|ace |n other parts
o the wor|d, was based on the assumpt|on that so||
ert|||ty cou|d be ma|nta|ned and |ncreased through
the use o chem|ca| ert|||zers. L|tt|e attent|on was pa|d
F|gura 9: 0onIr|buI|on oI Iha g|oba| Iood producI|on sysIam Io IoIa| h am|ss|ons
Sc0|ce: Est|mates o GPAlN
Lard use c|are ard
del oreslal| or: 15-18
Ar| cu| lura| producl| or:
11-15
w asle: 2-1
Process| r, lrarsporl,
pac|| r ard rela| | : 15-20
0l|er - ror l ood re| aled
er| ss| ors: 13-5
21
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
to the |mportance o organ|c matter |n the so||.
A w|de range o sc|ent|fc reports |nd|cate that
cu|t|vated so||s have |ost 30 to 75 per cent o the|r
organ|c matter dur|ng the twent|eth century, wh||e so||s
under pastures and pra|r|es have typ|ca||y |ost up to 50
per cent. W|thout doubt, these |osses have provoked
a ser|ous deter|orat|on o so|| ert|||ty and product|v|ty,
as we|| as a h|gher r|sk exposure to droughts and
1oods.
Tak|ng as a bas|s some o the most conservat|ve
fgures prov|ded by the sc|ent|fc ||terature, the g|oba|
accumu|ated |oss o so|| organ|c matter (SOM) over
the past century can be est|mated to be between
150 and 200 b||||on tons.
31
Not a|| th|s organ|c matter
has ended up |n the a|r as OO
2
, s|gn|fcant amounts
have been washed away by eros|on and depos|ted
at the bottom o r|vers and oceans. However, |t can
be est|mated that at |east 200 to 300 b||||on tons o
OO
2
have been re|eased to the atmosphere due to
the g|oba| destruct|on o so|| organ|c matter. ln other
words, 25 to 40 per cent o the current excess o OO
2

|n the atmosphere resu|ts rom the destruct|on o so||s
and the|r organ|c matter.
There |s some good news h|dden |n these devastat|ng
fgures: the OO
2
that has been em|tted |nto the
atmosphere through so|| dep|et|on can be put back
|nto the so|| through a change |n agr|cu|tura| pract|ces.
There has to be a sh|t away rom pract|ces that destroy
organ|c matter to ones that bu||d up the organ|c
matter |n the so||. We know th|s can be done. Farmers
around the wor|d have been engag|ng |n these very
pract|ces or generat|ons. Pesearch by GPAlN (2009)
has shown that | the r|ght po||c|es and |ncent|ves were
|n p|ace wor|dw|de, so|| organ|c matter contents cou|d
be restored to pre-|ndustr|a| agr|cu|tura| |eve|s w|th|n
a per|od o 50 years, wh|ch |s rough|y the same t|me
rame that |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture took to reduce |t. The
cont|nu|ng use o these pract|ces wou|d a||ow the
oset o 2430 per cent o current g|oba| annua| GHG
em|ss|ons.
32
The new scenar|o wou|d requ|re a rad|ca| change
|n approach rom the current |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture
mode|. lt wou|d ocus on the use o techn|ques such
as d|vers|fed cropp|ng systems, better |ntegrat|on
between crop and an|ma| product|on, and |ncreased
|ncorporat|on o trees and w||d vegetat|on. Such an
|ncrease |n d|vers|ty wou|d, |n turn, |ncrease the
product|on potent|a|, and the |ncorporat|on o organ|c
matter wou|d progress|ve|y |mprove so|| ert|||ty,
creat|ng a v|rtuous cyc|e o h|gher product|v|ty and
greater ava||ab|||ty o organ|c matter. The capac|ty o
so|| to ho|d water wou|d |ncrease, wh|ch wou|d mean
that excess|ve ra|na|| wou|d |ead to ewer, |ess |ntense
1oods and droughts. So|| eros|on wou|d become |ess
o a prob|em, and so|| ac|d|ty and a|ka||n|ty wou|d
a|| progress|ve|y, reduc|ng or e||m|nat|ng the tox|c|ty
that has become a ma|or prob|em |n trop|ca| and ar|d
so||s. Add|t|ona||y, |ncreased so|| b|o|og|ca| act|v|ty
wou|d protect p|ants aga|nst pests and d|seases.
Each one o these eects |mp||es h|gher product|v|ty
and hence more organ|c matter ava||ab|e to so||s, thus
mak|ng poss|b|e h|gher targets or |ncorporat|on o
so|| organ|c matter over the years. More ood wou|d
be produced |n the process (see a|so the commentary
o Leu on m|t|gat|ng c||mate change w|th so|| organ|c
matter |n organ|c product|on systems |n th|s chapter).
Th|s sh|t |n agr|cu|tura| pract|ces wou|d requ|re
bu||d|ng on the sk|||s and exper|ence o the wor|d's
sma|| armers, rather than underm|n|ng and orc|ng
them o the|r |ands, as |s now the case. A g|oba| sh|t
towards an agr|cu|ture that bu||ds up organ|c matter |n
the so|| wou|d a|so contr|bute to remov|ng some o the
other ma|or sources o GHGs rom the ood system.
There are three other mutua||y re|norc|ng sh|ts that
need to take p|ace |n the ood system to support |ts
overa|| contr|but|on to c||mate change. The frst |s a sh|t
to |oca| markets and short c|rcu|ts o ood d|str|but|on,
wh|ch wou|d reduce transportat|on and the need or
packag|ng, process|ng and rer|gerat|on. The second
|s a re|ntegrat|on o crop and an|ma| product|on,
wh|ch wou|d a|so cut transportat|on, as we|| as the
use o chem|ca| ert|||zers and the product|on o
methane and n|trous ox|de em|ss|ons generated by
|ntens|ve meat and da|ry operat|ons. And the th|rd
|s the stopp|ng o |and c|ear|ng and deorestat|on,
wh|ch w||| requ|re genu|ne agrar|an reorm and a
reversa| o the expans|on o monocu|ture p|antat|ons
or the product|on o agroue|s and an|ma| eed. l the
wor|d becomes ser|ous about undertak|ng these our
sh|ts, |t |s qu|te poss|b|e or g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons
to be cut by ha| w|th|n a ew decades, and, |n the
process, th|s wou|d go a |ong way towards reso|v|ng
the other cr|ses aect|ng the p|anet, such as poverty
and hunger. There are no techn|ca| hurd|es stand|ng
|n the way, the wor|d's armers a|ready possess the
requ|s|te know|edge and sk|||s, and these can be
urther deve|oped. The on|y hurd|es are po||t|ca|,
wh|ch |s where we need to ocus our eorts.
22
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
The wor|d |s a|||ng to reduce GHG em|ss|ons desp|te
comm|tments made under the Kyoto Protoco|.
Accord|ng to the lnternat|ona| Energy Agency (lEA,
2011b), energy-re|ated OO
2
em|ss|ons reached a
record h|gh o 30.6 g|gatonnes (Gt) |n 2010 a 5 per
cent |ump rom the prev|ous record |n 2008. Moreover,
the reduct|on |n econom|c act|v|ty due to the g|oba|
econom|c and fnanc|a| cr|s|s has not reduced the
growth o GHG em|ss|ons.
Wh||e the frst comm|tment per|od o the Kyoto Protoco|
and |ts O|ean Deve|opment Mechan|sm (ODM) |ed to
a sma|| reduct|on |n em|ss|ons by the Annex 1 part|es
to the Protoco|, they a||ed to reduce the overa|| rate
o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons. The ODM has had very
||tt|e |mpact because |ts comp|ex ru|es make |t d|fcu|t
to ach|eve eect|ve pro|ect resu|ts. A ma|or |ssue
has been GHG |eakage (or rather outsourc|ng) rom
the Annex 1 countr|es to deve|op|ng countr|es. Any
sma|| ga|ns that have been ach|eved by the ormer
|n reduc|ng GHG em|ss|ons have been more than
|ost by the po||ut|ng |ndustr|es mov|ng to deve|op|ng
countr|es and |mport|ng GHG-|ntens|ve products rom
there. The non-Annex 1 countr|es now account or
the ma|or|ty o the wor|d's GHG em|ss|ons caused
by expand|ng |ndustr|es, deorestat|on, the burn|ng o
savannahs and the |oss o so|| carbon through poor
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces.
The current state o the econom|es o deve|oped
countr|es, w|th the|r mass|ve debts, means that they
do not have the unds to sh|t s|gn|fcant|y to the use
o renewab|e energ|es and |mprove energy efc|ency
|n the short term. Furthermore, the po||t|ca| c||mate
has changed s|nce the n|ted Nat|ons O||mate
Ohange Oonerence |n Oopenhagen |n 2009, w|th
very ew governments w||||ng to accept a s|owdown |n
econom|c act|v|ty to meet em|ss|on reduct|on targets
or to |ntroduce ma|or GHG reduct|on strateg|es.
The Oancun O||mate Ohange Agreements mean that
sequestrat|on has to be part o any strategy m|x to
stab|||ze the |eve| o atmospher|c OO
2
(NFOOO,
2011). Th|s gas accounts or around 80 per cent o
anthropogen|c GHGs (WMO, 2011).
Absl|acl
Past and present g|oba| eorts a|med at reduc|ng carbon d|ox|de em|ss|ons by |mprov|ng energy-use
efc|ency and the adopt|on o renewab|e energy sources have been unsuccessu|. lt |s thereore cr|t|ca| to
|ook at a|| read||y ava||ab|e opt|ons that cou|d s|gn|fcant|y m|t|gate runaway c||mate change.
Sequester|ng OO
2
|nto the so|| cou|d br|ng about a s|gn|fcant reduct|on |n GHG |eve|s. There |s sc|ent|fc
ev|dence that th|s can be ach|eved w|th current good organ|c agr|cu|tura| pract|ces and that the best
organ|c arm|ng pract|ces can ach|eve even h|gher |eve|s o OO
2
sequestrat|on. Bu||d|ng up so|| organ|c
matter |s one o the |east cost|y c||mate change m|t|gat|on methods.
He|p|ng armers adopt these methods on a w|despread bas|s wou|d make a s|gn|fcant d|erence to the
|eve|s o OO
2
|n the atmosphere and |n the wor|d's oceans. lmportant|y, th|s |s not based on untested
concepts such as carbon capture and storage, |t |s based on current pract|ces that can be adopted by
other |and managers.
Th|s cou|d be fnanced through cap and trade systems that tax em|ss|ons. These taxes cou|d then be used
to pay armers or the|r ecosystem serv|ces that fx the atmospher|c OO
2
|n the so||. Such a system cou|d
be e|ther government adm|n|stered or market-based.
Commontary v: M|t|gat|ng C||mato Chango w|th 5o|| Organ|c
Mattor |n Organ|c roduct|on 5ystoms
Aud|e Leu
P|es|deul, lule|ual|oua| lede|al|ou ol 0|gau|c Ag||cu|lu|a| Novemeuls (ll0AN)
23
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
8. 8o||s as a carbon s|n|
So||s are the greatest carbon s|nk ater the oceans.
Accord|ng to Proessor Pattan La| o Oh|o State
n|vers|ty, over 2,700 Gt o carbon |s stored |n
so||s wor|dw|de. Th|s |s cons|derab|y more than the
comb|ned tota| o 780 Gt |n the atmosphere and the
575 Gt |n b|omass (La|, 2008).
The amount o OO
2
|n the oceans |s a|ready caus|ng
a range o prob|ems, part|cu|ar|y or spec|es w|th
ca|c|um exoske|etons such as cora|. Sc|ent|sts are
concerned that the |ncrease |n ac|d|ty caused by
h|gher |eve|s o OO
2
|s damag|ng these spec|es and
threatens the uture o mar|ne ecosystems such as
the Great Barr|er Pee. The wor|d's oceans, ||ke the
atmosphere, cannot absorb any more OO
2
w|thout
caus|ng potent|a||y ser|ous env|ronmenta| damage to
many aquat|c ecosystems (Hoegh-Gu|dberg et a|.,
2007).
Desp|te the act that so|| |s the |argest repos|tory
o carbon ater the oceans and has the potent|a| to
sequester more OO
2
than b|omass, ne|ther so|| nor
agr|cu|ture |s |ncorporated |n any orma| agreement o
the n|ted Nat|ons Framework Oonvent|on on O||mate
Ohange (NFOOO) or the ODM.
Th|s needs to be changed because accord|ng to
the Food and Agr|cu|ture Organ|zat|on o the n|ted
Nat|ons, "/||c0||0|e nc| cn|, s0//e|s ||e |moac|s c/
c||ma|e c|ane, || |s a|sc |esocns|o|e /c| '4 oe|cen| c/
|coa| |een|c0se as em|ss|cns. 50| a||c0||0|e |as
||e oc|en||a| |c oe an |moc||an| oa|| c/ ||e sc|0||cn,
|||c0| m|||a||cn |eo0c|n ano/c| |emc.|n
a s|n|/can| amc0n| c/ |coa| em|ss|cns. Scme 70
oe|cen| c/ |||s m|||a||cn oc|en||a| cc0|o oe |ea||zeo |n
oe.e|co|n cc0n|||es (FAO, 2012b).
0. 8o|| carbon saquasIraI|on Ihrough
agr|cu|Iura| pracI|cas
The ab|||ty o so||s to absorb enough OO
2
|n order to
stab|||ze current atmospher|c OO
2
|eve|s |s a cr|t|ca|
|ssue, and there |s a ma|or debate over whether th|s
can be ach|eved through arm|ng pract|ces (La|, 2007,
Sanderman et a|., 2010).
Two |ndependent g|oba| meta rev|ews have |ooked at
the average amount o OO
2
sequestered by organ|c
arm|ng systems.
A pre||m|nary study by F|BL, pub||shed by FAO,
co||ated 45 peer-rev|ewed compar|son tr|a|s between
organ|c and convent|ona| systems that used 280
data sets (FAO, 2011b). These stud|es |nc|uded data
rom grass|ands, arab|e crops and permanent crops
|n severa| cont|nents. A s|mp|e ana|ys|s o the data
shows that, on average, the organ|c systems had
h|gher |eve|s o so|| carbon sequestrat|on (Gatt|nger
et a|., 2011).
Andreas Gatt|nger and co||eagues observed
(2011:16): |n sc||s 0noe| c|an|c manaemen|, ||e
SOC [so|| organ|c carbon] s|cc|s a.e|aeo 37.4
|cnnes C |a-', |n ccmoa||scn |c 2.7 |cnnes C |a-'
0noe| ncn-c|an|c manaemen|. Th|s means that
the average d|erence between the two management
systems (organ|c and convent|ona|) was 10.7 tonnes
o carbon. s|ng the accepted ormu|a that SOO x
3.67~ OO
2
th|s means an average o more than 39.269
tonnes o OO
2
was sequestered |n the organ|c system
compared to the convent|ona| system. The average
durat|on o management o a|| |nc|uded stud|es was
16.7 years (Gatt|nger et a|, 2011). Th|s means that an
average o 2,351 kgs o OO
2
was sequestered per
hectare every year |n the organ|c system compared to
the convent|ona| system.
Another study by the n|ted K|ngdom So|| Assoc|at|on
ound that average organ|c arm|ng pract|ces
removed about 2,200 kg o OO
2
per hectare per year
(Azeez, 2009). Th|s |s cr|t|ca| |normat|on as |t c|ear|y
shows that organ|c armers are current|y sequester|ng
s|gn|fcant amounts o carbon. Most |mportant|y, th|s |s
not based on untested concepts ||ke "carbon capture
and storage" and "c|ean coa|", |t |s based on current
pract|ces that can be adopted by other armers.
. PoIanI|a| oI organ|c pracI|cas
Based on these fgures, the w|despread adopt|on o
current organ|c pract|ces g|oba||y has the potent|a| to
sequester 10 Gt o OO
2
, wh|ch |s around 20 per cent
o the wor|d's current GHG em|ss|ons.
Grass|and 3,356,940,000 ha
Arab|e crops 1,380,515,000 ha
Permanent crops 146,242,000 ha
Tota| 4,883,697,000 ha
Sc0|ce. (FAO, 2010).
Organ|c _ 2.2 tons per hectare: 10.7 Gt o OO
2
(Azeez, 2009)
Annua| GHG em|ss|ons: 49 Gt o carbon d|ox|de
equ|va|ent (OO
2
e)
(lPOO 2007c).
24
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
E. PoIanI|a| ax|sIs Ior h|ghar |ava|s oI 0
Z

saquasIraI|on
A|| data sets that use averag|ng have out|y|ng data.
These are examp|es that are s|gn|fcant|y h|gher or
s|gn|fcant|y |ower than the average. They are a|ways
worth exam|n|ng to fnd out why. Pesearch |nto
them w||| a||ow an understand|ng o wh|ch pract|ces
s|gn|fcant|y |ncrease so|| carbon and wh|ch decrease
or do not |ncrease |t.
There are severa| examp|es o s|gn|fcant|y h|gher
|eve|s o carbon sequestrat|on than the averages
quoted |n the stud|es above. The Poda|e lnst|tute |n
Pennsy|van|a, n|ted States, has been conduct|ng
|ong-runn|ng compar|sons o organ|c and convent|ona|
cropp|ng systems or over 30 years, wh|ch confrm
that organ|c methods are eect|ve at remov|ng OO
2
rom the atmosphere and fx|ng |t as organ|c matter
|n the so||. La Sa||e and Hepper|y (2008:5) wrote: "|n
||e FS7 [/a|m s,s|ems |||a|j c|an|c o|c|s, ca|ocn .as
seq0es|e|eo |n|c ||e sc|| a| ||e |a|e c/ 875 |os/ac/,ea|
|n a c|co |c|a||cn 0||||z|n |a. man0|e, ano a| a |a|e c/
aoc0| 500 |os/ac/,ea| |n a |c|a||cn 0s|n |e0me cc.e|
c|cos.
D0||n ||e '990s, |es0||s /|cm ||e Ccmocs| L||||za||cn
7||a| (CL7; a| Pcoa|e |ns|||0|e a '0-,ea| s|0o,
ccmoa||n ||e 0se c/ ccmocs|s, man0|es ano
s,n||e||c c|em|ca| /e|||||ze| s|c. ||a| ||e 0se c/
ccmocs|eo man0|e .||| c|co |c|a||cns |n c|an|c
s,s|ems can |es0|| |n ca|ocn seq0es||a||cn c/ 0o |c
2,000 |os/ac/,ea|. 5, ccn||as|, /e|os 0noe| s|anoa|o
||||ae |e|,|n cn c|em|ca| /e|||||ze|s |cs| a|mcs| 300
oc0nos c/ ca|ocn oe| ac|e oe| ,ea|.
Oonvert|ng these fgures |nto k||ograms o OO
2

sequestered per hectare us|ng the accepted
convers|on rate o 1 pound per acre ~ 1.12085116
kg/ha and so|| organ|c carbon x 3.67~ OO
2
, g|ves the
o||ow|ng resu|ts:
The FST |egume based organ|c p|ots showed that
carbon was sequestered |nto the so|| at the rate
o about 500 |bs/ac/year. Th|s |s equ|va|ent to a
sequestrat|on rate o 2,055.2 kg o OO
2
/ha/yr.
The FST manured organ|c p|ots showed that carbon
was sequestered |nto the so|| at the rate o 875 |bs/
ac/year. Th|s |s equ|va|ent to a sequestrat|on rate o
3,596.6 kg o OO
2
/ha/yr.
The Oompost t|||zat|on Tr|a| showed that carbon
was sequestered |nto the so|| at the rate o 2,000
|bs/ac/year. Th|s |s equ|va|ent to a sequestrat|on
rate o 8,220.8 kg o OO
2
/ha/yr.
Thus there are s|gn|fcant benefts rom add|ng
compost.
F. Tha poIanI|a| |n dasarI c||maIas
Sekem |s the o|dest b|odynam|c arm |n Egypt. lt was
ounded |n 1977 by Dr lbrah|m Abou|e|sh. The Lou|s
Bo|k lnst|tute and So||&More, two organ|sat|ons based
|n the Nether|ands, have made a study to ca|cu|ate so||
carbon sequestrat|on at Sekem. The|r resu|ts show
that, on average, Sekem's management pract|ces
have resu|ted |n 900 kgs o carbon be|ng stored |n
the so|| per hectare per year |n the fe|ds that were 30
years o|d. s|ng the accepted ormu|a o SOO x 3.67
~ OO
2
, th|s means that Sekem has sequestered 3,303
kg o OO
2
per hectare per year or 30 years (Luske and
van der Kamp, 2009, Koopmans et a|., 2011). Based
on these fgures, the w|despread adopt|on o Sekem's
pract|ces g|oba||y has the potent|a| to sequester 16
Gt o OO
2
, wh|ch |s around 30 per cent o the wor|d's
current GHG em|ss|ons, |nto so||s (4,883,697,000 ha x
3,303 kgs ~ 16.1 gt OO
2
/yr).
. Tha poIanI|a| |n Irop|ca| c||maIas
Pesearchers at the Poya| Tha| Organ|c Pro|ect near
Oh|ang Ma| |n Tha||and have managed to |ncrease the|r
so|| organ|c matter |eve|s rom 1 per cent to 5 per cent
over a per|od o e|ght years (persona| commun|cat|on).
Th|s means that 187.2 tons o OO
2
/ha have been
sequestered through th|s pro|ect, wh|ch equates to
23.4 tons o OO
2
/ha/yr. l th|s was app||ed g|oba||y, |t
wou|d sequester 114 Gt OO
2
/ha/yr more than doub|e
the wor|d's current GHG em|ss|ons (4,883,697,000 ha
x 23.4 tons o OO
2
/ha/yr ~ 114 Gt OO
2
/yr).
h. aapar carbon sysIams
There |s an emerg|ng body o sc|ence wh|ch shows
that the most stab|e ract|ons o so|| carbon are stored
deeper |n the so|| than most o the current so|| carbon
measurements used on arms. Most so|| tests tend to
work at a depth o around 15 to 20 cm, as th|s |s the
usua| root zone or many crops. Pesearch |s fnd|ng
that a s|gn|fcant amount o carbon |s stored at |ower
depths and that th|s tends to be very stab|e.
Pesearch by Pethemeyer and co||eagues us|ng
rad|ocarbon techn|ques to ana|yse var|ous so|| carbon
ract|ons |nd|cated a progress|ve enr|chment o stab|e
organ|c compounds w|th |ncreas|ng so|| depth to 65
cm (Pethemeyer et a|., 2005).
25
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Pesearch by Proessor Pattan La| and co||eagues
rom Oh|o State n|vers|ty compared carbon |eve|s
between no-t||| and convent|ona| t|||age fe|ds and
ound that, |n some cases, carbon storage was
greater |n convent|ona| t|||age fe|ds. The key |s so||
depth. They compared the carbon storage between
no-t||| and p|oughed fe|ds w|th the p|ough depth the
frst 8 |nches (20cm) o the so|| and ound that the
carbon storage was genera||y much greater |n no-t|||
fe|ds than |n p|owed fe|ds. When they exam|ned 12
|nches (30cm) and deeper, they ound more carbon
stored |n p|oughed fe|ds than |n the no-t||| ones.
The researchers conc|uded that armers shou|d not
measure so|| carbon based |ust on surace depth.
They recommended go|ng to as much as 3 eet (1
metre) be|ow the so|| surace to get a more accurate
assessment o so|| carbon (Ohr|stopher, La| and
M|shra, 2009).
Accord|ng to Gatt|nger and co||eagues (2011:16),
resea|c|e|s .c|||n cn |cn-|e|m ccmoa||scn |||a|s
oe|.een c|an|c ano ccn.en||cna| /a|m|n s,s|ems
|n S.||ze||ano (||e DO| |||a|s;, /c0no ||a|, .|en
|c|a||cn o|ases |nc|0oeo |.c ,ea|s c/ oeeo-|cc||n
|ass-c|c.e| |e,s, 4 oe|cen| c/ ||e |c|a| SOC s|cc|s
.e|e oeocs||eo oe|.een 2080 cm sc|| oeo||s. |n
man, oa||s c/ ||e .c||o, c|an|c /a|m|n s,s|ems
a|e |e|,|n cn ||e sc|| /e||||||, o0||o-0o c/ oeeo-|cc||n
|ass-|e0me m||0|es ano cn ||e |ncc|oc|a||cn c/
o|an| |es|o0es o, oeeo-o||n ea|||.c|ms, ma||n
|| q0||e |||e|, ||a| ||e c0||en||, a.a||ao|e oa|a se|s
0noe|es||ma|e ||e SOC s|cc|s |n c|an|ca||, manaeo
sc||s. 7||s |s oa|||c0|a||, s|n|/can| ccns|oe||n ||a|
|n oeeoe| sc|| |c||zcns, SOC seems |c oe mc|e
s|ao|||zeo. (F||essoac| e| a|., '999;
I. rat|ng sysIams
The ma|or|ty o the wor|d's agr|cu|tura| |ands (68.7 per
cent) are used or graz|ng (FAO, 2010). There |s an
emerg|ng body o pub||shed ev|dence wh|ch shows
that pastures and permanent ground cover swards
|n perenn|a| hort|cu|ture bu||d up so|| organ|c carbon
aster than any other arm|ng system, and, w|th
correct management, th|s |s stored deeper |n the so||
(F||essbach et a|., 1999, Sanderman et a|., 2010).
One o the s|gn|fcant reasons or th|s has been the
h|gher proport|on o p|ants that use the O4 pathway
o photosynthes|s as th|s makes them more efc|ent
at co||ect|ng OO
2
rom the atmosphere, espec|a||y |n
warmer and dr|er c||mates. Accord|ng to Osborne and
Beer||ng (2006:173), "||an|s .||| ||e C4 o|c|cs,n||e||c
oa||.a, ocm|na|e |coa,s ||co|ca| sa.anna|s ano
|ass|anos, ano accc0n| /c| scme 30% c/ |coa|
|e||es|||a| ca|ocn /a||cn. 7|e|| s0ccess s|ems /|cm a
o|,s|c|c|ca| CO
2
-ccncen||a||n o0mo, .||c| |eaos
|c ||| o|c|cs,n||e||c e//c|enc, |n .a|m c||ma|es ano
|c. a|mcso|e||c CO
2
ccncen||a||cns.
Th|s know|edge |s now be|ng app||ed |n |nnovat|ve
ways such as ho||st|c stock management, evergreen
arm|ng, agroorestry |n pastures and pasture
cropp|ng.
J. PasIura cropp|ng
Pasture cropp|ng works on the pr|nc|p|e that
annua|s grow natura||y through perenn|a| pastures
|n the|r norma| cyc|es. lt |s not the purpose o th|s
paper to exp|a|n the techn|ca| deta||s o how |t |s
be|ng successu||y |mp|emented |n a w|de var|ety o
c||mates and so|| types around the wor|d. However,
a br|e overv|ew has been |nc|uded |n Annex 1 to
he|p understand the system. The cr|t|ca| |ssue or the
purpose o th|s paper |s to present the pre||m|nary
data on so|| carbon sequestrat|on so that the potent|a|
o th|s system can be urther |nvest|gated.
Pesearch by Jones at W|nona, the property o Oo||n
and N|ck Se|s |n New South Wa|es, Austra||a, who
use a comb|nat|on o pasture cropp|ng and ho||st|c
stock management, shows that 168.5 t/ha o OO
2

was sequestered over 10 years. The sequestrat|on
rate or the |ast two o the 10 years (2009 and 2010)
was 33 tons o OO
2
/ha/yr (Jones, 2012). Th|s system
can be, and |s be|ng, successu||y used |n both arab|e
and pasture systems, |nc|ud|ng |n hort|cu|ture. l th|s
was app||ed around the wor|d, |t cou|d potent|a||y
sequester 82 Gt o OO
2
/yr (4,883,697,000 ha X 16.85
tonnes ~ 82 Gt).
Th|s |s s|gn|fcant|y more than the wor|d's GHG
em|ss|ons o 49 Gt and wou|d he|p reverse c||mate
change. The |ncrease |n so|| carbon wou|d a|so
s|gn|fcant|y |mprove the product|on and adaptat|on
capac|t|es o g|oba| graz|ng systems.
k. Tha urganI naad Ior mora paar-
rav|aWad rasaarch
lt |s not the |ntent|on o th|s paper to use the above
types o gener|c exerc|ses o g|oba||y extrapo|at|ng
data as sc|ent|fc proo o what can be ach|eved by
sca||ng up organ|c systems. These types o very
26
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
s|mp|e ana|yses are useu| or prov|d|ng a conceptua|
|dea o the cons|derab|e potent|a| o organ|c arm|ng
to reduce GHG em|ss|ons on a |andscape sca|e.
The cr|t|ca| |ssue here |s that urgent peer-rev|ewed
research |s needed to understand how and why
(and or the scept|cs |) these systems sequester
s|gn|fcant |eve|s o OO
2
, and then |ook at how to app|y
the fnd|ngs or sca||ng up on a g|oba| |eve| |n order to
ach|eve a s|gn|fcant |eve| o GHG m|t|gat|on.
The potent|a| o these arm|ng methods |s enormous,
cons|der|ng that these data are based on current
pract|ces.
L. Parmananca
One o the ma|or debates around so|| carbon |s based
on how |t can meet the ODM 100-year permanence
requ|rements.
So|| carbon |s a comp|ex m|x o ract|ons o var|ous
carbon compounds. Two o these, humus and charcoa|
(char), are very stab|e: research shows that they can
|ast or thousands o years |n the so||. Other ract|ons
are |ess stab|e (|ab||e) and can be eas||y vo|at|||zed
|nto OO
2
. So|| carbon tends to vo|at|||ze |nto OO
2
|n
most convent|ona| arm|ng systems. However, correct
management systems can cont|nuous|y |ncrease
both the stab|e and |ab||e ract|ons through a number
o approaches, severa| o wh|ch are d|scussed |ater
|n th|s paper.
The research conducted by Jones at W|nona showed
that the ma|or|ty o the new|y |ncreased so|| carbon
was |n the stab|e ract|ons. She reported that 78 per
cent o the new|y sequestered carbon was |n the non-
|ab||e (hum|c) ract|on o the so|| and th|s rendered
|t |nto h|gh|y stab|e |ong cha|n orms. Her research
ound that the carbon |eve|s |n the 0-10 cm |ncrement
were rom the recent decompos|t|on o organ|c matter
and ormed short-cha|n unstab|e carbon. The carbon
be|ow 30 cm was composed o the hum|c so|| ract|on
and was h|gh|y stab|e (Jones, 2012). Jones's research
|s cons|stent w|th the fnd|ngs o Ohr|stopher, La| and
M|shra, (2009) and Pethemeyer et a|. (2005).
Long-term research conducted or more than 100
years at the Pothamsted Pesearch Stat|on |n the
n|ted K|ngdom and the n|vers|ty o l|||no|s Morrow
P|ots |n the n|ted States showed that the tota| so||
carbon |eve|s cou|d stead||y |ncrease and then reach
a new stab|e equ|||br|um |n arm|ng systems that use
organ|c matter |nputs. Th|s means that good so||
organ|c matter management systems can |ncrease
and ma|nta|n the |ab||e ract|ons as we|| as the stab|e
ract|ons over the t|me per|ods requ|red by the ODM
(La|, 2007).
N. AdapIaI|on
Even | the wor|d stopped po||ut|ng the p|anet w|th
GHGs, |t wou|d take many decades to reverse c||mate
change. Th|s means that armers have to adapt to the
|ncreas|ng |ntens|ty and requency o adverse and
extreme weather events such as droughts and heavy,
damag|ng ra|na||. lndeed, many areas o the p|anet
are a|ready exper|enc|ng th|s (Anderson, 2010, Steer,
2011).
h. raaIar ras|||anca |n advarsa
cond|I|ons
Pub||shed stud|es show that organ|c arm|ng systems
wou|d be more res|||ent to the pred|cted weather
extremes and cou|d produce h|gher y|e|ds than
convent|ona| arm|ng systems |n such cond|t|ons
(Dr|nkwater, Wagoner and Sarranton|o, 1998, We|sh,
1999, P|mente| et a|., 2005, see a|so the comment o
Nemes |n th|s chapter). For |nstance, the W|scons|n
lntegrated Oropp|ng Systems Tr|a|s ound that organ|c
y|e|ds were h|gher |n drought years and the same
as convent|ona| |n norma| weather years (Posner,
Ba|dock and Hedtcke, 2008).
S|m||ar|y, the Poda|e FST showed that the organ|c
systems produced more corn than the convent|ona|
system |n drought years. The average corn y|e|ds
dur|ng the drought years were 2834 per cent h|gher
|n the two organ|c systems. The y|e|ds were 6,938 and
7,235 kg per ha |n the organ|c an|ma| and the organ|c
|egume systems, respect|ve|y, compared w|th 5,333
kg per ha |n the convent|ona| system (P|mente| et a|.,
2005). The researchers attr|buted the h|gher y|e|ds |n
the dry years to the ab|||ty o the so||s on organ|c arms
to better absorb ra|na||. Th|s |s due to the h|gher
|eve|s o organ|c carbon |n those so||s, wh|ch makes
them more r|ab|e and better ab|e to store and capture
ra|nwater, wh|ch can then be used or crops (La Sa||e
and Hepper|y, 2008).
. Improvad aIhc|ancy oI WaIar usa
Pesearch a|so shows that organ|c systems use water
more efc|ent|y due to better so|| structure and h|gher
|eve|s o humus and other organ|c matter compounds
(Lotter, Se|de| and L|ebhart, 2003, P|mente| et a|., 2005).
27
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Lotter and co||eagues co||ected data or over 10 years
dur|ng the Poda|e FST. The|r research showed that the
organ|c manure system and organ|c |egume system
(LEG) treatments |mprove the so||s' water-ho|d|ng
capac|ty, |nf|trat|on rate and water capture efc|ency.
The LEG ma|ze so||s averaged a 13 per cent h|gher
water content than convent|ona| system (ON\) so||s at
the same crop stage, and 7 per cent h|gher than ON\
so||s |n soybean p|ots (Lotter, Se|de| and L|ebhart,
2003).
The more porous structure o organ|ca||y treated so||
a||ows ra|nwater to qu|ck|y penetrate the so||, resu|t|ng
|n |ess water |oss rom run-o and h|gher |eve|s o
water capture. Th|s was part|cu|ar|y ev|dent dur|ng
the two days o torrent|a| downpours rom hurr|cane
F|oyd |n September 1999, when the organ|c systems
captured around doub|e the amount o water as the
convent|ona| systems (Lotter, Se|de| and L|ebhart,
2003).
P. 0r|I|ca| d|IIarancas baIWaan organ|c
and convanI|ona| Iarm|ng
Organ|c arm|ng has a range o pract|ces that are
regarded as essent|a| or a||ow|ng the system to be
cert|fed as organ|c. Most o these pract|ces are eas||y
transerrab|e to other arm|ng systems, and many o
them are now be|ng adopted under the emerg|ng
term, "c||mate smart" agr|cu|ture (FAO, 2012c).
. Tha add|I|on oI organ|c maIIar
The term organ|c arm|ng |s der|ved rom the act
that organ|c arm|ng systems |mprove so|| hea|th and
ert|||ty through the recyc||ng o organ|c matter. There
|s a very strong body o ev|dence wh|ch shows that
the add|t|on o organ|c matter |mproves so|| organ|c
carbon (SOO) |eve|s and th|s |s more eect|ve than
synthet|c, water so|ub|e ert|||zers. La| (2007:822)
prov|des an extens|ve ||st rom the sc|ent|fc ||terature
that demonstrates th|s:
/oo||ca||cn c/ man0|es ano c||e| c|an|c
amenomen|s |s anc||e| |moc||an| s||a|e, c/ SOC
seq0es||a||cn. Se.e|a| |cn-|e|m eoe||men|s |n
F0|coe |a.e s|c.n ||a| ||e |a|e c/ SOC seq0es||a||cn
|s |ea|e| .||| aoo||ca||cn c/ c|an|c man0|es ||an
.||| c|em|ca| /e|||||ze|s (Jen||nscn, '990, A|||e| e|
a|., '993, C|||s|ensen, '99, |c|sc|ens & V0||e|,
'99, Sm||| e| a|., '997;. |nc|ease |n ||e SOC occ|
|n ||e 030 cm oeo|| o, |cn-|e|m 0se c/ man0|e
ccmoa|eo |c c|em|ca| /e|||||ze|s .as '0% c.e| '00
,ea|s |n Denma|| (C|||s|ensen, '99;, 22% c.e| 90
,ea|s |n Ge|man, (|c|sc|ens & V0||e|, '99;, '00%
c.e| '44 ,ea|s a| Pc||ams|eo, L| (Jen||nscn, '990;
ano 44% c.e| 3' ,ea|s |n S.eoen (A|||e| e| a|., '993;.
7|e oa|a /|cm Vc||c. o|c|s |n ||||nc|s |no|ca|eo ||a|
man0|eo o|c|s ccn|a|neo 44. V |a' mc|e SOC
||an 0nman0|eo ccn||c| (/noe|scn e| a|., '990;. |n
|0na|,, /|enos & Cas|| ('994; cose|.eo an |nc|ease
|n SOC ccncen||a||cn o, '.0'.7% o, man0||n. Sm|||
e| a|. ('997; es||ma|eo ||a| aoo||ca||cn c/ man0|e a|
||e |a|e c/ '0 V |a' |c c|co|ano |n F0|coe .c0|o
|nc|ease ||e SOC occ| o, 5.5% c.e| '00 ,ea|s. |n
Nc|.a,, L||en ('99'; ano L||en & 7.e||nes ('995;
|eoc||eo ||a| man0|e aoo||ca||cn .c0|o |nc|ease SOC
seq0es||a||cn a| ||e |a|e c/ 70227 | |a' ,|' c.e|
3774-,ea| oe||co.
. 0omposIs` mu|I|p|a banahIs
Oompost|ng was p|oneered by the organ|c arm|ng
movement through the work o S|r A|bert Howard |n
the 1930s and 1940s, and then strong|y promoted
by Jerome Poda|e |n h|s numerous pub||cat|ons,
espec|a||y |n O|an|c Fa|m|n ano Ga|oen|n that
have been w|de|y stud|ed around the wor|d (or more
|normat|on, see www.roda|e|nst|tute.org).
There |s an |ncreas|ng body o ev|dence that composts
are super|or to raw manures |n |ncreas|ng the |eve| o
so|| organ|c matter. The Poda|e lnst|tute stud|es have
demonstrated that good organ|c pract|ces us|ng raw
manures and cover crops can sequester 3,596.6 kg
o OO
2
/ha/yr and that when compost |s added th|s
|ncreases to 8,220.8 kg o OO
2
/ha/yr (LaSa||e and
Hepper|y, 2008).
8. Avo|dad am|ss|ons
Ourrent|y, most o the ood and other products rom
arms are exported rom the arm and sent to c|t|es.
The d|sposa| o the organ|c res|dues |n |and-f||s |s
respons|b|e or methane em|ss|ons. Methane |s a
s|gn|fcant GHG. Oorrect compost|ng and b|o-d|gester
methods are now recogn|zed as eect|ve ways o
avo|d|ng such em|ss|ons (or more |normat|on on the
sc|ence o so|| methane and so|| organ|c matter, see
Annex 2). Pesearch by F|BL shows that more GHGs
can be avo|ded by these methods than by most other
arm|ng pract|ces (Gatt|nger et a|., 2011). For examp|e
the compost pro|ect at Sekem |n Egypt has oset
methane em|ss|ons s|nce January 2007. By us|ng the
correct compost|ng methods or organ|c mater|a|s,
28
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
the pro|ect was ab|e to reduce methane em|ss|ons by
303,757 tonnes o OO
2
e (He|my Abou|e|sh, persona|
commun|cat|on).
Oompost|ng the organ|c wastes |n c|t|es and
transport|ng them to the arm br|ngs mu|t|p|e benefts
|n c|os|ng the nutr|ent cyc|e by return|ng the nutr|ents
that are exported rom the arm, avo|d|ng methane
em|ss|ons and |ncreas|ng the rate o so|| carbon
sequestrat|on.
T. 8ynIhaI|c n|Irogan IarI|||tars dagrada
so|| carbon
One o the ma|n reasons or the d|erences |n so||
carbon between organ|c and convent|ona| systems |s
that, as research shows, there |s a d|rect ||nk between
the app||cat|on o synthet|c n|trogenous ert|||zers and
a dec||ne |n so|| carbon.
Sc|ent|sts at the n|vers|ty o l|||no|s ana|ysed the
resu|ts o a 50-year agr|cu|tura| tr|a| and ound that the
app||cat|on o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zer had resu|ted
|n a|| the carbon res|dues rom the crop d|sappear|ng,
as we|| as an average |oss o around 10,000 kg o
so|| carbon per hectare. Th|s |s around 36,700 kg o
OO
2
per hectare over and above the many thousands
o k||ograms o crop res|due that |s converted |nto
OO
2
every year (Khan et a|., 2007, Mu|vaney, Khan
and E||sworth, 2009). The researchers ound that the
h|gher the app||cat|on o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zer,
the greater was the amount o so|| carbon |ost as OO
2
.
Th|s |s one o the ma|or reasons why there |s a dec||ne
|n so|| carbon |n convent|ona| agr|cu|tura| systems and
|ts |ncrease |n organ|c systems.
On the other hand there |s a good body o research
wh|ch shows that us|ng |egumes and carbon-based
sources such as compost |ncreases the |eve|s o so||
organ|c carbon (LaSa||e and Hepper|y, 2008).
Pesearchers rom North Amer|ca and Europe have
a|so shown that organ|c systems are more efc|ent
|n us|ng n|trogen than convent|ona| arm|ng systems.
S|gn|fcant|y, because o th|s efc|ency, very ||tt|e
n|trogen |eaves the arms as GHGs or as n|trate that
po||utes aquat|c systems (Dr|nkwater, Wagoner and
Sarranton|o, 1998, Mader et a|., 2002).
. |varsa cropp|ng sysIams
Another cr|t|ca| aspect o organ|c product|on |s the
use o d|verse cropp|ng systems. Oert|fed organ|c
product|on systems proh|b|t cont|nuous monocu|tures
|n cropp|ng systems. Every cert|fed organ|c arm
needs to have a management p|an that out||nes |ts
crop (and stock) rotat|on systems. La| (2007:822)
c|tes the sc|ent|fc ||terature to |nd|cate that th|s does
make a d|erence.
Sc||s 0noe| o|.e|se c|coo|n s,s|ems ene|a||, |a.e
a |||e| SOC occ| ||an ||cse 0noe| mcncc0||0|e
(D|c| e| a|. '98, 50,ancs|| e| a|. '997, D||n|.a|e|
e| a|. '998, 50,ancs|| & Aane| '998;. F||m|na||cn c/
s0mme| /a||c. |s anc||e| co||cn /c| m|n|m|z|n |csses
c/ ||e SOC occ| (De|aoc e| a|. '998, Pasm0ssen e|
a|. '998;. G|c.|n a .|n|e| cc.e| c|co en|ances sc||
q0a|||, |||c0| SOC seq0es||a||cn. |n ||e L|, F0||en
& /0e|s.a|o ('998; |eoc||eo ||a| |ass |e,s se| as|oe
|nc|easeo SOC ccncen||a||cn o, 0.02% oe| ,ea| /c|
'2 ,ea|s. |n /0s||a||a, G|ace & Oaoes ('994; cose|.eo
||a| ||e SOC occ| |n ||e 0'0 cm |a,e| |nc|easeo
||nea||, .||| |nc|ease |n /|eq0enc, c/ oas|0|e |n ||e c|co
|c|a||cn c,c|e. |n ccmoa||scn .||| ccn||n0c0s c|coo|n,
|ncc|oc|a||cn c/ cc.e| c|cos |n ||e |c|a||cn c,c|e
en|anceo SOC ccncen||a||cn |n ||e s0|/ace |a,e| o,
'5% |n S.eoen (N||sscn '98;, 23% |n 7|e Ne||e||anos
(van D|/| '982; ano 28% |n ||e L| (Jc|ns|cn '973; c.e|
[aj '228-,ea| oe||co. S|m||a| |es0||s .e|e |eoc||eo o,
|a| e| a|. ('998; /c| ||e LS c|co|ano.
V. Eros|on and so|| |oss
The h|ghest percentage o so|| carbon |s conta|ned |n
the frst 10 cm o so|| (Handrek, 1990, Handrek and
B|ack, 2002, Stevenson, 1998). So|| |oss and eros|on
rom arm|ng systems |s a |ead|ng concern around
the wor|d (M|||enn|um Ecosystem Assessment, 2005,
lAASTD, 2009a). lt |s a ma|or cause o |oss o so||
carbon s|nce the h|ghest |eve|s o so|| organ|c matter
are |n the top |ayer o the so||.
Oompar|son stud|es have shown that organ|c systems
demonstrate |ess so|| |oss due to better so|| hea|th, and
are thereore ab|e to ma|nta|n greater so|| product|v|ty
than convent|ona| arm|ng systems (Pegano|d, E|||ott
and nger, 1987, Pegano|d et a|., 2001, Mader et a|.,
2002, P|mente| et a|., 2005). Pegano|d, E|||ott and nger
compared the eects o organ|c and convent|ona|
arm|ng on part|cu|ar propert|es o the same so|| over
a |ong per|od and ound, "...||e c|an|ca||,-/a|meo
sc|| |ao s|n|/can||, |||e| c|an|c ma||e| ccn|en|,
|||c|e| |cosc|| oeo||, |||e| oc|,sacc|a||oe ccn|en|,
|c.e| mco0|0s c/ |0o|0|e ano |ess sc|| e|cs|cn ||an
||e ccn.en||cna||,-/a|meo sc|| (Pegano|d et a|., 1987:
370).
29
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Or|t|cs o organ|c systems po|nt to convent|ona|, no-t|||
product|on systems as super|or to organ|c systems
because the |atter use t|||age. To our know|edge, there
|s on|y one pub||shed study compar|ng convent|ona|,
no-t||| w|th organ|c t|||age systems. The researchers
ound that the organ|c system had better so|| qua||ty.
Accord|ng to Teasda|e, Ooman and Mangum
(2007:1304;, ... ||e OP [c|an|cj s,s|em |mo|c.eo
sc|| o|co0c||.||, s|n|/can||, as meas0|eo o, cc|n
,|e|os |n ||e 0n|/c|m||, |||a| ... |||e| |e.e|s c/ sc|| C ano
N .e|e ac||e.eo oeso||e ||e 0se c/ ||||ae (c||se| o|c.
ano o|s|; /c| |ncc|oc|a||n man0|e ano c/ c0|||.a||cn
(|c.-|es|o0e s.eeo c0|||.a|c|; /c| .eeo ccn||c|... O0|
|es0||s s0es| ||a| s,s|ems ||a| |ncc|oc|a|e |||
amc0n|s c/ c|an|c |no0|s /|cm man0|e ano cc.e|
c|cos can |mo|c.e sc||s mc|e ||an ccn.en||cna| nc-
||||ae s,s|ems oeso||e |e||ance cn a m|n|m0m |e.e| c/
||||ae.
The |atest |mprovement |n organ|c |ow/no-t||| systems
deve|oped by the Poda|e lnst|tute shows that these
systems can de||ver h|gh y|e|ds as we|| as exce||ent
env|ronmenta| outcomes (Poda|e, 2006, Moyer, 2011).
w. 8o|| carbon saquasIraI|on can ha|p
a||av|aIa povarIy
The agreements o the NFOOO conerence |n
Oancun proposed that hundreds o b||||ons o do||ars
shou|d be used or und|ng c||mate change m|t|gat|on
act|v|t|es. FAO be||eves that 70 per cent o the
potent|a| benefts rom agr|cu|tura| m|t|gat|on cou|d go
to armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es (FAO, 2012c).
Schemes that pay armers or sequester|ng carbon
|nto the so||, cou|d he|p a||ev|ate rura| poverty and
prov|de a strong fnanc|a| |ncent|ve to adopt good
arm|ng pract|ces, | they are done a|r|y and proper|y.
At an average o 2 tons o OO
2
per hectare at $20
per ton, armers cou|d earn $40 per hectare per
year. Wh||e th|s may not seem ||ke much, or many o
the wor|d's armers work|ng on on|y a ew hectares
and earn|ng |ess than $400 a year, an extra $80 |s
extreme|y va|uab|e. On a commun|ty sca|e, |t wou|d
mean many thousands o do||ars go|ng |nto v|||ages,
wh|ch wou|d be spent |n the |oca| commun|ty, creat|ng
the mu|t|p||er eect o added benefts. \ery cr|t|ca||y,
| th|s |s |ooked at over the |ong term, these amounts
can become very worthwh||e to the armers. As an
examp|e, Sekem has sequestered 3,303 kgs o OO
2

per hectare per year or 30 years. At $20 a ton th|s |s
worth a tota| o $1,980 per hectare or the tota| t|me
per|od (3.3 tons o OO
2
at $20 per ton ~ $66 /ha/yr).
Based on the resu|ts o the Poya| Tha| Organ|c Pro|ect,
Tha| armers cou|d earn $468 per hectare per year or
e|ght years, wh|ch amounts to $3,744 per hectare or
that t|me per|od (23.4 tons o OO
2
at $20 per ton ~
$468/ha/yr).
l armers adopted systems s|m||ar to the Oo||n and
N|ck Se|s pasture cropp|ng methods used at W|nona,
they cou|d earn $337 per hectare per year or 10 years,
wh|ch tota|s $3,337 per hectare over that per|od (6.85
tons o OO
2
at $20 per ton ~ $337/ha/yr).
The most pract|ca| way to ensure sma||ho|der armers
rece|ve und|ng |s or them to be organ|zed |nto
groups. The organ|c sector a|ready does th|s w|th
var|ous group cert|fcat|on schemes, such as th|rd-
party systems and part|c|patory guarantee systems
(PGS). lt wou|d be re|at|ve|y s|mp|e to |nc|ude a so||
carbon measurement system |n current organ|c aud|t
systems. Such systems cou|d be grower contro||ed,
and des|gned to ensure a|rness and transparency so
that the unds reach the armers and the|r commun|t|es,
rather than beneft|ng the money market traders.
lmp|emented proper|y, these schemes cou|d be seen
as soc|a| |ust|ce systems, where the OO
2
-po||ut|ng
|ndustr|es wou|d be pay|ng many o the poorest
peop|e on the p|anet or the|r ecosystem serv|ces o
sequester|ng GHGs. For examp|e, 5 b||||on hectares
at $40 per hectare has the potent|a| to red|str|bute
$200 b||||on rom OO
2
-po||ut|ng |ndustr|es to rura|
commun|t|es. A s|gn|fcant proport|on o th|s cou|d go
to sma||ho|ders |n deve|op|ng countr|es (FAO, 2012c).
We||-des|gned so|| carbon schemes that |nc|ude so||
carbon sequestrat|on have the potent|a| to reduce
GHG em|ss|ons |n the atmosphere as we|| as a||ev|ate
rura| poverty |n deve|op|ng countr|es, and they wou|d
prov|de a substant|a| fnanc|a| |ncent|ve to adopt good
arm|ng pract|ces.
They cou|d be fnanced through government-
adm|n|stered cap and trade systems. These systems
put a cap on the tota| amount o em|ss|ons, and, by
tax|ng em|ss|ons that are above the targets, they orce
the em|tters to reach the|r targets through energy
efc|ency, the adopt|on o renewab|e energy or by
other osets. The cap cou|d be progress|ve|y |owered,
thereby orc|ng the |ndustr|es to cont|nuous|y fnd
ways to reduce em|ss|ons. These taxes cou|d then
be used to pay armers or the|r ecosystem serv|ces
o str|pp|ng the OO
2
out o the atmosphere and fx|ng
30
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|t |n the so||. The schemes cou|d be government-
adm|n|stered or market-based.
There have been many concerns expressed about
market-based systems, espec|a||y those that want
to deve|op comp|ex fnanc|a| |nstruments as the
trad|ng bas|s or carbon. The co||apse o the pr|ce
or carbon |n market-based systems as we|| as some
schemes where most o the pr|ce has gone towards
adm|n|ster|ng the scheme rather than pay|ng the
|and ho|ders show that there are ma|or prob|ems
w|th these schemes. lt |s |mportant that most o
the unds go to the armers, rather than to scheme
adm|n|strators, brokers, carbon traders and other
|ntermed|ar|es. These exper|ences show the rea|
need or adequate government regu|at|on rather than
a||ow|ng unregu|ated carbon markets.
The s|gn|fcant reduct|on |n the pr|ce o carbon |n 2011-
2012 |n the government adm|n|stered European n|on
scheme shows the need or a rea||st|c government
mandated 1oor pr|ce or carbon to ensure that
|andho|ders are adequate|y compensated or the|r
serv|ces o sequester|ng OO
2
and not sub|ected to the
vagar|es o market pr|ce 1uctuat|ons
One cr|t|ca| |ssue concerns ownersh|p o the carbon.
The carbon shou|d be|ong to the armer/|andho|der,
and the payment shou|d be or the serv|ce o
sequester|ng |t out o the atmosphere and stor|ng |t
|n the so||. The payment |s not or the carbon, as th|s
cannot and shou|d not be separated rom the so||.
G|ven the current trends o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons
and the worst case scenar|o we seem to o||ow or
g|oba| warm|ng |t |s cr|t|ca| that so|| carbon |s |nc|uded
|n the NFOOO processes and very |mportant|y that
there are mechan|sms to fnanc|a||y reward armers
who engage |n proven pract|ces such as organ|c
agr|cu|ture that sequester OO
2
|nto the so||.
Annax 1 Io 0ommanIary V:
PasIura cropp|ng - annua|s |n a
parann|a| sysIam
Pasture cropp|ng |s where the annua| crop |s p|anted
|n a perenn|a| pasture |nstead o |n a p|oghed fe|d.
Th|s was frst deve|oped by Oo||n Se|s |n Austra||a.
The pr|nc|p|e |s based on a sound eco|og|ca| act,
name|y that annua| p|ants grow |n perenn|a| systems.
The key |s to adapt th|s pr|nc|p|e to the appropr|ate
management system or the spec|fc cash crops and
c||mate.
ln Oo||n's system, the pasture |s frst grazed us|ng
ho||st|c management to ensure that |t |s very short.
Th|s adds organ|c matter |n the orm o manure, cut
grass and shed roots, and s|gn|fcant|y reduces the
compet|t|on rom the pasture when the cash crop |s
seeded and germ|nates. The crop |s d|rect|y p|anted
|n the pasture.
Accord|ng the Oo||n Se|s: "|| .as a|sc |ea|n| ||a|
sc.|n a c|co |n |||s manne| s||m0|a|eo oe|enn|a|
|ass seeo||ns |c |c. |n n0moe|s ano o|.e|s||, |.|n
ccns|oe|ao|, mc|e |cnes/|ec|a|e c/ o|an| |c.||. 7||s
o|co0ces mc|e s|cc| /eeo a/|e| ||e c|co |s |a|.es|eo
ano |c|a||, e||m|na|es ||e neeo |c |e-sc. oas|0|es |n|c
||e c|cooeo a|eas. C|coo|n me||cos 0seo |n ||e
oas| |eq0||e ||a| a|| .ee|a||cn |s ||||eo o||c| |c sc.|n
||e c|co ano .|||e ||e c|co |s |c.|n.
F|cm a /a|m eccncm|c oc|n| c/ .|e. ||e oc|en||a| /c|
cco o|c/| |s ece||en| oeca0se ||e ccs| c/ |c.|n
c|cos |n |||s manne| |s a /|ac||cn c/ ccn.en||cna|
c|coo|n. 7|e aooeo oene/| |n a m|eo /a|m s||0a||cn
|s ||a| 0o |c s| mcn||s e||a |az|n |s ac||e.eo .|||
31
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Oompar|son o so|| between
W|nona and ne|ghbour
ln th|s pa|red s|te compar|son, parent mater|a|,
s|ope, aspect, ra|na|| and arm|ng enterpr|ses are
the same. Leve|s o so|| carbon |n both paddocks
were or|g|na||y the same.
LHS: 050 cm so|| prof|e rom a paddock |n wh|ch
groundcover has been act|ve|y managed (cropped
and grazed) to enhance photosynthet|c capac|ty.
PHS: 050 cm so|| prof|e rom a convent|ona||y
managed ne|ghbour|ng paddock (10 metres
through the ence) that has been set-stocked and
has a |ong h|story o phosphate app||cat|on.
Notes:
|) The carbon |eve|s |n the 010 cm |ncrement are
very s|m||ar. Th|s surace carbon resu|ts rom the
decompos|t|on o organ|c matter (|eaves, roots,
manure etc), orm|ng short-cha|n unstab|e '|ab||e'
carbon.
||) The carbon be|ow 30 cm |n the LHS prof|e has
rap|d|y |ncorporated |nto the hum|c (non-|ab||e) so||
ract|on. Long-cha|n, non-|ab||e carbon |s h|gh|y
stab|e.
(Jones, 2012)
|||s me||co ccmoa|eo .||| ||e |css c/ |az|n o0e
|c |c0no o|eoa|a||cn ano .eeo ccn||c| |eq0||eo |n
||ao|||cna| c|coo|n me||cos. /s a ene|a| |0|e, an
0noe|||n|n o||nc|o|e c/ ||e s0ccess c/ |||s me||co
|s 'One |0no|eo oe|cen| |c0no cc.e| cne |0no|eo
oe|cen| c/ ||e ||me'.
.a 20 |a c|co c/ Fc||ona ca|s ||a| .as sc.n ano
|a|.es|eo |n 2003 cn .A|ncna. 7||s c|cos ,|e|o .as
4.3 |cnne/|a (3' oas/ac|e;. 7||s ,|e|o |s a| |eas| eq0a|
|c ||e o|s|||c| a.e|ae .|e|e /0|| |c0no o|s|0|oance
c|coo|n me||cos .e|e 0seo. 7||s o|c/| oces nc|
|nc|0oe ||e .a|0e c/ ||e e||a |az|n. On A|ncna, || |s
oe|.een $50 [anoj $0/|a oeca0se ||e oas|0|e |s |azeo
0o |c ||e oc|n| c/ sc.|n. A|en 0s|n ||ao|||cna| c|coo|n
o|ac||ces .|e|e |c0no o|eoa|a||cn ano .eeo ccn||c|
me||cos a|e 0||||seo /c| oe||cos c/ 0o |c /c0| |c s| mcn||s
oe/c|e ||e c|co |s sc.n ||en nc q0a|||, |az|n can oe
ac||e.eo.
O||e| oene/|s a|e mc|e o|//c0|| |c q0an||/,. 7|ese a|e
||e .as| |mo|c.emen| |n oe|enn|a| o|an| n0moe|s ano
o|.e|s||, c/ ||e oas|0|e /c||c.|n ||e c|co. 7||s means
||a| ||e|e |s nc neeo |c |e-sc. oas|0|es, .||c| can ccs|
|n ecess c/ $'50 oe| |ec|a|e ano ccns|oe|ao|, mc|e
s|c0|o ccn||ac|c|s oe 0seo /c| oas|0|e es|ao||s|men|.
|noeoenoen| s|0o|es a| A|ncna cn oas|0|e c|coo|n
o, [||ej Deoa||men| c/ |ano ano Aa|e| |a.e /c0no ||a|
oas|0|e c|coo|n |s 27% mc|e o|c/|ao|e ||an ccn.en||cna|
a||c0||0|e [anoj |||s |s cc0o|eo .||| |ea| en.||cnmen|
oene/|s ||a| .||| |mo|c.e ||e sc|| ano |eene|a|e c0|
|anoscaoes.
8u||d|ng so|| IarI|||Iy W|IhouI
synIhaI|c IarI|||tars
Ohr|st|ne Jones has conducted research at Oo||n
S|es's property wh|ch shows that |n the |ast 10 years
168.5 t/ha o OO
2
was sequestered:
The sequestrat|on rate |n the |ast two years (2008
2010) has been 33 tons o OO
2
per hectare per
year.
32
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Th|s |ncrease occurred dur|ng the worst drought |n
recorded Austra||an h|story.
The o||ow|ng |ncreases |n so|| m|nera| ert|||ty have
occurred |n 10 years w|th on|y the add|t|on o a
sma|| amount o phosphorus: ca|c|um 277 per
cent, magnes|um 138 per cent, potass|um 146 per
cent, su|phur 157 per cent, phosphorus 151 per
cent , z|nc 186 per cent, |ron 122 per cent, copper
202 per cent, boron 156 per cent, mo|ybdenum 151
per cent, coba|t 179 per cent and se|en|um 117 per
cent (Jones, 2012).
For more |normat|on on:
Pasture cropp|ng, see: http://www.w|nona.net.au/
arm|ng.htm|.
Ho||st|c management, see:
http://ho||st|cmanagement.org.
Annax Z Io 0ommanIary V:
NaIhana: 8o|| managamanI can
raduca aImosphar|c maIhana
The sc|ence on so|| methane and so|| organ|c matter |s
st||| |n |ts |nancy, w|th many unanswered quest|ons due
to the |ack o research. However, a recent meta study
by van Groen|gen, Osenberg and Hungate (2011) has
shown that methane output rom the so|| w||| |ncrease
as the c||mate warms, wh|ch ra|ses concerns that the
percentages o GHGs that are sequestered |n orestry
systems are overest|mated.
The methane mode| used by van Groen|gen et a|.
measured what was vo|at|||zed, but not the amount
o the methane that was b|odegraded |n the so||.
Methane |s produced and degraded as a natura|
cyc|e |n nature, and most o th|s degradat|on takes
p|ace |n b|o|og|ca||y act|ve so||s and |n the oceans by
methanotroph|c m|crobes.
H|stor|ca||y, apart rom a ew except|ona| events dur|ng
geo|og|ca| t|me per|ods, the amount o methane |n
the atmosphere rom the enormous herds o graz|ng
an|ma|s on the pra|r|es, savannahs and steppes, and
rom the decay o organ|c matter |n the vast orests
and wet|ands o the p|anet was re|at|ve|y stab|e unt||
human act|v|t|es over the |ast 200 years d|srupted the
natura| cyc|es o methane product|on and degradat|on
(He|mann, 2011, Murat et a|., 2011).
Stud|es by He||ebrand and Herpp|ch (2000) and
Lev|ne et a|. (2011) showed that a s|gn|fcant amount
o methane |s b|odegraded |n so||s, and that th|s has
been underest|mated due to a |ack o research. Wh||e
the van Groen|gen et a|. study shows an |ncrease
|n methane output rom so||s when the temperature
|ncreases, the He||ebrand and Herpp|ch stud|es show
that the |ncrease |n temperature w||| dr|ve up the rate
o b|o|og|ca| degradat|on o methane by methy|otrop|c
bacter|a and other methanotroph|c m|croorgan|sms.
Th|s exp|a|ns why h|stor|ca| atmospher|c methane
|eve|s have been re|at|ve|y stab|e, and a|so why
natura||y produced methane |eve|s may not |ncrease
as the c||mate gets warmer.
Many stud|es o methane product|on on|y ca|cu|ate
the methane produced by the systems as a one-way
output |nto the atmosphere. Th|s can be correct or
some product|on systems, such as confned an|ma|
eed |ots and garbage sent to |and f||, however, |t |s not
correct or most natura| product|ons systems, such
as an|ma| graz|ng on grass|ands, crop product|on
on b|o|og|ca||y act|ve so||s, orchards and orests, as
these systems are based on cyc|es that a|so degrade
methane. Th|s overs|ght o the amount o methane
that can be b|odegraded by the so|| or the oceans |s a
ma|or 1aw that needs to be rect|fed.
nt|| the decay cyc|es are proper|y |dent|fed,
measured and mode||ed, the amounts o methane
that are em|tted by systems are not an accurate
measure o methane's contr|but|on to tota| GHGs.
nderstand|ng these cyc|es and the b|o|og|ca|
cond|t|ons needed to b|odegrade methane w||| g|ve
sc|ent|sts and |andho|ders a ma|or too| to manage
one o the most |mportant GHGs.
Tha naad Ior good so|| managamanI pracI|cas
A study by Fuu M|ng Ka| et a|. (2011) suggests that
the recent reduct|ons |n methane output are due to
changes |n arm|ng pract|ces. Th|s study adds to
the data show|ng that there |s good ev|dence o the
potent|a| to reduce the amount o methane |n the
33
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
atmosphere through the o||ow|ng so|| management
pract|ces as descr|bed be|ow:
'. /.c|o|n anae|co|c sc|| ccno|||cns. Methane orms
|n anaerob|c cond|t|ons such as r|ce padd|es. New
methods, such as the system o r|ce |ntens|fcat|on
(SPl), use more requent, shorter water|ng
cyc|es that avo|d anaerob|c cond|t|ons, thereby
s|gn|fcant|y reduc|ng methane product|on.
2. Ooen .e||-ae|a|eo sc||s. Organ|c matter can
vo|at|||ze |nto OO
2
, methane and other gases |n
arm|ng systems. However, correct management
systems can cont|nuous|y |ncrease the proport|on
o the non-vo|at||e compounds and orm stab|e
ract|ons o so|| organ|c matter. The research
conducted by Jones at W|nona showed that the
ma|or|ty o the new|y |ncreased so|| carbon was |n
the stab|e ract|ons, 78% o the new|y sequestered
carbon was |n the non-|ab||e (hum|c) ract|on o the
so||, render|ng |t h|gh|y stab|e.
3. ||cmc||n o|c|c|ca||, ac||.e sc||s .||| ||| |e.e|s
c/ me||anc|||co|c m|c|coes. The research by
Lev|ne et a|. (2011) ound that the key to methane
degradat|on |s |and management pract|ces that
ach|eve h|gh |eve|s o d|vers|ty o methanothrop|c
m|crobes.
Pesearch needs to be conducted |nto a|| o these
areas to accurate|y estab||sh the best pract|ces.
Th|s must be based on cr|ter|a that are measurab|e,
rep||cab|e and eas||y adopted by |and managers.
34
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Absl|acl
The ood pr|ce h|kes o 2008 and 20112012 were part|y the resu|t o weather-re|ated events ||nked to
c||mate change, and part|y due to the dependence o ood product|on on oss|| energ|es that caused
a merger between ood and energy markets (on th|s |ssue, see a|so the comment by Pundgren |n th|s
chapter) as we|| as the fnanc|a||zat|on o ood markets. The current eorts to re|nvest |n agr|cu|ture shou|d
take |nto account the need to |mprove the res|||ence o ood systems so as to reduce the|r vu|nerab|||ty
to extreme weather events and to the |ncreas|ng|y vo|at||e pr|ces o non-renewab|e oss|| energ|es. Th|s
art|c|e exp|ores how agroeco|ogy, understood as the app||cat|on o the sc|ence o eco|ogy to agr|cu|tura|
systems, can resu|t |n modes o product|on that are not on|y more res|||ent, but a|so both h|gh|y product|ve
and susta|nab|e, enab||ng them to contr|bute to the a||ev|at|on o rura| poverty, and thus, to the rea||zat|on
o the r|ght to ood.
Commontary v|: Agrooco|ogy: A 5o|ut|on to tho Cr|sos of |ood
5ystoms and C||mato Chango
0||v|e| de Schulle|
uh Spec|a| Rappo|leu| ou lhe R|ghl lo lood
A. a|nvasI|ng |n agr|cu|Iura
The ood pr|ce sp|kes o 2008 and 20112012
prompted governments to start re|nvest|ng |n
agr|cu|ture, a sector that has been neg|ected |n many
deve|op|ng countr|es or the past 30 years. However,
|nvestments that |ncrease ood product|on w||| not
make s|gn|fcant progress |n combat|ng hunger and
ma|nutr|t|on | they do not |ead to h|gher |ncomes and
|mproved ||ve||hoods or the poorest part|cu|ar|y
sma||-sca|e armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es. And
short-term ga|ns w||| be oset by |ong-term |osses |
they cause urther degradat|on o ecosystems, thus
threaten|ng the ab|||ty to ma|nta|n current |eve|s o
product|on |n the uture. The quest|on, thereore, |s
not s|mp|y |c. m0c|, but a|so |c. the |nvestments
are made. Pour|ng money |nto agr|cu|ture w||| not
be sufc|ent, the |mperat|ve today |s to take steps
that ac|||tate the trans|t|on towards a |ow-carbon,
resource-conserv|ng type o agr|cu|ture that benefts
the poorest armers.
Agroeco|ogy can p|ay a centra| ro|e |n ach|ev|ng
th|s goa| (De Schutter, 2010a, De Schutter and
\an|oqueren, 2011). lt |s poss|b|e to s|gn|fcant|y
|mprove agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty where |t has been
|agg|ng beh|nd, and thus to |ncrease product|on
where |t needs most to be |ncreased (|.e. pr|mar||y
|n poor, ood-defc|ent countr|es), wh||e at the same
t|me |mprov|ng the ||ve||hoods o sma||ho|der armers
and conserv|ng ecosystems. Th|s wou|d a|so s|ow
the trend towards |ncreas|ng urban|zat|on |n the
countr|es concerned, wh|ch |s p|ac|ng stress on the|r
pub||c serv|ces. Moreover, |t wou|d contr|bute to rura|
deve|opment and preserve the ab|||ty o succeed|ng
generat|ons to meet the|r own needs. ln add|t|on,
the resu|t|ng h|gher |ncomes |n the rura| areas wou|d
contr|bute to the growth o other sectors o the
economy by st|mu|at|ng demand or non-agr|cu|tura|
products (Ade|man, 1984).
8. Tha d|agnos|s
S|nce the g|oba| ood cr|ses, most o the ocus has
been on |ncreas|ng overa|| product|on us|ng methods
cons|stent w|th c|ass|c Green Pevo|ut|on approaches.
The cr|ses have been attr|buted to a m|smatch
between supp|y and demand, re1ect|ng a gap
between s|ower product|v|ty growth and |ncreas|ng
needs. A w|de|y c|ted est|mate |s that, tak|ng |nto
account demograph|c growth as we|| as changes
|n the compos|t|on o d|ets and consumpt|on |eve|s
assoc|ated w|th grow|ng urban|zat|on and h|gher
househo|d |ncomes, the overa|| |ncrease |n agr|cu|tura|
product|on shou|d reach 70 per cent by 2050 (Burney
et a|., 2010).
However, apart rom the act that th|s est|mate takes
the current demand curves as g|ven and does not
cons|der the |eakages and waste |n the current
35
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
ood systems (NEP, 2009), the ocus on |ncreas|ng
product|on may not adequate|y cons|der the act
that hunger today |s not so much a consequence
o stocks be|ng too |ow or to g|oba| supp||es be|ng
unab|e to meet demand, rather |t |s due to poverty.
lt |s the|r |ack o purchas|ng power that makes |t
d|fcu|t or the poorest segments o the popu|at|on,
|nc|ud|ng marg|na| sma||-sca|e armers who are oten
net-ood buyers, to w|thstand econom|c shocks
such as those that resu|t rom sudden |ncreases |n
the pr|ces o bas|c ood commod|t|es. lncreas|ng the
|ncomes o the poorest |s thereore the best way to
combat hunger. lnvestment |n agr|cu|ture |s needed,
but |t shou|d not on|y oster product|on to meet
grow|ng needs, |t shou|d a|so reduce rura| poverty by
boost|ng the |ncomes o sma||-sca|e armers. On|y by
support|ng sma|| producers w||| |t be poss|b|e to he|p
break the v|c|ous cyc|e that |eads rom rura| poverty
to the expans|on o urban s|ums, |n wh|ch poverty
breeds more poverty.
ln add|t|on, agr|cu|ture must not comprom|se on |ts
ab|||ty to sat|sy uture needs. The |oss o b|od|vers|ty
(Esqu|nas-A|czar, 2005, Swanson, 2005), the
unsusta|nab|e use o water, as we|| as the degradat|on
and po||ut|on o so||s and water, underm|ne the
cont|nu|ng ab|||ty o the earth's natura| resources to
support agr|cu|ture. O||mate change, wh|ch trans|ates
|nto more requent and extreme weather events, such
as droughts and 1oods, and |ess pred|ctab|e ra|na||,
|s a|ready severe|y aect|ng the ab|||ty o certa|n
reg|ons and commun|t|es to eed themse|ves, and
|t |s destab|||z|ng markets. The change |n average
temperatures |s threaten|ng the ab|||ty o ent|re
reg|ons, part|cu|ar|y those where ra|n-ed agr|cu|ture |s
pract|ced, to ma|nta|n the|r ex|st|ng |eve|s o agr|cu|tura|
product|on (Stern, 2007, lPOO, 2007b). Less resh
water w||| be ava||ab|e or agr|cu|tura| product|on, and
the r|se |n sea |eve|s |s a|ready caus|ng the sa||n|zat|on
o water |n certa|n coasta| areas, render|ng that water
unsu|tab|e or |rr|gat|on purposes.
As |s we|| known, current agr|cu|tura| pract|ces are
exacerbat|ng th|s s|tuat|on |n a number o ways. For
|nstance, deorestat|on to enab|e the expans|on o
cu|t|vated areas, represents a ma|or source o carbon
d|ox|de (OO
2
) em|ss|ons (account|ng or 17 per cent o
tota| anthropogen|c GHG em|ss|ons), wh||e methane
(OH
4
) em|ss|ons resu|t rom r|ce padd|es and ||vestock
d|gest|on (account|ng or 14.3 per cent o em|ss|ons).
Another GHG em|ss|on |s n|trous ox|de (N
2
O), wh|ch
|s produced |n part|cu|ar through the Haber-Bosch
process o abr|cat|ng n|trogen-based ert|||zers
(account|ng or another 7.2 per cent) (A||en et a|.,
2009, Me|nhausen et a|., 2009).
Agroeco|ogy |s |ncreas|ng|y seen as one way to
address these cons|derab|e cha||enges. A w|de
range o experts w|th|n the sc|ent|fc commun|ty and
|nternat|ona| agenc|es such as the FAO and B|overs|ty
lnternat|ona| (2007), and NEP (2005) v|ew |t as a way
to |mprove the res|||ence and susta|nab|||ty o ood
systems (lAASTD, 2009a, Weze| et a|., 2009a). lt |s
a|so ga|n|ng ground |n countr|es as d|verse as Braz||,
France, Germany and the n|ted States (Weze| et a|.,
2009).
0. Agroaco|ogy: m|m|c||ng naIura
Agroeco|ogy has been defned as the "app||cat|on
o eco|og|ca| sc|ence to the study, des|gn and
management o susta|nab|e agroecosystems"
(A|t|er|, 1995, G||essman, 2007). lt seeks to |mprove
agr|cu|tura| systems by m|m|ck|ng or augment|ng
natura| processes, thus enhanc|ng benefc|a| b|o|og|ca|
|nteract|ons and synerg|es among the components o
agrob|od|vers|ty (A|t|er|, 2002). Oommon pr|nc|p|es
o agroeco|ogy |nc|ude recyc||ng nutr|ents and
energy on arms, rather than augment|ng nutr|ents
w|th externa| |nputs, |ntegrat|ng crops and ||vestock,
d|vers|y|ng spec|es and genet|c resources |n the
agroecosystems over t|me and space, rom the fe|d
to |andscape |eve|s, and |mprov|ng |nteract|ons and
product|v|ty throughout the agr|cu|tura| system, rather
than ocus|ng on |nd|v|dua| spec|es. Agroeco|ogy |s
h|gh|y know|edge-|ntens|ve, based on techn|ques
that are not de||vered top-down but deve|oped on the
bas|s o armers' know|edge and exper|mentat|on.
33

lts pract|ces requ|re d|vers|y|ng the tasks on the arm
and ||nk|ng them to the d|vers|ty o spec|es (|nc|ud|ng
an|ma|s) that |nteract at fe|d |eve|.
A var|ety o techn|ques have been deve|oped and
successu||y tested |n a range o reg|ons that are based
on th|s approach (Pretty, 2008). |n|e|a|eo n0|||en|
manaemen| reconc||es the need to fx n|trogen |n the
so|| by |mport|ng |norgan|c and organ|c sources o
nutr|ents and reduc|ng nutr|ent |osses through eros|on
contro|. Thus |t a|so bu||ds up so|| organ|c matter,
wh|ch enhances so|| ert|||ty and can b|nd s|gn|fcant
amounts o carbon |n the so|| (see commentary
o Leu on th|s |ssue |n th|s chapter). /|c/c|es||,
|ncorporates mu|t|unct|ona| trees |nto agr|cu|tura|
systems. Aa|e| |a|.es||n |n dry|and areas enab|es
36
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
the cu|t|vat|on o ormer|y abandoned and degraded
|ands, and |mproves the water product|v|ty o crops.
The |n|e|a||cn c/ ||.es|cc| |n|c /a|m|n s,s|ems, such
as da|ry catt|e, p|gs and pou|try, |nc|ud|ng us|ng zero-
graz|ng cut and carry pract|ces, prov|des a source
o prote|n to am|||es wh||e a|so ert|||z|ng so||s. The
|ncorporat|on o fsh, shr|mps and other aquat|c
resources |nto arm systems, such as |nto |rr|gated r|ce
fe|ds and fsh ponds, prov|des s|m||ar benefts. These
approaches |nvo|ve the ma|ntenance or |ntroduct|on o
agr|cu|tura| b|od|vers|ty as a resu|t o the |ntegrat|on o
d|verse crops, ||vestock, agroorestry, fsh, po|||nators,
|nsects, so|| b|ota and other components.
Such resource-conserv|ng, |ow-externa|-|nput
techn|ques have a huge, yet st||| |arge|y untapped,
potent|a| to address the comb|ned cha||enges o
product|on, combat|ng rura| poverty and contr|but|ng
to rura| deve|opment, wh||e a|so preserv|ng
ecosystems and m|t|gat|ng c||mate change.
1. Agroaco|ogy as a rasponsa Io supp|y consIra|nIs
Agroeco|og|ca| techn|ques have a proven potent|a|
to s|gn|fcant|y |mprove y|e|ds. Pretty et a|. (2006)
compared the |mpacts o 286 recent susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture pro|ects |n 57 deve|op|ng countr|es
cover|ng 37 m||||on ha (represent|ng 3 per cent o the|r
cu|t|vated area). They ound that the |ntervent|ons
|ncreased crop product|v|ty on 12.6 m||||on arms by
an average o 79 per cent, wh||e a|so |mprov|ng the
supp|y o cr|t|ca| env|ronmenta| serv|ces.
34
A |arge-
sca|e study by Fores|ght (2011a) on G|oba| Food and
Farm|ng Futures, comm|ss|oned by the Government
o the n|ted K|ngdom, wh|ch rev|ewed 40 pro|ects |n
20 Ar|can countr|es where susta|nab|e |ntens|fcat|on
was deve|oped dur|ng the 2000s, reached s|m||ar
conc|us|ons.
35
Z. Tha poIanI|a| oI agroaco|ogy Io |ncraasa Iha
|ncomas oI sma||-sca|a Iarmars
One advantage o agroeco|ogy |s |ts re||ance on
|oca||y produced |nputs. Many Ar|can so||s are
nutr|ent-poor and heav||y degraded, and thereore
need rep|en|shment. Add|ng nutr|ents to the so|| can
be done by app|y|ng not on|y m|nera| ert|||zers, but
a|so ||vestock manure or by grow|ng green manures.
Farmers can a|so estab||sh what has been ca||ed a
"ert|||zer actory |n the fe|ds" by p|ant|ng trees that
take n|trogen out o the a|r and "fx" |t |n the|r |eaves,
wh|ch are subsequent|y |ncorporated |nto the so||
(Wor|d Agroorestry Oentre, 2009). Agroeco|ogy
reduces the dependence o armers on access to
externa| |nputs and thus on subs|d|es and on
|oca| reta||ers o ert|||zers or pest|c|des as we|| as
on |oca| money|enders. D|vers|fed arm|ng systems
produce the|r own ert|||zers and pest contro| systems,
thus reduc|ng the need or pest|c|des (De Schutter,
2004). The |oca| ava||ab|||ty o adapted seeds,
p|ant|ng mater|a|s and ||vestock breeds a|so oers
mu|t|p|e advantages, both or the armer and or
ensur|ng the supp|y o the requ|red d|vers|ty o such
mater|a|s or ma|or crops such as ma|ze, r|ce, m|||et,
sorghum, potato and cassava (De Schutter, 2009a).
Th|s |s part|cu|ar|y benefc|a| to sma||-sca|e armers
espec|a||y women who have |ow or no access to
cred|t, and a|so |ack cap|ta| and access to ert|||zer
d|str|but|on systems, part|cu|ar|y s|nce the pr|vate
sector |s un||ke|y to |nvest |n the most remote areas
where commun|cat|on routes are poor and where ew
econom|es o sca|e can be ach|eved.
3. Agroaco|ogy`s conIr|buI|on Io rura| dava|opmanI
and Io oIhar sacIors oI Iha aconomy
Agroeco|ogy contr|butes to rura| deve|opment
because |t |s re|at|ve|y |abour-|ntens|ve and |s most
eect|ve|y pract|ced on re|at|ve|y sma|| p|ots o |and.
The |n|t|a| per|od |s part|cu|ar|y |abour-|ntens|ve
because o the comp|ex|ty o the tasks o manag|ng
d|erent p|ants and an|ma|s on the arm and o
recyc||ng the waste produced, but th|s h|gher |abour
|ntens|ty o agroeco|ogy d|m|n|shes s|gn|fcant|y |n
the |onger term (A|ay| et a|., 2009).
36
And a|though |t
|s seen by many as a ||ab|||ty o susta|nab|e arm|ng,
espec|a||y where governments g|ve pr|or|ty to |abour-
sav|ng measures, the creat|on o emp|oyment |n
the rura| areas |n deve|op|ng countr|es may |n act
const|tute an advantage | ||nked to product|v|ty ga|ns.
lndeed, |t cou|d present an enormous advantage |n
the context o mass|ve underemp|oyment and h|gh
demograph|c growth |n many deve|op|ng countr|es. lt
wou|d a|so respond to the urgent need to s|ow down
rura|-urban m|grat|on, as act|v|t|es |n the serv|ces
sector |n the urban areas appear unab|e to absorb the
excess |abour. Growth |n agr|cu|ture can be espec|a||y
benefc|a| to other sectors o the economy | |t |s
broad-based and |ncreases the |ncomes o a |arge
number o arm|ng househo|ds, rather than |ead|ng
to a urther concentrat|on o |ncomes |n the hands o
a ew re|at|ve|y |arge |andowners who re|y on |arge-
sca|e, heav||y mechan|zed p|antat|ons (Ade|man,
1984).
37
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
4. Agroaco|ogy`s conIr|buI|on Io |mprov|ng nuIr|I|on
The approaches espoused by the Green Pevo|ut|on |n
the past ocused pr|mar||y on boost|ng the product|on
o cerea| crops r|ce, wheat and ma|ze |n order to
prevent am|nes. However, these crops are ma|n|y
a source o carbohydrates and conta|n re|at|ve|y
ew prote|ns and the other nutr|ents essent|a| or
adequate d|ets. Yet, o the over 80,000 p|ant spec|es
ava||ab|e to humans, these three crops supp|y the
bu|k o our prote|n and energy needs today (Fr|son
et a|., 2006). The sh|t rom d|vers|fed cropp|ng
systems to s|mp||fed cerea|-based systems has thus
contr|buted to m|cronutr|ent ma|nutr|t|on |n many
deve|op|ng countr|es (Demment et a|., 2003). As a
resu|t, nutr|t|on|sts now |ncreas|ng|y |ns|st on the need
or more var|ed agroecosystems, |n order to ensure a
more d|vers|fed nutr|ent output rom arm|ng systems
(A||oway, 2008, DeO|erck et a|., 2011). The d|vers|ty o
spec|es on arms managed o||ow|ng agroeco|og|ca|
pr|nc|p|es, as we|| as |n urban or per|-urban agr|cu|ture,
|s an |mportant asset |n th|s regard.
6. Agroaco|ogy and c||maIa changa
Agroeco|ogy can support the prov|s|on o a number
o serv|ces to ecosystems, |nc|ud|ng by prov|d|ng a
hab|tat or w||d p|ants, support|ng genet|c d|vers|ty
and po|||nat|on, and water supp|y and regu|at|on. lt
a|so strengthens res|||ence to c||mate change wh|ch
|s caus|ng more extreme weather-re|ated events.
Pes|||ence |s strengthened by the use and promot|on
o agr|cu|tura| b|od|vers|ty at ecosystem, arm system
and fe|d |eve|s, made poss|b|e by many agroeco|og|ca|
approaches (P|atorm or Agrob|od|vers|ty Pesearch,
2010). Agroeco|ogy a|so puts agr|cu|ture on the path
o susta|nab|||ty by de||nk|ng ood product|on rom a
re||ance on oss|| energy (o|| and gas). ln add|t|on,
|t contr|butes to m|t|gat|ng c||mate change, both
by |ncreas|ng carbon s|nks |n so|| organ|c matter
and above-ground b|omass, and by reduc|ng OO
2

and other GHG em|ss|ons through |ower d|rect and
|nd|rect energy use.
. 8ca||ng up agroaco|ogy
There |s a c|ear and urgent need or a reor|entat|on
o agr|cu|tura| deve|opment towards systems that use
ewer externa| |nputs ||nked to oss|| energ|es, and
|nstead use p|ants, trees and an|ma|s |n comb|nat|on,
m|m|ck|ng nature |nstead o |ndustr|a| processes
at the fe|d |eve|. However, the success o such a
reor|entat|on w||| depend on the ab|||ty to |earn aster
rom recent |nnovat|ons and to d|ssem|nate what
works more w|de|y. Governments have a key ro|e
to p|ay |n th|s regard. Encourag|ng a sh|t towards
susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture |mp||es trans|t|on costs, s|nce
armers must |earn new techn|ques and rev|ta||ze
trad|t|ona| and |oca| know|edge, mov|ng away rom the
current systems that are both more spec|a||zed and
|ess adapt|ve, and have a |ower |nnovat|on capac|ty
(Pretty, 2008). ln order to succeed |n |mp|ement|ng
such a trans|t|on, the spread o agroeco|ogy shou|d
be d|rected at the armers themse|ves, who w||| be |ts
ma|n benefc|ar|es. Thus armer-to-armer |earn|ng |n
armer fe|d schoo|s or through armers' movements
shou|d be encouraged, as |n the Oampes|no-a-
Oampes|no movement |n Oentra| Amer|ca and Ouba
(Degrande et a|., 2006, Ho|t-G|menez, 2006, Posset
et a|., 2011).
An |mproved d|ssem|nat|on o know|edge by hor|zonta|
armer-to-armer means transorms the nature o
know|edge |tse|, wh|ch becomes the product o a
network (Warner and K|rschenmann, 2007). lt shou|d
encourage armers, part|cu|ar|y sma||-sca|e armers
||v|ng |n the most remote areas and those ek|ng out
a ||v|ng rom the most marg|na| so||s, to work w|th
experts towards a co-construct|on o know|edge,
ensur|ng that advances and |nnovat|ve so|ut|ons w|||
beneft them as a matter o pr|or|ty, rather than on|y
beneft|ng the better-o producers (pho, 2002a).
Th|s |s key to the rea||zat|on o the r|ght to ood.
F|rst, |t enab|es pub||c author|t|es to beneft rom
the exper|ences and |ns|ghts o the armers. Pather
than treat|ng sma||ho|der armers as benefc|ar|es
o a|d, they shou|d be seen as experts who have
know|edge that |s comp|ementary to orma||zed
expert|se. Second, part|c|pat|on can ensure that
po||c|es and programmes are tru|y respons|ve to the
needs o vu|nerab|e groups, as those groups w|||
quest|on pro|ects that a|| to |mprove the|r s|tuat|on.
Th|rd, part|c|pat|on empowers the poor a v|ta| step
towards poverty a||ev|at|on, because |ack o power |s
a source o poverty, as marg|na| commun|t|es oten
rece|ve |ess support than the groups that have better
connect|ons w|th government. Moreover, poverty
exacerbates th|s |ack o power, creat|ng a v|c|ous
c|rc|e o urther d|sempowerment. Fourth, po||c|es that
are co-des|gned w|th armers have greater |eg|t|macy,
and thus avour better p|ann|ng o |nvestment and
product|on and better uptake by other armers (FAO
and llED, 2008). Part|c|pat|on o ood-|nsecure groups
38
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|n the po||c|es that aect them shou|d become a
cruc|a| e|ement o a|| ood secur|ty po||c|es, rom po||cy
des|gn to the assessment o resu|ts to the dec|s|on on
research pr|or|t|es. lndeed, |mprov|ng the s|tuat|on o
m||||ons o ood-|nsecure sma||ho|der armers cannot
be done w|thout them.
39
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A. 0ha||angas Iac|ng agr|cu|Iura |n sub-
8aharan AIr|ca
Agr|cu|tura| product|on |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca (SSA),
and thereore a|so ||ve||hoods that depend on
agr|cu|ture, w||| be severe|y aected by the |mpacts
o c||mate change. Depend|ng on the|r geograph|ca|
|ocat|on, var|ous subreg|ons are ||ke|y to exper|ence
e|ther |ess or more ra|na||, r|s|ng temperatures, and
a h|gher number and |ntens|ty o extreme weather
events. Genera||y, y|e|ds w||| dec||ne, a|though
to|erance o d|erent crops to temperature changes
and water ava||ab|||ty w||| vary cons|derab|y (Lobe|| et
a|., 2008, L|u et a|., 2008). Wh||e the ma|or trends are
c|ear, cons|derab|e uncerta|nt|es rema|n (Mu||er, 2009).
For examp|e, or a number o areas |n Western Ar|ca
some g|oba| c|rcu|at|on mode|s expect |ncreases |n
prec|p|tat|on, wh||e others pro|ect |ess ra|na|| or the
com|ng decades. Desp|te th|s uncerta|nty, agr|cu|ture
throughout Ar|ca aces a ser|ous r|sk o exper|enc|ng
negat|ve |mpacts rom c||mate change (Mu||er et a|.,
2011b). nder such c|rcumstances, |t w||| be part|cu|ar|y
cha||eng|ng or poor armers to prepare or the
upcom|ng changes. lt |s thereore adv|sab|e to ocus
not on|y on d|rect measures to support adaptat|on o
agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es to the |mpacts o c||mate change,
but a|so to take a broader v|ew and a|m to |ncrease the
overa|| res|||ence o rura| peop|e and the|r ||ve||hoods.
Most poor peop|e |n deve|op|ng countr|es ||ve |n rura|
areas (The Wor|d Bank, 2008), many o whom depend
on agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es or two purposes: frst to
ensure ood secur|ty or the|r am|||es, and second, or
|ncome generat|on, as agr|cu|ture |s oten the|r ma|n or
even on|y econom|c act|v|ty. Both aspects a|so have
|mp||cat|ons or other, non-arm rura| househo|ds,
e|ther through the degree o ava||ab|||ty o ood, wh|ch
can cause 1uctuat|ons |n |oca| pr|ces, or as an |nd|rect
source o emp|oyment.
ln many rura| areas o SSA, agr|cu|ture aces var|ous
we||-known cha||enges, wh|ch constra|n the soc|a| and
econom|c deve|opment o the sector and o the peop|e
who depend on |t. The undamenta| constra|nts |nc|ude
|nsecure access o |oca| producers to |and, unsk|||ed
agr|cu|tura| manpower or |nnovat|ve agr|cu|tura|
product|on systems, ||m|ted access to agr|cu|tura|
|nputs, as we|| as ||m|ted know|edge o how the
|oca| c||mate (e.g. homogeneous ra|na|| zones that
extend over v|||ages) |s chang|ng and |s expected to
change |n the uture. These constra|nts resu|t |n |ower
product|v|ty (Bru|nsma, 2009, Posegrant et a|., 2001)
and the preva|ence o unsusta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
Absl|acl
Po||c|es to promote adaptat|on to c||mate change |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca, wh||e a|so he|p|ng to a||ev|ate
poverty, w||| requ|re mu|t|p|e |nvestments |n rura| areas to ra|se agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty and |mprove
econom|c |nrastructure and soc|a| serv|ces as pr|or|t|es.
lncreased |nvestment |n agr|cu|ture shou|d take |nto account |ts mu|t|p|e soc|a|, econom|c and
env|ronmenta| unct|ons |n order to ach|eve poverty reduct|on and ood secur|ty, and |mprove the
res|||ence o rura| ||ve||hoods to mu|t|p|e shocks, |nc|ud|ng c||mate change.
Scenar|os o the |oca| |mpacts o c||mate change shou|d |nc|ude extreme weather and c||mate
cond|t|ons (|.e. w|th regard to temperature or var|ab|||ty o ra|na||) |n order to be prepared or the
eects o dangerous c||mate change (|.e. more requent and |ntens|ve droughts and 1oods) that, |n
the worst case, cou|d orce |oca| popu|at|ons to permanent|y move out o aected areas.
Commontary v||: romot|ng os|||ont Agr|cu|turo |n 5ub-
5aharan Afr|ca as a Major r|or|ty |n C||mato-
Chango Adaptat|on
Na|cus Kap|au, Ch|uwe llej||a-Spe|au/a, aud lmme Scho|/
Ce|mau eve|opmeul lusl|lule/ Deutsches Institut fr Entwicklungspolitik (DIE)
40
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
pract|ces, w|th negat|ve eco|og|ca| |mpacts. Water
stress and scarc|ty are |ncreas|ng, wh||e b|od|vers|ty
|s dec||n|ng. So|| degradat|on and dec||n|ng ert|||ty
through, or examp|e, |nappropr|ate so|| management
and |ow |nputs, create ser|ous prob|ems or
current and uture agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty |n many
parts o SSA (Mclntyre et a|. 2009a, \|ek, Le and
Tamene, 2008). Furthermore, |ow-output agr|cu|ture
necess|tates the use o more |and to ma|nta|n |ts |eve|
o product|on, wh|ch |s why agr|cu|ture |s the ma|n
dr|ver o deorestat|on |n near|y a|| deve|op|ng countr|es
(Scherr and Sthap|t, 2009). Such |and-use changes
or ood product|on cause OO
2
em|ss|ons through the
re|ease o carbon rom above-ground b|omass and
graz|ng ||vestock, reduced carbon sequestrat|on |n
so||s and unsusta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces (Scherr
and Sthap|t, 2009). As a resu|t, |and-use changes
(|nc|ud|ng deorestat|on) account or about 17 per
cent o tota| anthropogen|c GHG em|ss|ons (Sm|th et
a|., 2007b), wh||e b|omass burn|ng and the convers|on
o wet|ands contr|bute to methane (OH
4
) em|ss|ons,
and the app||cat|on o ert|||zers resu|ts |n n|trous ox|de
em|ss|ons (NFOOO, 2008).
Today, new g|oba| patterns create add|t|ona| cha||enges
that urther aggravate these known constra|nts on
a product|ve and susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| sector |n
SSA. ln add|t|on to econom|c trends, such as greater
|nternat|ona| compet|t|on or |and or var|ous uses,
1uctuat|ng ood pr|ces, h|gher energy pr|ces, and
|nternat|ona| trade po||c|es, c||mate change ser|ous|y
threatens the product|v|ty o the agr|cu|tura| sector and
|ts contr|but|on to econom|c and soc|a| deve|opment.
The poorer peop|e who depend d|rect|y on ecosystem
serv|ces or the|r ||ve||hoods are the most vu|nerab|e
to permanent changes |n temperature and water
ava||ab|||ty, as we|| as to an overa|| h|gher var|ab|||ty
|n c||mat|c patterns. They not on|y have |ess access
to var|ous types o resources, but they a|so have
ewer opportun|t|es or d|vers|y|ng the|r ||ve||hoods
to |nc|ude other |ncome-generat|ng act|v|t|es |n order
to reduce the|r dependence on agr|cu|ture and other
ecosystem serv|ces.
One o the ma|n reasons or the poor s|tuat|on and
the h|gh vu|nerab|||ty o armers and agr|cu|ture |n
SSA |s the |ong-term neg|ect o th|s sector by both
nat|ona| governments and the |nternat|ona| donor
commun|ty start|ng |n the 1980s. Pub||c spend|ng
on arm|ng accounts or on|y 4 per cent o tota|
government spend|ng |n SSA (Wor|d Bank, 2008),
and the agr|cu|tura| sector |s taxed at a re|at|ve|y h|gh
|eve|. ln add|t|on, the share o the agr|cu|tura| sector |n
ofc|a| deve|opment ass|stance (ODA) dec||ned rom
18 per cent |n 1979 to 3.5 per cent |n 2004 (Wor|d
Bank, 2008). Today, the |mportance o agr|cu|ture or
econom|c growth has genera||y been recogn|zed, and
nat|ona|, reg|ona| and |nternat|ona| organ|zat|ons are
mak|ng greater eorts to support |ts deve|opment
(Oha|||nor et a|., 2007, Haze|| et a|., 2007). ln the|r
Maputo Dec|arat|on o 2003, member countr|es o
the Ar|can n|on ca||ed upon Ar|can governments
to |ncrease |nvestment |n the agr|cu|tura| sector to at
|east 10 per cent o the|r nat|ona| budgets. However,
most Ar|can countr|es are st||| ar rom reach|ng
th|s target. Moreover, even though the sector |s now
rece|v|ng more attent|on, ow|ng to the |ong per|od o
neg|ect, the many cha||enges ahead w||| be d|fcu|t to
overcome.
Furthermore, most pub||c transers are |arge|y a|med
at m|t|gat|ng c||mate change rather than support|ng
adaptat|on to |ts |mpacts: 79 per cent o ded|cated
mu|t|- and b||atera| unds were approved or m|t|gat|on
pro|ects (84 per cent | act|v|t|es or reduc|ng em|ss|ons
rom deorestat|on and orest degradat|on (PEDD)
are |nc|uded), and on|y 14 per cent or adaptat|on
pro|ects.
37
B||atera| ODA shows a s||ght|y d|erent
pattern, w|th 70 per cent approved or m|t|gat|on and
30 per cent or adaptat|on (NEP, 2010). Moreover,
most act|v|t|es and unds ocus on reduc|ng em|ss|ons
and |ncreas|ng efc|ency |n the energy and transport
sectors, wh||e adaptat|on and m|t|gat|on |n agr|cu|ture
are st||| underunded. Look|ng at b||atera| ODA aga|n,
agr|cu|ture rece|ved on|y 1 per cent o a|| unds
ded|cated to m|t|gat|on, compared w|th 10 per cent
or adaptat|on act|v|t|es |n 2009 (NEP, 2010).
8. pI|ons Ior mu|I|IuncI|ona| agr|cu|Iura
and ras|||anI ||va||hoods
The var|ous constra|nts on Ar|can agr|cu|ture as
out||ned above ca|| or mu|t|unct|ona| approaches
that |ncrease the res|||ence o agr|cu|tura| systems and
||ve||hoods to the |mpacts o externa| d|sturbances,
|nc|ud|ng c||mate change. Such agr|cu|tura|
management shou|d a|m to contr|bute to ood secur|ty
and to support econom|c and soc|a| deve|opment or
a|| stakeho|ders, wh||e at the same t|me m|n|m|z|ng
negat|ve |mpacts on ecosystems. Tak|ng |nto account
the |arge contr|but|on o the agr|cu|tura| sector to g|oba|
greenhouse gas (GHG) em|ss|ons, a comprehens|ve
approach shou|d a|so str|ve to avo|d management
pract|ces that |ncrease em|ss|ons. lndeed, there
41
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
are var|ous approaches that may even contr|bute to
reduc|ng agr|cu|tura| GHG em|ss|ons | |mp|emented
proper|y.
Due to the current|y |ow product|v|ty o agr|cu|ture
|n SSA, there |s a |arge potent|a| or |mprovements
towards res|||ent and mu|t|unct|ona| pract|ces.
Most o these susta|nab|e management pract|ces
were a|ready we|| known beore the |mpacts o
c||mate change |ncreased the urgency o the|r
|mp|ementat|on. ln the|r most comprehens|ve orm,
|ntegrated approaches a|so take |nto account |mpacts
o agr|cu|tura| and |and-use management on |oca|
||ve||hoods, soc|a| equ|ty and |nc|us|on, and are part
o w|der |ntegrated natura| resources management
(lAASTD, 2009b). lntegrated systems do not requ|re
a s|ng|e, str|ct|y defned techno|ogy, rather they
requ|re a set o vary|ng pract|ces adapted to |oca|
b|ophys|ca| and soc|o-econom|c cond|t|ons. A|| these
approaches have one eature |n common: they seek
to depend |ess on externa| |nputs. lnstead, they rather
manage the comp|ex dynam|cs and |nteract|ons
between d|erent components o agroecosystems
and ad|o|n|ng ecosystems by m|m|ck|ng nature
and by re|y|ng on techno|og|es and |nputs that are
ava||ab|e w|th|n the system (De Schutter, 2011,
Buck and Scherr, 2011). lntegrated systems support
adaptat|on to c||mate change by strengthen|ng the
res|||ence o the agroecosystem to any d|sturbances,
by |ncreas|ng the degree o d|vers|fcat|on and
|mprov|ng the prov|s|on o env|ronmenta| serv|ces. At
the same t|me, the|r |ow use o ert|||zers and other
externa| |nputs can reduce adverse |mpacts on
ecosystem components and resu|t |n |ower em|ss|ons
rom the product|on and transport process. lnstead o
re|y|ng on |arge quant|t|es o externa| mater|a| |nputs,
armers' know|edge |s the ma|or resource, and key
to the appropr|ate app||cat|on o |nputs and to the
successu| |mp|ementat|on o new management
pract|ces.
lt |s st||| uncerta|n whether mu|t|unct|ona| and |nte-
grated management pract|ces can ensure ood
secur|ty and whether they are compet|t|ve w|th
convent|ona|, h|gh-|nput agr|cu|tura| systems w|th
regard to product|v|ty. Wh||e these aspects are st|||
the sub|ect o ongo|ng d|scuss|ons (Badg|ey et a|.,
2007, Oonnor, 2008, G|aness|, 2009, P|mente| et a|.,
2005), there |s some ev|dence that, compared w|th
h|gh-y|e|d|ng systems |n deve|oped countr|es, organ|c
agr|cu|ture and other types o |ntegrated approaches
resu|t |n |ower y|e|ds (Badg|ey et a|., 2007, Oonnor,
2008). However, |n many reg|ons |n SSA, |ow-|nput
systems preva||, some o wh|ch can be regarded as
organ|c systems, as they use ew, | any, externa| |nputs
that are e|ther not access|b|e or are too expens|ve.
ln such systems, a comp|ete sh|t to |ntegrated and
adequate|y managed systems may |ncrease y|e|ds
(Badg|ey et a|., 2007, Pretty, 2008, NEP-NOTAD,
2008). (For a more deta||ed d|scuss|on o the
product|v|ty and proftab|||ty o organ|c agr|cu|ture, see
the commentary o Nemes |n th|s chapter.)
The Ar|can cont|nent st||| aces the h|ghest popu|at|on
growth rates |n the wor|d (FAO, 2006, B|nswanger-
Mkh|ze, 2009). Th|s, a|ong w|th current defc|enc|es
|n ood secur|ty and poss|b|e uture changes |n
d|ets, re|norces the urgency to |ncrease agr|cu|tura|
product|on. Whether th|s ob|ect|ve shou|d be ma|n|y
pursued by e|ther |ntens|y|ng product|on on ex|st|ng
agr|cu|tura| |and or by expand|ng agr|cu|tura| |and
to prev|ous|y unused areas, |s current|y an |ssue o
debate. Even |n a |and-r|ch cont|nent such as Ar|ca,
the amount o |and su|tab|e or agr|cu|tura| purposes
|s dec||n|ng rap|d|y (fgure 10), and the convers|on o
other |and uses (part|cu|ar|y orests) or agr|cu|tura|
purposes produces add|t|ona| OO
2
em|ss|ons (fgure
11). Moreover, |and convers|on may |eopard|ze
the ||ve||hoods o peop|e who generate ecosystem
serv|ces rom the ormer |and uses (or a more
e|aborate d|scuss|on, see the comments o P|mente|
and GPAlN |n th|s chapter).
lntens|fcat|on, on the other hand, may e|ther be
|mp|emented through |ntegrated agroeco|og|ca|
approaches, as out||ned above, or through |arger
sca|e convent|ona| agr|cu|ture, wh|ch may |ncrease
pressure on natura| resources and wh|ch a|so runs
the r|sk o |eav|ng sma||ho|ders beh|nd. The process
o |ntens|y|ng product|on on ex|st|ng agr|cu|tura| |and
needs |mprovements |n agr|cu|tura| management
and/or add|t|ona| |nputs, part|cu|ar|y e|ther m|nera| or
organ|c ert|||zers. However, |ntens|y|ng product|on
requ|res access to these |nputs (wh|ch current|y rema|n
unaordab|e to |oca| armers) and to know|edge and
|normat|on |n order to |mp|ement new management
pract|ces |n an appropr|ate way. Otherw|se, add|t|ona|
|nputs may resu|t |n h|gher em|ss|ons o n|trous ox|de
and carbon d|ox|de.
However, even | governments and the |nternat|ona|
commun|ty were to pay greater attent|on to the
agr|cu|tura| sector, |t |s ||ke|y that |n some areas
agr|cu|ture w||| become extreme|y d|fcu|t or w|||
no |onger be v|ab|e due to c||mate change and
42
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
F|gura 10: Land Ior agr|cu|Iura| usa, 1960-Z010 (ha par cap|Ia)
Sc0|ce: Based on FAOSTAT.
F|gura 11: 0
Z
am|ss|ons Irom |and-usa changa |n sa|acIad dava|op|ng rag|ons, 1B60-Z009
Sc0|ce: G|oba| Oarbon Pro|ect, 2010.
1
9
6
0

-
1
9
7
0

-
1
9
8
0

-
1
9
9
0

-
2
0
0
0

-
2
0
1
0

-
4.0 -
3.5 -
3.0 -
2.5 -
2.0 -
1.5 -
1.0 -
0.5 -
0.0 -
Sub-Saharan Africa
North Africa
North America
World
Asia
H
e
c
t
a
r
e
s

p
e
r

c
a
p
i
t
a
1
8
5
0

-
1
8
6
0

-
1
8
7
0

-
1
8
8
0

-
1
8
9
0

-
1
9
0
0

-
1
9
1
0

-
1
9
2
0

-
1
9
3
0

-
1
9
4
0

-
1
9
5
0

-
1
9
6
0

-
1
9
7
0

-
1
9
8
0

-
1
9
9
0

-
2
0
0
0

-
2
0
1
0

-
1,000 -
800 -
600 -
400 -
200 -
0 -
-200 -
Latin America
C
O
2

e
m
m
i
s
s
i
o
n
s

(
T
g
C
y
-
1
)
S and SE Asia
Tropical Africa
env|ronmenta| degradat|on (e.g., F|scher et a|., 2005).
ln those |nstances, adaptat|on strateg|es shou|d be
adopted that a|m to d|vers|y the ||ve||hoods o rura|
househo|ds. D|vers|fcat|on |n arm|ng re|ates to r|sk
spread|ng through var|ous agr|cu|tura| pract|ces (such
as agroorestry) or m|xed crop-||vestock systems
(that re|y on a |arger number o d|erent crops and/
or ||vestock products) to reduce the threat o crop
a||ure |n case o unavourab|e c||mat|c cond|t|ons.
lncome d|vers|fcat|on |nto non-arm act|v|t|es reduces
the d|rect dependence on ecosystem serv|ces, and
can oten generate h|gher |ncomes than agr|cu|tura|
act|v|t|es. Th|s supp|ementary |ncome can aga|n
be used or add|t|ona| |nvestments |n agr|cu|tura|
act|v|t|es, wh|ch |n turn cou|d |ncrease |ncome
generat|on rom arm|ng (E|||s and Freeman, 2004).
Other aspects, such as |mprovement o educat|on
|n rura| areas (Jayne, Mather and Mgheny|, 2010) or
better |nrastructure, may a|so contr|bute to |ncreas|ng
the res|||ence o rura| ||ve||hoods w|thout be|ng d|rect|y
re|ated to agr|cu|ture.
43
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
0. Incraas|ng Iha ras|||anca oI agr|cu|Iura|
sysIams
Domest|c and externa| |ntervent|ons to deve|op and
strengthen agr|cu|ture w||| have to overcome the
undamenta| constra|nts on agr|cu|tura| deve|opment
|n SSA, such as |ack o access to |and, agr|cu|tura|
|nputs as we|| as know|edge and |normat|on, noted
above. l these constra|nts are not addressed,
adaptat|on to c||mate change w||| on|y be dea||ng
w|th the symptoms o |ow adapt|ve capac|ty, h|gh
vu|nerab|||ty and |ow res|||ence. The constra|nts are
|eopard|z|ng agr|cu|tura| product|on at a t|me when the
|mpacts o c||mate change can a|ready be observed.
Thus there |s no t|me |et to a||ow a sequence o frst
address|ng the undamenta| |ssues beore respond|ng
to c||mate change. Pather, a|| current cha||enges have
to be tack|ed through an |ntegrated eort, together
w|th appropr|ate measures to support adaptat|on and
|ncrease the overa|| res|||ence o agr|cu|tura| systems
and rura| ||ve||hoods.
Spec|fc opt|ons or domest|c act|on and externa|
support or those act|ons are d|scussed be|ow.
1. Prov|d|ng accass Io |and
Proper |and reorm, |and reg|strat|on and secure
|and-tenure r|ghts or women and men need to be
guaranteed to enab|e |nvestment |n susta|nab|e
arm|ng pract|ces, the benefts o wh|ch oten accrue
on|y |n the |ong term. Pecent|y, |ncreased ore|gn
d|rect |nvestment |n |and has rece|ved much attent|on
|n Ar|ca as |t contr|butes at |east |n some countr|es
to comprom|s|ng trad|t|ona| |and use r|ghts (or a
more e|aborate ana|ys|s, see the comment o M|tta| |n
chapter 4). For these reasons, |nternat|ona| gu|de||nes
or manag|ng the |mpacts on |oca| |and tenure o
|arge (ore|gn) |nvestments |n |and are needed. The
recent successu| conc|us|on o |ntergovernmenta|
negot|at|ons on vc|0n|a|, G0|oe||nes cn ||e
Pesocns|o|e Gc.e|nance c/ 7en0|e c/ |ano, F|s|e||es
ano Fc|es|s (FAO, 2011) |ed by the Oomm|ttee on
Wor|d Food Secur|ty (OFS) and the report o the H|gh
Leve| Pane| o Experts o the OFS (FAO, 2011c) marks
a start|ng po|nt. lt |s v|ta| that nat|ona| governments
o||ow these gu|de||nes, rev|ew the|r |and |aws and
|ncorporate checks and ba|ances to ensure that the
|nvestments |mprove rura| deve|opment, are pro-poor
and do not |eopard|ze adapt|ve capac|t|es.
lnvestment |mpact assessments are another he|pu|
|nstrument. They shou|d be carr|ed out pr|or to a
|and |nvestment, and need to ana|yse: (|) whether
and how much an |nvestment |n |and h|nders |oca|
peop|e's access to resources that they a|ready use or
are ||ke|y to use |n the uture as an adaptat|on opt|on,
and (||) how much the |nvestment |s contr|but|ng to
emp|oyment and human capac|ty-bu||d|ng. lnvestment
|mpact assessments shou|d be carr|ed out by an
agr|cu|tura| sector coord|nat|on un|t that |nc|udes
the fnance and |ust|ce m|n|str|es, and the act|v|t|es
o these un|ts shou|d be |normed by |normat|on
gathered by domest|c and |nternat|ona| non-
governmenta| organ|zat|ons (NGOs) when mon|tor|ng
such |nvestments. Wh||e ore|gn |nvestment |s not the
on|y actor h|nder|ng access to |and, such |nvestment
shou|d neverthe|ess be assessed urgent|y, as |t
m|ght urther hamper access to |and or sma||ho|der
armers and other vu|nerab|e actors. Th|s |s because
the compet|t|on or |and |s between actors o unequa|
power. Oountr|es such as Kenya are a|ready ocus|ng
on how to |mprove access to |and through a new
const|tut|on that ensures equa| access to |and by men
and women. ln add|t|on, popu|at|on pressure and the
ensu|ng |and ragmentat|on cou|d be addressed by
strateg|ca||y deve|op|ng the sk|||s o popu|at|ons to
a||ow them to move out o agr|cu|ture.
Z. Ensur|ng s||||ad agr|cu|Iura| manpoWar Ior
|nnovaI|va agr|cu|Iura| producI|on sysIams
Ourrent|y |ow product|v|ty |eve|s o agr|cu|ture |n SSA
a|ready |nd|cate that sk||| defc|ts and changes |n
natura| parameters w||| render age-|ong |nd|genous
know|edge bu||t rom one generat|on to another
|nadequate. Farmers need know|edge and |normat|on
on new c||mat|c parameters |n order to |mp|ement
|nnovat|ve product|on systems that are more
res|||ent and at the same t|me more product|ve. The
d|ssem|nat|on o ex|st|ng |nd|genous pract|ces rom
other c||mat|c reg|ons cou|d a|so ac|||tate adaptat|on
to new c||mat|c parameters. Adaptat|on w||| need to
be or|ented towards mak|ng more eect|ve use o
the natura| endowments o arms. Th|s |nc|udes, or
examp|e, enhanc|ng so|| ert|||ty by bu||d|ng up so||
organ|c matter through recyc||ng o b|omass and
compost|ng, wh|ch w||| s|gn|fcant|y |mprove so||
res|||ence and |ts water retent|on capac|ty. lt a|so
|nc|udes the use o b|omass and organ|c waste or
(o-gr|d) energy generat|on.
The need or |nnovat|on oers opportun|t|es or pub||c-
pr|vate partnersh|ps |n adaptat|on to c||mate change,
as the o||ow|ng two examp|es show. F|rst, |nnovat|ve
44
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|normat|on and commun|cat|on techno|og|es (lOTs),
such as short message serv|ces on mob||e phones
(SMS) are current|y be|ng used |n SSA to d|ssem|nate
market |normat|on and transer money (Aker and
Mb|t|, 2010, Jack and Sur|, 2011). Oommun|cat|on
enterpr|ses, |n co||aborat|on w|th un|vers|t|es,
extens|on serv|ces, NGOs and other partners, cou|d
deve|op |normat|on serv|ces to wh|ch armers
cou|d subscr|be. Most househo|ds |n rura| areas |n
deve|op|ng countr|es have mob||e te|ephones, and,
by |mprov|ng coverage o the network, |normat|on
cou|d be d|ssem|nated to |oca| producers at ||tt|e cost,
or ex|st|ng |normat|on serv|ces cou|d be extended to
|nc|ude |nnovat|on-re|ated |ssues.
Second, successu| |nnovat|on w||| |ncreas|ng|y
depend on ac|||tat|ng on-arm |earn|ng among
armers. Th|s can be supported by armer fe|d schoo|s
and new orms o hands-on co||aborat|on between
armers, extens|on workers and researchers (see
a|so the comments o K|erkx as we|| as Mbuku and
Kosgey |n Ohapter 3 o th|s Pev|ew). ln the case o
cash crops, pr|vate corporat|ons are a|so promot|ng
the deve|opment and d|ssem|nat|on o susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces |n order to respond to consumer
demand and to stab|||ze the supp|y o agr|cu|tura|
|nputs. One examp|e |s n||ever wh|ch a|ms at
susta|nab|e sourc|ng or a|| products by 2020, and
chose tea arm|ng |n Kenya as a p|oneer|ng act|v|ty.
Sma||ho|ders and the Kenyan extens|on serv|ce
are ma|or part|c|pants |n th|s programme, and |oca|
product|on and d|ssem|nat|on o new know|edge |s a
key mechan|sm.
Extens|on serv|ces are cruc|a| or |mprov|ng agr|cu|tur-
a| product|v|ty and or |ncreas|ng the res|||ence o th|s
sector to c||mate change. ln countr|es such as Kenya
and Ma|aw|, enterpr|s|ng armers are now acqu|r|ng
the |normat|on and know|edge they need to ma|nta|n
and susta|n the|r product|on themse|ves (le||ka
Speranza, 2010). However, |n add|t|on, |oca| producers
cou|d be tra|ned as extens|on ofcers recogn|zed by
the government |n order to oer extens|on serv|ces to
other armers who |ack th|s capac|ty. Th|s cou|d he|p
to address many shortcom|ngs o current government
extens|on serv|ces, such as the ||m|ted und|ng and
the requent transers o extens|on ofcers rom one
|ocat|on to another wh|ch prevent the deve|opment
o an eco|og|ca| and soc|o-econom|c memory that
m|ght underp|n the conso||dat|on o deve|opment
|ntervent|ons. Forma||y tra|ned extens|on ofcers
cou|d then ocus on more spec|a||zed serv|ces such
as crop-spec|fc serv|ces (or more |normat|on, see
the comment o K|erkx |n chapter 3 o th|s Pev|ew).
F|na||y, stud|es on the adopt|on o conservat|on
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces show that partnersh|ps between
research, government extens|on serv|ces and pr|vate
compan|es are cruc|a| or |ncreas|ng armers'
product|v|ty.
3. Improv|ng accass Io |npuIs
\ar|ous crop research |nst|tut|ons have a|ready
deve|oped |mproved crop var|et|es that wou|d
respond to most o the |mpacts o c||mate change
|n Ar|ca (e.g. to|erance to drought and h|gher
temperatures, ear|y matur|ty, h|gher y|e|ds, h|gher
prote|n content and pest res|stance) |n the short term
(lOPlSAT, 2009). However, |mproved crop var|et|es
are o no use | the armers cannot access them
due to |ack o |normat|on and requ|red add|t|ona|
|nputs, or because they cannot aord them. Access
to |normat|on about these new var|et|es can be
|mproved by us|ng commun|cat|on and extens|on
serv|ces as d|scussed above. Further opportun|t|es
||e |n deve|op|ng |nd|genous seed enterpr|ses and
partnersh|ps w|th nat|ona| agenc|es or rap|d armer
part|c|patory var|eta| test|ng and re|ease, and through
the prov|s|on o |normat|on to armers, extens|on
ofcers and NGO groups about new var|et|es. These
|earn|ng exper|ences are a|so |mportant or test|ng
new var|et|es |n the fe|d and or ana|ys|ng pract|ca|
reasons why there m|ght be reduced acceptance.
lmprov|ng the po||cy env|ronment or d|ssem|nat|ng
seeds across borders |s a|so a strategy o||owed by
research |nst|tut|ons to ensure that |mproved seeds
reach the armers. Harmon|zat|on o reg|ona| seed
regu|at|ons |n Ar|ca |s expected to |mprove the rates
o re|ease o new var|et|es, |ower the costs |n dea||ng
w|th regu|atory author|t|es, |ncrease trade |n |mproved
seed var|et|es and, u|t|mate|y, the|r adopt|on by
armers (M|not et a|., 2007).
Farmers a|so have ||m|ted know|edge o and access to
these new crop techno|og|es (K|||ma, 2008, WAPDA,
2008, lOPlSAT, 2009, OlMMYT/llTA, 2011). To address
these shortcom|ngs, governments can fnanc|a||y
support |oca| seed breed|ng compan|es and
d|str|bute ree tr|a|s to armers on a promot|ona| bas|s,
ater wh|ch they wou|d have to pay or subsequent
supp||es. M|crocred|t or |nnovat|ve arm|ng w||| a|so be
necessary to he|p overcome the h|gh upront costs o
new management pract|ces requ|red or conservat|on
arm|ng and other |ntegrated approaches. For an |n|t|a|
45
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
trans|t|on per|od, government subs|d|es may a|so be
warranted, as |n Ma|aw|, where a Farm lnput Subs|dy
Program (FlSP) has been shown to |ncrease ma|ze
and |egume product|on (Oh|bwana et a|., 2011), and
has been descr|bed as a smart subs|dy. However,
Oh|bwana et a|. (2011:4) a|so h|gh||ght the d|fcu|ty
o such |ntervent|ons reach|ng the poor as "the most
vu|nerab|e peop|e |n the Ma|aw|an commun|t|es were
not the ma|n rec|p|ents o FlSP coupons", even when
|ntended as the target groups. The |nput subs|d|es
|n|t|a||y |ed to a greater spec|a||zat|on |n ma|ze, and
to reduced crop d|vers|fcat|on and a||ocat|on o |and
to |egume crops, due to a |ack o |egume seeds |n
the market. The FlSP |ater |ed to |ncreased ma|ze and
|egume crop product|on, when armers were prov|ded
w|th both |mproved ma|ze and |egume seeds.
Oh|bwana et a|. (2011) thus argue that wh||e the FlSP
contr|buted to Ma|aw|an ood secur|ty, |t needs to
be adapted to make |t |ess prone to the un|ntended
eects o concentrat|ng product|on on one crop
re|at|ve to the others, |n part|cu|ar, w|th regard to h|gh
|nput pr|ces.
4. Improv|ng |noW|adga abouI |oca| c||maIa changas
Know|ng how the |oca| c||mate |s chang|ng and
|s expected to change |n the uture as we|| as the
assoc|ated r|sks |s cruc|a| or pr|or|t|z|ng adaptat|on
strateg|es and a sh|t towards greater res|||ence. For
examp|e, Saar|com rom Kenya (who revo|ut|on|zed
money transer |n Kenya) promoted access to
|normat|on |n rura| Kenya through Saar|com
Foundat|on L|e||ne rad|o sets, wh|ch serve as a
p|atorm or rad|o serv|ce broadcasts by the Kenya
Meteoro|og|ca| Department (Saar|com Foundat|on,
2005). Deve|opment cooperat|on shou|d be aware
o such |nnovat|ve pro|ects and programmes, and
approach pr|vate compan|es to exp|ore partnersh|ps
or the|r adaptat|on and urther deve|opment.
Another step |s to systemat|ca||y |ntegrate c||mate-
re|evant |normat|on |nto ex|st|ng nat|ona| agr|cu|tura|
programmes |n order to ra|se the awareness o
dec|s|on-makers about the r|sks the|r deve|opment
|ntervent|ons m|ght encounter. Th|s w||| a|ready he|p
to |ntegrate c||mate change adaptat|on |nto po||c|es
and programmes beore the|r |mp|ementat|on at the
|oca| |eve|.
6. AdopI|ng a sacIora| approach Io adapIaI|on
Agr|cu|ture |s st||| the ma|or dr|ver o rura| econom|es |n
deve|op|ng countr|es, |ncreas|ng res|||ence to c||mate
change requ|res a sectora| approach rather than a
narrow ocus on the product|v|ty o crops, ||vestock
and fsher|es. Such an approach wou|d account or
the |nter-||nkages between var|ous |and uses, w|th
the goa| o ach|ev|ng mu|t|p|e goa|s, |nc|ud|ng the
protect|on o |oca| ||ve||hoods, conservat|on o water,
orests and b|od|vers|ty, |mprov|ng ood secur|ty as
we|| as contr|but|ng to renewab|e energy product|on.
lntegrated water resource management w||| be
p|vota| or ensur|ng water ava||ab|||ty or econom|c,
soc|a| and env|ronmenta| uses under cond|t|ons o
c||mate change. Th|s |s even more urgent as the sh|t
towards renewab|e energy techno|og|es w||| |ncrease
compet|t|on or water resources (hydropower versus
|rr|gat|on) and or |and (or ood crops, b|oue|s,
||vestock, orests and b|od|vers|ty protect|on), and |t
may a|so exacerbate ex|st|ng |oca| con1|cts over |and
tenure r|ghts.
Many approaches that generate adaptat|on benefts
and |ncrease res|||ence a|so reduce GHG em|ss|ons,
and thereore present an opportun|ty or an even more
comprehens|ve ma|nstream|ng eort that |nc|udes
m|t|gat|on aspects. Thereore, new po||cy coord|nat|on
mechan|sms need to be estab||shed or |mproved at
|oca|, nat|ona|, reg|ona| and g|oba| |eve|s. lntegrat|ng
c||mate-re|evant |normat|on |nto ex|st|ng nat|ona|
agr|cu|tura| programmes may contr|bute to ra|s|ng the
awareness o dec|s|on-makers to the r|sks conront|ng
the|r deve|opment |ntervent|ons. At the |oca| |eve|, a
|andscape approach cou|d be adopted, tak|ng |nto
account the |nter||nkages between water, orests and
agr|cu|tura| |ands, and the act that |n most cases the
same |oca| producers who produce ood a|so manage
and use water resources and the orests.
One |mportant ob|ect|ve o coord|nated and
|ntegrated sectora| po||c|es at nat|ona| and |oca| |eve|s
|s to |ncrease the |ncent|ves or more susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| product|on systems at the arm |eve|.
Such product|on systems wou|d reduce pressure on
natura| resources, such as so||s and water, and wou|d
contr|bute to |mprov|ng the prov|s|on o ecosystem
serv|ces, wh|ch are essent|a| or agr|cu|tura|
product|on and product|v|ty. ln th|s regard, support|ng
the accumu|at|on o so|| organ|c matter and thus
|ncreas|ng so|| ert|||ty |s one o the most |mportant
examp|es o what |s needed and a ma|or cha||enge |n
SSA (or a more e|aborate ana|ys|s on th|s |ssue, see
the commentary o Leu |n th|s chapter).
46
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A|though severa| deve|opments |n agr|cu|ture, such as
breed|ng and management pract|ces, have |ncreased
y|e|d product|v|ty and ava||ab|||ty o cerea|-based
oods over the past 50 years, more than one b||||on
peop|e wor|dw|de are at r|sk o ood |nsecur|ty today
(FAO, 2009b). Food |nsecur|ty ar|ses when peop|e
do not have access to sufc|ent and nutr|t|ous ood
to meet the|r d|etary needs. An adequate |ntake o
ca|or|es does not automat|ca||y ensure that the need
or m|cronutr|ents has been met. ln the uture, c||mate
change may represent an add|t|ona||y unprecedented
threat to g|oba| ood secur|ty, espec|a||y or peop|e
|n deve|op|ng countr|es who depend heav||y on
agr|cu|ture or the|r ||ve||hoods.
The ma|n dr|v|ng orce beh|nd c||mate change |s the
re|ease o greenhouse gases (GHGs) such as carbon
d|ox|de (OO
2
) due to human act|v|t|es. And th|s |s ||ke|y
to |ncrease over the next ew decades (lPOO, 2007d).
By conservat|ve est|mates, the current concentrat|on o
atmospher|c OO
2
o about 387 parts per m||||on (ppm)
w||| |ncrease to near|y 550 ppm by 2100,
38
|ndeed, |t
|s |ncreas|ng aster than expected. Am|d rap|d|y r|s|ng
ood demand, g|oba| atmospher|c OO
2
enr|chment
w||| aect agroecosystems both d|rect|y and |nd|rect|y,
resu|t|ng |n changes |n y|e|d o ma|or cerea|s, but
potent|a||y aect|ng y|e|d qua||ty tra|ts as we||. As cer-
ea|s supp|y the bu|k o ca|or|es or many popu|at|ons
|n the deve|op|ng wor|d, wh||e a|so const|tut|ng the
pr|mary source o both prote|n and m|cronutr|ents,
c||mate change |s set to exacerbate many o the
prob|ems wh|ch deve|op|ng countr|es a|ready have
to dea| w|th. Ourrent|y, there has been surpr|s|ng|y
||tt|e research spec|fca||y geared to ma|nta|n|ng or
enhanc|ng the product|v|ty o agr|cu|tura| ecosystems
under c||mate change. Ne|ther has there been much
research that addresses the |ssue o vu|nerab|||ty to
c||mate change o other aspects o ood systems such
as y|e|d qua||ty (P|chardson et a|., 2009).
A. |racI aIIacIs oI aImosphar|c 0
Z

anr|chmanI
Atmospher|c OO
2
|s the pr|mary source o carbon or
cerea|s, wh|ch |s taken up by the |ea through stomata.
Oerea|s must absorb ||ght to enab|e photosynthes|s
to convert OO
2
|nto organ|c compounds such as
carbohydrates and am|no ac|ds. Water and nutr|ents
are usua||y acqu|red rom the so|| and, together w|th
photosynthate, are used to create new p|ant t|ssues.
OO
2
eects d|er accord|ng to the photosynthet|c
pathway. E|evated OO
2
aects O
3
39
cerea|s by
|mprov|ng n|trogen use efc|ency (NE) and water
use efc|ency (WE), wh||e O
4
40
cerea|s are aected
exc|us|ve|y v|a |mpacts on WE. Ma|or cerea|s that
have the O
3
photosythet|c pathway |nc|ude wheat,
bar|ey and r|ce, wh||e ma|ze, sorghum and sugarcane
are O
4
spec|es. ln O
3
cerea|s, e|evated OO
2
|s expected
to have pos|t|ve phys|o|og|ca| eects by st|mu|at|ng
photosynthes|s, ma|n|y by enhanc|ng OO
2
fxat|on
o the ch|orop|ast enzyme Pub|sOO and |nduc|ng
stomata| c|osure. As a consequence, e|evated OO
2

resu|ts |n sh|ts |n b|omass a||ocat|on and h|gher y|e|d
product|on (the so-ca||ed "OO
2
ert|||zat|on eect"
reerred to by Pr|tchard and Amthor, 2005). G|ven
adequate water, the eect o OO
2
enr|chment on y|e|d
perormance |s h|gher or O
3
cerea|s (10.215.7 per
Absl|acl
Atmospher|c OO
2
enr|chment may prov|de the benefts o h|gher y|e|ds, but, concom|tant|y, |t cou|d worsen
cerea| qua||ty |n terms o prote|n, am|no ac|d and m|nera| content. Ourrent|y, a|most ha| o the wor|d's
human popu|at|on a|ready suers rom m|cronutr|ent defc|enc|es, and th|s g|oba| hea|th prob|em w||| urther
deter|orate as a resu|t o OO
2
enr|chment. On the other hand, an |ncrease |n temperature and chang|ng
prec|p|tat|on patterns may reduce y|e|d, wh||e hav|ng a pos|t|ve eect on nutr|t|ve va|ue and process|ng.
Commontary v|||: Y|o|d and Y|o|d Gua||ty of Major Coroa|s
Undor C||mato Chango
Pel|a hgy aud Aud|eas laugme|e|
uu|ve|s|ly ol hoheuhe|m, lusl|lule lo| Laudscape aud P|aul Eco|ogy
47
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
cent/100 ppm OO
2
, Hartfe|d et a|., 2011) than or O
4

crops (1.7 per cent/100 ppm OO
2
, Hartfe|d et a|.,
2011), because O
3
photosynthes|s |s not saturated
under amb|ent OO
2
|eve|s.
On the other hand, both O
3
and O
4
cerea|s m|ght
beneft rom e|evated OO
2
under drought stress due
to |mprovements |n water use efc|ency. However,
the pos|t|ve y|e|d response to e|evated OO
2
has oten
been due to more gra|ns rather than |arger gra|ns. ln
add|t|on to these eects on the quant|ty, |t appears
that OO
2
enr|chment a|so aects the nutr|t|ona| qua||ty
o O
3
cerea|s (K|mba||, Kobayash| and B|nd|, 2002).
ln many |nstances, the extra carbon |s converted
|nto carbohydrates such as starch. Oons|stent|y,
the amy|ose content o r|ce gra|ns, wh|ch |s a ma|or
determ|nant o cook|ng qua||ty, has been observed to
|ncrease under OO
2
enr|chment (Oonroy et a|., 1994),
resu|t|ng |n more frmness o cooked r|ce gra|ns.
A negat|ve |nteract|on between n|trogen status |n
p|ants and gra|n qua||ty has been observed |n O
3

cerea|s, made worse by OO
2
enr|chment due to
changes |n |ea n|trogen metabo||sm. Such changes
are |arge|y the resu|t o sma||er part|t|on|ng o n|trogen
|n photosynthet|c processes (K|mba|| et a|., 2001).
As sma||-gra|ned cerea|s, such as bar|ey, wheat and
r|ce, may remob|||ze up to 90 per cent o the n|trogen
rom the vegetat|ve p|ant parts dur|ng gra|n f|||ng, |ess
n|trogen |nvestment |n the p|ant under e|evated OO
2

cou|d be the pr|mary cause o reduct|on |n gra|n prote|n
concentrat|on. A|though |t |s known that n|trogen |s a
key regu|ator o p|ant responses to OO
2
, the changes
|n n|trogen metabo||sm are not we|| understood at
a b|ochem|ca| |eve|. However, the nutr|t|ona| va|ue
o these three cerea|s may deter|orate due to OO
2
-
|nduced decreases |n gra|n prote|n concentrat|on by
9.815.3 per cent (Taub, M|||er and A||en, 2008), w|th
ser|ous consequences or most app||cat|ons |n terms
o process|ng such as bread-mak|ng. As e|evated
OO
2
|nh|b|ts n|trate ass|m||at|on |n O
3
cerea|s, |t w|||
be cr|t|ca| or armers to careu||y manage n|trogen
ert|||zat|on |n order to prevent |oss o gra|n prote|n
(B|oom et a|., 2010).
ldso and ldso (2001), on the other hand, have argued
that any eects o OO
2
enr|chment on prote|n content
|n cerea|s cou|d be ame||orated by |ncreased use o
n|trogen ert|||zer. lt |s apparent that greater attent|on
w||| have to be g|ven to n|trogen management |n
cerea|s under OO
2
enr|chment |n order to |ncrease
product|on efc|ency and to ma|nta|n both y|e|ds and
prote|n concentrat|ons |n gra|ns. However, |t shou|d be
kept |n m|nd that, espec|a||y |n deve|op|ng countr|es,
the ava||ab|||ty o n|trogen |n agr|cu|ture |s oten
|nsufc|ent to ach|eve adequate crop y|e|ds, and th|s
|s one o the causes o ma|nutr|t|on. Moreover, OO
2
-
|nduced a|terat|ons |n the compos|t|on o prote|ns
and am|no ac|ds may a|so aect the nutr|t|ve va|ue o
gra|ns and process|ng qua||ty such as bread-mak|ng
(Hogy and Fangme|er, 2008, Hogy et a|., 2009). ln
add|t|on, subt|e |mba|ances |n macro- and m|cro-
e|ement propert|es may occur under OO
2
enr|chment,
resu|t|ng |n h|gher r|sk o "h|dden hunger" and
ma|nutr|t|on (Lo|adze, 2002).
ln r|ce, concentrat|ons o |ron and z|nc |mportant or
human nutr|t|on were seen to be |ower under e|evated
OO
2
(Seneweera and Oonroy, 1997). S|m||ar|y, Hogy et
a|. (2009) reported a decrease |n |ron |n wheat gra|ns
under OO
2
enr|chment. These fnd|ngs are v|ta| or the
|mportant task o tack||ng m|cronutr|ent defc|enc|es o
|ron, z|nc, copper, |od|ne and se|en|um, as the ma|or
gra|n crops are a cr|t|ca| source o these nutr|ents or
many popu|at|ons around the wor|d (Oau|fe|d and
B|ack, 2004, Sto|tzus et a|., 2004). Ourrent|y, a|most
ha| o the human popu|at|on a|ready suers rom
m|cronutr|ent defc|enc|es, and th|s g|oba| hea|th
prob|em w||| worsen under OO
2
enr|chment.
Pecent|y, |t has been reported that the n|trogen
nutr|t|ona| status o cerea|s appears to be cr|t|ca|,
as the transport|ng o |ron rom the rh|zophere |nto
gra|ns |s dependent on var|ous prote|ns and other
n|trogenous components (Oakmak et a|., 2010). OO
2

enr|chment can have the eect o reduc|ng the gra|n
|ron concentrat|on by worsen|ng the gra|n prote|n
concentrat|on, and thereby the s|nk strength o the
gra|n or |ron.
OO
2
-|nduced |mpacts on y|e|d qua||ty o cerea|s
are current|y not we|| understood, and the ava||ab|e
|normat|on |s st||| |ncons|stent (DaMatta et a|., 2010,
Morett| et a|., 2010). Neverthe|ess, |t seems that
macro- and m|cronutr|ent management |s necessary
or ma|nta|n|ng gra|n qua||ty under OO
2
enr|chment. ln
add|t|on, |nnovat|ons |n the process|ng o stap|e crops
and changes |n peop|e's d|ets w||| be needed |n a h|gh-
OO
2
wor|d. The eects o OO
2
|n terms o reduc|ng
the nutr|t|ona| va|ue o cerea|s wou|d pr|mar||y |mpact
on popu|at|ons |n poorer countr|es who are |ess ab|e
to compensate by eat|ng more ood and more var|ed
d|ets, or poss|b|y tak|ng nutr|t|ona| supp|ements. To
meet the |ncreas|ng demand or hea|thy ood, and
w|th the wor|d's popu|at|on pred|cted to |ncrease to
10.1 b||||on by 2100 (n|ted Nat|ons, 2011), |t w||| be
48
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
necessary to |ncrease crop product|on. The use o
cerea|s that can respond eect|ve|y to OO
2
enr|chment
wh||e ma|nta|n|ng h|gh-qua||ty tra|ts may be a poweru|
opt|on to respond to these |ncreased requ|rements.
ln conc|us|on, e|evated atmospher|c OO
2
concentrat|on
w||| have a d|rect eect on ma|or O
3
cerea|s, resu|t|ng
|n h|gher gra|n y|e|ds. However, at the same t|me,
many qua||tat|ve compounds assoc|ated w|th cerea|s
as ood crops w||| be adverse|y aected |n the uture,
notab|y, dec||nes |n prote|ns, am|no ac|ds and
m|nera|s such as |ron and z|nc. As ment|oned ear||er,
these eects have been observed |n gra|ns under
OO
2
enr|chment, resu|t|ng |n a h|gher r|sk o "h|dden
hunger" and ma|nutr|t|on, espec|a||y |n deve|op|ng
countr|es.
8. Ind|racI aIIacIs oI r|s|ng IamparaIuras
and changas |n prac|p|IaI|on paIIarns
lnd|rect |mpacts o atmospher|c OO
2
enr|chment on
agr|cu|tura| ecosystems may occur due to g|oba|
warm|ng. G|oba| temperatures are ||ke|y to |ncrease by
at |east 2O beore the end o th|s century. Moreover,
g|oba| warm|ng |s ||ke|y to |ncrease the requency o
heat-stress ep|sodes. lt |s we|| known that agr|cu|tura|
product|v|ty |s sens|t|ve to temperature dur|ng the
grow|ng season. As many crops are near the|r
max|mum temperature to|erance |n Ar|ca, As|a and
Lat|n Amer|ca, y|e|ds are ||ke|y to a|| sharp|y w|th even
sma|| |ncreases |n temperature. Thus deve|op|ng
countr|es wh|ch ace rap|d popu|at|on growth are at
a part|cu|ar|y h|gh r|sk o ood shortages caused by
temperature |ncreases. Severa|| stud|es confrm that
a 1O r|se |n temperature corresponds to a rough|y
10 per cent reduct|on |n y|e|d o ma|or cerea|s such
as wheat, r|ce and ma|ze due to a shorten|ng o the
gra|n-f|| durat|on (Batt|st| and Nay|or, 2009, Lobe|| et
a|., 2008).
The response o cerea|s to temperature change
has been observed to be non-||near, because o
the |nteract|on o water and heat stress (Lobe||,
2007). Moreover, cerea|s respond d|erent|y to
temperature dur|ng the|r ||e cyc|e, w|th a h|gher
temperature opt|mum dur|ng the|r vegetat|ve
deve|opment compared w|th the per|od o
reproduct|ve deve|opment. The po|||nat|on phase
o deve|opment, |n part|cu|ar, |s one o the most
sens|t|ve to ep|sod|c temperature |ncrease, and
temperature extremes dur|ng the reproduct|ve
stage can produce some o the greatest |mpacts
on cerea| product|on. F|ora| ster|||ty caused by
e|evated temperature may |ower s|nk demands or
carbohydrates and thus h|nder the trans|ocat|on o
photosynthates rom shoot (source) to gra|n (s|nk),
resu|t|ng |n an accumu|at|on o dry matter |n the
shoot even ater 1ower|ng. On the other hand, the
gra|n s|ze o cerea|s rema|ns re|at|ve|y constant and
dec||nes on|y s|ow|y w|th |ncreas|ng temperatures,
unt|| the po|||nat|on a||ure po|nt.
Bes|des y|e|d parameters, gra|n qua||ty tra|ts o
the crops produced are a|so h|gh|y vu|nerab|e
to temperature. Temperatures up to the spec|es-
dependent opt|mum acce|erate the rate o maturat|on,
caus|ng |ncreases |n prote|n content accompan|ed
by changes |n gra|n prote|n compos|t|on and dough
qua||ty character|st|cs, such as dough strength
(Oorbe|||n| et a|., 1998). Acce|erated senescence |eads
to n|trogen remob|||zat|on rom vegetat|ve p|ant parts,
and am|no ac|ds der|ved rom prote|n degradat|on
compensate or the temperature-|nduced decrease
|n gra|n f|||ng t|me and the n|trogen shortage due to
reduct|on o n|trogen uptake rom so|| by cerea| roots.
Aga|n, the t|m|ng o stress occurrence |s an |mportant
actor |n determ|n|ng the eect on gra|n prote|n
concentrat|on. ln r|ce, h|gh temperatures dur|ng gra|n
f|||ng were observed to |ncrease the accumu|at|on
o a|| c|asses o storage prote|ns at the ear|y f|||ng
stage, whereas they reduced the accumu|at|on o
pro|am|ns at maturat|on (L|n et a|., 2010). ln contrast,
carbohydrate synthes|s |n gra|ns depends pr|mar||y
on concurrent carbon fxat|on dur|ng gra|n f|||ng, thus
gra|n starch dec||ned due to shortened durat|on o
starch accumu|at|on or due to the |nh|b|t|on o key
enzymes |nvo|ved |n starch synthes|s.
Ohanges |n prec|p|tat|on (both amount and requency)
can a|so have devastat|ng |mpacts on agr|cu|ture, w|th
grave consequences or human nutr|t|on and g|oba|
hea|th. S|nce water status |s |mportant or m|nera|
mob|||zat|on, water defc|ency may reduce the uptake
o |ron, z|nc and copper rom the so||, resu|t|ng |n
decreased concentrat|ons o these m|nera|s |n cerea|
gra|ns such as ma|ze (Oktem, 2008). M|cronutr|ent
ma|nutr|t|on has enormous soc|o-econom|c |mpacts,
such as |ncreased morta||ty and morb|d|ty, |mpa|red
growth, deve|opment and |earn|ng capac|ty |n |nants
and ch||dren as we|| as |oss o work|ng capab|||t|es
o adu|ts. Th|s |n turn underm|nes econom|c growth
and perpetuates poverty (Wor|d Bank, 2006, WHO,
2002). O||mate change |s expected to a|ter the
t|m|ng and quant|ty o water ava||ab|e or agr|cu|ture
49
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
wh||e |ncreas|ng the needs o crops or water as
temperatures r|se.
Today, many armers around the wor|d are
a|ready exper|enc|ng |ess pred|ctab|e ra|na|| and
temperatures as we|| as extreme weather events.
As d|erent cu|t|vars respond d|erent|y to c||mat|c
actors and uncerta|nt|es ex|st about uture cond|t|ons
or cerea| product|on, new var|et|es o cu|t|vars need
to be deve|oped w|th tra|ts such as heat and drought
res|stance.
Overa||, |t can be conc|uded that |nd|rect |mpacts due
to atmospher|c OO
2
enr|chment, such as temperature
|ncreases and changes |n prec|p|tat|on patterns, may
reduce the gra|n y|e|d o ma|or cerea|s. On the other
hand, prote|n concentrat|on may |ncrease under r|s|ng
temperatures, resu|t|ng |n a h|gher nutr|t|ve va|ue o
gra|ns. However, decreases |n accumu|at|on o starch
and m|nera|s such as |ron, z|nc and copper |n ma|or
cerea|s may aect the nutr|t|ona| qua||ty o the end-
product and ood secur|ty, as we|| as the use o those
cerea|s or process|ng |n the uture.
0. uI|oo|
OO
2
-|nduced eects on gra|n y|e|d and crop qua||ty
w||| ||ke|y d|er substant|a||y among |nd|v|dua| cu|t|vars
and spec|es under vary|ng reg|ona| c||mat|c cond|t|ons.
As h|gh OO
2
concentrat|ons cause a|terat|ons |n
evapotransp|rat|on, th|s may a|so resu|t |n eedback on
water magagement and droughts. Water conservat|on
may a||ow extens|on o the growth per|od when water |s
||m|ted. Less |normat|on |s ava||ab|e on the |nteract|ve
eects o c||mate var|ab|||ty and OO
2
enr|chment on
the efc|ency o resource use (e.g. water, nutr|ents)
and |ts consequences or y|e|d quant|ty and qua||ty o
ma|or cerea|s. H|gher temperatures and var|at|ons |n
prec|p|tat|on m|ght reduce the pos|t|ve OO
2
-|nduced
|mpacts on cerea| perormance.
W|th regard to the ava||ab|||ty o adequate ood supp|y
|n the uture, a ma|or task |s thereore to |dent|y the
|mpacts o c||mate change on y|e|d qua||ty |n terms o
nutr|t|ve va|ue and end-use process|ng. Adaptat|on o
cerea| product|on and process|ng to an |ncreas|ng|y
var|ab|e c||mate |s thus o the utmost |mportance,
part|cu|ar|y |n deve|op|ng countr|es, to ensure not on|y
sufc|ent supp||es o cerea|s, but a|so the|r nutr|t|ve
qua||ty. ln order to assure ood secur|ty |n the uture,
|t |s v|ta||y |mportant to understand the comp|ex
re|at|onsh|ps between g|oba| env|ronmenta| changes,
arm|ng pract|ces, d|et and human hea|th.
50
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Organ|c agr|cu|ture has tr|ggered a controvers|a|
debate over the past ew decades, |arge|y because |t
exposes the true costs and darker s|des o chem|ca|-
|ntens|ve |ndustr|a| arm|ng systems. There |s now a
strong body o ev|dence to prove that organ|c arm|ng
|s more env|ronmenta||y r|end|y: potent|a| benefts
ar|se rom, or examp|e, |mproved so|| ert|||ty, organ|c
matter content and b|o|og|ca| act|v|ty, better so||
structure and |ess suscept|b|||ty to eros|on, reduced
po||ut|on rom nutr|ent |each|ng and pest|c|des, and
|mproved p|ant and an|ma| b|od|vers|ty (Kasperczyk
and Kn|cke|, 2006). However, |t |s not c|ear whether
organ|c agr|cu|ture cou|d be econom|ca||y attract|ve
enough to tr|gger |ts w|despread adopt|on. l organ|c
arm|ng oers better env|ronmenta| qua||ty and
hea|th|er oods but not sufc|ent econom|c returns
to the ma|or|ty o armers, |t w||| obv|ous|y rema|n a
|uxury orm o ood product|on v|ab|e or on|y a very
sma|| ract|on o armers. However, the cont|nued
growth o organ|ca||y managed |ands wor|dw|de,
espec|a||y |n deve|op|ng countr|es, does not support
th|s hypothes|s.
A. 0ompar|ng Iha aconom|cs oI organ|c
varsus non-organ|c Iarm|ng
There are we|| over 100 stud|es that compare the
re|at|ve proftab|||ty o organ|c versus non-organ|c
agr|cu|ture. However, there are ewer |ong-term
comparat|ve stud|es that ana|yse the deve|opment
o profts rom each o these systems. Pegrettab|y,
the geograph|ca| d|str|but|on o these stud|es tends
to concentrate on deve|oped countr|es (ma|n|y the
n|ted States) and on certa|n cash crops (e.g. corn,
soy, wheat). For the purpose o th|s ana|ys|s, on|y
stud|es us|ng data rom cert|fed organ|c arms were
cons|dered, cover|ng a m|n|mum per|od o three
years (or deve|oped countr|es) ater convers|on and
undertaken ater 1980. Due to the |ack o |ong-term
econom|c stud|es |n deve|op|ng countr|es, stud|es
cover|ng one and two years were |nc|uded rom
these countr|es. Stud|es that eva|uated y|e|ds and
certa|n product|on costs but not profts were not
cons|dered.
Severa| actors comp||cate the task o compar|ng
econom|c stud|es across space and t|me, such
as d|erent costs o ||v|ng and purchas|ng power,
d|erent |nterpretat|ons o |abour costs, and the
chang|ng econom|c and po||t|ca| env|ronment.
Moreover, methodo|og|ca| cho|ce, the t|me per|od
ana|ysed and the se|ect|on procedure or comparab|e
convent|ona| arms have a cons|derab|e bear|ng
on proftab|||ty. S|m||ar|y, the extent o the econom|c
assessment can vary across stud|es, w|th some
stud|es ocus|ng mere|y on the arm |eve|, wh||e
others broaden the p|cture to the |eve| o soc|ety, and
th|s can |ead to d|erent outcomes. Depend|ng on
th|s cho|ce, opportun|ty costs and externa||t|es are
e|ther |nc|uded (soc|ety |eve|), or, as |n most cases,
exc|uded (arm |eve|). When |ook|ng at proftab|||ty
stud|es, a correct |nterpretat|on o the data |s cruc|a|:
overa|| compar|sons cannot be made, or examp|e
between case stud|es and fe|d exper|ments, between
deve|oped- and deve|op|ng-country resu|ts, and
Absl|acl
An ana|ys|s o over 50 econom|c stud|es demonstrates that, |n the ma|or|ty o cases, organ|c systems are
more proftab|e than non-organ|c systems. H|gher market pr|ces and prem|ums, or |ower product|on costs,
or a comb|nat|on o the two genera||y resu|t |n h|gher re|at|ve profts rom organ|c agr|cu|ture |n deve|oped
countr|es. The same conc|us|on can be drawn rom stud|es |n deve|op|ng countr|es, but there, h|gher y|e|ds
comb|ned w|th h|gh prem|ums are the under|y|ng causes o the|r re|at|ve|y greater proftab|||ty.
Commontary |X: Comparat|vo Ana|ys|s of Organ|c and
Non-Organ|c |arm|ng 5ystoms: A Cr|t|ca|
Assossmont of |arm rof|tab|||ty
hoem| hemes
lA0
51
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
between stud|es w|th a very good data base and
stud|es based on armers' op|n|ons.
8. Y|a|ds
Ev|dence rom the more than 50 stud|es ana|ysed
showed that y|e|ds |n we||-estab||shed organ|c arms
|n deve|oped countr|es are usua||y |ower than those
rom convent|ona| arms, to vary|ng degrees. Most
European stud|es |nc|ud|ng those o organ|c cerea|,
vegetab|e and m|xed arm|ng systems showed
that they produced somewhat |ower y|e|ds (BMELF,
19911998, FAT, 1997, Oermann and N|eberg,
2000), whereas m||k y|e|ds most oten showed s|m||ar
resu|ts when measured |n ||tres per cow (Youn|e et
a|., 1990, FAT, 1993, Oermann and N|eberg, 2000).
On the other hand, the ma|or|ty o |ong-term stud|es
|nvo|v|ng soy-corn rotat|on |n the n|ted States
showed that organ|c y|e|ds, on average, were not
s|gn|fcant|y d|erent (Ohase and Duy, 1991, Hanson,
L|chtenberg and Peters, 1997, Dr|nkwater, Wagoner
and Sarranton|o, 1998, De|ate et a|., 2003, P|mente| et
a|., 2005). Desp|te |ower soy y|e|ds rom organ|c arms
|n some other n|ted States stud|es (Mahoney et a|.,
2004, Ohase, 2008, McBr|de and Greene, 2009),
h|gh prem|ums (McBr|de and Greene, 2009) or |ower
product|on costs (Mahoney et a|., 2004, Ohase, 2008)
rendered a|| organ|c systems more proftab|e.
Severa| o the n|ted States stud|es |nvest|gated dr|er
areas as we|| and ound h|gher y|e|ds |n the organ|c
systems (Stanh|||, 1990, D|ebe|, W||||ams and L|ewe|yn,
1995, Dobbs and Smo||k, 1996, Hanson, L|chtenberg
and Peters, 1997, P|mente| et a|., 2005), suggest|ng
that those systems are more res|stant to drought.
S|m||ar|y, stud|es |n deve|op|ng countr|es showed that
organ|c y|e|ds were genera||y h|gher under norma| or
avourab|e cond|t|ons (lFAD, 2003, Pa| et a|., 2005,
G|bbon and Bo|w|g, 2007, Setboonsarng, Yeung
and Oa|, 2006), and s|gn|fcant|y h|gher under |ess
avorab|e cond|t|ons (Mendoza, 2002). Overa||, the
ma|or|ty o econom|c stud|es |n deve|op|ng countr|es
showed h|gher y|e|ds rom organ|c product|on,
whereas not one study on deve|oped countr|es
showed h|gher y|e|ds rom organ|c compared w|th
convent|ona|.
When convert|ng to organ|c agr|cu|ture, a parad|gm
sh|t must take p|ace, rom the h|gh externa| |nput
packages or treat|ng prob|ems to the use o
prevent|ve management and |ntens|ve know|edge
|nputs. Y|e|ds are not a character|st|c o a product|on
system per se, they depend very much on arm
management. A|though organ|c produce genera||y
y|e|ds |ess, y|e|d |osses can be m|t|gated to a certa|n
8ox Z: |Ihcu|I|as |n ana|ys|ng y|a|ds Irom comparaI|va sIud|as
Object of comparison (commodity or whoIe farm-based). Some authors on|y |ook at y|e|ds o one or two cash
crops separate|y (Ohase and Duy, 1991, Dobbs and Smo||k, 1996: stud|es rom deve|op|ng countr|es), whereas
others a|so eva|uate average y|e|ds o the who|e rotat|on (Hanson et a|., 1997, Ohase, 2008) and o |ntercrops (Ey-
horn, Pamakr|shnan and Mader, 2007). The |atter |s more re|evant, a|though more comp|ex or obta|n|ng mean|ngu|
resu|ts.
Unit of comparison (per ha or product). Some stud|es eva|uate cow y|e|d per hectare (wh|ch |s usua||y |ower |n
organ|c, due to |ower stock|ng dens|t|es), whereas others eva|uate cow y|e|d per an|ma| (wh|ch oten prov|des s|m||ar
resu|ts), and th|s makes compar|sons d|fcu|t.
Different varieties. \ar|et|es bred or |ntens|ve externa| |nput cond|t|ons are se|dom su|tab|e or |ow externa| |nput
systems. Organ|c systems, espec|a||y |n deve|op|ng countr|es, oten use |oca| breeds and var|et|es wh|ch have |ower
y|e|ds, but wh|ch are more adapted to |ow externa| |nput cond|t|ons |n that they requ|re |ess nutr|ents and water |nputs
or have h|gher pest/d|sease res|stance. However, authors genera||y do not spec|y that d|erences |n y|e|ds may be
due to d|erent var|et|es.
Different growth periods. s|ng d|erent var|et|es a|so |n1uences the econom|cs o the who|e rotat|on system, or
examp|e, many organ|c armers |n lnd|a use des| cotton, wh|ch |s a who|e-season crop, thus ater harvest armers
cannot grow anyth|ng e|se |n the rotat|on. Most convent|ona| armers grow hybr|d var|et|es under |rr|gat|on (|n the
stud|es ana|ysed), wh|ch enab|es the cu|t|vat|on o two or three crops per year (Jackson, 2008).
ManageriaI background. The |ntens|ty o prev|ous|y managed convent|ona| arms |s a s|gn|fcant actor contr|but|ng
to the y|e|d decreases dur|ng and ater convers|on to organ|c. Yet oten the background o organ|c arms |s not c|ear
rom the stud|es, even though |t |n1uences the comparat|ve base||ne.
52
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
extent by proper so|| management, shade trees (such
as |n coee cu|t|vat|on), t|me|y remova| o d|seased
p|ants, and a hea|thy ba|ance between pests and
natura| enem|es as b|o|og|ca| contro|s (\an der
\ossen, 2005). Neverthe|ess, a|though an |mportant
e|ement o proftab|||ty, y|e|ds a|one do not necessar||y
|nd|cate proftab|||ty.
0. ProducI|on cosIs
ln arm econom|cs, there |s no abso|ute defn|t|on o
what has to be cons|dered as var|ab|e costs or as
fxed costs, |t depends on the a|m o the research.
Some stud|es cons|der on|y var|ab|e costs to ca|cu|ate
gross marg|ns (Youn|e, Ham||ton and Nev|son, 1990),
whereas others |nc|ude fxed costs (Wynen, 2001,
G|bbon and Bo|w|g, 2007), and yet others do not
d|erent|ate between the two types o costs (O|son
and Mahoney, 1999, De|ate et a|., 2003). By defn|t|on,
fxed costs are part o the tota| arm costs that do not
vary s|gn|fcant|y w|th the vo|ume o output and can
on|y be changed |n the |ong run, whereas var|ab|e
costs are those that vary d|rect|y w|th the vo|ume
o output. The d|erent|at|on between var|ab|e and
fxed costs |s on|y |mportant when gross marg|ns
are ca|cu|ated, as fxed costs are not accounted or
|n those marg|ns. However, fxed costs are cruc|a|
or arm proftab|||ty. Dur|ng convers|on, or |nstance,
severa| substant|a| |nvestments have to be made (e.g.
new an|ma|-r|end|y hous|ng system, new orchard
var|et|es that can better w|thstand b|o-phys|ca| stress)
that are oten counted as fxed costs, and or many
armers these costs are the determ|n|ng actor as to
whether convert|ng to organ|c may be proftab|e or
not. Even though most stud|es make the d|st|nct|on
between the two types o costs, they may not spec|y
wh|ch costs are covered by each o them. Ment|on|ng
mere|y var|ab|e and fxed costs does not a||ow or
the apprec|at|on o the var|ab|es used, and thus or
proper compar|sons.
An even more comp||cated |ssue |s the |nc|us|on o
|abour costs: some compar|sons om|t |abour costs
rom the tota| ca|cu|at|on o net revenues (e.g. Hanson,
L|chtenberg and Peters, 1997, De|ate et a|., 2003),
wh||e most |nc|ude h|red |abour |n the var|ab|e costs
(Wynen, 2001, Eyhorn, Pamakr|shnan and Mader,
2007, G|bbon and Bo|w|g, 2007, Ohase, 2008),
some count (h|red) |abour costs as fxed costs thus
om|tt|ng them rom gross marg|n resu|ts (FAT, 1993,
BMELF, 1994), and yet others count am||y |abour as
an opportun|ty cost or |eave th|s out comp|ete|y (as
|n most stud|es o deve|op|ng countr|es). Another
approach, used by Wynen (2001), or |nstance, counts
h|red |abour as a var|ab|e cost and am||y |abour as
a fxed cost. \ery oten |n deve|op|ng countr|es, on|y
cash costs are |nc|uded and non-cash costs (e.g.
own |abour and seeds) are exc|uded. Pegard|ess o
whether |abour costs are treated under fxed and/or
var|ab|e costs, the most |mportant aspect |s that they
are treated cons|stent|y w|th|n the case study and are
not over|ooked.
From the ana|ys|s o stud|es, |t o||ows that even
| the d|erent cost e|ements were standard|zed,
var|at|ons among product|on costs wou|d occur due
to the un|que character o the operat|ons and actors
beyond the contro| o the armers: or examp|e,
mach|nery costs depend a|so on age, s|ze and use,
|rr|gat|on costs are sub|ect to var|at|ons |n ra|na||,
temperature and efc|ency o |rr|gat|on systems,
and |abour costs depend on wage rates, work|ng
cond|t|ons and efc|ency o the workers. Th|s be|ng
sa|d, product|on costs tend to be |ower |n estab||shed
organ|c systems (e.g. He|mers, Langeme|er and
Atwood, 1986, Hanson, L|chtenberg and Peters,
1997, O|son and Mahoney, 1999, De|ate et a|., 2003,
Mendoza, 2002, Eyhorn, Pamakr|shnan and Mader,
2007). ln most o the European stud|es ana|ysed by
Oermann and N|eberg |n 2000, tota| costs |ncurred
by organ|c arms were, on average, s||ght|y |ower than
those |ncurred by comparab|e convent|ona| arms.
Wh||e var|ab|e costs were genera||y s|gn|fcant|y |ower
(6070 per cent) |n the organ|c systems, the|r fxed
costs were up to 45 per cent h|gher than those o the
convent|ona| reerence group |n severa| countr|es. The
ew cases w|th s|gn|fcant|y h|gher product|on costs |n
organ|c arms were the ones ocus|ng on vegetab|e
product|on or those |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
A|| ana|ysed stud|es re||ed on re|at|ve|y cheap |nput
costs (based on cheap oss|| ue|) that have been
vary|ng tremendous|y over the past ew years.
lnput costs are bound to |ncrease |n the |ong run:
g|oba| n|trogen ert|||zer pr|ces surged by 160 per
cent dur|ng the frst quarter o 2008, and oss||-ue|-
based agr|cu|tura| |nputs (a substant|a| proport|on
o product|on costs) w||| sooner or |ater substant|a||y
aect arm|ng systems that re|y on the |ntens|ve use
o synthet|c ert|||zers and pest|c|des. ln the case o
organ|c agr|cu|ture, o||-based |nputs negat|ve|y aect
product|on costs where p|ast|c mu|ch |s used, and
more genera||y when the system |s mechan|zed.
53
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
. vara|| prohIab|||Iy
Over 50 stud|es were ana|ysed |n terms o the|r research
on arm proftab|||ty, and a|though methodo|og|ca|
d|erences prevented us rom compar|ng them
systemat|ca||y, the s|m||ar|t|es between the stud|es rom
many countr|es and contexts a||owed us to draw some
genera| conc|us|ons. Proftab|||ty certa|n|y depends
on the cho|ce o crop, wh|ch o course |s determ|ned
part|y by env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons and part|y by
the demand or products and by the ava||ab|||ty o
government programmes that support the cu|t|vat|on
o part|cu|ar crops. A compar|son o re|at|ve proftab|||ty
depends |arge|y on the k|nd o compar|son group
se|ected. Thus, arm s|ze, arm type and |ocat|on are
|mportant actors |n se|ect|ng the su|tab|e cand|date
arms or compar|son. Pr|ce prem|ums a|so seem to
be a cruc|a| actor contr|but|ng to the good econom|c
perormance o organ|c systems, and |n most cases
they make organ|c arms more proftab|e. However, at
|east a dozen stud|es showed that pr|ce prem|ums are
not a|ways necessary or organ|c systems to be more
proftab|e than convent|ona| systems. l h|gher pr|ces
are not ava||ab|e to compensate or poss|b|e |osses
o organ|c y|e|ds, fnanc|a| proftab|||ty w||| depend
ent|re|y on ach|ev|ng cost reduct|ons.
Overa||, the comp||ed data suggest that organ|c
agr|cu|ture |s econom|ca||y more proftab|e: net
returns, tak|ng tota| costs |nto account, most oten
proved to be h|gher |n organ|c systems. There were
w|de var|at|ons among y|e|ds and product|on costs,
but e|ther h|gher market pr|ces and prem|ums, or
|ower product|on costs, or a comb|nat|on o these
two genera||y resu|ted |n h|gher re|at|ve profts rom
organ|c agr|cu|ture |n deve|oped countr|es. The same
conc|us|on can be drawn rom stud|es |n deve|op|ng
countr|es, but there, h|gher y|e|ds comb|ned w|th h|gh
prem|ums seemed to be the under|y|ng reasons or
h|gher re|at|ve proftab|||ty.
Estab||sh|ng organ|c markets or stap|e crops (e.g.
organ|c soybeans, wheat, ch||||es) that are part o
a rotat|on oers cons|derab|e potent|a| to urther
|mprove the proftab|||ty o organ|c arms |n deve|op|ng
countr|es. l these crops cou|d be so|d at a prem|um
pr|ce, the revenues o organ|c arms wou|d urther
|ncrease. ln deve|oped countr|es, a urther reduct|on
|n product|on costs (energy, ue|, eed) and the use o
better var|et|es (e.g. |n terms o res|stance and y|e|d)
cou|d resu|t |n an |ncrease |n the re|at|ve proftab|||ty o
organ|c arms.
E. Tha naad Ior Ia|r aconom|c
compar|sons
Organ|c systems are genera||y more proftab|e desp|te
una|r compet|t|on |n the marketp|ace due to current
government subs|dy schemes or convent|ona|
product|on, unequa| ava||ab|||ty o research and
extens|on serv|ces, and the a||ure o market pr|ces o
convent|ona| oods to capture the rea| env|ronmenta|,
soc|a| and hea|th externa||t|es. Ex|st|ng econom|c
compar|sons are thereore heav||y b|ased |n avour
o convent|ona| arm|ng. There |s an urgent need
to d|rect much more research and |nvestments |nto
extens|on serv|ces to support organ|c agr|cu|ture, and
sh|t the bu|k o pub||c support rom po||ut|ng act|v|t|es
to susta|nab|e pract|ces to g|ve an equa| oot|ng to
organ|c arm|ng systems. ln add|t|on, comparat|ve
stud|es need to take |nto account the d|erences
|n externa| costs and benefts so as to capture the
8ox 3: ProhIab|||Iy oI organ|c coIIon producI|on
An lndo-Sw|ss research team compared agronom|c data o 60 organ|c and 60 convent|ona| arms over two years (Ey-
horn, Pamakr|shnan and Mader, 2007) and came to the conc|us|on that organ|c arm|ng o cotton was more proftab|e:
var|ab|e product|on costs were 1320 per cent |ower and costs o |nputs were 40 per cent |ower, yet y|e|ds were 46 per
cent h|gher |n the two years, and, as a resu|t, gross marg|ns or cotton were 30-43 per cent h|gher. A|though there was
no pr|ce prem|um or the crops grown |n rotat|on w|th cotton, organ|c arms earned 1020 per cent h|gher |ncomes than
convent|ona| arms.
ln an lnd|an survey o 125 organ|c cotton armers, 95 per cent o respondents saw the|r agr|cu|tura| |ncome |ncrease by
17 per cent, on average, ater adopt|ng organ|c agr|cu|tura| pract|ces, wh|ch most o them attr|buted ma|n|y to reduced
costs o product|on and h|gher sa|es pr|ces (MacDona|d, 2008). S|m||ar|y, |n the lnd|an state o Andhra Pradesh, Pa| et
a|. (2005) ound that grow|ng organ|c cotton was much more proftab|e than grow|ng convent|ona| cotton (|ncome was
$13 per acre on organ|c compared w|th -$30 per acre on convent|ona| arms). ln conc|us|on, a|| stud|es ound organ|c
cotton arm|ng to be more proftab|e than convent|ona|.
54
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
rea| and mu|t|p|e profts o the respect|ve systems o
agr|cu|ture.
1. ovarnmanI supporI
Nat|ona| or reg|ona| agr|cu|tura| programmes and
subs|d|es are most|y geared towards support|ng
|arge-sca|e agr|cu|ture that makes |ntens|ve use o
chem|ca| |nputs, wh|ch art|fc|a||y |owers the pr|ce o
convent|ona| products. Pa|nter (1991) compared net
returns o organ|c and convent|ona| arms at the end
o the 1980s and ound that the average governmenta|
subs|dy per hectare was 38 per cent h|gher or
convent|ona| product|on. Pesearchers |n the 1990s
a|so ound that convent|ona| systems benefted more
rom government subs|d|es than organ|c ones (D|ebe|,
W||||ams and L|ewe|yn, 1995, Smo||k, Dobbs and
P|cker|, 1995). l subs|d|es were expanded to support
|ong-term aspects o agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty, such as
so||-bu||d|ng grass and |egume crops, the proftab|||ty
o organ|c arm|ng wou|d be even h|gher.
Wh||e organ|c arms |n Europe rece|ve cons|derab|e
support rom the E's agr|-env|ronmenta| prog-
rammes, the des|gn o the frst p|||ar o the Oommon
Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy (OAP) put organ|c arm|ng at a
d|sadvantage |n the past. The 2003 OAP reorm
changed th|s s|tuat|on, part|cu|ar|y by decoup||ng d|rect
payments. However, the resu|ts o a survey showed
that on|y 11 per cent o organ|c armers thought that
decoup||ng had had a pos|t|ve |mpact on the|r profts
(Sanders, Oermann and N|eberg, 2008). There |s
much debate on whether the current |eve|s o organ|c
support are appropr|ate. Neverthe|ess, |t |s c|ear that
a sharp red|rect|on o pub||c support rom po||ut|ng
act|v|t|es to susta|nab|e pract|ces |s necessary, both
|n deve|oped and deve|op|ng countr|es. Subs|d|es
shou|d encourage pos|t|ve externa||t|es, wh||e adv|sory
and |nst|tut|ona| mechan|sms, |ega| measures and
econom|c |nstruments shou|d correct negat|ve
externa||t|es.
Z. asaarch and axIans|on
The ach|evements o convent|ona| arm|ng systems
are based on severa| decades o |ntens|ve research
and support, whereas organ|c research |s st||| |n |ts
|nancy. Oonvent|ona| armers oten have better access
to |normat|on rom extens|on serv|ces and un|vers|ty
researchers. Organ|c armers, on the other hand, need
more t|me and greater manager|a| eorts and sk|||s to
acqu|re the necessary know|edge on such matters as
organ|c pract|ces, pr|ces and market|ng opportun|t|es.
Both y|e|d |eve|s and gross marg|ns o rotat|on crops
wou|d probab|y |ncrease | extens|on serv|ces a|so
prov|ded tra|n|ng and adv|ce on manag|ng these
crops organ|ca||y (Eyhorn, Pamakr|shnan and
Mader, 2007). Thus, compar|sons o y|e|d and arm
econom|cs between convent|ona| and organ|c can be
cons|dered una|r as |ong as the |atter do not beneft
rom s|m||ar research and extens|on serv|ce support
that are d|rected to convent|ona| agr|cu|ture.
3. ExIarna||I|as
The proftab|||ty o a arm|ng system must ba|ance
econom|c costs aga|nst env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and
hea|th costs, as these costs have de|ayed |mpacts
and |nd|rect eects on arm econom|cs. At present,
comparat|ve econom|c stud|es o the two arm|ng
systems on|y cons|der d|rect econom|c |nputs and
outputs |n the equat|on, and broad|y over|ook the
env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and hea|th costs. Account|ng
or externa||t|es, such as costs assoc|ated w|th run-
o, sp|||s, dep|et|on o natura| resources and hea|th
costs to armers exposed to pest|c|des, are |ack|ng.
Yet, genera||y, organ|c de||vers more pub||c goods
such as env|ronmenta| and hea|th benefts. Tak|ng the
d|erences |n externa| costs and benefts |nto account
wou|d g|ve a more accurate proftab|||ty p|cture o the
d|erent systems.
ln these comp|ete|y d|storted markets that a||
8ox 4: Examp|as oI anv|ronmanIa| cosIs
A study by Pretty et a|. (2000) est|mated the annua| externa| costs o agr|cu|ture |n the n|ted K|ngdom |n 1996 at 2.34
b||||on ($3.65 b||||on), equ|va|ent to 208/ha ($324/ha) o arab|e and permanent pasture. Th|s was 89 per cent o the aver-
age net arm |ncome or 1996. S|gn|fcant costs arose rom the contam|nat|on o dr|nk|ng water w|th pest|c|des, n|trate
and phosphate, rom damage to w||d||e, hab|tats, hedgerows, rom GHG em|ss|ons rom so|| eros|on and organ|c car-
bon |osses, rom ood po|son|ng and rom BSE. Another study, wh|ch ca|cu|ated the externa| costs o agr|cu|ture |n the
n|ted States, |nc|ud|ng damage to water sources, to so|| and a|r, to w||d||e and ecosystem b|od|vers|ty and to human
hea|th, est|mated the costs to range between $5.7 b||||on and $16.9 b||||on annua||y, or $29$96/ha o crop|and (Tegt-
me|er and Duy, 2004). These stud|es on|y est|mated externa||t|es that gave r|se to fnanc|a| costs, thus they are ||ke|y to
have underest|mated the tota| negat|ve |mpacts ar|s|ng rom the |ntens|ve use o agrochem|ca|s.
55
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
to pro-v|de a |eve| p|ay|ng fe|d between organ|c
and convent|ona| agr|cu|ture, subs|d|es are one
way o he|p|ng organ|c armers to cont|nue w|th
env|ronmenta||y r|end|y arm|ng pract|ces. Pr|ce
supports cou|d take the orm o compensat|on that
rewards armers or the ecosystem and soc|eta|
serv|ces (e.g. |andscape) they are perorm|ng or
the common good. Both externa| costs and benefts
cou|d be quant|fed |n econom|c terms (e.g. po||ut|on
abatement costs), and thus cou|d be taken |nto
account |n comparat|ve stud|es. Th|s wou|d mean
a red|rect|on o econom|c th|nk|ng, wh|ch wou|d
better re1ect the true cost o arm|ng pract|ces and,
hopeu||y, |ead to the reormu|at|on o po||c|es so that
they no |onger support po||ut|ng act|v|t|es, but |nstead
correct negat|ve externa||t|es as ar as poss|b|e.
56
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Today, a ma|or cha||enge ac|ng human|ty |s how
to ach|eve a susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture that prov|des
sufc|ent ood and ecosystem serv|ces or present
and uture generat|ons |n an era o c||mate change,
r|s|ng ue| costs, soc|a| tens|ons caused by ood
pr|ce h|kes, fnanc|a| |nstab|||ty and acce|erat|ng
env|ronmenta| degradat|on. The cha||enge |s
compounded by the act that the ma|or|ty o the
wor|d's arab|e |and |s under "modern" monocu|ture
systems o ma|ze, soybean, r|ce, cotton and others,
wh|ch, due to the|r eco|og|ca| homogene|ty, are
part|cu|ar|y vu|nerab|e to c||mate change as we|| as
b|ot|c stresses. L|tt|e has been done to enhance the
adaptab|||ty o |ndustr|a| agroecosystems to chang|ng
patterns o prec|p|tat|on, temperatures and extreme
weather events (Posenzwe|g and H|||e|, 2008). Th|s
rea||zat|on has |ed many experts to suggest that the
use o eco|og|ca||y based management strateg|es
may represent a robust means o |ncreas|ng the
product|v|ty, susta|nab|||ty and res|||ence o agr|cu|tura|
product|on wh||e reduc|ng |ts undes|rab|e soc|o-
env|ronmenta| |mpacts (A|t|er|, 2002, de Schutter,
2010b).
Observat|ons o agr|cu|tura| perormance ater
extreme c||mat|c events dur|ng the past two decades
have revea|ed that res|||ence to those events |s
c|ose|y ||nked to the |eve| o on-arm b|od|vers|ty (L|n,
2011). Most sc|ent|sts agree that a bas|c attr|bute
o agr|cu|tura| susta|nab|||ty |s the ma|ntenance o
agroecosystem d|vers|ty |n the orm o spat|a| and
tempora| arrangements o crops, trees, an|ma|s and
assoc|ated b|ota. lncreas|ng|y, research suggests
that agroecosystem perormance and stab|||ty |s
|arge|y dependent on the |eve| o p|ant and an|ma|
b|od|vers|ty present |n the system and |ts surround|ng
env|ronment (A|t|er| and N|cho||s, 2004). B|od|vers|ty
perorms a var|ety o eco|og|ca| serv|ces beyond
the product|on o ood, |nc|ud|ng recyc||ng o
nutr|ents, regu|at|on o m|croc||mate and o |oca|
hydro|og|ca| processes, suppress|on o undes|rab|e
organ|sms and detox|fcat|on o nox|ous chem|ca|s.
Because b|od|vers|ty-med|ated renewa| processes
and eco|og|ca| serv|ces are |arge|y b|o|og|ca|, the|r
cont|nued unct|on|ng depends upon the ma|ntenance
o b|o|og|ca| |ntegr|ty and d|vers|ty |n agroecosystems.
ln genera|, natura| ecosystems appear to be more
stab|e and |ess sub|ect to 1uctuat|ons |n y|e|d and
|n the popu|at|ons o organ|sms mak|ng up the
commun|ty. Ecosystems w|th h|gher d|vers|ty are
more stab|e because they exh|b|t greater res|stance,
or the ab|||ty to avo|d or w|thstand d|sturbances, and
greater res|||ence, or the ab|||ty to recover o||ow|ng
d|sturbances.
B|od|vers|ty enhances ecosystem unct|ons because
Absl|acl
Trad|t|ona| arm|ng systems have enab|ed armers to generate susta|ned y|e|ds to meet the|r subs|stence
needs |n the context o c||mat|c var|ab|||ty. Part o th|s perormance |s ||nked to the h|gh |eve|s o agrob|od|ver-
s|ty exh|b|ted by trad|t|ona| agroecosystems. Strateg|es to enhance d|vers|ty |n agroecosystems |nc|ude
support to am||y agr|cu|ture and to sma||ho|ders, and dynam|c conservat|on o g|oba||y |mportant agr|cu|tura|
her|tage systems. D|vers|fcat|on |s thereore an |mportant arm strategy or manag|ng product|on r|sk
|n arm|ng systems. Strateg|es to restore d|vers|ty |n modern arm|ng systems |nc|ude promot|ng seed
d|vers|ty, crop rotat|ons, cover crops, |ntercropp|ng and crop/||vestock m|x|ng. D|vers|fed arm|ng systems
managed w|th modern equ|pment a||ow comp|ementary |nteract|ons that boost y|e|ds w|th |ow |nputs, thus
|ncreas|ng profts, and, g|ven the d|vers|ty o crops, m|n|m|z|ng product|on r|sks.
Commontary X: 5trongthon|ng os|||onco of |arm|ng 5ystoms:
A roroqu|s|to for 5usta|nab|o Agr|cu|tura|
roduct|on
N|gue| A A|l|e||, uu|ve|s|ly ol Ca||lo|u|a, Be||e|ey, aud
Pa|v|/ Koohal|au, lA0
57
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
those components that appear redundant at one
po|nt |n t|me may become |mportant when some
env|ronmenta| change occurs. What |s |mportant
|s that when env|ronmenta| change occurs, the
redundanc|es o the system enab|e cont|nued
ecosystem unct|on|ng and prov|s|on|ng o serv|ces
(\andermeer et a|., 1998).
Trad|t|ona| arm|ng systems, wh|ch st||| pers|st |n
many deve|op|ng countr|es, oer a w|de array o
management opt|ons and des|gns that enhance
unct|ona| b|od|vers|ty |n crop fe|ds, and consequent|y
support the res|||ence o agroecosystems (pho,
2002b, To|edo and Barrera-Bassa|s, 2009). The
myr|ad o trad|t|ona| systems are a g|oba||y |mportant,
|ngen|ous agr|cu|tura| her|tage wh|ch re1ects the
va|ue o the d|vers|ty o agr|cu|tura| systems that
are adapted to d|erent env|ronments. They te||
a asc|nat|ng story o the ab|||ty and |ngenu|ty o
humans to ad|ust and adapt to the vagar|es o a
chang|ng phys|ca| and mater|a| env|ronment rom
generat|on to generat|on. Whether recogn|zed or not
by the sc|ent|fc commun|ty, th|s ancestra| know|edge
const|tutes the oundat|on or actua| and uture
agr|cu|tura| |nnovat|ons and techno|og|es. The new
mode|s o agr|cu|ture that human|ty w||| need |n the
|mmed|ate uture shou|d |nc|ude orms o arm|ng that
are more eco|og|ca|, b|od|verse, |oca|, susta|nab|e
and soc|a||y |ust. Thereore, they w||| necessar||y
have to be rooted |n the eco|og|ca| rat|ona|e o
trad|t|ona| sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture, wh|ch represents
|ong-estab||shed, successu| and adapt|ve orms o
agr|cu|ture (Koohakan and A|t|er|, 2010).
A. 8ma|| Iarms as moda|s oI ras|||anca
ln cont|nuous|y cop|ng w|th extreme weather events
and c||mat|c var|ab|||ty through centur|es, armers
||v|ng |n harsh env|ronments |n Ar|ca, As|a and Lat|n
Amer|ca have deve|oped and/or |nher|ted comp|ex
arm|ng systems managed |n |ngen|ous ways. These
have a||owed sma|| arm|ng am|||es to meet the|r
subs|stence needs |n the m|dst o env|ronmenta|
var|ab|||ty w|thout depend|ng much on modern
agr|cu|tura| techno|og|es (Denevan, 1995). The
cont|nued ex|stence o m||||ons o hectares under
trad|t|ona| arm|ng |s ||v|ng proo o a successu|
|nd|genous agr|cu|tura| strategy, wh|ch |s a tr|bute
to the "creat|v|ty" o sma|| armers throughout the
deve|op|ng wor|d (W||ken, 1987). Today, we|| |nto the
frst decade o the twenty-frst century, m||||ons o
sma||ho|ders, am||y armers and |nd|genous peop|e
are cont|nu|ng to pract|ce resource-conserv|ng
arm|ng. Such trad|t|ona| systems are testament
to the remarkab|e res|||ence o agroecosystems to
cont|nuous env|ronmenta| and econom|c change,
wh|ch, desp|te changes, cont|nue to contr|bute
substant|a||y to agrob|od|vers|ty conservat|on and
ood secur|ty at |oca|, reg|ona| and nat|ona| |eve|s
(Nett|ng, 1993).
However, c||mate change can pose ser|ous prob|ems
or the ma|or|ty o the 370 m||||on o the wor|d's
poorest, who ||ve |n areas oten |ocated |n ar|d or sem|-
ar|d zones, and |n eco|og|ca||y vu|nerab|e mounta|ns
and h|||s (Oonway, 1997). ln many countr|es, more
and more peop|e, part|cu|ar|y those at |ower |ncome
|eve|s, are now orced to ||ve |n marg|na| areas (|.e.
1oodp|a|ns, exposed h|||s|des, ar|d or sem|-ar|d |ands),
where they are at r|sk rom the negat|ve |mpacts o
c||mate var|ab|||ty. Even m|nor changes |n c||mate can
have d|sastrous |mpacts on the ||ves and ||ve||hoods
o these vu|nerab|e groups. The |mp||cat|ons or
ood secur|ty cou|d be very proound, espec|a||y
or subs|stence armers ||v|ng |n remote and rag||e
env|ronments that are ||ke|y to produce very |ow y|e|ds.
These armers depend on crops that cou|d be bad|y
aected, such as ma|ze, beans, potatoes and r|ce.
Desp|te the ser|ous |mp||cat|ons o pred|ct|ons, data
represent on|y a broad brush approx|mat|on o the
eects o c||mate change on sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture. ln
many cases those data |gnore the adapt|ve capac|ty
o sma|| armers who use severa| agroeco|og|ca|
strateg|es and soc|a||y med|ated so||dar|ty networks
to cope w|th and even prepare or extreme c||mat|c
var|ab|||ty (A|t|er| and Koohakan, 2008).
Three stud|es assess|ng agr|cu|tura| perormance ater
extreme c||mat|c events revea| the c|ose ||nk between
enhanced agro-b|od|vers|ty and res|||ence to extreme
weather events. A survey conducted |n Oentra|
Amer|can h|||s|des ater Hurr|cane M|tch showed that
armers engaged |n d|vers|fcat|on pract|ces, such as
cover crops, |ntercropp|ng and agroorestry, suered
|ess damage than the|r ne|ghbours who pract|ced
convent|ona| monocu|ture. The survey, spearheaded
by the Oampes|no a Oampes|no movement,
mob|||zed 100 armer-techn|c|an teams to carry
out pa|red observat|ons o spec|fc agroeco|og|ca|
|nd|cators on 1,804 ne|ghbour|ng susta|nab|e
and convent|ona| arms. The study spanned 360
commun|t|es and 24 departments |n Guatema|a,
Honduras and N|caragua. lt ound that p|ots where
armers adopted susta|nab|e arm|ng pract|ces had
58
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
20 to 40 per cent more topso||, greater so|| mo|sture
and |ess eros|on, and exper|enced sma||er econom|c
|osses than the|r convent|ona| ne|ghbours (Ho|t-
G|menez, 2002). S|m||ar|y |n Sotonusco, Oh|apas,
coee systems exh|b|t|ng h|gh |eve|s o vegetat|on
comp|ex|ty and p|ant d|vers|ty suered |ess damage
rom Hurr|cane Stan than more s|mp||fed coee
systems (Ph||pott et a|., 2008). And |n Ouba, 40 days
ater Hurr|cane lke h|t the country |n 2008, researchers
conduct|ng a arm survey |n the prov|nces o Ho|gu|n
and Las Tunas ound that d|vers|fed arms exh|b|ted
|osses o 50 per cent compared to 90 or 100 per
cent |n ne|ghbour|ng monocu|ture arms. L|kew|se,
agroeco|og|ca||y managed arms showed a aster
recovery o product|v|ty (8090 per cent 40 days ater
the hurr|cane) than monocu|ture arms (Posset et a|.,
2011). A|| three stud|es emphas|ze the |mportance o
enhanc|ng p|ant d|vers|ty and comp|ex|ty |n arm|ng
systems to reduce vu|nerab|||ty to extreme c||mat|c
events. S|nce many peasants common|y manage
po|ycu|tures and/or agroorestry systems, the|r
know|edge and pract|ces cou|d prov|de a key source
o |normat|on on adapt|ve capac|ty centred on the
se|ect|ve, exper|menta| and res|||ent capab|||t|es o
those armers |n dea||ng w|th c||mat|c change.
G|ven the res|||ence o d|vers|fed sma|| arm|ng
systems, understand|ng the agroeco|og|ca| eatures
o trad|t|ona| agroecosystems |s an urgent matter,
as th|s can serve as the oundat|on or the des|gn
o agr|cu|tura| systems that are res|||ent to c||mate
change (A|t|er| and Koohakan, 2008).
8. asIor|ng agrob|od|vars|Iy |n modarn
agroacosysIams
S|nce the modern|zat|on o agr|cu|ture, armers
and researchers have been aced w|th a ma|or
eco|og|ca| d||emma ar|s|ng rom the homogen|zat|on
o agr|cu|tura| systems, name|y the |ncreased
vu|nerab|||ty o crops to pests and d|seases, and now
to c||mat|c var|ab|||ty. Both these phenomena can
be devastat|ng |n genet|ca||y un|orm, |arge-sca|e,
monocu|ture cond|t|ons. Monocu|tures may oer
short-term econom|c advantages to armers, but |n
the |ong term they do not represent an eco|og|ca|
opt|mum. Pather, the drast|c narrow|ng o cu|t|vated
p|ant d|vers|ty has put the wor|d's ood product|on |n
greater per|| (Perecto, \andermeer and Wr|ght, 2009).
G|ven the new c||mate change scenar|os pred|cted
over the next two decades or so by some sc|ent|sts
(e.g. Posenzwe|g and H|||e|, 2008), the search or
pract|ca| steps to break the monocu|ture nature o
modern agroecosystems, and thus reduce the|r
eco|og|ca| vu|nerab|||ty, |s |mperat|ve. As trad|t|ona|
armers have demonstrated w|th arm|ng systems
that stood the test o t|me, restor|ng agr|cu|tura|
b|od|vers|ty at the fe|d and |andscape |eve| |s key
to enhanc|ng res|||ence. Greater d|vers|ty o spec|es
|s probab|y needed to reduce tempora| var|ab|||ty o
ecosystem processes |n chang|ng env|ronments.
The most obv|ous advantage o d|vers|fcat|on |s
reduced r|sk o tota| crop a||ure due to |nvas|ons o
unwanted spec|es and/or c||mat|c var|ab|||ty, as |arger
numbers o spec|es reduce tempora| var|ab|||ty |n
ecosystem processes |n chang|ng env|ronments
(Loreau et a|., 2011). Stud|es conducted |n grass|and
systems suggest that there are no s|mp|e ||nks
between spec|es d|vers|ty and ecosystem stab|||ty.
Exper|ments conducted |n grass|and p|ots conc|ude
that unct|ona||y d|erent ro|es represented by p|ants
are at |east as |mportant as the tota| number o spec|es
|n determ|n|ng processes and serv|ces |n ecosystems
(T||man et a|., 2001a). Th|s |atest fnd|ng has pract|ca|
|mp||cat|ons or agroecosystem management. l |t
|s eas|er to m|m|c spec|fc ecosystem processes
rather than attempt|ng to dup||cate a|| the comp|ex|ty
o nature, then the ocus shou|d be p|aced on
|ncorporat|ng a part|cu|ar b|od|vers|ty component that
p|ays a spec|fc ro|e, such as p|ants that fx n|trogen,
prov|de cover or so|| protect|on or harbour resources
or natura| enem|es o |nsect pests.
Oontemporary not|ons o modern mechan|zed arm|ng
emphas|ze the necess|ty o monocu|tures. There |s
||tt|e quest|on, however, that g|ven sufc|ent mot|vat|on,
appropr|ate techno|ogy cou|d be deve|oped to
mechan|ze mu|t|p|e cropp|ng systems (Horw|th,
1985). S|mp|er d|vers|fcat|on schemes based on 2
or 3 p|ant spec|es may be more amenab|e to |arge-
sca|e armers and can be managed us|ng modern
equ|pment. One such scheme |s str|p |ntercropp|ng,
wh|ch |nvo|ves the product|on o more than one crop |n
str|ps that are narrow enough or the crops to |nteract,
yet w|de enough to perm|t |ndependent cu|t|vat|on.
Agronom|ca||y benefc|a| str|p |ntercropp|ng systems
have usua||y |nc|uded corn or sorghum, wh|ch read||y
respond to h|gher ||ght |ntens|t|es (Franc|s et a|., 1986).
Stud|es w|th corn and soybean str|ps 4 to 12 rows
w|de demonstrated |ncreased corn y|e|ds (5 to 26 per
cent h|gher) and decreased soybean y|e|ds (8.5 to 33
per cent |ower) as str|ps got narrower. A|ternat|ng corn
and a|a|a str|ps prov|ded greater gross returns than
59
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
s|ng|e crops. Str|ps o 20 t. (approx|mate|y 6.1 meters)
w|dth were the most advantageous, w|th substant|a||y
h|gher econom|c returns than the s|ng|e crops (West
and Gr|fth, 1992). Th|s advantage |s cr|t|ca| or
armers who have debt-to-asset rat|os o 40 per cent
or h|gher ($40 o debt or every $100 o assets). Such
a |eve| has a|ready been reached by more than 1116
per cent o armers |n the m|d-western n|ted States
who desperate|y need to cut costs o product|on by
adopt|ng d|vers|fcat|on strateg|es.
Legumes |ntercropped w|th cerea|s |s a key
d|vers|fcat|on strategy, not on|y because o the|r
prov|s|on o n|trogen, but a|so because the m|xtures
enhance so|| cover, smother weeds and |ncrease
nutr|ents (e.g. potass|um, ca|c|um and magnes|um) |n
the so|| through the add|t|on o b|omass and res|dues
to the so||. Such |ntercropp|ng systems a|so |ncrease
so|| m|crob|a| d|vers|ty such as ves|cu|ar arbuscu|ar
mycorrh|zae (\AM) ung| wh|ch ac|||tate phosphorous
transer to the crops (Machado, 2009). ln the case o
adverse weather cond|t|ons, such as a de|ay |n the
onset o ra|ns and/or a||ure o ra|ns or a ew days,
weeks or dur|ng the cropp|ng per|od, an |ntercropp|ng
system prov|des the advantage that at |east one crop
w||| surv|ve to g|ve econom|c y|e|ds, thereby serv|ng
as the necessary |nsurance aga|nst unpred|ctab|e
weather. Po|ycu|tures exh|b|t greater y|e|d stab|||ty
and |ower product|v|ty dec||nes dur|ng a drought
than monocu|tures. Th|s was we|| demonstrated by
Natara|an and W|||ey (1986) who exam|ned the eects
o drought on po|ycu|tures by man|pu|at|ng water
stress on |ntercrops o sorghum (Sc||0m o|cc|c|)
and peanut (/|ac||s spp.), m|||et (|an|c0m spp.) and
peanut, and sorghum and m|||et. A|| the |ntercrops
cons|stent|y prov|ded greater y|e|ds at fve |eve|s o
mo|sture ava||ab|||ty, rang|ng rom 297 to 584 mm o
water app||ed over the cropp|ng season. lnterest|ng|y,
the rate o over-y|e|d|ng actua||y |ncreased w|th water
stress, such that the re|at|ve d|erences |n product|v|ty
between monocu|tures and po|ycu|tures became
more accentuated as stress |ncreased.
No-t||| row crop product|on |s a|so prom|s|ng, g|ven |ts
so|| conservat|on and |mprovement potent|a|, but |t |s
h|gh|y dependent on herb|c|des. However, there are
some organ|c armers who pract|ce |t w|thout synthet|c
herb|c|des. A breakthrough occurred w|th the d|scovery
that certa|n w|nter annua| cover crops, notab|y cerea|
rye and ha|ry vetch, can be k|||ed by mow|ng at a
sufc|ent|y |ate stage |n the|r deve|opment and cutt|ng
c|ose to the ground. These p|ants genera||y do not
re-grow s|gn|fcant|y, and the c||pp|ngs orm an |n s||0
mu|ch through wh|ch vegetab|es can be transp|anted
w|th no or m|n|ma| t|||age. The mu|ch h|nders weed
seed germ|nat|on and seed||ng emergence, oten or
severa| weeks. As they decompose, many cover crop
res|dues can re|ease a||e|opath|c compounds that
may suppress weed growth (Moyer, 2010) by means
o phytotox|c substances that are pass|ve|y ||berated
through decompos|t|on o p|ant res|dues. There are
severa| green manure spec|es that have a phytotox|c
eect wh|ch |s usua||y sufc|ent to de|ay the onset o
weed growth unt|| ater the crop's m|n|mum weed-ree
per|od. Th|s makes post-p|ant cu|t|vat|on, herb|c|des
or hand weed|ng unnecessary, yet exh|b|ts acceptab|e
crop y|e|ds. Tomatoes and some |ate-spr|ng brass|ca
p|ant|ngs perorm espec|a||y we||, and some |arge-
seeded crops such as ma|ze and beans can be
successu||y d|rect-sown |nto cover crop res|dues.
Not on|y can cover crops p|anted |n no-t||| fe|ds fx
n|trogen |n the short term, they can a|so reduce so||
eros|on and m|t|gate the eects o drought |n the |ong
term, as the mu|ch conserves so|| mo|sture. Oover
crops bu||d vert|ca| so|| structure as they promote
deep macropores |n the so||, wh|ch a||ow more water
to penetrate dur|ng the w|nter months and thus
|mprove so|| water storage.
0. 0onc|us|ons
There |s genera| agreement at the |nternat|ona| |eve|
on the urgent need to promote a new agr|cu|tura|
product|on parad|gm |n order to ensure the
product|on o abundant, hea|thy and aordab|e ood
or an |ncreas|ng human popu|at|on. Th|s cha||enge
w||| need to be met w|th a shr|nk|ng arab|e |and base,
w|th |ess and more expens|ve petro|eum, |ncreas|ng|y
||m|ted supp||es o water and n|trogen, and at a t|me
o rap|d|y chang|ng c||mate, soc|a| tens|ons and
econom|c uncerta|nty (lAASTD, 2009a). The on|y
agr|cu|tura| system that w||| be ab|e to cope w|th uture
cha||enges |s one that w||| exh|b|t h|gh |eve|s o d|vers|ty
and res|||ence wh||e de||ver|ng reasonab|e y|e|ds and
ecosystem serv|ces. Many trad|t|ona| arm|ng systems
st||| preva|ent |n deve|op|ng countr|es can serve as
mode|s o susta|nab|||ty and res|||ence.
Pes|||ence |n agr|cu|tura| systems |s a unct|on o the
|eve| o d|vers|ty w|th|n the agr|cu|tura| ecosystem. lt
|s thereore essent|a| that strateg|es or an adapt|ve
response to c||mate change ocus on break|ng
away rom the monocu|ture nature o modern
agroecosystems. Sma|| changes |n the management
60
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
o |ndustr|a| systems, such as |ntercropp|ng and/or
use o rotat|ona| cover cropp|ng |n no-t||| systems,
can substant|a||y enhance the adapt|ve capac|ty
o cropp|ng systems. Weather extremes, |nc|ud|ng
|oca| drought and 1ood|ng, are pred|cted to become
more common as a resu|t o rap|d c||mate change.
Env|ronmenta||y respons|b|e water management w|||
thereore have to be a cr|t|ca| part o susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture |n the uture. Agroeco|og|ca| strateg|es
or conserv|ng water |nc|ude choos|ng water-efc|ent
crops, resource-conserv|ng crop rotat|ons, enhanc|ng
so|| organ|c matter and |ntercropp|ng systems.
61
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Po||c|es and pract|ces that meet g|oba| ood needs
susta|nab|y and equ|tab|y and support a sh|t towards
eco|og|ca| arm|ng systems can conserve b|od|vers|ty,
water and energy and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
em|ss|ons (lAASTD, 2009a and b, De Schutter,
2011, NEP, 2011). Po||cy opt|ons to dr|ve th|s
transormat|on o agr|cu|ture have been descr|bed
by the n|ted Nat|ons-sponsored lnternat|ona|
Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and
Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD, 2009a and b,
box A). L|kew|se, the econom|c v|ab|||ty, env|ronmenta|
urgency and human r|ghts |mperat|ve o |mp|ement|ng
such a transormat|on have been we|| estab||shed (De
Schutter, 2008, NOTAD/NEP, 2008, FAO 2012c,
NEP 2011).
Desp|te the ava||ab|||ty o robust po||cy opt|ons,
poweru| commerc|a| |nterests, weak or captured
pub||c sector actors and |ack o po||t|ca| w||| cont|nue
to hamper the estab||shment and mean|ngu|
|mp|ementat|on o these progress|ve opt|ons. The
constra|nts out||ned be|ow are system|c, a ew
superfc|a| changes w||| not make a s|gn|fcant enough
d|erence to ach|eve concrete outcomes. Pather,
h|gh|y targeted and strateg|c |ntervent|ons are needed
that tack|e the core o the prob|em and democrat|ze
contro| over agr|cu|ture.
A. 0onsIra|nIs on Iha IransIormaI|on oI
agr|cu|Iura
1. Nar|aI Ia||uras and Iha naad Ior Iu|| cosI
accounI|ng
A undamenta| a||ure o g|oba| markets today |s the
|ack o pr|ce s|gna|s that |ncorporate the u|| array o
hea|th, energy and env|ronmenta| costs assoc|ated
w|th agr|cu|ture. Oonsequent|y, po||cymakers base
the|r dec|s|ons on |naccurate orecasts o the potent|a|
and actua| costs. Fu|| cost account|ng measures,
such as nat|ona| "green accounts" or "tota| mater|a|
1ow est|mates" are good econom|c pract|ces that
more accurate|y re1ect the true costs o ood and
agr|cu|tura| |ndustr|es, and can consequent|y better
|norm po||cy dec|s|ons. Sweden, or examp|e,
estab||shed a nat|ona| po||cy to trans|t|on towards
organ|c arm|ng based |arge|y on the fnd|ngs o a
u|| cost ana|ys|s o the c||mate-re|ated, energy, water,
env|ronmenta| and other ecosystem serv|ce costs
embedded |n |ts "oodshed" (Johansson, 2008).
Z. 0orporaIa concanIraI|on |n Iood and agr|cu|Iura
ln North Amer|ca, grow|ng market concentrat|on
|n mu|t|p|e agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es, coup|ed w|th
success|ve rounds o deregu|at|on, have |ed to
Absl|acl
Poweru| commerc|a| |nterests and |ack o po||t|ca| reso|ve hamper the estab||shment and |mp|ementat|on
o po||c|es to advance susta|nab|e and equ|tab|e deve|opment. To accomp||sh the deep-seated change
requ|red to overcome these |mped|ments, dec|s|ve and coord|nated act|on among pub||c and pr|vate
sector actors and c|v|| soc|ety |s needed. Pr|or|t|es or act|on shou|d |nc|ude:
Ourta|||ng corporate concentrat|on |n the ood system, and |ncreas|ng market access and
compet|t|veness o sma|| and med|um-sca|e armers to |mprove ood and ||ve||hood secur|ty,
Peduc|ng the undue |n1uence o |arge transnat|ona| corporat|ons over pub||c po||cy, research and
trade agendas, and
Strengthen|ng the ro|e o c|v|| soc|ety |nc|ud|ng armers' organ|zat|ons |n des|gn|ng and
|mp|ement|ng po||c|es and |n gu|d|ng partnersh|ps ded|cated to pub||c |nterest outcomes.
Commontary X|: Domocrat|z|ng Contro| of Agr|cu|turo to Moot
tho Noods of tho 1wonty-f|rst Contury
Na|c|a lsh||-E|lemau
Pesl|c|de Acl|ou helwo|| ho|lh Ame||ca
62
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
unprecedented |eve|s o corporate contro| o the
reg|on's ood and agr|cu|tura| system (Hendr|ckson
et a|., 2009). As these corporat|ons have extended
the|r operat|ons |nto Lat|n Amer|ca, As|a and Eastern
Europe, the|r g|oba| |n1uence has expanded, w|th
adverse consequences or sma||-sca|e armers
around the wor|d (Mclntyre et a|., 2009a, 2009b). The
resu|t has been a dramat|c reduct|on |n compet|t|on
and a|r access to markets or sma|| and med|um-
sca|e producers, |abour, |ndependent reta||ers and
consumers. As conso||dat|on has |ncreased, a handu|
o transnat|ona| agr|bus|nesses have ga|ned grow|ng
|n1uence over the product|on and d|str|but|on o ood,
both domest|ca||y and |nternat|ona||y (Hendr|ckson
et a|., 2009, Hubbard, 2009, De Schutter, 2010c, see
a|so fgure 12 be|ow). Th|s |n turn has enab|ed them
to exert s|gn|fcant po||t|ca| |n1uence over pub||c po||cy
and research.
3. 0orporaIa |nNuanca ovar pub||c po||cy
Agr|bus|nesses spend b||||ons o do||ars |obby|ng
8ox 6: Po||cy opI|ons Io supporI a Irans|I|on Io susIa|nab|a agr|cu|Iura
As |dent|fed by the lAASTD (2009a and b), prom|s|ng po||cy opt|ons to advance susta|nab|e and equ|tab|e deve|opment
goa|s |nc|ude:
Strengthen|ng the sma||-sca|e arm sector, |n part|cu|ar armers', women's, |nd|genous and other commun|ty-based
organ|zat|ons, and |ncreas|ng pub||c |nvestment |n rura| areas,
Bu||d|ng |oca| and nat|ona| capac|ty |n b|od|verse, eco|og|ca||y res|||ent arm|ng to cope w|th |ncreas|ng env|ronmenta|
stresses,
lncreas|ng |oca| part|c|pat|on and |eadersh|p |n agr|cu|tura| research, d|rect|on-sett|ng, po||cy-ormat|on and dec|s|on-
mak|ng processes,
Pev|ta||z|ng |oca| and reg|ona| rura| econom|es and ood systems, and more c|ose|y regu|at|ng g|oba||zed ood
systems to ensure good pub||c outcomes,
Mob|||z|ng pub||c and pr|vate sector |nvestments and prov|d|ng market-based |ncent|ves to advance equ|tab|e and
susta|nab|e deve|opment goa|s,
Estab||sh|ng equ|tab|e reg|ona| and g|oba| trade arrangements to support deve|op|ng countr|es' ood and ||ve||hood
secur|ty goa|s, and rev|s|ng ownersh|p |aws to ensure poor and/or vu|nerab|e commun|t|es' equ|tab|e use, access to
and contro| over |and, water, seeds and germp|asm, and
Estab||sh|ng new, transparent, democrat|ca||y governed |nst|tut|ona| arrangements to accomp||sh these goa|s.
Sc0|ce: lAASTD, 2009a and b (see a|so lsh||-E|teman, 2009, and Homann, 2011).
8ox 6: 0orporaIa |nNuanca ovar pub||c po||cy
Transnat|ona| corporat|ons exerc|se s|gn|fcant |n1uence over the ormat|on o nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| pub||c po||cy.
Be|ow are some |||ustrat|ve examp|es.
Soon ater orest fres |n the Puss|an Federat|on devastated |ts wheat crops |n 2010, the mu|t|nat|ona| gra|n trader,
G|encore, specu|at|ng on a proftab|e sp|ke |n wheat pr|ces, urged the Puss|an Federat|on to ban wheat exports,
thereby provok|ng the des|red pr|ce surge that had g|oba| repercuss|ons (Pate|, 2011).
ln Braz||, a 2010 Oongress|ona| b|||, co-authored by a |awyer or the Oounc|| or B|otechno|ogy lnormat|on, ||nked to
Monsanto, BASF, Bayer, Oarg|||, Dupont and others, proposed repea| o a B|osaety Law proh|b|t|on on "genet|c use
restr|ct|on techno|og|es" a|so known as "term|nator techno|og|es" (Oamargo, 2010).
Monsanto and |ts af||ates |obb|ed lndones|an |eg|s|ators |n the 1990s to support genet|ca||y eng|neered (GE) crops.
ln 2005, the frm was fned $1.5 m||||on by the n|ted States Department o Just|ce or v|o|at|ng the Fore|gn Oorrupt
Pract|ces Act by br|b|ng a sen|or lndones|an Env|ronment M|n|stry ofc|a| (B|rcha||, 2005).
Ohem|ca| compan|es common|y s|t on pane|s and comm|ttees that adv|se regu|ators. For examp|e, a representat|ve
rom Dow Ohem|ca| |s serv|ng on the Endocr|ne D|sruptor Screen|ng and Test|ng Adv|sory Oomm|ttee o the n|ted
States Env|ronmenta| Protect|on Agency.
ln 2002, Ma|ays|a banned the h|gh|y tox|c chem|ca| herb|c|de, Paraquat. lts manuacturer, Syngenta, |o|ned Ma|ay-
s|a's |n1uent|a| pa|m o|| |ndustry |n pressur|ng the Government to reverse the ban, wh|ch |t d|d |n 2006. Ma|ays|a's
Pest|c|de Board subsequent|y ru|ed that Paraquat use cou|d cont|nue pend|ng resu|ts rom a study on a|ternat|ves.
The study has not been re|eased and Paraquat cont|nues to be used (Watts, 2010).
63
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
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64
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
pub||c agenc|es and ofc|a|s, |n both nat|ona| and
|nternat|ona| po||cy-mak|ng arenas, and have, |n many
|nstances, |n1uenced po||cy dec|s|ons to the|r beneft
(boxes 6 and 7). Th|s |n1uence weakens government
comm|tment to more str|ct|y regu|ate commerc|a|
actors, remove perverse |ncent|ves that avour
corporate proft over pub||c |nterest, rev|se ownersh|p
|aws and restore pub||c access to and contro| over
product|ve resources that have been pr|vat|zed.
4. Laga| |mpad|manIs Io susIa|nab|a agr|cu|Iura|
rasaarch and pracI|ca
Secur|ty o tenure and access to |and are v|ta| to enab|e
armers to |nvest |n |onger term resource-conserv|ng
strateg|es and meet ||ve||hood and ood secur|ty goa|s
at househo|d and nat|ona| |eve|s. The |ack o nat|ona|
|aws to secure sma||-sca|e armers' tenure and access
to product|ve resources (e.g. seeds, germp|asm, |and,
water) underm|nes eorts to promote a convers|on to
susta|nab|e pract|ces. lnstead, |nte||ectua| property
(lP) |aws have pr|vat|zed those resources, transerr|ng
ownersh|p to commerc|a| |nterests (lAASTD, 2009a).
lP |aws are a|so dr|v|ng agr|cu|tura| research |n
support o pr|vate sector goa|s, assoc|ated w|th
product deve|opment rather than eco|og|ca| res|||ence
or poverty reduct|on. The Bayh-Do|e Act o 1980, or
8ox 7: avo|v|ng door
Oorporate execut|ves rom ma|or agr|bus|nesses appo|nted to pub||c agenc|es have requent|y part|c|pated |n the drat-
|ng o regu|atory ru|es that are avourab|e to the|r |ndustry's |nterests.
a
Be|ow are some examp|es rom var|ous reports.
A Braz|||an attorney represented Monsanto and |ts Braz|||an subs|d|ary, Monsoy, |n var|ous court cases between 1998
and 2002. Mov|ng to government serv|ce |n 2005, he coord|nated the h|gh-|eve| |nter-m|n|ster|a| work|ng group that
estab||shed the decree to |mp|ement Braz||'s pro-GE B|osaety Law. The |aw app|auded by Monsanto
b
estab||shed
a Nat|ona| B|osaety Oounc|| on wh|ch the ormer Monsanto attorney served as execut|ve secretary rom 2005 to
2010.
A Syngenta |obby|st that represented the b|otech company at an E hear|ng |n 2008 had prev|ous|y worked or the
European n|on Food Saety Author|ty (EFSA) where she had deve|oped GE gu|dance documents. Her move v|o-
|ated the EFSA's requ|red two-year wa|t|ng per|od. The |obby|st |s current|y Syngenta's Head o B|otech Pegu|atory
Aa|rs or Europe, Ar|ca and the M|dd|e East (Testb|otech, 2009 and 2010, SP lnternat|ona|, 2010).
A |awyer or Monsanto moved to the n|ted States Food and Drug Adm|n|strat|on (FDA) and the n|ted States De-
partment o Agr|cu|ture (SDA) |n the 1990s, dur|ng wh|ch t|me he approved Monsanto's controvers|a| GE bov|ne
growth hormone and deve|oped pro-agr|cu|tura| b|otechno|ogy po||c|es based on the concept o "substant|a| equ|va-
|ence." He returned to Monsanto as v|ce pres|dent or pub||c po||cy |n 1998, beore re|o|n|ng the FDA |n 2010 (Nest|e,
2002, SFDA, 2010).
A ormer corporate counse| or the pest|c|de and b|otechno|ogy company, DuPont, was appo|nted |n January 2011 to
serve as genera| counse| or the SDA. Soon ater, the SDA proposed a dramat|c reduct|on |n agency respons|b|||ty
or regu|at|ng GE crops. A two-year p||ot program |aunched |n Apr|| 2011 now a||ows b|otechno|ogy frms to conduct
env|ronmenta| rev|ews o the|r own GE products as part o the n|ted States' regu|atory process.
c
ln November 2011,
SDA announced add|t|ona| p|ans to stream||ne |ts GE regu|atory approva| process |n order to "reduce the |ength o
the pet|t|on process."
d

Nc|e: a See a|so Oenter or Pespons|ve Po||t|cs, 2011, Agr|bus|ness |obby|ng, at: www.opensecrets.org/|obby/
|ndus.php?|d~A&year~2010, and Pevo|v|ng door, at: www.opensecrets.org/revo|v|ng/|ndex.php.
b See Monsanto, Monsanto encouraged by enactment o Braz|||an b|osaety |aw. News re|ease, 24 March
2005, at: http://monsanto.med|aroom.com/|ndex.php?s~43&|tem~62.
c SDA (2011). So||c|tat|on o Letters o lnterest to Part|c|pate |n Nat|ona| Env|ronmenta| Po||cy Act P||ot
Pro|ect. An|ma| and P|ant Hea|th lnspect|on Serv|ce [Docket No. APHlS20100117], Federa| Peg|ster, \o|.
76, No. 67, Thursday, Apr|| 7, 2011/Not|ces: 1930919310. Wash|ngton, DO. SDA's p||ot programme |s
descr|bed at: www.aph|s.usda.gov/b|otechno|ogy/nepa_p||ot.shtm|.
d SDA's November 2011 p|ans to speed up the GE approva| process are descr|bed at: www.aph|s.usda.
gov/newsroom/2011/11/ge_pet|t|on_process.shtm|. The co||aborat|on between Monsanto and SDA |n
preparat|on o env|ronmenta| rev|ews o Monsanto's GE products |s ana|ysed at: www.truth-out.org/under-
|ndustry-pressure-usda-works-speed-approva|-monsantos-genet|ca||y-eng|neered-crops/1323453319.
Government documents obta|ned under a Freedom o lnormat|on Act request are ava||ab|e at: www.truth-
out.org/why-monsanto-a|ways-w|ns67976.
65
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
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66
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
examp|e, rad|ca||y a|tered the po||t|ca| and econom|c
|andscape o pub||c sector research |n the n|ted
States, mandat|ng patents on research outcomes.
When un|vers|t|es ass|gn exc|us|ve ||cens|ng r|ghts
to corporat|ons, core research benefts are removed
rom the pub||c doma|n.
Sc|ent|sts |n deve|op|ng countr|es are encouraged
by |ncent|ves and techn|ca| support rom un|vers|ty
patent ofces to undertake research that |s ||ke|y to
earn roya|ty revenues or the un|vers|ty, as observed
|n ganda (Louwaars et a|., 2005). lncreas|ng|y,
un|vers|t|es are red|rect|ng the|r research to meet the
short-term fnanc|a| goa|s o sponsor|ng corporat|ons
rather than broader pub||c |nterest goa|s, as re1ected
|n the emergence o a "un|vers|ty-|ndustr|a| comp|ex"
(Press and Washburn, 2000, Washburn, 2005).
Sc|ent|sts' ab|||ty to conduct |ndependent
assessments o patented GE seeds |s a|so |mpeded
by lP ru|es that requ|re them to frst secure approva| or
the|r research p|an rom the patent-ho|der (Hubbard,
2009). lndeed, |n 2009, |n a |etter to the n|ted States
Env|ronmenta| Protect|on Agency, over two dozen
un|vers|ty sc|ent|sts comp|a|ned o the st|1|ng eects
o lP |aws on |ndependent research and |nnovat|on
(Po||ack, 2009).
Oorporate ownersh|p o both product|ve resources
and lP has constra|ned agr|cu|tura| transormat|on
|n other ways as we|| (Brennan et a|., 2005, Pray,
Oehmke and Naseem, 2005). These ownersh|p ru|es
have contr|buted to the eros|on o genet|c d|vers|ty,
|oca| know|edge, soc|a| equ|ty and ood sovere|gnty
(Dreyus et a|., 2009).
F|na||y, the |ack o adequate ant|-trust and compet|t|on
|aws at nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| |eve|s, and weak
|ud|c|a| systems that are unab|e to proper|y enorce
ex|st|ng |aws have supported the unprecedented
pace o corporate conso||dat|on and adverse eects
on am||y arm|ng over the past two decades (De
Schutter, 2009b, Hendr|ckson et a|., 2009).
6. InsI|IuI|ona| b|asas
B|as w|th|n |nst|tut|ona| arrangements shaped by pre-
ana|yt|c assumpt|ons, proess|ona| |nert|a and "path
dependency," and uphe|d by geopo||t|ca| concerns
and the |n1uence o vested |nterests can strong|y
pr|v||ege one deve|opment mode| over others (Dreyus
et a|., 2009). ln the case o agr|cu|ture, po||t|ca||y and
econom|ca||y dom|nant actors, such as the Wor|d
Bank, |nternat|ona| research centres, and deve|oped-
country a|d and trade agenc|es, a|| p|ayed a ormat|ve
ro|e |n estab||sh|ng the "Green Pevo|ut|on" mode| as
one to be rep||cated and emu|ated, at the expense
o a|ternat|ve mode|s that emphas|zed more ho||st|c,
eco|og|ca| and armer-|ed approaches (Brooks et a|.,
2009, Dreyus et a|., 2009, Ou||ather, 2010, Brooks,
2010 and 2011).
The pers|stence o these b|ases today |s re1ected
|n the number o strateg|c |n|t|at|ves o ma|or
|nternat|ona| donors that seek to promote h|gh-
externa|-|nput, commerc|a| or |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture,
even among sma||-sca|e armers, desp|te ev|dence
that revea|s the damag|ng eects o th|s approach
and the need to strengthen s|te-spec|fc eco|og|ca|
approaches that prov|de mu|t|-unct|ona| benefts.
For examp|e, emphas|s on |ncreas|ng product|v|ty
through the research, deve|opment and export o new
products and b|otechno|og|es underp|ns the n|ted
States Feed the Future ln|t|at|ve,
42
the Agr|cu|tura|
B|otechno|ogy Support Program o the n|ted
States Agency or lnternat|ona| Deve|opment,
43
the
agr|cu|ture programme o the wor|d's |argest pr|vate
oundat|on (B||| and Me||nda Gates Foundat|on,
2010) and the Oonsu|tat|ve Group on lnternat|ona|
Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch (Edwards, 2008, Brooks, 2010
and 2011, Feed the Future, 2010, Tuckey, 2010). Many
o these deve|opment |n|t|at|ves are c|ose|y |nterwoven
and share the same corporate partners (fgure 13). ln
such cases, b||atera| and mu|t||atera| deve|opment a|d
prov|des an eect|ve veh|c|e or market entry.
6. |oba| Irada: dr|var or consIra|nI?
G|oba| trade has s|gn|fcant potent|a| to support robust
nat|ona| and reg|ona| econom|es and dr|ve a trans|t|on
towards eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture. However, trade
||bera||zat|on that has opened deve|op|ng-country
markets to |nternat|ona| compet|t|on too qu|ck|y or
too extens|ve|y has underm|ned the rura| sector and
degraded the env|ronment (lAASTD, 2009a and b).
As a resu|t, deve|op|ng countr|es have been |et w|th
d|m|n|shed capac|ty or ood product|on, mak|ng
them more vu|nerab|e to |nternat|ona| ood pr|ce and
supp|y vo|at|||ty, and reduc|ng the|r ood and ||ve||hood
secur|ty (Khor, 2008).
A undamenta| reorm o g|oba| trade ru|es towards
a|r and eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture has been proposed
and descr|bed by a number o experts (e.g. lzac et
a|., 2009, a|so see Khor and L|m |n chapter 5 o th|s
Pev|ew). Yet progress towards estab||sh|ng a new and
a|r trade reg|me rema|ns constra|ned by the |n1uence
67
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
o a ew poweru| countr|es and commerc|a| |nterests
operat|ng |n g|oba| po||cy arenas such as the Wor|d
Trade Organ|zat|on (WTO). Ant|-democrat|c processes
and asymmetr|ca| power re|at|onsh|ps w|th|n the WTO
prevent c|v|| soc|ety and governments o deve|op|ng
countr|es rom secur|ng reorm o the g|oba| trade
reg|me recommended by, or examp|e, the lAASTD
and NOTAD (Khor, 2008 and 2009, South Oentre,
2011).
8. 0urIa|||ng concanIraI|on oI poWar and
axcass oI |nNuanca |n Iha g|oba||tad
sysIam
The democrat|z|ng o |nst|tut|ons that shape g|oba|
ood and agr|cu|ture requ|res both courage and
susta|ned engagement by v|s|onary po||t|ca| |eaders,
researchers, pr|vate sector actors and a|| sectors
o c|v|| soc|ety. The part|c|pat|on o a|| stakeho|ders,
part|cu|ar|y h|stor|ca||y marg|na||zed rura| commun|t|es
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, as equa| partners and not
s|mp|y as stepp|ng stones |n a "consu|tat|ve" process
|s an essent|a| |ngred|ent or rev|ta||z|ng |oca| and
reg|ona| ood systems, dr|v|ng |nnovat|on that meets
g|oba| ood and ||ve||hood needs, and bu||d|ng robust
|oca| econom|es.
A progress|ve approach to overcom|ng the |nst|tut|ona|
and market-power constra|nts |dent|fed above shou|d
|nc|ude comm|tment to:
ndertake a u|| cost ana|ys|s o nat|ona| and g|oba|
ood and agr|cu|tura| systems,
Prov|de |nst|tut|ona| support or sma||-sca|e
armers, and women's and workers' organ|zat|ons
that strengthens the|r negot|at|ng power |n markets
dom|nated by transnat|ona| buyers,
Strengthen and broaden the scope o nat|ona|
and |nternat|ona| compet|t|on po||c|es to reverse
trends |n arm and agr|bus|ness concentrat|on, end
una|r bus|ness pract|ces across the g|oba| ood
product|on and supp|y cha|n, and curta|| dom|nant
buyer power wh|ch threatens sma||-sca|e armers'
ood and ||ve||hood secur|ty (see De Schutter,
2010c),
Estab||sh and enorce strong codes o conduct
to govern pr|vate-pub||c partnersh|ps and pub||c
po||cy-mak|ng processes |n order to m|n|m|ze
potent|a| con1|cts o |nterest wh|ch una|r|y or
|nappropr|ate|y beneft pr|vate sector actors,
Estab||sh an |nternat|ona| rev|ew mechan|sm to
|nvest|gate agr|ood sector concentrat|on, ant|-
compet|t|ve pract|ces and |mpacts across nat|ona|
borders, deve|op standards o corporate behav|our
and recommend po||cy opt|ons,
Pev|se lP and other ownersh|p ru|es and |ncent|ves
|n order to reor|ent pub||c po||cy and research
towards equ|tab|e and susta|nab|e deve|opment
goa|s,
Estab||sh means o prevent|ng con1|ct o |nterest
|n partnersh|ps, |nvestments and po||cy-mak|ng
processes,
Bu||d deve|op|ng countr|es' capac|t|es or trade
ana|ys|s and negot|at|on |ead|ng to more equ|tab|e
trade ru|es. Strateg|c |mpact assessments cou|d
prov|de useu| emp|r|ca| ev|dence o the soc|a|,
env|ronmenta| and econom|c trade-os o var|ous
trade |nstruments,
Pestra|n fnanc|a| specu|at|on over ood
commod|t|es that d|storts markets and pr|ce
s|gna|s, and
Estab||sh and strengthen democrat|c dec|s|on-
mak|ng processes and |ncrease c|v|| soc|ety
part|c|pat|on |n po||cy-mak|ng processes. The
success o the Tam|| Nadu Women's Oo||ect|ve |n
transorm|ng reg|ona| ood and agr|cu|tura| systems
by support|ng rura| women as co-dec|s|on-makers
|n the commun|ty and |n po||t|ca| ofce |s |nstruct|ve
|n th|s respect (lATP, 2010).
68
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
A comb|nat|on o cheap oss|| ue| and market
or|entat|on |ed to the |ndustr|a||zat|on o arm|ng. Wh||e
|abour product|v|ty |n agr|cu|ture has skyrocketed,
energy product|v|ty has p|ummeted. The w|nners
have been agr|bus|nesses and the |osers have been
sma|| arms, espec|a||y |n deve|op|ng countr|es. W|th
|ncreas|ng shortages o oss||-ue|-based energy
and natura| resources and the rap|d growth o
the wor|d's popu|at|on, we need to undamenta||y
transorm agr|cu|ture |nto a net energy producer, as
|t was throughout h|story. The s|mp|e equat|on has
a|ways been that |t |s necessary to get substant|a||y
more energy out o the ood than |s put |nto |ts
product|on. As |ong as energy |nput |s human |abour
|t |s an |ron |aw that can on|y be sk|pped or shorter
per|ods. Agr|cu|tura| workers shou|d not on|y be ab|e
to eed themse|ves, but a|so other am||y members
who are too young, too o|d or too s|ck to work, as
we|| as a ew others that supp|y serv|ces. F|na||y, |n
a|most a|| soc|et|es there have been ru|ers who have
appropr|ated a |arge proport|on o the product|on.
8. Z60 b||||on anargy s|avas
To have an |dea o how |mportant the dep|oyment o
externa| energy sources has been or our modern
soc|et|es, one can contrast the energy embedded |n
human |abour w|th the externa| energy sources that
are exp|o|ted. A rough ca|cu|at|on shows that the 7.71
tons o o|| equ|va|ents (toes)
44
o energy used annua||y
by the average Amer|can (compared w|th 0.25 toes
used by the average Senega|ese), corresponds to
the ood consumpt|on o 400 peop|e. That represent
the "energy s|aves" (|n the orm o oss|| ue|) work|ng
or h|m or her. Another way o |ook|ng at |t, rom an
econom|c perspect|ve, |s that a barre| o o|| represents
the energy o 25,000 hours o human to|| (|.e. 14
persons work|ng or a year under norma| |abour
standards). Even w|th an o|| pr|ce o severa| hundred
do||ars per barre|, th|s |s very cheap compared w|th
human |abour (Pundgren, 2012).
Accord|ng to the FAO (2000), 6,000 mega|ou|es (MJ)
o oss|| energy (correspond|ng to one barre| o o||)
|s used to produce one ton o ma|ze |n |ndustr|a|
arm|ng, wh||e or the product|on o ma|ze us|ng
trad|t|ona| methods |n Mex|co, or examp|e, on|y 180
MJ (correspond|ng to 4.8 ||tres o o||) |s used. Th|s
ca|cu|at|on |nc|udes energy or synthet|c ert|||zers,
|rr|gat|on and mach|nery, but not the energy used
or mak|ng mach|nery, transport|ng products to and
rom the arm, and or construct|on o arm bu||d|ngs.
ln modern r|ce arm|ng, the energy return on energy
|nvested (EPOl) |s |ess than 1 (|.e. there |s more energy
consumed than produced) and |n modern ma|ze
arm|ng |t |s s||ght|y more than 1, wh||e trad|t|ona|
product|on o r|ce and ma|ze g|ves a return o 60 to 70
t|mes on energy used (FAO, 2000).
The tota| energy harvested oe| |ec|a|e can |ncrease
substant|a||y w|th |ncreased use o anc|||ary energy,
wh|ch can take the orm o better (and t|me||er)
so|| preparat|on, |rr|gat|on
45
and the app||cat|on o
(chem|ca|) ert|||zers that are very energy demand|ng,
to name a ew. The rat|o between energy return and
energy |nput (|.e. efc|ency |n use o energy) seems
to be a|r|y constant up to a certa|n |eve|, ater wh|ch
Absl|acl
ln a wor|d w|th a rap|d|y |ncreas|ng human popu|at|on and the s|mu|taneous dep|et|on o natura| resources,
the |ndustr|a| |og|c o rep|ac|ng human |abour w|th o|| and other natura| resources makes |ess and |ess
sense. lncreas|ng energy pr|ces w||| reverse some o the deve|opments that were made poss|b|e by cheap
oss|| ue|. Th|s poses a cha||enge or soc|ety, but a|so an opportun|ty to steer towards a path o true
susta|nab|||ty, |nc|ud|ng the adopt|on o more susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| methods (such as organ|c arm|ng)
and more |oca||zed ood product|on networks. That those changes w||| a|so serve to m|t|gate c||mate
change |s another strong argument |n avour o such a sh|t.
Commontary X||: Agr|cu|turo, |ood and Lnorgy
Cuuua| Ruudg|eu
C|o||u| AB Cousu|laucy, Swedeu
69
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
|t deter|orates rap|d|y. lndustr|a| arm|ng systems have
|ong passed th|s |eve|. Harvested energy oe| |aoc0|
0n|| |ncreases dramat|ca||y w|th |ncreased |nput o
energy by a actor o between 10 and 100, a||ow|ng
the most advanced agr|cu|tura| systems to have one
armer or more than 100 persons (Bay||ss-Sm|th,
1982).
0. why o|| and gra|n pr|cas mova |n
Iandam
Farm|ng uses energy |n many d|erent orms: d|ese|
or tractors and pumps, and e|ectr|c|ty or pumps,
ans and |ndoor mach|nery such as m||k|ng mach|nes.
Fert|||zers account or a |arge proport|on o energy
use. Energy represents 90 per cent o the product|on
costs o n|trogen ert|||zers, 30 per cent o those o
phosphorus ert|||zers and 15 per cent o those o
potass|um ert|||zers. Accord|ng to the n|ted States
Oongress|ona| Pesearch Serv|ces (S OPS, 2004),
energy costs |n the n|ted States represent between
22 per cent and 27 per cent o the product|on costs
o wheat, ma|ze and cotton and 14 per cent o
those o soybeans.
46
These fgures do not |nc|ude
embedded energy costs |n |tems such as bu||d|ngs
and mach|nery, wh|ch means that the actua| share
o energy costs |s substant|a||y h|gher. ln Argent|na,
energy costs were ca|cu|ated as account|ng or 43 per
cent o the product|on costs o gra|n |n 2006 (Ba|tzer,
Hansen and L|nd, 2008). When energy pr|ces r|se,
agr|cu|tura| commod|ty pr|ces o||ow su|t, as was seen
|n the ood and o|| pr|ce h|kes |n 20072008.
47
H|gher
energy pr|ces |n1uence ood pr|ces |n our d|erent
ways:
|) By mak|ng ood product|on more expens|ve,
||) By mak|ng the product|on o crops or b|oue| more
remunerat|ve and thereore reduc|ng the product|on
o ood, thereby |ead|ng to h|gher ood pr|ces,
|||) lncreas|ng transportat|on costs, wh|ch have a d|rect
|mpact on ood pr|ces,
|v) Peduc|ng compet|t|on |n the ood sector (|.e.
|ncreased transportat|on costs a||ev|ate the
pressure o g|oba| compet|t|on) (Pundgren,
2012).
. II Ia|as mora anargy Io aaI Ihan Io Iarm
The |ncrease o energy use |n agr|cu|ture was
part|cu|ar|y rap|d dur|ng the per|od between the
Second Wor|d War and the frst o|| pr|ce shock |n
1973. For examp|e, |n the n|ted K|ngdom, wh||e the
agr|cu|tura| |abour orce was reduced to ha| between
1952 and 1972, energy use tr|p|ed (Bay||ss-Sm|th,
1982). ln the n|ted States, energy use e|| rom the
m|d-1970s to the m|d-1980s as a response to h|gher o||
pr|ces, but |t stab|||zed thereater (Hendr|ckson, 1994).
However, |ook|ng at the ent|re ood cha|n, energy use
has constant|y |ncreased. se o energy a|ong the
ood cha|n or ood purchases by or or househo|ds |n
the n|ted States |ncreased between 1997 and 2002
at more than s|x t|mes the rate o |ncrease |n tota|
domest|c energy use. As a share o the nat|ona| energy
budget, ood-re|ated energy use grew rom 12.2 per
cent |n 1997 to 14.4 per cent |n 2002 (S OPS, 2004)
(see a|so the comment o GPAlN |n th|s chapter). ln
pre-|ndustr|a| and sem|-|ndustr|a| agr|cu|tura| systems,
most o the ood |s so|d, eaten and prepared c|ose
to where |t |s produced, but modern ood cha|ns are
h|gh|y centra||zed and g|oba||zed. ln |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es, between 10 and 15 t|mes more energy |s
used |n the ood system than |s conta|ned |n the ood
we eat (Hendr|ckson, 1994).
A |arge proport|on o the energy |n the ood system |s
used by consumers or buy|ng, stor|ng and prepar|ng
ood. For examp|e, |n Sweden |n 1997, o the tota|
energy use |n the ood cha|n, agr|cu|tura| product|on
accounted or 1519 per cent, process|ng or 1720
per cent, d|str|but|on and reta|| or 2029 per cent and
consumpt|on or 3845 per cent. Another 711 per cent
o the tota| energy |s consumed by much-d|scussed
transport, part|cu|ar|y |n the fna| stretch to the po|nt
o purchase by the consumer. For |nstance, a person
dr|v|ng a car a d|stance o fve k||ometres or shopp|ng
uses a |ot more energy per ood un|t than a sh|p
transport|ng meat or soy rom another cont|nent. A|so,
|n some deve|op|ng countr|es, consumpt|on takes the
||on's share o energy use or ood, |n th|s case, ma|n|y
rom cook|ng over an open fre. The energy used
by th|s trad|t|ona| method o cook|ng |s equ|va|ent
to about 1,500 kWh per cap|ta (correspond|ng to
s||ght|y more than a cub|c metre o frewood), wh|ch
|s somewhere between ha| and one th|rd o what |s
used per cap|ta or cook|ng |n Sweden or the n|ted
States (h||n, 1997). Oook|ng represents more than
a fth o the tota| energy consumpt|on |n Ar|ca and
As|a,
48
and |n some countr|es, |t represents up to or
over 90 per cent o househo|d energy consumpt|on
(lEA, 2006). Oook|ng consumes more energy than
the ood conta|ns. Thus, wh||e arm|ng |n deve|op|ng
countr|es and trad|t|ona| systems |s energy efc|ent,
cook|ng |s not.
70
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
ln a wor|d w|th a rap|d|y |ncreas|ng human popu|at|on
and the s|mu|taneous dep|et|on o natura| resources,
the |ndustr|a| |og|c o rep|ac|ng human |abour w|th
o|| and other natura| resources makes |ess and |ess
sense. lncreas|ng energy pr|ces w||| reverse some
o the deve|opments that were made poss|b|e by
cheap oss|| ue|. Th|s poses a cha||enge or soc|ety,
but a|so an opportun|ty to steer towards a path o
true susta|nab|||ty, |nc|ud|ng the adopt|on o more
susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| methods (such as organ|c
arm|ng) and more |oca||zed ood product|on networks.
That those changes w||| a|so serve to m|t|gate c||mate
change |s another strong argument |n avour o such a
sh|t (|n th|s regard, a|so see the |ead art|c|e o chapter
1 and the comment o Leu).
The des|red ob|ect|ve shou|d not be to abo||sh the use
o externa| energy and re|y so|e|y on manua| |abour,
rather, |t shou|d be about fnd|ng a new ba|ance
that works on a g|oba| sca|e and |s susta|nab|e.
Penewab|e energy, such as b|o-energy, w|ndm|||s and
water m|||s have been used |n arm|ng or thousands
o years. These cou|d be |mproved and more w|de|y
adopted, and so|ar energy and b|ogas cou|d a|so be
added to the m|x. lt |s not ||ke|y that renewab|e energy
w||| a||ow such wasteu| systems as ex|st today. For
examp|e, very cheap energy makes |t proftab|e to use
that energy to b|nd atmospher|c n|trogen |nstead o
us|ng natura| n|trogen fxat|on.
E. naqua| anargy accass and unaqua|
Iarms oI Irada
Oommerc|a||zat|on |s promoted as the rec|pe or
deve|opment or the a|most ha| a b||||on sma||ho|der
armers |n the wor|d. The|r trad|t|ona| modes o arm|ng
are bu||t on a rather h|gh degree o autonomy, and
these regenerate most o the needed resources,
such as |abour, cap|ta|, so|| ert|||ty and pest contro|,
w|th|n the arm|ng system. By nature, peasants res|st
commerc|a||zat|on because they w|sh to m|n|m|ze r|sk
and dependence (\an der P|oeg, 2009). l they were
to be coerced |nto commerc|a||z|ng the|r product|on,
most o them wou|d s|mp|y not surv|ve |n the strugg|e
or "modern|zat|on", and | they surv|ved, there wou|d
be enormous overproduct|on. European arms
exper|enced d|fcu|t|es cop|ng w|th compet|t|on rom
North Amer|ca, espec|a||y ater the |ntroduct|on o
steamsh|p transport. The response was to |ntroduce
protect|on|st measures, even though they aced
much |ess compet|t|ve pressure than today's poor
armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es. ln add|t|on, because
o product|v|ty ga|ns |n deve|oped countr|es, g|oba|
agr|cu|tura| commod|ty pr|ces e|| by about 60 per cent
dur|ng the per|od 19602000 (Dorward et a|., 2002).
Over the past ew decades, as product|v|ty and energy
use by the poorest armers have rema|ned much the
same, the product|v|ty gap has w|dened, both re|at|ve|y
and |n abso|ute numbers (tab|e 1). As a resu|t, |t |s c|ear
that sma||ho|der armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es have
been |os|ng out. At current pr|ces, |t wou|d requ|re one
||et|me o |abour
49
by a armer on a non-mechan|zed
arm to acqu|re a pa|r o oxen and sma|| an|ma|-drawn
equ|pment, and ten generat|ons o |abour to buy a
sma|| tractor (Mazoyer and Poudart, 2006).
lt |s ent|re|y unrea||st|c to be||eve that sma||ho|der
armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es, w|th the|r ||m|ted
resources, wou|d be ab|e to compete |n wor|d
Tab|a 1: Agr|cu|Iura| |abour producI|v|Iy ($ par parson/yaar)
1990-199Z Z001-Z003
Agr|cu|Iura
as a shara oI P (%)
Low-|ucome couul||es 815 8G8 2O
N|dd|e-|ucome couul||es 58O 7O8 9
h|gh-|ucome couul||es 14,997 24,488 2
l|auce 22,284 89,22O 2
uu|led K|ugdom 22,5OG 25,87G 1
uu|led Slales 2O,797 8G,21G 1
B|a/|| 1,5O7 2,79O 5
lud|a 882 881 4
Ch|ua 254 8G8 12
Na|aw| 72 18O 8G
Sc0|ce: Wor|d Bank, 2008.
71
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
markets or stap|e oods, where energy access |s
the ma|n actor o compet|t|ve advantage. ln rea||ty,
an |ncreas|ng number o deve|op|ng countr|es are
becom|ng net ood |mporters. Oheap energy may
have been cons|dered a way out o th|s s|tuat|on, but
th|s has not been the case. lndeed, |t |s cheap energy
that has kept down the pr|ces o agr|cu|tura| products,
and thereby the market va|ue o sma||ho|der armers'
|abour to a do||ar per day. And |t |s cheap energy that
has a||owed |ncome gaps to w|den to unprecedented
|eve|s because the r|ch producers have a|ways been
ab|e to use more cheap energy than the poor. Thus
the gap between those re|y|ng on the|r own |abour and
those re|y|ng on the use o oss|| ue| has |ncreased.
Energy scarc|ty and r|s|ng energy pr|ces w||| resu|t |n
|ess g|oba| compet|t|on and h|gher ood pr|ces. Such a
deve|opment, wh||e pa|nu| or many soc|et|es and or
net ood |mporters |n the short run, w|||, neverthe|ess,
be better or the sma||ho|der armers |n deve|op|ng
countr|es |n the |ong run, because |t w||| encourage
energy-efc|ent, |ow-externa|-|nput-dependent, c|osed
|oop, regenerat|ve orms o agr|cu|ture w|th a greater
ocus on reg|ona| markets. Po||cymakers shou|d se|ze
th|s opportun|ty to promote a parad|gm sh|t towards
th|s orm o agr|cu|ture, |nstead o promot|ng cont|nued
or |ncreased dependence o agr|cu|ture on externa|
|nputs (e.g. ert|||zers, genet|ca||y mod|fed organ|sms
and cred|ts) and cont|nued g|oba| compet|t|on |n a
market where the b|g p|ayers have un||m|ted access
to cheap energy.
72
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. Food cr|s|s, g|oba| aconom|c |nsIab|||Iy
and po||I|ca| unrasI
Soar|ng ood pr|ces were a ma|or tr|gger or the r|ots
that destab|||zed North Ar|ca and West As|a, and have
s|nce spread to many other Ar|can countr|es (Harvey,
2011, Ho, 2011d). The FAO Food Pr|ce lndex h|t an a||-
t|me h|gh |n February 2011,
50
and reached 211 po|nts
|n November 2011, some 30 po|nts |ower than at |ts
peak, but 10 po|nts h|gher than the average or 2008.
Th|s has been happen|ng as the g|oba| economy |s
st||| stagger|ng rom the 2008 fnanc|a| (and ood)
cr|s|s, w|th pub||c debt expand|ng and unemp|oyment
sky h|gh (F||ger, 2011).
Lester Brown (2011), veteran wor|d-watcher, notes
that ood has qu|ck|y become the h|dden dr|ver o
wor|d po||t|cs, and ood cr|ses are go|ng to become
|ncreas|ng|y common. He says, "Scarc|ty |s the new
norm." The wor|d |s ac|ng grow|ng demand or ood
as popu|at|on |ncreases, yet ood crops and |and are
be|ng d|verted to produce b|oue|s. ln 2010, the n|ted
States a|one turned 126 m||||on tons o |ts 400 m||||on
tons o corn harvest |nto ethano|. At the same t|me, the
wor|d's ab|||ty to produce ood |s d|m|n|sh|ng. Aqu|ers
are runn|ng dry |n the ma|or ood-produc|ng countr|es
where ha| o the wor|d's popu|at|on ||ves. There |s
w|despread so|| eros|on and desert|fcat|on, and g|oba|
warm|ng and weather extremes are a|ready reduc|ng
crop y|e|ds (Peng et a|., 2004, Lobe||, Sch|enker and
Oost-Poberts, 2011, Jones, 2011, Sc|ence Da||,,
2011), h|tt|ng the most vu|nerab|e peop|e |n sub-
Saharan Ar|ca and South As|a the hardest.
Brown (2011) warns, "We are now so c|ose to the
edge that a breakdown |n the ood system cou|d
come at any t|me." He adds: "At |ssue now |s whether
the wor|d can go beyond ocus|ng on the symptoms
o the deter|orat|ng ood s|tuat|on and |nstead attack
the under|y|ng causes. l we cannot produce h|gher
crop y|e|ds w|th |ess water and conserve ert||e so||s,
many agr|cu|tura| areas w||| cease to be v|ab|e. l we
cannot move at wart|me speed to stab|||ze the c||mate,
we may not be ab|e to avo|d runaway ood pr|ces.
The t|me to act |s now beore the ood cr|s|s o 2011
becomes the new norma|."
8. Tha |mporIanca oI sma|| Iam||y Iarms
There |s an emerg|ng sc|ent|fc consensus that
a sh|t to sma||-sca|e susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and
|oca||zed ood systems w||| address most, | not a||,
o the under|y|ng causes o deter|orat|ng agr|cu|tura|
product|v|ty as we|| as the conservat|on o natura| so||
and water resources wh||e sav|ng the c||mate (Ho et
a|., 2008, lAASTD (undated), Homann, 2011, De
Schutter, 2011).
Sma|| am||y arm|ng |s the dom|nant orm o agr|cu|ture
|n the wor|d, espec|a||y |n the deve|op|ng countr|es o
Ar|ca and As|a. Approx|mate|y 3 b||||on peop|e ||ve |n
rura| areas |n deve|op|ng countr|es, wh|ch a|so |nc|ude
80 per cent o the poor. Around 2.5 b||||on peop|e are
|nvo|ved |n agr|cu|ture as armers or workers, and at
|east 75 per cent o arms |n the ma|or|ty o As|an and
Ar|can countr|es are 2 ha or sma||er (Quan, 2011). As
Homann (2011) po|nts out, M|||enn|um Deve|opment
Goa| (MDG) 1 a|ms at erad|cat|ng extreme hunger
and poverty, and one o the most eect|ve ways o
ha|v|ng both the number o hungry and poor by 2015
|s to make the trans|t|on towards more susta|nab|e
orms o agr|cu|ture "that nour|sh the |and and peop|e
and prov|de an opportun|ty or decent, fnanc|a||y
reward|ng and gender equa| |obs." At the same t|me,
th|s wou|d |e|o meet the hea|th targets o MDGs 3
and 6 |n prov|d|ng a more d|verse, sae, nutr|t|ous and
aordab|e d|et (see a|so Ho et a|., 2008).
Absl|acl
Sma|| |ntegrated arms w|th o-gr|d renewab|e energy may be the perect so|ut|on to the ood and fnanc|a|
cr|ses wh||e m|t|gat|ng and adapt|ng to c||mate change.
Commontary X|||: 5usta|nab|o Agr|cu|turo and Off-Gr|d
onowab|o Lnorgy
Nae-wau ho
lusl|lule ol Sc|euce |u Soc|ely, Loudou
73
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Sma|| arms genera||y produce more per hectare than
|arge ones, so much so that econom|sts have |ong
observed and debated th|s apparent|y paradox|ca|
|nverse re|at|onsh|p between arm s|ze and product|v|ty
(Quan, 2011). Sma|| arms are 2 to 10 t|mes as
product|ve and much more proftab|e, and not |ust
|n deve|op|ng countr|es (Posset, 2006). The n|ted
States Agr|cu|tura| Oensus o 1992 ound a sharp
dec||ne |n net |ncome, rom $1,400/acre to $12/acre
as arm s|ze |ncreased rom 4 acres to 6,709 acres
(Posset, 1999). Sma|| arms are a|so assoc|ated w|th
"|ntens|ve use o househo|d and commun|ty |abour,
h|gh |eve|s o mot|vat|on and much |ower superv|s|on
and transact|on costs" (Quan, 2011), wh|ch may we||
exp|a|n the|r econom|c advantages, but not the|r
actua| product|v|ty. These arms are h|gh|y product|ve
because they are typ|ca||y b|od|verse systems that
|ntegrate mu|t|p|e crops and ||vestock, wh|ch enab|es
them to max|m|ze synerget|c re|at|onsh|ps wh||e
m|n|m|z|ng wastes, as they turn wastes such as
armyard manure |nto ert|||zer. ln eect, they embody
the c|rcu|ar economy o nature (Ho et a|., 2008)
where|n energy and nutr|ents are recyc|ed w|th|n the
ecosystem or max|mum product|v|ty and carbon
sequestrat|on, both above and be|ow ground (see,
or examp|e, Ho, 2008 or a deta||ed descr|pt|on o
th|s "thermodynam|cs o organ|sms and susta|nab|e
systems").
0. Tha |mporIanca oI ranaWab|a anargy
To substant|a||y |mprove ||v|ng standards, susta|nab|e
arm|ng |s not enough, access to modern energy
|s a|so cruc|a|. lndeed, |ack o access to modern
energy |s genera||y recogn|zed as the b|ggest
obstac|e to susta|nab|e deve|opment. Accord|ng to
the lnternat|ona| Energy Agency (lEA, 2010), "Lack
o access to modern energy serv|ces |s a ser|ous
h|ndrance to econom|c and soc|a| deve|opment and
must be overcome | the N M|||enn|um Deve|opment
Goa|s (MDGs) are to be ach|eved." Th|s v|ew |s
echoed by the Academy o Sc|ence o South Ar|ca
(2010), wh|ch states: "Access to modern energy
serv|ces, defned as e|ectr|c|ty and c|ean cook|ng
ue|s, |s centra| to a country's deve|opment."
Wor|dw|de, 1.4 b||||on peop|e |ack access to e|ectr|c|ty,
85 per cent o whom ||ve |n rura| areas, and 2.7 b||||on
peop|e st||| re|y on trad|t|ona| b|omass ue|s or cook|ng
and heat|ng (lEA, 2010). The greatest cha||enge |s |n
sub-Saharan Ar|ca, where on|y 31 per cent o the
popu|at|on has access to e|ectr|c|ty, the |owest |eve| |n
the wor|d, and | South Ar|ca |s exc|uded, on|y 28 per
cent have such access.
There |s a c|ose corre|at|on between |ncome |eve|s
and access to modern energy. Oountr|es w|th a |arge
proport|on o the popu|at|on ||v|ng on an |ncome o |ess
than $2 per day tend to have |ow e|ectr|fcat|on rates
and a h|gh percentage o the popu|at|on that re||es
on trad|t|ona| b|omass. The Wor|d Hea|th Organ|zat|on
(WHO, 2011) est|mates that 1.45 m||||on peop|e d|e
premature|y each year rom househo|d a|r po||ut|on
due to |nefc|ent b|omass combust|on, a s|gn|fcant
proport|on be|ng young ch||dren. Th|s |s greater than
premature deaths rom ma|ar|a or tubercu|os|s.
Sma|| agroeco|og|ca| arms are |dea||y served by new
renewab|e energ|es that can be generated and used
on-s|te and |n o-gr|d s|tuat|ons most oten ound |n
deve|op|ng countr|es (Ho et a|., 2009, Ho, 2010a). The
renewab|e energ|es generated can a|so serve |oca|
bus|nesses, st|mu|ate |oca| econom|es and create
numerous emp|oyment opportun|t|es.
. II-gr|d ranaWab|a poWar sysIams ara
anIar|ng Iha ma|nsIraam Wor|dW|da
W|th|n the past ew years, o-gr|d power systems
have entered the ma|nstream, dr|ven by the ready
ava||ab|||ty o renewab|e energy opt|ons that can cost
|ess than gr|d connect|ons.
A n|ted K|ngdom company, Energy So|ut|ons,
advert|ses on |ts webs|te
51
that homes |n Europe,
|nc|ud|ng the n|ted K|ngdom, "are |ook|ng at the
potent|a| benefts o supp|y|ng some, | not a|| the|r
domest|c power requ|rement rom o-gr|d sources."
Th|s cou|d be or a var|ety o reasons, such as
connect|on to the gr|d be|ng too expens|ve, and the
des|re to reduce energy b|||s, protect|on rom power
cuts and reduct|on o GHG em|ss|ons. So|ar pane|s,
w|nd turb|nes and sma|| generators are su|tab|e or
most homes, and a system w|th a battery connected
to a battery charger/|nverter |s the most conven|ent.
Examp|es o sma||-sca|e o-gr|d energy prov|s|on
based on renewab|es can be ound across Scot|and
(Oommun|ty Energy Scot|and, 2011), such as |n
remote erry wa|t|ng rooms on the Western l|es and
the Ohar|es lng||s O|ark Memor|a| hut on Ben Nev|s
that uses sma|| w|nd turb|nes. Photovo|ta|c (P\)
|nsta||at|ons |ntegrated w|th batter|es are oten used
where on|y a sma|| amount o power |s requ|red, as or
||ght|ng, ma|nta|n|ng power or mon|tor|ng equ|pment
74
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
or ma|nta|n|ng water treatment ac|||t|es. However, |t |s
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, that o-gr|d renewab|e energy
|s rap|d|y ga|n|ng ground. ln these countr|es, power
requ|rements are genera||y |ow and e|ectron|c ||ght|ng
and te|ecommun|cat|on equ|pment are |mprov|ng
rap|d|y, w|th |ow power requ|rements and re||ab|e
perormance, and requ|r|ng ||tt|e or no ma|ntenance
(Ho, 2010a). Three examp|es o |arge-sca|e o-
gr|d renewab|e energy use w|th vary|ng degrees o
success are the Grameen Shakt| |n Bang|adesh (Ho,
2011a), L|ght|ng Ar|ca (Ho, 2011b) and B|ogas or
Oh|na's Soc|a||st Oountrys|de (Ho, 2011c).
Grameen Shakt| |s a non-proft organ|zat|on ounded
|n 1996 to promote, deve|op and supp|y renewab|e
energy to the rura| poor o Bang|adesh. lt started by
tra|n|ng "bareoot women eng|neers" or |nsta|||ng,
ma|nta|n|ng and repa|r|ng so|ar pane|s, ||ghts,
te|ephone charg|ng, batter|es and other accessor|es. lt
has now become one o the wor|d's |argest and astest
grow|ng renewab|e energy organ|zat|ons through
a system o m|crofnanc|ng, tra|n|ng o techn|c|ans
(ma|n|y women) or |nsta||at|on, ma|ntenance and
repa|r and prov|s|on o serv|ces, |nc|ud|ng buy-back.
lt runs techno|ogy centres or tra|n|ng throughout the
country (see Ho, 2011a or deta||s). At the end o May
2011, Grameen Shakt| had |nsta||ed 636,322 so|ar
home systems, 18,046 b|ogas p|ants and 304,414
|mproved cook|ng stoves. lt had a|so tra|ned a tota|
o 28,932 techn|c|ans |n 46 techno|ogy centres
nat|onw|de, cover|ng a|| the d|str|cts. lts benefc|ar|es
are 40,000 v|||ages w|th a tota| o about 4 m||||on
peop|e (Grameen Shakt|, 2011). What began as a
grassroots endeavour to prov|de so|ar ||ght or the
rura| popu|at|on has now attracted the back|ng o the
Wor|d Bank.
L|ght|ng Ar|ca |s now a |o|nt Wor|d Bank and
lnternat|ona| F|nance Oorporat|on programme that
a|ms to he|p deve|op commerc|a| o-gr|d ||ght|ng
F|gura 14: raam Farm Z: an |nIagraIad Iood and anargy sysIam
Sc0|ce: Ho et a|., 2008.
B|ogas d|gesle| 1
B|ogas d|gesle| 2
Composl
Nauu|e, c|ops, |es|dues,
lood |ema|us, pape|, elc.
& used wale|
Lal||ue
Reslau|aul
*****
A|gae bas|us Ch|c|eus
uc|s
Ceese
l|shpouds
Aquacu|lu|e
|ve|se c|ops wood|auds
C|ass paslu|e 0|cha|ds
Cows
Sheep
P|gs
Coals
Neal
da||y
p|oduce*
Nush|ooms
wo|ms
Nush|oom
ha|vesls*
R|ch le|l|||se|
l|sh
ha|vesls*
Pou|l|y
ha|vesls*
C|op ha|vesls*
Pu|e wale| Vegelab|es
l|owe|s*
hea|lh
beuel|ls
Sav|ugs ou le|l|||se|s
& pesl|c|des*
Analytical lab
Experiments in new
technologies
le|l|gal|ou
Ra|u wale|
ha|vesl|ug
Sma|| w|ud lu|b|ues Ca|bou c|ed|ls*
0omb|nad haaI and poWar ganaraI|on
- Comb|ued heal aud powe| geue|al|ou syslem
- lood p|ocess|ug
- Nelhaue pu||l|cal|ou aud comp|ess|ou lo| mob||e uses
- Couuecl|ou lo powe| g||d
So|a| paue|s
Su|p|us e|ecl||c|ly
c|ed|ls*
Sav|ugs ou
lue| b|||s*
The|moe|cl||c
wasle heal
ha|vesl|ug &
coo||ug
N|c|o-hyd|oe|ecl||c
B|ogas
Ca|bou c|ed|ls*
Ca|bo
caplu|e
Suu
B|od|ese|
Pu||l|ed wale|
wasle
wale|
C|op & lood
|es|dues
Couse|valo|y
- Aquacu|lu|e
- wa|mwale| l|shpouds
- wale| couse|val|ou
75
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
markets |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca as part o the Wor|d
Bank Group's w|der eorts to |mprove access to
energy.
52
lt a|ms to prov|de sae, aordab|e, and
modern o-gr|d ||ght|ng to 2.5 m||||on peop|e |n Ar|ca
by 2012 and to 250 m||||on by 2030. The market or
o-gr|d ||ght|ng products |s pro|ected to grow at 40
to 50 per cent annua||y. ln 2010 a|one, sa|es o so|ar
portab|e |anterns that had passed L|ght|ng Ar|ca's
qua||ty contro| tests grew by 70 per cent |n Ar|ca,
resu|t|ng |n more than 672,000 peop|e hav|ng access
to c|eaner, saer, re||ab|e ||ght|ng and |mproved energy
(see Ho, 2011b or deta||s).
ln Oh|na, prov|s|on o b|ogas |s an |mportant part o
the country's New Soc|a||st Oountrys|de programme
|aunched |n 2006 to |mprove the we|are o those ||v|ng
outs|de boom|ng c|t|es, wh|ch |nc|ude the country's
130 m||||on m|grant workers and rura| poor. Oh|na |s
one o the frst countr|es |n the wor|d to use b|ogas
techno|ogy, and |t has been rev|ved |n success|ve
campa|gns by the present government to prov|de
domest|c san|tat|on and o-gr|d energy, and to
modern|ze agr|cu|ture (or deta||s, see Ho, 2011c,
L| and Ho, 2006). An anaerob|c d|gester produc|ng
b|ogas |s typ|ca||y comb|ned w|th a greenhouse or
grow|ng vegetab|es and other crops, a|ong w|th a
p|gsty so that p|g and human manure can be d|gested,
wh||e OO
2
generated by the p|gs boosts p|ant growth
|n the greenhouse. The b|ogas produced (typ|ca||y 60
per cent o methane and 40 per cent o OO
2
, a|ong
w|th traces o other gases) can be used as cook|ng
ue| and to generate e|ectr|c|ty, wh||e the res|due
prov|des a r|ch ert|||zer or crops. lt |s an examp|e
o the c|rcu|ar economy that has served Oh|nese
peasants we|| |n trad|t|ona| Oh|nese agr|cu|ture (Ho,
2006). More e|aborate mode|s |nc|ude orchards
and so|ar pane|s. Accord|ng to a recent survey rom
Oh|na's M|n|stry o Agr|cu|ture (Wang, 2011), 35
m||||on househo|d b|ogas tanks had been |nsta||ed by
the end o 2009 through 56,500 b|ogas pro|ects. Th|s
exponent|a| growth phase that started around 2001 |s
Tab|a Z: raan poIanI|a| oI organ|c agr|cu|Iura and anaarob|c d|gasI|on |n 0h|na
0
2
a sav|ngs
(NI)
(% naI|ona|)
Enargy sav|ngs
(EJ)
(% naI|ona|)
rgan|c agr|cu|Iura
h le|l|||/e|s sav|ug 179.5 2.88 2.GO8 8.G1
h
2
0 p|eveuled 92.7 1.28
Ca|bou sequesl|al|ou G82.9 9.O7
ToIa| Ior organ|c agr|cu|Iura 966.1 1Z.69 Z.60B 3.61
Anaarob|c d|gasI|on
L|vesloc| mauu|e ChC sav|ug 7O.8 O.O9
Nelhaue p|oduced 215.5 2.8G 8.124 4.88
humus mauu|e melhaue 7.7 O.1O O.112 O.1G
Sl|aw melhaue 292.5 8.98 4.284 5.8G
ToIa| Ior anaarob|c d|gasI|on 6B6.0 7.79 7.470 10.36
ToIa| ovara|| 1,491.1 Z0.4B 10.07B 13.96
Source: Ho, 2010b.
Nc|e: Mt~megatons, EJ~ Exa|ou|e
Tab|a 3: raan poIanI|a| oI raam Farm Z
0
2
a sav|ngs
(NI)
(% naI|ona|)
Enargy sav|ngs
(EJ)
(% naI|ona|)
0|gau|c ag||cu|lu|e 955.1 -12.G9 2.GO8 -8.G1
Auae|ob|c d|gesl|ou 58G.O -7.79 7.47O -1O.85
Eue|y sav|ugs |oca| geu. 1,287.1 -17.1O 21.GGO -8O.OO
ToIa| Z,BZB.Z -37.6B 31.73B -43.96
Sc0|ce: Ho, 2010b.
76
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
set to cont|nue, a|ong w|th med|um and b|g d|gesters
or commun|ty and |ndustr|a| use. Anaerob|c d|gest|on
o organ|c wastes |s a key o-gr|d renewab|e energy
techno|ogy or a tru|y green c|rcu|ar economy that
cou|d make a rea| d|erence or |mprov|ng the ||ves o
the rura| poor.
E. InIagraI|ng susIa|nab|a Iarm|ng and
ranaWab|a anarg|as |n a c|rcu|ar
aconomy
A mode| that exp||c|t|y |ntegrates susta|nab|e arm|ng
and renewab|e energ|es |s Dream Farm 2, wh|ch
opt|m|zes the susta|nab|e use o resources and
m|n|m|zes waste |n accordance w|th the c|rcu|ar
economy pr|nc|p|es (fgure 14, see a|so Ho et a|.,
2008). lt |s patterned on a des|gn deve|oped by
env|ronmenta| eng|neer George Ohan and the dyke-
pond system o the Pear| P|ver De|ta that Oh|nese
peasants have perected over thousands o years a
system so product|ve that |t supported 17 peop|e per
hectare |n |ts heyday (Ho, 2006).
ln the d|agram, a grey background w|th dotted borders
|s or energy, green or agr|cu|tura| produce, grey text
or water conservat|on and 1ood contro|, and b|ack
|s or waste |n the ord|nary sense o the word, wh|ch
soon gets converted |nto ood and energy resources.
A rounded rectang|e |s or educat|on and research
|nto new sc|ence and techno|og|es.
Th|s |dea| Dream Farm |s comp|ete w|th |aboratory
ac|||t|es or educat|on, as we|| as a restaurant to take
advantage o a|| the resh produce. lt |s a perect
sett|ng or deve|op|ng cottage |ndustr|es such as
ood preservat|on, process|ng, w|ne and cheese-
mak|ng and bread-mak|ng, not to ment|on e|ectron|c
workshops, battery charg|ng, and reta|||ng o
renewab|e energy components and e|ectron|c dev|ces.
The synerg|es between agr|cu|ture and |ndustr|es are
obv|ous, espec|a||y |n the case o ood |ndustr|es, as
they are c|ose to the source o product|on. Moreover,
the organ|c wastes rom these |ndustr|es can go r|ght
back |nto anaerob|c d|gest|on to be converted |nto
energy and nutr|ents or agr|cu|ture.
Some pre||m|nary est|mates, based on data and
stat|st|cs made ava||ab|e by the Oh|nese Government
and academ|cs on the energy and carbon sav|ngs
|nvo|ved are presented |n tab|es 2 and 3.
As can be seen rom tab|e 2, the comb|nat|on o
organ|c agr|cu|ture and anaerob|c d|gest|on has the
potent|a| to m|t|gate at |east 20 per cent o nat|ona|
GHG em|ss|ons and save 14 per cent o energy
consumpt|on |n Oh|na. l Dream Farm 2 were to be
app||ed throughout the country, Oh|na wou|d m|t|gate
38 per cent o |ts GHG em|ss|ons, and save 44 per
cent o energy consumpt|on, on|y count|ng anaerob|c
d|gest|on, bas|ca||y as a resu|t o efc|ency sav|ngs
rom us|ng "waste" heat |n comb|ned heat and power
generat|on, and avo|d|ng |oss rom |ong d|stance
transm|ss|on o e|ectr|c|ty. A conservat|ve a||owance
o 30 per cent efc|ency sav|ng (out o a max|mum o
about 60 per cent) g|ves the net carbon and energy
sav|ngs shown |n tab|e 3. Aga|n, th|s |s rom anaerob|c
d|gest|on on|y. The sav|ngs cou|d be ar greater | |ow
power consum|ng LED ||ght|ng and other e|ectron|c
dev|ces were to rep|ace convent|ona| h|gh power
consum|ng mode|s.
W|th the add|t|on o so|ar, w|nd or m|cro-hydroe|ectr|c,
as appropr|ate, and batter|es to store and ma|nta|n a
steady power supp|y, such arms cou|d compensate,
|n the best case scenar|o, or the carbon em|ss|ons
and energy consumpt|on o the ent|re country. Surp|us
energy rom the arm cou|d be used to supp|y homes
and bus|nesses |n the v|c|n|ty through a m|n|-gr|d
that cou|d eventua||y ||nk up to the nat|ona| gr|d, |
necessary or des|rab|e. Th|s cou|d be a mode| or the
natura| evo|ut|on o connect|v|ty and power-shar|ng. At
the very |east, such |ntegrated ood and energy arms
wou|d contr|bute to ood secur|ty wh||e p|ay|ng the|r
part, a|ong w|th other sectors o the c|rcu|ar economy,
|n cutt|ng the|r own carbon ootpr|nt. Furthermore,
such sma||-sca|e agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng and |oca|
renewab|e power generat|on are much more res|stant
and res|||ent to weather extremes, and |ndeed to
earthquakes and sabotage.
77
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A. InIroducI|on
The |oss o so|| rom |and suraces by eros|on |s
w|despread and reduces the product|v|ty o a|| natura|
ecosystems as we|| as that o agr|cu|tura|, orest and
pasture ecosystems (La| and Stewart, 1990, P|mente|
et a|., 1995, Troeh, Hobbs and Donahue, 2004).
Ooncurrent|y w|th the esca|at|ng human popu|at|on,
so|| eros|on, water ava||ab|||ty, oss|| energy use
and c||mate change are emerg|ng as the pr|me
env|ronmenta| prob|ems throughout the wor|d.
Ourrent|y, 66 per cent o the wor|d popu|at|on (|.e. 4.7
b||||on peop|e) |s ma|nour|shed (WHO, 2000, FAO,
2009b). Th|s |s the |argest number o ma|nour|shed
peop|e ever |n h|story. W|th the wor|d popu|at|on now
at 7 b||||on, and expected to reach 9 b||||on by 2050,
more ood supp||es w||| be needed. Oons|der|ng that,
at present, more than 99.7 per cent o human ood
(ca|or|es) comes rom the |and (FAO, 2011c), wh||e |ess
than 0.3 per cent der|ves rom the oceans and other
aquat|c ecosystems, ma|nta|n|ng and augment|ng
the wor|d's ood supp|y bas|ca||y depends on the
product|v|ty and qua||ty o a|| so||s.
Human-|nduced so|| eros|on and the assoc|ated
deter|orat|on |n so|| qua||ty over many years have
resu|ted |n the |oss o va|uab|e so||s and reduced
product|v|ty o the |and, w|th some crop|and be|ng
abandoned each year (P|mente| et a|., 1995, Young,
1998, P|mente|, 2006). O|ear|y, when so|| eros|on
d|m|n|shes so|| qua||ty |t reduces the product|v|ty
o natura|, agr|cu|tura| and orest ecosystems. ln
add|t|on, the |mportant d|vers|ty o p|ants, an|ma|s and
m|crobes |s reduced.
ln th|s paper, the d|verse actors that cause so|| eros|on
are assessed and the extent o damage assoc|ated
w|th such eros|on |s ana|ysed, w|th emphas|s on the
|mpact th|s may have on uture human ood secur|ty
and c||mate change.
8. 0ausas oI aros|on
Eros|on occurs when so|| |s |et exposed to ra|n or
w|nd energy. For examp|e, about 1,000 mm o ra|n
a|||ng on one hectare (ha) o |and |n New York State
prov|des the energy equ|va|ent o 60,000 kca| per
year. Th|s |s about the equ|va|ent o the energy |n 8
||tres o gaso||ne. Pa|ndrops h|tt|ng so|| |oosen |t, and
even | there |s a grad|ent o on|y 1 per cent, |t w|||
cause the so|| to 1ow downh|||. Th|s so-ca||ed, sheet
eros|on |s the dom|nant type o eros|on (Troeh, Hobbs
and Donohue, 2004). The |mpact o so|| eros|on |s
|ntens|fed on a|| s|op|ng |and, where more than ha| o
the surace so|| |s carr|ed away as the water sp|ashes
downh||| |nto va||eys and streams.
W|nd energy a|so has cons|derab|e power to d|s|odge
surace so|| part|c|es and transport them over |ong
d|stances. A dramat|c examp|e o th|s was the w|nd
eros|on |n Kansas dur|ng the re|at|ve|y dry and w|ndy
w|nter o 19951996. Dur|ng |ust th|s one w|nter per|od,
approx|mate|y 65 tons/ha o so|| were eroded rom th|s
Absl|acl
So|| |s the most va|uab|e resource or wor|d ood product|on. Humans wor|dw|de obta|n more than 99.7
per cent o the|r ood (ca|or|es) rom |and and |ess than 0.3 per cent rom the oceans and other aquat|c
ecosystems. Each year about 10 m||||on hectares (ha) (or about 0.7 per cent) o crop|and are |ost due to
so|| eros|on, thus reduc|ng the crop|and ava||ab|e or wor|d ood product|on. Th|s |oss |s a ser|ous prob|em
because, as the Wor|d Hea|th Organ|zat|on and the Food and Agr|cu|ture Organ|zat|on o the n|ted Nat|ons
report, at present 66 per cent o the wor|d popu|at|on (|.e. 4.7 b||||on peop|e) |s ma|nour|shed. Meanwh||e,
g|oba| warm|ng |s worsen|ng and can be traced back to a not |ns|gn|fcant extent to |ncreased so|| eros|on,
oss|| ue| use and the c|ear|ng o orests wor|dw|de.
Commontary X|v: 5o|| Lros|on: A 1hroat to |ood 5ocur|ty and
C||mato Chango
av|d P|meule| aud N|chae| Bu|gess
Co||ege ol Ag||cu|lu|e aud L|le Sc|euces, Co|ue|| uu|ve|s|ly, llhaca, hew Yo||
78
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
va|uab|e crop|and. W|nd energy |s sufc|ent|y strong
to prope| so|| part|c|es thousands o k||ometres, as
|||ustrated by NASA's report o a c|oud o so|| be|ng
b|own rom the Ar|can cont|nent to the South and
North Amer|can cont|nents.
53
1. Tha ro|a oI vagaIaI|va covar
Land areas covered by p|ant b|omass, ||v|ng or dead,
are more res|stant and exper|ence re|at|ve|y ||tt|e
so|| eros|on, because ra|ndrop and w|nd energy are
d|ss|pated by the b|omass |ayer and the topso|| |s he|d
together by the b|omass. For examp|e, |n tah and
Montana, |t was ound that as the amount o ground
cover decreased rom 100 per cent to |ess than 1
per cent, eros|on rates |ncreased approx|mate|y 200-
o|d (Tr|mbe| and Mende|, 1995). ln orested areas, a
m|n|mum o 60 per cent o orest cover |s necessary
to prevent ser|ous so|| eros|on and |ands||des (n|ted
States Forest Oonservat|on Act, 2002). Thereore, the
extens|ve remova| o orests or crops and pasture |s
o||owed by |ntens|ve so|| eros|on.
Loss o vegetat|on that prov|des so|| cover |s
espec|a||y w|despread |n deve|op|ng countr|es where
popu|at|ons are |arge and agr|cu|tura| pract|ces are
oten |nadequate to protect topso||s. ln add|t|on,
cook|ng and heat|ng |n these countr|es requent|y
depend on the use o crop res|dues or ue| (P|mente|
and P|mente|, 2008). For examp|e, about 60 per cent o
crop res|dues |n Oh|na and 90 per cent |n Bang|adesh
are removed rout|ne|y rom the |and and burned as
ue| (Wen, 1993). ln areas where ue|wood and other
b|omass are scarce, even the roots o grasses and
shrubs are co||ected and burned (Juo and Thurow,
1998). A|| these pract|ces |eave the so|| barren and
u||y exposed to the orces o ra|n and w|nd eros|on.
Z. Ihar so|| d|sIurbancas
Wh||e agr|cu|ture accounts or about 75 per cent o
so|| eros|on wor|dw|de, such eros|on occurs whenever
humans remove vegetat|ve cover (La| and Stewart,
1990). Oonstruct|on o roads, park|ng |ots and
bu||d|ngs |s an examp|e o th|s prob|em. However,
a|though the rate o eros|on rom construct|on s|tes
may be exceed|ng|y h|gh, |t |asts or a re|at|ve|y br|e
per|od, ater wh|ch, once the |and surace |s seeded
to grass or covered w|th other vegetat|on, the eros|on
dec||nes (lEOA, 1991).
Natura| ecosystems a|so suer |osses rom eros|on.
Th|s |s espec|a||y ev|dent a|ong stream banks, where
eros|on takes p|ace natura||y rom the poweru| act|on
o ad|acent mov|ng water. lncreased so|| |oss occurs
on steep s|opes (w|th grad|ents o 30 per cent or
more) when a stream cuts through ad|acent |and,
but even on re|at|ve|y 1at |and, w|th on|y a 2 per cent
grad|ent, stream banks are eroded dur|ng heavy ra|ns
and 1ood|ng.
0. Assass|ng so|| aros|on
lt |s est|mated that approx|mate|y 75 b||||on tons
o ert||e so||s wor|dw|de are |ost rom agr|cu|tura|
systems each year (Myers, 1993), whereas re|at|ve|y
||tt|e eros|on occurs |n natura| ecosystems. So||
sc|ent|sts La| and Stewart (1990) and Wen (1997)
report that, annua||y, 6.6 b||||on tons o so|| are |ost |n
lnd|a and 5.5 b||||on tons |n Oh|na. Oons|der|ng these
two countr|es together occupy on|y 13 per cent o the
wor|d's tota| |and area, the est|mated 75 b||||on tons
o so|| |ost each year wor|dw|de |s conservat|ve. The
amount o so|| |ost annua||y |n the n|ted States |s
est|mated to be about 3 b||||on tons (NAS, 2003).
1. 8o|| aros|on on crop|and Wor|dW|da
Ourrent|y, about 80 per cent o the wor|d's agr|cu|tura|
|and suers moderate to severe eros|on, wh||e 10
per cent exper|ences s||ght eros|on (Speth, 1994).
Wor|dw|de, eros|on on crop|and averages about 30 t/
ha/yr, and ranges rom 0.5 to 400 t/ha/yr (P|mente| et
a|., 1995). As a resu|t o so|| eros|on over the past 40
years, about 30 per cent o the wor|d's crop|and has
become unproduct|ve, and much o that has been
abandoned or crop use (Kenda|| and P|mente|, 1994,
WPl, 1997).
Wor|dw|de, the near|y 1.5 b||||on ha o |and now under
cu|t|vat|on or crop product|on are a|most equa| |n area
to the amount o crop|and (2 b||||on ha) that has been
abandoned by humans s|nce arm|ng began. Such
abandoned |and, once b|o|og|ca||y and econom|ca||y
product|ve, now produces ||tt|e b|omass, but a|so |t
has |ost the cons|derab|e d|vers|ty o p|ants, an|ma|s
and m|crobes |t once supported (Heywood, 1995,
P|mente| et a|., 2006). Moreover, because o the
dec||ne |n b|omass |n some agr|cu|tura| product|on,
|ess carbon |s taken up and sequestered (see the
commentary o GPAlN |n th|s chapter).
Each year an est|mated 10 m||||on ha o crop|and
wor|dw|de are abandoned due to the|r |ack o
product|v|ty caused by so|| eros|on (Faeth and
Orosson, 1994). Losses rom so|| eros|on are h|ghest
|n the agroecosystems o As|a, Ar|ca and South
79
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Amer|ca, averag|ng 30 to 40 t/ha/yr (P|mente|, 2006).
ln deve|op|ng countr|es, so|| eros|on |s part|cu|ar|y
severe on sma|| arms that are oten |ocated on
marg|na| |ands where the so|| qua||ty |s poor and
the topography requent|y steep. ln add|t|on, the
poor armers tend to ra|se row crops, such as corn
and beans, wh|ch are h|gh|y suscept|b|e to eros|on
because the crop vegetat|on does not cover the
ent|re t|||ed so|| surace (Stone and Moore, 1997). For
examp|e, |n the S|erra reg|on o Ecuador, about 60 per
cent o the crop|and has been abandoned because o
the devastat|on caused by ra|na|| and w|nd eros|on
and |nappropr|ate agr|cu|tura| pract|ces (Southgate
and Wh|taker, 1992). S|m||ar prob|ems are ev|dent |n
the Amazon|an reg|on o South Amer|ca, where vast
orested areas have been c|eared or cu|t|vat|on o
sugarcane and other crops, as we|| as or ||vestock
product|on.
Z. Eros|on raIas on pasIuras and ranga|ands
ln the n|ted States, |n contrast to the average so|| |oss
o 13 t/ha/yr rom crop|and, pastures |ose so|| at the
rate o about 6 t/ha/yr (NAS, 2003). However, eros|on
rates on pastures |ntens|y wherever overgraz|ng |s
a||owed to occur. Even |n the n|ted States, about 75
per cent o non-Federa| |ands requ|re conservat|on
treatments to reduce graz|ng pressure (Johnson,
1995). More than ha| o a|| range|ands |n the country
both non-Federa| and Federa| are overgrazed and
have become sub|ect to h|gh eros|on rates (Ba||ey,
1996).
A|though eros|on rates on crop|and |n the n|ted
States have decreased dur|ng the past two decades,
those on pastures and range|ands rema|n h|gh (6 t/ha/
yr) (NAS, 2003). lndeed, h|gh eros|on rates are typ|ca|
on most o the wor|d's pastures and range|ands (WPl,
1997). ln many deve|op|ng countr|es, heavy graz|ng
by catt|e, sheep and goats has removed most o
the vegetat|ve cover, expos|ng the so|| to severe so||
eros|on. ln Ar|ca, about 80 per cent o the pasture
and range|and |s ser|ous|y eroded and degraded
(N-NADAF, 1996). The pr|me causes o th|s exposed
so|| are overgraz|ng and the remova| o crop res|dues
or use as cook|ng ue|.
3. 8o|| aros|on |n IorasI |and
ln stab|e orest ecosystems, where so|| |s protected
by vegetat|on, eros|on rates are re|at|ve|y |ow, rang|ng
rom on|y 0.004 to 0.05 t/ha/yr (Poose, 1998). Tree
|eaves and branches not on|y |ntercept and d|m|n|sh
ra|ndrop and w|nd energy, but a|so cover the so||
under the trees, wh|ch urther protects |t. However,
the s|tuat|on changes dramat|ca||y when orests are
c|eared or crop product|on or when pastures are
deve|oped or ||vestock product|on (Southgate and
Wh|taker, 1992).
. EIIacIs oI so|| aros|on
1. waIar ava||ab|||Iy
Water |s a ma|or ||m|t|ng actor o crop product|v|ty
|n a|| terrestr|a| ecosystems, because a|| vegetat|on
requ|res enormous quant|t|es o water or |ts growth
and or the product|on o ru|t. For examp|e, 1 ha o
corn w||| transp|re about 7 m||||on ||tres o water dur|ng
the grow|ng season o about three months (P|mente|
et a|., 2004), and |ose an add|t|ona| 2 m||||on ||tres o
water by evaporat|on rom the so||. Dur|ng eros|on
by ra|na||, the amount o water runo s|gn|fcant|y
|ncreases, w|th |ess water enter|ng the so|| and
thereore |ess water ava||ab|e to support the grow|ng
vegetat|on. On average, a corn crop o 1 kg requ|res
about 1,000 ||tres o water or product|on wh||e r|ce
requ|res about 2,000 ||tres.
Z. huIr|anI |oss
Eroded so|| carr|es away v|ta| p|ant nutr|ents such
as n|trogen, phosphorus, potass|um and ca|c|um.
Typ|ca||y, eroded so|| conta|ns about three t|mes
more nutr|ents than those |et |n the rema|n|ng so||
(Langda|e et a|., 1992). One ton o ert||e topso|| or
eroded ert||e so|| conta|ns an average o 1 to 6 kg o
n|trogen, 1 to 3 kg o phosphorus, and 2 to 30 kg o
potass|um, whereas the topso|| on eroded |and has
an average n|trogen content o on|y 0.1 to 0.5 kg per
ton (Langda|e et a|., 1992).
To compensate or the nutr|ent |osses |n1|cted on
crop product|on, |arge quant|t|es o ert|||zers are
oten app||ed. Troeh et a|. (2004) po|nt out that the
|ost so|| nutr|ents cost agr|cu|ture |n the n|ted States
severa| b||||ons o do||ars annua||y. l the so|| base |s
re|at|ve|y deep (about 300 mm), and | on|y 1020 tons
o so|| |s |ost per hectare per year, the |ost nutr|ents
can be rep|aced w|th the app||cat|on o commerc|a|
ert|||zers and/or ||vestock manure. However, such a
rep|acement strategy |s expens|ve or armers and the
country, and usua||y |s not aordab|e by the poorer
armers. Not on|y are the ert|||zer |nputs dependent on
oss|| energy, but a|so the chem|ca|s can harm human
hea|th and po||ute the env|ronment (NAS, 2003).
80
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
3. 8o|| organ|c maIIar
So|| organ|c matter |s a va|uab|e resource because |t
ac|||tates the ormat|on o so|| aggregates and thereby
|ncreases so|| poros|ty. The |mproved so|| structure
|n turn ac|||tates water |nf|trat|on and u|t|mate|y the
overa|| product|v|ty o the so|| (Langda|e et a|., 1992).
ln add|t|on, organ|c matter a|ds cat|on exchange,
enhances p|ant root growth, and st|mu|ates an
|ncrease |n |mportant so|| m|crobes (Ward|e et a|.,
2004). When the |ayer o organ|c matter |s dep|eted,
the product|v|ty o the ecosystem, as measured by
p|ant b|omass, dec||nes both because o the degraded
so|| structure and the dep|et|on o nutr|ents conta|ned
|n the organ|c matter. ln add|t|on to |ow y|e|ds, the tota|
b|omass o the b|ota and the overa|| b|od|vers|ty o
those ecosystems are substant|a||y reduced (Lazaro,
2001, Wa|sh and Powe, 2001).
Fert||e so||s typ|ca||y conta|n 100 tons/ha o organ|c
matter (|.e. 45 per cent o the|r tota| so|| we|ght)
(P|mente| et a|., 2005), wh|ch has about 95 per cent o
n|trogen and 2550 per cent o phosphorus. Because
most o the so|| organ|c matter |s ound c|ose to
the so|| surace as decay|ng |eaves and stems, |t |s
s|gn|fcant|y reduced by eros|on. Both w|nd and water
eros|on se|ect|ve|y remove the fne organ|c part|c|es
|n the so||, |eav|ng beh|nd |arge so|| part|c|es and
stones. Severa| stud|es have demonstrated that the
so|| removed by e|ther water or w|nd eros|on |s 1.3 to
5 t|mes r|cher |n organ|c matter than the rema|n|ng
so||s, resu|t|ng |n |ower crop y|e|d. For examp|e, the
reduct|on o so|| organ|c matter rang|ng rom 0.9 to 1.4
per cent was ound to |ower the crop y|e|d potent|a| or
gra|n by 50 per cent (L|bert, 1995).
Oo||ect|ve|y and |ndependent|y, the d|verse |mpacts
o eros|on reduce crop b|omass, both because o
degraded so|| structure and nutr|ent dep|et|on.
4. 8o|| dapIh
Grow|ng p|ants requ|re so||s o adequate depth |n
wh|ch to extend the|r roots. \ar|ous so|| b|ota, such
as earthworms, a|so requ|re a su|tab|e so|| depth
(P|mente| et a|., 1995, Ward|e et a|., 2004). Thus, when
eros|on reduces so|| depth substant|a||y, rom 30 cm
to |ess than 1 cm, there |s m|n|ma| space or p|ant
roots so that p|ant growth w||| be stunted and y|e|d
reduced.
6. 8|omass and b|od|vars|Iy
The b|o|og|ca| d|vers|ty ex|st|ng |n any ecosystem |s
re|ated d|rect|y to the amount o ||v|ng and non-||v|ng
organ|c matter present |n that ecosystem (Wr|ght,
1990, Heywood, 1995, Lazaro, 2001, Wa|sh and
Powe, 2001, Ward|e et a|., 2004). Thereore, by
d|m|n|sh|ng so|| organ|c matter and so|| qua||ty,
eros|on reduces the overa|| b|omass and product|v|ty,
wh|ch u|t|mate|y has a proound|y adverse eect on
the d|vers|ty o p|ants, an|ma|s and m|crobes present
|n the ecosystem. Numerous pos|t|ve assoc|at|ons
have been estab||shed between b|omass abundance
and spec|es d|vers|ty (E|ton, 1927, Odum, 1978,
Sugden and Pands, 1990). \egetat|on |s the ma|n
component o ecosystem b|omass and prov|des the
v|ta| resources requ|red both by an|ma|s and m|crobes
or the|r surv|va|.
A|ong w|th p|ants and an|ma|s, m|crobes are a
v|ta| component o the so||, and const|tute a |arge
percentage o the so|| b|omass. One cub|c metre o
so|| may support about 200,000 arthropods, 10,000
earthworms p|us b||||ons o m|crobes (Lee and Foster,
1991, P|mente| et a|., 2006). A hectare o product|ve
so|| may have a b|omass o |nvertebrates and
m|crobes we|gh|ng up to 10,000 kg/ha. ln add|t|on,
so|| bacter|a and ung| add 4,000 to 6,000 spec|es,
thereby contr|but|ng s|gn|fcant|y to b|od|vers|ty,
espec|a||y |n mo|st, organ|c so||s (Heywood, 1995,
P|mente| et a|., 2006).
Eros|on rates that are 10 to 20 t|mes above the
susta|nab|||ty rate or so|| ormat|on rates o 0.51
ton/ha/yr reduce the d|vers|ty and abundance o
so|| organ|sms (P|mente| et a|., 2006). ln contrast,
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces that contro| eros|on and
ma|nta|n adequate so|| organ|c matter avour the
pro||erat|on o so|| b|ota (Pe|d, 1985, P|mente| et a|.,
2006). The app||cat|on o organ|c matter or manure
a|so enhances b|od|vers|ty |n the so|| (P|mente| et
a|., 2006). Spec|es d|vers|ty o macroauna (most|y
arthropods) |ncreased 16 per cent when organ|c
matter or manure was app||ed to exper|menta|
wheat p|ots |n the ormer Sov|et n|on (Bohac and
Pokarzhevsky, 1987). S|m||ar|y, spec|es d|vers|ty o
macroauna (most|y arthropods) more than doub|ed
when organ|c manure was added to grass|and p|ots |n
Japan, and |ncreased 10-o|d |n Hungar|an arm|and
(O|ah-Zsupos and He|mecz|, 1987).
The re|at|onsh|p between b|omass and b|od|vers|ty was
confrmed |n fe|d exper|ments w|th co||ards |n wh|ch
arthropod spec|es d|vers|ty rose ouro|d |n exper|menta|
p|ots w|th the h|ghest co||ard b|omass compared w|th
that |n contro| co||ard p|ots. Peports suggest that when
81
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
the b|omass |ncreased threeo|d, the number o spec|es
|ncreased 16-o|d. ln a study o b|rd popu|at|ons, a
strong corre|at|on between p|ant b|omass product|v|ty
and b|rd spec|es d|vers|ty was reported when a 100-o|d
|ncrease |n p|ant b|omass y|e|ded a 10-o|d |ncrease |n
b|rd d|vers|ty (Wr|ght, 1990).
So|| b|ota perorm many benefc|a| act|v|t|es that
|mprove so|| qua||ty and u|t|mate|y |ts product|v|ty
(W|tt, 1997, Sugden, Stone and Ash, 2004, P|mente|
et a|., 2006). For examp|e, so|| b|ota recyc|e bas|c
nutr|ents requ|red by p|ants or the|r growth (P|mente|
et a|., 2006). ln add|t|on, the tunne||ng and burrow|ng
act|v|t|es o earthworms and other so|| b|ota enhance
crop product|v|ty by |ncreas|ng water |nf|trat|on (W|tt,
1997). Earthworms, or |nstance, may construct up to
220 tunne| open|ngs per square metre, wh|ch enab|e
the water to |nf|trate rap|d|y |nto the so||. Other so||
b|ota a|so contr|bute to so|| ormat|on and product|v|ty
by m|x|ng the so|| components, enhanc|ng aggregate
stab|||ty and prevent|ng so|| crust|ng. Th|s churn|ng
and m|x|ng o the upper so|| red|str|butes nutr|ents,
aerates the so||, exposes |t to the c||mate or so||
ormat|on and |ncreases |nf|trat|on rates, thus mak|ng
so|| cond|t|ons avourab|e or |ncreased so|| ormat|on
and p|ant product|v|ty. Earthworms br|ng rom 10
to 500 t/ha/yr o so|| rom underground to the so||
surace, wh||e some |nsects, such as ants, may br|ng
as much as 34 t/ha/yr o so|| to the surace (Lockaby
and Adams, 1985). Sna||s are reported to he|p the
ormat|on o 1t/ha/yr o so||.
6. 8o|| sad|manIs
The |ong-range transport o dust by w|nd has
|mp||cat|ons or human hea|th wor|dw|de. Gr|fn,
Ke||ogg and Sh|nn (2001) report that about 20 human
|nect|ous d|sease-carry|ng organ|sms, such as
anthrax and tubercu|os|s, are eas||y transported by
the w|nd |n so|| part|c|es.
So|| eros|on a|so contr|butes to g|oba| warm|ng,
because carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
) |s added to the
atmosphere when enormous amounts o b|omass are
exposed and ox|d|zed (Ph||||ps and He|mecz|, 1987,
La|, 2002, Wa|sh and Powe, 2001). One hectare o
so|| may conta|n about 100 tons o organ|c matter or
b|omass, wh|ch, | eroded, wou|d contr|bute about
45 tons o carbon to the atmosphere. A eedback
mechan|sm ex|sts where|n |ncreased g|oba| warm|ng
|ntens|fes ra|na||, wh|ch |n turn |ncreases eros|on and
cont|nues the cyc|e (La|, 2002).
7. |oba| c||maIa changa
Extens|ve burn|ng o oss|| ue|s and orests appears to
be |ncreas|ng the |eve| o OO
2
and other greenhouse
gases (GHGs) |n the atmosphere, wh|ch ra|ses
severa| eth|ca| |ssues and cho|ces. O|ear|y there |s
an urgent need to reduce oss|| ue| consumpt|on
and deorestat|on to s|ow down the rate o g|oba|
c||mate change. Peduc|ng oss|| ue| consumpt|on w|||
a|so conserve orests, and contro|||ng deorestat|on
has other benefts, |nc|ud|ng conserv|ng b|o|og|ca|
d|vers|ty.
A |arge number o meteoro|og|sts and phys|ca|
sc|ent|sts est|mate that the cont|nued |ncrease |n
OO
2
and other GHGs w||| warm the earth rom 1.5
degrees Oe|s|us to 4.5 degrees Oe|s|us by the end
o th|s century. The prec|se rate, extent and reg|ona|
var|at|ons are d|fcu|t to pred|ct, but negat|ve |mpacts
are genera||y pro|ected, espec|a||y on crop product|on.
Add|t|ona| negat|ve |mpacts on some crops cou|d
resu|t rom a|terat|ons |n the ozone |ayer. Thus the
overa|| changes |n temperature, mo|sture, OO
2
, |nsect
pests, p|ant pathogens and weeds assoc|ated w|th
g|oba| c||mate change are pro|ected to reduce ood
product|on wor|dw|de (P|mente|, 2011). The extent o
a|terat|ons o crop y|e|ds w||| depend on spec|fc crops
and the|r part|cu|ar env|ronmenta| requ|rements.
Hopeu||y, |mp|ementat|on o |mproved agr|cu|tura|
techno|og|es cou|d part|a||y oset some o th|s
decrease |n y|e|ds. ln add|t|on, product|ve agr|cu|ture
and an |ncrease |n so|| carbon cou|d he|p m|t|gate
c||mate change (a|so see the commentary o Leu |n
th|s chapter).
ln Ar|ca, the pro|ected r|se |n ra|na|| assoc|ated w|th
g|oba| c||mate change cou|d he|p |mprove crop y|e|ds
to some extent, but |t w||| not ent|re|y so|ve Ar|ca's
ood shortages, g|ven the rap|d rate o |ncrease o |ts
popu|at|on. Water shortages are pro|ected to pers|st
and pests are expected to cont|nue to resu|t |n ser|ous
crop |osses (P|mente|, 2011). These actors, as we|| as
ser|ous econom|c and po||t|ca| prob|ems, |mp|y that
ood product|on |n Ar|ca |s ||ke|y to rema|n s|ow.
82
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
G|oba||y, 2,600 km
3
o water are w|thdrawn each year
to |rr|gate crops, represent|ng over two th|rds o a||
w|thdrawa|s by peop|e. As water scarc|ty |ntens|fes
and many o the wor|d's r|ver bas|ns approach c|osure
(|.e. a|| water supp||es have been put to use or at |east
part o the year), water |s |ncreas|ng|y transerred out
o agr|cu|ture to prov|de or other demands, such
as energy generat|on or grow|ng urban popu|at|ons.
G|ven that, at current popu|at|on |eve|s, the ood
system |s a|ready water-stressed and g|oba| water
resources are under cons|derab|e pressure, th|s
w||| on|y |ntens|y as popu|at|ons |ncrease urther.
56

Add|t|ona||y, and perhaps even more prob|emat|ca||y,
r|s|ng |ncomes |n deve|op|ng countr|es are caus|ng
d|ets to sh|t to more water-|ntens|ve agr|cu|tura|
products that requ|re greater |eve|s o water serv|ce,
or examp|e rom commun|ty standp|pes to p|umb|ng
systems. Together, these sh|ts are rap|d|y |ncreas|ng
per cap|ta water demand |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
F|gure 15 presents these pro|ected water use trends
or OEOD and non-OEOD countr|es through 2050.
lmportant|y, water use |s pro|ected to more than
doub|e |n the mun|c|pa| sector w|th|n non-OEOD
countr|es, where agr|cu|ture tends to be the most
vu|nerab|e to c||mate change.
F|gura 16: ToIa| projacIad mun|c|pa| WaIar usa |n E0
varsus non-E0 counIr|as, Z006-Z060
Source: Hughes, Oh|nowsky and Strzepek, 2010.
Nc|e: Squares w|th so||d ||nes, non-OEOD,
d|amonds w|th so||d ||nes, OEOD.
S|mu|taneous|y, to meet h|gher ood demands or
grow|ng popu|at|ons, agr|cu|ture |s expand|ng to
new reg|ons and becom|ng more product|ve, wh|ch
rap|d|y |ncreases the demand or water. As a resu|t,
groundwater supp||es, on wh|ch much o agr|cu|ture
re||es, are dec||n|ng g|oba||y (Kon|kow and Kendy,
2005). At the same t|me, energy consumpt|on and
other |ndustr|a| act|v|t|es |n many countr|es are
Absl|acl
Ow|ng to r|s|ng popu|at|ons, |ncreas|ng per cap|ta water use, env|ronmenta| 1ow requ|rements, and c||mate
change, our resu|ts suggest that by 2050 there w||| be s|gn|fcant threats to water ava||ab|||ty or agr|cu|ture
|n many reg|ons o the wor|d. l r|s|ng agr|cu|tura| demands and the u|| spectrum o c||mate change eects
are taken |nto account, threats to water ava||ab|||ty w||| be cons|derab|y more pronounced. lt |s thereore
||ke|y that, un|ess broad changes are made to the way env|ronmenta| and water resources are governed,
con1|cts over water or agr|cu|ture w||| |ncrease marked|y by the m|dd|e o the twenty-frst century. Ohanges
|n governance may |nc|ude reorm|ng the po||c|es and |nst|tut|ons that manage and a||ocate water, |mprov|ng
access to water |n the poorest reg|ons o the wor|d, enhanc|ng ecosystem serv|ces, recogn|z|ng water as
an econom|c good |n order to promote efc|ency o use, |mprov|ng ra|n-ed and |rr|gat|on |nrastructure to
|ncrease "crop per drop", and mak|ng agr|cu|ture more res|||ent to changes |n c||mate.
54
ln the ||ght o these
threats to water or agr|cu|ture, and thereore to g|oba| ood ava||ab|||ty, |t |s |mportant and urgent that
water p|ann|ng eorts be coord|nated and |ntegrated across sectors, part|cu|ar|y |n the most vu|nerab|e
reg|ons.
Commontary Xv: Compot|t|on for wator for Agr|cu|turo
through 20b0
b3
B|eul Boeh|e|l, ludusl||a| Ecouom|cs, luc., aud
Keuuelh Sl|/epe|, Nassachusells lusl|lule ol Techuo|ogy
2
0
0
0

-
2
0
1
0

-
2
0
2
0

-
2
0
3
0

-
2
0
4
0

-
2
0
5
0

-
600 -
500 -
400 -
300 -
200 -
100 -
0 -
non-OECD
B
i
l
l
i
o
n

m
3
OECD
83
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
cont|nu|ng to |ncrease, caus|ng |ndustr|a| water
consumpt|on to r|se. Perhaps most |mportant|y and
most over|ooked env|ronmenta| 1ow requ|rements
(EFPs) are |ncreas|ng|y be|ng recogn|zed as a
cruc|a| e|ement o a unct|on|ng r|par|an ecosystem
and, accord|ng|y, are progress|ve|y be|ng |nstated
as part o env|ronmenta| management (Fa|kenmark
and Pockstrom, 2006, Smakht|n, 2008). As EFPs are
estab||shed, rema|n|ng water or agr|cu|ture w||| be
urther d|m|n|shed. ln add|t|on to the grow|ng demand
on water resources, c||mate change w||| s|gn|fcant|y
aect the t|m|ng, d|str|but|on and magn|tude o water
ava||ab|||ty (Arne||, 1998, M|||y, Dunne and \ecch|a,
2005, lPOO, 2008). Where sh|ts |n water ava||ab|||ty
reduce reg|ona| water supp||es, agr|cu|ture w||| be
urther threatened.
ln th|s paper, we cons|der the ract|on o current
w|thdrawa|s rom surace water systems or
agr|cu|ture that may be threatened due to |ncreas|ng
water demands |n other sectors, ||m|ts |mposed on
w|thdrawa|s to meet EFPs, and a range o potent|a|
c||mate change eects.
57
We comment on the re|at|ve
|mportance o each compet|ng pressure, and |dent|y
geograph|c "hotspots" where water or agr|cu|ture
cou|d be substant|a||y reduced.
A. NaIhods: moda||ad IhraaIs Io WaIar
Ior agr|cu|Iura
Oons|der|ng the demand- and supp|y-s|de actors that
w||| aect the amount o water ava||ab|e or agr|cu|ture,
we mode| the poss|b|e |mp||cat|ons or agr|cu|tura|
water ava||ab|||ty through 2050 under c||mate change.
Spec|fca||y, or a number o geopo||t|ca| reg|ons/
countr|es, and under three c||mate change scenar|os,
we est|mate the ract|on o current agr|cu|tura|
w|thdrawa|s that wou|d be threatened assum|ng that
EFPs and |ncreased mun|c|pa| and |ndustr|a| (M&l)
demands cause tota| bas|n w|thdrawa|s to exceed
mean annua| runo (MAP) |n the bas|n.
58,59

We cons|der a tota| o three c||mate change and three
demand scenar|os. On the demand s|de, we cons|der
the eects o 2050 M&l demands a|one, EFPs a|one,
and 2050 M&l and EFP demands together. M&l
demand pro|ect|ons to 2050 are taken rom Wor|d Bank
pro|ect|ons or 214 countr|es (Hughes, Oh|nowsky and
Strzepek, 2010). EFPs are assumed to be the bas|n
1ows necessary to ma|nta|n r|par|an ecosystems |n
"a|r" cond|t|on (or deta||s, see Smakht|n, Pevenga
and Do||, 2004). For the c||mate change ana|ys|s, we
eva|uate a base||ne (|.e. no c||mate change) scenar|o,
and two c||mate change scenar|os based on the range
o ava||ab|e genera| c|rcu|at|on mode|s (GOMs). We
o||ow the Wor|d Bank's Econom|cs o Adaptat|on to
O||mate Ohange (EAOO) ana|ys|s (Wor|d Bank, 2009),
and mode| the c||mate change scenar|os under the A2
SPES em|ss|ons scenar|o (see lPOO, 2009) us|ng the
g|oba| c||mate mode|s (GOMs) o the n|ted States'
Nat|ona| Oenter or Atmospher|c Pesearch (NOAP)
and o the Oommonwea|th Sc|ent|fc and lndustr|a|
F|gura 16: waIar W|IhdraWa|s Ior agr|cu|Iura as a parcanIaga oI maan annua| runoII (NA) |n Z000
Sc0|ce: Authors' ca|cu|at|ons
84
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Pesearch Organ|sat|on (o Austra||a), wh|ch the Wor|d
Bank cons|ders to represent genera||y wetter and dr|er
c||mate mode|s, respect|ve|y. ln tota|, we cons|der
n|ne scenar|os, each w|th a d|erent c||mate-demand
comb|nat|on, and then compare each to the year 2000
base||ne.
To mode| changes |n MAP, we use the OLlPN ll
hydro|og|c mode| (Strzepek et a|., orthcom|ng),
wh|ch |s the |atest mode| |n the "Kaczmarek schoo|"
o hydro|og|c mode|s (Yates, 1996) deve|oped
spec|fca||y or ana|ys|ng the |mpact o c||mate
change on runo and extreme events on an annua|
bas|s. OLlPN ll mode|s runo |n 126 wor|d r|ver
bas|ns w|th c||mate |nputs and so|| character|st|cs
averaged over each r|ver bas|n. Because data on
2000 agr|cu|tura| and M&l w|thdrawa|s are ava||ab|e
or 116 econom|c reg|ons o the wor|d, we |ntersect
the 126 r|ver bas|ns w|th these econom|c reg|ons to
orm 281 ood product|on un|ts (FPs) (see Strzepek
and McO|uskey, 2007, and Posegrant et a|., 2009a
and 2009b), wh|ch orm the geograph|c un|t o our
ana|ys|s. For each FP, our base||ne data |nc|ude
current MAP va|ues, 2000 agr|cu|tura| w|thdrawa|s and
2000 M&l w|thdrawa|s. ln 2000, rough|y 10 per cent o
wor|dw|de MAP was w|thdrawn or agr|cu|ture, and 4.3
per cent was w|thdrawn or M&l use (fgure 16).
8. F|nd|ngs: IhraaIs Io WaIar
Ior agr|cu|Iura
We fnd that EFPs and |ncreased M&l water demands
together w||| cause an 18 per cent reduct|on |n the
Tab|a 4: ParcanIaga oI agr|cu|Iura| WaIar IhraaIanad |n Iha gaopo||I|ca| rag|ons, n|na scanar|os
a
ag|on/counIry
Agr|cu|Iura|
W|IhdraWa|s,
Z000
(b||||on m
3
)
ho c||maIa changa
h0A (WaI)
c||maIa changa
08I (dry) c||maIa changa
N&I
Z060
(%)
EFs
(%)
N&I
Z060
and
EFs
(%)
N&I
Z060
(%)
EFs
(%)
N&I
Z060
and
EFs
(%)
N&I
Z060
(%)
EFs
(%)
N&I
Z060 and
EFs
(%)
wor|d Z,946 7.3 9.4 17.7 7.1 9.1 16.6 7.0 9.1 16.9
|v|uue ?6J ?.5 7.7 4.4 ?.5 9.6 ?.9 ?.5 6.5 ?0.4
Eu|opeau uu|ou 95 O.7 12.8 18.7 O.7 21.2 19.O 1.G 89.O 87.O
ho|lh-wesle|u
Eu|ope 1G 4.5 11.7 8.2 4.5 14.G 1O.2 8.2 1O.4 8.2
uu|led K|ugdom O.G O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O
lo|me| Sov|el uu|ou 18G 8.2 1O.O 19.7 8.2 11.7 17.4 8.7 12.8 18.9
4|||c1 ?46 9.5 5.5 5.5 0.4 6.5 6.9 0.4 6.6 6.9
Sub-Saha|au Al||ca 5O 11.9 7.2 1G.4 11.9 7.7 17.G 12.1 7.8 1G.G
h||e R|ve| Bas|u 14G 9.1 O.2 9.2 9.1 O.2 9.2 9.1 O.2 9.G
|u||| 41e||c1 ?55 -0. 5.? 4.9 -0. J.5 J.6 -0. ?.0 ?.0
4s|1 ?,060 5.5 5.9 5.6 5.6 7.5 6.7 5.J 7.4 6.5
Ch|ua 558 2.7 7.8 1O.1 2.8 4.5 G.9 2.8 4.5 G.9
lud|a 8GG 18.5 12.1 27.7 18.1 11.7 25.5 12.5 1O.7 25.7
|1||1 41e||c1 111
||e C1||||e11 5? J.5 ?.J 6. 4.4 5.7 9.9 J.5 ?.J 6.5
B|a/|| 21 O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O O.O
0ce11|1 50 0.? 4.J 4.5 0.? 4.J 4.5 0.? 4.J 4.5
Nc|e:
a
Agr|cu|tura| water ava||ab|||ty |n North Amer|ca |ncreases by 0.1 per cent under the 2050 M&l scenar|os.
Th|s occurs because 2000 M&l and agr|cu|tura| w|thdrawa|s |n North Amer|ca exceed MAP |n the
Oo|orado and P|o Grande bas|ns, but M&l dec||nes |n 2050. As a resu|t, add|t|ona| water |s made
ava||ab|e to these constra|ned bas|ns.
EFPs ... env|ronmenta| 1ow requ|rements
M&l ... mun|c|pa| and |ndustr|a| demand
85
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
ava||ab|||ty o wor|dw|de water or agr|cu|ture by
2050. Meet|ng EFPs, wh|ch can necess|tate more
than 50 per cent o the mean annua| runo |n a
bas|n, depend|ng on |ts hydrograph, presents the
s|ng|e b|ggest threat to the ava||ab|||ty o water or
agr|cu|ture. Next are |ncreases |n M&l demands,
wh|ch are pro|ected to grow upwards o 200 per
cent by 2050 |n deve|op|ng countr|es w|th rap|d|y
|ncreas|ng popu|at|ons and |ncomes. The comb|ned
eect o these h|gher demands cou|d be dramat|c |n
severa| hotspots, wh|ch |nc|ude northern Ar|ca, Oh|na,
lnd|a, parts o Europe, the western n|ted States and
eastern Austra||a, among others. These areas tend to
be a|ready water-stressed due to |ow water supp||es,
current |arge-sca|e agr|cu|tura| or M&l demands, or
both.
Tab|e 4 d|sp|ays the ract|on o 2000 agr|cu|tura| water
w|thdrawa|s that may be threatened by |ncreas|ng M&l
demands and EFPs under the two c||mate change
scenar|os. nder the no c||mate change scenar|o,
our mode|s |nd|cate that |ncreases |n M&l demands,
EFPs, and comb|ned M&l demands and EFPs w|||
requ|re 7.3 per cent, 9.4 per cent, and 18 per cent,
respect|ve|y, o wor|dw|de agr|cu|tura| water |n 2000.
By vo|ume, agr|cu|tura| water |n As|a accounts or over
two th|rds o the g|oba| tota| o threatened agr|cu|tura|
water by vo|ume. Mode|||ng resu|ts |nd|cate that
|ncreases |n EFPs and M&l demand together w|||
threaten near|y 20 per cent o agr|cu|tura| water |n
countr|es o the European n|on and the ormer
Sov|et n|on. ln sub-Saharan Ar|ca, rap|d|y r|s|ng M&l
demands a|so threaten water or agr|cu|ture.
O||mate change w||| aect the spat|a| and tempora|
d|str|but|on o runo, and thus change ava||ab|||ty
rom the supp|y s|de. Based on wet and dry c||mate
scenar|os, we fnd that water ava||ab|||ty or agr|cu|ture
w||| |ncrease |n North Amer|ca and As|a, and decrease
|n Ar|ca and Lat|n Amer|ca and the Oar|bbean. ln
Europe, water ava||ab|||ty w||| |ncrease under the wet
mode| and decrease under the dry mode|. Overa||,
these resu|ts suggest that by 2050, a|though the
eects o c||mate change on annua| agr|cu|tura|
water ava||ab|||ty w||| be s|gn|fcant, the eects o
grow|ng M&l demands and EFPs may be even more
pronounced. lmportant|y, these c||mate change
resu|ts cons|der changes |n MAP on|y, and thus do
not account or potent|a| changes |n seasona| water
ava||ab|||ty, |ncreases |n crop water demand caused
by h|gher temperatures, changes |n the requency
and sever|ty o extreme events, changes |n y|e|d rom
storage reservo|rs, and a var|ety o other |mportant
c||mate change eects.
86
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
The quest|on o how to cope w|th c||mate change
and reduce GHG em|ss|ons |s current|y h|gh on the
|nternat|ona| agenda. S|nce agr|cu|ture |s cons|dered
one o the key sectors contr|but|ng to such em|ss|ons,
|t |s necessary to cons|der ways and means by wh|ch
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces cou|d |ower em|ss|ons or even
capture them (e.g. through sequestrat|on). Lower|ng
em|ss|ons |s poss|b|e by reduc|ng var|ous agr|cu|tura|
|nputs wh||e ma|nta|n|ng output at the same |eve|. Th|s
|s genera||y understood as |ncreas|ng the efc|ency o
a process. A second |ntervent|on |s to remove GHGs
rom the atmosphere by, or examp|e "sequestrat|on",
wh|ch captures OO
2
|n b|omass rom the atmosphere.
Th|s |s an opt|on part|cu|ar|y su|ted to the cu|t|vat|on
o perenn|a|s (|.e. tree crops). These p|ants store a
|arge proport|on o the captured OO
2
as carbon |n
the|r stand|ng and root b|omass and even |n the|r
|eaves and ru|t, but the |atter are usua||y qu|ck|y
consumed or d|sposed o, thereby return|ng the OO
2
to the atmosphere. However, the overa|| ba|ance o
OO
2
stored |n b|omass, and over severa| years, may
be qu|te substant|a| and worth cons|der|ng |n terms o
c||mate change m|t|gat|on.
1. Tha ganar|c h IooIpr|nI oI a Iraa crop
va|ua cha|n
When |ook|ng gener|ca||y at a tree-crop-based va|ue
cha|n rom |nput supp|y to pr|mary product|on,
transport, process|ng, trade, reta|| and consumpt|on
there are many stages |nvo|v|ng GHG em|ss|ons
Absl|acl
Agr|cu|ture |s a ma|or source o greenhouse gas (GHG) em|ss|ons, and thus contr|butes s|gn|fcant|y to
c||mate change. At the same t|me |t has huge potent|a| to reduce em|ss|ons, and cou|d even contr|bute to
captur|ng (sequester|ng) carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
) rom the atmosphere through the cu|t|vat|on o tree crops.
lt |s d|fcu|t to assess where to make eect|ve changes w|thout know|ng acts on em|ss|on sources and
quant|t|es you can on|y manage what you can measure. Thereore, methods to est|mate sequestrat|on
and em|ss|ons are current|y be|ng deve|oped and the|r resu|ts |nd|cated |n "product carbon ootpr|nts"
(|.e. GHG em|ss|ons per un|t o product). Wh||e methods vary w|de|y, they seem to converge around the
emerg|ng lSO 14067 standard.
There are on|y a ew pract|ca| examp|es o carbon ootpr|nt est|mates a|ong ent|re agr|ood cha|ns, but
they serve as va|uab|e case stud|es rom wh|ch to draw some conc|us|ons. F|rst|y, OO
2
sequestrat|on
est|mat|ons have genera||y been exc|uded rom the equat|on, wh|ch d|scr|m|nates aga|nst tree crop
agr|cu|tura| product|on systems. Second|y, em|ss|ons rom pr|mary product|on have usua||y been we||
re1ected. Th|rd|y, resu|ts rom process|ng and transport have tended to be sma||er than was assumed
pr|or to the ana|yses. F|na||y, GHG em|ss|ons |n connect|on w|th ood preparat|on, espec|a||y or ||esty|e
and conven|ence oods, tend to be much h|gher than was assumed beore the stud|es were undertaken.
Ourrent GHG account|ng systems d|er cons|derab|y |n |mportant aspects, such as |n terms o whether
they |nc|ude or om|t sequestrat|on. l appropr|ate m|t|gat|on strateg|es are to be deve|oped, harmon|zed
methods are needed that shou|d more accurate|y portray the overa|| p|cture, and, apart rom the ma|n
sources o em|ss|ons, a|so report adequate|y on sequestrat|on.
Commontary Xv|: 1ho |mpact of Agr|food 5upp|y Cha|ns on
Groonhouso Gas Lm|ss|ons: 1ho Caso of a
Coffoo va|uo Cha|n botwoon 1anzan|a and
Gormany
E. K|a|u, K. L|uue aud N. Caeb|e|
Cl/, Ce|mauy
87
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
(usua||y ca|cu|ated |n OO
2
equ|va|ents OO
2
e) and
one |ocat|on where sequestrat|on takes p|ace (fgure
17).
The ||ght parts o the ootpr|nts |n the above fgure
denote that OO
2
|s sequestered, wh||e the red/dark
parts represent em|ss|ons. The s|ze o the ootpr|nt
|nd|cates the vo|ume o em|tted or captured OO
2
e,
usua||y expressed |n tons o OO
2
e per output un|t. ln
the above examp|e, |t |s assumed that more OO
2
e |s
captured than em|tted dur|ng the pr|mary product|on
process, whereas h|gh amounts o em|ss|ons occur
when the product |s prepared or consumpt|on
and consumed. ln between, there are em|ss|ons
connected w|th the other stages o the va|ue cha|n.
ln the o||ow|ng, the var|ous stages rom |nput supp|y
to consumpt|on are d|scussed br|e1y.
Ma|n em|ss|on hotspots:
Land-use change (espec|a||y when pr|mary orest
|s converted |nto |and or annua| crop product|on).
App||cat|on o agrochem|ca|s (espec|a||y n|trogen
ert|||zer produced through an |ntens|ve energy-
consum|ng |ndustr|a| process and n|trogen fe|d
em|ss|ons |n the orm o n|trous ox|de).
Foss|| ue| and energy-consum|ng processes
dur|ng |and preparat|on, crop ma|ntenance,
harvest|ng and conserv|ng o harvests.
Em|ss|ons rom waste water (methane).
Foss|| ue| and energy-consum|ng processes such
as |ndustr|a| process|ng, and |nterna|, domest|c
and transnat|ona| transportat|on.
F|na||y, em|ss|ons resu|t|ng rom energy
consumpt|on |n ood preparat|on at the househo|d
|eve|.
ln order to be ab|e to dec|de where to reduce em|ss|ons
w|th|n a va|ue cha|n, |t |s necessary to determ|ne how
much GHG |s be|ng em|tted (or sequestered) at each
stage o the va|ue cha|n as a bas|s or |dent|y|ng
the hotspots you can on|y manage what you can
measure. For th|s, current|y there are more than 50
|n|t|at|ves work|ng on var|ous ootpr|nt|ng methods
and standards, such as lSO 14067, the Greenhouse
Gas Protoco| Product Account|ng and Peport|ng
Standard, and PAS 2050. However, so ar there |s no
s|ng|e, common ca|cu|at|on method, a|though there
seems to be convergence around the emerg|ng lSO
14067 standard, wh|ch appeared as drat |n 2012. But
none o the standards are product-spec|fc and w|||
st||| need to be broken down to sector/product group
spec|fc ru|es. Another ma|or task st||| to be tack|ed |s
to deve|op a method that re1ects the actua| s|tuat|on
on the arm sufc|ent|y accurate|y wh||e rema|n|ng
reasonab|e w|th respect to eorts and costs.
8. 8oma axpar|ancas W|Ih carbon
IooIpr|nI|ng |n agr|cu|Iura|
va|ua cha|ns
So ar, or agr|cu|ture, there are on|y very ew cases
pub||shed that span an ent|re va|ue cha|n. One such
examp|e |s exam|ned be|ow |n more deta||.
F|gura 17: varv|aW oI 0
Z
saquasIraI|on and h am|ss|ons |n a crop-basad va|ua cha|n
Sc0|ce: Adapted rom Kra|n et a|., 2010.
88
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
nder the Product Oarbon Footpr|nt (POF) pro|ect
Germany, var|ous commod|t|es were exam|ned w|th
respect to the|r GHG em|ss|ons, one o them be|ng a
rar|ty coee rom Machare arm |n the n|ted Pepub||c
o Tanzan|a. The assessments were based on lSO
14040/14044 and PAS 2050, a p|oneer|ng method
deve|oped by the Br|t|sh Standards lnst|tut|on (BSl) to
assess GHG em|ss|ons |n the ||e cyc|es o goods and
serv|ces.
A|| em|ss|ons measured |n fgure 18 were ca|cu|ated
w|th reerence to one brewed cup o coee conta|n|ng
125 m| o water and 7 g o coee. lt shows that the
ma|or em|ss|ons occur dur|ng pr|mary product|on
(54.89 per cent), o||owed by consumpt|on (30.27
per cent). Surpr|s|ng|y, em|ss|ons rom roast|ng (2.74
per cent) and even rom |nternat|ona| transport (1.95
per cent) were rather |ow. The study ment|ons that
Machare arm |s an o|d coee arm and that changes
|n |and use were not cons|dered. Norma||y, em|ss|ons
rom |and-use changes are taken |nto account | they
have taken p|ace w|th|n the |ast 20 years (|.e. ater
1990). Most o the em|ss|ons were re|ated to the
app||cat|on o agrochem|ca|s. However, one |mportant
actor, name|y the sequestrat|on o OO
2
through the
coee p|ants, shade trees or other trees |n the coee
fe|d, was om|tted. l that had been taken |nto account,
the fgures or em|ss|ons dur|ng pr|mary product|on
wou|d have been s|gn|fcant|y |ower. For examp|e, the
em|ss|on ba|ance or the Kenyan Baragw| Farmers'
Oooperat|ve Soc|ety |n fgure 20 shows that tota| GHG
em|ss|ons at product|on stage were even negat|ve.
The |dent|fcat|on o consumpt|on as a hotspot
(apart rom pr|mary product|on) becomes even
more |nterest|ng when |ook|ng at the var|ous ways o
prepar|ng coee.
Ooee |s usua||y prepared or consumpt|on |n d|erent
ways, and these can have very d|erent carbon
ootpr|nts, as fgure 19 shows. The study assumed a
m|x o preparat|on methods w|th an average o 17.90
g o OO
2
e per cup. The norma| f|ter dr|p method has
a ootpr|nt o on|y 10.04 g o OO
2
, wh||e a modern
automat|c coee mach|ne wh|ch needs a |ot o
energy to press the water vapour through the coee
powder em|ts an enormous quant|ty o 60.27 g
o OO
2
e. l a|| the Machare coee wou|d have been
prepared us|ng on|y automat|c coee mach|nes,
th|s wou|d have changed the tota| carbon ootpr|nt
o the va|ue cha|n to 101.49 g o OO
2
e (59.1217.90
60.27), w|th the coee mach|ne account|ng or
c|ose to 60 per cent o a|| GHG em|ss|ons o the
va|ue cha|n! Look|ng beyond these fgures |t must be
F|gura 1B: 0arbon IooIpr|nI a|ong Iha va|ua cha|n Ior ona braWad cup oI Tch|bo ar|Iy Nachara Pr|vaIa 0oIIaa
Sc0|ce: Adapted rom Tch|bo GmbH, POF P||ot Pro|ect Germany, 2009.
89
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
recogn|zed that because these em|ss|ons ar|se rom
energy consumpt|on, the assumed e|ectr|c|ty m|x |s
another |mportant actor |n the ca|cu|at|ons. l carbon-
neutra| e|ectr|c|ty were to be used, |t wou|d reduce,
or even neutra||ze, the carbon em|ss|ons rom such
processes.
Th|s demonstrates very |mpress|ve|y how our modern
||esty|e has become a pr|mary source o GHG
em|ss|ons. lt shows that changes are needed not
on|y |n pr|mary product|on, but a|so |n consumpt|on.
lt a|so shows where we as consumers can make a
d|erence: do we rea||y need to dr|nk coee prepared
by an automat|c coee mach|ne? And can |nvent|ve
compan|es not produce coee mach|nes that requ|re
ar |ess energy? At the same t|me, governments and
po||cymakers cou|d d|rect the energy sector |nto
prov|d|ng more carbon-neutra| e|ectr|c|ty. The po|nt |s
that the acts need to be estab||shed so that better
a|ternat|ves can be |dent|fed and eect|ve changes
made.
0. aduc|ng Iha carbon IooIpr|nI by
|ncraas|ng Iraa crop b|omass and
chang|ng cropp|ng sysIams
lt |s unortunate that most o the carbon ootpr|nt
assessment methods om|t, or do not cons|der,
b|omass creat|on, and thus sequestrat|on, through
tree crop systems. The under|y|ng argument goes
that, on the one hand, the amount o trees |n such
systems |s usua||y sma||, and that, on the other hand,
they w||| sooner or |ater be cut and return the|r stored
GHG to the atmosphere.
F|rst o a||, how much OO
2
can be captured |n
agr|cu|tura| tree crops? There are very d|erent
s|tuat|ons and thus data vary a |ot. A mango tree can
be grown w|th a huge canopy as |s oten the case |n
sma||ho|der arms and can thereore be very s|m||ar
to a orest tree, or |t can be kept short and pruned,
as |n |ntens|ve orchard systems. Fo||ow|ng a rev|ew
o a number o reports, a genera| conc|us|on |s that
the amount o OO
2
captured |n b|omass |s rough|y |n
the order o a actor o 10 rom annua| crops (520
tons o OO
2
/ha) to orchard trees (3070 tons o OO
2
/
ha) and orests (550900 tons o OO
2
/ha). Thus, | tree
crops |n the ex|st|ng arm|ng systems were |ncreased
as much as poss|b|e over m||||ons o hectares, th|s
wou|d sure|y cons|derab|y |ncrease b|omass and thus
sequestered OO
2
accumu|at|on. The FAO Ex-Act too|
or assess|ng OO
2
e em|ss|ons a|ong the ||e cyc|e o
a commod|ty takes account o sequestered carbon
by trees, and has been emp|oyed successu||y by GlZ
|n cashew tree crop systems |n Burk|na Faso (T|n|ot,
2010). Land-use p|ann|ng and agr|cu|tura| strateg|es
shou|d make use o such a too|, as |t he|ps determ|ne
the r|ght strateg|es and |ncent|ves.
lt shou|d a|so be noted that once a tree d|es and
decays, th|s does not automat|ca||y mean that a||
the carbon goes back |nto the atmosphere. The so||
usua||y harbours s|gn|fcant amounts o carbon, and,
apart rom em|tt|ng GHG, |t |s a|so ab|e to b|nd and
store carbon. From our own exper|ence |n Kenya
(Kra|n et a|., 2011) so||s w|th a depth o 0 cm60 cm
conta|n around 180 tons o OO
2
/ha oten up to 10
t|mes more than the tree b|omass.
60
Thus, arm|ng and
cropp|ng systems, as we|| as the|r ways and methods
o cu|t|vat|on, d|er w|de|y w|th respect to the|r ab|||ty
to sequester and store or em|t OO
2
. For examp|e,

F|gura 19: 0arbon IooIpr|nI |n prapar|ng a cup oI coIIaa
Sc0|ce: Adapted rom Tch|bo, GmbH, POF P||ot Pro|ect Germany, 2009.
0
17.90
60.27
10.04
10.04
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Mix of preparation methods
Carbon footprint in the use phase
g CO
2
e / cup of coffee
Automatic coffee machine
Filter drip
French press
90
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
systems |nvo|v|ng zero or m|n|mum t|||age em|t much
|ess OO
2
than p|ough|ng by tractor or hoe.
A recent study (P|kxoort, 2010) conducted w|th|n the
ramework o a GlZ pub||c-pr|vate-partnersh|p pro|ect
on O||mate Ohange Adaptat|on and M|t|gat|on
61

showed that a coee cu|t|vat|on system adher|ng
to a susta|nab|||ty standard such as the Susta|nab|e
Agr|cu|ture Network (SAN) standard em|ts |ess
OO
2
e than one that uses convent|ona| methods.
ln another study w|th|n th|s ramework, conducted
through the deve|opment partnersh|p between GlZ
and Sangana Oommod|t|es Ltd. |n Kenya, 25 coee
arms at Baragw| Farmers' Oooperat|ve Soc|ety were
samp|ed |n December 2010 to determ|ne em|ss|ons
and sequestered amounts o OO
2
e w|th the he|p o the
Ooo| Farm Too| (L|nne et a|., 2011).
62
lt ound that on-
arm net em|ss|ons were, on average, 0.08 kg o OO
2
e
per kg o coee cherr|es (fgure 20). The we|ghted
average, accord|ng to each arm's product|on
vo|ume, was -0.3608 kg o OO
2
e/kg o coee cherr|es.
Em|ss|ons rom ert|||zer product|on and |nduced
em|ss|ons rom ert|||zer use, a|ong w|th crop res|due
management, were the pr|mary em|ss|on sources
em|ss|on hotspots. Oarbon sequestrat|on rom
above ground b|omass and management pract|ces,
such as |ncorporat|on o res|dues, compost and
manure, accounted or the most s|gn|fcant carbon
stock changes |n the system, wh|ch |arge|y oset the
em|ss|ons.
. 0onc|us|ons
Ourrent GHG account|ng systems d|er cons|derab|y
|n |mportant aspects, such as |n terms o whether they
|nc|ude or om|t sequestrat|on. l appropr|ate m|t|gat|on
strateg|es are to be deve|oped, harmon|zed methods
are needed that shou|d more accurate|y portray the
overa|| p|cture, and, apart rom the ma|n sources o
em|ss|ons, a|so report adequate|y on sequestrat|on.
F|gura Z0: n-Iarm am|ss|ons, by caIagory, oI Z6 Iarms |n 8aragW|, kanya (|g oI 0
Z
a par |g oI coIIaa charry)
Sc0|ce: L|nne et a|., 2011.
1.5 -
1.0 -
0.5 -
0 -
-0.5 -
-1.0 -
-1.5 -
-2.0 -
-2.5 -
-3.0 -
Weighted average
K
g
.

o
f

C
O
2
-
e
Average
Fertilizer
production
Crop
residue
management
Fertilizer
induced
emissions
Pesticides
Carbon
stock
change
Total
emissions
91
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A recent rev|ew o g|oba| ood waste and potent|a| or
waste reduct|on, carr|ed out by the authors o th|s art|c|e
or the Government o the n|ted K|ngdom's Fores|ght
Programme, The Future o Food and Farm|ng (Fores|ght,
2011a), prov|des an overv|ew o the cha||enges and
poss|b|e so|ut|ons or deve|op|ng countr|es.
A. whaI counIs as Iood WasIa?
D|erent ways o defn|ng ood waste re1ect d|erent
research ob|ect|ves. From a human ood supp|y
perspect|ve, |t can be defned as ed|b|e mater|a|
|ntended or human consumpt|on that |s d|scarded,
|ost, degraded or consumed by pests, rom harvest
to consumer (FAO, 1981). From a g|oba| resource
efc|ency perspect|ve, the defn|t|on m|ght be
extended to |nc|ude ood ft or human consumpt|on
but |ntent|ona||y used as an|ma| eed (Stuart, 2009).
Ourrent|y, 40 per cent o g|oba| gra|n |s ed to catt|e
(NEP, 2009).
The term "post-harvest |oss" |s oten used to descr|be
|osses between harvest and the onward supp|y o
produce to markets, and equates broad|y w|th waste
|n the FSO. The |atter term |s genera||y app||ed to
post-harvest process|ng, d|str|but|on and reta|||ng |n
h|gh- |ncome countr|es and, |ncreas|ng|y, |n emerg|ng
econom|es. The FSO thereore encompasses a w|de
range o act|v|t|es that |nc|ude process|ng, storage,
transport and d|str|but|on, manuactur|ng, who|esa|e
and reta||. Further upstream, there are actors at the
|n|t|a|, "pre-harvest" stages that a|so contr|bute to
|osses. For examp|e, the capture and d|scard|ng o
fsh stocks beore they are |anded (usua||y resu|t|ng
|n the|r dem|se). Such fsh by-catch represents a
s|gn|fcant proport|on o fsh caught |n g|oba| fsher|es
Absl|acl
Food waste |s an |ssue o |mportance to g|oba| ood secur|ty and good env|ronmenta| governance.
Yet there |s |nsufc|ent re||ab|e data rom wh|ch to est|mate the proport|on o g|oba| ood product|on
that |s wasted.
Avo|dab|e |osses are regarded as g|oba||y s|gn|fcant and thereore const|tute a ma|or soc|a| and
env|ronmenta| burden. However, |ess than 5 per cent o a|| und|ng or agr|cu|tura| research |s a||ocated
to post-harvest systems (Kader, 2003).
There are three part|cu|ar reasons why th|s |ssue needs to be addressed w|th urgency:
Some est|mates suggest that waste cou|d account or between a th|rd (FAO, 2011e) and one ha|
(Lundqv|st, de Fra|ture and Mo|den, 2008) o a|| current ood product|on. Peduct|on o post-harvest
waste |n deve|op|ng countr|es and consumer waste |n h|gh-|ncome countr|es appear to oer the
greatest potent|a| soc|a| and env|ronmenta| ga|ns.
The abso|ute quant|ty o ood waste, a|though |arge|y unquant|fed, w||| |nev|tab|y grow over the com|ng
decades, as product|on |ncreases to meet uture demand and as |ncomes r|se amongst grow|ng
popu|at|ons |n new megac|t|es, notab|y |n the BPlO countr|es (|.e. Braz||, the Puss|an Federat|on, lnd|a
and Oh|na), and as d|ets become more d|vers|fed away rom starchy stap|e oods towards resh ru|t
and vegetab|es, da|ry, meat and fsh.
Peduct|on o ood waste wou|d contr|bute to w|der po||cy agendas that are cr|t|ca| to the uture, name|y
|ncreas|ng product|on, reduc|ng ood |nsecur|ty and ood pr|ce |ncreases, |mprov|ng susta|nab|||ty o
the g|oba| ood supp|y cha|n (FSO), reduc|ng pressures on |and use and reshwater resources and
reduc|ng greenhouse gases.
Commontary Xv||: |ood wasto oduct|on: A G|oba| |mporat|vo
Ju||au Pa|hll, P||uc|pa| Resou|ce Aua|ysl, 0a|deue ho|||us, Ay|esbu|y, uu|led K|ugdom, aud
Na|| Ba|lhe|, Spec|a| Adv|so|, wasle aud Resou|ces Acl|ou P|og|amme, Baubu|y, uu|led K|ugdom
92
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
(FAO, 2005). The para||e| s|tuat|on |n agr|cu|tura|
systems |nvo|ves |osses that occur when crops are
not harvested but are p|oughed back |nto the so||.
Such ront-end |osses are, by the|r very nature, d|fcu|t
to measure accurate|y.
Losses at the consumer stage |nvo|ve a comp|ex|ty
o human act|v|t|es and processes, and encompass
ood wasted |n the home (as a resu|t o purchas|ng
behav|our, ood storage, mea| p|ann|ng and
preparat|on, over-port|on|ng and not us|ng |etovers)
and out o home w|th|n the ood hosp|ta||ty sector,
such as p|ate-scrap|ngs and k|tchen waste.
The best env|ronmenta| and soc|o-econom|c
outcomes concern|ng ood waste ||e |n |ts prevent|on,
but a|||ng that, opt|ons or recover|ng va|ue rom ood
waste need to be cons|dered. These opt|ons may
|nc|ude supp|y o eedstock to |ower grade markets or
human consumpt|on, or d|vers|on |nto an|ma| eed or
|nto nutr|ent and energy recovery opt|ons (anaerob|c
d|gest|on and compost|ng). These routes are st|||
cons|dered "ood waste", as the resu|t|ng benefts
are sma|| compared w|th the va|ue o the or|g|na| ood
product, and the env|ronmenta| sav|ngs are genera||y
modest v|s--v|s the cumu|at|ve env|ronmenta|
|mpacts assoc|ated w|th the agr|cu|tura| and FSO
stages o the ood product ||e cyc|es.
8. PosI-harvasI |ossas |n Iha Iood
supp|y cha|n
ln many deve|op|ng countr|es, agr|cu|ture rema|ns the
dom|nant econom|c sector (FAO, 2009c), yet most o
the rura| poor re|y on short ood supp|y cha|ns w|th
||m|ted post-harvest |nrastructure and techno|og|es,
wh|ch contr|bute to substant|a| post-harvest |osses.
Oerea|s, the most stud|ed ood commod|ty group |n
re|at|on to post-harvest |osses (Parftt, Barthe| and
Macnaughton, 2010), typ|ca||y |ncur 40 per cent
|osses between post-harvest and process|ng stages
|n deve|op|ng countr|es. The comparab|e data or
|ndustr|a||zed countr|es suggest s|m||ar proport|onate
|osses, but these are assoc|ated w|th the consumer
stage (FAO, 2011e). Post-harvest |osses resu|t rom
sp|||age, poor separat|on and dry|ng, contam|nat|on
and consumpt|on by rodents and |nsects, and unga|
and bacter|a| d|seases. At a more undamenta| |eve|,
poor cho|ce o crop |n re|at|on to c||mat|c cond|t|ons
and |nadequate |nputs |n agr|cu|ture are oten
under|y|ng actors contr|but|ng to |oss (Fores|ght,
2011b). The |osses o per|shab|e crops, by the|r very
nature, are h|gher than those o cerea|s, and vary
cons|derab|y by reg|on and by commod|ty type. Data
ava||ab|e rom |ow-|ncome countr|es or a ||m|ted
range o resh ru|t and vegetab|es suggest |osses o
over 50 per cent (FAO, 2011e). A|though |t has been
suggested that post-harvest |osses are somet|mes
overest|mated (Parftt, Barthe| and Macnaughton,
2010), th|s part|y re|ates to the d|fcu|ty o der|v|ng
"typ|ca|" |oss est|mates or a crop and reg|on when
the ||m|ted data rom fe|d measurements may re|ate to
spec|fc |oca| research ob|ect|ves, and extreme va|ues
may m|staken|y be extrapo|ated to est|mate |osses
rom an ent|re country or reg|on (Ty|er, 1982, Hodges,
Buzby and Bennett, 2010). Extended ood supp|y
cha|ns |n deve|op|ng countr|es that prov|de ood or
grow|ng urban popu|at|ons are ||ke|y to |nvo|ve many
|ntermed|ar|es between growers and consumers,
wh|ch may ||m|t the potent|a| or growers to rece|ve
h|gher pr|ces or qua||ty produce, or even to understand
what sorts o produce the market requ|res. The |ack o
pr|ce d|erent|a|s and agreed qua||ty cr|ter|a between
d|erent p|ayers |n the market reduces the |ncent|ve
or sma|| producers to grade produce or to |nvest |n
su|tab|e storage |nrastructure and trans|t packag|ng.
lntervent|ons w|th|n these systems tend to ocus
on |mprov|ng techn|ca| capac|ty to reduce |osses,
|ncrease efc|ency and reduce the |abour |ntens|ty
o the techno|og|es that are used (Fores|ght, 2011c,
Hodges, Buzby and Bennett, 2010). Attempts to
reduce post-harvest |osses need to take |nto account
cu|tura| and fnanc|a| |mp||cat|ons o any |nnovat|ons
|n post-harvest techno|og|es. ln years w|th ood
surp|uses the pr|ces rece|ved or goods tend to be
|ow. One opt|on, thereore, |s to store gra|n surp|uses
or |ean years, but su|tab|e storage ac|||t|es may be
|ack|ng or expens|ve. lnvestment and eng|neer|ng
sk|||s are needed to prov|de so|ut|ons. lndeed, there
are many examp|es o re|at|ve|y s|mp|e techno|og|es
wh|ch can prov|de eect|ve so|ut|ons and dramat|ca||y
reduce |osses (n|ted Nat|ons, 2007).
Look|ng to the uture, the pred|cted |ncrease |n the
g|oba| urban popu|at|on rom 50 per cent |n the past
ew years to 75 per cent |n 2050, wh|ch |s expected
to be concentrated |n |ow-|ncome and emerg|ng
econom|es, |s ||ke|y to |ead to an extens|on o
FSOs, and consequent|y |ncrease post-harvest ood
|osses s|gn|fcant|y (n|ted Nat|ons, 2008). However,
|nrastructura| |mprovements, part|cu|ar|y dry- and
co|d-storage ac|||t|es, pack houses, roads, ports,
te|ecommun|cat|ons and power supp||es, have the
potent|a| to counteract such deve|opments. ln some
93
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
BPlO countr|es, pub||c sector |nvestment |s be|ng
cons|dered or acce|erat|ng th|s process. For examp|e,
|n lnd|a the Government |s d|scuss|ng an "evergreen
revo|ut|on", wh|ch w||| |nvo|ve the deve|opment o ood
process|ng un|ts (Fores|ght, 2011c).
0. Emarg|ng aconom|as and h|gh
|ncoma counIr|as
ln emerg|ng econom|es and h|gh-|ncome countr|es,
FSOs |nvo|ve c|oser ||nks between growers, supp||ers,
processors, d|str|but|on systems and markets, thereby
ensur|ng greater econom|es o sca|e, compet|t|veness
and efc|ency. Deve|opment o more |ndustr|a||zed
FSOs cou|d a|so oster growth |n the ood process|ng
sector. ln med|um- and h|gh-|ncome countr|es, |t has
oten been argued that the centra||zed process|ng
o ood |eads to better resource efc|ency and |ess
waste overa||. However, research on consumer ood
waste suggests that th|s |s not the case (WPAP, 2009):
consumers waste s|gn|fcant quant|t|es o ood,
thus potent|a||y negat|ng the benefts o centra||zed
ood process|ng. Further |osses are assoc|ated w|th
cosmet|c qua||ty standards app||ed by reta||ers to resh
ru|t and vegetab|es, wh|ch can reduce the vo|ume o
marketab|e and ed|b|e ood reach|ng consumers. Th|s
trend |s |ncreas|ng|y be|ng counterba|anced by the
grow|ng |n1uence o reta||ers and manuacturers |n
agr|cu|tura| deve|opment groups, crop susta|nab|||ty
groups and susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture |n|t|at|ves, a|| o
wh|ch are br|ng|ng about |mprovements |n grow|ng
pract|ces and urther reduct|ons |n post-harvest
|osses.
ln emerg|ng econom|es, supermarkets are the
ma|n veh|c|e or prov|d|ng d|vers|fed d|ets or the
expand|ng m|dd|e c|asses and the urban poor.
These deve|opments are a|most ent|re|y dependent
on ore|gn d|rect |nvestment, and show h|gh growth
rates |n Eastern Europe, parts o As|a and Lat|n
Amer|ca (Peardon, T|mmer and Berdegue, 2007).
The nature and pace o these deve|opments are
|n1uenced by the extent to wh|ch reta||ers bypass
ex|st|ng markets and trad|t|ona| who|esa|ers to secure
produce o the requ|red standard and vo|ume. Many
o the actors that may |ncrease waste |dent|fed |n the
FSOs o emerg|ng econom|es are s|m||ar to those |n
h|gh-|ncome countr|es, such as payment terms that
d|scourage sma|| growers, and systems or demand
orecast|ng, order p|ann|ng and rep|en|shment that
somet|mes |ead to overproduct|on.
63
However, there
are |essons that m|ght be |earnt rom |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es. For |nstance, the comb|ned eects o
contractua| pena|t|es or non-de||very o order
vo|umes, res|dua| she|-||e product take-back c|auses
and poor demand orecast|ng were est|mated to dr|ve
up overproduct|on and h|gher |eve|s o wastage by 10
per cent |n the n|ted K|ngdom FSO (Dera, 2007).
. Food WasIa by consumars |n |oW-
|ncoma counIr|as
To date, there are ||tt|e pub||shed robust data on the
sca|e o consumer ood waste |n |ow-|ncome countr|es
and emerg|ng econom|es. However, a conc|us|on
rom a recent workshop on g|oba| ood waste
prevent|on (Fores|ght, 2011c) was that, overa||, the
sca|e o consumer waste appears to be |ower |n these
countr|es, but |n some o the emerg|ng econom|es,
part|cu|ar|y Braz|| and urban Oh|na, |t seems to be
approach|ng that o the OEOD countr|es. ln much
poorer commun|t|es, there |s typ|ca||y a w|der range
o out|ets or d|scarded ood, and these cu|tures
common|y arrange or the most hungry and dest|tute
peop|e to obta|n |etover ood scraps. The net |oss to
human consumpt|on can thereore be |ower, a|be|t
w|th h|gher saety r|sks, part|cu|ar|y | the water used
or ood preparat|on |s |nsan|tary.
E. 0onc|us|ons: |oW-|ncoma counIr|as
shoW Iha graaIasI poIanI|a| Ior Iood
WasIa raducI|on
A s|gn|fcant reduct|on |n g|oba| ood waste |s an |m-
portant step towards secur|ng ood or the grow|ng
g|oba| popu|at|on, wh|ch |s est|mated to exceed n|ne
b||||on peop|e by 2050. The potent|a| to meet the
resu|t|ng |ncrease |n demand cannot be met through
urther product|v|ty ga|ns a|one, or by extend|ng the
area o |and or agr|cu|tura| product|on. lt |s thereore
essent|a| to obta|n more rom g|oba| ood product|on
by wast|ng |ess. Th|s w||| requ|re act|on on many ronts,
across h|gh-|ncome and |ower |ncome countr|es a||ke.
The Fc|es||| Pe.|e. (Fores|ght 2011d) |dent|fed the
ma|n act|ons needed |n order to br|ng the max|mum
beneft to deve|op|ng countr|es. These are br|e1y
d|scussed be|ow.
G|ea|e| |n.es|men| |n s|c|ae, oac|a|n ano
||ansoc|| |n/|as||0c|0|e |n |c.-|nccme cc0n|||es o,
na||cna| c.e|nmen|s ano ||e ocnc| ccmm0n||,.
Pe|at|ve|y |ow-cost |ntervent|ons that cou|d ach|eve
s|zeab|e ood waste reduct|on |nc|ude: bas|c
packag|ng or transport o resh produce, |nnovat|on
94
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|n |ow-techno|ogy storage to reduce gra|n |osses on
sma|| arms, and s|mp|e coo| cha|n opt|ons that are
not ue|-|ntens|ve. These |nvestments cou|d potent|a||y
|ncrease the |ncome o part|c|pants |n the ood cha|n,
|nc|ud|ng growers, part|cu|ar|y | they enab|e access to
more remunerat|ve markets. ln add|t|on, the ev|dence
shows that domest|c or |nternat|ona| markets and
eect|ve |oca| po||c|es a|med at upgrad|ng act|v|t|es
and ood standards are cruc|a| to ach|ev|ng success
(FAO, 2003, Kader, 2005).
Ccnnec||n sma|||c|oe| |c.e|s |n |c.-|nccme
cc0n|||es |c 0|oan/|e|cna| ano |n|e|na||cna| /cco
c|a|ns |||c0| oe||e| |n/|as||0c|0|e, ano ocss|o|,
||n|eo a|sc .||| .a||c0s /c|ms c/ e|||ca| ||ao|n.
Substant|a| |nvestment |n |nrastructure |s needed
to reduce post-harvest |osses and to prov|de
sma||ho|der armers w|th better access to markets,
w|th |ower transact|on costs and better returns. The
use o commun|cat|on techno|og|es (mob||e phones
|n part|cu|ar) or |mprov|ng market |normat|on and
access to other |mportant serv|ces (e.g. weather
orecasts, |oca||y appropr|ate crop var|et|es, good
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces) wou|d enab|e producers
to make better p|ant|ng, harvest|ng and supp|y
dec|s|ons, meet market requ|rements and avo|d, or
at |east reduce, seasona| g|uts and h|gher wastage
rates (Fores|ght, 2011c).
7a|e||n c/ a|o o0oe|s |c encc0|ae sma|| |c.e|s
to produce |mproved qua||ty produce or |oca|
and reg|ona| markets |n a s|m||ar way to the n|ted
Nat|ons Wor|d Food Programme's Purchase or
Progress |n|t|at|ve,
64
wh|ch |nc|udes the prov|s|on o
guaranteed contracts, agr|cu|tura| extens|on serv|ces
and crop |nsurance or |oca| commun|t|es, and a
soc|a| saety net, as we|| as ood a|d rom |oca| rather
than |nternat|ona| sources. Such measures he|p
to reduce post-harvest |osses as they encourage
|nvestment |n post-harvest |nrastructure and reduce
pr|ce 1uctuat|ons.
Fncc0|ae ||a|n|n |n ||e sc|ences |e|e.an| |c /cco
s|c|ae ano o|s|||o0||cn |n |c.-|nccme cc0n|||es
through ded|cated programmes and bursary
schemes. Th|s shou|d |nc|ude the tra|n|ng o peop|e
to support the p|ann|ng and ma|ntenance o the more
advanced post-harvest and FSO techno|og|es needed
to eed grow|ng urban popu|at|ons.
De.e|comen| c/ a |coa| oenc|ma|||n ne|.c|| |c
es||ma|e /cco |csses, .||| o||c|||, |.en |c eme||n
eccncm|es. Much o the data ava||ab|e on |osses
have not been co||ected systemat|ca||y, and there are
ew up-to-date d|rect fe|d measurements. l progress
|s to be made towards a g|oba| benchmark or ood
waste, more emp|r|ca||y based |oss est|mates are
necessary. Such an undertak|ng wou|d requ|re strong
|eadersh|p |n |nternat|ona| agenc|es w|th an |nterest |n
ood secur|ty and deve|opment |ssues. G|ven the w|de
var|ab|||ty o FSOs, |t wou|d be unrea||st|c to gather
data rom a representat|ve samp|e o the g|oba| FSOs.
A more targeted approach has greater chance o
success, w|th pr|or|ty ass|gned to those systems ||ke|y
to exper|ence h|gher wastage rates, and ocus|ng on
the most cr|t|ca| FSO stages, such as rom arms to
d|str|but|on centres or resh produce |n emerg|ng
econom|es. Se|ected supp|y cha|n segments shou|d
be mon|tored to estab||sh how changes |n techno|ogy
and |nrastructure have |n1uenced |osses.
95
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A. ahn|I|on oI susIa|nab|a Iood
consumpI|on
The Os|o Poundtab|e on Susta|nab|e Product|on and
Oonsumpt|on has defned susta|nab|e consumpt|on
|n genera| as: "the use o goods and serv|ces that
respond to bas|c needs and br|ng a better qua||ty
o ||e, wh||e m|n|m|z|ng the use o natura| resources,
tox|c mater|a|s and em|ss|ons o waste and po||utants
over the ||e cyc|e, so as not to |eopard|ze the needs
o uture generat|ons" (Norweg|an M|n|stry o the
Env|ronment, 1994). As regards consumpt|on |n the
ood doma|n, there |s no broad|y accepted defn|t|on
to date, but severa| attempts to c|ar|y and sharpen
the concept have been made. Defn|t|ons d|er
depend|ng on the themat|c ocus env|ronment
and c||mate, pub||c hea|th and ||e opportun|t|es,
ma|nutr|t|on and cr|t|ca| access to ood. St|||, a core
set o cr|ter|a can be d|st|||ed. Perhaps the most
encompass|ng approach has been |ntroduced by
the Susta|nab|e Deve|opment Oomm|ss|on (2005) o
the n|ted K|ngdom. The comm|ss|on cons|ders ood
and dr|nks susta|nab|e | they:
Are sae, hea|thy and nutr|t|ous, or consumers |n
p|aces such as shops, restaurants, schoo|s and
hosp|ta|s,
Oan meet the needs o |ess we||-o peop|e,
Prov|de a v|ab|e ||ve||hood or armers, processors
and reta||ers, whose emp|oyees en|oy a sae and
hyg|en|c work|ng env|ronment, whether nat|ona||y
or abroad,
Pespect b|ophys|ca| and env|ronmenta| ||m|ts |n
the|r product|on and process|ng, wh||e reduc|ng
energy consumpt|on and |mprov|ng the w|der
env|ronment,
Meet the h|ghest standards o an|ma| hea|th
and we|are, compat|b|e w|th the product|on o
aordab|e ood or a|| sectors o soc|ety, and
Support rura| econom|es and the d|vers|ty o rura|
cu|tures, |n part|cu|ar through an emphas|s on |oca|
products that keep ood m||es to a m|n|mum.
Defn|t|ons rom a soc|a| sc|ence perspect|ve h|gh||ght
the |mportance o the soc|o-cu|tura| d|mens|on the
necessary "ft" o ood patterns w|th peop|e's everyday
||ves or deve|op|ng eect|ve po||c|es (e.g. Hayn et
a|., 2006). Here, ood consumpt|on |s cons|dered
susta|nab|e on|y | |t:
ls env|ronmenta||y sound (w|th regard to water, so||,
c||mate, b|od|vers|ty, avo|dance o unnecessary
r|sks),
ls hea|th promot|ng,
A||ows or soc|o-cu|tura| d|vers|ty, and
ls app||cab|e |n everyday ||e sty|es.
From a wor|dw|de perspect|ve, the quest|on o a|r
d|str|but|on and access to hea|thy and sae ood
d|scussed under the key term "ood secur|ty" comes
to the ore. Ach|ev|ng susta|nab|e consumpt|on
o ood requ|res conront|ng prob|ems o both
underconsumpt|on and overconsumpt|on. As regards
the ormer, 1.3 b||||on peop|e ex|st on |ncomes o $1 a
day or |ess, and over 800 m||||on peop|e are hungry or
starv|ng. Yet the prob|em o ood secur|ty goes beyond
Absl|acl
Ma|or changes |n ood behav|our towards more susta|nab|e consumpt|on systems must happen, |n
part|cu|ar |n the |ndustr|a||zed countr|es.
Key |ssues o concern are excess|ve meat and da|ry, sugar and at consumpt|on |n "modern d|ets",
overconsumpt|on |n some parts o the wor|d and underconsumpt|on |n others as we|| as ood waste.
ln order to oster susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on, |t |s necessary to coord|nate po||c|es re|at|ng to ood,
the env|ronment, hea|th and soc|a| cohes|on.
Commontary Xv|||: 1ho o|o of 5usta|nab|o Consumpt|on |n
|ostor|ng a |undamonta| 1ransformat|on of
Agr|cu|turo
Luc|a Re|sch
Copeuhageu Bus|uess Schoo|, euma||
96
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
that o hunger and access, |t a|so covers the prob|em
o "h|dden hunger" (|.e. defc|ts |n v|ta| m|cronutr|ents),
wh|ch, accord|ng to a WHO est|mate, aects about
1.2 b||||on peop|e wor|dw|de. At the same t|me, there |s
a wor|dw|de |ncrease |n the number o peop|e who are
overwe|ght or obese, both |n deve|op|ng and a1uent
|ndustr|a| countr|es.
Wh||e the env|ronmenta| |mpacts o ood consumpt|on
and product|on have been debated s|nce the 1990s
w|th a ocus on greenhouse gas (GHG) em|ss|ons
the connect|ons between c||mate/env|ronment
and hea|th have on|y recent|y become a concern
|n po||t|ca| documents (e.g. Hea|th Oounc|| o the
Nether|ands, 2011). Accord|ng to th|s approach, a
systems perspect|ve o susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on
seems to rep|ace the trad|t|ona| "s||o perspect|ve" o
separate susta|nab|||ty d|mens|ons prom|nent |n many
nat|ona| po||c|es. ln 2010, the European Oomm|ss|on
||sted the o||ow|ng cr|ter|a or d|ets to be cons|dered
as hav|ng a "hea|th va|ue":
Nutr|ent and energy content (nutr|t|ona| va|ue),
Natura| ood propert|es ("aesthet|c/gustatory" and
"d|gest|ve"),
Eco|og|ca| nature o ood product|on (susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture),
Hea|th and tox|co|og|ca| cr|ter|a (ood saety).
As regards the |atter, consumers' percept|on o
ood saety |s c|ouded by unhea|thy ood add|t|ves,
tox|c res|dues and other by-products, as we|| as
potent|a| r|sks rom genet|ca||y mod|fed and nano-
techno|og|ca||y enhanced oods. Th|s prov|des a
ma|or |mpetus or the growth o organ|c ood sa|es.
Based on a broad understand|ng o susta|nab|e
consumpt|on, as re1ected |n the defn|t|ons c|ted
above, we defne susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on
as a cho|ce o ood wh|ch |s benefc|a| and ||e-
enhanc|ng or |nd|v|dua|s, soc|ety and the p|anet.
However, susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on |n such a
comprehens|ve sense |s se|dom cons|dered |n po||cy-
mak|ng. The o||ow|ng sect|on |||ustrates why ma|or
changes |n ood behav|our towards more susta|nab|e
consumpt|on systems must take p|ace, part|cu|ar|y |n
|ndustr|a||zed countr|es.
8. Na|n prob|amaI|c Irands and
naadad changas
G|ven the grow|ng wor|d popu|at|on and demograph|c
change, prob|ems are pred|cted to become more
ser|ous |n the uture, or examp|e, agr|cu|tura|
product|on must ace the |mpacts o c||mate change,
con1|cts over |and use are pred|cted to |ncrease,
F|gura Z1: roWIh raIa oI maaI consumpI|on ovar Iha pasI 40 yaars (|g/parson/yr)
Sc0|ce: Oompass|on |n Wor|d Farm|ng Trust, 2004: 3, based on data rom FAOstat.
97
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
and hea|th and soc|a| costs both at the |nd|v|dua|
and soc|a| |eve| w||| r|se because o ood-re|ated
hea|th threats. A key eth|ca| |ssue |s ensur|ng ood
secur|ty or the wor|ds' grow|ng popu|at|on a goa|
that w||| not eas||y be ach|eved. ln many deve|op|ng
countr|es, shortage o dr|nk|ng water w||| a|so be a
ma|or prob|em. To meet the needs o a grow|ng wor|d
popu|at|on and the |ncreas|ng demand or meat |n
deve|op|ng countr|es, part|cu|ar|y |n Oh|na and lnd|a
(fgure 21), there wou|d have to be an exponent|a|
growth |n |and use or agr|cu|ture, wh||e at the same
t|me the most product|ve cerea| produc|ng areas |n
Oh|na, lnd|a and North Amer|ca w||| be approach|ng
the|r b|ophys|ca| ||m|ts (Tempe|man, 2006).
The reasons or th|s unsusta|nab|e deve|opment
pattern |nc|ude the |ndustr|a||zat|on and g|oba||zat|on
o agr|cu|ture and ood process|ng, consumpt|on
patterns that are sh|t|ng towards more meat and da|ry
|n d|ets, modern ood sty|es, an abundance o ood on
the one hand and a |ack o ood secur|ty on the other,
and the cont|nuous|y grow|ng gap between r|ch and
poor on both a wor|dw|de sca|e and w|th|n |nd|v|dua|
soc|et|es. These actors are the resu|t o nat|ona|
and |nternat|ona| po||c|es and regu|at|ons, bus|ness
pract|ces and part|cu|ar va|ues. The ma|n prob|emat|c
trends and needed changes are d|scussed be|ow.
ln |ndustr|a||zed countr|es, there |s a w|de range o
ava||ab|e ood products. Because most ood products
are ava||ab|e at aordab|e pr|ces year round, ood
seasona||ty has |ost |ts mean|ng. Bes|des an abundant
cho|ce o hea|thy ru|t and vegetab|es throughout
the year, consumers |n most E countr|es beneft
rom comparat|ve|y |ow pr|ces and cons|derab|e
conven|ence, wh|ch have accompan|ed changes |n
ood product|on and g|oba||zat|on. A ma|or drawback
|n th|s progress, however, |s that consumers have
become |ncreas|ng|y estranged rom the product|on o
the|r oodstus, and, desp|te the recent recurrence o
|nterest |n reg|ona| oods and new trends such as s|ow
ood and organ|c produce, consumer know|edge o
seasona||ty or reg|ona| supp|y has been |ost (see, or
examp|e, T|schner and K|aernes, 2007, B|ay-Pa|mer,
2008).
At the |eve| o the |nd|v|dua|, ood hab|ts and
preerences are shaped by cu|tura| trad|t|ons, norms,
ash|on and phys|o|og|ca| needs, as we|| as by
persona| exper|ence w|th and exposure to spec|fc
oods and the|r supp|y (|.e. ava||ab|||ty and access|b|||ty
o oodstus). Such preerences and tastes, together
w|th fnances, t|me and other constra|nts (e.g. work
patterns, househo|d dec|s|on-mak|ng), |n1uence
ood consumpt|on. Pr|ce, |n part|cu|ar, |s a ma|or
determ|nant. Food preerences a|so d|er s|gn|fcant|y
by househo|d-spec|fc character|st|cs such as age,
|ncome, educat|on, am||y type and status |n the |abour
orce, as we|| as nat|ona||ty (European Oomm|ss|on,
2006). Pesearchers have thereore made an eort
to c|uster consumers |nto groups that represent
d|erent "nutr|t|on sty|es" or "ood sty|es" so that they
can be targeted w|th messages about "proper ood"
(M|chae||s and Lorek, 2004, Fr|ed| et a|., 2007, Schu|tz
and St|eb, 2008).
The o||ow|ng observab|e deve|opments and trends
|n ood consumpt|on |n many OEOD and most E
countr|es are prob|emat|c w|th regard to susta|nab|e
ood consumpt|on (Pe|sch, Scho|| and Eber|e, 2010):
C|anes |n o|e|. Part|cu|ar|y |n OEOD and
E countr|es, there |s a trend towards h|gher
consumpt|on o meat (espec|a||y pork and pou|try),
cheese and bott|ed dr|nks, and a dec||n|ng
consumpt|on o m||k and potatoes (OEOD, 2001,
European Env|ronment Agency, 2005).
Aea|en|n c/ n0|||||cna| ccmoe|enc|es oeso||e
|nc|eas|n |nc.|eoe c/ |ea|||, n0|||||cn.
Oompetenc|es |n nutr|t|on and home econom|cs
(|.e. cook|ng and ood stor|ng, and fnanc|a|
competenc|es) have dec||ned. At the same t|me,
know|edge o hea|thy oods and hea|thy nutr|t|on
has |ncreased.
/ oec||ne |n ||me soen| cn n0|||||cn. T|me spent on
ood purchas|ng and cook|ng, as we|| as on eat|ng,
has decreased s|gn|fcant|y over the past ew
years. ln genera|, however, women st||| spend more
t|me than men on ood purchas|ng and cook|ng
(Hamermesh, 2007).
/ oec||ne |n |e|a||.e ccns0me| soeno|n cn /cco.
A|though abso|ute househo|d expend|tures on ood
|ncreased dur|ng the 1990s |n many E countr|es,
65

the average share o expend|ture on ood |n tota|
househo|d expend|ture |n European househo|ds
has dec||ned stead||y w|th r|s|ng |ncomes (M|chae||s
and Lorek, 2004, European Env|ronment Agency,
2005). For many consumers, pr|ce |s the dom|nant
cr|ter|on |n ood purchase, o||owed by qua||ty,
reshness, (|ong) she| ||e and taste.
/n |nc|ease |n ccn.en|ence, |eao,maoe ano /as|
/ccos ano c0|-c/-|cme ccns0mo||cn.
66
ln add|t|on
to a tendency towards consum|ng h|gh|y processed
oods (ast and conven|ence ood), consumpt|on o
readymade mea|s |s cont|nu|ng to r|se w|th|n the
E (PTS, 2006). Out-o-home consumpt|on a|so
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
accounts or a s|gn|fcant and grow|ng proport|on
o European ood |ntake, or examp|e, |n 2002
one ourth o mea|s and snacks were eaten out
(M|chae||s and Lorek, 2004).
|nc|eas|n o|e|-|e|a|eo 0nce||a|n|, cn ||e oa|| c/
ccns0me|s. A decade o ood scares, together w|th
d|er|ng expert eva|uat|ons o r|sk, contrad|ctory
and short-||ved nutr|t|on-re|ated |normat|on |n the
med|a, a greater var|ety o ava||ab|e oodstus, and
the g|oba||zat|on and d|stanc|ng o ood product|on
have produced grow|ng consumer uncerta|nty
about ood (Bergmann, 2002). lndeed, rather
than he|p|ng consumers nav|gate the vast array o
|normat|on about ood, the mu|t|tude o ood |abe|s
has |ed to consumer conus|on and |normat|on
over|oad that prevents them rom qu|ck|y fnd|ng
re|evant key |normat|on (Derby and Levy, 2001,
Hawkes, 2004). As a resu|t, (re-)bu||d|ng consumer
trust |n the |normat|on about ood prov|ded by
both the State and the market |s a ma|or cha||enge
(K|aernes, Harvey and Warde, 2007).
||co|ems c/ c.e|.e||| ano coes||, |n so||e c/
|nc|eas|n |ea||| a.a|eness. ln most |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es, the wea|th o ava||ab|e ood, comb|ned
w|th |ncreas|ng|y sedentary ||esty|es and modern
d|ets, |s |ead|ng to r|s|ng obes|ty |eve|s. ln these
countr|es, the r|se |n ad|pos|ty (|.e. at-stor|ng body
t|ssue) |s occurr|ng part|cu|ar|y among ch||dren
and teenagers, but |s a|so ev|dent among |ower
soc|o-econom|c groups (WHO, 2005, Pe|sch and
Gwozdz, 2010). ln deve|op|ng countr|es, obes|ty |s
most|y a prob|em among the we||-o (W|tkowsk|,
2007).
Ccmo|e||, c/ /cco c|c|ces. The above
deve|opments |n ood supp|y have great|y |ncreased
the comp|ex|ty o ood cho|ce: the more opt|ons
and nove|t|es on oer, the more comp||cated |t
becomes to fnd the r|ght |normat|on and the more
comp|ex the dec|s|on-mak|ng process. A|though
|normat|on brokers rom test|ng organ|zat|ons to
ood magaz|nes to Web 2.0 S|ow Food commun|t|es
may be ab|e to reduce such comp|ex|ty or a ew
peop|e, many consumers rema|n overwhe|med
and preer to st|ck to the|r hab|tua| cho|ces (M|ck,
Bron|arczyk and Ha|dt, 2004). The success o ood
d|scounters such as Trader Joe's |n the n|ted
States, wh|ch oers a very narrow ood assortment,
|s due to an attract|ve m|x o ew cho|ces (and
hence, |ow search costs) and the|r prov|s|on o
standard qua||ty organ|c products so|d at a|r and
|ow pr|ces. Th|s |s |n contrast w|th what estab||shed
super- and hypermarkets oer.
|nc|eas|n /cco .as|e. Today, |arge quant|t|es o
ood are wasted, part|cu|ar|y by ood reta|| frms
and consumers. For |nstance, accord|ng to one
recent study, househo|ds |n the n|ted K|ngdom
waste one th|rd o the ood they buy, 61 per cent o
wh|ch cou|d have been eaten | |t had been better
managed.
Much hope |s p|nned on the |ncreas|ng consumer
|nterest |n organ|c and a|r trade oods. The markets
or organ|ca||y grown products and or a|r traded
ood products have grown stead||y (Kr|er, 2005, W|||er,
Yussef-Menz|er and Sorenssen, 2008). Neverthe|ess,
the market share rema|ns |ow, w|th organ|c ood
account|ng or 0.55 per cent (W|||er, Yussef-Menz|er
and Sorensen, 2008) and a|r traded ood or |ess than
1 per cent o the tota| ood market (Kr|er, 2005). A|so,
turnover |s stagnat|ng |n many markets because o a
a|| |n the pr|ces o non-organ|c oods and an |ncrease
|n pr|ce compet|t|on.
0. ToWards a po||cy oI susIa|nab|a
Iood consumpI|on
On the demand s|de, nat|ona| governments genera||y
p|ay a re|at|ve|y weak ro|e. To date, the ma|n dr|ver
beh|nd regu|atory command and contro| |nstruments
re|at|ng to ood consumpt|on and product|on |s
the need to respond to acute threats to the ||e and
hea|th o c|t|zens. lt |s on|y or the past ew years
that government concerns about ood |ntake have
broadened to cons|der everyday d|et and hea|th
|ssues. These concerns (espec|a||y as they re|ate to
obes|ty and |ts hea|th |mpacts) are s|ow|y resu|t|ng |n
po||cy act|ons, but most o these measures are on|y
des|gned to prov|de |normat|on, and rare|y take the
orm o regu|at|on. Oommand and contro| |s usua||y
app||ed |n cases that can be |et ne|ther to vo|untary
agreements nor to the market because o the h|gh
r|sks |nvo|ved, or because o t|me pressure and doubts
about the eect|veness o vo|untary agreements.
Thus, regu|at|on concentrates on ood saety |ssues,
and a|ms to protect consumers' hea|th, the|r ||ves (e.g.
standards o hyg|ene) and the|r econom|c |nterests
(e.g. compet|t|on po||c|es).
W|th regard to susta|nab|||ty |n the ood sector,
governments and the|r adm|n|strat|ons genera||y
become |nvo|ved on|y as organ|zers o (pub||c)
cert|fcat|on, standard|zat|on and |nspect|on schemes.
One examp|e o th|s ro|e |s ev|dent |n the State-run
99
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
|abe|||ng o organ|c and reg|ona| oods observab|e
|n about ha| o a|| E countr|es (Organ|c Europe,
2010). Such |abe|s const|tute an |mportant too| or
ra|s|ng consumer awareness about the hea|th and
env|ronmenta| aspects o the|r ood and or ac|||tat|ng
|normed dec|s|on-mak|ng.
Another re|at|ve|y recent approach to promot|ng
susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on |s se|-regu|at|on |n
the orm o pub||c procurement o susta|nab|e ood
(or gu|de||nes or procurement) or pub||c |ns|tut|ons,
such as k|ndergartens and schoo|s, sta canteens
|n the pub||c sector, pr|sons and hosp|ta|s. However,
examp|es rom var|ous E member States espec|a||y
the n|ted K|ngdom and Sweden demonstrate that
such se|-regu|at|on requ|res t|me and eort, and
seems to be eect|ve and |mprove the qua||ty o
the ood served on|y when the |n|t|at|ves are c|ose|y
mon|tored by the governments (Susta|n, 2010). A
recent report conc|udes unamb|g|ous|y that "the on|y
way to ach|eve a rad|ca| |mprovement |n pub||c sector
ood or examp|e |n our schoo|s, hosp|ta|s and care
homes |s or government to |ntroduce a new |aw
wh|ch sets h|gh, and r|s|ng standards or the ood
served" (Susta|n, 2010: 2).
Va||e|-oaseo |ns||0men|s target|ng househo|ds and
|nd|v|dua|s seem to be |ess preva|ent |n the ood
doma|n, though they are app||ed upstream |n the ood
supp|y cha|n (e.g. subs|d|es to organ|c armers). \ery
recent|y, |n|t|at|ves have been |aunched to tax certa|n
ood types, such as "|unk ood" |n Hungary, or the|r
|ngred|ents, such as a tax on spec|fc types o at |n
Denmark.
The dom|nant po||cy |nstrument |n the ood doma|n |s
an |normat|on-based and educat|ve ocus on ra|s|ng
awareness. Th|s |s oten accompan|ed by vo|untary
|nstruments o se|-comm|tment, cooperat|on and
network|ng. Wh||e eorts to educate consumers,
espec|a||y young consumers, |n grow|ng, process|ng,
cook|ng and stor|ng ood are dec||n|ng |n most
soc|et|es due to the |ncrease |n out-o-home
and readymade ood consumpt|on, and |n other
pr|or|t|es |n orma| schoo| curr|cu|a there are some
ongo|ng eorts to deve|op "ood ||teracy" among
young consumers w|th regard to choos|ng and
prepar|ng hea|thy (e.g. more ru|t and vegetab|es) and
susta|nab|e (|.e. organ|c, reg|ona|, a|r-trade) ood. As
one e|ement o a nat|ona| ood strategy, France has
recent|y started to systemat|ca||y tra|n the sensory and
taste competences o schoo|ch||dren.
The ach|evement o behav|oura| change |n avour
o more susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on |s a |ong-
term goa| that requ|res constant and cont|nu|ng
eorts o a|| the actors |nvo|ved. Barr|ers are ev|dent
at the |nst|tut|ona|, |normat|ona|, |nrastructura| (|.e.
the ava||ab|||ty, aordab|||ty and access|b|||ty o a
susta|nab|e supp|y) and persona| |eve|s. Government
support or susta|nab|e ood entrepreneurs and
commun|ty-based ood |n|t|at|ves cou|d he|p make
the susta|nab|e cho|ce eas|er (and more aordab|e).
A substant|a| barr|er to eect|ve consumer
|normat|on and educat|on |s the d|sturb|ng act
that sc|ent|fc ev|dence |s not conc|us|ve, and that
some recommendat|ons to consumers, such as
the recommendat|on that organ|c or |oca| products
shou|d a|ways be preerred to convent|ona| or
|mported products, m|ght not be we||-ounded.
"Organ|c" and "|oca|" are two p|||ars o susta|nab|e
ood consumpt|on that have recent|y been cha||enged
by sc|ent|fc reports (e.g. Pe|nhardt et a|., 2009).
Ava||ab|e research genera||y agrees on the |ssues
g|v|ng r|se to the |ack o susta|nab|||ty o the current
ood doma|n (Pe|sch, Scho|| and Eber|e, 2010): the
d|stance between ood consumers and producers (|n
m||es as we|| as m|nds), the s|gn|fcant |oss o b|omass
rom the fe|d to the tab|e (|nc|ud|ng generated waste),
and the h|gh |eve| o consumpt|on o an|ma| products
|n the orm o meat and da|ry products. Oonsequent|y,
these are the cr|t|ca| aspects o non-susta|nab|||ty that
governments need to address as a pr|or|ty.
Desp|te the grow|ng attent|on pa|d to ood |ssues at
the po||cy |eve|, approaches that |ntegrate the d|erent
susta|nab|||ty |ssues |nto coherent po||cy approaches
or act|on p|ans or at |east |nto po||cy too|s that do
not contrad|ct each other are hard to fnd. The
same |s true or exp||c|t strateg|es or susta|nab|e
consumpt|on. Po||c|es re|at|ng to nutr|t|on and ood,
the env|ronment, hea|th and soc|a| cohes|on are
se|dom coord|nated. Furthermore, exp||c|t po||c|es
or susta|nab|e consumpt|on, |n genera|, and or ood
consumpt|on, |n part|cu|ar, are rare. Po||cy too|s are
usua||y des|gned one-d|mens|ona||y or spec|fc po||cy
doma|ns, and adopted po||cy too|s pr|mar||y target
|nd|v|dua| consumers.
As a resu|t o the current power structure |n the
European ood doma|n, wh|ch |s character|zed by
a dom|nant, h|gh|y concentrated, poweru| reta||
|ndustry, governments tend to ||m|t themse|ves to a
marg|na| ro|e and to non-|nvas|ve |nstruments, such
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
as consumer |normat|on and educat|on. Another
reason or the re|uctance to |mp|ement str|ct nat|ona|
ood po||c|es |s that susta|nab|||ty goa|s and po||c|es
r|sk con1|ct|ng w|th European |aws. For |nstance, the
E has recent|y requested that Sweden w|thdraws
|ts Nat|ona| Food Adm|n|strat|on's (NFA) proposa| to
the E on gu|de||nes or c||mate-r|end|y ood cho|ces
because they may con1|ct w|th European trade goa|s.
The E Oomm|ss|on ound that the recommendat|on
to eat more |oca||y produced ood contravenes the
E's pr|nc|p|es o ree movement o goods.
Governments a|so strugg|e to understand the
defn|t|on o susta|nab|e ood and susta|nab|e d|ets,
and they oten have no rea| v|s|on about the poss|b|e
orms that susta|nab|e ood systems m|ght take. As
a start|ng po|nt, an understand|ng o the d|erence
between susta|nab|e /cco and susta|nab|e o|e|
seems to be cruc|a|. For |nstance, one can eat very
hea|thy, susta|nab|y produced ood, but s|mp|y eat too
much or too ||tt|e o |t. A|ternat|ve|y, ood cou|d come
rom susta|nab|e arm|ng, but |t cou|d st||| be h|gh|y
processed and over- packaged. Hence, a pr|or|ty or
governments shou|d be to deve|op |n|e|a|eo, c|css-
sec|c|a|, oco0|a||cn-.|oe /cco oc||c|es on such |ssues
as agr|cu|ture and ood supp|y, ava||ab|||ty and access
to ood, phys|ca| act|v|ty, we|are and soc|a| benefts,
fsca| po||c|es, an|ma| we|are, and |normat|on and
soc|a| market|ng (Pobertson, Lobste|n and Kna|,
2007).
A rev|ew o current European susta|nab|e deve|opment
strateg|es and act|on p|ans h|gh||ghts the o||ow|ng
ma|or goa|s regard|ng susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on
(|n order o pr|or|ty):
Lower|ng obes|ty |eve|s and |ncreas|ng hea|th,
lncreas|ng organ|c ood consumpt|on and
product|on,
Peduc|ng GHG em|ss|ons, and
Peduc|ng ood waste.
As susta|nab|e deve|opment strateg|es are a resu|t o
soc|eta| debates |n the var|ous countr|es, they re1ect
ma|nstream th|nk|ng about the areas |n wh|ch po||cy
|nstruments are appropr|ate and necessary. However,
these exp||c|t goa|s neg|ect other re|evant aspects o
ood and dr|nk susta|nab|||ty: the soc|a| and econom|c
d|mens|ons |n both the g|oba| and |oca| sense.
The n|ted K|ngdom's Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
Oomm|ss|on (2008) emphas|zes the need to move
beyond re1ect|ons on "sae, hea|thy and nutr|t|ous
ood" to |nc|ude cons|derat|on o "the needs o the |ess
we|| o". That |s, |t |s necessary to cons|der decent
econom|c, ||v|ng and work|ng cond|t|ons o those
work|ng a|ong the ood cha|n, respect or an|ma|s,
support or rura| econom|es and cu|tura| aspects.
Another |ssue |s re1ected |n recent d|scuss|ons |n
academ|c c|rc|es that has not yet rece|ved sufc|ent
attent|on rom po||cymakers: se|-sufc|ency o
countr|es |n terms o ood supp||es, and the uneven
|mpacts o ood product|on on the so||. Th|s |s a
rather comp|ex |ssue wh|ch |s made a|| the more
cha||eng|ng by WTO ru|es and E po||c|es that
promote |nternat|ona| trade above a|| e|se. However,
|t |s an area that needs to be careu||y ana|ysed (or
a more e|aborate d|scuss|on, see the |ead art|c|e and
the commentary o Ohemn|tz and Santar|us |n chapter
5 o th|s Pev|ew).
The above-out||ned requ|rements appear to be
re|evant or bu||d|ng a ramework or susta|nab|e ood
consumpt|on and product|on: short-term act|on on
the agreed prob|ems and med|um-term spec|fcat|on
o how to redes|gn ood systems (Pe|sch, Lorek
and B|etz, 2011). A para||e| debate on a "European
ood mode|" and |ts common va|ues (or examp|e,
as regards genet|ca||y mod|fed organ|sms and
nanotechno|og|es) |s a|so necessary. Such a debate
shou|d |nc|ude the poss|b|||ty o a "green economy"
strategy or the ood sector.
However, deve|op|ng such |ntegrat|ve strateg|es
and |dent|y|ng the most susta|nab|e way to ensure
the nutr|t|on o the wor|d's current and uture
popu|at|ons requ|res urther research. More research
|s a|so needed on ways to ach|eve susta|nab|e ood
consumpt|on patterns. The overwhe|m|ng v|ew |n the
sc|ent|fc ||terature |s that the most eect|ve ways or
a1uent soc|et|es to reduce the env|ronmenta| |mpact
o the|r d|ets are to cut down on the amount o meat
and da|ry products consumed, espec|a||y bee, buy
organ|c, seasona| and |oca||y ava||ab|e ood products,
and avo|d products transported by aerop|ane.
Over and above these concerns, governments shou|d
deve|op cross-sectora|, popu|at|on-w|de po||c|es on a
var|ety o |ssues, |nc|ud|ng those re|at|ng to agr|cu|ture
and ood supp|y, ava||ab|||ty o and access to ood,
phys|ca| act|v|ty, we|are and soc|a| benefts, sound
env|ronmenta| product|on and consumpt|on, fsca|
po||c|es, the ro|e o |nd|v|dua| consumer dec|s|on-
mak|ng, pub||c procurement and pub||c prov|s|on
o ood. Based on these po||c|es, governments
shou|d deve|op act|on p|ans on susta|nab|e ood
consumpt|on.
101
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
Ourrent ood consumpt|on patterns not on|y threaten
the qua||ty o ||e o |nd|v|dua|s, they a|so have negat|ve
env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and econom|c |mpacts.
Po||c|es and programmes to counteract these
|mpacts are comp||cated because o the mu|t|p|e
|nterdependenc|es between the actors and |ssues
|nvo|ved |n the ood system. Wh||e useu| and useab|e
consumer |normat|on on the consequences o ood
consumpt|on, ear|y consumer educat|on and case-
based consumer adv|ce can empower consumers,
better know|edge w||| not automat|ca||y change
preerences and behav|our. Pather, ava||ab|||ty,
aordab|||ty and soc|a| attract|on o susta|nab|e ood
cho|ces, as we|| as easy access to them, seem to be
the key |evers to oster susta|nab|e ood consumpt|on
by |nd|v|dua| consumers. "Mak|ng the susta|nab|e
cho|ce the easy cho|ce", promot|ng hea|thy oods,
reth|nk|ng menus |n canteens and s|mp||y|ng ood
|abe|||ng are worthwh||e po||cy |n|t|at|ves to exp|ore,
keep|ng |n m|nd the d|vers|ty o soc|a| sett|ngs and
we|com|ng cu|tura| d|vers|ty |n ood consumpt|on.
102
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. 0hangas |n consumpI|on hab|Is |n a
g|oba||tad Wor|d
Oonsumers |n the European n|on (E) are ab|e to
consume oods rom a|| over the wor|d dur|ng v|rtua||y
any season o the year. Th|s |s poss|b|e because
o wor|d trade wh|ch has become more and more
|nterconnected |n the g|oba||zat|on process o the past
ew decades. But g|oba||zat|on |s part|y b||nd to many
soc|a| and env|ronmenta| |mpacts o product|on,
because o cost pressures and resu|t|ng sca|e
requ|rements.
Pace to the bottom takes p|ace because good soc|a|
and env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons |ead to h|gher costs. l
there |s no transparency or consumers or no other
||m|tat|on "a race to the bottom" |s go|ng to be the
overwhe|m|ng mode| or |nvestment.
For examp|e, Western demand or |mported an|ma|
eed dr|ves the product|on o soybeans, corn and
wheat overseas and |eads to non-s|te-spec|fc
product|on schemes. The European agr|cu|tura| and
ood sector |s h|gh|y dependent on eed |mports,
wh|ch enab|e |t to be the wor|d's b|ggest exporter o
ood products.
Accord|ng to est|mates o a German group o
assoc|at|ons, coord|nated by the Arbe|tsgeme|nschat
bauer||che Landw|rtschat (AbL) and the EuroNatur
St|tung (2011: 8), "the E's need or agr|cu|tura|
|ands outs|de o the Oommun|ty (|nc|ud|ng
some 19 m||||on hectares or the product|on o
|mported soy and prote|n eeds) |s est|mated
to be |n the order o 35 m||||on hectares th|s |s
tw|ce the ut|||zed agr|cu|tura| area o Germany."
67
The re|at|onsh|p between eed, ||vestock and an|ma|
manure has been neg|ected, w|th negat|ve eects on
the env|ronment, ground water, oceans, b|od|vers|ty,
an|ma| we|are and pub||c hea|th. L|vestock product|on
now needs to be re-||nked to |oca||y ava||ab|e
agr|cu|tura| |and and de-||nked rom be|ng a d|rect
compet|tor o human ood supp|y.
Another trend concerns the de-g|oba||zat|on o ood
Absl|acl
lncreas|ng g|oba||zat|on has acce|erated the |ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|tura| pract|ces and cost pressures
among producers. Th|s has |ed to |arger sca|es o product|on o a very ||m|ted number o commerc|a||y
|ucrat|ve agr|cu|tura| goods |n a decreas|ng number o product|on un|ts, w|th severa| unreso|ved ood-
saety r|sks that are d|fcu|t to manage.
ln the absence o eect|ve regu|at|on, product|on standards |n g|oba||zed markets w||| o||ow a "race to the
bottom" w|th the resu|t that |n terms o env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and eth|ca| cr|ter|a the cheapest and |owest
standards m|ght be app||ed.
A|though there are comprehens|ve contro| mechan|sms to ensure ood saety, they are |nsufc|ent to
guarantee ood saety or a|| |nternat|ona||y traded products. What |s |ack|ng |s a proact|ve, prevent|ve
approach.
The current approaches to assur|ng ood saety are comp||cated and expens|ve, espec|a||y or sma||-sca|e
producers, and |n the end producers and consumers pay the add|t|ona| costs. The not|on that more contro|s
are sufc|ent to guarantee adequate ood saety has proved wrong: add|t|ona| contro|s have not been
ab|e to ha|t or reverse the trend o |ncreas|ng contam|nants |n ood products and greater env|ronmenta|
po||ut|on. A system|c change towards |ow-r|sk, susta|nab|e product|on techn|ques w||| ease the prob|ems
o ood saety and may a|so |mprove the |eve| o trust o consumers |n agr|cu|tura| products.
Commontary X|X: |ood 5afoty and 5ystom|c Chango: L|m|tat|ons
of |ood Contro|s for 5afoguard|ng |ood 5afoty
Julla Ja|sche, Po||cy 0lhce| lood
lede|al|ou ol Ce|mau Cousume| 0|gau|sal|ous (Ve|b|auche|/eul|a|e Buudesve|baud, V/BV)
103
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
cha|ns. ln a survey o consumers, wh|ch asked them
to what extent they were concerned about ood saety
|n g|oba| supp|y cha|ns, 37 per cent rep||ed that they
were very concerned, wh||e 42 per cent responded that
they were somewhat worr|ed (European Oomm|ss|on,
2010).
There |s grow|ng consumer preerence or reg|ona|
products over products rom very d|stant countr|es
o or|g|n. Accord|ng to a survey by Nest|e (2011) the
attract|veness o reg|ona| products has exceeded
that o organ|c arm|ng: 81 per cent o respondents
c|a|med they bought reg|ona| ood, and o these, 37
per cent reported buy|ng reg|ona| ood on a regu|ar
bas|s, whereas 44 per cent reported buy|ng |t rom
t|me to t|me. The mot|vat|ons or such consumer
preerence are the|r be||e that these products are o
better qua||ty, they ee| more secure when know|ng
about the or|g|n o the products, and the|r des|re to
promote susta|nab|||ty and the |oca| economy. Th|s
|s a|so why consumers ||ke to see the p|ace o or|g|n
marked c|ear|y on ood products.
The past ew decades have w|tnessed a mass|ve
change |n product|on as we|| as |n process|ng and
consumpt|on hab|ts. Know|edge on how to prepare
ood has been |ost, and conven|ence oods and
eat|ng out as a resu|t o t|me pressure have become
|ncreas|ng|y popu|ar. Oosts o ood packag|ng oten
exceed the costs o the oods themse|ves.
8. 8usIa|nab|a agr|cu|Iura
Oten ood saety measures, such as |nspect|on o
ood and reca||s o ta|nted ood, take p|ace at the
end o the ood cha|n. Wh||e these measures are
|nd|spensab|e, more |mportant shou|d be prevent|on,
both or reduc|ng re|ated transact|on costs and or
ga|n|ng the trust o consumers. Prevent|on |n the
context o ood saety means start|ng at the |n|t|a|
stages o product|on: |ook|ng |nto the use o resources
and the mode o agr|cu|tura| product|on. lt |s now we||
known that |ntens|ve use o oss|| ue|s |n agr|cu|ture
w||| not be susta|nab|e |n the uture, ne|ther w||| the
use o other resources, such as phosphate and
phosphorous. But systemat|c change |s necessary
not on|y because o the eventua| scarc|ty o these
externa| |nputs, but a|so because o prob|ems w|th
assur|ng ood saety |n h|gh|y |ntens|ve convent|ona|
agr|cu|tura| product|on systems.
lt |s c|ear that wh||e eorts are be|ng made to
combat an|ma| d|seases and product contam|nat|on
|n agr|cu|tura| product|on systems, not enough |s
be|ng done to prevent them. Th|s |eads to negat|ve
and unsusta|nab|e |nterdependenc|es between
agr|cu|tura| product|on and pub||c hea|th, as |||ustrated
by the examp|e o ant|b|ot|c res|stance. The European
Food Saety Author|ty (EFSA) eva|uated the pub||c
hea|th r|sk o bacter|a| stra|ns res|stant to certa|n
ant|m|crob|a|s |n ood and ood-produc|ng an|ma|s.
lt drew the conc|us|on that the use o ant|m|crob|a|s
|n ood-produc|ng an|ma|s was a r|sk actor or the
spread o those bacter|a| stra|ns and or pub||c
hea|th. As a resu|t o th|s study experts recommended
|mpos|ng restr|ct|ons and bann|ng certa|n ant|b|ot|cs
(EFSA, 2011).
68
The experts a|so conc|uded that the
extens|ve |ntra-E trade |n an|ma|s was an add|t|ona|
r|sk actor or ant|b|ot|c res|stance.
There needs to be greater attent|on to combat|ng and
avo|d|ng g|oba| ep|dem|cs so-ca||ed pandem|cs,
many o wh|ch are zoonoses (|.e. d|seases wh|ch can
be transm|tted rom an|ma|s to humans). A paper by
the European Oomm|ss|on's D|rectorate Genera| or
Hea|th and Oonsumer Aa|rs (SANOO, 2011) defnes
prevent|on as cons|st|ng o measures to decrease
occurrence and transm|ss|on o an|ma| d|seases by
arm|ng and ood cha|n pract|ces and an|ma| transport,
|n order to ensure a h|gh |eve| o an|ma| hea|th, pub||c
hea|th and ood saety. Th|s |nc|udes ||m|t|ng the
|nc|dence o zoonoses |n humans and other b|o|og|ca|
r|sks. SANOO est|mates that the cost or a vacc|nat|on
bank at E |eve|, ma|nta|n|ng on|y the vacc|nes or oot
and mouth d|sease, |s about 61.4 m||||on per year. The
tota| va|ue o the ant|gen stored |n a vacc|ne bank |s
est|mated at 610.6 m||||on rom 2012 onwards, and the
stock has to be renewed every fve years.
69
Accord|ng
to the SANOO study, the ma|n too|s and |nstruments o
prevent|on are mon|tor|ng and surve|||ance |n member
States and b|osaety measures such as d|s|nect|on,
segregat|on and c|ean|ng. (For a cr|t|ca| d|scuss|on
o b|osaety, see lde| and Pe|chert |n chapter 2 o th|s
Pev|ew.) ln the event o an an|ma| d|sease break|ng
out, prevent|on and contro| strateg|es |nc|ude |mport
restr|ct|ons, such as |eg|s|at|on and contro| o an|ma|
movements across nat|ona| borders. However, what
|s m|ss|ng |s a d|scuss|on o the ||m|ts o an|ma|
transport and the dens|ty o an|ma| product|on to
avo|d outbreaks and to ma|nta|n product|on at a |eve|
commensurate w|th reg|ona| market requ|rements and
env|ronmenta| carry|ng capac|ty.
F|rst o a||, we need a concept or susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| product|on, and not on|y or Europe.
104
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Th|s has to be defned accord|ng to s|te-spec|fc
cond|t|ons. Pesearchers have defned cr|t|ca|
"p|anetary boundar|es" to ensure human saety,
the transgress|ng o wh|ch cou|d be catastroph|c.
(Pockstrom et a|., 2009) N|ne o the boundar|es
|dent|fed are c||mate change, stratospher|c ozone,
|and-use change, reshwater use, b|o|og|ca| d|vers|ty,
ocean ac|d|fcat|on, n|trogen and phosphorus
em|ss|ons |nto to the b|osphere and oceans, aeroso|
|oad|ng and chem|ca| po||ut|on. Accord|ng to a
report by Pockstrom et a|. (2009) three o the n|ne
boundar|es have a|ready been transgressed, a|| o
them connected w|th agr|cu|tura| product|on.
70
The German Oounc|| or Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
(2011) recommends that the organ|c arm|ng
concept be made the go|d standard or agr|cu|tura|
product|on, to be used as a gu|de||ne, though |t needs
to be cont|nuous|y deve|oped. Dusse|dorp and Sauter
(2011) a|so note that |ow-externa|-|nput agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces |n deve|op|ng countr|es have resu|ted |n
h|gher y|e|ds (on average 80 % h|gher) re|at|ve to
convent|ona| product|on systems. They assume that
externa| |nputs oten are not ava||ab|e to armers
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, that the use o m|nera|
ert|||zers on grounds w|th |ow retent|on o nutr|ents
reduces y|e|ds, and that h|gh-y|e|d|ng var|et|es are not
appropr|ate or s|tes w|th subopt|ma| cond|t|ons.
Organ|c arm|ng |s regarded as s|te-spec|fc and
susta|nab|e because o |ts c|rcu|ar 1ow o |nputs. As
demand or organ|c products |s h|gher than supp|y
|n Germany, there |s upward pressure on pr|ces and
more and more organ|c products are be|ng |mported.
Thus grow|ng organ|c oods or export cou|d we||
be an opt|on or sma||-sca|e producers, as noted
by an eva|uat|on o Ohurch Deve|opment Serv|ce
(Evange||scher Entw|ck|ungsd|enst) and Bread or the
Wor|d (Brot ur d|e We|t) (2011). However, markets |n
th|s segment are deve|op|ng near|y a|ong the same
||nes as convent|ona| markets, resu|t|ng |n una|r
compet|t|on between producers w|th|n the E and
those abroad.
Many we||-|normed consumers are appa||ed at the way
German arm|ng systems operate. Some agr|cu|ture |n
Europe may never be econom|ca| w|thout subs|d|es.
Pub||c money shou|d not be spent or preserv|ng th|s
k|nd o agr|cu|ture. Subs|d|es shou|d be spent or a
system o agr|cu|tura| product|on that |s ft and v|ab|e
or the uture, |n a manner that |s adapted to the so||s
and ||v|ng cond|t|ons o an|ma|s and peop|e. There |s
an urgent need or change to protect pub||c goods.
0. Food conIro|
The outbreak o the BSE cr|s|s some 10 years ago
created a mass|ve cr|s|s o confdence, wh|ch prompt-
ed the Oomm|ss|on o the European Oommun|t|es
(2000) to undertake a study that resu|ted |n the so-
ca||ed Wh|te Paper on Food Saety.
71
lt was and st|||
|s the cruc|a| strateg|c document or ood saety |n
the E. We at the Federat|on o German Oonsumer
Organ|sat|ons wondered whether that strategy has
been successu|. ls the pr|nc|p|e o traceab|||ty u||y
operat|ona| so that we become aware o ex|st|ng
r|sks as ear|y as poss|b|e? Do on|y sae g|oba||y
traded goods reach our p|ates? ls the precaut|onary
pr|nc|p|e o the E regu|at|on on ood saety be|ng
|mp|emented?
72
And why do consumers st||| have
d|strust |n the precaut|onary pr|nc|p|e as app||ed?
Accord|ng to a Eurobarometer survey on r|sk
percept|on |n the E (European Oomm|ss|on,
2010), 11 per cent o those surveyed be||eved that
the probab|||ty o eat|ng oods wh|ch have negat|ve
eects on hea|th was very h|gh, and 37 per cent
be||eved that |t was a|r|y probab|e. There were s|m||ar
data or Germany. Furthermore, many consumers
are st||| ask|ng or a system|c change |n agr|cu|tura|
product|on methods. The Eurobarometer survey a|so
revea|s that peop|e are |ncreas|ng|y worr|ed about
chem|ca| res|dues rom pest|c|des |n ru|t, vegetab|e
and cerea|s, w|th an average o 31 per cent o
respondents |n the E express|ng such concerns, 91
per cent |n Greece, 80 per cent |n France and 75 per
cent |n Germany. Ooncern|ng the use o ant|b|ot|cs
or hormones |n meat, an average o 30 per cent o
respondents throughout Europe reported be|ng very
worr|ed, 99 per cent |n Oyprus and 63 per cent |n
the Nether|ands. The E average or respondents
express|ng concern about the c|on|ng o an|ma|s
or ood products was 30 per cent, and 29 per cent
were concerned about po||utants such as mercury |n
fsh and d|ox|ns |n pork. Forty-two per cent o those
surveyed d|d not be||eve that the pub||c author|t|es |n
the E v|ewed the hea|th o c|t|zens as more |mportant
than the profts o producers, and more than 81 per
cent e|t that pub||c author|t|es shou|d do more to
ensure that ood |s hea|thy and |norm peop|e about
hea|thy d|ets and ||esty|es.
The Wh|te Paper on Food Saety makes manuacturers,
|mporters, carr|ers and reta||ers respons|b|e or the
ood saety o products. They have to ensure and
document the saety o the|r goods. Add|t|ona||y, a
system o ood contro|s |s be|ng |mp|emented through
105
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
ofc|a| mon|tor|ng o ood and veter|nary matters. The
competent author|t|es try to detect prob|ems w|th
ood saety as ear|y as poss|b|e and take appropr|ate
measures. The Federa| Ofce o Oonsumer and Food
Saety (B\L) |n Germany tr|ed to deve|op emerg|ng
r|sk |dent|fcat|on systems. But |t |s not c|ear how
eect|ve these can be. One o the ob||gat|ons o
bus|nesses |s to trace the or|g|n o products when
they are observed to pose a hea|th hazard and he|p
remove those products rom the market as qu|ck|y as
poss|b|e. The |dea |s to trace the comp|ete ood and
eed product|on cha|n, rom the source o product|on
to the reta||er.
. L|m|Is oI Iood saIaIy
Food saety |s c|ose|y ||nked to quest|ons o an|ma|
and p|ant hea|th and an|ma| we|are. ln the E, the
Food and \eter|nary Ofce (F\O) |s respons|b|e or
ver|y|ng comp||ance w|th E standards concern|ng
these three areas. Accord|ng to SANOO (2010), |t
carr|es out 250 |nspect|ons annua||y, o wh|ch one
th|rd are undertaken |n deve|op|ng countr|es.

The F\O
|ooks at the |ega| ramework and whether regu|atory
measures are |n p|ace to ensure that producers app|y
the standards st|pu|ated and enorce them. lt a|so
checks the work o the competent author|t|es and
the|r surve|||ance and contro| measures (e.g. whether
they have adequate ac|||t|es, such as |aborator|es,
|ndependence o work, |normat|on po||cy, cert|fcat|on
pract|ces, contro| systems and records). lt a|so |ooks
at product|on estab||shments, hand||ng and storage
s|tes and |aborator|es.
Accord|ng to SANOO we know rom the work o
F\O, that the ma|n ood saety prob|ems concern
the o||ow|ng areas: the |ega| and adm|n|strat|ve
|nrastructure, a |ack o understand|ng o contro|
system requ|rements (espec|a||y o E requ|rements),
|nadequate contro| and enorcement mechan|sms,
and |ack o, or |nadequate, ac|||t|es or contro| and
cert|fcat|on purposes (SANOO, 2010). A|though there
|s no doubt that there |s greater cooperat|on between
the competent outhor|t|es |n the d|erent countr|es |n
techn|ca| ass|stance and capac|ty-bu||d|ng w|th regard
to European ood saety, there are prob|ems, such as
|nadequate |nrastructure |n export|ng countr|es. ln
add|t|on to that, some ofc|a| ood and eed author|t|es
re1ect more the |nterests o the bus|ness commun|ty
than consumer |nterests. Food saety |s a|so |n danger
because o a grow|ng amount o unsae products
(such as d|etary supp|ements) oered v|a the lnternet.
The grow|ng market or enr|ched ood (e.g.
conta|n|ng v|tam|ns and m|nera|s) presents ood
saety r|sks because o the r|sk o overconsumpt|on
o those add|t|ves. Another prob|em ar|ses rom
pharmaceut|ca||y act|ve substances not approved |n
Europe and so|d as ood on the lnternet.
lmported products are st||| |arge|y a "b|ack box" |n
the sense that |aborator|es |n Europe are on|y ab|e to
fnd res|dues they are |ook|ng or. W|thout |normat|on
about the agr|cu|tura| product|on methods and re|ated
|nputs (or |nstance the use o veter|nary drugs |n an|ma|
husbandry) those |aborator|es are un||ke|y to fnd the
res|dues. The contro| system |n the E needs to be
cont|nuous|y |mproved. ln contrast w|th the |ndustry,
the author|t|es are not sufc|ent|y |nterconnected and
are a|ways one step beh|nd new techno|og|es, new
act|ve pharmaceut|ca| |ngred|ents and new products
that pose new r|sks. From not|fcat|ons about unsae
oods |n the E's Pap|d A|ert System o Food
and Feed (PASFF), |t |s ev|dent that ood and eed
products |mported |nto the E are not automat|ca||y
sae. Pathogen|c m|cro-organ|sms, a||ergens,
genet|ca||y mod|fed organ|sms (GMOs), mycotox|ns
and res|dues |n ood re|eased rom packag|ng are the
pr|nc|pa| causes o unsae oods. Food saety and
ood qua||ty requ|re g|oba| eorts by the |ndustry and
the ofc|a| regu|atory and contro|||ng author|t|es. F|ve
per cent o oodstu consumed |n the E or|g|nates
rom th|rd countr|es (SANOO, 2010). The quest|on
thereore ar|ses as to how a g|oba| a|ert system cou|d
be organ|zed and whether the European system |s
su|tab|e or other countr|es, part|cu|ar|y deve|op|ng
countr|es.
John Da|||, the ormer Oomm|ss|oner or Hea|th and
Oonsumer Po||cy (2010: 3), noted that "more than
s|xty countr|es outs|de the E were connected to the
PASFF W|ndow, a new on||ne p|atorm, wh|ch a||ow[s]
them to down|oad PASFF not|fcat|ons that m|ght
concern them. The Oomm|ss|on wou|d cont|nue |ts
eorts to support those countr|es |n sett|ng up the|r
a|ert systems, through the 5e||e| 7|a|n|n /c| Sa/e|
Fcco programme, to enab|e them to tack|e ood
saety |nc|dents that gradua||y become more g|oba| |n
nature." Oooperat|on between countr|es and between
pub||c hea|th and ood saety author|t|es |s essent|a|
to manage hazards |n ood. Th|s has been stark|y
|||ustrated by the case o EHEO O104: H4, a dead|y
E.co|| bacter|um stra|n caused by contam|nated
sprouts that k|||ed at |east 45 peop|e and caused a
ma|or ood cr|s|s |n Germany |n 2011.
106
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
E. InIarnaI|ona| Iood sIandards
Oo||ect|ve standards, such as G|oba|GAP, Sae
Qua||ty Food, Qua||ty and Saety or Labe| Pouge (or
more |normat|on, see Guenther and W|||, 2007), are
|ncreas|ng|y serv|ng as qua||ty assurance schemes or
corporat|ons |nvo|ved |n the g|oba| ood cha|n. They
serve as a guarantee or stab|e ood qua||ty |n a wor|d
o hor|zonta||y and vert|ca||y |ntegrated producers.
As consumer organ|zat|ons show |n recent market
surveys, processed ood |s cons|derab|y more
expens|ve and very oten enr|ched w|th unnecessary
ood add|t|ves that pose the r|sk o overdosage.
Many o these processed ood products a|so conta|n
aromas, add|t|ves or conservat|on and/or taste-
enhanc|ng substances a|med at keep|ng them resh,
appea||ng and non-per|shab|e wh||e be|ng sh|pped
wor|dw|de. ln th|s respect, products o b|g compan|es
everywhere |n the wor|d adhere to the same standards.
However, the way ood standards are set and who sets
them |s not transparent to consumers. lndeed, many
consumers rea||ze that the|r understand|ng o ood
saety and the|r eth|ca| concerns are not automat|ca||y
be|ng cons|dered |n the |nternat|ona| market, and
that standards oten work aga|nst consumer |nterests
(Muh|e|b, 2010). For |nstance, there are con1|cts
between consumers |n the E and export|ng bus|ness
|n the n|ted States over GMOs, ch|or|nated pou|try
and hormones |n meat and da|ry product|on. The
ma|or|ty o European consumers are wary o products
o c|oned an|ma|s or genet|ca||y mod|fed fsh, but
commerc|a| pressure groups oten try to |n1uence
pub||c debate and sent|ment on th|s |ssue.
Accord|ng to Tanzmann (2011), the Ohurch
Deve|opment Serv|ce and Bread or the Wor|d want
ood standards to be negot|ated at the mu|t|nat|ona|
|eve|. But the so|ut|on |s not that standards shou|d be
|owered to a |eve| that wou|d enab|e comp||ance by a||
producers. Oonsumers' des|re or ood saety var|es
depend|ng on the cu|tura| background o the country
where products are consumed. l the Federa| lnst|tute
or P|sk Assessment (BP) |n Germany, or |nstance,
defnes the ||m|t va|ues or res|dues, these reer to
the m|n|ma| qua||ty producers have to comp|y w|th.
Th|s |s why there w||| a|ways be a con1|ct between
the |nterests o consumers |n deve|oped countr|es
and producers |n deve|op|ng countr|es. Horton and
Wr|ght (2008) have shown that deve|op|ng countr|es
wou|d stand to beneft | the n|ted States and
Europe adopted the same standards. But rom the
perspect|ve o European consumers, harmon|zat|on
o n|ted States and European standards wou|d, |n
most |nstances, have negat|ve eects, as |||ustrated
by the examp|e o ch|or|nated pou|try.
F. Equ|va|anca oI producI|on and oI qua||Iy
managamanI |nsIrumanIs
Oonsumers may d|scr|m|nate aga|nst products
rom deve|op|ng countr|es | the standards o those
countr|es are not accepted as equ|va|ent to European
standards. Equ|va|ence |n th|s context does not
mean that products shou|d be produced us|ng the
same processes, but |n a comparab|e way. Products,
process|ng techn|ques and ways o conorm|ng w|th
ood saety requ|rements may d|er.
A|though there |s a comprehens|ve set o contro|
|nstruments or ood saety, |t w||| not be sufc|ent to
saeguard ood saety or a|| |nternat|ona||y traded
products. ln sum, a systemat|c approach towards the
contro| system |s m|ss|ng. lnstead o harmon|z|ng the
e|ements o standards, the|r number |s st||| grow|ng.
Many requ|rements and standards o ood saety have
been |ntroduced by mu|t|nat|ona| agr|bus|ness to the|r
advantage, but rare|y |n cooperat|on w|th the armers
who have to manage the requ|rements. Equ|va|ence
o product|on and o qua||ty management |nstruments
shou|d be |udged by bod|es that are |ndependent o
|ndustry and |n accordance w|th consumer demand.
. 0onc|us|ons
lncreas|ng g|oba||zat|on has acce|erated the
|ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|tura| pract|ces and cost
pressures among producers. Th|s has |ed to |arger
sca|es o product|on o homogeneous agr|cu|tura|
goods |n a decreas|ng number o product|on un|ts,
w|th severa| unreso|ved ood-saety r|sks that are
d|fcu|t to manage.
Many ood saety |ssues are re|ated to d|seases o
p|ants and an|ma|s and to the use o externa| |nputs
such as agrochem|ca|s and ant|b|ot|cs. lntens|fed
agr|cu|tura| product|on has a negat|ve |mpact on
pub||c hea|th and we||-be|ng, and that process seems
to have reached |ts ||m|ts. Because o the pressures
o compet|t|on, producers are constant|y seek|ng to
reduce the|r product|on costs. Th|s means that |n the
absence o eect|ve regu|at|on, product|on standards
w||| o||ow a "race to the bottom" w|th the resu|t that |n
terms o env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and eth|ca| cr|ter|a the
cheapest and |owest standards m|ght be app||ed.
107
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
A|though there are comprehens|ve contro| mechan-
|sms to ensure ood saety,
73
they are |nsufc|ent to
guarantee ood saety or a|| |nternat|ona||y traded
products. What |s |ack|ng |s a proact|ve, prevent|ve
approach. lnstead o d|erent saety standards
and requ|rements be|ng harmon|zed, the number
o d|vergent requ|rements |s st||| grow|ng. Many
standards and requ|rements have been |ntroduced
to the advantage o mu|t|nat|ona| agr|bus|nesses, but
oten not |n cooperat|on w|th the armers who have to
conorm w|th those requ|rements.
Oontro|s to saeguard European ood saety have
certa|n ||m|tat|ons. The current approaches to assur|ng
ood saety are comp||cated and expens|ve, espec|a||y
or sma||-sca|e producers, and |n the end producers
and consumers pay the add|t|ona| costs. The not|on
that more contro|s are sufc|ent to guarantee adequate
ood saety has proved wrong: add|t|ona| contro|s
have not been ab|e to ha|t or reverse the trend o
|ncreas|ng contam|nants |n ood products and greater
env|ronmenta| po||ut|on. A system|c change towards
|ow-r|sk, susta|nab|e product|on techn|ques w||| ease
the prob|ems o ood saety re|ated to the product|on
and process|ng o ood. lt may a|so |mprove the |eve|
o trust o consumers |n agr|cu|tura| products.
The ood |ndustry, shou|d he|p |mprove the bas|s
or hea|thy nutr|t|on by ensur|ng the qua||ty o raw
mater|a|s and |nputs |n processed ood. The |ndustry
shou|d a|so ensure that product|on |s env|ronmenta||y
r|end|y and app||ed to the |ocat|ons where product|on
takes p|ace.
Governments need to cooperate nat|ona||y and
|nternat|ona||y to |ncorporate the prevent|on o r|sk
actors |nto other po||cy-mak|ng areas. Measures
re|at|ng to areas such as ood secur|ty and ood saety,
ood product|on, agr|cu|ture, hea|th, env|ronment,
trade, taxat|on, educat|on and urban deve|opment
need to be coherent and shou|d adhere to the
precaut|onary pr|nc|p|e.
108
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
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hoIas
1 Food secur|ty |s genera||y defned as cons|st|ng o our p|||ars: (|) ava||ab|||ty (|.e. the supp|y s|de o ood secur|ty,
resu|t|ng rom product|on, stocks and trade), (||) access (|n1uenced by |ncome, markets and pr|ces), (|||) ut|||zat|on
(re|ated to d|ets, ood preparat|on and conservat|on pract|ces), and (|v) stab|||ty (|.e. per|od|c shorta||s, 1uctuat|on
o supp|y). For more |normat|on, see |n|e| a||a FAO (2012a).
2 On the bas|s o current trends, carbon em|ss|ons w||| keep grow|ng by about 3 per cent per annum and at th|s rate
w||| reach the rema|n|ng em|ss|on ||m|t o 565 g|gatons to keep g|oba| warm|ng be|ow 2 degrees w|th|n no more
than 16 years. www.ro|||ngstone.com/po||t|cs/news/g|oba|-warm|ngs-terr|y|ng-new-math-20120719.
3 For more |normat|on, see |b|d.
4 Accord|ng to Fat|h B|ro|, the lEA's ch|e econom|st, the current trends are perect|y |n ||ne w|th a temperature
|ncrease o about 6 degrees |ater th|s century. lb|d.
5 G|oba| cerea| product|on vo|ume grew by 17 per cent and cerea| y|e|ds |ncreased by 6 per cent |n the per|od
1990/1991 to 2005/2006 (author's ca|cu|at|on, based on FAOSTAT).
6 For more |normat|on, see Keane et a|. (2009).
7 lt |s oten over|ooked that product|v|ty o outdoor workers |s bound to cons|derab|y dec||ne because o g|oba|
warm|ng. ln lnd|a, or |nstance, |t |s est|mated that product|v|ty o outdoor workers has a|ready dropped by 10 per
cent s|nce the ear|y 1980s and that another 2 degrees temperature |ncrease m|ght resu|t |n an add|t|ona| reduct|on
o 20 per cent (Pundgren, 2012).
8 For an overv|ew o recent s|gn|fcant c||mate anoma||es, see T|rado and Ootter (2010: 45).
9 The recent catastroph|c 1oods |n Pak|stan and the mass|ve orest and peat-so|| fres |n Puss|a are but two
|||ustrat|ve examp|es o the |mpact that can be expected. As the case o Pak|stan demonstrates, both the country
and the |nternat|ona| commun|ty are poor|y prepared to eect|ve|y cope w|th such extremes. Apart rom the d|re
consequences or uture agr|cu|tura| product|on, there |s a|so the r|sk o ser|ous destab|||zat|on o soc|ety and the
po||t|ca| system. Est|mates o the 1ood-caused econom|c damage are as h|gh as 20 per cent o Pak|stan's GDP.
10 lt |s est|mated that e|evated atmospher|c OO
2
concentrat|on a|one may |ncrease crop y|e|ds by some 1015 per
cent. Orops that tend to beneft rom the eect o carbon ert|||zat|on |nc|ude r|ce, wheat, soybeans, fne gra|ns,
|egumes, and most trees. Benefts or other crops, |nc|ud|ng ma|ze, m|||et, sorghum and sugarcane are more
||m|ted. However, these est|mates need to be cons|dered w|th utmost care, as other changes such as d|str|but|on
o prec|p|tat|on, e|evat|on o atmospher|c O
3
concentrat|on, enhanced demand or n|trogen, and |ncreases |n
temperature can make the y|e|d |ncreases h|gh|y uncerta|n (Sm|th et a|., 2007a: 25). See a|so the comment o
Hogy and Fangme|er |n th|s Ohapter.
11 The qua||ty o ood |s determ|ned by three e|ements: (|) ca|or|es (|.e. the energy content), (||) prote|ns, and (|||)
m|cro-nutr|ents.
12 Fru|t and vegetab|es are very va|uab|e or dea||ng w|th m|cronutr|ent defc|enc|es (the va|ue o g|oba| trade |n
vegetab|es, or |nstance, exceeds that o cerea|s). Yet, there |s |nsufc|ent know|edge and research on the eects
o c||mate change on ru|t and vegetab|e y|e|ds and qua||ty (FAO, 2012a).
13 lt |s est|mated that current|y about 30-40 per cent o the potent|a| g|oba| crop y|e|d |s destroyed by pathogens and
pests (Oerke, 2006).
14 Pes|||ence |s the capac|ty to absorb or cope w|th shocks and stresses. Adapt|ve capac|ty |s defned by over|app|ng
resources and ab|||t|es that can be emp|oyed to respond to and create changes (Naerstad, 2011: part ||, p. 33).
15 What makes the s|tuat|on |n Ar|ca, South As|a and Oentra| Amer|ca part|cu|ar|y precar|ous |s the act that the
popu|at|on o Ar|ca |s pro|ected to doub|e |n the per|od 2010-2050, that o South As|a and Oentra| Amer|ca to
|ncrease by more or somewhat |ess than 40 per cent (N/DESA, 2010).
16 O||mate change |s a|ready c|ear|y v|s|b|e. Accord|ng to the Wor|d Meteoro|og|ca| Organ|zat|on, the decade rom
2001 to 2010 had a g|oba| temperature that was 0.46
0
O above the 1961-1990 average, the h|ghest va|ue ever
recorded or a 10-year per|od. Warm|ng was espec|a||y strong |n Ar|ca, parts o As|a and the Arct|c, Oentra| As|a
and Green|and/Arct|c Oanada (WMO, 2010). Accord|ng to the g|oba| O||mate P|sk lndex (OPl), deve|oped by
Germanwatch and Mun|ch Pe NatOatSEP\lOE, the 10 most c||mate-r|sk-exposed countr|es |n the per|od 1990-
2009 were: Bang|adesh, Myanmar, Honduras, N|caragua, \|et Nam, Ha|t|, Ph|||pp|nes, Dom|n|can Pepub||c,
Mongo||a, and Ta||k|stan (the OPl re1ects both re|at|ve and abso|ute c||mate |mpact per country: or more |no see
www.germanwatch.org/k||ma/cr|.htm).
133
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
17 lt |s est|mated that a|ready by 2025 cont|nu|ng popu|at|on growth and current agr|cu|tura| pract|ces w||| |ack up
the number o countr|es that suer rom an acute scarc|ty o e|ther good crop|and or resh water rom 21 at the
moment to some 57, w|th a tota| popu|at|on o 2 b||||on. Water scarc|ty may be one o the most poweru| crop y|e|d
reducers |n the com|ng decades. (G|ovannucc| et a|., 2012: 22).
18 The econom|c s|gn|fcance o agr|cu|ture |n deve|op|ng countr|es |s usua||y under-est|mated when ||m|t|ng |t to
agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to GDP, because |arge parts o agr|cu|tura| product|on are |norma| and not part o the
monetary economy.
19 lt |s a|so worth not|ng that, or the frst t|me |n h|story, there are as many overwe|ght peop|e as undernour|shed.
The consequences o the emerg|ng d|etary hab|ts are on a d|sastrous tra|ectory or human and ecosystem hea|th.
Thereore, one a|so needs to target the qua||ty o nutr|t|on rather than s|mp|y "more product|on" (G|ovannucc| et
a|., 2012: |v and v|).
20 Accord|ng to FAO, Sub-Saharan Ar|ca has the h|ghest share o undernour|shed peop|e, some 30 per cent |n 2010,
whereas the As|a Pac|fc reg|on has the most undernour|shed peop|e (about 578 m||||on). Two-th|rds o the wor|d's
undernour|shed ||ve |n |ust 7 countr|es: Bang|adesh, Oh|na, the Democrat|c Pepub||c o Oongo, Eth|op|a, lnd|a,
lndones|a and Pak|stan (c|ted |n G|ovannucc| et a|., 2012: 6).
21 As h|gh||ghted by De Schutter and \an|oqueren (2011:38), "|arge, mechan|zed, mono-cropp|ng operat|ons
are more compet|t|ve than sma|| arms ., but compet|t|veness and product|v|ty are d|erent th|ngs. B|g arms
outperorm sma|| arms accord|ng to on|y one measure o econom|c efc|ency: product|v|ty per un|t o |abour".
Accord|ng to Tscharntke et a|. (2012: 54), "|t |s we|| estab||shed that sma|| and d|vers|fed arms rather than |arge
monocu|tures show greater product|v|ty per area, a phenomenon reerred to as the 'paradox o the sca|e' or the
'|nverse arm s|ze-product|v|ty re|at|onsh|p'."
22 See a|so lAASTD (2009a).
23 As emphas|zed by Naerstad (2011: part ll, p. 37), "so|| organ|c matter as humus can on|y be produced by the
d|vers|ty o ||e that ex|sts |n so||s - |t cannot be human-made. When the so|| organ|c matter recyc||ng and ert|||ty
serv|ce |s |mpa|red, a|| ||e on earth |s threatened, as a|| ||e |s e|ther d|rect|y or |nd|rect|y re||ant on p|ants and the|r
products, |nc|ud|ng the supp|y o ood, energy, nutr|ents, construct|on mater|a|s and genet|c resources".
24 lncreas|ng so|| organ|c matter by good management pract|ces |s genera||y synerg|st|c because |t captures
atmospher|c OO
2
, |ncreases so|| ert|||ty and |mproves the so|| structure or more res|||ence and better adaptat|on
to c||mate change (FAO, 2012a).
25 Th|s sect|on draws on fnd|ngs o Murphy and W|se (2012).
26 One response was the (vo|untary) Pr|nc|p|es or Pespons|b|e Agr|cu|tura| lnvestment (PPAl), deve|oped by the
secretar|ats (not the member countr|es) o the Wor|d Bank, FAO and NOTAD, wh|ch have been w|de|y cr|t|c|zed
as ar too weak (Murphy and W|se, 2011: 31). ln May 2012, the FAO's Oomm|ttee on Wor|d Food Secur|ty (OFS)
endorsed The \o|untary Gu|de||nes on the Pespons|b|e Governance o Tenure o Land, F|sher|es and Forests
|n the Oontext o Nat|ona| Food Secur|ty, wh|ch out||ne pr|nc|p|es and pract|ces that governments can reer to
when mak|ng |aws and adm|n|ster|ng |and, fsher|es and orests r|ghts. The gu|de||nes are based on an |nc|us|ve
consu|tat|on process started by FAO |n 2009 and then fna||zed through OFS-|ed |ntergovernmenta| negot|at|ons
that |nc|uded part|c|pat|on o government ofc|a|s, c|v|| soc|ety organ|zat|ons, pr|vate sector representat|ves,
|nternat|ona| organ|zat|ons and academ|cs. The a|m o the gu|de||nes |s to promote ood secur|ty and susta|nab|e
deve|opment by |mprov|ng secure access to |and, fsher|es and orests and protect|ng the r|ghts o m||||ons o
oten very poor peop|e. Wh||e the gu|de||nes acknow|edge that respons|b|e |nvestments by the pub||c and pr|vate
sectors are essent|a| or |mprov|ng ood secur|ty, they a|so recommend that saeguards be put |n p|ace to protect
tenure r|ghts o |oca| peop|e rom r|sks that cou|d ar|se rom |arge-sca|e |and acqu|s|t|ons, and a|so to protect
human r|ghts, ||ve||hoods, ood secur|ty and the env|ronment (or more |normat|on, see http://www.ao.org/news/
story/en/|tem/142587/|code). As the gu|de||nes were on|y adopted |n m|d-2012, |t |s as yet too ear|y to |udge
whether they w||| have a rea| |mpact on eect|ve|y govern|ng ex|st|ng and new ore|gn |and acqu|s|t|ons.
27 For an e|aborate d|scuss|on, see Naerstad (2011).
28 For a recent |n-depth rev|ew, see: German Nat|ona| Academy o Sc|ences Leopo|d|na (2012).
29 For an e|aborate d|scuss|on, see: FAO (2011a).
30 The lPOO (2007a) suggests 1012 per cent, the OEOD suggests 14 per cent (Legg and Huang, 2010), and the
Wor|d Pesources lnst|tute (WPl, undated) suggests 14.9 per cent.
31 F|gures used or the ca|cu|at|ons were: (a) an average |oss o 4.5-6 kg o SOM/m
2
o arab|e |and and 23 kg o
134
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
SOM/m
2
o agr|cu|tura| |and under pra|r|es and not cu|t|vated, (b) an average so|| depth o 30 cm, w|th an average
so|| dens|ty o 1 gr/cm
3
, (c) 5,000 m||||on ha o agr|cu|tura| |and wor|dw|de and 1,800 m||||on ha o arab|e |and
(FAOSTAT, 2002-2004), and (d) a rat|o o 1.46 kg o OO
2
or each kg o destroyed SOM .
32 Th|s conc|us|on |s based on the assumpt|on that organ|c matter wou|d be |ncorporated at a g|oba| annua| average
rate o 3.5 to 5 tons per hectare o agr|cu|tura| |and. For more deta||ed ca|cu|at|ons, see GPAlN, 2009, tab|e 2.
33 Agroeco|og|ca| research comb|nes modern sc|ence w|th |oca| know|edge. ln Oentra| Amer|ca, or |nstance, the
coee groves that grow under h|gh canopy trees were |mproved by |dent|y|ng the opt|ma| shade cond|t|ons or
m|n|m|z|ng the ent|re pest comp|ex and max|m|z|ng the benefc|a| m|cro1ora and auna, wh|ch |mproved y|e|d
and coee qua||ty. Such good pract|ces are deve|oped through a tr|a|-and-error process by coee-growers, but
|dent|y|ng cond|t|ons or success |n order to promote the|r d|ssem|nat|on may beneft rom the know|edge o
experts (Staver et a|., 2001).
34 The 79 per cent fgure re|ates to the 360 re||ab|e-y|e|d compar|sons rom 198 pro|ects, but the resu|ts were w|de
rang|ng, w|th 25 per cent o the pro|ects report|ng a 100 per cent |ncrease or more.
35 However, |t shou|d be po|nted out that not a|| these pro|ects comp|y u||y w|th the pr|nc|p|es o agroeco|ogy.
36 Pesearch on agroorestry |n Zamb|a does not support "the popu|ar not|on that agroorestry pract|ces are more
|abour |ntens|ve" (A|ay| et a|., 2009: 279).
37 See: www.c||mateundsupdate.org.
38 Accord|ng to the lPOO, an atmospher|c OO
2
concentrat|on o 550 ppm w||| |ead to a 3O r|se |n g|oba| average
temperatures.
39 O
3
|s a metabo||c pathway or carbon fxat|on |n photosynthes|s, convert|ng OO
2
and r|bu|ose b|sphosphate (PuBP)
|nto two 3-carbon mo|ecu|es o 3-phosphog|ycerate (3-PGA).
40 O
4
|s a metabo||c pathway or carbon fxat|on |n photosynthes|s, wh|ch fxes OO
2
to phosphoeno| pyruvate (PEP)
and converts |t |nto the 4-carbon |ntermed|ate ma|ate.
41 The who|e paper can be down|oaded at tp://tp.ao.org/docrep/ao/011/ak355e/ak355e00.pd.
42 Statements by Feed the Future ofc|a|s are revea||ng: they reer to the "d|scovery and de||very" o "breakthrough"
techno|og|es, requent|y ment|on|ng b|otechno|ogy rather than agroeco|og|ca| approaches. See statements
by SDA Secretary Tom \||sack at:http://www.amer|ca.gov/st/deve|op-eng||sh/2010/May/20100521164320
ak||ennoccm1.705134e-02.htm|, SAlD D|rector Pa||v Shah at: http://www.usa|d.gov/press/re|eases/2010/
pr100616.htm|, and Monsanto Oorporat|on at: http://www.amer|ca.gov/st/deve|op-eng||sh/2010/Ju|y/2010072
2113758cpataruk0.2630579.htm|&d|st|d~ucs. See a|so Gates Foundat|on at: http://www.gatesoundat|on.org/
agr|cu|tura|deve|opment/Pages/why-we-und-research-|n-crop-b|otechno|ogy.aspx.
43 Th|s SAlD programme partners w|th b|otechno|ogy |ndustry |eaders such as Monsanto, Mayco and Bayer. For
deta||s, see: http://www.absp2.corne||.edu/.
44 A toe |s a common un|t o energy, wh|ch expresses the amount o energy re|eased when a ton o o|| |s burnt (1 toe
~ 42 GJ ~ 11 MWh ~ 10 Gca|).
45 Water pump|ng consumes cons|derab|e energy.
46 Soybeans can be grown w|thout n|trogen ert|||zers as they have natura| n|trogen fxat|on propert|es, wh|ch |s the
ma|n reason or the|r |ower energy demand.
47 Wh||e there were a|so other actors dr|v|ng the |ncrease |n ood pr|ces, such as the d|vers|on o some crops or the
product|on o b|oue|s, |ncreased meat consumpt|on and specu|at|on, the h|gher o|| pr|ce was doubt|ess a ma|or
dr|ver.
48 The |ntroduct|on o energy-sav|ng stoves or the use o other ue|s that are eas|er to regu|ate shou|d be a pr|or|ty, not
on|y or the conservat|on o orests and sav|ng o energy, but a|so because the trad|t|ona| stoves em|t cons|derab|e
|ndoor soot and smoke, wh|ch are a hea|th hazard and one o the b|ggest k|||ers. Between 1.5 m||||on (WHO, 2006)
and 4 m||||on (P|mente| et a|., 1998) peop|e d|e rom these em|ss|ons every year.
49 Assum|ng that the armers can save the|r ent|re surp|us, wh|ch |s h|gh|y un||ke|y.
50 See: http://www.ao.org/wor|doods|tuat|on/ws-home/oodpr|ces|ndex/en/.
51 See: O-gr|d systems, at: www.energy-so|ut|ons.co.uk/o-gr|d/.
135
1. Key Deve|opment Oha||enges o a Fundamenta| Transormat|on o Agr|cu|ture
52 See L|ght|ng Ar|ca, Oata|yz|ng markets or modern ||ght|ng, at: www.||ght|ngar|ca.org/.
53 See: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Dust/.
54 Th|s paper draws heav||y rom a 2010 art|c|e by the authors ent|t|ed, Oompet|t|on or Water or the Food System,
pub||shed |n ||||csco||ca| 7|ansac||cns c/ ||e Pc,a| Scc|e|,. 5|c|c|ca| Sc|ences, 365(1554): 27653097.
55 A thorough d|scuss|on o these and other so|ut|ons |s prov|ded |n severa| comprehens|ve reports (e.g. lWMl,
2007).
56 The re|at|onsh|p between popu|at|on, water and ood product|on has been exp|ored |n depth by a number o
authors (see, or examp|e, G|e|ck, 1996, P|mente| et a|., 1997, Poste|, 1998, \orosmarty et a|., 2000, T||man et a|.,
2001, and lWMl, 2007).
57 Note that th|s paper does not cons|der threats to agr|cu|tura| w|thdrawa|s rom groundwater resources that are not
d|rect|y ||nked to surace water systems, as these resources are un||ke|y to serve as a v|ab|e subst|tute or surace
water |n uture years. ln many reg|ons o the wor|d, groundwater reserves have dec||ned to the po|nt where we||
y|e|ds have a||en dramat|ca||y, |and has subs|ded, and aqu|er sa||n|zat|on has occurred (Kon|kow and Kendy,
2005). As the g|oba| demand or groundwater cont|nues to |ncrease, groundwater tab|es and we|| y|e|ds w|||
dec||ne more rap|d|y, reduc|ng surace water runo and orc|ng those that re|y on groundwater resources to seek
new sources. Both w||| have negat|ve eects on the ava||ab|||ty o water or agr|cu|ture.
58 ln th|s paper, our oca| "geopo||t|ca| reg|ons" are Europe, Ar|ca, North Amer|ca, As|a, Lat|n Amer|ca and the
Oar|bbean, and Ocean|a. W|th|n Europe, we a|so ocus on the European n|on, north-western Europe, the n|ted
K|ngdom, and the ormer Sov|et n|on. Sub-Saharan Ar|ca and the N||e P|ver bas|n are reported or Ar|ca, and |n
As|a, we report fnd|ngs or Oh|na and lnd|a. F|na||y, we |dent|y |mpacts on Braz||.
59 Fo||ow|ng W|nter et a|. (1998), we assume that reg|ona| groundwater w|thdrawa|s dep|ete r|ver bas|n runo and
thereore |mp||c|t|y cons|der subsurace water |n our mode|||ng exerc|se. lt must be noted that th|s ana|ys|s may
underest|mate threats to agr|cu|ture, or two reasons: (|) we make these compar|sons re|at|ve to current agr|cu|tura|
demands rather than the expected h|gher demands o 2050, and (||) we do not cons|der the eects o drought
or |ncreased extreme events. On the other hand, the ana|ys|s may overest|mate threats because we mode|
w|thdrawa|s rather than consumpt|ve use and thus do not account or reuse o return 1ows.
60 Measurements were taken |n 10 p|ots o pass|on ru|t |n m|xed cropp|ng systems |n each o two d|erent areas o
the Oentra| and Western Prov|nces o Kenya.
61 For urther |normat|on, see: www.4c-coeeassoc|at|on.org/our-serv|ces/work-on-c||mate-change.htm|.
62 See: www.grow|ngortheuture.com/content/Ooo|FarmToo|.
63 For a more deta||ed d|scuss|on o the deve|opment o ood supp|y cha|ns |n |ow-|ncome countr|es and emerg|ng
econom|es, see Parftt, Barthe| and Macnaughton, 2010.
64 See: www.wp.org/purchase-progress.
65 ln some E countr|es (e.g. Germany), abso|ute expend|ture on ood has rema|ned constant s|nce the 1960s.
66 See, or examp|e: www.neweconom|cs.org/pub||cat|ons/|nconven|ent-sandw|ch.
67 Further |normat|on about the P|atorm's v|ews |n Eng||sh, see: www.d|e-bessere-agrarpo||t|k.de/Eng||sh-
documents.1024.0.htm|.
68 See a|so: www.esa.europa.eu/en/top|cs/top|c/amr.htm?wtr|~01.
69 The SANOO study c|ted Anderson (2008).
70 See a|so, Stockho|m Pes|||ence Oentre, Stockho|m n|vers|ty, T|pp|ng towards the unknown, at: www.
stockho|mres|||ence.org/p|anetary-boundar|es.
71 Pegu|at|on (EO) No 178/2002, |ay|ng down the genera| pr|nc|p|es and requ|rements o ood |aw, estab||sh|ng the
European Food Saety Author|ty and |ay|ng down procedures |n matters o ood saety, http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/
hea|th_consumer/||brary/pub/pub06_en.pd.
72 Art|c|e 7 o Pegu|at|on EO 178/2002 "orma||y estab||shes the precaut|onary Pr|nc|p|e as an opt|on open to r|sk
managers when dec|s|ons have to be made to protect hea|th but sc|ent|fc |normat|on concern|ng the r|sk |s
|nconc|us|ve or |ncomp|ete |n some way.". See: http://ec.europa.eu/ood/ood/ood|aw/precaut|onary/|ndex_
en.htm, http://eur-|ex.europa.eu/Lexr|Serv/Lexr|Serv.do?ur|~OOM:2000:0001:FlN:EN:PDF.
73 For more deta||s, see: Guenther and W|||, 2007.
138
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Absl|acl
To opt|m|ze the |nterre|at|onsh|p between the g|oba| c||mate and catt|e and max|m|ze the |atter's contr|bu-
t|on to g|oba| ood secur|ty, the o||ow|ng steps need to be taken:
More research on grass|and management a|med at opt|m|z|ng |ts capac|ty to serve as a carbon s|nk.
More support or graz|ng.
Land-use change shou|d be brought under str|ct contro|, |nc|ud|ng that re|ated to |mported an|ma|
eed.
L|vestock product|on shou|d have a stronger ||nk to the reg|ona| eed base.
Load Art|c|o: L|vL51OCK ODUC1|ON AND |OOD 5LCU|1Y
|N A CON1LX1 O| CL|MA1L CHANGL, AND
LNv|ONMLN1AL AND HLAL1H CHALLLNGL5
Au|la lde|, lede|al|ou ol Ce|mau Sc|eul|sls aud Tob|as Re|che|l, Ce|mauwalch
Preva|||ng trends towards urther |ndustr|a||zat|on o
agr|cu|ture, a|ong w|th |and|ess, |arge-sca|e ||vestock
product|on, are ||ke|y to contr|bute to an |ncrease |n
greenhouse gas (GHG) em|ss|ons by more than a
th|rd t||| 2030. Accord|ng to the 4th lPOO Assessment
Peport, "W|thout add|t|ona| po||c|es, agr|cu|tura|
N
2
O [n|trous ox|de] and OH
4
[methane] em|ss|ons
are pro|ected to |ncrease by 35-60% and 60%,
respect|ve|y, to 2030, thus |ncreas|ng more rap|d|y
than the 14% |ncrease o non-OO
2
GHG observed
rom 1990 to 2005" (lPOO, 2007: 63).
There |s a tendency to |gnore the need to reduce
meat consumpt|on as we|| as to |mp|ement a |ega|
ramework or susta|nab|e product|on methods to
address the|r med|um and |ong-term eects on
c||mate, env|ronment and an|ma| we|are.
1
lndustr|a|
||vestock product|on shou|d be curbed so that the tota|
stock o ra|sed an|ma|s such as catt|e, p|gs, ch|ckens
and sheep |s reduced and the consumpt|on o an|ma|
eed shou|d be commensurate w|th susta|nab|e
|oca| product|on potent|a|. Peduced consumpt|on o
an|ma| products |s a part|cu|ar cha||enge or those
countr|es where an|ma| prote|n consumpt|on |s h|gh
represent|ng a a|se mode| o |mag|nary prosper|ty.
The act that an |ncreas|ng number o peop|e are
becom|ng vegans may he|p (|n terms o the reduced
demand or an|ma| prote|n and energy-r|ch ood),
but "to conc|ude that a vegan agr|cu|tura| and ood
system wou|d be the preerab|e so|ut|on, |s ar too
s|mp||st|c" (Garnet, 2010, Fa|r||e, 2010, D'S||va and
Webster, 2010).

Over the past ew decades, eed|ng systems have
turned more and more rom be|ng |oca|/reg|ona| to
g|oba|, the bas|c source o odder |s |ess and |ess the
arm |tse|. The resu|t|ng prob|em o expans|on and
|ntens|fcat|on o ||vestock product|on |s assoc|ated
w|th the sh|t rom a eed system based on grass
and p|ant rema|ns to one based ma|n|y on crops,
even or rum|nants. However, the ma|or |ssue |s not
whether ||vestock |s the wor|d's |argest user o |and,
but rather how the |and and ||vestock are managed.
Wh||e susta|nab|e and an|ma|-r|end|y systems are
character|zed by areas/space or outdoor keep|ng
and graz|ng, |ndustr|a| an|ma| rear|ng |s character|zed
as |and|ess. Thus the data |nd|cat|ng ||vestock as
the wor|d's |argest user o |and are average va|ues
that a|so |nc|ude a re|evant part o susta|nab|y used
grass|ands.
The |ntens|fcat|on o ||vestock systems, and
espec|a||y eed|ng systems, has gone hand |n hand
w|th more spec|a||zat|on and rat|ona||zat|on, thereby
creat|ng ||vestock systems that are |ncreas|ng|y
dependent on energy |nput and ore|gn odder
139
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
res|dues as an|ma| eed that cannot be d|rect|y
used or human consumpt|on, and
se manure as ert|||zer on grass|ands and
crop|ands.
Th|s requ|res a move rom the ex|st|ng one-s|ded
or|entat|on and se|ect|on a|med at max|mum
perormance o both crops and ||vestock, towards a
more ho||st|c v|ew that promotes |nteract|ons and the
product|v|ty o the system as a who|e. Furthermore,
|t |s |mperat|ve to reduce the env|ronmenta|, hea|th
and c||mate-re|ated |mpacts rom the mass|ve use
o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zers, and promote the use
o an|ma| excrement as natura| ert|||zer. D|scard|ng
the |atter and defn|ng |t as waste const|tutes a huge
|oss o nutr|ents and m|nera|s (s|m||ar to post-harvest
|osses o ood).
3

The susta|nab|e product|on o ood o an|ma| or|g|n
requ|res the deve|opment o cooperat|on on a
reg|ona| |eve|, as we|| as cooperat|on between sma||
and med|um-s|zed arms and pastora||sts. There
|s a s|gn|fcant untapped potent|a| or susta|nab|e
grass|and and rum|nant management, |nc|ud|ng
the|r use by pastora||sts. The |mportance o work|ng
an|ma|s has a|so been underest|mated. Yet they are
part|cu|ar|y useu| |n the context o peak o||, wh|ch
|eads to h|gher costs o mechan|zat|on. However, the|r
eect|ve ut|||zat|on needs to be opt|m|zed at the |oca|
|eve|, |n part|cu|ar as regards eed se|ect|on, r|ght o
passage
4
and the unct|ona||ty o most|y |nadequate
equ|pment.
A. EIIacIs oI |naxpans|va anargy and
n|Irogan IarI|||tars
The ava||ab|||ty o cheap oss|| ue| has dr|ven the
expans|on o an|ma| ood product|on (|.e. the mast o
catt|e, p|gs and ch|ckens as we|| as the product|on
o m||k and eggs) (see the comments o Pundgren |n
chapter 1 and He|nberg |n chapter 5 o th|s Pev|ew).
Th|s concerns the product|on, process|ng and
transportat|on o an|ma| products as we|| as p|ant
and equ|pment. The eco|og|ca|, c||mat|c and soc|o-
econom|c prob|ems resu|t|ng rom |ntens|ve an|ma|
husbandry and the re|ated an|ma| we|are v|o|at|ons
ana|ysed |n th|s art|c|e are |arge|y the resu|t o the
amp|e ava||ab|||ty o |nexpens|ve energy.
5
Energy or the product|on o cheap synthet|c n|trogen
ert|||zer |s the ma|n contr|but|ng actor |n the expans|on
and |ntens|fcat|on o an|ma| product|on. H|gher
n|trogen ert|||zer use becomes the |ead|ng dr|ver o the
sources. The grow|ng demand or such eed has |ed
to a huge demand or |and, wh|ch |s a cruc|a| actor
- |ead|ng to |and-grabb|ng and |and convers|on,
|nc|ud|ng the deorestat|on o ra|norests. On|y ||tt|e
by ||tt|e |s a w|der pub||c rea||z|ng |n the context o
|and-grabb|ng that there |s a huge demand or |and
|n the South resu|t|ng ma|n|y rom demand or an|ma|
eed |n the North. ln a recent study, von W|tzke and
No|eppa (2011) est|mate that |n order to produce
those agr|cu|tura| products that were |mported by
the European n|on (E) |n 2007-2008, 53 m||||on
hectares (ha) o arab|e |and were used |n other parts
o the wor|d. The E, on the other hand, used on|y 18
m||||on ha or products |t exported dur|ng that per|od.
As a resu|t, the E |mports "v|rtua| |and" |n the order
o 35 m||||on ha. Th|s represents a th|rd o the 105
m||||on ha used |n the E as arab|e |and. The s|ng|e
b|ggest actor that contr|butes to th|s |mba|ance |s
the |mport o soy, wh|ch uses 18 m||||on ha outs|de
the E, ma|n|y |n Lat|n Amer|ca (see be|ow). Th|s
spat|a| separat|on o |ndustr|a| ||vestock systems rom
eed crop product|on |s c|ear|y ||nked w|th |ess r|g|d
env|ronmenta| regu|at|ons (Nay|or et a|., 2005).
Greater standard|zat|on and spec|a||zat|on |n |ndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture |s c|ose|y re|ated to the de-||nk|ng o crop
and ||vestock product|on. Th|s separat|on causes
h|gher energy and ert|||zer consumpt|on, wh|ch wh||e
|ncreas|ng the sca|e o product|on and y|e|ds, both
o crops and ||vestock, g|ves r|se to enormous r|sks
such as pest |nestat|on and d|seases. The preva|||ng
system o |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on w|th |ts
spec|fc breed|ng, eed|ng and genera| husbandry
pract|ces |eads to ever |arger numbers o an|ma|s
be|ng sub|ected to enormous and |rrespons|b|e
perormance and rear|ng stress.
lrrespect|ve o the an|ma| protect|on aspect, the
concept o "b|osecur|ty" |n ||vestock product|on can
be cons|dered a a||ure. Th|s |s because the attempt to
treat |ow |mmun|ty and the |ncreas|ng threat o |nect|on
by an ever |ncreas|ng use o drugs and d|s|nectants
g|ves r|se to res|stance prob|ems, the |nev|tab|e
se|ect|on o dangerous m|crobes and a|arm|ng |eve|s
o res|dues |n water, so||, ood and an|ma| eed.
2
A susta|nab|e approach requ|res a drast|c reduct|on o
|ndustr|a| an|ma| eed product|on and a concom|tant
dec||ne |n the product|on o an|ma| products. lnstead
o rep|ac|ng the product|on o human ood by
an|ma| eed, an|ma| and crop product|on shou|d be
re|ntegrated |n order to:
se the nutr|ents conta|ned |n grass and harvest|ng
140
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|ncreases |n agr|cu|tura| product|on |n genera|. lts use
has |ncreased e|ghto|d |n the past 40 years (fgure 1),
wh||e g|oba| cerea| product|on has scarce|y doub|ed.
The st||| |ncreas|ng amount o synthet|c N ert|||zer use
|s not on|y out o sca|e but |s compensab|e by organ|c
methods as an|ma| ert|||zer and compost as we|| as
|egumes |n crop rotat|on. The |ncrease |n synthet|c N
ert|||zer use, through |ts d|rect and |nd|rect eects, |s
respons|b|e or the b|ggest contr|but|on o agr|cu|ture
to c||mate change. ln the product|on o synthet|c
n|trogen ert|||zer (through the Haber-Bosch process)
6

some 5 tons o carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
) are re|eased per
ton o ammon|a, (He||ebrand and Scho|z, 2005) and
25 per cent o the n|trogen ert|||zer app||ed to the so||
|s re|eased as n|trous ox|de (N
2
O), wh|ch has a g|oba|
warm|ng potent|a| 296 t|mes h|gher than that o OO
2
.
Some ammon|a (NH
3
) |s a|so re|eased (Sutton et a|.,
2011, see be|ow).
7
Over the past ew years, ||vestock systems, have
been |dent|fed as the ma|n contr|butor to agr|cu|tura|
GHG em|ss|ons. One cr|t|ca| aspect |s the |ncrease
|n the tota| number o ||vestock. However, the extent
o GHGs em|tted depends on the g|ven agr|cu|tura|
system. The system boundar|es are key determ|nants
o the resu|t|ng data concern|ng the GHG ba|ance.
Thereore, transparency regard|ng these system
boundar|es |s a necessary cond|t|on or compar|ng
the resu|ts o d|erent stud|es. S|nce these boundar|es
are oten e|ther not c|ear|y defned or set |nadequate|y,
most o the ava||ab|e stud|es are o ||m|ted ana|yt|ca|
va|ue and are hard|y comparab|e.
As monocu|tures or an|ma| eed cover a|most 40 per
cent o the g|oba| crop|and, and an|ma| eed absorbs
v|rtua||y ha| o g|oba| cerea| product|on, ||vestock |s
the ma|n dr|ver o c||mate change rom agr|cu|ture.
8

ln other words, the susta|nab|||ty or |ntens|ty o
eed|ng systems |s key to the GHG ba|ance o g|ven
agr|cu|tura| systems (Schu|ze et a|., 2009). Schu|ze
et a|. be||eve that the damage caused by N
2
O as
ca|cu|ated by the lntergovernmenta| Pane| on O||mate
Ohange (lPOO) |s an underest|mat|on, and suggest
doub||ng the damage actor at the very |east.
The h|gh energy and ert|||zer |nputs |n |ntens|ve
||vestock product|on have the o||ow|ng |mpacts, apart
rom the d|rect and |nd|rect |mpacts on c||mate:
The econom|es o sca|e assoc|ated w|th the non-
|nterna||zat|on o eco|og|ca|, soc|a|, hea|th and
c||mate costs a||ow cheap mass product|on o
an|ma| eed based on monocropp|ng w|thout crop
rotat|on.
The wor|dw|de ava||ab|||ty o |nexpens|ve
concentrate eed a||ows the rampant expans|on
o the number o an|ma|s, |ndependent rom the
|oca||y ava||ab|e an|ma| eed supp|y.
Synthet|c ert|||zers and pest|c|des subst|tute or
crop rotat|on, |nc|ud|ng the green ert|||zers and
|egumes requ|red or n|trogen enr|chment o the
F|gura 1: wor|d IarI|||tar consumpI|on, 1960-Z006
Sc0|ce: Poya| Soc|ety, 2009 (c|t|ng FAO, Fert|||zer, 2009).
1
9
6
0

-
1
9
7
0

-
1
9
8
0

-
1
9
9
0

-
2
0
0
0

-
2
0
1
0

-
10 -
9 -
8 -
7 -
6 -
5 -
4 -
3 -
2 -
1 -
All fertilizers (1961=31.2 Mt)
R
a
t
i
o

(
1
9
6
1
=
1
)
Nitrogenous fertilizers (1961=11.6 Mt)
141
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
so||. As a resu|t, the arm's |nterna| supp|y o an|ma|
eed |s drast|ca||y reduced.
W|th mount|ng numbers o ||vestock, the vo|ume o
an|ma| excrements (aeces and ur|ne) drast|ca||y soars.
Most o the prote|ns ed to ||vestock |n the E or|g|nate
rom countr|es |n South Amer|ca, but the excrements
are produced |n European countr|es. At the same
t|me, however, excrements |ose the|r |mportance as
natura| ert|||zers because o the h|gh use o m|nera|
ert|||zers on the fe|ds. For decades, research has
been ocus|ng on how to use synthet|c n|trogen
ert|||zers more efc|ent|y. Due to the contam|nat|on o
the excrements w|th an|ma|-adm|n|stered drugs and
d|s|nectants, they pose a huge d|sposa| prob|em.
As excrements are used |ess and |ess as natura|
ert|||zers, re|ated sk|||s d|m|n|sh and research on th|s
sub|ect |s no |onger done. A common way o gett|ng
r|d o s|urry |s to dump |t on pasture |ands oten
as a k|nd o waste d|sposa| wh|ch great|y reduces
pasture qua||ty.
9

8ox 1: kay hnd|ngs oI Iha Europaan h|Irogan AssassmanI
The European N|trogen Assessment (ENA), |mp|emented |n the 6th E Pesearch Framework Programme, ocuses on
the |mp||cat|ons o the mount|ng use o n|trogen ert|||zers |n agr|cu|ture (Sutton et a|., 2011). The authors o the Assess-
ment rev|ewed the d|rect connect|on between |nexpens|ve energy and the product|on o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zer. The
Assessment recommends more research on the |nterp|ay between the carbon and n|trogen cyc|es and the|r |mpact on
so|| ert|||ty, c||mate and the ecosystem.
ln the techn|ca| summary o the Assessment, Sutton and B|||en (2011:XXX\), emphas|ze that "the de||berate product|on
and re|ease o N(r) [react|ve n|trogen] |n the Haber-Bosch process can be cons|dered as perhaps the greatest s|ng|e
exper|ment |n g|oba| geo-eng|neer|ng that humans have ever made. (.) What was not ant|c|pated was that th|s exper|-
ment wou|d |ead to a 'n|trogen |nher|tance' o un|ntended consequences w|th N(r) |eak|ng |nto the env|ronment |n mu|t|p|e
orms, caus|ng an even |arger number o env|ronmenta| eects."
The Assessment ocuses on "fve key soc|eta| threats" rom excess n|trogen use, |n terms o |ts |mpact on water qua||ty,
a|r qua||ty, greenhouse ba|ance, ecosystems and b|od|vers|ty. The authors state that "the understand|ng o N cyc||ng has
undergone a parad|gm sh|t s|nce 1990. nt|| then, the percept|on was that: (1) N(r) m|nera||zat|on |s the ||m|t|ng step
|n N cyc||ng, (2) p|ants on|y take up |norgan|c N(r), and (3) p|ants compete poor|y or N(r) aga|nst m|crobes and use
on|y the N(r) wh|ch |s '|et over' by m|crobes. S|nce then stud|es have shown that p|ants compete eect|ve|y or N(r) w|th
m|cro-organ|sms and take up organ|c N |n a broad range o ecosystems" (Sutton and B|||en, 2011: XXX\ll). The authors
a|so po|nt out that t||| 1990 the |mpress|on that p|ants on|y take up |norgan|c N(r) demonstrates how |ndustr|a||zat|on o
agr|cu|ture has |n1uenced research and extens|on serv|ces |n a one-s|ded way, and has eroded the |mportance o re|ated
|oca| arm|ng know|edge.
The authors h|gh||ght how ||tt|e that "parad|gm sh|t" has been taken |nto account |n adv|sory and counse|||ng serv|ces.
They note, "ln cerea| arm|ng, the use o on|y m|nera| N(r) ert|||zers, |nstead o an|ma| manures or composts, as we|| as
the s|mp||fcat|on o the crop rotat|on scheme that th|s had made poss|b|e, has |n some cases resu|ted |n a dec||ne o
so|| organ|c matter. ln the |ong-term th|s pract|ce o us|ng on|y m|nera| ert|||zer has decreased the buer capac|ty o the
so|| towards |norgan|c N |nputs, thus |ncreas|ng |ts propens|ty to N |each|ng." They add that "n|trogen-enr|ched terrest|a|
ecosystems |ose s|gn|fcant amounts o N v|a n|trate |each|ng and gaseous em|ss|ons (N
2
, N
2
O, NO, NH
3
) to the env|ron-
ment. Est|mates o den|tr|fcat|on to N
2
rema|n h|gh|y uncerta|n, due to d|fcu|t|es |n measurement and a h|gh degree o
tempora| and spat|a| var|ab|||ty. There rema|n substant|a| uncerta|nt|es |n the average ract|on o N(r) app||ed to fe|ds that
|s em|tted as N
2
O, rang|ng rom 1% to 3,5-4,5% o ert|||zer N app||ed, us|ng bottom-up and top-down est|mates, respec-
t|ve|y." And regard|ng ammon|ac, the authors conc|ude: "Further research |s needed to better understand the re|at|ve
contr|but|on o d|rect and |nd|rect N
2
O em|ss|ons." (Sutton and B|||en, 2011:XXX\lll).
How |neect|ve enorcement and |mp|ementat|on o ex|st|ng n|trogen and re|ated E d|rect|ves
a
have been becomes
apparent |n the authors' summary: "Europe (E-27) |s a hot spot |n th|s sense, produc|ng 10% o g|oba| anthropogen|c
N(r) even though |ts surace covers |ess than 3% o the tota| wor|d cont|nenta| area." (Sutton and B|||en, 2011: XXX\). The
authors a|so cr|t|c|ze the |ow procurement costs: "(...) the |ow pr|ce o N(r) ert|||ser, comb|ned w|th |ts c|ear benefts to
agr|cu|tura| product|on, does not prov|de a strong |ncent|ve or armers to use |ess than the (pr|vate) econom|c opt|mum"
(Sutton and B|||en, 2011: XXX\l).
Sc0|ce: (Sutton et a|., 2011).
Nc|e:
a
For |nstance, N|trates D|rect|ve, Water Framework D|rect|ve, Groundwater D|rect|ve, Amb|ent A|r Qua||ty
D|rect|ve, Nat|ona| Em|ss|ons Oe|||ngs D|rect|ve, rban Waste Water Treatment D|rect|ve, Mar|ne Strategy
Framework D|rect|ve, lntegrated Po||ut|on and Oontro| (lPPO) and Hab|tats D|rect|ve.
142
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Through econom|es o sca|e, arms where ||vestock
product|on |s st||| based on arm-generated eed come
under |ncreas|ng econom|c pressure. lndustr|a| mega-
arms or arms that are much |arger than the reg|ona|
average dr|ve th|s trend (see a|so the commentary o
Ostendor |n th|s chapter).
8. 8usIa|nab|||Iy raqu|ras a naW dahn|I|on
oI Iha Iarms producI|v|Iy and groWIh
The convent|ona| approach to agr|cu|tura| growth
a|ms at |ncreas|ng crop y|e|ds per hectare, tak|ng |nto
account the costs o procured |nputs such as energy,
ert|||zer, pest|c|des and |abour. Th|s ca|cu|at|on a||s to
cons|der not on|y the externa||zed costs (damage to
so||, water bod|es and a|r po||ut|on through res|dues
and contam|nat|on, as we|| as the soc|a| |mp||cat|ons),
but a|so the dec||ne |n so|| ert|||ty through so|| eros|on,
compact|on and n|tr|fcat|on a deve|opment that has
not yet been u||y apprec|ated because o the amp|e
ava||ab|||ty o cheap synthet|c ert|||zers (Troeh, Hobbs
and Donahue, 1991). For examp|e, armers |n the
n|ted States app|y ert|||zers worth about $20 b||||on
annua||y to oset the eects o so|| nutr|ent |oss due to
so|| eros|on (Troeh et a|., 1991).
There |s a dep|orab|e prob|em o percept|on, because
eorts to strengthen |ntens|ve agr|cu|tura| product|on
and |ncrease y|e|ds through enhanced use o
synthet|c ert|||zers g|ve the wrong |mpress|on that
the product|on o an|ma| eed |s not |n compet|t|on
w|th ood product|on. The negat|ve |mpacts o the
enhanced use o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zers are
not taken |nto account, and re|ated costs rema|n
externa||zed. Accord|ng to the European N|trogen
Assessment (Sutton et a|., 2011), the tota| costs o
n|trogen po||ut|on o water, the atmosphere, and other
|mpacts on ecosystems and c||mate change are
est|mated to be between 670 b||||on and 6320 b||||on
per annum (|.e. 61506736 per person per year), wh|ch
|s more than tw|ce the monetary benefts der|ved rom
n|trogen |n agr|cu|ture.
Between 1961 and 2009 the number o an|ma|s reared
or meat and da|ry product|on |ncreased rap|d|y.
Accord|ng to the FAO (FAOSTAT, 2011), |n 2009 a tota|
amount o 1.38 b||||on heads o catt|e and bua|o were
reared g|oba||y the number doub|ed dur|ng the |ast
50 years. Dur|ng the same per|od, the number o p|gs
more than doub|ed, rom 406 m||||on to 941 m||||on.
The number o ch|ckens grew the most dramat|ca||y:
a|most fveo|d, rom 3.8 b||||on to 18.6 b||||on. S|nce
not on|y the number o an|ma|s |ncreased, but a|so
the average we|ght per an|ma|, meat product|on rose
at an even aster rate: bee product|on more than
doub|ed, to 62.8 b||||on tons |n 2009, pork product|on
quadrup|ed, to 106.3 b||||on tons, and ch|cken meat
product|on |ncreased teno|d, to 80.3 b||||on tons. Th|s
rap|d expans|on o g|oba| meat product|on was on|y
poss|b|e because the eed supp|y or the an|ma|s
|ncreased at a s|m||ar|y dramat|c rate. The E |s a
pr|me examp|e |n th|s respect. lts |mports o soybean
cake a cruc|a| source o prote|n |n |ntens|ve and
|ndustr|a| an|ma| product|on rose teno|d between
1961 and 2009, and now stands at a|most 44 b||||on
tons per year (fgure 2). The ocus on cake |s because
F|gura Z: E |mporIs oI soybaan ca|a and soybaans 1961-1966 Io Z006-Z00B (m||||ons oI Ions)
Sc0|ce. Authors' ca|cu|at|ons based on FAOSTAT, 2010.
1
9
6
1
-
1
9
6
5

-
1
9
6
6
-
1
9
7
0

-
1
9
7
1
-
1
9
7
5

-
1
9
7
6
-
1
9
8
0

-
1
9
8
1
-
1
9
8
5

-
1
9
8
6
-
1
9
9
0

-
1
9
9
1
-
1
9
9
5

-
1
9
9
6
-
2
0
0
0

-
2
0
0
1
-
2
0
0
5

-
2
0
0
6
-
2
0
0
8

-
50 000-
40 000-
30 000-
20 000-
10 000-
0-
Soybeans (cake weight)
M
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

t
o
n
s
Cake of soy
143
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
on|y th|s |s used as an|ma| eed, wh||e soybean o|| |s
used or human consumpt|on, |ndustr|a| and energy
use.
0. Tha ro|a oI agr|cu|Iura| and Irada
po||cy |n Iha |ndusIr|a||taI|on oI an|ma|
producI|on
An |mportant dr|ver o th|s deve|opment has been
the E's Oommon Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy (OAP) and
|ts ||nk to trade po||cy. nt|| the ear|y 1990s, the E
guaranteed pr|ces or ||vestock products espec|a||y
bee and da|ry products that were s|gn|fcant|y
h|gher than wor|d market pr|ces. Th|s prov|ded an
eect|ve |ncent|ve or European armers to |ncrease
product|on. At the same t|me, the OAP |ntervened
|n the markets or eedstock. Wh||e h|gh pr|ces or
cerea|s |n the E were a|so guaranteed, there was
no support or o||seeds and the|r products o||s and
cakes. Th|s s|tuat|on |s a|so re1ected |n the E's
agr|cu|tura| trade po||cy: wh||e ||vestock products and
cerea|s were, and genera||y st||| are, protected by h|gh
tar|s, o||seeds and the|r products have exper|enced
no, or on|y very |ow, tar|s. These tar|s were fxed
mu|t||atera||y |n the Genera| Agreement on Tar|s and
Trade (GATT), the predecessor o the Wor|d Trade
Organ|zat|on (WTO).
ln the 1980s, the E attempted, re|at|ve|y
successu||y, to support o||seed product|on w|th other
po||cy |nstruments, such as product|on prem|ums.
However, these were ound to run counter to |ts GATT
comm|tments. W|th the sh|t rom pr|ce support to
payments based on the area p|anted w|th certa|n
crops, some support or o||seed product|on cou|d
be prov|ded. However, the B|a|r House Agreement, a
b||atera| agreement between the European Oommun|ty
and the n|ted States, wh|ch paved the way or the
WTO Agreement on Agr|cu|ture, p|aced a ||m|t on
the area p|anted w|th o||seeds |n the E that cou|d
beneft rom payments. As a resu|t, the E's |mports
o soybeans and soybean cake, wh|ch had rema|ned
at rough|y a constant |eve| |n the 1980s, started to
|ncrease |n the 1990s. The BSE cr|s|s |n 20002001
gave an add|t|ona| boost to E soy |mports. ln these
years a|one, the E's soy |mports |umped rom
33.7 m||||on tons to 40.2 m||||on tons (FAOSTAT and
authors'ca|cu|at|ons).
The E's r|s|ng |mport demand was ma|n|y met by
South Amer|ca, espec|a||y Argent|na and Braz||, where
the area p|anted w|th soy rose rom |ust over 10 m||||on
ha (|n both countr|es comb|ned) |n 1980 to over 48
m||||on ha |n 2009 (fgure 3). Th|s tr|ggered the mass|ve
deorestat|on o the trop|ca| ra|norests |n Braz|| and
the convers|on o grass|ands (ce||aoc |n Braz|| and
oamoas |n Argent|na) to crop|and.
lt |s est|mated that the |and-use changes d|rect|y
re|ated to the expanded soy product|on |n Argent|na,
Braz|| and Paraguay were respons|b|e or, on
average, over 420 m||||on tons o OO
2
-equ|va|ent
(OO
2
e) em|ss|ons annua||y between 2000 and 2009
(Pe|chert and Pe|chardt, 2011). Th|s amounts to
about 18 per cent o the tota| GHG em|ss|ons o
these countr|es.
10

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
2001 2002 2003 2001 2005 200 200Z 2008
u3A
8raz| |
Arerl| ra
lrd| a
C|| ra
Parauay
Carada
V
|
|
|
|
o
r
s

o
l

|
e
c
l
a
r
e
s
F|gura 3: Araa undar soy cu|I|vaI|on: sa|acIad counIr|as, 1991-Z007 (m||||ons oI hacIaras)
Sc0|ce: Authors' ca|cu|at|ons based on FAOSTAT.
144
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
The rap|d expans|on o eed, |n part|cu|ar, enab|ed the
E not on|y to meet |ts r|s|ng demand or meat and
da|ry products, but a|so to become a net exporter o
bee, da|ry products and pork. S|nce the guaranteed
domest|c pr|ces were usua||y s|gn|fcant|y h|gher
than wor|d market pr|ces, exports were on|y poss|b|e
through "reunds" or exporters, wh|ch covered the
d|erence between the |nterna| and externa| pr|ces.
These "export subs|d|es" turned out to be a ma|or
|ssue o con1|ct |n |nternat|ona| trade. The s|gn|fcant
European exports o an|ma| products (as we|| as
wheat and sugar) gave the wrong |mpress|on that
the E was produc|ng overa|| agr|cu|tura| surp|uses.
The act that th|s was on|y poss|b|e because o the
ever-|ncreas|ng |mports o an|ma| eed was |arge|y
neg|ected |n the pub||c debate.
Oonsequent|y, the reorms o the OAP |n the ear|y
1990s ocused on cutt|ng down surp|us product|on
by reduc|ng guaranteed pr|ces or cerea|s and bee,
and (|n|t|a||y) to a much |esser extent, or m||k. The
|ncome |osses were part|y compensated by spec|fc
area payments to armers. One cond|t|on or rece|v|ng
those payments was that a certa|n proport|on o
arab|e |and wou|d have to be kept |d|e the most
d|rect |nstrument or address|ng the "overproduct|on"
prob|em. The amount o |and to be "set as|de" was
fxed by the E on an annua| bas|s, depend|ng on
market cond|t|ons. On average, |t was around 10 per
cent o the crop|and. As a resu|t, exports o cerea|s
and bee e|| s|gn|fcant|y, and wh||e the E rema|ns
a net exporter o wheat, |t |s now a net |mporter o
bee and sugar. At the same t|me, net exports o
pork more than doub|ed, rom around 400,000 tons
annua||y |n the |ate 1980s to around one m||||on tons
annua||y |n recent years. The fgure or 2008 was as
h|gh as 1.4 m||||on tons (FAOSTAT). The expans|on o
pork product|on and exports was |ess d|rect|y ||nked
to agr|cu|tura| po||cy |nstruments, and more a resu|t
o the |ncreas|ng |ndustr|a||zat|on o an|ma| product|on
d|scussed ear||er.
S|nce the an|ma|s are separated rom the|r natura|
env|ronment, and eed can be sourced g|oba||y,
the su|tab|||ty o a certa|n area or an|ma| and eed
product|on |s |ess |mportant than the |nrastructure
or transport|ng and process|ng eed and an|ma|s.
The an|ma| breeds and the barns or |ndustr|a| an|ma|
product|on have a|so become g|oba||y standard|zed.
As a resu|t, northern France, northern Germany,
Denmark and the Nether|ands, w|th the|r prox|m|ty to
Potterdam as the |argest port or rece|v|ng |mports
o soybeans and soybean cake, a|ong w|th a we||-
deve|oped |nrastructure and a mature ood |ndustry,
have become the ma|n pork (and ch|cken) produc|ng
reg|ons |n the E. Th|s has been part|y supported
by OAP-re|ated |nvestment ass|stance through
subs|d|zed |nterest rates.
ln sum, the |ntens|ty o ||vestock product|on |s
dec|s|ve|y determ|ned by the |ntens|ty o an|ma| eed,
wh|ch |n turn |s corre|ated w|th the enhanced use
o energy and synthet|c ert|||zers or the product|on
o that eed. Th|s |s why a comparat|ve ana|ys|s o
the eco|og|ca| and c||mate ba|ance o ||vestock
product|on requ|res data on where and how the
an|ma| eed was produced. ln th|s regard, the |and-
use changes requ|red or |ntens|ve and monocu|ture-
based eed product|on are a part|cu|ar source o
concern w|th regard to the|r soc|a|, eco|og|ca| and
c||mate |mpacts.
The dependence on ore|gn odder sources |s
on|y one outcome o the undamenta| change |n
agr|cu|tura| ||vestock systems. Another ma|n dr|ver
o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |s that ood reta||ers are
demand|ng |ncreas|ng|y standard|zed products |n
terms o quant|t|es, s|zes and atten|ng per|ods. S|nce
the 1960s, standard|zat|on by and or |ndustr|a||zed
meat and da|ry product|on systems has resu|ted |n
the rep|acement o w||d and cu|tured, b|od|vers|ty-r|ch
|and by monotonous |andscapes. As a resu|t, w||d
b|od|vers|ty suers, as re1ected |n the decrease |n w||d
bees (|n many areas sufc|ent po|||nators are |ack|ng),
butter1|es and hedges, or examp|e. The |oss o
breeds and the |ow, regu|ar ut|||zat|on o the rema|n|ng
ones |ead to the |oss o trad|t|ona| know|edge.
The many years o State support or perormance
test|ng and est|mat|on o breed|ng va|ues, a|med
un|que|y at ach|ev|ng more (fnanc|a|) y|e|d per un|t,
ran contrary to the goa|s re|at|ng to "genet|c d|vers|ty"
as embod|ed |n the Oonvent|on on B|o|og|ca| D|vers|ty
(OBD) (lOeW et a|., 2004). The OBD |s based upon three
p|||ars that represent the a|ms o |nternat|ona| po||cy
|n uture deve|opment: (|) conservat|on o b|o|og|ca|
d|vers|ty, (||) a|r and equ|tab|e access and beneft
shar|ng o b|o|og|ca| d|vers|ty, and (|||) the susta|nab|e
use o an|ma| and p|ant genet|c resources and the|r
hab|tats. As w||d||e and w||d p|ants need the|r spec|fc
env|ronments/hab|tats, p|ants and ||vestock breeds
need a "cu|tured hab|tat" o wh|ch they are a part, and
thus |n1uence and are |n1uenced by that hab|tat. l
the genet|c resources o an|ma|s and p|ants are not
used, they d|sappear as part o the who|e system and
145
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
can no |onger p|ay the|r part |n the|r system. Agro-
b|od|vers|ty shou|d be used |n a way that deve|ops |t
urther, rather than be|ng "underut|||zed" as at present,
and thereore r|sk|ng d|sappearance.
. |s|s assoc|aIad W|Ih sa|acI|va
braad|ng Ior h|ghar producI|v|Iy
A|though se|ect|on |s a|med at h|gh perormance
|n both an|ma| and crop breed|ng, there |s a ma|or
d|st|nct|on between the two. A certa|n and |ncreas|ng
proport|on o crops, such as vegetab|es, are grown
|n greenhouses or under p|ast|c o|| or commerc|a|
purposes. However, the vast ma|or|ty o crops are st|||
p|anted |n the open and are exposed to the vagar|es
o the weather (un||ke an|ma|s). S|nce the 1950s,
an|ma| product|on, by |ncreas|ng|y re|y|ng on an|ma|
eed (and the|r |mports), synthet|c growth hormones,
v|tam|ns, am|no ac|ds and m|nera| supp|ements,
has become |ess dependent on |ocat|on (lde| and
Petschow, 2004). A grow|ng number o ch|ckens,
p|gs and, |ncreas|ng|y, catt|e are ra|sed |n a way that
comp|ete|y sh|e|ds them rom the eects o the sun
and the weather.
11
Breed|ng |ncreas|ng|y overburdens an|ma|s that
have been se|ected to max|m|ze the|r product|on.
For examp|e, hens that are bred to max|m|ze egg
product|on generate about 300 eggs per annum,
ch|ckens se|ected or meat product|on reach the|r
s|aughter we|ght ater |ess than fve weeks o |ntens|ve
ra|s|ng, young p|gs, |ess than s|x months o|d, are
s|aughtered when they reach about 100 kg, and some
cows are bred to max|m|ze m||k product|on, de||ver|ng
over 10,000 ||tres dur|ng one |actat|on per|od a|one
(most o them do not get o|der than fve years, because
o these excess|ve perormance requ|rements). Many
o these an|ma|s suer rom "occupat|ona|" d|seases,
such as |n1ammat|on o the a||op|an tubes |n hens,
udder |n1ammat|on o cows, or prob|ems w|th |o|nts
|n p|gs, hens and catt|e caused by excess|ve|y rap|d
we|ght ga|n (see a|so the commentary on an|ma|
we|are |ssues o D'S||va |n th|s chapter).
The tenet that "perormance |s an express|on o
good hea|th" |s no |onger va||d. lndeed, orc|ng the|r
enhanced perormance causes an|ma| stress and
"burnout" (|n pou|try, p|gs and catt|e or mast) resu|t|ng
|n a short ||e span (da|ry) and requ|r|ng the requent
adm|n|ster|ng o drugs such as ant|b|ot|cs and
ana|ges|cs. ln add|t|on, hormones are be|ng w|de|y
used to overcome ert|||ty prob|ems o cows that are
bred or max|m|z|ng m||k product|on. Genera||y, h|gh
externa| |nput systems a|m at m|n|m|z|ng the energy
|osses o an|ma| bod|es caused by phys|ca| movement
and adaptat|on to changes |n temperature and eed.
Th|s ostens|b|y reduces the energy consumpt|on
o body unct|ons and max|m|zes the product|on
o an|ma| products. These cons|stent|y restr|ct|ve
cond|t|ons are a ma|or actor that contr|butes to the
breed|ng o un|orm an|ma|s and the|r se|ect|on or
h|gh perormance.
As a resu|t, the 1ex|b|e adapt|ve capac|ty o an|ma|s
to chang|ng and d|vergent product|on cond|t|ons
has been rep|aced by |n1ex|b|e, stat|c and |ocat|on-
spec|fc behav|our. An extreme examp|e |s the use
o standard|zed cages or hybr|d hens, whether |n
Oa||orn|a, Hong Kong, Norway or Oman. The ||ght
and temperature |n the sheds where the cages are
kept, a|ong w|th the concentrated eed and ||m|ted
phys|ca| movement, are a|| des|gned to ensure
max|mum and standard|zed egg product|on.
Genera||y, the adaptat|on |s ach|eved at the cost o
adapt|ve capac|ty: the an|ma|s have ew reserves to
respond to chang|ng env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons such
as var|at|ons |n temperature, eed or stress rom
transport. Desp|te th|s be|ng common know|edge,
th|s stress rom breed|ng |s dea|t w|th not by changes
|n breed|ng pract|ces, |nc|ud|ng breed|ng goa|s, but
on|y by chang|ng the ra|s|ng methods: ch|ckens'
beaks and p|gs' ta||s are tr|mmed and the an|ma|s are
oten he|d |n stress-reduc|ng d|mmed ||ght |n order to
reduce the extent and consequences o cann|ba||sm
among the an|ma|s that resu|ts rom enhanced stress
(Oompass|on |n Wor|d Farm|ng, 2009a). ln add|t|on,
ant|b|ot|cs are |ncreas|ng|y used to treat the greater
|nc|dence o |||ness among an|ma|s resu|t|ng rom
h|gh-perormance breed|ng.
The deve|opment o a so||d |mmune system |n
an|ma|s, wh|ch |s so |mportant or open-a|r rear|ng o
an|ma|s, rece|ves ||tt|e attent|on under such cond|t|ons.
Bes|des the greater suscept|b|||ty to |||ness |n an|ma|s,
the targeted se|ect|on or max|mum perormance
ra|ses other an|ma| protect|on and we|are |ssues. As
the perormance o ema|e an|ma|s d|rect|y corre|ates
w|th the targeted se|ect|on |n breed|ng, atten|ng
perormance dec||nes and w|th |t the perormance o
ma|e an|ma|s. For examp|e, the atten|ng o brothers
o egg-produc|ng hens |s cons|dered uneconom|ca|.
As a resu|t, |n the E more than 300 m||||on ma|e
ch|ckens are k|||ed each year as soon as they hatch.
S|m||ar|y, |n the n|ted K|ngdom, or |nstance, ma|e
146
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
ca|ves o breeds that are se|ected or max|m|z|ng m||k
perormance are k|||ed some 150,000 each year
(Weeks, 2007).
lgnor|ng the an|ma| hea|th and we|are |ssues
assoc|ated w|th th|s deve|opment, genet|c eng|neer|ng
has been used or decades to max|m|ze an|ma|
perormance. And |n sp|te o extens|ve pub||c and
pr|vate research on genet|c man|pu|at|on over the
past 30 years, unt|| today no transgen|c an|ma|s are
used or commerc|a| agr|cu|ture purposes ow|ng to
s|gn|fcant b|o|og|ca| and techn|ca| prob|ems (Then
2011, and 2012). As ear|y as the m|d-1980s, some
researchers env|saged the techno|ogy-||nked a||ure
o transgen|c man|pu|at|on. Th|s a||ure became the
eng|ne or c|on|ng research. The ob|ect|ve was to
c|one transgen|c |nd|v|dua|s |n those except|ona|
cases where they had des|rab|e propert|es and no or
ew un|ntended prob|ems. Yet c|on|ng too has been
re|at|ve|y unsuccessu| |n the past 25 years, w|th the
rare successes due ma|n|y to co|nc|dence.
On|y a ew v|ab|e an|ma|s have been produced us|ng
the "Do||y method".
12
Accord|ng to the European Food
Saety Author|ty (EFSA, 2007: 9), "(T)he overa|| success
rate o the c|on|ng procedure |s st||| |ow and d|ers
great|y between spec|es. The overa|| success rate,
expressed as the percentage o v|ab|e ospr|ng born
rom transerred embryo c|ones, ranges approx|mate|y
rom 0.5 to 5 %, depend|ng on the spec|es." O the
surv|v|ng c|oned an|ma|s, "Do||y" rema|ned a un|que
spec|men. The hope that who|e stab|es cou|d be f||ed
w|th an|ma|s c|oned rom one |nd|v|dua| |n order to
ach|eve an |dent|ca| atten|ng resu|t w|th a standard and
econom|ca| eed|ng and treatment reg|me a hope o
un||m|ted mass |ndustr|a| product|on has rema|ned
a d|stant dream. ln any case, sameness |n terms o
des|rab|e atten|ng and other perormances wou|d |ead
to greater vu|nerab|||ty to s|ckness and contag|on.
A|ready, the current pract|ce o the use o on|y a ew
commerc|a| an|ma| races and hybr|ds or |ndustr|a|
||vestock product|on |s |ead|ng to a |oss o genet|c
d|vers|ty, and carr|es the r|sk that an|ma|s are more
vu|nerab|e to |nect|ous d|seases and pests. Th|s
|nterre|at|onsh|p has been ana|ysed at |ength by an
|nternat|ona| team o researchers (Mu|r, Gane and
Zhang, 2008). W|th regard to ch|ckens, or examp|e,
the fnd|ngs confrm that a|most a|| an|ma|s ra|sed or
pou|try meat (some 19 b||||on wor|dw|de) are based on
on|y three races, and hens ra|sed or max|mum egg
product|on stem rom on|y one race.
E. Tha push Ior b|osacur|Iy posas a IhraaI
Io an|ma| and consumar proIacI|on
Over the past ew decades, the |mmune system has
|ncreas|ng|y been perce|ved as a mere protect|on
system, pr|mar||y aga|nst bacter|a, rather than as
an |nterace between the wor|ds o m|cro- and
macroorgan|sms. As a resu|t, two acts have been
over|ooked: bacter|a are an |nd|spensab|e component
o our |mmune system, and bacter|a have ex|sted
much |onger on our p|anet than humans, so that our
deve|opment over m||||ons o years has been more
w|th rather than aga|nst bacter|a.
13
S|nce the |mmune system ||nks us to our env|ronment,
react|ng to each pathogen|c prob|em by enhanc|ng
ster|||ty (by attempt|ng to erad|cate a|| m|croorgan|sms)
poses a r|sk to our uture deve|opment. Thus the be||e
that th|s strategy enhances secur|ty a|so ca||ed
b|osecur|ty |s a a||acy. lt may work |n some |nd|v|dua|
cases, but |t |ncreases the |nherent r|sks and may
compound uture prob|ems. ln part|cu|ar, the regu|ar
and extens|ve use o ant|b|ot|cs and d|s|nectants or
human and an|ma| hea|th unavo|dab|y |eads to the
emergence o pathogens w|th h|gher res|stance and
|nect|on potent|a|.
By way o |||ustrat|on, the bacter|um |se0ocmcnas
ae|0|ncsa, wh|ch |s res|stant to many ant|b|ot|cs,
can surv|ve d|s|nectants and even thr|ves on
hyg|ene products. Such extremes have been known
or decades as "hosp|ta| germs", because they
have mushroomed |n hosp|ta|s. The pr|nc|p|e |s
the same: the un|ntent|ona| se|ect|on o more and
more dangerous germs. The more res|stant a germ
a|ready |s to treatment w|th ant|b|ot|cs, the greater the
||ke||hood that |t w||| surv|ve the next wave o treatment
w|th ant|b|ot|cs and d|s|nectants.
Aga|nst th|s background, "b|osecur|ty", through
repeated use o new ant|b|ot|cs and d|s|nectants,
|s not on|y no so|ut|on, but |n the |ong term |t |s
a|so h|gh|y r|sky. Humans and an|ma|s need the
contact w|th m|croorgan|sms or strengthen|ng
the|r |mmune system, |n part|cu|ar at the |uven||e
stage. Thus ostens|b|e "b|osecur|ty" |n |ntens|ve
||vestock product|on |s a prob|em |n that |t hampers
the deve|opment o a hea|thy |mmune system and |t
strengthens the res|stance o germs and pathogens,
mak|ng |t |ncreas|ng|y d|fcu|t or the chem|ca| and
pharmaceut|ca| |ndustry to conta|n those germs and
pathogens. The evo|ut|onary dynam|cs o germs
a||ows them to (qu|ck|y) ad|ust to new ant|b|ot|cs or
147
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
ant|v|ra| drugs. Th|s oten happens much aster than
the t|me requ|red by research teams to deve|op new
and eect|ve med|c|nes.
There shou|d never have been a compet|t|ve race
between chem|ca| treatments and m|croorgan|sms,
as the |atter have evo|ved over a per|od o about
2.5 b||||on years. On|y except|ona||y aggress|ve and
res|stant cases are perce|ved by the genera| pub||c as
a rea| danger, but even those cases have become more
requent over t|me. Even so, the genera| tendency and
the ata||y |atent danger are be|ng |gnored.
F. aIorasIaI|on and an|ma| Iaad
producI|on
Box 2 ||sts some exp|anatory actors or the |ack o
awareness o the potent|a| o susta|nab|e grass|and
management w|th rum|nants or ach|ev|ng ood secur|-
ty and susta|nab|e deve|opment. There |s a w|despread
be||e, that ra|norests are be|ng destroyed on|y to be
converted to |and or pasture. ln rea||ty, however, the
cutt|ng o orests |s oten tr|ggered by a sequence o
|ncome-generat|ng cyc|es, o wh|ch pasture or catt|e
|s one. Oontrary to pra|r|es and pampas, the so||s
o trop|ca| ra|norests have a |ower content o grass
seeds and are |ess ert||e because o the wash|ng
out o nutr|ents. Th|s |s why deorested areas tend to
be used somet|mes on|y temporar||y as pasture, and
thereater or grow|ng crops or odder product|on and,
|ncreas|ng|y, or b|oue| product|on.
14
The expans|on
o agroue| product|on and re|ated |and-grabb|ng oer
the opportun|ty to ra|se the pub||c's awareness o the
eco|og|ca| and soc|a| consequences o an|ma| eed
product|on on ormer orest and pasture |and.
Through the press|ng o soy, about 20 per cent o o||
can be generated |n vo|ume terms and 80 per cent |s
|et over as cake (bru|sed gra|n). Future d|scuss|ons
on soy cu|t|vat|on shou|d |nc|ude an understand|ng
o th|s commerc|a||y attract|ve dua| character o
soybeans re|at|ve to other |egum|nous crops such as
8ox Z: aasons Ior Iha |nsuIhc|anI parcapI|on oI Iha poIanI|a| oI susIa|nab|a agr|cu|Iura Io conIr|buIa Io Iood sacur|Iy
and susIa|nab|a rura| dava|opmanI
The destruct|on, waste and contam|nat|on o resources assoc|ated w|th the |ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture have cre-
ated a m|sconcept|on that agr|cu|ture a|ways and genera||y poses a prob|em. Thus |t proves to be extreme|y d|fcu|t
to perce|ve the potent|a| or susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| deve|opment |n grass|and, ||vestock and crop|and management.
For decades, more and more |ntens|fed agr|cu|tura| pract|ces have damaged the env|ronment. Thus, one o the ma|n
ob|ect|ves o nature protect|on has been seen as tak|ng |and away rom any k|nd o agr|cu|tura| product|on. Th|s has
|nd|rect|y and unw|tt|ng|y |ed to more "co||atera| damage" by creat|ng greater pressure or urther |ntens|y|ng produc-
t|on on the rema|n|ng agr|cu|tura| |and. lt has been based on the percept|on that the more |ntens|ve|y ex|st|ng |and |s
used, the greater w||| be the ava||ab|e area or nature conservat|on. lt over|ooks the act that |t |s |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture
that has exerted pressure on resources and |and use, and |ed to w|despread contam|nat|on o |and |n genera|.
The ava||ab|||ty o amp|e, re|at|ve|y |nexpens|ve energy and synthet|c ert|||zers has d|stracted attent|on rom the |m-
portance o so|| ert|||ty, as the most bas|c and prec|ous resource o agr|cu|ture, and |ts |oss through eros|on. Pe|ated
to that, the potent|a| o susta|nab|e grass|and management and pastora||sm or g|oba| ood secur|ty, so|| and c||mate
protect|on has been, and st||| |s, underest|mated, and thereore the |ong-term dangers o convert|ng permanent
grass|and to other uses are over|ooked.
The |nherent growth and product|v|ty pressure o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture has devastat|ng |mpacts on our env|ronment
and we||-be|ng, and thus v|o|ates the th|rd p|||ar o the OBD (|.e. the susta|nab|e use o an|ma| and p|ant genet|c re-
sources and the|r hab|tats).
Any attempt at max|m|z|ng s|ng|e crop y|e|ds |s |rreconc||ab|e w|th the opt|m|zat|on o eco|og|ca| serv|ces. Yet pub||c
and pr|vate support to seeds, cu|t|vat|on, p|ant protect|on and ert|||zat|on ocus ent|re|y on such a y|e|d max|m|z|ng
strategy. Oonverse|y, the means or exp|or|ng and study|ng the ecosystem|c potent|a| o agr|cu|ture and spec|fc pro-
duct|on systems or methods |n d|erent |andscapes have been woeu||y |nadequate.
The econom|c |nterests o d|erent econom|c actors that der|ve s|gn|fcant profts rom the |ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|-
cu|ture, |nc|ud|ng the use o chem|ca| |nputs, are one o the ma|n reasons or the |ack o |mp|ementat|on o the key
recommendat|ons o the lnternat|ona| Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and Techno|ogy (lAASTD),
name|y the prevent|on o soc|a|, env|ronmenta| and c||mate damage, |nterna||zat|on o env|ronmenta| externa||t|es,
and ana|ys|s and urther deve|opment o the mu|t|-unct|ona||ty o ecosystems (Mclntyre et a|., 2009).
148
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
rape seeds. Apart rom attract|ve pr|ces |n d|erent
markets, |t |s a|so ||ke|y that demand |n the three market
segments soy cake or an|ma| eed, and soy o|| or
vegetab|e o|| and b|od|ese| w||| |ncrease urther, and
thus prov|de producers and m||||ng compan|es w|th
greater 1ex|b|||ty. Moreover, soy cake or an|ma| eed
prov|des approx|mate|y the same |ncome as the 20
per cent share o the soy o|| used as vegetab|e o|| and
b|od|ese|.
15

As |s the case or permanent grass|and, |n (most|y
non-ra|n-)orests too the |argest share o the stored
carbon can be ound |n the so||. Because o the v|s|b|e
above-ground b|omass, |t |s genera||y perce|ved that
orests are more |mportant or carbon storage than
grass|ands, when |n act grass|ands are g|oba||y
as |mportant. ln add|t|on, there are two d|st|nct|ons
between grass|ands and orests: un||ke permanent
grass|ands, the storage o carbon |n orests |s
sub|ect to saturat|on, and, |n contrast to permanent
grass|ands, commerc|a||y used orests w|||, |n the
|ong term, a|ways be harvested and |arge parts o
the carbon stored |n the b|omass o the so||s w||| end
up be|ng re|eased |nto the atmosphere. lnstead so||s
under grazed pastures are a|ways covered.
. rass|ands and rum|nanIs: an axamp|a
oI m|sconcapI|ons and opporIun|I|as
16
Oatt|e rear|ng |s an |||ustrat|ve examp|e o how non-
transparent and |||og|ca| system boundar|es can |ead
to wrong conc|us|ons, |nc|ud|ng the m|sconcept|on o
the cow be|ng a ma|or contr|butor to c||mate change.
F|rst, there |s the |ssue o an excess|ve|y gener|c
ana|ys|s o an|ma| husbandry, wh|ch does not
d|st|ngu|sh between d|erent product|on systems.
lnstead o a comparat|ve ana|ys|s o data o resource-
efc|ent susta|nab|e product|on, on the one hand,
and energy-|ntens|ve |ndustr|a| product|on, on the
other, very oten average va|ues are used. Second,
the ana|ys|s |s most|y confned to on|y one GHG
methane and exc|udes N
2
O em|ss|ons ma|n|y caused
by the use o synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zers or |ntens|ve
product|on o an|ma| eed. Th|rd, a sound assessment
o the eects o agr|cu|tura| product|on on c||mate
requ|res tak|ng |nto account not on|y em|ss|ons, but
a|so cyc|es, as susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and orestry
are the on|y econom|c act|v|t|es w|th the potent|a| to
prov|de natura| s|nk unct|ons (carbon sequestrat|on).
However, regard|ng the re|evance or c||mate,
|n the re|at|ve|y common em|ss|on compar|sons
between catt|e ra|s|ng and veh|cu|ar trafc, catt|e
tend to are bad|y. As an apparent|y |og|ca| resu|t o
such compar|sons, even more |ntens|ve ||vestock
product|on |s be|ng advocated, |n part|cu|ar that o
ch|ckens and p|gs (Wurger, 2010). But th|s neg|ects
to take account o carbon and n|trogen cyc|es, and, |n
part|cu|ar, the pos|t|ve eects o susta|nab|e grass|and
management or the c||mate as a who|e. The re|ated
|mportance o grass|and |s based on the vast area |t
covers, account|ng or 40 per cent o the g|oba| |and
surace. Susta|nab|e pasture management enhances
so|| ert|||ty ||nked to carbon-r|ch humus, and thereby
1,0 ton o humus removes 1,8 tons o OO
2
rom the
atmosphere, as each ton o humus conta|ns more
than 500 kg o carbon.
17
A prom|nent examp|e |n th|s
regard |s graz|ng, wh|ch a||owed pra|r|e so||s over
m|||enn|a to reach a depth o severa| metres.
why do coWs ganaraIa maIhana, Wh|ch has a g|oba|
Warm|ng poIanI|a| Z6 I|mas h|ghar Ihan 0
Z
?
Oows can on|y d|gest grass through the symb|os|s o
b||||ons o m|croorgan|sms |n the|r rumen (paunch).
Part o these m|croorgan|sms can decompose
ce||u|ose and ||gn|n |n grass and thus make the
nutr|ents conta|ned there|n ava||ab|e to the cows.
ln the course o th|s d|gest|on process methane |s
generated by m|croorgan|sms. And |ust as humans
exha|e OO
2,
cows exha|e both OO
2
and methane.
Through th|s symb|os|s, rum|nants such as cows do
not compete w|th human be|ngs or ood an ab|||ty
|nev|tab|y ||nked to methane product|on.
The exc|us|ve ocus on methane rom cows |s short-
s|ghted, | the ana|ys|s |s confned to em|ss|ons
and the|r potent|a| negat|ve eects. Some data
rom Europe |||ustrates th|s cruc|a| po|nt. lt |s N
2
O,
and not methane, that const|tutes the |argest threat
to c||mate |n the context o ||vestock product|on.
L|vestock product|on |s respons|b|e or 75 per cent
o a|| N
2
O em|ss|ons and 90 per cent o a|| ammon|a
em|ss|ons, |n part|cu|ar due to |ntens|ve ert|||zer use
or the product|on o an|ma| eed. Whereas methane
has a g|oba| warm|ng potent|a| 25 t|mes h|gher than
OO
2
, the g|oba| warm|ng potent|a| o N
2
O |s 296
t|mes h|gher than that o OO
2
. lt |s assumed that, on
average, 25 per cent o consumed n|trogen ert|||zers
are converted |nto N
2
O (Sutton and B|||en, 2011,
Schu|ze et a|., 2009).
Aga|nst th|s background, bes|des |ts adverse
eco|og|ca| |mpacts, |ntens|ve eed|ng o ||vestock |n
the context o g|oba| hunger and warm|ng has three
149
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
8ox 3: Erronaous conc|us|ons on axIans|va and |nIans|va ||vasIoc| producI|on sysIams dua Io |||-dahnad
sysIam boundar|as
ln order to g|ve a stronger |mpetus to susta|nab|e product|on |n agr|cu|tura| po||cy, research and extens|on |n the uture, |t
|s |mperat|ve to ob|ect|ve|y eva|uate the d|erent agrar|an systems. To date, sufc|ent comparat|ve stud|es are |ack|ng. ln
add|t|on, there are s|gn|fcant defc|enc|es |n terms o the comparab|||ty o data and the |ack o transparency concern|ng
the spec|fc system boundar|es. Th|s oten |eads to data not be|ng correct|y ass|gned, wh|ch r|sks |ead|ng to erroneous
conc|us|ons. A prom|nent examp|e |n th|s regard |s the study by Ste|ne|d et a|. (2010), wh|ch does not d|st|ngu|sh be-
tween extens|ve and |ntens|ve product|on systems. ln that study, on|y one tab|e on ma|or 1uxes o carbon assoc|ated w|th
|ntens|ve and extens|ve ||vestock product|on systems (Asner and Archer, 2010: 73, tab|e 5.1) attempts to prov|de a sepa-
rate account o carbon 1uxes or each system. But that tab|e has numerous ana|yt|ca| prob|ems and goes so ar as to
suggest that extens|ve ||vestock systems wou|d have s|gn|fcant|y h|gher negat|ve c||mate eects than |ntens|ve systems.
ImporIanI carbon sIraams undar |nIans|va and axIans|va ||vasIoc| producI|on sysIams
0aIagory ExIans|va InIans|va
0
Z
am|ss|ons Irom producI|on (I) (I)
h|l|ogeu le|l|||/e|s lo| au|ma| leed c|op p|oducl|ou O.O4
lue| lo| l|auspo|l ol leed lo p|oducl|ou lac|||ly O.OG
lue| lo| l|auspo|l ol au|ma|s |u lhe p|oducl|ou lac|||ly O.O8 O.O8
P|ouged c|op|aud O.O2
uup|oughed c|op|aud O.O1
P|ocess|ug ol au|ma|s O.O8
lue| lo| l|auspo|l ouls|de lhe p|oducl|ou lac|||ly O.OO1 O.OO1
Eco|og|ca||y-ra|aIad 0
Z
am|ss|ons
ese|l|hcal|ou O.2
elo|eslal|ou |u lhe l|op|cs 1.2 (1.7)
Sp|ead|ug ol bushy a|eas - O.8
NaIhana am|ss|ons oI ||vasIoc|
|gesl|ou ol |um|uauls 1.5 O.2
L|qu|d aud so||d mauu|e O.2 O.2

Tola| C0
2
em|ss|ous 1.1 O.2
Tola| melhaue em|ss|ous 1.7 O.4
Tola| ChC em|ss|ous |u C0
2
equ|va|eul 8.2
Sc0|ce: Asner and Archer, 2010: 73, tab|e 5.1.
F|rst and oremost, |t |s surpr|s|ng that the sum o em|ss|ons rom extens|ve ||vestock product|on systems |s est|mated to
be 3.2 g|gatonnes (Gt) and thus |s h|gher than the sum o em|ss|ons o the |nd|v|dua| |tems. An exp|anat|on or th|s |s not
prov|ded. Est|mates or tota| em|ss|ons rom |ntens|ve product|on are not prov|ded at a||.
Our cr|t|c|sm regard|ng th|s account|ng approach concerns, |n part|cu|ar, the ass|gnment methodo|ogy:
Em|ss|ons caused by deorestat|on are ent|re|y accorded to grass|and management (|.e. to extens|ve management
methods). However, |n rea||ty, pasture usage |s oten on|y an |nter|m use o the convers|on o |and that |s eventua||y
changed to crop|and (nutr|ent-poor so||s o trop|ca| orests are converted to crop|and re|y|ng on externa| ert|||zer
|nputs). The act that soy cu|t|vat|on |s respons|b|e or some 17 per cent o deorestat|on |s ment|oned |n the study's
text, but the tab|e accords these em|ss|ons ent|re|y to extens|ve product|on systems, even though soy mea| as an|ma|
eed |s a centra| component o |ntens|ve product|on systems.
A|though a fgure or OO
2
em|ss|ons re|ated to ert|||zer product|on or an|ma| eed product|on |s prov|ded and |s re-
|ated to |ntens|ve ||vestock product|on, N
2
O em|ss|ons are not accounted or. A ootnote exp|a|ns that those em|ss|ons
are exc|uded because they are dea|t w|th |n another chapter. A|though the |mportance o N
2
O em|ss|ons |n |ntens|ve
systems |s |ndeed h|gh||ghted |n that other chapter, |ts |mpact on c||mate |s not quant|fed.
150
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
add|t|ona| adverse eects:
L|vestock are compet|ng w|th humans or ood.
Norma||y, ||vestock, part|cu|ar|y catt|e, shou|d der|ve
the|r eed rom agr|cu|tura| |and or so||s that cannot
be used or d|rect ood product|on or humans. On
the contrary, catt|e can generate m||k and meat
rom grass and they can a|so prov|de product|ve
power.
The |ntens|ve product|on o an|ma| eed has d|rect
and |nd|rect |mpacts on c||mate through
- N|trous ox|de, ammon|a and OO
2
em|ss|ons
caused by synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zers,
- lncreased methane em|ss|ons ||nked to the huge
sca|e o |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on and the
excess|ve use o (unnatura|) concentrate eed,
- Excess|ve generat|on o an|ma| excrements
re|ated to |arge-sca|e product|on and unnatura|
eed|ng,
- H|gher gas em|ss|ons through the m|x|ng o
ur|ne and aeces caused by a |ack o pastur|ng
that wou|d a||ow natura| segregat|on.
The |ncreased use o concentrate eed d|sp|aces
the consumpt|on o grass, and thereby removes
the o||ow|ng pos|t|ve eects o pasture on c||mate:
- The permanent and dense grass cover protects
so||s and prevents the|r eros|on.
- Susta|nab|e pasture and grass|and
management promotes the b|o|og|ca| act|v|ty
(photosynthes|s) o grass and |ts roots. ln
add|t|on, m|croorgan|sms, part|cu|ar|y worms,
convert b|omass |nto humus, wh|ch conta|ns
over 50 per cent o carbon.
18

h. rass|ands oI Iha Wor|d
19
ln 2005, the Food and Agr|cu|ture Organ|zat|on o the
n|ted Nat|ons (FAO) pub||shed a survey o wor|dw|de
grass|ands (Sutt|, Peyno|ds and Bate||o, 2005).
Grass|ands |n sem|-ar|d zones conta|n |een grass
on|y or a short per|od ater the ra|ny season, wh|ch |s
otherw|se character|st|c o the ra|n-|ntens|ve reg|ons
o the wor|d. O||mate experts o the Grass|and Oarbon
Work|ng Group stud|ed the |mportance o grass|ands
as carbon s|nks and pub||shed country-spec|fc
|normat|on on grass|and ecosystems. Grass|and
covers a tota| area o 52.5 m||||on km
2
, |.e. about
40 per cent o the tota| |and surace o our p|anet.
20

(Wh|te, Murray, and Pohweder, 2000). Accord|ng to
the FAO, grass|and accounts or about three quarters
o the 4.9 b||||on ha o agr|cu|tura||y used |and. Even
so, know|edge about |ts spec|fc propert|es or each
c||mat|c zone |s surpr|s|ng|y ||m|ted. As a resu|t, the
potent|a|s o grass|ands
21
are gross|y underest|mated
and are not part o the debate on the uture o our
p|anet. Th|s cou|d and shou|d change.
The g|ant grass|ands o the wor|d store |n the|r so||
more than a th|rd o the g|oba| carbon stock. ln
savannah so||s, |t |s est|mated that more than 80
per cent o the b|omass can be ound |n the roots
(Pe|chho|, 2004, Grace et a|., 2006). However, as
grass|ands rece|ve ||tt|e attent|on, |t |s h|gh|y ||ke|y that
the|r eco|og|ca|, agr|cu|tura| and c||mate potent|a|s
are not u||y perce|ved. The p|ough|ng o grass|and
causes huge |osses o carbon and b|omass conta|ned
|n the so|| |n many reg|ons up to a th|rd o the stored
amount (Guo and G|ord, 2002, Poep|au et a|., 2011).
So ar, the |ncreas|ng demand or prote|n- and energy-
r|ch an|ma| eed or |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on has
been one o the ma|n actors beh|nd the remova| o
trop|ca| ra|norests and the convers|on o grass|and
to crop|and (Don et a|., 2011). Add|t|ona||y, the
r|s|ng consumpt|on o b|oue|s |s tak|ng |ts to||. Many
monocu|tures not on|y destroy ecosystems, but are
8ox 3: (conI|nuad)
Em|ss|ons caused by |and degradat|on are on|y ca|cu|ated or extens|ve systems, whereas |and degradat|on resu|t|ng
rom |ntens|ve an|ma| eed product|on rema|ns unaccounted or.
Methane em|ss|ons ||nked to aeces generat|on are cons|dered to be o the same magn|tude |n extens|ve and |nten-
s|ve systems, a|though methane |s not generated |n manure under the aerob|c cond|t|ons o extens|ve pastur|ng.
As a resu|t, even th|s ana|ys|s, wh|ch purports to prov|de an overv|ew o the ava||ab|e sc|ent|fc know|edge regard|ng
|ntens|ve versus extens|ve product|on systems, conta|ns some ser|ous methodo|og|ca| shortcom|ngs. lt |s apparent that
the comparat|ve ana|ys|s underest|mates the negat|ve env|ronmenta| and c||mate |mpacts o |ntens|ve product|on sys-
tems and overest|mates those o extens|ve product|on systems. Th|s renders the resu|ts and the po||cy recommendat|ons
sc|ent|fca||y quest|onab|e.
a

Nc|e:
a
For a more e|aborate cr|t|que, see lde|, 2010 and 2012.
151
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
a|so quest|onab|e rom an energy po|nt o v|ew, | one
deducts the energy |nput or the|r product|on rom
the energy output (part|cu|ar|y due to the expand|ng
product|on o both concentrate eed and b|oue|s).
Susta|nab|y used grass|and can generate a h|gher
vo|ume o usab|e energy per un|t o |and than ethano|
rom ma|ze. At the same t|me, |t can make a h|gher
contr|but|on to the reduct|on o GHG em|ss|ons and
|ncrease so|| ert|||ty. Tr|a|s |n the n|ted States have
shown that y|e|ds rom permanent grass|ands over a
decade surpassed those o monocu|tures by 238 per
cent (T||man, H||| and Lehman, 2006).
I. |oba| |andscapa gardanars
ln grass|ands, roots p|ay a cruc|a| ro|e |n humus
generat|on. S|mp|y put: the roots o today are the
humus o tomorrow. Whereas crops on|y grow dur|ng
the|r vegetat|on per|od unt|| they are harvested, grass
|n permanent grass|and orms more and more root
b|omass v|rtua||y on a permanent bas|s as |ong as
day||ght and a m|n|mum o hum|d|ty are ava||ab|e
and temperatures are st||| s||ght|y above zero. The
ormat|on o roots d|rect|y depends on the rhythm
o the pastur|ng. \ery |mportant |n th|s regard |s that
grass|and shou|d have construct|ve pauses dur|ng
pastur|ng so that grass p|ants can recover and
obta|n, bes|des water and OO
2
, sufc|ent organ|c
n|trogen and other nutr|ents rom the excrements o
graz|ng an|ma|s. Thereater, so|ar energy through
photosynthes|s dr|ves the growth o new grass and
add|t|ona| root b|omass.
An |||ustrat|ve examp|e or such a natura| process
|nc|ud|ng regenerat|ve per|ods can be ound |n the
b|ggest annua| m|grat|on o an|ma|s on our p|anet: the
m|grat|on o the huge herds o gnus |n Ar|ca. Saar|s
there oer a retrospect|ve v|ew o nature's h|story: as
a|| other grass|ands, savannahs emerged rom the co-
evo|ut|on o grass p|ants and graz|ng an|ma|s. Huge
herds o b|son and aurochs (ancestors o today's
domest|c catt|e) contr|buted to the deve|opment o
so||s |n Euras|a, a|though they have d|sappeared
rom the co||ect|ve memory o human sett|ers. ln
contrast, many Amer|cans today st||| reca|| stor|es o
the|r ancestors about the huge herds o b|son. The
number o b|son that popu|ated the pra|r|es o North
Amer|ca |n the ear|y decades o the n|neteenth century
|s est|mated to have been about 30 m||||on an|ma|s.
Today, North Amer|can so||s suer rom an average
humus |oss o more than 25 per cent. Th|s a|so
app||es to pra|r|e so||s severa| metres th|ck on wh|ch
monocu|tures such as soy, ma|ze or cerea|s have
been cu|t|vated or decades. However, the better the
s|tuat|on |n some preerent|a| |ocat|ons, the |ower |s
the percept|on o ex|st|ng prob|ems. ln order to show
that so|| qua||ty and ert|||ty are suer|ng rom |ndustr|a|
so|| management systems, the humus content o so||s
needs to be regu|ar|y mon|tored and documented.
J. 0aII|a as |daa| usars oI Iaad
Tak|ng account o carbon and n|trogen cyc|es not
on|y |eads to a d|erent assessment o the |mpacts
o agr|cu|ture on c||mate, |t a|so prov|des a d|erent
perspect|ve o an|ma| husbandry, part|cu|ar|y that o
rum|nants. lgnorance w|th regard to the potent|a| o
grass|ands ar|ses rom the m|sconcept|on that catt|e
are poor eed users, wh|ch, s|nce the end o the 1970s,
has a|so been taught to students. ln th|s regard, catt|e
and other rum|nants are not contextua||zed as an|ma|s
that deve|oped |n co-evo|ut|on w|th grass|ands over
thousand o years, us|ng grass and hay as odder
that, w|thout add|t|ona| |abour, was turned |nto meat
and m||k. lnstead these rum|nants are assessed |n
terms o the|r efc|ency |n d|gest|ng cerea|s, ma|ze
and soy.
The act that catt|e consume, on average, 7 kg or
more o cerea|s per k||ogram o bee (a fgure wh|ch
exceeds the |ntake o p|gs and ch|ckens
22
) |s a
resu|t o a au|ty system, not au|ty an|ma|s. lt does
not take |nto cons|derat|on the|r negat|ve |mpact on
resource consumpt|on because o |nappropr|ate
system boundar|es. The w|despread assumpt|on that
one cow, wh|ch produces some 10,000 ||tres o m||k
annua||y, wou|d be better or the ecosystem and the
c||mate than two an|ma|s prov|d|ng 5,000 ||tres each |s
quest|onab|e because:
1. The h|gher the product|on perormance o cows
per day or per year, the more |ntens|ve the requ|red
eed|ng pract|ces. lt |s on|y poss|b|e to ach|eve
a product|on o more than 6,000 ||ters o m||k
per cow per annum through greater |ntens|ty o
eed|ng based on concentrate eed. Such eed |n
turn |s produced as a resu|t o very h|gh |nputs o
b|o|og|ca| and oss|| resources, |nvo|v|ng h|gher
em|ss|ons o OO
2
and N
2
O.
2. Non-h|gh-perormance catt|e can sat|sy the|r ent|re
demand or eed by consum|ng roughage w|thout
any externa| odder supp|y.
3. Susta|nab|y used pastures can contr|bute to humus
accumu|at|on and thus he|p to reduce atmospher|c
OO
2
through carbon fxat|on.
152
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
4. Near|y a|| cows w|th an annua| m||k product|on
o 5,000 ||ters have a |onger than average ||e
span. Oonverse|y, most cows w|th an annua| m||k
perormance o 10,000 ||ters have a shorter than
average ||e span. The h|gher the m||k product|on
o the an|ma| per day or per year, the h|gher the
r|sk o |ts vu|nerab|||ty to d|seases and burnout.
Th|s |s the reason why the average ||e span o a
cow |n Germany, or |nstance, has a||en to |ess
than fve years. Burnout, |nert|||ty and mast|t|s have
become "occupat|ona| d|seases" o da|ry cows,
resu|t|ng |n the|r be|ng s|aughtered premature|y,
and stat|st|ca||y they produce on|y 2.3 ca|ves.
F|gura 4: Tha |mporIanca oI coW |ongav|Iy Io proIacI Iha
anv|ronmanI, Iha c||maIa and Iha aconomy
120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
0 -
Cow to be
replaced
M
o
n
t
h
s
Substitute
cow
Cow
5. ln add|t|on to the ||e span o the cow to be
rep|aced, odder and add|t|ona| |abour as we|| as
GHG em|ss|ons by the subst|tute cow need to be
taken |nto account. F|gure 4 shows that |rrespect|ve
o the age o the cow dest|ned or s|aughter, the
age o the subst|tute cow |s a|ways the same. The
|atter |s about 28 months o|d: 19 months at the
t|me o |nsem|nat|on p|us n|ne months gestat|on.
The rep|acement rate o a product|on un|t |nd|cates
the percentage o cows that w||| have to be
rep|aced annua||y to keep the da|ry product|on
rate unchanged. ln product|on un|ts w|th a very
h|gh da|ry perormance, the rep|acement rate oten
exceeds 50 per cent. That |s why |ongev|ty |eads
to |ower rep|acement rates. H|gh rep|acement rates
thus |mp|y that, |n add|t|on to the d|rect eco|og|ca|
eects o da|ry cows, the eco|og|ca| and c||mate
|mpacts o the subst|tute cows have to be taken |nto
cons|derat|on |n eva|uat|ng the|r da|ry perormance.
The ear||er a da|ry cow has to be s|aughtered, the
|onger |s the per|od that a subst|tute an|ma| needs
eed|ng and em|ts GHGs. For a da|ry cow younger
than 5 years, a subst|tute an|ma| w||| have to be
reared dur|ng ha| o the ||et|me o the cow to be
rep|aced. Thus, any product|v|ty ca|cu|at|on o a
da|ry cow shou|d not be confned to |ts annua| m||k,
but shou|d a|so take |nto account |ts perormance
over |ts ||et|me (lde|, 2008).
6. ln the perormance ba|ance, a|| too oten on|y
data or produced m||k are prov|ded, wh|ch do not
represent the vo|ume o marketab|e m||k. Pressures
or |ncreas|ng da|ry product|on resu|t |n a certa|n
share o m||k or|g|nat|ng rom d|seased cows,
wh|ch cannot be so|d because the cows are be|ng
treated w|th ant|b|ot|cs.
7. To arr|ve at a correct ca|cu|at|on o the product|v|ty
and the |mpact on c||mate o a da|ry cow, |ts own
bee product|on and that o |ts progeny a|so have to
be taken |nto account.

Da|ry and bee perormance
are norma||y negat|ve|y corre|ated the h|gher
the da|ry product|on o a cow breed, the |ower
|ts meat output, |n part|cu|ar that o the sons and
brothers.
23
Oompar|ng a product|on system w|th an
average m||k product|on o 5,500 ||tres re|at|ve to
one produc|ng 9,000 ||tres per year, Posenberger
and Putzmoser (2002) note that the |atter shows
s|gn|fcant|y h|gher em|ss|ons o methane (15.7
per cent h|gher), n|trogen (32 per cent h|gher), and
phosphorous (31.7 per cent h|gher).
24

The |ndustr|a||zed agr|cu|tura| product|on system
exc|udes ||vestock rom grass|ands and |ncreases
the |nput o prote|n-r|ch concentrate eed der|ved
rom ma|ze, soy and cerea|s, resu|t|ng |n a s|tuat|on
where cows and humans compete or ood. ln the
context o such |ntens|ve eed|ng systems, rum|nants,
conus|ng|y, are cons|dered |nefc|ent odder
consumers re|at|ve to p|gs and ch|ckens. ln terms o
eed consumpt|on and output, one cow does thereore
not equa| another.
Oatt|e, sheep and bua|oes have the wonderu|
capac|ty to d|gest pasture orage |n symb|os|s w|th
m|croorgan|sms |n the rumen and turn |t |nto m||k and
meat. ln th|s sense, catt|e are |dea| odder consumers
and are thereore predest|ned or graz|ng |n those
areas that are su|tab|e as pastures or grass|ands.
ln add|t|on they can use grass resu|t|ng rom green
ert|||zat|on through susta|nab|e crop rotat|on |n order
to produce m||k, meat and |abour. Accord|ng|y, |t |s
on|y at frst g|ance that m||k and meat rom |ntens|ve
product|on appear to be cheap. The true costs o
|ntens|ve an|ma| eed product|on are re1ected |n terms
153
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
o: (|) damage to the ecosystem and the c||mate, (||)
reduct|on o b|o|og|ca| d|vers|ty, (|||) the convers|on
o permanent grass|and and converted ra|norests
(|nc|ud|ng the OO
2
thus re|eased rom the|r carbon-
r|ch so||s), (|v) o|| consumpt|on or the product|on o
synthet|c n|trogen ert|||zers and agrochem|ca|s, (v)
N
2
O em|ss|ons caused by excess|ve use o synthet|c
ert|||zers, (v|) the n|tr|fcat|on o so||s and water
courses, and (v||) enhanced ammon|a |oad |n the
atmosphere.
lt |s true that catt|e em|t methane, but they and other
rum|nants are |nd|spensab|e or g|oba| ood secur|ty.
nder susta|nab|e pasture cond|t|ons, catt|e produce
m||k and meat rom grass and orage, and thereby
make a s|gn|fcant contr|but|on to the preservat|on o
so|| ert|||ty and to c||mate change m|t|gat|on. Th|s |s
why not on|y do cows have to be rehab|||tated, but the
correct agr|cu|tura| system needs to be adopted. The
dec|s|on whether we w||| protect or destroy the c||mate
through the way we choose to rear catt|e |s up to us.
154
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Treat|ng a arm as a actory that uses |nputs such
as pest|c|des, eed, ert|||zers and ue| to produce
outputs such as corn, ch|cken and pork has become
the dom|nat|ng pr|nc|p|e o today's agr|cu|ture,
wh|ch |s exposed to the dr|vers and pressures o
g|oba||zat|on. A|though th|s mode| o |ndustr|a||zed
agr|cu|ture produces |mpress|ve econom|es o sca|e,
|t |s h|gh|y prob|emat|c ow|ng to |ts detr|menta| |mpact
on c||mate, the env|ronment, human hea|th and an|ma|
we|are, part|cu|ar|y as the assoc|ated costs rema|n
externa||zed.
The vert|ca||y |ntegrated and geograph|ca||y
concentrated ch|cken |ndustry has been the |con|c
examp|e o |ndustr|a||zed agr|cu|ture or decades.
Between 1961 and 2009, ch|cken product|on
wor|dw|de grew rom 7.5 to 80.3 m||||on tons and pork
product|on |ncreased rom 24.7 to 106.3 m||||on tons
(FAOStat, 2011).
Th|s |ncrease |n product|on occurred |n para||e| w|th
the mass|ve |ndustr|a||zat|on and concentrat|on o
product|on structures. At the beg|nn|ng o th|s century,
around 74 per cent o pou|try product|on was contro||ed
by |ndustr|a| compan|es (FAO, 2002). ln the ma|or
pou|try produc|ng countr|es, a ew p|ayers dom|nate
the markets, such as Tyson |n the n|ted States, wh|ch
ho|ds 23 per cent o the nat|ona| market share and
processes 41 m||||on ch|ckens per week (Pohstoe
kompakt, 2010), or the PHW Group |n Germany, wh|ch
ho|ds around 40 per cent o the nat|ona| market share
|n ch|cken product|on and accounts or 70 per cent o
ch|cken breed|ng (FAZ, 2011, F|chte|, 2009), as we||
as 80 per cent o the wor|d market |n pou|try vacc|ne
product|on (W|nters, 2008).
The prob|em w|th |ndustr|a||zed agr|cu|ture |s that |t
creates mass|ve env|ronmenta| and soc|a| co||atera|
damage. lndustr|a| ch|cken and pork product|on
|s part o g|oba||y |ntegrated product|on cha|ns.
They |arge|y depend on |mported eedstu, ma|n|y
soybeans rom South Amer|ca, oten grown on |and
ormer|y occup|ed by ra|norests and p|anted as
monocu|tures w|th h|gh ert|||zer and pest|c|de |nputs.
The soybeans are then sh|pped over thousands
o m||es beore they reach the ch|cken and pork
actor|es, wh|ch are concentrated around harbours
and a|ong h|ghways. ln these actor|es, ch|ckens o
very ew breeds are attened w|th|n our to s|x weeks,
oten under |nhumane ||v|ng cond|t|ons.
The wor|dw|de d|str|but|on o rozen ch|cken parts
(whose product|on benefts to a |arge extent rom
s|gn|fcant d|rect and |nd|rect subs|d|es) can have
devastat|ng |mpacts on many |oca| markets |n
deve|op|ng countr|es, as |||ustrated by the examp|e o
European ch|cken parts exported to West Ar|ca.
lndustr|a||zat|on has turned agr|cu|ture ups|de down:
the source o ood has become a reason or hunger
|n many reg|ons o the wor|d and the ma|n source
Absl|acl
The excess|ve |ndustr|a||zat|on o ch|cken and pork product|on |s a g|ar|ng examp|e o the |ndustr|a| mode|
o agr|cu|ture, wh|ch has turned agr|cu|ture |nto a ma|or c||mate, env|ronmenta|, soc|a| and an|ma| we|are
hazard. ln order to redress th|s s|tuat|on, po||c|es shou|d adopt a post-|ndustr|a| parad|gm or agr|cu|ture,
wh|ch supports mu|t|-unct|ona| arms |nstead o agr|cu|tura| actor|es. Th|s shou|d |nc|ude the app||cat|on
o the orerunner and the po||uter pays pr|nc|p|e to fnanc|a| |ncent|ves schemes, the t|ghten|ng o regu|atory
|aws, better market stewardsh|p and preerence or transparency, and armer and consumer part|c|pat|on
|n po||cy-mak|ng.
Commontary |: Lxcoss|vo |ndustr|a||zat|on of L|vostock
roduct|on: 1ho Nood for a Now Agr|cu|tura|
arad|gm
l||ed||ch 0sleudo|ll
epuly Cha||mau, Ag||cu|lu|a| Comm|llee ol lhe Ce|mau Pa|||ameul
155
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
o b|od|vers|ty has become one o |ts greatest
threats. At the same t|me, what used to be a GHG
s|nk has become a ma|or po||uter. Accord|ng to the
FAO (2006a), the ma|or sources o GHG em|ss|ons
re|ated ma|n|y to pork and ch|cken product|on are
the product|on o n|trogen ert|||zer or eed crops (41
m||||on tons o OO
2
or the ma|n produc|ng countr|es),
on-arm oss|| ue| consumpt|on (90 m||||on tons o
OO
2
per year), ||vestock-re|ated |and-use changes (2.4
b||||on tons o OO
2
per year) and methane em|ss|ons
(more than 10 m||||on tons per year).
The quest|on then |s how can agr|cu|tura| product|on
be reorgan|zed so that |t becomes a so|ut|on rather
than a prob|em? F|ve bas|c pr|nc|p|es to reorm
agr|cu|tura| po||c|es are proposed here.
A. A naW agr|cu|Iura| parad|gm
A|though |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |s st||| w|de|y promoted
by current agr|cu|tura| po||c|es, there are grow|ng
ca||s or change. Jacques D|ou, ormer D|rector-
Genera| o the FAO, stated: "The present parad|gm o
|ntens|ve crop product|on cannot meet the cha||enges
o the new m|||enn|um" (FAO, 2011). l th|s |s true or
agr|cu|ture as a who|e, what we need |s a new, post-
|ndustr|a| parad|gm or agr|cu|ture.
The prob|em w|th actory arm|ng ||es frst o a|| |n |ts
undamenta| m|sconcept|on o agr|cu|ture. Farms
shou|d not be actor|es they shou|d not be p|aces o
|arge-sca|e product|on ha||s, |nstead they shou|d be
h|gh|y |ntegrated, ||v|ng systems where every part o
the system p|ays a cruc|a| ro|e |n the unct|on|ng o
the system as a who|e. A trad|t|ona| arm |s based on
|ts |nterna| resources rather than on externa| |nputs.
lts ma|n source o energy |s so|ar, and not oss||.
The an|ma|s o the arm produce bes|des organ|c
ert|||zers ood (m||k, eggs, meat) based on products
that humans cannot consume and d|gest (e.g. grass,
fbre and organ|c waste).
By |gnor|ng the |ntegrated nature o the arm,
|ndustr|a||zat|on has turned agr|cu|ture |nto a ma|or
env|ronmenta|, soc|a|, hea|th and an|ma| we|are
hazard. Agr|cu|tura| po||c|es shou|d thereore no |onger
o||ow the |ndustr|a| mode| o agr|cu|ture. Pather, the
arm mode| shou|d become the new parad|gm or
agr|cu|tura| po||c|es. Th|s concept o a arm |s not a
b|uepr|nt, but |t can teach us how to tack|e the great
cha||enges to agr|cu|ture o our t|me, such as c||mate
change, b|od|vers|ty, energy, water and ood secur|ty.
8. F|nanc|a| |ncanI|vas: ravars|ng ru|as
and axcapI|ons
Pu|es and except|ons re|at|ng to current pub||c
support schemes or agr|cu|ture shou|d be reversed.
Susta|nab|e arm|ng pract|ces shou|d become the
ru|e, and |ndustr|a| arm|ng treated and regu|ated
as the except|on to th|s ru|e. Agr|cu|tura| po||c|es
shou|d app|y the orerunner and the po||uter-pays
pr|nc|p|es. The orerunner pr|nc|p|e, wh|ch sets the
best susta|nab|e pract|ces ava||ab|e |n a reg|on or
product|on sector as a reerence or arm|ng systems,
shou|d be ma|nstreamed. Pub||c arm payments
shou|d move rom a "|og|c o compensat|on" to a
"|og|c o |nvestment |n best pract|ces". "Pub||c money
or pub||c goods" shou|d become the dr|v|ng pr|nc|p|e
or fnanc|a| support to agr|cu|ture.
The po||uter pays pr|nc|p|e, on the other hand, ob||ges
arm |ndustr|es that use unsusta|nab|e pract|ces to
compensate soc|ety or the|r negat|ve |mpacts on the
env|ronment and on pub||c hea|th. Th|s pr|nc|p|e needs
to rep|ace the pract|ce o compensat|ng armers or
not po||ut|ng the env|ronment.
0. T|ghIan|ng ragu|aIory |aW
Norma||y, |ndustr|a| arm|ng |s undertaken w|th|n
the ru|e o |aw, even though |t may be threaten|ng
to hea|th, the env|ronment and an|ma| we|are.
Thereore, regu|atory |aws shou|d be t|ghtened
|n order to prevent negat|ve externa||t|es and the
ab|||ty o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture to ga|n comparat|ve
advantages by |mpos|ng externa| costs on soc|ety.
T|ghtened regu|atory |aws shou|d be |nternat|ona||zed
so as to a||ow better |aw enorcement and prevent
the transer o agr|cu|tura| actor|es to countr|es w|th
weaker |eg|s|at|on. A|so, hea|th, env|ronmenta|, soc|a|
and an|ma| we|are standards or agr|cu|tura| products
shou|d be more eect|ve|y harmon|zed |nternat|ona||y
than |s current|y the case.
. 8aIIar mar|aI sIaWardsh|p
Agr|cu|tura| po||c|es shou|d estab||sh new orms o
market organ|zat|on, wh|ch support armers and
consumers |n rega|n|ng ownersh|p o the|r reg|ona|
and |oca| markets. Farmers shou|d be supported |n
estab||sh|ng producer organ|zat|ons that strengthen
the|r barga|n|ng power and enab|e them to gear ood
products to more reg|ona||zed and |oca| markets.
Such an approach shou|d a|so |nvo|ve a change o
156
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
regu|at|ons re|at|ng to compet|t|on |n order to stop
the abuse o buyer power by o||gopo||st|c process|ng
and reta|||ng compan|es and reverse the current
concentrat|on |n the ood cha|n.
E. Transparancy and parI|c|paI|on
Transparency shou|d become a key pr|nc|p|e o
agr|cu|tura| po||cy. lnormat|on about the rea||ty o
agr|cu|tura| product|on, the soc|a| s|tuat|on o armers
and arm workers, the env|ronmenta| |mp||cat|ons o
product|on processes, and the ||v|ng cond|t|ons o
an|ma|s shou|d not be h|dden any more beh|nd actory
doors and |obby brochures, |t must be made pub||c.
The frst b|g agr|cu|ture-re|ated cr|ses o the twenty-
frst century |n Europe BSE and the oot-and-mouth
outbreak |n 2001 resu|ted |n ca||s or a undamenta|
change |n agr|cu|ture. As a consequence, Germany
|mp|emented an "agr|cu|tura| turnaround", at the core
o wh|ch was consumer |nvo|vement and greater
transparency |n agr|cu|ture.
The deve|opment o a new agr|cu|tura| mode|
shou|d no |onger emerge rom top-down po||c|es
|mp|emented |n c|osed-door actor|es. lnstead,
armers and consumers shou|d p|ay an act|ve part |n
po||cy-mak|ng. Examp|es rom the current reorm o
the E Oommon Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy show the demand
or and success o part|c|patory po||cy approaches.
Agr|cu|tura| research shou|d a|so become more
part|c|pat|ve and |nc|us|ve, as stressed by the
lnternat|ona| Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Sc|ence
and Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD). Ater a
per|od o a|most exc|us|ve fnanc|ng o b|otechno|ogy
and genet|c eng|neer|ng, pub||c support shou|d be
red|rected towards |ntegrated research that embraces
armers' |oca| know|edge o best pract|ces as we||
as the know|edge o sc|ent|sts rom the var|ous
d|sc|p||nes concerned. lnvestments |n part|c|patory
research schemes shou|d spec|fca||y ocus on the
new cha||enges, support|ng modern |ow-|nput, organ|c
and so|ar-based product|on, sma||-sca|e arm|ng,
enhancement o on-arm b|od|vers|ty, |mproved
grass|and management and crop d|vers|fcat|on to
reduce vu|nerab|||ty.
157
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
Over m|||enn|a, we humans have deve|oped
soph|st|cated orms o she|ter or ourse|ves, rom
rud|mentary huts to a|r-cond|t|oned houses. We may
we|| have become |ess hardy |n the process, but a |ot
more comortab|e and weather-prooed.
Non-human creatures have used the natura| she|ter o
wood|ands and earth burrows or bu||t the|r own more
soph|st|cated hous|ng, such as b|rd and p|g nests or
beeh|ves, but they have a|ways rema|ned |n contact
w|th the |and, w|th trees, vegetat|on and water and
en|oyed the reedom o the sk|es. (Perhaps the human
subst|tute or th|s |s the garden or yard attached to
the house, or our attempts to "go or a wa|k" |n the
countrys|de or sw|m |n the sea.)
Wh||e a huge proport|on o the earth's popu|at|on
make the|r ||v|ng rom arm|ng the |and, oten |nc|ud|ng
breed|ng or tend|ng to some arm an|ma|s, the
confnement o vast numbers o an|ma|s |n |ndustr|a|
arms |s a re|at|ve|y new exper|ence or both armers
and an|ma|s. Th|s exper|ment |n the |ndustr|a||zat|on
o ||vestock arm|ng has proved a d|saster or the
we||-be|ng o the an|ma|s, prov|ded short-||ved ga|ns
or agr|bus|ness |nterests, |ed to the devastat|on o
prec|ous ecosystems and generated huge amounts
o tox|c gases and other harmu| wastes. lt may a|so
be a contr|butory actor to the grow|ng ep|dem|c o
obes|ty and the scanda|ous growth |n numbers o
ma|nour|shed peop|e.
Pemov|ng an|ma|s rom the |and has |ed to unnatura|
systems o |ndoor an|ma| confnement, e|ther
|nd|v|dua||y or |n huge numbers, |n vast sheds. Th|s
has broken up the soc|a| bonds wh|ch are so v|ta| to
an|ma| we||-be|ng. lso|ated an|ma|s, such as ca|ves
|n narrow vea| crates, or pregnant sows |n even
narrower sow sta||s (gestat|on crates), suer not on|y
rom phys|ca| d|scomort but rom psycho|og|ca|
depr|vat|on. Th|s can be observed |n the|r tendency
to deve|op stereotyp|c behav|our, s|m||ar to the ||on |n
a zoo cage. Sows kept |n these narrow crates may
spend up to 22 per cent o the|r act|ve t|me w|th such
stereotyp|c behav|our (Jensen, 1980). Larger numbers
o an|ma|s crowded together can become aggress|ve,
fnd|ng noth|ng to do a|| day and no escape rom the|r
pen-mates, oten resu|t|ng |n |n|ury.
Sc|ence today confrms what most o us know through
common sense, that an|ma|s are |nte|||gent, sent|ent
be|ngs, capab|e o a range o emot|ona| states and
capac|t|es. We no |onger hark back to Descartes who
be||eved that a scream|ng dog be|ng d|ssected a||ve
was exh|b|t|ng a pure|y mechan|ca| react|on. Darw|n
h|mse| recogn|zed that an|ma|s were capab|e o
many emot|ons s|m||ar to humans, when he stated:
"We have seen that the senses and |ntu|t|ons, the
var|ous emot|ons and acu|t|es, such as |ove, memory,
attent|on and cur|os|ty, |m|tat|on, reason etc, o wh|ch
man boasts, may be ound |n an |nc|p|ent, or even
50| /c| ||e sa|e c/ scme |||||e mc0||/0| c/ /es| .e oeo||.e a sc0| c/ ||e s0n ano ||||, ano c/ ||a| o|c-
oc|||cn c/ ||/e ano ||me || |ao oeen oc|n |n|c ||e .c||o |c en/c,. P|utarch
Absl|acl
Farm an|ma|s are sent|ent be|ngs whose we||-be|ng needs to be protected.
lndustr|a| arm|ng keeps an|ma|s |n |so|at|on or crowded together |n tota||y unnatura| cond|t|ons.
An|ma|s have been se|ect|ve|y bred or the|r meat or h|gh m||k y|e|d, w|th devastat|ng |mpacts on the|r
hea|th and we|are.
lndustr|a| ||vestock arm|ng uses huge amounts o gra|n and soy to eed the an|ma|s |n a wor|d where
many go hungry.
Commontary ||: why |ndustr|a| L|vostock |arm|ng
|s Unsusta|nab|o
Joyce 'S||va
Compass|ou |u wo||d la|m|ug
158
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
somet|mes a we|| deve|oped cond|t|on, |n the |ower
an|ma|s" (Darw|n, 1871). Sad|y, Darw|n's w|sdom |n
th|s respect |ay orgotten or decades.
P|gs can operate computer cha||enges w|th more
ab|||ty than dogs but that on|y proves that some
e|ement o p|gs' |nte|||gence |s not un||ke our own.
P|gs are, o course, un|que|y |nte|||gent at be|ng
p|gs. The concrete and s|atted 1oor o the average
p|g actory arm rustrates the natura| exp|oratory or
root|ng behav|our o p|gs, who ||ke to spend 73 per
cent o the|r day||ght hours |n such behav|our (Sto|ba
and Wood-Gush, 1989). The meta| bars surround|ng
and |mmob|||z|ng the pregnant sow can reduce her
to desperate despondency (S\O, 1997) or rant|c
stereotyp|c, repet|t|ve behav|our, such as chew|ng on
the bars (Broom et a|., 1995).
Lay|ng hens kept rom puberty |n a crowded cage,
w|th oten |ess 1oor space than a sheet o typ|ng
paper, can produce eggs or around a year and cou|d
carry on or |onger. But by the t|me these "spent" hens
reach the s|aughter house, one survey showed that
36 per cent have broken bones (Gregory et a|., 1990).
Produc|ng enough ca|c|um to prov|de the she||s or
the 300 eggs she |ays each year, coup|ed w|th |ack
o exerc|se rom be|ng caged, render the hen's bones
rag||e and br|tt|e. ln add|t|on, the cage prevents the
hen rom carry|ng out the regu|ar sequence o act|v|t|es
she wou|d do |n a natura| env|ronment peck|ng
at the ground or ood, stretch|ng and 1app|ng her
w|ngs, dust-bath|ng to c|ean her eathers, 1y|ng up to
a perch at n|ght (away rom predators) and |ay|ng her
eggs |n a sec|uded nest. Thus the cages const|tute a
comb|nat|on o phys|o|og|ca| and menta| depr|vat|on.
More and more an|ma|s, part|cu|ar|y p|gs and pou|try,
but a|so catt|e, are be|ng kept |n |ndustr|a| arms
throughout the wor|d. The FAO reports that |ndustr|a|
an|ma| product|on systems are |ncreas|ng at s|x t|mes
the rate o trad|t|ona| m|xed arm|ng systems (FAO,
2006b). Around 70 per cent o arm an|ma|s are now
kept |n these systems, permanent|y housed, out o
s|ght and, sad|y, out o m|nd. And the g|oba| burden
o arm an|ma| suer|ng |s on|y ||ke|y to |ncrease.
Th|s |s not a con1|ct between sc|ent|fc progress and
human empathy w|th an|ma|s. The sc|ent|fc doss|er
on the suer|ng caused to an|ma|s |n |ndustr|a|
arm|ng systems |s constant|y grow|ng. New research
shows the capac|ty o ch|ckens and fsh to ee|
pa|n (Danbury et a|., 2000, Sneddon, Bra|thwa|te
and Gent|e, 2003). Other research shows states o
neurot|c|sm |n crated sows (S\O, 1997, Athene Trust,
1986) or d|stressed behav|our |n cows depr|ved o
the|r ca|ves.
Apart rom keep|ng these an|ma|s throughout the|r ||ves
|n tota||y unnatura| soc|a| group|ngs and cond|t|ons o
depr|vat|on, |ndustr|a| arm|ng has |n1|cted another
scanda|ous techno|ogy upon these creatures. lt has
taken se|ect|ve breed|ng to a who|e new |eve| o
soph|st|cat|on, w|th d|sastrous |mpacts on the day-to-
day ||ves o the an|ma|s. For examp|e, there are three
g|oba| compan|es now respons|b|e or the breeds o
ch|ckens bred or meat (bro||er ch|ckens) so|d w|de|y
wor|dw|de. Those ch|ckens now grow so ast that they
reach s|aughter we|ght |n fve or s|x weeks ha| the
t|me |t took 40 years ago. Bred or more breast musc|e
(meat), they tend to t|p orward and, unab|e to support
the|r heavy bod|es, have become prone to appa|||ng|y
pa|nu| |eg prob|ems. A research team sponsored by
the Government o the n|ted K|ngdom ound that
27 per cent o ch|ckens were pa|nu||y |ame or days
beore they went to s|aughter (Know|es et a|., 2008).
John Webster (Emer|tus Proessor at Br|sto| n|vers|ty
and ormer head o the \eter|nary Schoo|) observed
that "approx|mate|y one quarter o heavy stra|ns o
bro||er ch|cken and turkeys are |n chron|c pa|n or
approx|mate|y one th|rd o the|r ||ves" (Webster, 1994).
Da|ry cows such as the ub|qu|tous b|ack-and-wh|te
Ho|ste|ns have been bred to produce so much m||k
that they are metabo||ca||y be|ng pushed to the ||m|t,
now produc|ng up to or even more than 20,000 ||tres
a year, many t|mes more than ca|ves wou|d have
drunk rom the|r mothers. They are prone to suer|ng
rom h|gh rates o pa|nu| cond|t|ons ||ke mast|t|s and
|ameness, assoc|ated w|th the|r breed|ng, eed|ng
and hous|ng cond|t|ons. Oows that are kept |n zero-
graz|ng |ndoor systems are at h|gher r|sk o mast|t|s,
|ameness, metr|t|s, ketos|s, teat tramp, d|fcu|t b|rths
and some bacter|a| |nect|ons (EFSA, 2009). Aga|n,
the comb|nat|on o breed|ng or product|v|ty and the
tota||y unnatura| env|ronments has proved h|gh|y
|n|ur|ous to the an|ma|s' we|are. Yet some go so ar
as to advocate keep|ng da|ry cows |n sea|ed un|ts
(LOOG, 2010) so that the|r methane em|ss|ons can
be "scrubbed" and put to good use. Such a myop|c
recommendat|on, wh|ch d|rect|y aects the ||ves o
the an|ma|s themse|ves, shou|d sure|y be sub|ect to
an assessment o |ts eects on an|ma| hea|th and
we|are.
So where do the best so|ut|ons ||e? Perhaps the
answers to these prob|ems o tox|c em|ss|ons rom
159
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
actory arms, overexp|o|tat|on o the earth's resources,
rura| poverty, urban obes|ty and poor an|ma| we|are
can be ound |n app|y|ng a m|xture o good sc|ence,
common sense and compass|on to produce genu|ne
w|n-w|n s|tuat|ons.
lt |s now we|| known that permanent pasture can act
as a carbon s|nk. Pecent research compar|ng the
env|ronmenta| |mpacts o our d|erent k|nds o da|ry
arms ound that a we||-managed da|ry herd kept
outdoors year-round |et a carbon ootpr|nt 6 per cent
sma||er than that o a h|gh-product|on da|ry herd kept
|n permanent hous|ng. ln add|t|on, average net arm
greenhouse gas em|ss|ons dec||ned by about 10 per
cent by keep|ng the herd outdoors year-round and
cut ammon|a em|ss|ons by around 30 per cent (Potz
et a|., 2009). As rum|nant an|ma|s, these cows cou|d
pursue the|r natura| graz|ng behav|our, and a|though
the|r product|v|ty was |ower |n terms o ||tres produced,
the|r m||k was h|gher |n prote|n and at content. Thus
the nutr|t|ona| output rom |ndoor and outdoor cows
was s|m||ar.
To ach|eve h|gh we|are standards the needs o the
an|ma|s themse|ves shou|d be cons|dered. l pou|try
such as ch|ckens, turkeys and ducks have w|ngs w|th
wh|ch to 1y, they shou|d not be bred to become so
heavy that they are no |onger ab|e to 1y, and, |n the
case o turkeys, no |onger ab|e to mate natura||y due
to the|r we|ght. An|ma|s shou|d not be bred |n ways
that the|r own phys|o|ogy becomes the|r worst enemy,
as |s the case w|th bro||er ch|ckens. l hens stretch
the|r w|ngs and 1ap them, they shou|d have space to
do so. l p|gs spend most o the|r t|me root|ng w|th
the|r h|gh|y sens|t|ve snouts, they shou|d never be
kept on u||y s|atted 1oors, where such behav|our |s
|mposs|b|e. l the an|ma|s are kept |ndoors, they must
be prov|ded w|th a deep|y enr|ched env|ronment,
wh|ch prov|des comortab|e bedd|ng mater|a|, p|enty
o space and opportun|t|es or natura| behav|our to
1our|sh.
An|ma|s' bod|es shou|d not be mut||ated through
pract|ces, such as dock|ng p|gs' ta||s, |n order to
keep them |n actory arm cond|t|ons. An|ma|s shou|d
be ed w|th as near a natura| d|et as poss|b|e, and
not be depr|ved o norma| quant|t|es o ood as |s
the case w|th the breeder b|rds o the bro||er var|ety.
They shou|d not be depr|ved o necessary nutr|ents
as happens w|th ca|ves that are ed a |ow-|ron, ||qu|d
d|et to produce "wh|te" vea|, nor shou|d they be orce-
ed or gourmet purposes, such as or the product|on
o /c|e |as. Moreover, an|ma|s shou|d be prov|ded
w|th the company o the|r own k|nd, |n numbers as
c|ose as poss|b|e to natura| cond|t|ons. lso|at|on and
overcrowd|ng shou|d not be a||owed.
8ox 4: TWa|va Farm An|ma| wa|Iara 0r|Iar|a
Soc|ety |s progress|ve|y recogn|z|ng an|ma|s' capac|t|es and needs. The L|sbon Treaty o the European n|on (E) |n-
c|udes an art|c|e wh|ch recogn|zes that an|ma|s are "sent|ent be|ngs" and requ|res member States to protect the|r we|are
(E, 2008). From the E to some states |n the n|ted States to New Zea|and and Austra||a, there are moves to phase out
and ban some o the more extreme confnement systems assoc|ated w|th |ndustr|a| arm|ng.
The European Oomm|ss|on-sponsored We|are Qua||ty research pro|ect estab||shed a ||st o twe|ve arm an|ma| we|are
cr|ter|a. These are:
An|ma|s shou|d not suer rom pro|onged hunger,
An|ma|s shou|d not suer rom pro|onged th|rst,
An|ma|s shou|d have comort around rest|ng,
An|ma|s shou|d have therma| comort,
An|ma|s shou|d have enough space to move around ree|y,
An|ma|s shou|d be ree o phys|ca| |n|ur|es,
An|ma|s shou|d be ree o d|sease,
An|ma|s shou|d not suer pa|n rom |nappropr|ate management or hand||ng,
An|ma|s shou|d be ab|e to express norma|, non-harmu| behav|ours,
An|ma|s shou|d be ab|e to express other spec|es-spec|fc norma| behav|ours,
An|ma|s shou|d be hand|ed we|| |n a|| s|tuat|ons,
Pos|t|ve emot|ons shou|d be promoted and negat|ve emot|ons, such as ear, d|stress, rustrat|on and apathy shou|d
be avo|ded.
Sc0|ce: www.an|ma|we|arep|atorm.eu/.
160
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
lt |s v|ta| that those |n charge o the an|ma|s are not
on|y tra|ned but are a|so compass|onate. However,
good management |s never an excuse or keep|ng
an|ma|s |n a poor env|ronment |n the frst p|ace. We||-
managed |ndustr|a| p|g arms are st||| detr|menta| to
an|ma| we||-be|ng, even | the|r managers do the|r best
to m|t|gate the harmu| |mpacts.
\ar|ous methods to ensure good an|ma| we|are
standards have been deve|oped, such as the
much adm|red F|ve Freedoms and the Twe|ve Farm
An|ma| We|are Or|ter|a, deve|oped or the European
Oomm|ss|on's We|are Qua||ty pro|ect (see boxes 4
and 5).
lt |s not |ust armers or agr|bus|ness compan|es
that need to act to ach|eve an|ma|-r|end|y arm|ng.
l consumers cont|nue to ca|| or "cheap meat", the
actory arms w||| cont|nue. The |rony |s that such
arms are |n act cost|y to the env|ronment, to the
an|ma|s and to sma||-sca|e armers who cannot
compete. The message to consumers who can
aord meat every day |s to reduce the|r consumpt|on,
and, when they buy meat, to spend a ||tt|e more
but |ess requent|y on purchas|ng on|y an|ma|-
r|end|y, env|ronmenta||y r|end|y products. A report
comm|ss|oned by Oompass|on |n Wor|d Farm|ng and
Fr|ends o the Earth (n|ted K|ngdom) shows that |t
w||| be poss|b|e to eed the wor|d popu|at|on |n 2050
us|ng a comb|nat|on o m|xed arm|ng and organ|c
methods, a|ong w|th good an|ma| we|are systems,
but on|y |, g|oba||y, consumers o |arge quant|t|es
o an|ma| products cut back on the|r consumpt|on
(Oompass|on |n Wor|d Farm|ng and Fr|ends o the
Earth, 2009b).
Genu|ne w|n-w|ns are poss|b|e. lt |s up to |nd|v|dua|s,
governments, |end|ng banks and g|oba| agr|cu|tura|
and ood |nst|tut|ons to make eth|ca| cho|ces and
dr|ve po||c|es and pract|ces |n the r|ght d|rect|on. The
earth, the an|ma|s and our e||ow humans need such
a comm|tment.
8ox 6: Tha F|va Fraadoms
1. Freedom rom hunger and th|rst by ready access to resh water and a d|et to ma|nta|n u|| hea|th and v|gour.
2. Freedom rom d|scomort by prov|d|ng an appropr|ate env|ronment |nc|ud|ng she|ter and a comortab|e rest|ng
area.
3. Freedom rom pa|n, |n|ury or d|sease by prevent|on or rap|d d|agnos|s and treatment.
4. Freedom to express norma| behav|our by prov|d|ng sufc|ent space, proper ac|||t|es and company o the an|ma|'s
own k|nd.
5. Freedom rom ear and d|stress by ensur|ng cond|t|ons and treatment wh|ch avo|d menta| suer|ng.
Sc0|ce: www.awc.org.uk/reedoms.htm.
161
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
A. InIroducI|on and bac|ground
B|omass, cons|st|ng o frewood, charcoa|, dung and
crop res|dues, rema|ns the ma|n source o energy |n
sub-Saharan Ar|ca (Dav|dson and Sokona, 2001).

ln
Eth|op|a, or |nstance, b|omass supp||es over 90 per
cent o the tota| nat|ona| energy demand, and rura|
househo|ds are a|most ent|re|y dependent on th|s
source or the|r energy needs. The ma|n sources o
energy are woody b|omass (78 per cent), dung (8 per
cent), crop res|dues (7 per cent) and petro|eum (5 per
cent). Househo|ds account or 90 per cent o nat|ona|
energy consumpt|on, wh||e rura| househo|ds account
or 82 per cent o the nat|ona| energy consumpt|on
der|ved ma|n|y rom b|omass energy sources (Esthete,
Sonder and Heedge, 2006).
The w|despread use o b|omass energy sources
has been ound to be |arge|y |nefc|ent, adverse|y
aect|ng the env|ronment, human hea|th and ood
secur|ty (Dewees, 1989, Dang, 1993, lEA, 2006).
Env|ronmenta| prob|ems ar|se rom deorestat|on, |and
degradat|on and a|r po||ut|on that |ead to greenhouse
gas (GHG) em|ss|ons. Annua| deaths rom |ndoor a|r
po||ut|on resu|t|ng rom the use o b|omass-sourced
energy have been est|mated at around 1.3 m||||on
wor|dw|de, wh|ch |s h|gher than deaths rom ma|ar|a,
and a|most ha| o a|| Hl\/AlDS deaths, the ma|or|ty
o wh|ch occur |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca (lEA, 2006).
A|though frewood rema|ns the ma|n b|omass energy
source, |t |s becom|ng scarce |n the rura| areas o
Eth|op|a, and househo|ds are |ncreas|ng|y us|ng dung
and crop res|dues |nstead. The grow|ng scarc|ty o
frewood |s |ead|ng to reduced agr|cu|tura| product|on
as househo|ds a||ocate |abour away rom agr|cu|ture,
as more agr|cu|tura| |and |s a||ocated to frewood
product|on, and as househo|ds use more dung and
crop res|dues or ue| rather than or ert|||zer and
an|ma| eed respect|ve|y (Oooke, Koh||n and Hyde,
2008). Scarc|ty o frewood a|so p|aces an |ncreas|ng
burden on women and ch||dren who are |ts ma|n
co||ectors.
B|ogas, wh|ch oers one techn|ca||y poss|b|e energy
a|ternat|ve or rura| areas, can he|p m|t|gate some o
the consequences o an overre||ance on b|omass
energy and |s ga|n|ng popu|ar|ty |n Ar|ca (NESOO
and Tata Energy Pesearch lnst|tute, 1982). W|th the
potent|a| to serve up to 2 m||||on am||y un|ts, b|ogas
techno|ogy has been promoted s|nce 1979 |n order to
he|p overcome the |ncreas|ng energy cr|s|s |n Eth|op|a
(ESMAP, 1996). However, stud|es |nd|cate that
Absl|acl
B|ogas techno|ogy enhances synerg|es |n crop, ||vestock and energy systems because the by-prod-
uct o ermentat|on (s|urry) rom saved dung |s used as ert|||zer and the saved crop res|dues are used
as an|ma| eed.
Labour otherw|se used or co||ect|ng frewood and dung can be d|rected towards econom|ca||y pro-
duct|ve act|v|t|es such as agr|cu|ture.
lncreased agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty and/or overa|| |ncome |mprove the attract|veness o b|ogas as a
|abour-sav|ng techno|ogy so that a pos|t|ve synergy eect (||m|ted to househo|ds co||ect|ng the|r own
energy sources and |n the absence o a subs|dy) between econom|c deve|opment and |mproved
energy ut|||zat|on can be rea||zed.
Commontary |||: |ntogratod Crop, L|vostock and Lnorgy
Managomont: 1ho Caso of B|ogas |n ura|
Lth|op|a
Slau|ey Cwavuya
Kuow|edge Nauagemeul Coo|d|ualo|, Pa|lue|sh|p lo| eve|opmeul lu|l|al|ve T|usl, /|mbabwe
162
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
commun|ty d|gesters are prone to a||ure compared
w|th |nd|v|dua| am||y un|ts. A eas|b|||ty study carr|ed
out by Esthete, Sonder and Heedge (2006) revea|ed
that o the 600 to 700 domest|c p|ants |n Eth|op|a,
about 60 per cent had stopped unct|on|ng due to a
range o prob|ems, |nc|ud|ng water shortage, dung
shortage, techn|ca| prob|ems, abandonment and |oss
o |nterest. Desp|te past a||ures, there |s renewed
|nterest |n b|ogas energy |n Eth|op|a. ln 2007, the
Nat|ona| B|ogas Programme Eth|op|a (NBPE) |n|t|ated
a mu|t|-stakeho|der-dr|ven programme to deve|op
a v|ab|e and susta|nab|e commerc|a| b|ogas sector
(Eth|op|a Pura| Energy Deve|opment and Promot|on
Oenter and SN\ Eth|op|a, 2008). ln|t|a||y, am||y s|ze
b|ogas p|ants rang|ng rom 4 m
3
to 10 m
3
are be|ng
constructed |n se|ected reg|ons o T|gray, Amhara,
Orom|a and Southern Nat|ons Nat|ona||t|es and
Peop|es Peg|on (SNNPP).
A survey o 80 random|y se|ected househo|ds |n
the Da|e and Ars| Nege|e d|str|cts o Eth|op|a was
conducted between Apr|| and May 2010 to assess
the econom|cs o frewood and dung use |n rura|
Eth|op|a, to |mprove understand|ng o househo|d
energy use patterns and ana|yse the potent|a| o
b|ogas techno|ogy as a poss|b|e a|ternat|ve, so as
to |ncrease the chances o success |n promot|ng
c|eaner energy sources (Sch|ag and Zuzarte, 2008).
The fnd|ngs o the study are presented br|e1y |n the
next sect|on, o||owed by some o |ts conc|us|ons and
recommendat|ons.
8. asaarch hnd|ngs Irom housaho|d
survays and cosI banahI ana|ys|s
Agr|cu|tura| product|on systems |n the surveyed
areas are ma|n|y sma||-sca|e and subs|stence-
or|ented, geared to ||vestock and crop product|on.
The ma|n|y ra|n-ed crop product|on has two seasons,
the ma|n season (Ve|e|) beg|nn|ng |n Apr||/May
w|th harvests |n November/December, and a shorter
season (5e|) rom February to June. The ||vestock
and crop product|on systems are h|gh|y |ntegrated:
crop res|dues are stored as an|ma| eed wh||e dung
|s an |mportant source o ert|||zer. Househo|ds |n the
surveyed areas use a comb|nat|on o energy sources
throughout the year. F|rewood |s the |argest source
o energy w|th the h|ghest amount be|ng used |n the
th|rd quarter o each year. Other cook|ng ue|s cons|st
ma|n|y o dung and crop res|dues, but a|so kerosene,
charcoa| and e|ectr|c|ty. se o crop res|due |s h|gh
at harvest t|me, wh|ch runs rom October to January,
when more crop res|dues are ava||ab|e. Dung
co||ect|on |s more prom|nent dur|ng the dry season
when |t |s eas|er to process. lt |s then stored or use
dur|ng the wet season.
0. Ana|ys|s oI Iha poIanI|a| oI
b|ogas anargy
A cost-beneft ana|ys|s o 4 m
3
and 6 m
3
b|ogas
p|ants promoted by the NBPE was conducted. Wh||e
the 6 m
3
p|ant |s the most common, the 4 m
3
p|ant
|s appropr|ate under cond|t|ons where ||vestock
numbers are |ow. For qua||y|ng househo|ds, NBPE
recommends a ||vestock ho|d|ng o at |east our catt|e
or the 4 m
3
b|ogas p|ant and s|x catt|e or the 6 m
3

b|ogas p|ant. Among the surveyed househo|ds, about
38 per cent qua||fed or the 4 m
3
b|ogas p|ant and
about 19 per cent or the 6 m
3
p|ant. lnvestment costs
used |n th|s study were based on data prov|ded by the
NBPE, based on pr|ces preva|||ng |n March 2010. The
tota| costs o |nvest|ng |n a b|ogas p|ant amounted to
11,109 Eth|op|an b|rr (ETB) ($855) or a 4 m
3
p|ant and
11,906 ETB ($916) or a 6 m
3
p|ant. The NBPE pays a
subs|dy o 4,000 ETB ($308) per p|ant regard|ess o
s|ze. The rema|n|ng costs or each o those p|ants are
borne by the armers. The costs o operat|ng the p|ant
a|so |nc|uded the opportun|ty costs o t|me used |n
co||ect|ng dung and the costs o water needed to eed
the b|ogas p|ant.
The 4 m
3
and 6 m
3
b|ogas p|ants have the potent|a|
to rep|ace up to 2,208 kg and 3,319 kg, respect|ve|y,
o frewood per year when operat|ng at u|| capac|ty,
and they can save up to 6,015 kg and 9,021 kg o
dung, respect|ve|y, per year. However, the potent|a| to
rep|ace frewood w|th b|ogas was assumed to be on|y
60 per cent, as the current set-up does not support
|n/e|a 25 bak|ng wh|ch accounts or up to 60 per cent
o rura| househo|ds' tota| energy use (EESPO, 1995).
Obta|ned b|ogas was va|ued |n terms o rep|aced
frewood and dung.
To capture the benefts or d|erent househo|d types
|n terms o energy management, a cost-beneft
ana|ys|s was perormed us|ng three scenar|os: (|) or
househo|ds that |nvest |n b|ogas to rep|ace purchased
frewood or (||) to rep|ace co||ected frewood, and (|||)
or househo|ds that use dung as an energy source
|n add|t|on to co||ected frewood. A|| three scenar|os
assumed that dung and s|urry wou|d be used as
ert|||zer. For co||ected energy sources w|th no market
va|ue, the marg|na| product|v|ty o ema|e |abour |n
163
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
arm product|on was used. Dung carr|es add|t|ona|
va|ue or |ts ert|||zer content. Accord|ng to |aboratory
tests conducted on dung samp|es taken, 1 kg o
d|ammon|um phosphate (DAP) |s equ|va|ent to
approx|mate|y 16 kg o dry manure. Accord|ng to the
survey fnd|ngs, DAP has an average arm gate pr|ce
(purchase pr|ce p|us transport costs) o 7.50 ETB
($0.59) per k||ogram. Th|s trans|ates |nto 0.47 ETB
per k||ogram o dung. Oomb|n|ng co||ect|on costs and
ert|||zer opportun|ty costs, dung has a shadow pr|ce
o 0.72 ETB ($0.04) per k||ogram and 65.45 ETB ($5)
per g|ga|ou|e when used as an energy source.
The survey ound rates o return on cap|ta| |nvested |n
b|ogas p|ants to be above 10 per cent (tab|e 1), wh|ch
showed that adopt|ng b|ogas techno|ogy |s more
benefc|a| or househo|ds that purchase a|| o the|r
frewood. Th|s actor a|so makes b|ogas attract|ve
to th|s segment o rura| househo|ds, as benefts are
fnanc|a||y recovered through sav|ngs on frewood
purchase. Househo|ds that use dung or combust|on
stand to beneft more (h|gher net present va|ue
(NP\)) than those co||ect|ng frewood by adopt|ng
b|ogas techno|ogy. nder a|| three scenar|os, dung
and s|urry used as ert|||zer accounted or over 65
per cent o costs and benefts respect|ve|y. These
resu|ts are h|gh|y sens|t|ve to changes |n t|me sav|ngs,
expend|ture |eve|s and pr|ce o rep|aced ue| |n a||
three househo|d scenar|os. These actors are cruc|a|,
as they are ||ke|y to determ|ne ant|c|pated benefts
and perce|ved opportun|ty costs o cap|ta|, wh|ch
|n1uence househo|ds' dec|s|on on whether to |nvest
|n b|ogas. W|thout the subs|dy g|ven to armers by the
NBPE, |nvest|ng |n the b|ogas p|ant |s very r|sky or
househo|ds that co||ect the|r own frewood.
. 0onc|us|ons and racommandaI|ons
B|ogas techno|ogy presents an opportun|ty to
enhance synerg|es |n crop, ||vestock and energy
systems |n rura| Eth|op|a. The by-product o the
ermentat|on s|urry reta|ns the nutr|ent content that
|s otherw|se |ost through d|rect combust|on o dung
or energy. Orop res|dues that m|ght otherw|se be
used or energy are saved or an|ma| eed. However,
|ow shadow pr|ces o energy sources co||ected by
househo|ds mean that b|ogas |s unab|e to compete
un|ess heav||y subs|d|zed. The present subs|dy
scheme makes b|ogas an attract|ve opt|on, but th|s
Tab|a 1: 0osI-banahI ana|ys|s oI b|ogas p|anIs comparad W|Ih d|IIaranI Irad|I|ona| sourcas oI housaho|d anargy |n
EIh|op|a (EIh|op|an b|rr*)
Purchas|ng hraWood 0o||acI|ng hraWood 0o||acI|ng dung
4 m
3
6 m
3
4 m
3
6 m
3
4 m
3
6 m
3
0osIs
luveslmeul cosls 7 1O9 7 9OG 7 1O9 79OG 7 1O9 7 9OG
Na|uleuauce cosls G8O G8O G8O G8O G8O G8O
wale| cosls 1 8GO 2 79O 1 8GO 2 79O 1 8GO 2 79O
uug va|ue 41 9G5 G2 948 419G5 G2 948 41 9G5 G2 948
Tola| cosls 51 G14 74 824 51 G14 74 824 51 G14 74 824
8anahIs
B|ogas va|ue 17 1O1 25 G51 1 G5O 2 475 4 G5O 5 475
L|ghl|ug eue|gy saved 4 572 4 572 4 572 4 572 4 572 4 572
T|me saved 8 72O 8 72O 8 72O 8 72O 8 72O 8 72O
S|u||y va|ue 4G G28 G9 948 4G G28 G9 948 4G G28 G9 948
Tola| beuehls 72 O21 1O8 88G 5G 57O 8O 71O 59 57O 88 71O

hel p|eseul va|ue 2O 4O7 29 5G1 4 957 G 88G 7 957 9 88G
lule|ua| |ale ol |elu|u
(pe| ceul) 28.29 84.78 1O.52 11.9O 14.57 15.18
Sc0|ce: Survey data and SN\, 2010.
Nc|e: * 6 1~18 ETB, $1~13 ETB, a we|ghted average (Apr|| 2010).
D|scount rate 4%, per|od o use o b|ogas p|ant 20 years.
164
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
wou|d not be the case | subs|d|es were removed.
From the cost-beneft assessment o b|ogas p|ants,
|nvest|ng househo|ds stand to beneft ma|n|y through
the use o s|urry as a ert|||zer, as we|| as through
cost sav|ngs on energy use or trad|t|ona| cook|ng
and ||ght|ng and the assoc|ated |abour sav|ngs.
Oonsequent|y, proftab|||ty depends |arge|y on the use
o s|urry as a ert|||zer and on the pr|ce o rep|aced
energy sources. Thus, promot|on o dung and s|urry
|s v|ta| or the success o the b|ogas programme |n
Eth|op|a and or |mprov|ng agr|cu|tura| product|on or
ood secur|ty. A synergy to be urther exp|o|ted |s the
|abour-sav|ng eect o b|ogas compared w|th wood
or dung co||ect|on. Thus, the more |ncent|ves there
are to sw|tch to susta|nab|e energy sources such
as b|ogas, the greater w||| be the proftab|||ty and
|mprovement o |abour product|v|ty |n agr|cu|ture and
other sectors.
The econom|c attract|veness o b|ogas p|ants wou|d
be cons|derab|y |mproved | su|tab|e b|ogas
|n/e|a stoves were deve|oped or use by |nvest|ng
househo|ds. These stoves have the potent|a| to
enhance the use o b|ogas p|ants, thereby |ncreas|ng
the benefts accru|ng to househo|ds. Oheaper
a|ternat|ves to b|ogas p|ants and |mprovements |n
the techno|ogy rema|n an opt|on |n cater|ng to poor
househo|ds.
165
2. L|vestock Product|on: A O||mate Ohange and Food Secur|ty Hot Spot
aIarancas
Asner G and Archer S (2010). L|vestock and the g|oba| carbon cyc|e. ln: L|vestock |n a chang|ng |andscape, London ,
Ste|ne|d H et a|., eds.: 6982.
Athene Trust (1986). Does c|ose confnement cause d|stress |n sows? A rev|ew o the sc|ent|fc ev|dence. Prepared by
the Scott|sh Farm Bu||d|ngs lnvest|gat|on n|t, Aberdeen, Scot|and.
B|asba|g TL (2011). Ohanges |n consumpt|on o omega-3 and omega-6 atty ac|ds |n the n|ted States dur|ng the 20
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hoIas
1 An|ma| suer|ng and we|are are d|rect|y aected by |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on. For more |normat|on, see the
comment o Joyce D'S||va |n th|s chapter, see a|so D'S||va and Webster, 2010.
2 lt |s beyond the scope o th|s art|c|e to ana|yse the damag|ng eects o |ega| and |||ega| d|sposa| o dangerous
substances |n an|ma| eed or |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on and the use o contam|nated s|udge as ert|||zer on
crop|and.
3 Th|s art|c|e does not d|scuss the non-recyc||ng o human aeces |n so||, or a d|scuss|on o th|s |ssue, see K|ng,
1911.
4 By way o |||ustrat|on, ater |ts access|on to the E, Poman|a restr|cted the ree movement o horse- or cow-drawn
transport |n avour o motor|zed transport.
5 "lnexpens|ve" or "cheap" here means that a cons|derab|e proport|on o the costs o product|on rema|n externa||zed
|n pr|ces.
6 Th|s process, used or the |ndustr|a| product|on o ammon|a, |nvo|ves the n|trogen fxat|on react|on o n|trogen gas
and hydrogen gas over an enr|ched |ron or ruthen|um cata|yst.
7 Ammon|a |s not categor|zed as a GHG that has a d|rect |mpact on the c||mate, such as OO
2
, N
2
O and OH
4
, but |t
does have a re|evant |nd|rect |mpact through |ts eect on the atmosphere.
8 For some years, monocu|tures or agro-energy product|on are |ncreas|ng the amount o N
2
O em|tted rom
agr|cu|ture (or a more e|aborate ana|ys|s, see Hurn| et a|. |n chapter 4 o th|s Pev|ew).
9 Bes|des the genera| use o an|ma| excrements, th|s a|so concerns the separate use o ur|ne and aeces. Norma||y
the separat|on |s done through pastur|ng: the natura| separat|on or mamma|s prevents the mod|fcat|on o the
n|trogen compounds |n the ur|ne through the bacter|a conta|ned |n the aeces.
10 Oa|cu|ated us|ng the O||mate Ana|ys|s lnd|cators' Too| o the Wor|d Pesources lnst|tute, at: http://ca|t.wr|.org.
11 The act that an|ma| breed|ng |s more advanced than crop breed|ng does not re1ect a h|gher |eve| o techno|og|ca|
|nnovat|on. By way o |||ustrat|on, the commerc|a||zat|on o some transgen|c crops |s ar more deve|oped than
transgen|c an|ma|s.
12 ln 1996, the c|oned sheep "Do||y" was born ater thousands o attempts w|th embryos. Do||y was the frst mamma|
that was created by and surv|ved the techno|ogy o somat|c ce|| nuc|eus transer (SONT). A|though armed w|th a
patent, the "Do||y" method |s (as a|| other genet|c and c|on|ng methods) not a b|ue pr|nt to get |dent|ca| cop|es.
13 lndeed the human-m|crob|a| re|at|onsh|p |s extreme|y c|ose. A mass|ve amount o 10
14
bacter|a ex|st on and |n
humans a number 10 t|mes h|gher than the 10 b||||on ce||s |n a human body.
14 Aga|nst th|s background, b|oue| cert|fcates that confrm that the eedstock was not produced on crop|and der|ved
rom deorestat|on are on|y useu| | the t|me span beore convers|on |s we|| defned.
15 For more |normat|on, see, or |nstance, www.|ndexmund|.com/commod|t|es/?commod|ty~soybean-o||, and
Fa|r||e, 2010. lmba|ances |n the patterns o atty ac|ds through the re|ect|on or rep|acement o other o||s by cheaper
soy o|| are not urther e|aborated here. For more |normat|on |n th|s regard, see B|asba|g, 2011.
16 For a more e|aborate ana|ys|s, see lde|, 2010.
17 0,55 t o O 1,25 t o O2 ~ 1,8 t o OO
2
.
18 There |s a cruc|a| |nterp|ay between grass|and and rum|nant management, as ment|oned above, 40 per cent o
a|| |and |s grass|and and perenn|a| grass |s very eect|ve or carbon sequestrat|on. Wh||st orests expand the|r
b|omass vo|ume by on|y about 10 per cent per year, savannahs can reproduce 150 per cent o the|r vo|ume (lde|,
2010, 2012, Pau| et a|., 2009).
19 On the OO
2
ass|m||at|on potent|a| o grass|ands, see FAO, 2009.
20 Not accounted or are permanent |ce-covered suraces o Green|and and the Antarct|c, where there |s no grass|and
yet. ln Europe, grass|and covers about a quarter o the tota| |and surace.
21 lnter a||a carbon s|nk unct|on, protect|on or eros|on, prote|n and energy source, source o |ncome or about one
tenth o the wor|d popu|at|on.
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
22 As hybr|d p|gs and ch|ckens are ed w|th concentrates |n |ntens|ve product|on systems, grass-ed |and races o
rare p|gs, geese, ch|ckens and others cannot compete aga|nst them, so that they end up on the ||st o spec|es that
are threatened w|th ext|nct|on (or more |normat|on, see FAO: The State o the wor|d's an|ma| genet|c resources
or ood and agr|cu|ture. www.ao.org/docrep/010/a1250e/a1250e00.htm).
23 Th|s eect |s a |og|ca| consequence o the |ncrease o the sex-spec|fc perormance o ema|e an|ma|s. The ocus
on boost|ng da|ry perormance |s at the expense o the energy be|ng used or meat generat|on. Based on the same
|og|c, the brothers o hybr|d |ay|ng hens ga|n we|ght very s|ow|y.
24 ln the n|ted K|ngdom, due to unsat|sactory atten|ng perormance, a |arge percentage o ma|e ca|ves o h|gh
perormance da|ry cows (|.e. Ho|ste|n, Fr|es|an, Jersey) are be|ng k|||ed every year |mmed|ate|y ater they are born
(Weeks, 2007).
25 ln|era |s a th|n, 1at and spongy bread made rom te 1our w|th a d|ameter o about 60 cm, and |s an |mportant part
o the trad|t|ona| d|et |n Eth|op|a. lt |s trad|t|ona||y prepared on a 1at c|ay pan o match|ng d|ameter.
172
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Absl|acl
The ma|n cha||enges conront|ng susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| know|edge, sc|ence and techno|ogy (AKST) de-
ve|opment re|ate to ach|ev|ng a trans|t|on rom the convent|ona| |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture mode| w|th |ts h|gh
externa| |nputs and vested |nterests o the ma|n p|ayers |n supp|y|ng agr|cu|tura| |nputs, output process|ng
and market|ng. Th|s requ|res po||t|ca| w||| on the part o po||cymakers to |mp|ement the new course o ac-
t|on suggested by severa| spec|a||zed |nst|tut|ons, |nc|ud|ng the lAASTD, NOTAD, NEP, N-DESA and
the H|gh Leve| Pane| o Experts on Food Secur|ty and Nutr|t|on as we|| as by the recent FAO-OEOD Expert
Meet|ng on Green|ng the Economy w|th Agr|cu|ture, he|d |n September 2011. There |s amp|e ev|dence |n
these reports to |ust|y new |nvestments |n AKST or susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. Pressure at the po||cy |eve| |s
grow|ng due to the ser|es o ood cr|ses, both w|th respect to shortages and pr|ce |ncreases, exper|enced
over the past ew years. The tendency rema|ns strong to cont|nue w|th bus|ness as usua|, wh|ch a|ms at
qu|ck fxes and qu|ck resu|ts.
1
l the repet|t|on o the ood cr|ses that are becom|ng more requent |s any
|nd|cat|on, then these qu|ck fxes w||| run the|r course ast, w|th enormous negat|ve soc|a|, env|ronmenta|
and econom|c consequences.
The case or a change |n parad|gm |s we|| documented. Mere|y fne-tun|ng the present systems or redefn-
|ng the status quo w|th new terms such as "susta|nab|e crop product|on |ntens|fcat|on" or "c||mate smart
agr|cu|ture", among others, w||| not br|ng about the parad|gm sh|t needed. To stop the "m|n|ng" o natura|
cap|ta| and, |n part|cu|ar, to drast|ca||y reduce GHG em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|ture and make |t more c||mate
res|||ent requ|res a genu|ne, undamenta| transormat|on backed by add|t|ona| research. Agroeco|ogy has
the proper oundat|ons to support the needed trans|t|on rom where we are today to where we need to be
by 2050, w|th a|| our agr|cu|ture, whether |t |s sma|| or |arge-sca|e, both at the |oca| and g|oba| |eve|s. Agr|-
cu|ture and armers need to be among the key cons|derat|ons o po||cymakers, as peop|e may suer rom
fnanc|a| cr|s|s but they cannot surv|ve w|thout ood and water.
Agr|cu|ture shou|d be top o the agenda |n the debate on susta|nab|e deve|opment and the green economy
o||ow|ng the P|o20 conerence. lt |s on|y | agr|cu|ture, |n |ts mu|t|unct|ona| ro|e, takes centre stage that
the other aspects o susta|nab|e deve|opment w||| a|| |nto p|ace. The cha||enge or AKST |s posed and the
so|ut|ons or a new agr|cu|tura| parad|gm presented. lt |s now up to po||cymakers to sw|ng |nto act|on. The
t|me or more reports and debates on the mer|ts o th|s or that techno|ogy has passed, we owe |t to uture
generat|ons to act now, and dec|s|ve|y, to saeguard our c||mate by bu||d|ng res|||ence and mu|t|unct|ona|-
|ty |nto our ood systems to cope w|th the |nev|tab|e changes. These are the yardst|cks aga|nst wh|ch we
w||| have to measure progress towards susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. The AKST po||c|es o tomorrow w||| need to
address these cha||enges and deve|op the needed sc|ence, too|s and cr|ter|a to |mp|ement the trans|t|on
and measure progress.
Load Art|c|o: 1HL OLL O| L5LACH, 1LCHNOLOGY AND
LX1LN5|ON 5Lv|CL5 |N A |UNDAMLN1AL
1AN5|OMA1|ON O| AG|CUL1UL
haus R. he||eu
P|es|deul, N|||euu|um lusl|lule
173
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
A. InIroducI|on
There |s an |mperat|ve need or a undamenta| change
|n the way the wor|d grows, processes and consumes
|ts ood. As stated |n the Peport o the lnternat|ona|
Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence
and Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD, 2009),
"Bus|ness as usua| |s not an opt|on". What |s meant
by th|s |s that |n order to transorm agr|cu|ture and the
broader ood system, agr|cu|tura| know|edge, sc|ence
and techno|ogy (AKST) need to be recast to address
the past (unso|ved), present and uture cha||enges o
ood and nutr|t|on secur|ty, poverty and hunger, and
preserve rura| ||ve||hoods, hea|th and the env|ronment.
The process that |ed to the lAASTD (a|so known as
the Ag Assessment) and |ts |mp|ementat|on was
un|que |n the sense that |t |nc|uded a|| stakeho|ders,
rom producers to consumers, as we|| as |nput
supp||ers and processors. The process was dec|ded
at the n|ted Nat|ons Wor|d Summ|t on Susta|nab|e
Deve|opment |n Johannesburg |n 2002, under a
|o|nt |n|t|at|ve o the Wor|d Bank and the Food and
Agr|cu|ture Organ|zat|on o the n|ted Nat|ons (FAO),
and was supported by the n|ted Nat|ons Env|ronment
Programme (NEP), the n|ted Nat|ons Deve|opment
Programme (NDP), the n|ted Nat|ons Educat|ona|,
Sc|ent|fc and Ou|tura| Organ|zat|on (NESOO), the
Wor|d Hea|th Organ|zat|on (WHO) and the G|oba|
Env|ronment Fac|||ty (GEF). Th|s |ntergovernmenta|
support gave the lAASTD the broad base needed to
set the stage or chang|ng the course o agr|cu|ture
through a recast|ng o the AKST, or at |east |t was
thought so, g|ven that the report was u|t|mate|y a|so
endorsed by 59 countr|es and we|comed by an
add|t|ona| three.
S|nce 2009, ew AKST po||c|es at the nat|ona|, reg|ona|
or |nternat|ona| |eve|s have actua||y changed. More
reports have been wr|tten, most|y on|y to d||ute the
strong key messages o the lAASTD regard|ng the
centra||ty o sma||ho|der armers who pract|ce h|gh|y
d|verse orms o cu|t|vat|on, the |nappropr|ateness
o an undue re||ance on b|otechno|ogy and genet|c
eng|neer|ng to so|ve the ma|n prob|ems o our
agr|cu|tura| and ood systems, as we|| as the need to
a||ow countr|es to choose the|r own agr|cu|tura| trade,
research and deve|opment (P&D) po||c|es that su|t
the|r spec|fc cond|t|ons and needs.
ln 2008, the lAASTD a|ready observed that what
happens w|th AKST, and agr|cu|ture |n genera|, |n
deve|oped countr|es strong|y aects what happens
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, because o the h|gh|y
|nterconnected wor|d |n terms o trade and know|edge
exchange. lt shou|d be noted that wh||e, overa||, P&D
|n agr|cu|ture has d|m|n|shed |n |mportance over the
past two decades, ore|gn a|d |s now on the r|se aga|n
as a response to severa| ood cr|ses, a|though most|y
|n the orm o qu|ck fxes such as the prov|s|on o
seeds, pest|c|des and ert|||zers. Fore|gn a|d cont|nues
to command |arge |nvestments, most|y contro||ed
and dec|ded by deve|oped countr|es, wh|ch st||| tend
to cons|der the|r agr|cu|ture as the "ro|e" mode| or
deve|op|ng countr|es. nortunate|y, there rema|ns
a tendency to |ncrease short-term |nvestments |n
qu|ck fxes most|y ater ma|or catastrophes and ood
emergenc|es. Such act|ons, a|though needed |n order
to a||ev|ate short-term human|tar|an prob|ems, se|dom
tack|e the root o the perenn|a| hunger prob|em, and
mere|y prov|de a br|dge to the next emergency. Th|s
orm o a|d |s c|ear|y |nadequate or so|v|ng the causes
o the repeated hunger and poverty prob|ems, there |s
a need to reth|nk the overa|| approach to ood secur|ty.
The lAASTD (2009) and NOTAD (Homann, 2011)
as we|| as the H|gh Leve| Pane| o Experts on Food
Secur|ty and Nutr|t|on to the FAO Oomm|ttee on
Wor|d Food Secur|ty (OFS-HLPE, 2011) g|ve a very
good account o the magn|tude o past |nvestments
|n agr|cu|tura| P&D at nat|ona| and reg|ona| |eve|s, as
we|| as the|r sources, both pub||c (|.e. by mu|t||atera|
and member States o the Deve|opment Ass|stance
Oomm|ttee (DAO) o the OEOD) and pr|vate. There
was a s||ght dec||ne o such |nvestments unt|| 2003,
ater wh|ch they started show|ng s|gns o recovery
when deve|op|ng-country governments began
|ncreas|ng the|r spend|ng on agr|cu|ture, and DAO and
mu|t||atera| a|d agenc|es a|so |ncreased the amount
a||ocated to agr|cu|ture, both |n tota| vo|ume and as a
share o ofc|a| deve|opment ass|stance (ODA) (N-
DESA, 2011).
From the data prov|ded |n these reports, |t |s
c|ear that there |s a ser|ous and urgent need to
acce|erate the modest upward trend |n agr|cu|tura|
|nvestments. As stated |n the lAASTD report (2009),
there |s a|so a need to rect|y the |mba|ance |n the
sources o und|ng by substant|a||y |ncreas|ng pub||c
support to AKST, both |n deve|oped and deve|op|ng
countr|es, s|nce the research |s supposed to de||ver
common pub||c goods. Th|s wou|d he|p counteract
the trend |n pr|vate |nvestments wh|ch emphas|zes
a narrow approach that tends to ocus |arge|y
on promot|ng p|ant breed|ng, b|otechno|ogy and
genet|c eng|neer|ng as so|ut|ons to the prob|ems
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
o c||mate change adaptat|on and m|t|gat|on, ood
secur|ty, hunger and poverty, rura| ||ve||hoods and
the assoc|ated hea|th and env|ronmenta| prob|ems.
However, the comp|ex|ty o the agr|cu|tura| and
w|der ood systems urgent|y requ|res an upgrad|ng
and change o course away rom the reduct|on|st
approach to prob|em so|v|ng. The ar more soc|a||y,
env|ronmenta||y and, u|t|mate|y, econom|ca||y
reward|ng route o |nvest|ng |n sma||ho|der and
am||y-run agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng systems does not
rece|ve the attent|on |t deserves.
The undamenta| |ssue |n agr|cu|ture today |s not that
there |s too ||tt|e ood produced, ater a|| we produce
an average o 4,600 kca| per person/day rough|y
doub|e the amount needed or hea|thy nutr|t|on. A
number o |ssues ||nked to th|s overproduct|on need
to be addressed through new AKST po||c|es:
On|y a ew commod|t|es make up the bu|k o g|oba|
ood product|on, wh|ch does not sat|sy the need
or more d|verse and |oca||zed product|on o qua||ty
and aordab|e ood,
The excess ood |s produced most|y |n
|ndustr|a||zed countr|es (w|th some deve|op|ng-
country except|ons such as lnd|a) w|th the he|p o
pr|ce- and trade-d|stort|ng subs|d|es and at great
soc|a| costs,
The excess ood |s produced a|so at great
env|ronmenta| costs, contr|but|ng between 47 and
54 per cent o the tota| greenhouse gas (GHG)
em|ss|ons that are part|y respons|b|e or c||mate
change (see the comment o GPAlN |n chapter 1 o
th|s Pev|ew).
An|ma| eed product|on, part|cu|ar|y cerea|s or
rum|nants, has a negat|ve |mpact on an|ma|
and consumer hea|th (due to meat qua||ty, and
ant|b|ot|c and hormone res|dues), and on the
env|ronment through carbon cyc|es when eed |s
transported around the wor|d. There |s a|so the
env|ronmenta| prob|em o an|ma| actor|es wh|ch
needs to be overcome, a|ong w|th an emphas|s on
an|ma| we|are, c||mate change and human hea|th
cons|derat|ons.
Oonsumpt|on o b|oue|s, |n the orm o cerea|s
and vegetab|e o||s, shou|d be reassessed and
po||c|es rev|sed to reverse the strong growth o
such consumpt|on, wh|ch |s c|ear|y unsusta|nab|e.
Bes|des, some observers have ound no ev|dence
o added benefts o b|oue|s |n terms o |ower GHG
em|ss|ons, but they do aect ood pr|ces negat|ve|y
(OFS HLPE, 2011, Lag| et a|., 2011).
The sh|t |n AKST |nvestments at |nternat|ona|, reg|ona|
and nat|ona| |eve|s thereore needs urgent|y to address
these undamenta| |ssues, as suggested both by the
lAASTD and more recent|y by NEP (2011).
ln 2003, member States o the Ar|can n|on
comm|tted to spend 10 per cent o the|r nat|ona|
budgets on agr|cu|tura| deve|opment. So ar, on|y a
handu| o them are meet|ng th|s |audab|e target. That
dec|s|on was made based on the recogn|t|on that
|t |s |n each country's best |nterest to have a strong
agr|cu|tura| sector, backed by a we||-deve|oped
research and extens|on capac|ty. The |atest ood cr|s|s
|n the Horn o Ar|ca may yet g|ve more credence to
the need or urgent act|on, |n part|cu|ar to deve|op
susta|nab|e so|ut|ons to the |ncreas|ng |mpacts o
c||mate-change-|nduced phenomena, such as those
caused by E| N|o and |a N|a.
The n|ted Nat|ons Oonerence on Susta|nab|e
Deve|opment P|o20 he|d |n June 2012 was
another good opportun|ty to strong|y comm|t to a
new agr|cu|tura| and ood system a|ong the ||nes o
a mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|tura| system, as defned |n
the lAASTD report. As Homann and GPAlN |||ustrate
|n chapter 1 o th|s Pev|ew, agr|cu|ture |s strong|y
|mp||cated as part o the c||mate-change prob|em. lt
must thereore a|so be part o the so|ut|on. Enormous
hea|th prob|ems have ar|sen rom "modern d|ets"
o h|gh|y processed and chem|ca|-|aced oodstus,
not to ment|on the eco|og|ca| |mpacts o ex|st|ng
convent|ona| ood product|on systems that overuse
water, ert|||zers and other oss||-ue|-based |nputs,
and are thereore, by defn|t|on, unsusta|nab|e.
Furthermore, the so-ca||ed convent|ona|/|ndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture |s supported by perverse subs|d|es |n
deve|oped countr|es that re|norce unsusta|nab|e
pract|ces, on the one hand, and overconsumpt|on
and waste on the other. ln deve|op|ng countr|es,
armers try|ng to compete w|th these subs|d|zed
products are orced to cut corners and exp|o|t
the|r natura| resources. Due to poor |nvestment
|n agr|cu|ture, these armers suer rom a |ack o
know|edge exchange and |nsufc|ent or a comp|ete
absence o |nvestment capac|ty to |nnovate and
purchase m|sce||aneous |nputs, |nc|ud|ng |normat|on
and equ|pment. Moreover, they do not beneft rom
|nsurance schemes. Agr|cu|ture everywhere |s a
rather r|sky bus|ness wh|ch needs to be backed by
|nsurance schemes to assure armers the|r surv|va| |n
bad years, wh|ch are becom|ng more regu|ar events
as c||mate-change |mpacts |ncrease.
175
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
The trans|t|on rom an energy-|ntens|ve orm o
agr|cu|ture, be |t by |mport|ng the |nputs or produc|ng
them |oca||y, to a system that bu||ds product|ve
ecosystem serv|ces to susta|n mu|t|unct|ona|,
susta|nab|e, res|||ent, v|ab|e and equ|tab|e agr|cu|ture
requ|res ma|or new |nvestments |n |nst|tut|ons and
|nrastructure. Th|s |nev|tab|y requ|res the creat|on o
new research centres and |n|t|at|ves, wh|ch shou|d be
ded|cated to research, educat|on and extens|on under
a u||y part|c|patory system that w||| a|so avour women
and cover ecosystem serv|ces, organ|c arm|ng,
agroeco|ogy and agroorestry. The u|t|mate a|m o those
centres and |n|t|at|ves shou|d be the transormat|on o
the present agr|cu|tura| research system at nat|ona|,
reg|ona| and |nternat|ona| |eve|s to cater to the needs
o a new agr|cu|tura| parad|gm (see the comments
o Pe|| |n th|s chapter and o A|t|er| and Koohakan |n
chapter 1 o th|s Pev|ew). Techno|og|ca| and sc|ent|fc
|nnovat|ons shou|d respond to the needs |dent|fed
by the end-users to meet the goa|s o mu|t|unct|ona|
agr|cu|ture, |nstead o dr|v|ng those needs.
Oontrary to many preconcept|ons, agroeco|ogy |s
not the |ow-product|v|ty system o our ancestors,
rather |t |s a modern, know|edge-based, sc|ence-
and techno|ogy-empowered ood, fbre and odder
product|on system, and |t |s the on|y one capab|e o
assur|ng ood secur|ty |n the med|um and |ong term
(see a|so the comment o Nemes on the product|v|ty
and proftab|||ty o organ|c agr|cu|ture |n chapter 1).
The merg|ng o know|edge w|th techno|ogy and
sc|ence to create |nnovat|ons that address the broad
range o |ssues |n a system|c manner, |n contrast to
the reduct|on|st approach that promotes b|otech and
genet|c eng|neer|ng |ndustr|es, needs to be strong|y
promoted through pub||c sector |nvestments. Areas
that requ|re spec|a| and |ncreased attent|on are so||
sc|ences or the restorat|on, bu||d|ng and ma|ntenance
o so|| ert|||ty w|thout the mass|ve |nput o synthet|c
ert|||zers, the deve|opment o m|xed cropp|ng and
an|ma| husbandry systems w|th|n rotat|on patterns
that avour hea|thy p|ant growth, frst ||ne o deense
or pest and d|sease contro|, and the product|on o
qua||ty p|ant and an|ma| products that |mprove the
hea|th o consumers and the env|ronment. AKSTs
that u|f| these cr|ter|a are ho||st|c |n nature, take a
|andscape or r|ver-bas|n v|ew and emphas|ze the
susta|nab|e ut|||zat|on o b|od|vers|ty, water, so|| and
energy w|th|n the agroecosystems.
ln an eort to eva|uate the eas|b|||ty o susta|nab|e
"green" agr|cu|ture to dea| w|th the prob|ems and
cha||enges that ||e ahead, wh||e prov|d|ng the needed
ood and nutr|t|on secur|ty or the pro|ected 9 b||||on
peop|e by 2050, NEP (2011) sought to exam|ne
how green |nvestments wou|d he|p ach|eve greater
econom|c, env|ronmenta| and soc|a| susta|nab|||ty.
Fo||ow|ng the S|e|n Pe.|e.'s (2007) recommendat|ons
to |nvest an extra 1 or 2 per cent o gross domest|c
product (GDP) |n a green economy, two scenar|os
were |dent|fed, us|ng the M|||enn|um lnst|tute's T21
system dynam|cs mode|, |n wh|ch the suggested
add|t|ona| |nvestments |n green agr|cu|ture wou|d be
undertaken g|oba||y.
2
ln the frst scenar|o (G1), an
add|t|ona| 0.1 per cent o GDP wou|d be |nvested |n
green agr|cu|ture annua||y (equa| to $118 b||||on |n
constant 2010 do||ars) between 2011 and 2050. ln
the second scenar|o (G2), 0.16 per cent wou|d be
|nvested |n green agr|cu|ture annua||y (equa| to $198
b||||on) dur|ng the same per|od. These add|t|ona|
|nvestments wou|d be undertaken |n equa| one-ourth
measures |n the o||ow|ng our act|v|t|es a|ong the ||nes
suggested by the lAASTD (2009):
Promot|ng susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| management
pract|ces (|.e. env|ronmenta||y sound pract|ces
such as no/|ow-t|||age and organ|c agr|cu|ture),
M|n|m|z|ng pre-harvest |osses through tra|n|ng and
pest contro| act|v|t|es,
Deve|op|ng or |mprov|ng ood process|ng or
the prevent|on o post-harvest |osses and better
storage, espec|a||y |n rura| areas,
Support|ng research and deve|opment |n
agronomy, photosynthes|s efc|ency, so|| b|o|ogy
and ert|||ty (to c|ose the y|e|d gap), adaptat|on to
c||mate change through b|o|og|ca| processes and
new crops, and or efc|ency |mprovements |n
energy and water use.
lt shou|d be noted that P&D |mp||es the part|c|pat|on
|n research and know|edge d|ssem|nat|on o the
d|erent stakeho|ders, |n part|cu|ar armers who are
oten women |n deve|op|ng countr|es. NEP (2011)
shows that |nvestments |n susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture
can meet the need or ood secur|ty |n the |ong term,
wh||e reduc|ng agr|cu|ture's carbon ootpr|nt, thereby
mak|ng |t part o the c||mate change so|ut|on. The
mode|||ng resu|ts summar|zed |n tab|e 1 are |n ||ne w|th
the expectat|ons o a new agr|cu|tura| parad|gm and
the fnd|ngs o many organ|c and agroeco|ogy case
stud|es. They show that not on|y ood secur|ty, but
a|so env|ronmenta| and soc|a| goa|s, can be ach|eved
w|th a susta|nab|e and res|||ent agr|cu|tura| system.
ln tab|e 1, the "green scenar|o" (G2) |s compared
176
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
w|th a "bus|ness-as-usua|" (BA) scenar|o, where
the same amount o add|t|ona| |nvestment, equa|||ng
0.16 per cent o GDP/year, |s made |n convent|ona|
and trad|t|ona| agr|cu|ture over a 40-year per|od.
The resu|ts are |mpress|ve, and a|though these are
comp||ed on a g|oba| sca|e, the bas|c pr|nc|p|es
a|so app|y to the |nvestments made to ac|||tate the
trans|t|on towards mu|t|unct|ona| and susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture that adopts trad|t|ona| and |ow-|nput
techn|ques as current|y pract|ced |n most deve|op|ng
countr|es by sma||-sca|e armers as we|| as by some
|arger sca|e operat|ons. Overa||, these |nvestments w|||
|ead to |mproved so|| qua||ty, |ncreased agr|cu|tura|
y|e|d and reduced |and and water requ|rements.
They w||| a|so |ncrease GDP growth and emp|oyment,
|mprove nutr|t|on and reduce energy consumpt|on
and carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
) em|ss|ons.
8. Agr|cu|Iura| producI|on and
va|ua addad
ln the green scenar|o, tota| agr|cu|tura| product|on (|.e.
agr|cu|tura| products, ||vestock, fsher|es and orestry)
wou|d |ncrease s|gn|fcant|y compared w|th the BA
scenar|o. Th|s change wou|d be dr|ven by |ncreased
crop product|on that wou|d be capab|e o meet|ng the
needs o a grow|ng popu|at|on pro|ected to reach over
9 b||||on by 2050. S|m||ar|y, va|ue added |n agr|cu|tura|
product|on wou|d |ncrease by more than 11 per cent
compared w|th the BA scenar|o. lt |s |mportant to note
that desp|te an |ncrease |n agr|cu|tura| product|on and
va|ue added, there wou|d be no |ncrease |n the area
harvested, wh||e deorestat|on rates wou|d be ha|ved
and water-efc|ency |ncreased by one th|rd. Th|s
suggests pos|t|ve synerg|es between |nvestments |n
eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture and orest management.
0. L|vasIoc| producI|on, nuIr|I|on and
||va||hoods
Add|t|ona| |nvestments |n green agr|cu|ture wou|d
a|so |ead to |ncreased |eve|s o ||vestock product|on
and rura| ||ve||hoods, and |mproved nutr|t|ona| status.
Such |nvestments are pro|ected to |ead to growth
|n emp|oyment o about 60 per cent compared w|th
current |eve|s, and to an |ncrease o about 3 per cent
compared w|th the BA scenar|o. The mode|||ng a|so
suggests that |nvestments |n green agr|cu|ture cou|d
create 47 m||||on add|t|ona| |obs compared w|th BA
over the next 40 years. The add|t|ona| |nvestments
|n green agr|cu|ture cou|d a|so |ead to |mproved
nutr|t|on as a resu|t o enhanced product|on methods.
Meat product|on wou|d |ncrease by 66 per cent due
to add|t|ona| |nvestments between 2010 and 2050,
wh||e fsh product|on wou|d be 15 per cent be|ow
2011 |eve|s and yet 48 per cent h|gher than the BA
scenar|o by 2050. Most o these |ncreases wou|d
be the resu|t o greater out|ays or organ|c ert|||zers
|nstead o chem|ca| ert|||zers, and reduced |osses
because o better pest management and b|o|og|ca|
contro|.
Tab|a 1: raan scanar|o Z: ImpacI oI graan |nvasImanIs |n agr|cu|Iura (amounI|ng Io 0.16 par canI oI P)
Yaar Z011 Z030 Z060
8canar|o 8asa yaar raan 8A
a
raan 8A
a
Ag||cu|lu|a| p|oducl|ou ($ b||||ou/y|) 1,921 2,421 2,2G8 2,852 2,559
C|ops ($ b||||ou/y|) G29 88G 795 99G 918
L|vesloc| ($ b||||ou/y|) 489 59O 588 72G 715
l|she||es ($ b||||ou/y|) 1OG 7G 88 91 G1
Emp|oymeul (m||||ous) 1,O75 1,898 1,871 1,7O8 1,G5G
So|| qua||ly (mu|) O.92 O.97 O.8 1.O8 O.78
Ag||cu|lu|e wale| use (KN8/y|) 8,889 8,52G 4,27G 8,2O7 4,878
ha|vesled |aud (b||||ous ol ha) 1.2 1.25 1.27 1.2G 1.81
elo|eslal|ou (m||||ous ol ha/y|) 1G 7 15 7 15
Ca|o||es pe| cap|la/day (|ca|)
ava||ab|e lo| supp|y
2,787 8,O98 8,O5O 8,882 8,278
Ca|o||es pe| cap|la/day (|ca|)
ava||ab|e lo| househo|d cousumpl|ou
2,O81 2,8O5 2,815 2,524 2,47G
Sc0|ce. NEP, 2011.
Nc|e.
a
BA~ bus|ness as usua| (scenar|o).
177
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
. h am|ss|ons
Tota| OO
2
em|ss|ons |n the agr|cu|tura| sector are
pro|ected to |ncrease by 11 per cent re|at|ve to 2011,
but w||| be 2 per cent be|ow BA. Wh||e energy-re|ated
em|ss|ons (most|y rom oss|| ue|s) are pro|ected to
grow, |t |s worth not|ng that em|ss|ons rom (chem|ca|)
ert|||zer use, deorestat|on and harvested |and wou|d
dec||ne re|at|ve to BA. When account|ng or carbon
sequestrat|on |n the so|| rom eco|og|ca| pract|ces, and
or synerg|es w|th |ntervent|ons |n the orestry sector,
net GHG em|ss|ons wou|d dec||ne cons|derab|y.
These reduct|ons wou|d not be sufc|ent, however,
and wou|d need to be substant|a||y stepped up to
make agr|cu|ture GHG-neutra|. Depend|ng on how
the GHG em|ss|ons are ca|cu|ated, at product|on
or ood system |eve|, the reduct|on wou|d have to
be between 30 and 50 per cent o the em|ss|ons
resu|t|ng rom present day agr|cu|tura| pract|ces, |ust
to stay at 450 parts per m||||on (ppm) o OO
2.
Th|s,
by any measure, |s st||| too h|gh and r|sks cont|nu|ng
to expose ecosystems to |rrevers|b|e damages.
lt |s thereore necessary to take a much more bo|d
approach to trans|t|on|ng towards organ|c and s|m||ar
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces that are ab|e to absorb three to
our t|mes as much OO
2
as convent|ona| and |ndustr|a|
pract|ces beore saturat|on occurs w|th|n some 50
years (lAASTD, 2009).
Agr|cu|ture thereore undoubted|y represents the
|owest hang|ng ru|t or c||mate change m|t|gat|on by
s|mp|y do|ng what we a|ready know how to do, and at
||tt|e costs or the trans|t|on. ln add|t|on, the trans|t|on
wou|d be accompan|ed by a number o w|nda||s, rom
a substant|a| reduct|on |n hea|th-care costs due to
hea|th|er eat|ng and ||v|ng hab|ts to a drast|c reduct|on
o ecosystem serv|ce costs and substant|a| sav|ngs
rom stopp|ng perverse subs|d|es. Thus a trans|t|on to
organ|c/agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng pract|ces shou|d be
the abso|ute pr|or|ty when |nvest|ng |n AKST and new
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces.
Overa||, comb|n|ng these resu|ts w|th research rom
other sources presents the o||ow|ng resu|ts:
Peturns on |nvestments |n "brown" agr|cu|ture w|||
cont|nue to decrease |n the |ong run, ma|n|y due
to |ncreas|ng costs o |nputs (espec|a||y water and
energy) and stagnat|ng/decreas|ng y|e|ds.
The costs o negat|ve externa||t|es o "brown"
agr|cu|ture w||| cont|nue to |ncrease gradua||y,
|n|t|a||y neutra||z|ng and eventua||y exceed|ng any
econom|c and deve|opment ga|ns.
Green|ng agr|cu|ture and ood d|str|but|on w|||
resu|t |n more ca|or|es per person/day, more |obs
and bus|ness opportun|t|es espec|a||y |n rura|
areas and greater market access opportun|t|es,
espec|a||y or deve|op|ng countr|es.
Wh||e each o the proposed measures w||| contr|bute
to the sh|t towards a greener agr|cu|tura| sector, the
comb|nat|on o a|| these |nterre|ated act|ons w||| y|e|d
add|t|ona| pos|t|ve synerg|es. For |nstance, |nvestment
|n more susta|nab|e arm|ng pract|ces w||| |ead to so||
conservat|on, wh|ch wou|d |ncrease agr|cu|tura| y|e|d
|n the med|um to |onger term. Th|s wou|d a||ow more
|and or reorestat|on, wh|ch |n turn wou|d reduce |and
degradat|on and |mprove so|| qua||ty.
Look|ng at the key |ssue o res|||ence needed |n the
years ahead to dea| w|th the cha||enges o c||mate
change, |n part|cu|ar |n deve|op|ng countr|es that w|||
be aected much more than deve|oped countr|es,
|nvestment |n AKST w||| need to be we|| above the |eve|
|nd|cated |n the S|e|n Pe.|e., g|ven that there |s the
need to a||ow or a catch-up per|od o at |east 20 years to
adapt the research systems (un|vers|t|es, nat|ona| and
reg|ona|) to the needs o sma||-sca|e armers who are
pract|c|ng susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. A|so, the enormous
d|vers|ty |n most trop|ca| and sub-trop|ca| agr|cu|tura|
systems adds to the need or decentra||zat|on o the
research and the accompany|ng measures, such as
know|edge and |normat|on d|ssem|nat|on.
E. Enab||ng cond|I|ons
Desp|te the c|ear |og|c and econom|c rat|ona|e or
mov|ng more rap|d|y towards susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture,
the trans|t|on w||| requ|re a support|ve po||cy
env|ronment and enab||ng cond|t|ons that cou|d
he|p |eve| the p|ay|ng fe|d between convent|ona|
and susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces. ln part|cu|ar,
|arge |nvestments |n rura| |nrastructure, |nc|ud|ng
roads, power, |nternet access, access to hea|th care
and qua||ty schoo||ng, as we|| as |nvestments |n non-
arm|ng but agr|cu|ture-re|ated |obs, are essent|a|
or ma|nta|n|ng the rura| areas as ||ve|y, |nterest|ng
and reward|ng p|aces so as to keep the youth rom
m|grat|ng to the ever-grow|ng urban s|ums.
F. Tha Way IorWard
lmp|ementat|on o the key fnd|ngs and opt|ons or
act|on o the lAASTD report w||| make agr|cu|ture part
o the c||mate-change so|ut|on. lt w||| a|so assure
susta|nab|e qua||ty and quant|ty o ood product|on to
178
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
nour|sh the grow|ng and more demand|ng popu|at|on
wh||e support|ng strong rura| deve|opment |n
agr|cu|ture-re|ated |obs.
The groundbreak|ng fnd|ngs o the lAASTD process
need to be |nterna||zed and trans|ated |nto p|ans that
can be |mp|emented by the re|evant government
agenc|es respons|b|e or AKST, as we|| as by nat|ona|
and |nternat|ona| deve|opment agenc|es and non-
governmenta| organ|zat|ons (NGOs). The lAASTD
report needs to be seen as the bas|s or act|on and
or deve|op|ng a genu|ne mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|tura|
system. New assessments need to be done at the
g|oba| and reg|ona| |eve|s to update the or|g|na|
report, comp|ement gaps and take |nto account new
soc|a|, env|ronmenta| and econom|c deve|opments.
Assessments a|so need to be conducted at nat|ona|
|eve|s, as recommended by the lAASTD (2009), as
agr|cu|tura| po||c|es are very much a nat|ona| |ssue,
and a|so because agr|cu|ture |s h|gh|y |oca|. A
rev|ew o the reports on agr|cu|ture that have been
pub||shed s|nce the re|ease o the lAASTD report
ser|es, /||c0||0|e a| a C|css|caos, |n 2009, have
added ||tt|e except conus|on to the ca|| or a change
|n parad|gm and to the assert|on that bus|ness as
usua| |s no |onger an opt|on. The unds and va|uab|e
expert t|me spent on rewr|t|ng and, more oten
than not, d||ut|ng the strong or|g|na| message or a
trans|t|on to mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|ture a|ong the ||nes
o agroeco|ogy, or examp|e, cou|d have been better
used to start |mp|ement|ng |t |nstead.
The ma|n expected outputs rom |mp|ement|ng the
lAASTD opt|ons or act|on at research, deve|opment
and extens|on po||cy |eve|, as |n the green scenar|o
wh|ch the M|||enn|um lnst|tute deve|oped or NEP
(2011), may be summar|zed as o||ows:
G|een a||c0||0|e |s caoao|e c/ nc0||s||n a
|c.|n ano mc|e oemano|n .c||o oco0|a||cn
a| |||e| n0|||||cna| |e.e|s. An |ncrease |n ood
energy consumpt|on rom today's 2,100 kca|
per person/day to around 2,500 kca| by 2050 |s
poss|b|e w|th the use o know|edge, sc|ence and
techno|ogy |n support o agroeco|ogy. lt |s poss|b|e
to ga|n s|gn|fcant nutr|t|ona| |mprovements rom an
|ncrease |n quant|ty and d|vers|ty o ood (espec|a||y
non-cerea|) products. Pub||c, pr|vate and c|v||
soc|ety |n|t|at|ves or |mprov|ng ood secur|ty and
soc|a| equ|ty w||| be needed to enab|e an efc|ent
trans|t|on at the arm |eve|, and to assure a sufc|ent
qua||ty o nutr|t|on or a|| dur|ng th|s per|od.
/|cecc|c, can s|n|/can||, |eo0ce oc.e||, ano
||e asscc|a|eo nea||.e scc|a| ano en.||cnmen|a|
|moac|s. For every 10 per cent |ncrease |n arm
y|e|ds, there has been a 7 per cent reduct|on o
poverty |n Ar|ca, and more than 5 per cent |n As|a.
An |ncrease |n overa|| GDP der|ved rom an |ncrease
|n agr|cu|tura| |abour product|v|ty |s, on average,
2.5 t|mes more eect|ve |n ra|s|ng the |ncomes o
the poorest qu|nt||e |n deve|op|ng countr|es than
an equ|va|ent |ncrease |n GDP der|ved rom an
|ncrease |n non-agr|cu|tura| |abour product|v|ty.
Ev|dence suggests that the app||cat|on o green
arm|ng pract|ces has |ncreased y|e|ds by 54179
per cent, espec|a||y on sma|| arms.
/ ||ans|||cn |c a|cecc|c, o|c.|oes s|n|/can|
en.||cnmen|a| oene/|s. Agroeco|ogy-based ood
product|on has the potent|a| to rebu||d natura| cap|-
ta| by restor|ng and ma|nta|n|ng so|| ert|||ty, reduc|ng
so|| eros|on and |norgan|c agrochem|ca| po||ut|on,
|ncreas|ng water use efc|ency, decreas|ng
deorestat|on, b|od|vers|ty |oss and other |and-use
|mpacts, and s|gn|fcant|y reduc|ng agr|cu|tura|
GHG em|ss|ons. lmportant|y, green agr|cu|ture has
the potent|a| to transorm agr|cu|ture rom be|ng
a ma|or em|tter o GHGs to one that |s net GHG-
neutra| and poss|b|y prov|des even a GHG s|nk
wh||e reduc|ng deorestat|on and reshwater use
by 55 per cent and 35 per cent respect|ve|y.
/|cecc|c|ca| /cco o|co0c||cn |as ||e oc|en||a|
|c oe a ne| /co c|ea|c|, and tends to emp|oy more
peop|e per un|t o agr|cu|tura| product|on than
convent|ona| agr|cu|ture. Add|t|ona||y, ac|||t|es
or ensur|ng ood saety and h|gher qua||ty o
ood process|ng |n rura| areas cou|d create new,
h|gh-qua||ty |obs |n the ood product|on cha|n.
The two scenar|os (G1 and G2) conce|ved by the
M|||enn|um lnst|tute suggest that |nvestments |n
eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture cou|d create 12 m||||on and
66 m||||on add|t|ona| |obs, respect|ve|y, compared
w|th the BA scenar|o over the next 40 years.
/ ||ans|||cn |c a|cecc|c|ca| /a|m|n o|ac||ces .|||
|eq0||e aoo|||cna| |n.es|men|s. The aggregate g|oba|
cost o the |nvestments and po||cy |ntervent|ons
requ|red or a trans|t|on towards green agr|cu|ture |s
est|mated to average between $83 and $141 b||||on
per annum over the per|od 2011 to 2050 or the 1
or 2 per cent GDP scenar|os, respect|ve|y, and |t
w||| prov|de s|gn|fcant anc|||ary benefts to other
econom|c sectors and the env|ronment. lt shou|d
be noted that compared w|th the present |eve| o
(perverse) subs|d|es to |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture o
more than $300 b||||on per annum, the |nvestment
179
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
suggested by the S|e|n Pe.|e. |s very modest
too modest |n act to ach|eve the needed |eve|s
o GHG m|t|gat|on and rea||ze the u|| potent|a| o
env|ronmenta| serv|ces.
Susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture requ|res |nvestments |n
research and capac|ty-bu||d|ng |n the o||ow|ng
key areas: so|| ert|||ty management, more efc|ent
and susta|nab|e water use, crop and ||vestock
d|vers|fcat|on, and p|ant and an|ma| hea|th
management, as we|| as pre- and post-harvest |oss
reduct|on. lt a|so requ|res substant|a| |nvestments
|n appropr|ate |eve|s o mechan|zat|on, bu||d|ng
upstream and downstream supp|y cha|ns or
bus|nesses and trade, reduct|on o ood process|ng
waste, support|ng and |mp|ement|ng capac|ty-
bu||d|ng eorts, such as armer fe|d schoo|s
(|nc|ud|ng expand|ng and equ|pp|ng agr|cu|tura|
extens|on serv|ces w|th modern lOT too|s), and
ac|||tat|ng |mproved market access or sma||ho|der
armers and cooperat|ves.
Not un||ke agr|cu|tura| modern|zat|on, susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture requ|res |nst|tut|ona| strengthen|ng,
|nc|ud|ng reorm o |and r|ghts, good governance
and |nrastructure deve|opment, such as roads,
e|ectr|fcat|on and |nternet access |n rura| areas |n
deve|op|ng countr|es (lAASTD, 2009). These can
be summed up as enab||ng cond|t|ons.
S0s|a|nao|e a||c0||0|e a|sc |eq0||es na||cna|
ano |n|e|na||cna| oc||c, |nnc.a||cns, |nc|0o|n
|n |n|e|na||cna| ||aoe oc||c,. Such po||cy
changes shou|d ocus part|cu|ar|y on reorm|ng
"env|ronmenta||y harmu|" subs|d|es that art|fc|a||y
|ower costs o agr|cu|tura| |nputs and promote the|r
excess|ve use. Po||cy measures are needed that
reward armers or pos|t|ve externa||t|es such as
reduc|ng oss||-ue|-based agr|cu|tura| |nputs and
|mp|ement|ng other susta|nab|e/green agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces. Ohanges |n trade po||c|es that |ncrease
access o agr|cu|tura| exports or|g|nat|ng |n
deve|op|ng countr|es to markets |n h|gh-|ncome
countr|es are a|so necessary, a|ong w|th reorms o
trade-d|stort|ng product|on and export subs|d|es.
These w||| ac|||tate greater part|c|pat|on by
sma||ho|der armers, cooperat|ves and |oca|
ood-process|ng enterpr|ses |n ood product|on
va|ue cha|ns. Governments w||| a|so need to
cons|der support|ng the|r armers by means o
pr|ze stab|||zat|on unds. ln add|t|on, they shou|d
cons|der sett|ng up strateg|c reserves to cope w|th
unexpected events, and, more and more ||ke|y,
extreme weather events such as droughts, 1oods
and storms resu|t|ng rom c||mate change (or a
more deta||ed d|scuss|on, see chapter 5 o th|s
Pev|ew).
180
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
ln the ||ght o the cha||enges ac|ng the current
agr|cu|tura| sector, |nnovat|on |s cruc|a| to ach|ev|ng
a system|c sh|t rom convent|ona|, |ndustr|a|,
monocu|ture-based product|on systems that are
h|gh|y dependent on externa| |nputs, towards more
susta|nab|e product|on systems that both |mprove
the product|v|ty o sma||-sca|e armers and ac|||tate
se|-susta|ned |oca| rura| deve|opment. Th|s requ|res
system-w|de adaptat|ons |n both product|on and
consumpt|on systems, as we|| as a reorder|ng o
the va|ue cha|n. Many countr|es are attempt|ng to
reorm the|r agr|cu|tura| |nnovat|on support systems
w|th the a|m o deve|op|ng 1ex|b|e and respons|ve
capac|t|es to ach|eve th|s system|c change. Oentra|
to th|s reorm |s the sh|t rom a ||near approach
to |nnovat|on, |n wh|ch pub||c sector agr|cu|tura|
research and extens|on de||vers new techno|ogy |n a
p|pe||ne confgurat|on (|.e. through a ||near 1ow rom
research, v|a extens|on, to armers), to a system|c
approach |n wh|ch |nnovat|on |s the resu|t o a process
o network|ng, |nteract|ve |earn|ng and negot|at|on
among a heterogeneous set o pub||c, pr|vate and
c|v|| soc|ety actors (Wor|d Bank, 2006, lAASTD, 2009).
Such an approach recogn|zes that system|c change
|n agr|cu|ture beyond new techn|ca| pract|ces requ|res
|nst|tut|ona| change |nvo|v|ng a|ternat|ve ways o
organ|z|ng, or examp|e markets, |abour, |and tenure
and d|str|but|on o benefts.
Th|s paper d|scusses the chang|ng ro|e o extens|on
serv|ces |n such an |nnovat|on system, a|med at
contr|but|ng to a system|c change |n agr|cu|tura|
product|on systems.
8. 0hang|ng dahn|I|ons and
ro|as oI axIans|on
ln many countr|es, adv|ce to armers |s prov|ded not
|ust by a s|ng|e pub||c extens|on serv|ce, but rather
by severa| extens|on serv|ces (a|so |ncreas|ng|y ca||ed
"adv|sory serv|ces") wh|ch cons|st o a p|ethora o
pub||c, pr|vate and NGO-based adv|sers (P|vera
and Su|a|man, 2009). Th|s |mp||es that extens|on
systems today can be very broad|y defned as
"systems that shou|d ac|||tate the access o armers,
the|r organ|zat|ons and other market actors to
know|edge, |normat|on and techno|og|es, ac|||tate
the|r |nteract|on w|th partners |n research, educat|on,
agr|-bus|ness, and other re|evant |nst|tut|ons,
and ass|st them to deve|op the|r own techn|ca|,
organ|zat|ona| and management sk|||s and pract|ces"
(Ohr|stop|os, 2010: 3). The ro|e o extens|on |n rura|
areas has thus expanded to |nc|ude serv|ces that go
beyond agr|cu|ture, and may |nc|ude the o||ow|ng
(Ohr|stop|os, 2010):
D|ssem|nat|on o |normat|on about techno|og|es,
new research, markets, |nput and fnanc|a| serv|ces,
as we|| as c||mate and weather.
Tra|n|ng and adv|ce or |nd|v|dua| armers, groups
o armers, armer organ|zat|ons, cooperat|ves and
other agr|bus|nesses a|ong the market cha|n.
Test|ng and pract|ca| adaptat|on o new on-arm
techno|og|es and pract|ces.
Deve|opment o bus|ness management sk|||s
among sma||ho|der armers and other |oca|
entrepreneurs.
Fac|||tat|ng ||nkages among market actors (e.g.
or fnanc|a| and non-fnanc|a| |nputs, process|ng
Absl|acl
The ro|e o extens|on serv|ces has w|dened beyond s|mp|y d|ssem|nat|on o |normat|on, and now |nc|udes
the broker|ng and ac|||tat|on o mu|t|-stakeho|der |nnovat|on networks. Th|s expanded ro|e needs to be
urther deve|oped, |n terms o boost|ng the|r capac|t|es, and recogn|zed as cata|yt|c to system|c change.
Commontary |: Lffoct|vo Lxtons|on 5orv|cos for 5ystom|c Chango:
Ach|ovomonts and Barr|ors to |mp|omontat|on
Lau|eus K|e||/
Commuu|cal|ou aud luuoval|ou Slud|es, wageu|ugeu uu|ve|s|ly, wageu|ugeu, The helhe||auds.
181
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
and trad|ng), |nc|ud|ng broker|ng co||aborat|on and
promot|ng |earn|ng among them.
L|nk|ng sma||ho|der armers, rura| entrepreneurs
and other members o the agr|cu|tura| commun|ty
w|th |nst|tut|ons that oer tra|n|ng and educat|on |n
fe|ds re|evant to the agr|cu|tura| sector.
Fac|||tat|ng ||nkages between armers, the|r
organ|zat|ons and the pub||c sector.
Support|ng |nst|tut|ona| deve|opment processes
and soc|a|, |nst|tut|ona| and organ|zat|ona|
|nnovat|ons.
Support|ng the deve|opment o |norma| and orma|
armer organ|zat|ons, and rura| youth organ|zat|ons,
and he|p|ng them to art|cu|ate the|r demands.
Support or |mp|ement|ng government po||c|es and
programmes through |normat|on, awareness and
adv|ce on techno|og|ca| opt|ons, |nc|ud|ng |and
stewardsh|p, ood saety and an|ma| we|are.
Oontr|but|ng to the deve|opment o more
appropr|ate po||c|es and programmes by ac|||tat|ng
eedback rom armers and |oca| entrepreneurs.
lncreas|ng awareness o new opportun|t|es or
cert|fcat|on o ''green,'' a|r trade and other
product|on methods.
Fac|||tat|ng access to non-extens|on government
support (such as weather-re|ated |nsurance,
phytosan|tary and cert|fcat|on serv|ces) and
subs|dy programmes, |nc|ud|ng payment to
armers or env|ronmenta| serv|ces and other
schemes re|ated to carbon cred|ts.
Fac|||tat|ng access to cred|t rom rura| fnance
|nst|tut|ons or armers and |oca| entrepreneurs.
Prov|d|ng nutr|t|on educat|on.
Med|at|ng |n con1|cts over natura| resources.
Prov|d|ng |ega| and fsca| adv|ce.
0. Tha ro|a oI axIans|on as sysIam|c
"|nnovaI|on bro|ars"
The above descr|pt|on o the expanded ro|e o
extens|on serv|ces makes |t c|ear that to enhance mu|t|-
stakeho|der |nteract|on or system|c change, extens|on
serv|ces need to prov|de more than on|y one-on-one
techn|ca| adv|ce and tra|n|ng (a|though th|s rema|ns
an |mportant and essent|a| unct|on o extens|on), they
a|so need to serve as |nnc.a||cn o|c|e|s |n |nnovat|on
systems (K|erkx, Ha|| and Leeuw|s, 2009), enhanc|ng
the ormat|on o mu|t|-stakeho|der |earn|ng and
|nnovat|on networks and act|ng as ac|||tators o those
networks. Such |nnovat|on brokers perorm three core
unct|ons:
Art|cu|at|ng demand: art|cu|at|ng |nnovat|on needs
and v|s|ons as we|| as correspond|ng demands
|n terms o techno|ogy, know|edge, und|ng and
po||cy, ach|eved through prob|em d|agnos|s and
ores|ght exerc|ses.
Support|ng the creat|on o networks: ac|||tat|ng
||nkages amongst re|evant actors (|.e. scann|ng,
scop|ng, f|ter|ng and matchmak|ng o poss|b|e
cooperat|on partners).
ndertak|ng |nnovat|on process management:
enhanc|ng convergence o goa|s and |nterests
and mutua| understand|ng |n mu|t|-stakeho|der
networks compr|s|ng actors w|th d|erent
|nst|tut|ona| reerence rames re|ated to norms,
va|ues, and |ncent|ve and reward systems.
There are severa| examp|es o the useu|ness o th|s
|nnovat|on broker ro|e |n deve|op|ng countr|es or
ach|ev|ng the needed (s|mu|taneous) adaptat|ons at
severa| |eve|s |n product|on systems and va|ue cha|ns
(see boxes 1 and 2).
Box 1: Broker|ng the South-Amer|can Papa And|na susta|nab|e va|ue cha|n |nnovat|on network
The lnternat|ona| Potato Oentre (OlP) |n Peru serves as an |nnovat|on broker through the Papa And|na network |n the con-
text o va|ue cha|n |nnovat|ons (wh|ch ||nk armers to markets) |n Bo||v|a, Ecuador and Peru (or deta||s, see Devaux et a|.,
2009 and 2010). By app|y|ng a so-ca||ed part|c|patory market cha|n approach, re|evant market cha|n actors are brought
together to d|scuss poss|b|e |nnovat|ons, and trust has been bu||t amongst organ|zat|ons as d|verse as agr|cu|tura| re-
search organ|zat|ons, NGOs, armer groups and traders, wh|ch |n the past had not genera||y |nteracted. These actors
are brought together on stakeho|der p|atorms, both at the |oca| |eve| amongst potato prov|ders, |oca| author|t|es and a
range o serv|ce prov|ders (e.g. |nputs), and a|so at the market cha|n |eve|, |nc|ud|ng traders, processors, supermarkets,
researchers and extens|on agents. As a resu|t, new products have been created w|th greater va|ue added or sma|| arm-
ers. For examp|e, potato ch|ps made rom |nd|genous potato var|et|es produced by sma||ho|ders are marketed |n Peru
under the Lay's |abe| wh|ch |s owned by the mu|t|nat|ona| corporat|on, Peps|co (Th|e|e et a|., 2009).
182
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
. InnovaI|va axIans|on approachas aI
Iha Iarm |ava|
These |nnovat|on brokers typ|ca||y target a var|ety
o stakeho|ders or ach|ev|ng system|c change, and
oten act at reg|ona|, nat|ona| and sectora| |eve|s.
They may a|so target re|at|ve|y sma|| groups o more
|nnovat|ve and entrepreneur|a| armers. ln add|t|on,
|nnovat|ve extens|on moda||t|es and methods have
been deve|oped to support system|c change at the
arm |eve| and the sca||ng up o |nnovat|ons that
ac|||tate such change. Three prom|s|ng approaches
are armer fe|d schoo|s (FFS), the use o v|deo-
med|ated |earn|ng, and the use o |normat|on and
commun|cat|on techno|og|es (lOTs) and mob||e
phones.
FFS are a part|c|patory method o susta|nab|e
techno|ogy deve|opment based on adu|t educat|on
pr|nc|p|es, such as exper|ent|a| |earn|ng (Dav|s, 2008)
and a orm o armer-to-armer extens|on. Groups o
armers meet |n an |norma| sett|ng on the|r arms w|th
a ac|||tator, such as an extens|on worker. The FFS |s
an |nteract|ve tra|n|ng method to enab|e armers to
become techn|ca| experts on the|r arm|ng systems,
and armers are he|ped to d|agnose prob|ems, fnd
so|ut|ons, conduct exper|ments and d|ssem|nate what
they have |earned to other armers.
Part|c|patory or armer-|ed v|deo presentat|ons are a
poweru| too| that can s|gn|fcant|y |ncrease the |mpact
o good pract|ces and research (\an Me|e, 2008, \an
Me|e, Wanvoeke and Zossou, 2010). They oer the
advantage o be|ng more cost-eect|ve than armer-
to-armer extens|on, and can somet|mes have a
stronger |earn|ng |mpact, because they oer a better
means o exp|a|n|ng under|y|ng b|o|og|ca| or phys|ca|
processes. Furthermore, armer-|ed v|deos can
va|or|ze and bu||d on armers' know|edge and exp|a|n
|nnovat|on |n the|r own |anguage. The Ar|ca P|ce
Oenter |n Oote d'lvo|re has ac|||tated the deve|opment
and trans|at|on o 11 r|ce v|deos (\an Me|e, Wanvoeke
and Zossou, 2010) wh|ch have been trans|ated |nto
30 Ar|can |anguages. Open a|r v|deo shows have
enhanced |earn|ng, exper|mentat|on, confdence, trust
and group cohes|on among rura| peop|e. The armer-
|ed |earn|ng v|deos (|) enab|e unsuperv|sed |earn|ng,
(||) oster |oca| creat|v|ty and exper|mentat|on, (|||)
ac|||tate |nst|tut|ona| |nnovat|ons, and (|v) |mprove
soc|a| |nc|us|on o the poor, the youth and women.
Fo||ow|ng the rap|d spread o the lnternet and mob||e
phones |n many deve|op|ng countr|es, a range o
lOTs (such as |normat|on k|osks and te|ecentres) and
mob||e-phone-based "|nomed|ar|es" have emerged
(Ba||antyne, 2009), wh|ch enab|e sma||ho|der armers
to access, or examp|e, re|evant sources o market
|normat|on, |nput pr|ces and an|ma| hea|th |normat|on.
An examp|e o pos|t|ve change |n an|ma| hea|th care
systems |s FAPM-Ar|ca, an NGO work|ng |n Kenya
wh|ch deve|oped a decentra||zed an|ma| hea|th-
care system |n |ts Kenya Da|ry Goat and Oapac|ty
Bu||d|ng Pro|ect (KDGOBP) (K|thuka, Mutem| and
Mohamed, 2007). The KDGOBP system works w|th
commun|ty an|ma| hea|th workers, who buy drug k|ts
and mob||e phones at a subs|d|zed pr|ce. The pro|ect
Box 2: lnnovat|on broker|ng or |nc|us|ve, demand-dr|ven research and |nnovat|on |n lnd|a:
Nat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| lnnovat|on Programme
To make research more demand-dr|ven and support|ve o armers' |nnovat|on processes, the Nat|ona| Agr|cu|tura| ln-
novat|on Programme (NAlP) o the lnd|an Oounc|| o Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch ocuses on estab||sh|ng consort|a o pub||c
research organ|zat|ons |n partnersh|p w|th armers' groups, the pr|vate sector, c|v|| soc|ety organ|zat|ons and other stake-
ho|ders around agr|cu|tura| deve|opment themes. W|th|n NAlP's |ayered and decentra||zed governance structure, the
Pro|ect lmp|ementat|on n|t |s respons|b|e or coord|nat|ng and ac|||tat|ng |mp|ementat|on, wh||e consort|um |mp|emen-
tat|on comm|ttees coord|nate the research consort|a. ln other words, the NAlP a|ms to connect research more eect|ve|y
w|th |nnovat|on pract|ces. lt perorms th|s task by us|ng techno|ogy orecast|ng to he|p deve|op a v|s|on o what can be
ach|eved, br|ng|ng actors together and organ|z|ng mu|t|-stakeho|der pr|or|ty sett|ng exerc|ses, and operat|ng as an agent
o change |n the po||cy and |nst|tut|ona| env|ronment to enab|e |nnovat|on. Estab||sh|ng th|s k|nd o enab||ng env|ronment
requ|res changes |n und|ng systems, |ncent|ves, sk|||s and an organ|zat|ona| cu|ture to make research more recept|ve
to demand-dr|ven, part|c|patory approaches that are gender-sens|t|ve and encompass who|e sectors (armers, other
rura| entrepreneurs, |nput supp|y and agr|-process|ng |ndustr|es, traders and reta||ers). Add|t|ona| requ|rements are the
deve|opment o bus|ness p|ann|ng sk|||s, support or |ncubator organ|zat|ons or transorm|ng |nnovat|ve research |deas
|nto sound commerc|a| ventures, and the use o lOT systems to manage know|edge, enhance |normat|on-shar|ng and
match the demand or |normat|on to |ts supp|y.
Sc0|ce: www.na|p.|car.org.|n.
183
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
a|so |nsta||s commun|ty phones at veter|nary shops,
powered by so|ar pane|s and batter|es |n v|||ages
that |ack e|ectr|c|ty. The phone system a||ows an|ma|
hea|th workers to share |normat|on and updates and
conduct reerra|s, and |t resu|ts |n |ower transact|on
costs, wh|ch enhances the efc|ency o an|ma| hea|th-
care prov|s|on.
E. 8arr|ars Io |mp|amanIaI|on oI aIIacI|va
axIans|on sarv|cas Ior sysIam|c changa
lmp|ementat|on o an |nnovat|on broker ro|e or
extens|on serv|ces and the use o extens|on methods
such as FFS and part|c|patory v|deos, wh||e key to
ach|ev|ng system|c change, are not w|thout cha||enges
and barr|ers. These re|ate to capac|ty and und|ng.
Caoac||,: wh||e extens|on serv|ces are urged to
deve|op |nto ac|||tat|ng organ|zat|ons that connect
armers w|th d|erent sets o serv|ce prov|ders,
many st||| adhere to a ||near transer-o-techno|ogy
parad|gm (P|vera and Su|a|man, 2009). Extens|on
organ|zat|ons e|ther do not see the |nnovat|on
broker ro|e as centra| to the|r core bus|ness, or they
do not g|ve the reedom to execute the |nnovat|on
broker ro|e w|th|n the|r mandate. Thus there are st|||
constra|nts |n terms o m|nd-set and capac|ty, wh|ch
need to be overcome by (re-)tra|n|ng extens|on
prov|ders and retoo||ng or re|nvent|ng extens|on |n
order to p|ay the ro|e o |nnovat|on broker. However,
th|s w||| not be an easy process.
F0no|n: und|ng agenc|es such as donors and
governments shou|d recogn|ze the |mportance
o the broker|ng and ac|||tat|ng ro|e o extens|on.
These are typ|ca||y act|v|t|es w|th "sot |mpacts"
wh|ch are not easy to capture |n the hard |nd|cators
needed to show eect|veness, and hence there
may be a re|uctance to und such act|v|t|es (K|erkx,
Ha|| and Leeuw|s, 2009). Deve|op|ng adequate
measurements o the "|ntang|b|es" that matter
or st|mu|at|ng |nnovat|on and system|c change
|s thereore a ma|or concern (GFPAS, 2011). lt |s
worth not|ng that recent stud|es (e.g. Dav|s et a|.,
2012, Fr||ss-Hansen and Duveskog, 2012, Yorobe
Jr., Pe|esus and Hamm|g, 2011) have ound
pos|t|ve |mpacts o methods such as FFS.
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
Ar|can commun|t|es ||v|ng |n d|erent eco|og|ca|
cond|t|ons have deve|oped the|r own |oca| or
|nd|genous know|edge and techno|og|ca| systems
over the years to ensure ood secur|ty |n chang|ng
c||mat|c cond|t|ons (Kaz|nga, 2002). Werner (2000)
defnes |nd|genous know|edge systems as bod|es o
know|edge, sk|||s and be||es generated |oca||y, and
trad|t|ona||y transm|tted ora||y rom one generat|on
to the other. WHO (2001) has defned ood secur|ty
as ex|st|ng when a|| peop|e at a|| t|mes have access
to sufc|ent, sae, nutr|t|ous ood to ma|nta|n a
hea|thy and act|ve ||e. Sea (2004) states that, or
the|r surv|va|, more than 60 per cent o the peop|e |n
Ar|ca, espec|a||y |n the rura| areas, depend on lKS or
ood secur|ty, hea|th, natura| resource management,
con1|ct reso|ut|on and natura| d|saster management,
|nc|ud|ng adaptat|on to and m|t|gat|on o the eects
o c||mate change such as drought and 1oods.
These |oca| know|edge systems are aordab|e,
cu|tura||y acceptab|e and hence susta|nab|e. Through
an exam|nat|on o secondary sources, th|s paper
prov|des examp|es o lKS |n agr|cu|ture, and d|scusses
the prospects and cha||enges o |nterac|ng lKS w|th
modern know|edge and techno|og|ca| systems to
enhance ood secur|ty |n chang|ng c||mat|c cond|t|ons.
8. Ind|ganous AIr|can agr|cu|Iura|
|noW|adga and Iachno|og|ca|
sysIams Ior Iood sacur|Iy
Archaeo|og|ca| fnd|ngs |n var|ous parts o Ar|ca show
that agr|cu|ture started severa| m|||enn|a beore the
Ohr|st|an era. lt has been ound that the grow|ng o
domest|c wheat/bar|ey |n the western desert o Egypt
dates as ar back as around 7,000 B.O., and there |s
ev|dence o an|ma| husbandry (sheep/goats) dat|ng
back to around 6,000 B.O. Ar|can ood techno|og|es
have not on|y w|thstood the test o t|me but have a|so
spread across the g|obe, adapt|ng to and m|t|gat|ng
c||mate change (Sea, 2004). Some o the |nd|genous
Ar|can agr|cu|tura| know|edge and techno|og|ca|
systems are enumerated and d|scussed be|ow.
(|) M|xed or mu|t|p|e cropp|ng. Th|s |s the grow|ng
o two or more crops s|mu|taneous|y on the same
p|ece o |and. The concept beh|nd th|s system |s that
p|ant|ng mu|t|p|e crops has var|ous advantages or
househo|d and commun|ty ood secur|ty, |nc|ud|ng
prevent|ng the |oss o so|| nutr|ents, reduc|ng
weeds and |nsect pests, |ncreas|ng res|stance to
c||mate extremes (wet, dry, hot, co|d), reduc|ng p|ant
d|seases, |ncreas|ng overa|| product|v|ty and us|ng
scarce resources to the u||est extent. lt a|so prov|des
|nsurance aga|nst crop a||ure due to abnorma|
Absl|acl
lmprov|ng the use o |nd|genous know|edge systems (lKS) through the|r eect|ve comb|nat|on w|th mod-
ern know|edge and techno|ogy systems |s an |mportant |ssue, |n part|cu|ar or Ar|ca. Modern techno|ogy
systems oten tend to marg|na||ze Ar|can lKS and are thus not susta|nab|e. Any |nterace between the two
w||| on|y be re|evant | |nd|genous agr|cu|tura| pract|ces are app||ed to agr|cu|ture |n Ar|ca |n a way that en-
ab|es Ar|can armers to become know|edge creators and recogn|zes lKS as an |mportant source o know|-
edge. To enab|e the exchange o |normat|on between the two know|edge systems, part|c|patory measures
shou|d be taken to capture and conserve Ar|can lKS and d|ssem|nate |t among agr|cu|tura| researchers
and extens|on workers, ensur|ng that both systems o know|edge are re|evant |n |oca| sett|ngs.
Commontary ||: Comb|n|ng |nd|gonous Afr|can Know|odgo w|th
Modorn Know|odgo 5ystoms for |ood 5ocur|ty |n
Chang|ng C||mat|c Cond|t|ons:
Cha||ongos and rospocts
h.0 Kaya, aud Y. h. Se|el|
lKS Ceul|e ol E/ce||euce, ho|lh-wesl uu|ve|s|ly, Nmabalho, Soulh Al||ca
185
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
weather cond|t|ons. There are d|erent var|ants o
|ntercropp|ng systems pract|ced |n Ar|ca. These
|nc|ude m|xed |ntercropp|ng, row |ntercropp|ng and
re|ay |ntercropp|ng. M|xed |ntercropp|ng, whereby the
component crops are tota||y m|xed |n the fe|d, |s the
bas|c orm used |n most Ar|can countr|es. An examp-
|e o a common pract|ce |n the coasta| areas o East
Ar|ca (Kenya and the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a)
|s m|xed grow|ng o perenn|a|s such as cashews,
coconuts and mangoes. Other comb|nat|ons |nc|ude
cassava m|xed w|th bananas, ma|ze m|xed w|th
|egumes, sorghum w|th p|geon peas, and cotton w|th
cowpeas.
(||) Sh|t|ng/rotat|ona| arm|ng. Zarb (2011) defnes
rotat|ona| arm|ng as the cu|tura| and phys|ca|
|ntegrat|on o orest and agr|cu|ture, wh|ch stresses
the connect|on between the agr|cu|tura| system and
the ecosystem. When the fe|ds are a||ow, they a||ow
the regenerat|on o the so|| and |and, and th|s |s
o||owed by another cyc|e o arm|ng. The a||ow per|od
promotes r|ch nutr|ents to create a cont|nu|ng system
o agr|cu|ture. The cyc|e a|ds the regenerat|on o
auna and 1ora thereby conserv|ng |oca| b|od|vers|ty.
Samue| (2000) e|aborates the advantages o th|s
system based on h|s exper|ences |n the Oongo and
Oameroon. The |oca| commun|t|es there were ab|e to
cu|t|vate a w|de var|ety o p|ant spec|es due to a 6- to
10-year per|od o a||ow. Accord|ng to h|s observat|on,
the rotat|ona| arm|ng system as an |nd|genous ood
secur|ty strategy, was not a stand-a|one system, but
was comb|ned w|th other systems such as k|tchen
gardens, an|ma| husbandry, hunt|ng and gather|ng.
However, the current d|scourse on the cha||enges
o c||mate change has created pre|ud|ce aga|nst
rotat|ona| arm|ng (OAPE, 2004). Peop|e tend to
b|ame deorestat|on, orest fres and s|ash-and-burn
pract|ces as some o the causes o carbon em|ss|ons.
Th|s cr|t|c|sm |s reuted by Anderson (2007) us|ng
h|s observat|ons o rotat|ona| arm|ng |n eastern
N|ger|a. He |nd|cates that the a||ow system oers
opportun|t|es or adaptat|on o arm|ng to c||mate
change. Accord|ng to h|s study, the sh|t|ng cu|t|vators
nurture the orests even dur|ng the cu|t|vat|on phase.
l a||ow per|ods are |ong enough, rotat|ona| arm|ng
|s a stab|e system that ma|nta|ns so|| ert|||ty, and
can thereore be expected to be carbon neutra|. The
b|omass accumu|at|on |n rotat|ona| arm|ng |s |owest
ater two cyc|es (each |ast|ng at |east s|x years),
h|ghest ater one or our cyc|es, and |ntermed|ate
ater s|x to ten cyc|es.
(|||) Se|ect|on o spec|fc crops and agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces su|ted to part|cu|ar c||mat|c and eco|og|ca|
cond|t|ons. ln ar|d and sem|-ar|d areas, nomad|c
pastora||sts pract|ce extens|ve graz|ng, and cu|t|vat-
ors grow drought res|stant crops such as m|||et and
sorghum, short-cyc|e cowpeas, phaseo|us beans
and groundnuts (Oarpenter, 2006). ln hum|d and
sub-hum|d cond|t|ons, armers grow ood crops such
as m|||et, sorghum, ma|ze, groundnuts, cassava,
cowpeas, sweet potatoes, ra|n-ed r|ce, soybeans,
bananas and yams.
(|v) The |mportance o |nd|genous Ar|can post-harvest
techno|og|es or the preservat|on o per|shab|e ood
crops, such as root crops (e.g. cassava, yams and
sweet potatoes) grown ma|n|y |n the hum|d and sub-
hum|d trop|cs, cannot be overemphas|zed, g|ven
that much o the ood harvest produced |n Ar|can
countr|es |s |ost to spo||age and |nestat|ons (Kawesa,
2001). Trad|t|ona| Ar|can soc|et|es that have been
|arge|y dependent on these stap|es have deve|oped
var|ous |oca| storage and process|ng techn|ques
or them over the years. Accord|ng to Kawesa, the
cu|tura|-h|stor|ca| evo|ut|on o these soc|et|es |n
re|at|on to the|r ood p|ants has, |n genera|, made
them strong|y eco-centr|c |n the|r th|nk|ng, |n contrast
to the techno-centr|c approach preva|||ng |n the
Western wor|d. The d|erent stap|es are adapted to
part|cu|ar ecosystems and the crops harvested need
d|erent approaches |n the post-harvest techno|og|es.
For |nstance, cassava has h|gh|y per|shab|e roots that
can be stored or on|y a ew days. To overcome th|s
constra|nt, some Ar|can soc|et|es have deve|oped
|nd|genous techn|ques (that have been substant|a||y
|mproved by recent research) or stor|ng the roots
or substant|a| per|ods (Bakr, 2000). Most cassava-
consum|ng cu|tures a|so process the roots us|ng a
var|ety o soak|ng, dry|ng or ermentat|on techn|ques
to produce stab|e dr|ed products |n wh|ch the |eve| o
the tox|c, cyan|de, |s substant|a||y reduced.
(v) Pear|ng o drought-res|stant an|ma|s such as
goats, sheep and cows. Phephe (2000) d|scusses
the advantages o keep|ng savannah goats |n the
ar|d and sem|-ar|d c||mate o Southern Ar|ca. They
are hardy and adaptab|e, w|th a natura| res|stance to
t|ck-borne d|seases, such as heartwater, and other
externa| paras|tes, and requ|re m|n|mum hand||ng
and care. They are a|so heat- and drought-res|stant,
and eas||y endure co|d and ra|n, wh||e the|r p|gmented
sk|n prov|des protect|on rom strong u|trav|o|et
rays. They have re|at|ve|y s|mp|e and |ow nutr|t|ona|
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
requ|rements, and can surv|ve and reproduce where
other sma|| stock breeds cannot ex|st. The savannah
goats etch a h|gher net proft because o |ower |nput
costs. They breed year round, exh|b|t ear|y sexua|
matur|ty and have |ong reproduct|ve ||ves. ln add|t|on,
range perormance tr|a|s have shown that they are
res|stant to mouth and hoo prob|ems.
(v|) Ar|can |nd|genous commun|t|es have r|ch
know|edge o natura| d|saster management, as
|||ustrated by P|tso (2008). For examp|e, the Batswana,
Zu|u and other ethn|c groups |n Southern Ar|ca have
used the behav|our o var|ous an|ma|s, b|rds, p|ants
and |nsects as ear|y warn|ng |nd|cators o natura|
d|sasters such as drought, 1oods and am|ne.
(v||) ln her study o |nd|genous ood secur|ty systems
|n eastern Zamb|a, Mat|ke (2008) |ooks at the ro|e
p|ayed by trad|t|ona| granar|es as a post-harvest
strategy to ensure ood secur|ty. The trad|t|ona|
granary |s the poor man's ood store, bu||t us|ng |oca|
mater|a|s, know|edge and sk|||s to store and preserve
seeds and ood crops, such as ma|ze, m|||et and
sorghum, dr|ed beans and cassava, or uture use
and p|ant|ng. The granar|es are bu||t on e|evat|ons to
protect the gra|ns rom mo|sture, |nsects and rodents.
(v|||) Trad|t|ona| governance has p|ayed an |mportant
ro|e |n ood secur|ty, accord|ng to a study by
D|satsagae (2007). For examp|e, the study observed
that among the Zu|u and Xhosa peop|e |n South
Ar|ca, |oca| ch|es ma|nta|ned commun|ty granar|es
to protect the|r peop|e rom starvat|on dur|ng natura|
d|sasters such as am|nes, 1oods and drought.
(|x) Observ|ng nature to pred|ct weather. Ngany|
ra|nmakers |n the Luhya commun|ty o western Kenya
have been pred|ct|ng the weather or generat|ons,
us|ng changes |n nature to gu|de the|r adv|ce on how
the commun|ty shou|d t|me |ts arm|ng (Oga||o, 2010).
However, the errat|c weather patterns caused by
c||mate change mean that these ra|nmakers can no
|onger use natura| s|gns, such as observ|ng when trees
shed the|r |eaves or the behav|our o ants, to make
the|r pred|ct|ons. Moreover, they do not have access
to the techno|og|es ava||ab|e to meteoro|og|sts. A
|o|nt pro|ect by the n|ted K|ngdom and Oanada ||nks
the ra|nmakers w|th government meteoro|og|sts. The
two groups get together each season and produce
a orecast wh|ch |s d|ssem|nated us|ng a var|ety o
methods su|ted to commun|t|es where many peop|e
are ||||terate.
0. 0omb|n|ng |nd|ganous AIr|can
|noW|adga W|Ih modarn
|noW|adga and Iachno|og|as:
ProspacIs and cha||angas
W|th over 40,000 p|ant spec|es and over 1,000 ethn|c
groups, Ar|ca has both the cu|tura| and |nd|genous
p|ant d|vers|ty needed to |nv|gorate |ts agr|cu|tura|
economy and ensure |ts ood secur|ty under chang|ng
c||mat|c cond|t|ons (NDP, 1999). Peop|e |n the
reg|on use c|ose to 4,000 |nd|genous p|ants or ood,
|nc|ud|ng ru|t, cerea|s, |egumes, |eay vegetab|es
(about 1,000 d|erent k|nds), tubers and roots, and
many non-oods such as gums and add|t|ves. The
h|gh cu|tura| d|vers|ty |s ||nked to versat||e |nd|genous
know|edge and re|ated pract|ces, |nc|ud|ng a
var|ety o ood process|ng techn|ques and rec|pes.
However, |n sp|te o th|s great potent|a|, |nd|genous
know|edge has not been eect|ve|y used to reduce
current w|despread ma|nutr|t|on and poverty. The
types o |nd|genous oods consumed by most
Ar|can commun|t|es, espec|a||y |n the rura| areas,
and the methods o hand||ng, process|ng, market|ng,
d|str|but|on and ut|||zat|on are deep|y rooted |n trad|t|on
and exper|ence, |ead|ng to the deve|opment o var|ous
|nd|genous ood techno|og|es. These techno|og|es
are based on |oca| know|edge, exper|ence, art, cu|ture
and be||e systems, and have been d|st|||ed rom |oca|
exper|ences over centur|es. They aect the econom|c
and soc|a| ||ves o the operators, are s|mp|e, |abour-
|ntens|ve, and predom|nant|y home-based and
contro||ed by women. However, they are a|so t|me-
consum|ng, w|th poor or no qua||ty contro|.
Mat|ke (2008) prov|des examp|es o best pract|ces |n
comb|n|ng |nd|genous and modern techno|og|es |n
eastern Zamb|a, such as |oca| armers us|ng modern
sprayers to treat the|r arms w|th organ|c ert|||zers
and pest|c|des (||qu|d tea). ln the n|ted Pepub||c
o Tanzan|a and |n other parts o Ar|ca, |ncreas|ng|y,
|nd|genous seasona| oods are be|ng stored |n
modern ood storage and preservat|on ac|||t|es,
|nc|ud|ng dr|ers and r|dges, to pro|ong the|r she| ||e
(Kawesa, 2001). However, Kawesa argues that wh||e
the |nterace between Ar|can |nd|genous know|edge
and modern know|edge systems |s |mportant to
enhance ood secur|ty and promote c||mate change
adaptat|on and m|t|gat|on, |n the context o Ar|can
|nd|genous know|edge systems, ood product|on and
consumpt|on are much more than |ust econom|c or
nutr|t|ona| act|v|t|es. The processes and pract|ces
|nvo|ved take p|ace w|th|n spec|fc soc|a|, cu|tura| and
187
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
po||t|ca| contexts wh|ch are not a|ways understood
by scho|ars, researchers and po||cymakers tra|ned
|n Western env|ronments and perspect|ves. Th|s has
|ed to the a||ure o many deve|opment pro|ects that
a|med to |mprove the efc|ency o Ar|can |nd|genous
ood techno|og|es. For examp|e, the Green Pevo|ut|on
demonstrated the consequences o "outs|der"
know|edge: |t genera||y succeeded |n p|aces where
the techno|ogy was deve|oped, and a||ed |n those
p|aces where |oca| armers' needs, va|ues and
constra|nts d|ered rom those where the techno|ogy
was deve|oped (G|aeser, 1990).
lncreas|ng|y, a grow|ng number o Ar|can sc|ent|sts
and po||cymakers are becom|ng aware that lKS
can make a s|gn|fcant contr|but|on to enhanc|ng
ood secur|ty and susta|nab|e deve|opment (F|ora,
1992). Such know|edge |s re|evant to the modern
sc|ent|fc wor|d or a number o reasons, |nc|ud|ng
or the protect|on o b|od|vers|ty and the |nte||ectua|
property o the |nd|genous know|edge ho|ders. lKS
cou|d be used as the bas|s or the construct|on o
a tru|y a|ternat|ve agr|cu|ture or ood secur|ty and
susta|nab|e commun|ty ||ve||hoods |n Ar|ca, wh|ch |s
why |t |s be|ng |ncreas|ng|y |nc|uded |n the agendas o
research and deve|opment |nst|tut|ons. There needs to
be a "deconstruct|ve" process |n the "reconstruct|on"
o an a|ternat|ve sc|ence app||cab|e to agr|cu|ture. ln
order to ach|eve |ust and susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture or
ood secur|ty under chang|ng c||mat|c cond|t|ons, |t |s
necessary to recogn|ze that know|edge has mu|t|p|e
sources, |nc|ud|ng lKS. ln a study that mapped and
aud|ted |nd|genous agr|cu|tura| know|edge |n the
as|n G|shu and Ke|yo d|str|cts |n the P|t \a||ey
Prov|nce (Kenya), K|p|ang' at and Pot|ch (2008)
have suggested measures or |mprov|ng the
captur|ng, preserv|ng and d|ssem|nat|ng o Ar|can
|nd|genous know|edge to agr|cu|tura| researchers,
extens|on workers and armers. Th|s shou|d
ac|||tate the exchange o |normat|on between
|nd|genous know|edge pract|t|oners and agr|cu|tura|
extens|on serv|ces, promote cu|tura| acceptab|||ty o
deve|opment pro|ects and programmes, |ncrease
agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty and ood secur|ty, promote
|oca| agr|cu|tura| content |n modern techno|og|ca|
app||cat|ons, and create commun|ty-based |ncome-
earn|ng opportun|t|es or |oca| armers.
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
Strateg|es o m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on to chang|ng
env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons have been emphas|zed
|n numerous d|scuss|ons at a number o orums,
|nc|ud|ng the n|ted Nat|ons Framework Oonvent|on
on O||mate Ohange Oonerences. For the ma|or|ty
o commun|t|es throughout the wor|d that d|rect|y
ut|||ze natura| resources or the|r ||ve||hoods, the
expected changes |n c||mate dur|ng th|s century
present s|gn|fcant threats o d|sturbances (Thomas
et a|., 2007), espec|a||y where changes may be
unprecedented and pervas|ve (Oooper et a|., 2008).
The Fourth Assessment Peport o the lntergovern-
menta| Pane| on O||mate Ohange (lPOO, 2007)
|nd|cates that the exact nature o changes |n
c||mate rema|ns uncerta|n, but the ||ke||est scen-
ar|o |s |ncreased var|ab|||ty, part|cu|ar|y at the
extremes. Thereore, approaches or m|t|gat|ng the
accompany|ng d|rect and co||atera| eects need to
be d|scussed by |nd|genous commun|t|es, sc|ent|sts,
deve|opment partners and the po||t|ca| c|ass.
There are potent|a| synerg|es rom comb|n|ng lK w|th
emerg|ng and new patterns |n sc|ence to produce
opt|mum know|edge. lK usua||y bu||ds on ho||st|c
Absl|acl
Th|s comment demonstrates the r|chness o |nd|genous know|edge (lK) and the d|vers|ty o lK-re|ated
|nd|cators or mon|tor|ng c||mate var|ab|||ty and change. A|though the |nd|cators were not compared w|th
seasona| orecasts |ssued by the respect|ve orma| |nst|tut|ons, |t |s ev|dent that th|s r|ch know|edge |s
yet to be u||y harnessed and comb|ned w|th modern sc|ence. Know|edge-shar|ng among sc|ent|sts and
pastora||sts, comb|ned w|th capac|ty-bu||d|ng, |s necessary or |mprov|ng the qua||ty o c||mate orecasts,
and enab||ng pastora||sts and extens|on agents to |nterpret the probab|||st|c c||mate |normat|on |n order to
generate "best bet" on-arm pract|ces or the var|ous seasons. Th|s w||| eventua||y contr|bute to |ncreased
ood and nutr|t|on secur|ty |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
O||mate change and var|ab|||ty are |ssues o great concern g|oba||y, and are more pronounced |n deve|op-
|ng countr|es that ace many deve|opment cha||enges. Ourrent reports |nd|cate that the wor|d's c||mate
|s chang|ng at unprecedented rates, aect|ng ecosystem unct|ons and processes, b|od|vers|ty and the
human popu|at|on. Thereore, there |s a need to deve|op a||-|nc|us|ve robust strateg|es or c||mate change
m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on to the chang|ng env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons. Modern techno|og|es have p|ayed an
|mportant ro|e |n the susta|nab|e management o natura| resources |n the past, but w|th the ||ke||hood o
urther changes occurr|ng, modern sc|ence a|one cannot conserve nature or m|t|gate the eects o, and
ac|||tate adaptat|on to, c||mate change to enhance ood secur|ty. To ach|eve th|s, |t w||| be necessary to
|ntegrate trad|t|ona| know|edge and |nst|tut|ons w|th modern sc|ence. Th|s commentary prov|des examp|es
rom Kenya a country |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca that has enormous b|od|vers|ty to show the potent|a| o
trad|t|ona| know|edge or promot|ng conservat|on o b|o|og|ca| d|vers|ty and c||mate change m|t|gat|on.
Genera| |essons are a|so drawn rom other areas |n Ar|ca on the use o trad|t|ona| know|edge, pract|ces
and |nst|tut|ons |n des|gn|ng responses to c||mate change.
Commontary |||: 1ho 5ymb|os|s Botwoon Modorn 5c|onco
and 1rad|t|ona| Know|odgo for Lnhanc|ng
|ood 5ocur|ty and C||mato Chango
Adaptat|on
S.N. Nbu|u
Keuya Ag||cu|lu|a| Resea|ch lusl|lule, hal|oua| Beel Resea|ch Ceul|e, aud l.S. Kosgey, epa|lmeul ol Au|ma|
Sc|euces, Ege|lou uu|ve|s|ly, hjo|o, Keuya
8
189
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
p|ctures o the env|ronment by cons|der|ng a |arge
number o var|ab|es qua||tat|ve|y, wh||e sc|ence
tends to concentrate on a sma|| number o var|ab|es
quant|tat|ve|y. Pecent stud|es by Abed| and Badragheh
(2011) |nd|cate that lK |s a va|uab|e source o pract|ces
and a t|me-tested too| that wou|d be useu| to harness
or susta|nab|e deve|opment and or |mprov|ng ood
secur|ty. lt |s becom|ng cruc|a||y |mportant to recogn|ze
the ||m|ts o our sc|ent|fc know|edge (Brown, 2004)
and to rev|ew our understand|ng o what uncerta|nty
and var|ab|||ty |mp||es, as we|| as to exam|ne how
|nd|genous commun|t|es ||ve the|r everyday ||ves.
Th|s commentary prov|des examp|es rom Kenya
and draws genera| |essons rom other areas |n Ar|ca
about the use o trad|t|ona| know|edge, pract|ces and
|nst|tut|ons |n des|gn|ng responses to c||mate change
and var|ab|||ty.
8. 0ongruanca oI |nd|ganous and
sc|anI|hc |noW|adga sysIams |n
c||maIa prad|cI|on
The ro|e o c||mate and weather |normat|on |n he|p|ng
the arm|ng commun|ty to make cr|t|ca| dec|s|ons or
adaptat|on to c||mate change and var|ab|||ty cannot
be overemphas|zed. Farm-based dec|s|on-mak|ng
|n deve|op|ng countr|es re||es to a |arge extent on
|nd|genous weather orecasts, part|y because o
the absence o orma| c||mate |normat|on systems
|n some deve|op|ng countr|es. ln other countr|es
where meteoro|og|ca| serv|ces are deve|oped,
there ex|st severa| cha||enges |n commun|cat|ng th|s
|normat|on to vu|nerab|e commun|t|es. But overa||,
|t has been observed that the accuracy o modern
meteoro|og|ca| pred|ct|ons and lK-based orecasts |s
a|r|y comparab|e (Or|ove et a|., 2010).
Trad|t|ona||y, armers have been us|ng the|r own
know|edge to pred|ct ra|na|| know|edge that has
evo|ved through observat|ons and exper|ence over
severa| decades and passed on rom one generat|on
to the other. ln weather orecast|ng, they have been
us|ng a set o |nd|cators and have deve|oped a
re||ab|||ty actor or each o them. However, |t |s
on|y when lK |s used, cha||enged and adapted to
chang|ng contexts that |t w||| contr|bute to c||mate
change adaptat|on. Desp|te the |ncreas|ng |nterest |n
the use o lK, scept|c|sm towards |t pers|sts, wh|ch
||m|ts |ts spread to management pract|ce and sc|ence
(G||chr|st, Ma||ory and Merke|, 2005, Or|ove et a|.,
2010).
Oonsequent|y, |t |s useu| to document and compare
these exper|ences across agro-eco|og|ca| zones
and ||ve||hood groups w|th a v|ew to draw|ng some
|essons and recommendat|ons on how |nd|genous
orecast|ng may be strengthened to support adapt-
at|on |n d|erent sett|ngs.
0. Ind|ganous |noW|adga and droughI
mon|Ior|ng: a casa oI kanyan
agro-pasIora||sm
Agro-pastora| product|on systems have been c|ass-
|fed based on a number o cr|ter|a (Otte and Oh||onda,
2003). Pastora||sts and agro-pastora||sts usua||y
der|ve lK-based orecasts |ust beore the beg|nn|ng o
the arm|ng season. ln northern Kenya, the Pend|||e
pastora||sts ut|||ze a number o |nd|cators rom |oca|
weather, rang|ng rom temperature, hum|d|ty and
w|nd cond|t|ons to the presence or absence o certa|n
types o c|ouds, ra|na|| patterns and amounts. These
weather |nd|cators are a|so used |n orma| c||mate
mon|tor|ng.
Add|t|ona||y, when pred|ct|ng pro|onged drought, the
Pend|||e pastora||sts observe the 1ora and auna or
any unusua| behav|our, such as no|ses o certa|n b|rds,
the appearance o sparrow weavers (green b|rd), bees
m|grat|ng, ||vestock spec|es |ook|ng emac|ated even
when there |s p|enty o pasture, the |nvas|on o certa|n
ants, the mak|ng o no|se by cr|ckets at n|ght, and
unusua| 1ower|ng o certa|n trees (e.g. |cnc|cca|o0s
so. s|e|||e). Astro|og|ca| conste||at|ons, ||ke the pos|t|on
o the sun and moon are a|so observed |n great deta||
by the Pend|||e and Gabra pastora||sts. lnterest|ng|y,
a number o these |nd|cators have a|so been used or
drought mon|tor|ng |n other commun|t|es such as the
Kamba agro-pastora||sts o Kenya (Speranza et a|.,
2009).
There are, however, some d|ssent|ng op|n|ons
over the eect|veness o |nd|cators used by the
commun|t|es across countr|es and the wor|d, and
urther stud|es are necessary to better capture the
nature o the |nd|cators. Luseno et a|. (2003) suggest
that |nd|genous methods or c||mate orecast|ng cou|d
oer |ns|ghts to |mprove the va|ue o modern seasona|
orecasts or pastora||sts |n East Ar|ca. They argue
that |nd|genous orecast|ng methods are needs-
dr|ven, ocus on the |oca||ty and t|m|ng o ra|ns, and
are "commun|cated |n |oca| |anguages and typ|ca||y
by experts' known and trusted by pastora||sts". ln
contrast, |n Burk|na Faso (Ponco|| et a|., 2000) and
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TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Lesotho (Z|ervoge| and Down|ng, 2004), there |s |ess
use o |oca| orecast|ng know|edge, wh|ch |s attr|buted
to |ncreased c||mate var|ab|||ty, |ead|ng to |ess
cons|stency between |nd|cators and outcomes due
to the chang|ng soc|a| env|ronment. Oonsequent|y,
armers |n these countr|es have a|so been show|ng
|nterest |n how they m|ght be ab|e to use seasona|
meteoro|og|ca| orecasts to make cr|t|ca| arm|ng
dec|s|ons.
Deve|oped countr|es have tended to re|ect the lK
o |oca| commun|t|es as pr|m|t|ve, non-quant|tat|ve,
emp|oy|ng non-convent|ona| methods and
unsc|ent|fc. However, more recent|y, lK systems have
attracted the attent|on o many observers |n both
deve|oped and deve|op|ng countr|es. Pract|t|oners
are start|ng to rea||ze the |mportance o recogn|z|ng
and work|ng w|th lK, wh|ch bu||ds on generat|ons o
exper|ence, to best support the adapt|ve capac|ty and
strateg|es o rura| commun|t|es (Speranza et a|., 2009,
Or|ove et a|., 2010).
. AdapIaI|on sIraIag|as
Large proport|ons o pastora| range|ands |n ar|d and
sem|-ar|d |ands (ASALs) have been systemat|ca||y
degraded over t|me, wh||e abso|ute numbers o
||vestock have |ncreased and are now threaten|ng
the hea|th o ASAL hab|tat through overgraz|ng and,
subsequent|y, so|| eros|on (Mganga et a|., 2010).
Oonsequent|y, most o the ASALs are current|y unab|e
to support growth o natura| vegetat|on, bes|des
d|m|n|sh|ng the carbon s|nk. Th|s ra|ses doubts
about the susta|nab|||ty o pastora||sm as a means
o ||ve||hood. ln the ASALs o northern Kenya, the
ma|n actor |n1uenc|ng the product|v|ty o ||vestock,
wh|ch |s the predom|nant econom|c act|v|ty, |s eed
ava||ab|||ty (Peacock and Sherman, 2010). Yet there
are ew a|ternat|ves to ||vestock mob|||ty as an efc|ent
adapt|ve management strategy to overcome eed
defc|ts.
The pastora||st groups |n Kenya have deve|oped a|r|y
eect|ve cop|ng strateg|es |n response to drought
events a|med at m|n|m|z|ng |osses or ac|||tat|ng
recovery ater drought. The pract|ce o keep|ng m|xed
herds o grazers and browsers not on|y ensures that
the an|ma|s make use o the d|erent resources (e.g.
grasses and shrubs), but |t |s a|so a r|sk management
strategy, as the d|erent groups o an|ma|s are
un||ke|y to be aected |n the same way dur|ng per|ods
o drought. Add|t|ona||y, many househo|ds keep
an|ma|s e|sewhere, w|th re|at|ves and r|ends, to guard
aga|nst |osses through d|sease, ra|ds or drought.
Such an|ma|s a|ways come |n handy ater a d|saster,
as the pastora||st am|||es are ab|e to restock qu|ck|y
and carry on w|th the|r ||ves. Oommuna| ownersh|p
and management o natura| resources are centra| to
pastora||sm |n northern Kenya because they ensure
that ||vestock keepers move ree|y as they search or
water and pastures |n d|erent |ocat|ons at d|erent
t|mes o the year.
Nyong, Ades|na and Osman E|asha (2007) observed
that the peop|e o the Ar|can Sahe| pract|ce zero
t|||age, mu|ch|ng, a||ow|ng, agro-orestry and organ|c
arm|ng pract|ces that create carbon s|nks. They
report that lK has been used |n weather orecast|ng
and vu|nerab|||ty assessment, and or |mp|ementat|on
o adaptat|on strateg|es such as conservat|on o
b|od|vers|ty, use o emergency odder |n t|mes o
drought, mu|t|-spec|es compos|t|on o herds and
mob|||ty.
The unpred|ctab|e nature o range|ands orces
the pastora||sts to embark on strateg|es to take
advantage o the good years. For |nstance, they
oten stock more product|ve ema|es |n the|r herds
to ensure that an|ma|s |ost are eas||y rep|aced when
c||mat|c cond|t|ons |mprove (|.e. when grass and water
become abundant). A|so, they keep a |arge number
o an|ma|s, wh|ch |s one o the paramount aspects o
pastora||sm that genera||y |s not we|| understood and
that oten |eads outs|ders to ca|| or de-stock|ng to
|eve|s |n ||ne w|th carry|ng capac|ty.
Outs|de observers a|so tend to over|ook the act that
the way an|ma|s are grazed may be more |mportant
than the numbers, cons|der|ng the mob||e nature o
pastora||sts. nortunate|y, many o these strateg|es
that have served drought-aected commun|t|es
we|| |n the past may become |nadequate |n the ||ght
o the more requent occurrence o droughts and
unprecedented weather extremes |n recent years.
W|th dw|nd||ng natura| resources, espec|a||y pasture
and water, there |s ||tt|e the pastora||sts can do to
access such resources. lt |s |mportant that externa|
p|ayers work w|th these pastora||sts to |dent|y ways
o creat|ng access to those resources. For |nstance,
armers cou|d be encouraged to p|ant pastures that
191
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
can be so|d to pastora||sts at subs|d|zed rates so that
the pastora||sts wou|d not have to graze the|r an|ma|s
|n cu|t|vated zones, wh|ch oten g|ves r|se to con1|cts
w|th crop armers at present.
192
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
The Green Pevo|ut|on enab|ed a cons|derab|e
|ncrease |n the product|v|ty o convent|ona| h|gh-|nput
agr|cu|ture, thereby sav|ng m||||ons o peop|e rom
starvat|on. However, th|s ach|evement came at a h|gh
cost to the env|ronment as a resu|t o |and convers|on
through deorestat|on, |and degradat|on and the
overexp|o|tat|on o natura| resources, espec|a||y so||
and water. Moreover, such h|gh-|nput agr|cu|ture |s
now a|so recogn|zed as be|ng a ma|or contr|butor to
c||mate change. Furthermore, desp|te the |mproved
product|v|ty o ma|or ood stap|es, there are st||| b||||ons
o peop|e suer|ng rom poverty, ma|nutr|t|on and
hunger. Oonsequent|y, there have been many ca||s
or a new approach to ood product|on, espec|a||y |n
the trop|cs and subtrop|cs where the prob|ems and
|ssues are the most urgent and preva|ent. The key
|ssues to be addressed are |and rehab|||tat|on, ood
and nutr|t|ona| secur|ty, and |ncome generat|on a||
w|th|n susta|nab|e |and-use pract|ces. The overr|d|ng
quest|ons are: How can the |and be used to eed a
grow|ng popu|at|on w|thout urther damage to the |oca|
and g|oba| env|ronment? How can ood and nutr|t|ona|
secur|ty be ach|eved on a dec||n|ng area o ava||ab|e
|and? And how can the |and be used to enhance the
||ve||hoods and |ncomes o the rura| poor?
Answers to these quest|ons a|| |nto two ma|n camps:
there are some who be||eve that the on|y way orward |s
by |ntens|y|ng the h|gh-energy-|nput Green Pevo|ut|on
mode| |nvo|v|ng urther product|v|ty |mprovements
through research and breakthroughs |n crop and
||vestock genet|cs, others th|nk that more eco|og|ca||y
based approaches |nvo|v|ng |ow-|nput agr|cu|ture are
the way orward. To cons|der the mer|ts o these two
contrast|ng and h|gh|y po|ar|zed v|ews, we |ook at the
env|ronmenta| and soc|o-econom|c prob|ems ar|s|ng
rom |and convers|on to agr|cu|ture, and oer some
so|ut|ons.
Ourrent |and-use pract|ces |n the trop|cs have |ed
to deorestat|on, overgraz|ng and overexp|o|tat|on
o so||s and water resources (fgure 1), caus|ng a
cascade o negat|ve |mpacts: |and degradat|on, |oss
o so|| ert|||ty, |oss o b|od|vers|ty, the breakdown o
agro-ecosystem unct|ons, dec||n|ng y|e|ds, hunger
and ma|nutr|t|on, and dec||n|ng ||ve||hoods. Assoc|ated
w|th these are reduced access to trad|t|ona| w||d oods,
|oss o |ncome and the |ncreased need or cost|y
(oten unaordab|e) agr|cu|tura| |nputs. The response
o proponents o |ntens|ve, h|gh-|nput |ndustr|a|
arm|ng |s to redoub|e eorts to |ncrease the y|e|d
o stap|e ood crops by enhanc|ng the|r capac|ty to
Absl|acl
The shortage o new |and or agr|cu|ture and the poverty o sma||ho|der armers |n the trop|cs are ser|ous
constra|nts on the expans|on o modern |ntens|ve agr|cu|ture to overcome the ood cr|s|s. Oonsequent|y,
there |s an urgent need or both the rehab|||tat|on o degraded arm|and and or the rea||zat|on o new
|ncome-generat|ng opportun|t|es.
Th|s commentary presents a tr|ed and tested award-w|nn|ng (Equator Pr|ze) three-po|nt act|on p|an us|ng
b|o|og|ca| n|trogen fxat|on and a "new wave" o crop domest|cat|on ocus|ng on marketab|e and h|gh|y
nutr|t|ous trad|t|ona| oods. l w|de|y adopted, th|s package cou|d f|| the y|e|d gap o crops such as ma|ze,
thereby promot|ng new ||vestock enterpr|ses and sat|sy|ng g|oba| ood demand to 2050. lt cou|d a|so
create new bus|ness and emp|oyment opportun|t|es |n d|vers|fed |oca| rura| econom|es and perhaps he|p
expand agr|bus|nesses.
Commontary |v: Addross|ng tho Causos of Land Dogradat|on,
|ood and Nutr|t|ona| |nsocur|ty and ovorty: A
Now Approach to Agr|cu|tura| |ntons|f|cat|on |n
tho 1rop|cs and 5ubtrop|cs
Roge| RB Lea|ey
Ag|olo|esl|y aud hove| C|ops uu|l, Schoo| ol Na||ue aud T|op|ca| B|o|ogy, James Coo| uu|ve|s|ly,
Ca||us, Ausl|a||a
193
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
w|thstand b|ot|c and ab|ot|c stress. Th|s approach a||s
to recogn|ze three |mportant po|nts: (|) s|nce armers
are a|||ng to grow stap|e oods anywhere near the|r
ex|st|ng b|o|og|ca| potent|a|, resu|t|ng |n what |s ca||ed
the "y|e|d gap" the d|erence between potent|a|
y|e|d per hectare and actua| y|e|d ach|eved by armers
(fgure 2), |ncreas|ng the b|o|og|ca| potent|a| w||| not
he|p, (||) poor, sma||ho|der armers |ocked |n a poverty
trap cannot aord to buy the requ|s|te ert|||zers and
pest|c|des (even | they had adequate access to
them) that wou|d a||ow them to pract|ce monocu|ture
agr|cu|ture, and (|||) the overr|d|ng dom|nance o
starchy ood stap|es |n modern agr|cu|ture may
prov|de adequate ca|or|es or surv|va|, but they |ack
the prote|ns and m|cronutr|ents necessary or hea|thy
||v|ng, not to ment|on the sensory p|easures prov|ded
by trad|t|ona| and h|gh|y nutr|t|ous oods wh|ch
used to be gathered rom the orest. ln add|t|on, the
w|despread c|earance o orests rom the |andscape,
espec|a||y rom h|||s|des, exposes so||s to eros|on and
|ncreases run-o, resu|t|ng |n |ands||des and 1ood|ng
that destroy property and |ead to the death o |arge
numbers o peop|e. Loss o perenn|a| vegetat|on a|so
contr|butes to c||mate change.
Thereore, an a|ternat|ve approach to agr|cu|tura|
|ntens|fcat|on |s requ|red. lndeed, severa| recent
F|gura 1. Tha cyc|a oI |and dagradaI|on and soc|a| dapr|vaI|on
Sc0|ce: Adapted rom Leakey et a|., 2005.
External factors (e.g. entrepreneurs)
Desire for security and wealth
Overfshing
Ecosystem degradation
and soil erosion
Breakdown of nutrient
cycling and loss of
soil fertility/structure
Increased use of
agrichemicals
Increased
costs
Pollution of
waterways,
aquifers and wetland
Increased
health risks
Loss of income
from food crops
and wildlife
Increased
vulnerability to HIV/AIDS
Other external factors
(e.g. war and disasters)
Loss of biodiversity
Breakdown of ecosystem function
Loss of crop yields
Hunger and
malnutrition
Declining livelihoods,
leading to poverty and social deprivation
Regulated by social organizations at the
community level
Overgrazing Deforestation
Unsustainable use
of soils and water
Regulated by
social organizations
at national and
international level
194
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
rev|ews o agr|cu|ture (lAASTD, 2009, Poya| Soc|ety,
2009) and o |ssues re|at|ng to the ro|e o agr|cu|ture
|n the g|oba| env|ronment (e.g. Hassan, Scho|es
and Ash, 2005, NEP, 2007, OAWMA, 2007) have
suggested that "bus|ness as usua|" |s no |onger the
appropr|ate opt|on due to the sca|e o the prob|ems
and the constra|nts ac|ng poor armers. We need
to go back to bas|cs and |ook at the cyc|e o |and
degradat|on and soc|a| depr|vat|on (fgure 1). O|ear|y,
a ocus on crop y|e|d |s |mportant, but, rather
than try|ng to |ncrease y|e|d potent|a|, we need to
ocus on c|os|ng the y|e|d gap. ln the worst cases,
armers grow|ng ma|ze are ach|ev|ng on|y 0.51 ton
per hectare when the potent|a| |s around 10 tons
per hectare. ln th|s s|tuat|on, c|os|ng the gap cou|d
|ncrease ood product|on by 15- to 20-o|d, but even |
|t were |ncreased by on|y 2- to 3-o|d, on average, th|s
wou|d be we|| over the 70 per cent |ncrease that m|ght
be requ|red to eed the 9 b||||on peop|e pred|cted to
popu|ate the wor|d by 2050, accord|ng to lFPPl (2011).
The pr|mary cause o the y|e|d gap |s poor crop
husbandry, wh|ch has a number o adverse eects,
|nc|ud|ng |oss o so|| ert|||ty and agroecosystem
unct|ons (such as the cyc||ng o nutr|ents, carbon
and water), |mped|ng the operat|on o ||e cyc|es
and ood webs that ma|nta|n the natura| ba|ance
between organ|sms, and reduc|ng po|||nat|on and
seed d|spersa|. Typ|ca||y, reduced so|| n|trogen |s the
ma|or constra|nt on crop growth |n degraded so||s.
Th|s can be restored by harness|ng the capac|ty o
certa|n |egumes to fx atmospher|c n|trogen |n root
nodu|es co|on|zed by symb|ot|c bacter|a (P||zco|0m
spp.). Numerous techn|ques have been deve|oped to
|ntegrate appropr|ate |egume spec|es w|th|n arm|ng
systems. Probab|y the most eect|ve and eas|est to
adopt are h|gh-dens|ty |mproved a||ows w|th spec|es
such as Sesoan|a sesoan and 7eo||cs|a .ce||| or re|ay
cropp|ng w|th G||||c|o|a seo|0m (Oooper et a|., 1996,
Buresh and Oooper, 1999). Ou|t|vat|ng |egum|nous
crops such as beans and peanuts can a|so contr|bute
to th|s process. Together the |egumes can |ncrease
so|| n|trogen to a |eve| that w||| produce ma|ze y|e|ds
o 45 tons per hectare w|th|n 23 years. Th|s wou|d
he|p narrow the y|e|d gap and great|y |ncrease ood
secur|ty. However, |t wou|d not address the prob|em
o the |ow |eve|s o other so|| nutr|ents, wh|ch means
that the comp|ete c|osure o the y|e|d gap wou|d
requ|re another approach |nvo|v|ng the prov|s|on
o |norgan|c nutr|ents, such as rock phosphate or
chem|ca| ert|||zers, wh|ch have to be purchased. Th|s
necess|tates |ncome generat|on.
However, beore address|ng the need or |ncome, |t
|s necessary to fnd ways o restor|ng agroecosystem
unct|on. The |egumes w||| start th|s process. For
examp|e, one o the more damag|ng weeds o cerea|
crops such as ma|ze, m|||et and sorghum |s S|||a
|e|mcn|||ca. lt |s a root paras|te on these cerea|s
and |ts seeds germ|nate |n response to root exudates
rom the young cerea| p|ants. lnterest|ng|y, however,
s|nce Sesoan|a sesoan and the odder |egumes
Desmcn|0m |n|c||0m and D. 0nc|na|0m a|so tr|gger
S|||a germ|nat|on, they can be used to promote
su|c|de germ|nat|on |n the absence o the cerea| hosts
(Khan et a|., 2002). Desmco|0m spp. a|so acts as a
repe||ent to |nsect pests o cerea|s, such as the stem
borers 50ssec|a /0sca and C|||c oa||e||0s. L|kew|se,
F|gura Z. A raprasanIaI|on oI Iha y|a|d gap |n agr|cu|Iura, and Iha sIaps naadad Io c|osa Iha gap
0
2
4
6
8
10
Weeks 2 6 10 14
Actual yield Biological yield potential
Filling the gap - Step 1 Filling the gap - Step 2+3
C
r
o
p

y
i
e
l
d

(
t
o
n
s
/
h
a
)
Weeks
Steps 2+3
Yield Gap
Step 1
195
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
s|mp|e agroeco|og|ca| benefts can be atta|ned by
p|ant|ng Nap|er grass (|enn|se|0m o0|o0|e0m) as an
|ntercrop or around sma|| fe|ds, as they attract the
pests away rom the crops (Khan et a|., 2006).
The two |ntervent|ons descr|bed above can thereore
be used to restore so|| ert|||ty and |n|t|ate an
agroeco|og|ca| success|on, thereby rehab|||tat|ng
arm|and and revers|ng some o the |and degradat|on
processes. Th|s may be cons|dered as the frst step
towards c|os|ng the y|e|d gap (fgure 3).
The next step to a u||y unct|ona| and more product|ve
agroecosystem |nvo|ves the |ntegrat|on o trees w|th|n
the arm|ng systems. Some trees are o course cash
crops such as coee, cocoa and rubber, wh|ch |n the
past were e|ther grown as |arge-sca|e monocu|tura|
p|antat|ons or as a two spec|es m|x, such as cocoa
under the shade o coconuts or G||||c|o|0m seo|0m.
lncreas|ng|y, however, they are becom|ng sma||ho|der
crops grown |n much more d|verse spec|es m|x|ng,
such as bananas w|th ru|ts trees ||ke mango,
avocado and |oca| |nd|genous trees that produce
marketab|e products (Leakey and Tchound|eu, 2001).
Th|s pract|ce |s we|| deve|oped |n Lat|n Amer|ca and
As|a, and |s becom|ng w|de|y recogn|zed as a way
to restore the b|od|vers|ty norma||y ound |n natura|
orests (Schroth et a|., 2004, O|ough et a|., 2011).
Oerta|n|y, the rep|acement o shade trees w|th trees
F|gura 3. Procaduras Ior c|os|ng Iha y|a|d gap
External factors (e.g. entrepreneurs)
Desire for security and wealth
Overfshing
Ecosystem degradation
and soil erosion
Breakdown of nutrient
cycling and loss of
soil fertility/structure
Increased use of
agrichemicals
Increased
costs
Pollution of
waterways,
aquifers and wetland
Increased
health risks
Loss of income
from food crops
and wildlife
Increased
vulnerability to HIV/AIDS
Other external factors
(e.g. war and disasters)
Breakdown of ecosystem function
Loss of crop yields
Hunger and
malnutrition
Declining livelihoods,
leading to poverty and social deprivation
Regulated by social organizations at the
community level
Overgrazing Deforestation
Unsustainable use
of soils and water
Regulated by
social organizations
at national and
international level
STEP 1
STEPs
2 + 3
DIVERSIFY
GENERATE INCOME
Loss of crop yields
Focus of AF
Loss of bio diversity
196
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
that a|so produce useu| and marketab|e products |s a
good strategy or armers to enab|e them to max|m|ze
output rom the |and and m|n|m|ze the r|sks assoc|ated
w|th excess|ve re||ance on a s|ng|e crop spec|es.
There has a|so been another s||ent armer-|ed
revo|ut|on |n the trop|cs, espec|a||y |n South-East As|a.
ln lndones|a, |n part|cu|ar, many armers who used to
pract|ce sh|t|ng agr|cu|ture have rep|aced the natura|
a||ow w|th a commerc|a| a||ow (agroorest) based on
tree crops. They grow r|ce |n the va||ey 1oors and p|ant
a w|de range o useu| and commerc|a||y |mportant
tree spec|es among the other ood crops wh|ch
they have p|anted on the va||ey s|opes (M|chon and
de Foresta, 1999). These trees become product|ve
success|ve|y |n |ater years, creat|ng a cont|nuous
supp|y o marketab|e produce (e.g. c|nnamon, tung
nut, damar, duku and rubber) or severa| decades,
oten end|ng |n a t|mber crop. Th|s d|vers|fcat|on o
the arm|ng system w|th perenn|a| crops thereore
ach|eves severa| |mportant outcomes. lt protects
s|op|ng |and rom eros|on, |mproves water |nf|trat|on
|nto the so||, sequesters carbon and so m|t|gates
c||mate change, generates |ncome, enhances
b|od|vers|ty and promotes agroecosystem unct|ons.
ln other words, |t perorms a|| the unct|ons that |arge-
sca|e monocu|tures a|| to do, and the ||ve||hoods o
the armers are ar better than those |ocked |n poverty
due to grow|ng a a||ed ma|ze crop |n Ar|ca, or
|nstance. Th|s approach to agr|cu|ture ach|eves h|gh
crop y|e|ds that are c|ose to the b|o|og|ca| potent|a| o
the best and most ert||e |and, and |t generates |ncome
rom tree crops on the more marg|na| |and, creat|ng a
|and-use mosa|c w|th many env|ronmenta||y benefc|a|
|mpacts (photograph rom \|etnam). lmportant|y,
there |s a|so some ev|dence that comp|ex perenn|a|
vegetat|on, such as a natura| orest or an agroorest,
|s better than a herbaceous crop at recyc||ng mo|sture
to the atmosphere that can be advected downw|nd to
a|| as ra|n. Thus agroorests are ||ke|y to be benefc|a|
to ra|n-ed agr|cu|ture |n dry and drought prone areas
o the wor|d.
ln a urther |n|t|at|ve, over the past 20 years agro-
oresters have sought to take th|s strategy to a h|gher
|eve| by start|ng to domest|cate some o the very w|de
range o tree spec|es wh|ch have been the source
o |oca||y |mportant ood and non-ood products
trad|t|ona||y gathered rom the orest (Leakey et a|.,
2005, Leakey, et a|., 2012). The approach has been to
app|y we||-known hort|cu|tura| techn|ques o vegetat|ve
propagat|on or cu|t|var deve|opment (Leakey, 2004,
Leakey and Ak|nn|es|, 2008). nconvent|ona||y,
th|s has been |mp|emented at the v|||age |eve| as a
lntensive rice cultivation in the valley bottom, with hillsides
planted with diverse commercially important trees for income
generation and environmental benefts. lndonesia alone has
about three million hectares of these agroforests".
A multifunctional agriculture landscape in viet Nam with
many income-generating tree-based production systems on
hillsides surrounding an area of intensive food production on
the most fertile soils.
197
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
part|c|patory process w|th |oca| commun|t|es, rather
than on a research stat|on (Leakey, Schreckenberg
and Tchound|eu, 2003, Tchound|eu et a|., 2006, Asaah
et a|., 2011). Th|s part|c|patory approach has been
|mp|emented to ensure that the armers are the |nstant
benefc|ar|es o the domest|cat|on, and that they are
empowered by the deve|opment o the|r |nd|genous
and |oca| know|edge. Because w||d popu|at|ons o tree
spec|es conta|n 3- to 10-o|d var|at|ons o a|most any
tra|t o commerc|a| |nterest (Leakey et a|., 2005), there
|s cons|derab|e potent|a| or substant|a| |mprovements
|n character|st|cs such as ru|t/nut s|ze, qua||ty and
chem|ca| content. Th|s means that new, h|gh|y
product|ve cu|t|vars y|e|d|ng good qua||ty produce and
the product un|orm|ty requ|red by markets are eas||y
obta|nab|e. Furthermore, because the mu|t|p||cat|on
process |s |mp|emented by vegetat|ve propagat|on
based on mature t|ssues w|th the capac|ty to 1ower
and ru|t, the |ong unproduct|ve per|od usua||y
assoc|ated w|th tree crops |s c|rcumvented, and trees
become product|ve |n 23 years.
Proo o concept has recent|y been demonstrated
by the |mp|ementat|on o a part|c|patory tree
domest|cat|on pro|ect |n Oameroon (Tchound|eu et
a|., 2006, 2010, Asaah et a|., 2011). ln 12 years the
pro|ect grew rom our v|||ages and a sma|| number o
armers to over 450 v|||ages w|th 7,500 armers. The
1ow o benefts, such as |ncome generat|on, started
w|th|n |ess than fve years (fgure 4), and the armers
are report|ng many other ways |n wh|ch the pro|ect
has a|so |mproved the|r ||ves (Asaah et a|., 2011).
Perhaps the most s|gn|fcant outcome has been the
act that young men and women |n these commun|t|es
now see a uture or themse|ves by rema|n|ng w|th|n
the commun|ty rather than m|grat|ng to |oca| towns.
ln add|t|on, the process|ng and va|ue add|t|on o
produce rom domest|cated trees and other crops
have been ound to prov|de o-arm emp|oyment and
to st|mu|ate |oca| enterpr|se and trade.
H|stor|ca||y, crop domest|cat|on has been |mp||cated
|n the r|se o c|v|||zat|ons that have become sett|ed,
po||t|ca||y centra||zed, soc|a||y strat|fed, econom|ca||y
comp|ex and techno|og|ca||y |nnovat|ve soc|et|es
(D|amond, 1997). As the frst wave o crop
domest|cat|on pr|mar||y benefted the |ndustr|a|
countr|es o the northern |at|tudes, |t seems that the
t|me |s now r|pe or a second wave o domest|cat|on
to avour trop|ca| and subtrop|ca| countr|es, wh|ch
wou|d enhance soc|a| equ|ty and env|ronmenta|
rehab|||tat|on wor|dw|de (Leakey, 2011, Leakey and
Asaah, orthcom|ng).
The creat|on o new cash crops rom the domest|cat|on
o trad|t|ona||y |mportant, h|gh|y nutr|t|ous and useu|
spec|es may be cons|dered the second step towards
c|os|ng the y|e|d gap, because they can generate the
F|gura 4. Incoma ganaraIad Irom Iraa sa|as by v|||aga nursar|as assoc|aIad W|Ih rura| rasourcas canIras |n norIh and
norIh-WasI rag|ons oI 0amaroon aIIar Z, 6 and 10 yaars (do||ars)
I
n
c
o
m
e

U
S
$
30.000
2 Years
5 Years
10 Years
25.000
20.000
15.000
10.000
5.000
-
U
S
$

1
4
5
U
S
$

2
8
.
3
5
0
U
S
$

1
6
.
0
0
0
Sc0|ce: Based on Asaah et a|., 2011.
198
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|ncome needed or the purchase o ert|||zers and
other agr|cu|tura| |nputs (fgure 2). The trees can be
used to enr|ch and |mprove the arm|ng systems,
whether by prov|d|ng shade or commod|ty crops, or
by orm|ng agroorests on h|||s|des, orchards, fe|d and
arm boundar|es, odder banks or wood|ots. However,
armers have many other compet|ng demands or the|r
money, |nc|ud|ng or |oca| ceremon|es, hea|th care,
ch||dren's educat|on, arm |nrastructure and market
transport. Oonsequent|y, the th|rd step to c|os|ng the
y|e|d gap |s to urther expand the commerc|a||zat|on
o these new tree crops, thus creat|ng bus|ness
opportun|t|es and emp|oyment.
Most o the trad|t|ona||y |mportant products rom
trop|ca| orests have been marketed |oca||y or
centur|es. Over the past decade, an |ncreas|ng
number o these have been processed as new oods,
and or use |n med|c|na|, nutraceut|ca| and cosmet|c
products, based on the ru|ts, nuts, gums, res|ns
and fbres. Some o these have entered reg|ona|
and |nternat|ona| markets. However, the market|ng
and trade o commod|t|es rom trop|ca| producers
have oten been exp|o|tat|ve. As a resu|t, w|th the
emergence o th|s new trade there has been a para||e|
|n|t|at|ve to ensure that the producers rece|ve a a|r
pr|ce (see, or examp|e, the Fa|r Trade Foundat|on at:
www.a|rtrade.org.uk). ln add|t|on, ways have been
sought to deve|op market|ng partnersh|ps a|med at
the pro-poor commerc|a||zat|on o the trad|t|ona||y
|mportant products der|ved rom |nd|genous trees
(Lombard and Leakey, 2010). These partnersh|ps work
to deve|op the products to a marketab|e standard and
estab||sh strong and v|ab|e trade assoc|at|ons that
are orward th|nk|ng and market or|ented. Through
these partnersh|ps |t |s poss|b|e to estab||sh |ong-term
re|at|onsh|ps and supp|y agreements wh|ch ensure
that the producers rema|n |n the va|ue cha|n.
Another aspect that deserves attent|on |s the
|mportance o ||vestock |n agr|cu|ture. The 2020
pro|ect|ons o the lnternat|ona| Food Po||cy Pesearch
lnst|tute (lFPPl) suggest that 40 per cent more gra|n
product|on w||| be needed and that more meat w||| be
consumed by the wor|d's popu|at|on. As ment|oned
ear||er, gra|n product|on cou|d be great|y |ncreased
by c|os|ng the y|e|d gap. Pecent deve|opments have
a|so demonstrated that odder trees can be used
to |ncrease the product|v|ty o catt|e and goats. The
|ntegrat|on o odder trees and ||vestock |nto a arm
|s one o the e|ements o d|vers|fcat|on that cou|d be
part o step 2.
Another recent deve|opment has been the
estab||shment o pub||c-pr|vate partnersh|ps between
mu|t|nat|ona| compan|es, nat|ona| and |nternat|ona|
research teams and |oca| producer commun|t|es to
promote and produce new products or |nternat|ona|
trade. Examp|es |nc|ude Da|m|er AG |n Braz|| wh|ch
|s manuactur|ng components or the motor |ndustry
based on products rom agroorestry systems
produced by |oca| commun|t|es (Pan|k, 1998), as we||
as n||ever p|c. that |s deve|op|ng a new o|| crop or
margar|ne product|on w|th commun|t|es |n Ghana and
the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a us|ng kerne| o|| rom
/||ano|ac||a spp. (Jamnadass et a|., 2010).
A|| o these deve|opments oer a new approach to
agr|cu|ture de||vered by agroorestry pract|ces (Leakey,
2010), wh|ch |s more susta|nab|e env|ronmenta||y,
soc|a||y and econom|ca||y than current convent|ona|
approaches. Th|s mode| conorms to the concepts
o mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|ture promoted by the
lnternat|ona| Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge,
Sc|ence and Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD,
2009) wh|ch was rat|fed by over 60 countr|es |n 2009.
199
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
A. Tha macro conIaxI
Macro cond|t|ons |n the Sahe| and |n other dry|ands
|n Ar|ca seem cha||eng|ng over the next decades.
Temperatures are expected to |ncrease and crop
y|e|ds to rema|n stab|e at best, but most ||ke|y they
w||| dec||ne due to dep|et|on o so|| ert|||ty |eve|s and
more errat|c ra|na||, wh||e the popu|at|on |s set to
doub|e. The Sahe| has aced s|m||ar cha||enges |n the
past and has been ab|e to cope w|th such changes.
At the end o the 1960s and the ear|y 1970s, ra|na||
sudden|y dec||ned by about 30 per cent, caus|ng
w|despread hunger and hardsh|p. And many research
reports ana|ys|ng agr|cu|ture and the env|ronment |n
the Sahe| |n the 1980s were very pess|m|st|c (e.g.
Marcha|, 1985, Paynaut, 1987). They used terms
such as a||ure and breakdown to descr|be trends |n
agr|cu|ture.
8. ava|op|ng naW agroIorasIry par||ands
Io |nIans|Iy agr|cu|Iura
Farmers and pastora||sts |n the Sahe| needed some
years to adapt to the |ower ra|na||. Pecent stud|es on
|ong-term trends |n agr|cu|ture and the env|ronment
|n the reg|on show some surpr|s|ng trends (Pe||,
Tappan and Be|emv|re, 2005, Boton| and Pe||,
2009, Pe||, Tappan and Sma|e, 2009). The frst |s
that armers |n severa| dense|y popu|ated reg|ons
o N|ger have been protect|ng and manag|ng on-
arm natura| regenerat|on o trees and bushes. Th|s
process, wh|ch began around 1985, has |ed to on-
arm re-green|ng on about 5 m||||on hectares the
|argest sca|e o env|ronmenta| transormat|on |n the
Sahe| and poss|b|y |n Ar|ca. Th|s on-arm protect|on
and management o useu| trees, such as Fa|o|e|o|a
a|o|oa (a n|trogen-fx|ng spec|es that |mproves so||
Absl|acl
The uture o arm|ng |n Ar|ca's dry|ands and sub-hum|d reg|ons w||| |arge|y depend on the success o a||
stakeho|ders |n deve|op|ng agroorestry systems that are managed by armers, produce mu|t|p|e |mpacts
and do not |ead to recurrent costs or governments. As apt|y put by a armer rom T|gray, "Trees are our
backbone" (Waters-Bayer and Gebre-M|chae|, 2007).
Many sma|| and b|gger re-green|ng successes can be ound |n Ar|ca's dry|ands. These can be used as
start|ng po|nts or sca||ng up. Sca||ng up can be ach|eved by bu||d|ng a grassroots organ|zat|on, but |t |s
v|ta| to deve|op nat|ona| po||c|es and |eg|s|at|on concern|ng |and and tree tenure, wh|ch wou|d |nduce m||-
||ons o sma||-sca|e armers |n Ar|ca to |nvest |n natura| resources, |n genera|, and |n trees |n part|cu|ar. The
deve|opment o agroorestry systems |n N|ger, or |nstance, took o as soon as armers began perce|v|ng
an exc|us|ve r|ght to the|r on-arm trees. ln parts o Ma|| the process began |n 1994, ater a change |n the
orestry |aw and ater armers were |normed about the change.
D|erent orms o re-green|ng |n Ar|ca requ|re a m|x o |nvestments, changes |n po||c|es and |eg|s|at|on, the
bu||d|ng o soc|a| cap|ta| and o a movement |n support o re-green|ng, as we|| as act|on-or|ented research
to quant|y mu|t|p|e |mpacts. Th|s w||| make |t poss|b|e to he|p armers adapt to c||mate change, wh||e |m-
prov|ng househo|d ood secur|ty and a||ev|at|ng rura| poverty. However, there |s st||| one ma|or obstac|e:
very rap|d popu|at|on growth. For |nstance, the annua| demograph|c growth rates |n N|ger and Ma|| are |n
the order o 3.6 per cent, wh|ch means that the|r popu|at|ons w||| doub|e |n |ess than 20 years. Even | |t
were techn|ca||y poss|b|e to eed a rap|d|y grow|ng popu|at|on, |t w||| be hard to create better ||ve||hood op-
portun|t|es or most o the young peop|e.
Commontary v: Adapt|ng to C||mato Chango and |mprov|ng
Housoho|d |ood 5ocur|ty |n Afr|ca 1hrough
Agroforostry: 5omo Lossons |rom tho 5aho|
Ch||s Re|j
lac|||lalo| Al||cau Re-g|eeu|ug lu|l|al|ves, Ceul|e lo| lule|ual|oua| Coope|al|ou, l|ee uu|ve|s|ly, Amsle|dam
200
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
ert|||ty and prov|des odder or ||vestock), ||||cs||ma
|e||c0|a|0m (or odder), Ccmo|e|0m |0||ncs0m (or
frewood), /oanscn|a o|||a|a (or |eaves and ru|t that
prov|de h|gh-qua||ty nutr|t|on), G0|e|a senea|ens|s
(or odder), has enab|ed the eed|ng o about 2.5
m||||on peop|e. The annua| product|on va|ue o the
new trees |s |n the order o at |east 6200 m||||on, a|| o
wh|ch goes to armers, not necessar||y |n the orm o
cash but |n the orm o produce.
The deve|opment o new agroorestry systems has
had the o||ow|ng |mpacts:
Trees reduce w|nd speed, and armers |n dense|y
popu|ated parts o N|ger now p|ant crops once
|nstead o 3 or 4 t|mes as they d|d 20 years ago
when the crops were covered by sand or destroyed
by sand b|ast.
The shade o the trees reduces temperature and
hence evaporat|on.
A number o woody spec|es produce odder.
Other spec|es fx n|trogen and contr|bute to so||
ert|||ty. For |nstance, depend|ng on the|r age, a
good stand o Fa|o|e|o|a a|o|oa fxes up to 150 kg
o n|trogen per hectare.
Some trees produce ru|t and |eaves, w|th h|gh
v|tam|n content, or human consumpt|on.
They a|so contr|bute to b|od|vers|ty.
Trees m|t|gate c||mate change by sequester|ng
carbon.
They he|p adapt to c||mate change by reduc|ng
w|nd speeds and temperatures.
The trees |mprove househo|d ood secur|ty,
because they create more comp|ex and product|ve
arm|ng systems that are more res|||ent to drought.
Even | crops a||, trees produce.
The trees he|p |ncrease aggregate agr|cu|tura|
product|on and thus contr|bute to reduc|ng rura|
poverty.
Th|s on-arm re-green|ng has occurred on|y |n reg|ons
w|th h|gh popu|at|on dens|t|es and sandy so||s, wh|ch
|s not surpr|s|ng, as |ncreas|ng popu|at|on |nduces
armers to |ntens|y agr|cu|ture. For armers, protec-
t|on and management o woody spec|es that spon-
taneous|y regenerate on-arm |s the |east cost|y orm
o agr|cu|tura| |ntens|fcat|on as |t does not requ|re the
procurement o externa| |nputs, the on|y |nvestment |s
that o the|r |abour, wh||e v|||age |nst|tut|ons are respon-
s|b|e or the new tree stock (cap|ta| assets). lt shou|d
be emphas|zed that th|s re-green|ng occurs ma|n|y
on-arm. ln reg|ons w|th |ow popu|at|on dens|t|es, the
vegetat|on cont|nues to degrade and the rema|n|ng
patches o natura| vegetat|on tend to be encroached
upon and deter|orate.
Many examp|es o armer-managed re-green|ng can
be ound |n other Sahe| countr|es as we||. For |nstance,
|t was recent|y d|scovered that armers |n Ma||'s Seno
P|a|ns protect and manage natura| regenerat|on on
about 450,000 ha,
4
where 9095 per cent o the trees
are younger than 20 years. As e|sewhere, th|s reg|on
had a good tree cover |n the 1950s and 1960s, but
due to droughts |n the 1970s and 1980s, much o the
vegetat|on was destroyed or fe|d cu|t|vat|on. Th|s |ed
to |arge-sca|e w|nd and water eros|on and dec||n|ng
crop y|e|ds. ln the second ha| o the 1980s and the
1990s, armers, governments and donors began to
react to the cr|s|s by support|ng the p|ant|ng o on-arm
trees |n a grow|ng number o reg|ons. Oonsequent|y,
the number o such trees has been |ncreas|ng |n a
number o reg|ons, though not everywhere.
Some observers argue that th|s process o re-green|ng
can be attr|buted to an |ncrease |n ra|na|| |n the Sahe|
s|nce the m|d 1990s. However, a compar|son o tree
dens|t|es |n southern N|ger and northern N|ger|a,
wh|ch have s|m||ar so||s and popu|at|on dens|t|es,
revea|s that on-arm tree dens|t|es |n northern N|ger|a
are much |ower than |n southern N|ger desp|te the act
that the ormer has h|gher ra|na||.
5
Pa|na|| |s |mportant
or re-green|ng, but |t seems that human management
|s a more |mportant determ|n|ng actor than ra|na||.
0. waIar harvasI|ng Iachn|quas Io
rahab|||IaIa dagradad |and
Farmers |n the Sahe| have not on|y deve|oped new
agroorestry systems, they have a|so used s|mp|e
Young, high-density agroforestry parkland in the southern
Zinder region (Niger). The parkland is dominated by
Fa|d|e|o|a a|o|da.
201
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
water harvest|ng techn|ques to rehab|||tate strong|y
degraded |and. ln the ear|y 1980s, the northern part
o the centra| p|ateau o Burk|na Faso was a k|nd
o |aboratory or test|ng d|erent water harvest|ng
techn|ques, such as |mproved trad|t|ona| p|ant|ng p|ts
(a|so known as za/; and contour stone bunds, wh|ch
s|ow down ra|na|| runo and |nduce |t to |nf|trate |nto
the so||. As a resu|t, more water becomes ava||ab|e
or p|ant growth and some water he|ps recharge |oca|
groundwater |eve|s. Tree dens|t|es and the d|vers|ty
o woody spec|es on rehab|||tated |and are usua||y
h|gher than on ad|acent |and. Th|s |s because, where
armers |nvest |n water harvest|ng techn|ques, they
a|most a|ways a|so |nvest |n |mproved so|| ert|||ty
management. The manure or compost they use
conta|ns seeds o trees and bushes on wh|ch the|r
||vestock browse. l armers dec|de to protect and
manage the young trees wh|ch emerge together w|th
the|r crops, they create a new agroorestry system |n
the process. The sca|e o |and rehab|||tat|on |n N|ger
and Burk|na Faso s|nce the end o the 1980s |s |n the
order o 500,000 ha. Land that used to be barren and
degraded has become product|ve. Orop y|e|ds vary
rom a ew hundred kg/ha |n years o poor ra|na|| to
up to 1.52 tons/ha |n years o norma| or good ra|na||.
The y|e|d |eve|s are not on|y determ|ned by ra|na||, but
a|so by the quant|ty and qua||ty o organ|c ert|||zers
used. Hard|y any |norgan|c ert|||zers are used. Land
rehab|||tat|on on the centra| p|ateau o Burk|na Faso
eeds an add|t|ona| 400,000 peop|e.
. Tha ro|a oI axIarna| |nIarvanI|ons and
Iha poIanI|a| Ior sca||ng up Iarmar-
managad ra-graan|ng
Externa| |ntervent|ons have he|ped cata|yse proc-
esses o re-green|ng, as |n the Marad| Peg|on |n N|-
ger |n around 1985 by Tony P|naudo, who worked or
an NGO ca||ed Serv|ng-ln-M|ss|on (Toug|an|, Guero
and P|naudo, 2008). Other NGOs as we|| as an lFAD-
unded pro|ect have a|so supported the spread|ng
o armer-managed re-green|ng and other best prac-
t|ces |n natura| resource management by organ|z|ng
armer-to-armer study v|s|ts. Dur|ng these v|s|ts, arm-
ers (men and women) w|th exper|ence |n spec|fc re-
green|ng techn|ques are g|ven an opportun|ty to d|s-
cuss these w|th other armers work|ng under s|m||ar
agroeco|og|ca| cond|t|ons. For |nstance, armers rom
Burk|na Faso have v|s|ted the |arge-sca|e on-arm re-
green|ng |n Ma||'s Seno P|a|ns, and armers rom the
Seno P|a|ns have v|s|ted armers |n Burk|na's Yatenga
reg|on to |earn about so|| ert|||ty management prac-
t|ces.
The quest|on |s under what cond|t|ons can a rap|d
expans|on o armer-managed re-green|ng be
expected? Based on exper|ences |n N|ger and Ma||,
rap|d expans|on can be cata|ysed | the o||ow|ng
cond|t|ons ex|st: (|) h|gh popu|at|on dens|ty, because
th|s |nduces resource users to |ntens|y agr|cu|ture,
(||) sandy so||s, as these can eas||y be penetrated by
roots, (|||) current |ow on-arm tree dens|t|es, and (|v)
enab||ng po||c|es and |eg|s|at|on. Farmers w||| be more
||ke|y to |nvest |n trees | they are g|ven c|ear ownersh|p
r|ghts to the|r trees. ln 1985, a|| trees |n N|ger were
owned by the State, but |n 2011 the percept|on o
armers |s that they have ownersh|p o the|r on-arm
trees. lt |s v|ta| that such percept|ons are supported
by orestry |aws.
E. a-graan|ng |n Iha horn oI AIr|ca
Kenya |s the on|y country |n Ar|ca, and poss|b|y |n the
wor|d, |n wh|ch the (new) const|tut|on ob||ges armers
to grow trees on 10 per cent o the|r |and. Pe|evant
m|n|str|es are current|y d|scuss|ng how th|s cou|d be
|mp|emented. Many armers |n the ert||e h|gh|ands
a|ready have 10 per cent o the|r |and under trees
(G|e.|||ea |co0s|a), but th|s |s not the case |n Kenya's
ar|d and sem|-ar|d |ands. Tree p|ant|ng |n dry|ands
across Ar|ca tends to have a d|sma| track record,
w|th surv|va| rates usua||y rang|ng between on|y 0
and 20 per cent.
6,7
The protect|on and management
o on-arm natura| regenerat|on |n dry|ands, |nc|ud|ng
|n Kenya's dry|ands, w||| he|p |ncrease the number o
on-arm trees.
Even casua| observers trave|||ng to T|gray (Eth|op|a)
w||| be struck by the sca|e o natura| regenerat|on |n
parts o th|s reg|on. lt |s not easy to fnd data about
the sca|e o re-green|ng, but |t covers at |east one
m||||on hectares. Most o the re-green|ng has occurred
|n what are usua||y ca||ed enc|osures, wh|ch are
degraded |ands set as|de or rehab|||tat|on.

A number
o act|v|t|es are comb|ned |n these enc|osures: water
harvest|ng techn|ques to get more water |nto the so||,
natura| regenerat|on and some enr|chment p|ant|ng,
usua||y w|th exot|c spec|es. For |nstance, |n the va||ey
o Abraha Atsbaha, such act|v|t|es |ed to an |ncrease
|n water |eve|s |n the va||ey, wh|ch enab|ed the d|gg|ng
o severa| hundred sha||ow we||s. ln 2008, even
when ra|na|| was very |ow and cerea| cops a||ed,
many am|||es managed to cope better w|th drought
202
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
because they were ab|e to |rr|gate ru|t trees as we||
as the vegetab|e gardens around the we||s. What
has been ach|eved |n parts o T|gray s|nce the ear|y
1990s under adverse cond|t|ons |s another o those
re-green|ng successes |n Ar|ca's dry|ands that have
|arge|y gone unnot|ced.
F. A raan avo|uI|on |n AIr|ca or anoIhar
||nd oI graan ravo|uI|on?
The current th|nk|ng about a Green Pevo|ut|on |n A-
r|ca |nvo|ves |ncreas|ng the use o chem|ca| ert|||zers
and |mproved seeds, expans|on o |rr|gat|on, mecha-
n|zat|on and |mprov|ng market access. However, the
costs o chem|ca| ert|||zers are h|gh and the|r use |n
dry|ands |s not a|ways efc|ent, as the so||'s content o
organ|c matter |s |ow. The cha||enge |s to frst |ncrease
the organ|c matter, and the most efc|ent way o do-
|ng so |s, |n many cases, by |ncreas|ng the number
o on-arm trees. Trees can produce s|gn|fcant quan-
t|t|es o ||tter wh|ch he|ps ma|nta|n or |mprove so||
organ|c matter content (as |||ustrated by the p|cture
above). Farmers prune the trees ear|y |n the ra|ny sea-
son, wh|ch supp||es frewood or cook|ng and reduces
compet|t|on w|th crops. Moreover, the trees prov|de
d|spersed shade to the crops, wh|ch protects them
part o the day aga|nst the sun. Farmers |eave the
pruned branches on the |and unt|| the |eaves are su-
fc|ent|y dry, ater wh|ch the branches are co||ected or
frewood, wh||e the |eaves are |et beh|nd on the |and.
Farmers who have managed to |ncrease the so||'s
content o organ|c matter wou|d beneft great|y rom
sma|| doses o |norgan|c n|trogen (N) ert|||zer. Sma||-
sca|e armers |n Ar|ca (and e|sewhere) who have
||m|ted fnanc|a| resources but want to |ntens|y the|r
agr|cu|tura| product|on have one ma|or |ow-cost
opt|on, wh|ch |s to |ncrease the number o trees.
Some dry|ands |n Ar|ca st||| suer rom the |egacy o
subs|d|zed mechan|zat|on o the 1960s and 1970s,
wh|ch st|mu|ated the remova| o on-arm trees. Even
today mechan|zat|on and |arge-sca|e arms tend to be
regarded by many po||cymakers as the way orward,
desp|te the cons|derab|e damage |t oten does to the
so||s (as |||ustrated by the p|cture be|ow).
An enclosure and natural regeneration in the Tigray region
(Ethiopia).
A dense stand of young Combretum glutinosum trees
on Mali`s Seno Plains annually produces tons of litter per
hectare (March 2011).
A large mechanized commercial farm in Ethiopia`s Pift valley
close to the town of Hawass, with a tractor ploughing the
land (top right). The land does not have a single tree on it to
protect it against the sun and wind. This feld loses tons of
topsoil every year due to wind and water erosion.
203
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
G|oba| ood product|on |s |ncreas|ng aster than
demand (lAASTD, 2009). As|de rom pr|ce sp|kes |n
2008 and 2010-2012, ood pr|ces have been at one
hundred year |ows (Ne||emann et a|., 2009). Desp|te
th|s, b||||ons o peop|e are ma|nour|shed and a b||||on
are starv|ng (Homann, 2011, Khan and Han|ra,
2009).
Ourrent agr|cu|tura| pract|ces, |nc|ud|ng the harvest|ng
o natura| resources such as ocean fsher|es, are
hav|ng enormous and unsusta|nab|e env|ronmenta|
|mpacts (Khan and Han|ra, 2009, P|vera-Ferre, 2008).
And |ncreased agr|cu|tura| product|on |s putt|ng
pressure on ever-shr|nk|ng ecosystem serv|ces
(Da||y et a|., 1998, lAASTD, 2009). These serv|ces are
needed to ma|nta|n the product|v|ty o |and as we|| as
resh and sa|t water used to produce ood (MEA, 2005,
T||man et a|., 2002). The unortunate eedback cyc|e |s
that as agr|cu|ture expands |nto ever more marg|na||y
product|ve ecosystems, |ts |mpact on c||mate change
grows (Ne||emann et a|., 2009).
A. hungar |s a cho|ca
The current a||ures to eed the wor|d are not due
to ||m|tat|ons o techno|ogy, but to soc|a| cho|ces
(He|nemann, 2009, lAASTD, 2009, K|ers et a|., 2008).
lmportant|y, these cho|ces underm|ne the ava||ab|||ty
o ba|anced d|ets |n areas where hunger and
ma|nutr|t|on are endem|c (Nord, 2009).
The cost o ood and the env|ronmenta| cost o ood
product|on cou|d be dramat|ca||y reduced |ust by
cutt|ng ood waste. Accord|ng to Ne||emann et a|.
(2009: 7), "[D]eve|op|ng a|ternat|ves to the use o
cerea| |n an|ma| eed, such as by recyc||ng waste and
us|ng fsh d|scards, cou|d susta|n the energy demand
or the ent|re pro|ected popu|at|on growth o over 3
b||||on peop|e" by 2050. Some o th|s waste rom arm
to ork cou|d be reduced by techno|og|ca| advances,
as we|| as by cutt|ng consumer re|ect|on beore and
ater purchase, but most|y |t cou|d be overcome by
a change |n soc|a| po||cy and att|tudes, espec|a||y
among consumers |n deve|oped countr|es who
waste up to 10 t|mes the amount o ood wasted |n
deve|op|ng countr|es (Gustavsson et a|., 2011).
Demand or ood a|one |s not the on|y cause o
agr|cu|ture's grow|ng ootpr|nt. Many countr|es, even
those exper|enc|ng am|ne, re|y on the export o
ood to generate |ncome (\andermeer and Peecto,
2007). ln recent decades, |arge-sca|e convers|ons
o the agroecosystem |n some countr|es have been
corre|ated w|th an |ncrease |n ood |nsecur|ty, mot|vated
by the push to produce more export commod|t|es at
the expense o oods o h|gher nutr|t|ona| va|ue or
Absl|acl
Wor|d hunger |s a mu|t|aceted prob|em that cannot be so|ved by techno|og|ca| changes a|one.
lndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |s unsusta|nab|e, and techno|og|ca| ad|ustments based on genet|c eng|neer|ng have
not been ab|e to ach|eve the re|evant M|||enn|um Deve|opment Goa|s, |nstead, they have |ntroduced prod-
ucts that restr|ct armer-based |nnovat|on, |n s|tu conservat|on and access to the best |oca||y adapted
germp|asm.
A|ternat|ve agr|cu|tura| mode|s, such as agroeco|ogy, demonstrate potent|a| to reduce poverty, |ncrease
ood secur|ty and reduce agr|cu|ture's env|ronmenta| ootpr|nt because they |ncrease agroecosystem res||-
|ence, |ower externa| |nputs, boost armers' |ncomes and are based on techno|og|es that, or the most part,
can be understood, |mp|emented and urther mod|fed by poor and subs|stence armers.
Commontary v|: Gonot|c Lng|noor|ng and B|otochno|ogy for |ood
5ocur|ty and for C||mato Chango M|t|gat|on and
Adaptat|on: otont|a| and |sks
Jac| A. he|uemauu
Ceul|e lo| luleg|aled Resea|ch |u B|osalely (lhBl) aud Schoo| ol B|o|og|ca| Sc|euces, uu|ve|s|ly ol Caule|bu|y,
Ch||slchu|ch, hew /ea|aud
8
204
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
domest|c consumpt|on (Pengue, 2005, and tab|e 2
above).
New or |mproved techno|og|es cou|d he|p eed the
wor|d (He|nemann, 2009, lAASTD, 2009). Beore
cons|der|ng wh|ch techno|og|ca| approaches are best
or reduc|ng the eects o c||mate change on agr|cu|ture
and m|t|gat|ng agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to actors
caus|ng c||mate change (such as greenhouse gases),
|t w||| be essent|a| to determ|ne wh|ch prob|ems are
best so|ved by techno|og|ca| too|s and wh|ch can be
so|ved by changes |n the soc|o-econom|c and soc|o-
po||t|ca| status quo. Th|s w||| enta|| cons|der|ng some
pa|nu| quest|ons about the causes o the prob|ems.
Oonsp|cuous|y, ew are ||ke|y to have been caused by
a |ack o techno|ogy (Na|0|e, 2010).
8. 0hoos|ng among Iachno|og|ca| paIhs Io
pro-poor, c||maIa-ras|||anI agr|cu|Iura
The r|ght techno|ogy de||vered |n the r|ght way shou|d
be ab|e to he|p reverse agr|cu|ture's adverse |mpact
on c||mate change, and u|t|mate|y contr|bute to
ood secur|ty (He|nemann, 2009, Sc|a|abba, 2007a).
Otherw|se, proposed techno|og|ca| so|ut|ons to
these prob|ems w||| not be susta|nab|e, make the|r
a|r contr|but|on to the M|||enn|um Deve|opment
Goa|s or he|p d|str|bute the benefts more equ|tab|y
among the peop|es o the wor|d. As conc|se|y stated
by the D|rector o the lnternat|ona| Assessment o
Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and Techno|ogy or
Deve|opment (lAASTD), "bus|ness as usua| |s not an
opt|on".
9
One orm o "bus|ness as usua|" |s the h|gh|y
damag|ng trad|t|ona| agr|cu|tura| pract|ce. Damag|ng
trad|t|ona||st approaches are due more to the neg|ect
o armers than to armers preerr|ng to use them. Poor
and subs|stence armers are cha||enged by a |ack o
adequate extens|on and commun|ty support serv|ces
that d|ssem|nate know|edge, aordab|e fnanc|ng and
access to markets or the sa|e o surp|us product|on.
Another orm o "bus|ness as usua|" |s the |ntens|ve
use o externa| |nputs |n agr|cu|ture, and, espec|a||y,
support to mass|ve monocu|tures, both o wh|ch
are concentrated |n deve|oped countr|es and some
rap|d|y |ndustr|a||z|ng deve|op|ng countr|es. n||ke
unsusta|nab|e trad|t|ona| approaches, |nput-|ntens|ve
agr|cu|ture |oose|y reerred to as convent|ona| or
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture has been promoted by po||cy
dec|s|ons. The po||c|es and techno|og|es assoc|ated
w|th |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |nvo|ve a sh|t |n |nnovat|on
resources rom pub||c contro| to the pr|vate sector
(lAASTD, 2009, Sp|e|man, 2007) as a resu|t o the
pr|vate sector |nvest|ng more than the pub||c sector |n
research and deve|opment. Pr|vate |nvestment urther
|everages much o what rema|ns o pub||c |nvestment
through government po||c|es that promote co-
und|ng by the pr|vate sector, the pursu|t o |nte||ectua|
property (lP) by pub||c sector |nst|tut|ons (e.g.
un|vers|t|es and agr|cu|ture agenc|es), and pub||c
sector ||cens|ng o lP rom the pr|vate sector (lAASTD,
2009, \an|oqueren and Baret, 2009). lndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture a|so rece|ves |arge pub||c subs|d|es (d|rect
and |nd|rect) |n deve|oped econom|es, wh|ch st|1e
producers and markets |n deve|op|ng countr|es and
urther underm|ne the ab|||ty o poor and subs|stence
armers to |ntens|y product|on and reduce the|r
env|ronmenta| ootpr|nt (K|ers et a|., 2008, Sp|e|man,
Tab|a Z. 0hangas |n Iood sacur|Iy |n ArganI|na
Food supp|y Ior human
consumpI|on
(par parson/day)
1990-
199Z
1996-
1997
a
Z000-
Z00Z
b
Z006-
Z007
c
1990-199Z Io
1996-1997
(%)
d
1996-1997 Io
Z000-Z00Z
(%)
d
Z000-Z00Z Io
Z006-Z007
(%)
d
|ela|y eue|gy supp|y (|ca|)
8,O1O 8,1GO 8,14O 8,OOO O.9 -O.1 -O.9
Tola| p|ole|u |ula|e (g|ams)
95 1OO 99 94 1 -O.8 -O.9
Au|ma| p|ole|u (g|ams)
G1 G4 G8 G2 O.9 -O.5 -O.8
lal (g|ams)
1OG 118 11O 1O8 1.2 -O.4 -O.5
Sc0|ce: Based on data rom FAOSTAT.
Nc|es:
a
Per|od o frst |ntroduct|on o commerc|a| GM p|ants, |ndustry fgures report 1.7 m||||on hectares o GM
crops were be|ng cu|t|vated |n 1996 (lSAAA Br|e No. 36).
b
Accord|ng to |ndustry fgures, dur|ng th|s per|od, 13.5 m||||on hectares o GM crops were be|ng
cu|t|vated (lSAAA Br|e No. 36).
c
Accord|ng to |ndustry fgures, dur|ng th|s per|od 19.1 m||||on hectares o GM crops were be|ng
cu|t|vated (lSAAA Br|e No. 37).
d
Annua| rate o change not tota| change over the per|od.
205
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
2007). Furthermore, |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture has ne|t-
her produced a susta|nab|e, h|gh|y product|ve
agroecosystem nor curbed agr|cu|ture's |mpact on
c||mate change.
O the many b|otechno|ogy opt|ons ava||ab|e or
test|ng or |mp|ement|ng, perhaps the one that rece|ves
the most attent|on |s genet|c eng|neer|ng (GE) or the
product|on o genet|ca||y mod|fed organ|sms (GMOs)
p|ants, an|ma|s and m|crobes (lAASTD, 2009).
As current|y app||ed, GE has come to symbo||ze
agr|cu|tura| product|on systems that make |ntens|ve
use o externa| |nputs and promote monocu|tures
(P|vera-Ferre, 2008). Th|s |s because o the types
o commerc|a||zed GM products that are the most
common (|.e. soybeans, ma|ze, rapeseed and cotton),
because o the part|cu|ar|y |arge agroecosystems that
have adopted GM crops, ma|n|y those |n Argent|na,
Braz||, Oanada, Paraguay, the n|ted States and
ruguay (fgure 5), and because o the most common
commerc|a||zed GM tra|ts: herb|c|de to|erance
and |nsect|c|de product|on. Herb|c|de to|erance, |n
part|cu|ar, |ends |tse| to mechan|zed de||very o an
|nseparab|e co-techno|ogy, a chem|ca| or weed
management. Th|s weed-contro| strategy requ|res
|arge tracts o monocu|ture to avo|d herb|c|de dr|t
onto ne|ghbour|ng or other agr|cu|tura| |and. F|na||y,
because o the re|at|ve|y sma|| number o countr|es
that have adopted GM crops and the ew compan|es
that have commerc|a||zed |t, |nd|v|dua| country- and
company-spec|fc po||c|es and bus|ness p|ans have
had an |mportant |n1uence on the adopt|on o th|s
b|otechno|ogy.
That some o the |argest agr|cu|tura| countr|es |n
the wor|d have adopted GM vers|ons o a ew crops
F|gura 6. agraas oI comm|ImanI Io N agr|cu|Iura (asI|maIas Ior Z007)
Sc0|ces: Peproduced rom He|nemann, 2009.
Nc|e: On|y two countr|es |n the wor|d have converted the ma|or|ty o the|r agr|cu|tura| systems to GM
cropp|ng (b|ack boxes). Accord|ng to |ndustry fgures, Argent|na and Paraguay are true "mega
countr|es" o GM crops (James, 2007). The ma|or|ty o the top 20 GM produc|ng countr|es comm|t
|ess than 15 per cent o the|r agr|cu|tura| product|on to GM (wh|te boxes w|th so||d ||nes |nd|cate
above 1 per cent). Even the wor|d's |argest producer, the n|ted States, comm|ts no more than about
a th|rd o |ts cropp|ng capac|ty to GM (grey boxes or countr|es hav|ng more than 10 per cent).
Cauada
18
Po|luga|
<2.8
l|auce
<O.8
Spa|u
O.5
S|ova||a
<8
Ch|ua
2
lud|a
4
Ph|||pp|ues
8
Ausl|a||a
O.2
A|geul|ua
G5
Pa|aguay
GG
u|uguay
85
B|a/||
28
Soulh Al||ca
11
uu|led Slales
82
Ne/|co
O.4
Co|omb|a
<1
Ch||e
<2
206
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
shou|d not be taken as ev|dence that GE has de||vered
susta|nab|y and re||ab|y greater y|e|ds. Oontrast|ng
North Amer|can and Western European product|on
o ma|ze and rapeseed |s |nstruct|ve |n th|s regard
because they both have h|gh-|nput, h|gh-product|on
agroecosystems. ln Oanada, or examp|e, rapeseed
(cano|a), and |n the n|ted States, ma|ze, are a|most
exc|us|ve|y produced rom GM p|ants. Oo||ect|ve|y,
Western Europe has shunned the cu|t|vat|on o GM
ma|ze and rapeseed (fgure 6). Yet ma|ze y|e|ds are
very s|m||ar |n the two agroecosystems, and Western
Europe's rapeseed y|e|ds are about doub|e those o
North Amer|ca. Th|s trend has not changed s|nce the
adopt|on o GM p|ants |n North Amer|ca.
Broad|y speak|ng, countr|es mak|ng a substant|a| sh|t
to GM crops are |n a group where ood secur|ty has
e|ther shown no |mprovement (e.g. n|ted States), or
where |t |s dec||n|ng (e.g. Argent|na). (fgure 6, and
He|nemann, 2009).
0. hoW soma b|oIachno|og|as ara Ia|||ng
Arguab|y, some GM products have |owered the
overa|| |mpact o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture. For examp|e,
the use o g|yphosate-based herb|c|des on GM crops
has reduced the need or t||||ng as a weed contro|
strategy (Pengue, 2005, Serv|ce, 2007). S|m||ar|y, the
use o GM |nsect|c|de p|ants (oten ca||ed Bt p|ants),
part|cu|ar|y cotton, has reduced the use o externa|
chem|ca| |nsect|c|des.
nortunate|y, these benefts are both contested and
determ|n|st|ca||y unsusta|nab|e (He|nemann, 2009).
The pred|ctab|e pattern and quant|ty o g|yphosate
herb|c|de use |n GM agr|cu|ture has caused the
evo|ut|on o res|stance |n weeds on a sca|e never
exper|enced |n the decades o g|yphosate use pr|or to
GM crops, |ead|ng to a return to t||||ng and the use o
other herb|c|des or weed contro| (Ga|nes et a|., 2010,
Pow|es, 2008, Serv|ce, 2007). Meanwh||e, the un|que
pattern o use o g|yphosate on GM soybeans has
reduced |n s||0 n|trogen fxat|on by che|at|ng n|cke|,
a requ|red co-actor or enzymat|c act|v|t|es |n the
m|crob|a| symb|onts (Zob|o|e et a|., 2010), and reduced
norma| |ron uptake and storage |n soybeans (Be||a|ou|
et a|., 2009). G|yphosate on herb|c|de to|erant p|ants
a|so reduces root b|omass, e|ongat|on and |atera| root
ormat|on (Bott et a|., 2008). System|c d|str|but|on o
g|yphosate throughout the p|ant |s assoc|ated w|th
|ncreased suscept|b|||ty to co|on|zat|on by d|sease-
caus|ng ung| (Kremer, Means and K|m, 2005).
These eects urther reduce the susta|nab|||ty o GM
approaches. L|kew|se, rep|ac|ng comp|ementary and
d|verse pest contro| pract|ces, such as |ntegrated pest
management (Manc|n| et a|., 2008), and the |ud|c|ous
use o natura| sources o Bt |nsect|c|des, as |n organ|c
agr|cu|ture, a|ong w|th the mass p|ant|ng o GM Bt
crops, |s caus|ng the appearance o secondary pests
(Lu et a|., 2010, Zhao, Ho and Azad|, 2011).
Moreover, whatever the comparat|ve benefts
o GE may be, they are |arge|y |ost when GE/
F|gura 6. 0omparaI|va y|a|ds |n N adopI|ng and non-adopI|ng agr|cu|Iura| sysIams, 1996-Z009
Sc0|ces: FAOSTAT or rat|o o y|e|d, and GMO Oompass or percentage o GM ma|ze and rapeseed
(accessed May 2011).
Nc|e: Let ax|s |s the rat|o o y|e|d |n hectograms (Hg) per hectare (Ha) or two crops, rapeseed (top) and
ma|ze (bottom), and three producers, Western Europe, Oanada and the n|ted States. P|ght ax|s
represents the proport|on o GM by crop type |n the North Amer|can agr|cu|tura| systems.
1
9
9
5

--
1
9
9
7

--
1
9
9
9

--
2
0
0
1

--
2
0
0
3

--
2
0
0
5

--
2
0
0
9

-
3.0 -
2.5 -
2.0 -
1.5 -
1.0 -
0.5 -
- 100
- 80
- 60
- 40
- 20
- 0
Western Europe/ Canada rapeseed productivity
Western Europe/ United States rapeseed productivity
Western Europe/ United States maize productivity
R
a
t
i
o

o
f

y
i
e
l
d

(
H
g
/
H
a
)
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

G
M
United States maize
United States rapeseed
Canada rapeseed
207
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
F|gura 7: Food sacur|Iy |n N and non-N adopI|ng counIr|as |n 8ouIh Amar|ca comparad,
199Z-Z007 (|ca|/parson/day)
Sc0|ces: FAOStat.
Nc|e: A co||ect|on o South Amer|can countr|es that have not adopted GM-based agr|cu|tura| systems
show s|m||ar |mprovements |n ood secur|ty (top pane|). Oountr|es w|th vary|ng proport|ons o GM
(r|ght ax|s, bottom pane|) show m|xed resu|ts. Those w|th rap|d adopt|on o greater amounts o GM |n
the|r agr|cu|ture are more prone to |ncreased |nsecur|ty |eve|s (measured |n kca|, |et ax|s).
1
9
9
2

-
1
9
9
7

-
2
0
0
2

-
2
0
0
7

-
3 200 -
3 000 -
2 800 -
2 600 -
2 400 -
2 200 -
2 000 -
Chile
Columbia
Venezuela
Peru
Bolivia
k
c
a
l
/
p
e
r
s
o
n
/
d
a
y
1
9
9
2

-
1
9
9
7

-
2
0
0
2

-
2
0
0
7

-
3 400 -
3 200 -
3 000 -
2 800 -
2 600 -
2 400 -
2 200 -
2 000 -
- 0.7
- 0.6
- 0.5
- 0.4
- 0.3
- 0.2
- 0.1
- 0.0
k
c
a
l
/
p
e
r
s
o
n
/

d
a
y
P
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
n

o
f

a
r
a
b
l
e

f
a
r
m
l
a
n
d

u
n
d
e
r

G
M

c
r
o
p
s
Argentina (kcal)
Uruguay
(proportion of GM)
Paraguay
(proportion of GM)
Brazil
(proportion of GM)
Argentina
(proportion of GM)
Brazil (kcal)
Paraguay (kcal)
Uruguay (kcal)
lood secu||ly |u uou-CN adopl|ug Soulh Ame||cau couul||es
lood secu||ly |u CN adopl|ug Soulh Ame||cau couul||es
208
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |s compared w|th a|ternat|ve
b|otechno|og|es such as agroeco|og|ca| techno|og|es
(P|mente| et a|., 2005, Pretty, 2001). Land converted to
agr|cu|ture rom other uses, gu|ded by agroeco|ogy,
requ|res t|me to cond|t|on and br|ng to u|| potent|a|
(Badg|ey et a|., 2007, P|mente| et a|., 2005). Once
th|s has been ach|eved, agroeco|og|ca| approaches
have been observed to generate h|gher y|e|ds than
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture, as shown |n severa| comp||at|ons
and meta-ana|yses at country, cont|nenta| and g|oba|
|eve|s (Badg|ey et a|., 2007, pho, 2007). P|ants
grown on agroeco|og|ca| arms are more res|||ent
to stress than those grown by means o |ndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture (Lotter, Se|de| and L|ebhardt, 2003,
P|mente| et a|., 2005). Agroeco|og|ca| arms requ|re
ar |ess oss||-ue|-der|ved energy and sequester more
carbon (P|mente| et a|., 2005, Sc|a|abba, 2007b). ln
add|t|on, the adopt|on o agroeco|og|ca| approaches
contr|butes to susta|nab|e soc|et|es by reduc|ng
poverty and |mprov|ng ood secur|ty (Sc|a|abba,
2007a, NEP and NOTAD, 2008).
Ater approx|mate|y 30 years o commerc|a||zat|on
and pre-commerc|a| GE research and deve|opment,
|t has not made a substant|a| contr|but|on to
susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. The lAASTD (2009) was
thereore |ust|fed |n quest|on|ng whether GE cou|d
de||ver on M|||enn|um Deve|opment Goa|s or reduce
agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to c||mate change. However,
had the |ncent|ves or de||ver|ng GM products
been d|erent, and the goa|s o pub||c and pr|vate
|nnovat|on not been so thorough|y |ntertw|ned |n th|s
b|otechno|ogy (\an|oqueren and Baret, 2009), wou|d
GE have produced d|erent resu|ts? ln other words,
has GE a||ed because o po||cy dec|s|ons and |ts
part|cu|ar h|story o commerc|a||zat|on, or because the
techno|ogy |tse| has been |nappropr|ate?
. why soma b|oIachno|og|as
cou|d succaad
Aga|n, compar|sons w|th a|ternat|ve b|otechno|og|es
may be |nstruct|ve or respond|ng to these quest|ons.
The two b|otechno|og|es be|ng contrasted w|th GE
here are convent|ona| breed|ng, w|th or w|thout
marker-ass|sted se|ect|on, and agroeco|ogy. The
tra|ts cons|dered are drought to|erance and nutr|ent
enhancement.
1. roughI Io|aranca
Agr|cu|ture makes tremendous demands on
groundwater, and water shortages are a g|oba| drag
on ood product|on. Th|s has dr|ven the search or
p|ants that ma|nta|n or |mprove y|e|d under cond|t|ons
o water depr|vat|on. Desp|te many attempts, to
date there are no commerc|a||y ava||ab|e GM p|ants
w|th tra|ts that reduce the eects o ab|ot|c stress
(He|nemann, 2008). The c|osest so ar |s a var|ety o
"drought to|erant" ma|ze, ca||ed MON 87460, wh|ch
|s under regu|atory cons|derat|on |n some countr|es.
Accord|ng to the deve|oper's data, the GM ma|ze
had a marg|na||y (p0.05) stat|st|ca||y s|gn|fcant
|ncrease |n y|e|d |n on|y one o our fe|d tests, wh|ch
|s unconv|nc|ng or the genera| expectat|on that the
var|ety |s h|gher y|e|d|ng under stress. The deve|oper
c|a|ms that "the ma|or component contr|but|ng to the
|mproved y|e|d o MON 87460 under water-||m|ted
cond|t|ons |s the |ncreased number o kerne|s per
ear" (Monsanto, 2009: 45), rather than c|a|m|ng that
the var|ety produces more usab|e b|omass. The
deve|oper ca||s th|s tra|t a change |n "y|e|d potent|a|",
rather than an |ncrease |n y|e|d.
Drought to|erance has |ong been a goa| o
convent|ona| breed|ng, and current hybr|ds a|ready
exh|b|t some to|erance (Monsanto, 2009), w|th
|mprovements on th|s base||ne expected. Accord|ng
to the Wor|d Bank (2007:162), the "lnternat|ona|
Ma|ze and Wheat lmprovement Oenter (OlMMYT),
ater more than 30 years o research to produce
drought-to|erant ma|ze var|et|es and hybr|ds, |s
now see|ng resu|ts |n eastern and southern Ar|ca.
Eva|uated aga|nst ex|st|ng hybr|ds, the new ones
y|e|d 20 percent more on average under drought
cond|t|ons. S|m||ar|y, recent ev|dence po|nts to
s|gn|fcant y|e|d ga|ns |n breed|ng wheat or drought
and heat-stressed env|ronments."
Agroeco|og|ca| approaches urther reduce the need
or |ntens|ve breed|ng or GE to produce drought-
to|erant var|et|es. lncreas|ng the organ|c matter |n
so||, us|ng cover crops and |nterspers|ng a||ow years
s|gn|fcant|y |ncreases |atent so|| mo|sture, mak|ng
agroeco|og|ca| arms ar more res|||ent to drought-
re|ated stress (He|nemann, 2008). Water perco|at|ng
through the so||s |n agroeco|og|ca| test p|ots has
been reported to be between 15 per cent and more
than 30 per cent h|gher than |n convent|ona| p|ots
under drought cond|t|ons, and has demonstrated
commensurate |ncreases |n y|e|ds compared w|th
matched convent|ona| management (Lotter, Se|de|
and L|ebhardt, 2003, P|mente| et a|., 2005, Sc|a|abba,
2007a).
209
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
Z. huIr|anI anhancamanI
M|cronutr|ent defc|enc|es contr|bute s|gn|fcant|y
to ma|nutr|t|on (Sc|a|abba, 2007a), wh|ch |s why
deve|op|ng p|ants that are enr|ched w|th m|cronutr|-
ents has been a |ong-term goa|. lt |s thereore
part|cu|ar|y unortunate that the |argest group
o commerc|a||zed GM p|ants, those to|erant to
g|yphosate herb|c|des, are a|so |ess ab|e to take up
some |mportant m|cronutr|ents rom the so|| (Be||a|ou|
et a|., 2009, Bott et a|., 2008). lmportant|y, spray dr|t at
non-|etha| concentrat|ons has a s|m||ar eect on non-
GM crops (Be||a|ou| et a|., 2009). Because g|yphosate
can be used mu|t|p|e t|mes dur|ng the grow|ng season
on herb|c|de to|erant GM p|ants, non-GM crops are
now rout|ne|y exposed to spray dr|t.
Attent|on has been drawn to the deve|opment o GM
r|ce that produces b-carotene, wh|ch can be converted
by humans to v|tam|n A (He|nemann, 2009, Schubert,
2008). However, h|gh m|cronutr|ent var|et|es are not
un|que to GE, or |nstance, ma|ze ||nes that produce
near|y our t|mes the amount o b-carotene (8.57 0g
g
1
) o second generat|on GM r|ce var|et|es (2.6 0g
g
1
) have been deve|oped through convent|ona|
breed|ng (Yan et a|., 2010). Th|s |s ment|oned not to
d|sparage the techn|ca| ach|evement o |ntroduc|ng
the b|osynthet|c pathway or b-carotene |nto r|ce,
but to emphas|ze the |mportance o protect|ng crop
genet|c d|vers|ty and |ts ongo|ng potent|a| to be
tapped or use |n ba|anced d|ets (Zam|r, 2008).
Oomb|ned stud|es have ound that ba|anced d|ets
are more access|b|e to poor and subs|stence
armers us|ng agroeco|og|ca| rather than |ndustr|a|
arm|ng approaches. Th|s |s because o the use o
mu|t|cropp|ng and the |ntegrat|on o ||vestock rear|ng,
and the h|gher m|cronutr|ent content o the p|ants
they grow, and because these armers tend to earn
more, wh|ch a||ows them to purchase other oods
(Sc|a|abba, 2007a, NEP and NOTAD, 2008).
Proponents o b-carotene-enr|ched GM r|ce argue that
saety regu|at|ons have been the pr|mary h|ndrance to
the transer o th|s product to poor and subs|stence
armers |n soc|et|es that suer rom s|gn|fcant v|tam|n
A defc|ency (Dubock, 2009). However, ma|nutr|t|on
|s caused by the |ack o a ba|anced d|et rather than
the |ack o access to GM crops. Moreover, these
commentators neg|ect to take |nto account the
est|mated 70 patents and 32 patent ho|ders that had
to agree to the use o the|r |nte||ectua| property pr|or
to re|ease o the GM r|ce (Gra et a|., 2003, Sp|e|man,
2007, WHO, 2005). These protracted negot|at|ons were
recent|y reso|ved w|th an agreement that exempted
spec|fed countr|es rom hav|ng to pay roya|ty ees or
grow|ng th|s var|ety o GM r|ce prov|ded that the r|ce
was not exported (GPO, on||ne). G|ven the d|fcu|t|es
|n conta|n|ng transgenes, |nc|ud|ng those |n r|ce
(\erm||, 2006), th|s human|tar|an ||cence may transer
||ab|||ty or gene 1ow and potent|a| patent |nr|ngement
to the armer and the adopt|ng country (He|nemann,
2007). Non-GM var|et|es and agroeco|og|ca|
techno|og|es are usua||y protected by |ess restr|ct|ve
lP |nstruments, and as process |nnovat|ons are not
prone to acc|denta| and unavo|dab|e escape |n the
way that seeds and po||en are, th|s ||ab|||ty wou|d not
be |ncurred through the|r use.
E. 0onc|us|ons
Techno|og|ca| so|ut|ons are rare|y susta|nab|e | they
do not rect|y the cause o the prob|em. Pegard|ess
o the ab|||ty o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture to produce ood
surp|uses |n prev|ous decades (P|vera-Ferre, 2008),
uture techno|og|es must produce susta|nab|e so|ut-
|ons and be useu| to those who are now ma|nour|shed.
As stated by pho (2007: 218), "The most d|rect way
to reduce poverty |s to ra|se the product|v|ty o those
actors o product|on contro||ed by the poor: frst o a||,
the|r |abor, but a|so the|r know|edge and sk|||s, and or
many though not a||, sma|| areas o |and. lncreased
actor product|v|ty o |and, |abor, cap|ta| and water
can have second-order benefts or the poor, urban as
we|| as rura|, by |ower|ng the pr|ce o ood and other
th|ngs on wh|ch the poor spend most o the|r meager
|ncomes." The export o the |ndustr|a| mode| o
agr|cu|ture and |ts assoc|ated GE-based techno|og|es
that are embedded |n part|cu|ar|y exc|us|onary lP
|nstruments, such as patents, to ood-poor countr|es
shows ||tt|e prom|se o address|ng the needs o the
hungry poor (lAASTD, 2009, Pray and Naseem, 2007,
WHO, 2005, Wor|d Bank, 2007).
Fortunate|y, other techno|og|es show prom|se, both
or |ncreas|ng y|e|d |n y|e|d-||m|ted agroecosystems
and or promot|ng what the present system has not
been ab|e to ach|eve, name|y susta|nab|e soc|et|es
|n poor countr|es (P|vera-Ferre, 2009, NEP and
NOTAD, 2008). Th|s |s obta|ned when techno|og|es
reduce externa| |nputs and on-arm costs o seeds,
|ncorporate mu|t|cropp|ng and ||vestock or ba|anced
d|ets, promote ongo|ng armer |nnovat|on under an
appropr|ate lP r|ghts ramework, and are produced
by a pub||c sector that oers the appropr|ate
210
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|ncent|ves (He|nemann, 2009, \an|oqueren and
Baret, 2009).
O||mate change has been rap|d, but not unpred|ctab|e,
|ndeed, |ts occurrence has oten been pred|cted
even | the message has been res|sted or decades.
L|kew|se, a am|||ar message or decades has been
that agr|cu|ture |s mak|ng unsusta|nab|e demands on
ecosystem resources wor|dw|de, and |s contr|but|ng
to c||mate change. One o the most |mportant |essons
to be |earnt beore dec|d|ng on a techno|og|ca|
pathway to reduce agr|cu|ture's appet|te or resources
and |ts ootpr|nt on the c||mate |s that ear|y warn|ng o
de|eter|ous but avo|dab|e outcomes need to be taken
ser|ous|y, rather than |gnored as |n the past. l we a||ow
the same vo|ces to be drowned out aga|n, we w||| a||
to protect those who w||| suer the most rom c||mate
change and |ts damag|ng eects on agr|cu|tura|
product|on.
211
3. The Po|e o Pesearch and Techno|ogy and Extens|on Serv|ces
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218
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
hoIas
1 As apt|y stated by Pundgren (2012), "How we d|scuss 'efc|ency' or 'product|v|ty' and 'techno|ogy' has strong
b|ases, c|ear|y v|s|b|e |n agr|cu|ture, where the systems that waste most, po||ute most and use much externa|
energy are those that are cons|dered 'modern', 'efc|ent' and 'product|ve'. The unct|on o techno|ogy to put other
peop|es' resources |n the serv|ce o the a|ready wea|thy, and to constant|y |ncrease the gap |s obscured by our
myths about 'progress'".
2 S0s|a|nao|e c| |een a||c0||0|e reers to the |ncreas|ng use o arm|ng pract|ces and techno|og|es that
s|mu|taneous|y: (|) restore, ma|nta|n and |ncrease arm product|v|ty and proftab|||ty wh||e ensur|ng the prov|s|on
o ood on a susta|nab|e bas|s, (||) reduce negat|ve externa||t|es and gradua||y |ead to pos|t|ve ones, and (|||)
rebu||d eco|og|ca| resources, |.e. so||, water, a|r and b|od|vers|ty ("natura| cap|ta|" assets) by reduc|ng po||ut|on and
us|ng resources more efc|ent|y. Green agr|cu|ture |s exemp||fed by a d|verse, |oca||y adaptab|e set o agr|cu|tura|
techn|ques, pract|ces and market brand|ng cert|fcat|ons. Examp|es o these |nc|ude organ|c agr|cu|ture and
agroeco|ogy (reerred to preerent|a||y |n th|s art|c|e as an approach to agr|cu|ture based on the pr|nc|p|es and
sc|ence o eco|ogy, or meet|ng peop|e's need or ood wh|ch g|ves equa| attent|on to the goa|s o susta|nab|||ty,
res|||ence and equ|ty and not on|y to product|on wh|ch represents more accurate|y the trans|t|on goa|s to
mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|ture) (mod|fed rom NEP, 2011). The pr|nc|p|es under|y|ng susta|nab|e or "green arm|ng
pract|ces and techno|og|es" |nc|ude: (|) restor|ng and enhanc|ng so|| ert|||ty through the |ncreased use o natura||y
and susta|nab|y produced nutr|ent |nputs, d|vers|fed crop rotat|ons, and ||vestock and crop |ntegrat|on, (||)
reduc|ng so|| eros|on and |mprov|ng the efc|ency o water use by app|y|ng m|n|mum t|||age, and cover crop
cu|t|vat|on techn|ques, (|||) reduc|ng the use o chem|ca| pest|c|des and herb|c|des by |mp|ement|ng |ntegrated
b|o|og|ca| pest and weed management pract|ces, and (|v) reduc|ng ood spo||age and |oss by |mprov|ng post-
harvest storage and process|ng ac|||t|es (mod|fed rom NEP, 2011).
3 The authors thank Egerton n|vers|ty (N|oro, Kenya), the Kenya Agr|cu|tura| Pesearch lnst|tute (Na|rob|, Kenya),
the lnst|tute o An|ma| Product|on |n the Trop|cs and Subtrop|cs (Sect|on o An|ma| Breed|ng and Husbandry) and
the Food Secur|ty Oenter, Hohenhe|m n|vers|ty (Stuttgart, Germany) or prov|d|ng ac|||t|es to undertake the study
that ormed the bas|s or th|s commentary. Th|s paper was wr|tten when one o the authors was a \|s|t|ng Proessor
at Hohenhe|m n|vers|ty.
4 For an examp|e o Ma||'s Seno P|a|n, see APl update 2011 no.4 at: www.ar|ca-regreen|ng.b|ogspot.com.
5 The |ower on-arm tree dens|t|es |n northern N|ger|a may be due to d|erences |n tree ownersh|p.
6 Persona| commun|cat|on w|th oresters across the Sahe|.
7 Th|s makes |t hard to exp|a|n why governments and donor agenc|es, at |east unt|| recent|y, stubborn|y cont|nued to
support and promote tree p|ant|ng. lt |s more rat|ona| to promote natura| regenerat|on and to p|ant on|y those tree
spec|es that do not regenerate spontaneous|y, but wh|ch resource users wou|d ||ke to have on the|r fe|ds.
8 The author w|shes to thank Jason Ty||anak|s, G||es-Er|c Sera||n| and Br|g|tta Kurenbach or comments on ear||er
drats o th|s paper.
9 See: www.agassessment.org/docs/NAE_press_re|ease_fna|.doc.
220
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Absl|acl
Land convers|ons |n agr|cu|ture are |mportant or ood secur|ty |n deve|op|ng countr|es at the present t|me,
and are ||ke|y to |ncrease even more |n the uture.
ln re|at|on to overa|| |and use, |and convers|ons take p|ace (a) w|th|n agr|cu|tura| |and, rom meadows
or pastures to crop|and and to |and or produc|ng an|ma| eed or b|oue| eedstock, and (b) to agr|cu|-
tura| |and rom other |and use types, such as rom orests, dry|ands and wet|and areas. The dynam|cs
o these processes are est|mated to be |n the range o 0.2 to 0.3 per cent o the g|oba| |and area,
suggest|ng that 2639 m||||on hectares o |and are converted annua||y.
The eects o |and convers|ons on sma||-sca|e arm|ng can be both pos|t|ve and negat|ve. Farmers
convert new |and or |mprov|ng the|r ||ve||hoods, but they are negat|ve|y aected by |and degradat|on
and the |ntrus|on o bu||t-up areas |nto agr|cu|tura| |and. Strateg|es shou|d ocus on med|um- to |ow-
potent|a| areas |n support o sma||-sca|e armers and pastora||sts to he|p them susta|nab|y |ncrease
the|r agr|cu|tura| product|on.
Land convers|on to b|oue| eedstock product|on can prov|de a moderate add|t|ona| |ncome, a|though
armers are ||ke|y to be negat|ve|y aected by assoc|ated |and |osses. On a g|oba| |eve|, however, e-
orts to ach|eve econom|es o sca|e, dens|ty and more |ntens|ve product|on o b|oue| eedstock,
a|ong w|th other |and dea|s, may threaten ood secur|ty. Today's po||cy |ncent|ves d|sproport|onate|y
avour |arge-sca|e b|oue| eedstock product|on, most|y or export markets. lnnovat|ve arrangements
are needed to ensure that |and convers|ons to b|oue| eedstock product|on are made |n a respon-
s|b|e manner, and that sma||-sca|e arm|ng, |nc|ud|ng m|xed-crop ||vestock and pastora| systems, can
be |ntegrated |nto g|oba| agr|cu|ture.
Land pr|ces and specu|at|on are ||ke|y to |ncrease once |and |s converted to more econom|ca||y |nte-
grated modes o product|on, wh||e subs|stence-or|ented, sma||-sca|e arm|ng w||| rema|n unattract|ve
and thus w||| urther |ose out aga|nst more poweru| actors | nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| po||c|es do not
|mp|ement counter-strateg|es.
Overa||, the |mpacts o |and convers|ons on c||mate are ||ke|y to be negat|ve. Wh||e sma||-sca|e arm-
|ng and ||vestock rear|ng are oten c||mate neutra|, deorestat|on rema|ns extreme|y harmu|, the |arge-
sca|e rear|ng o rum|nant ||vestock has negat|ve |mpacts on greenhouse gases, and so ar ||tt|e |s
known about the overa|| |mpacts o b|oue| eedstock product|on on c||mate.
Load Art|c|o: KLY |ML|CA1|ON5 O| LAND CONvL5|ON5 |N
AG|CUL1UL
haus hu|u|, Thomas B|eu, Pele| Nesse||| aud B||g|lle Po|lue|,
Ceul|e lo| eve|opmeul aud Euv||oumeul, uu|ve|s|ly ol Be|u
1
A. lul|oducl|ou
Land cover and |and use are constant|y chang|n,
oc|| w|th|n and outs|de the agr|cu|tura| sector (tab|e
1). Tab|e 1 shows that on|y a ew o the g|oba||y dom|-
nant |and use and cover systems are stab|e |n terms
o the|r |and area. A |arger number o systems are
expand|ng (|ta||cs) at the expense o others that are
decreas|ng (bo|d).
/||c0||0|a| eoans|cn |n|c /c|es| |anos |s ||e mcs|
|||ea|en|n |coa| c|ane o|ccess. Deorestat|on |s
||ke|y to cont|nue |n the near uture. A|| non-protected
orest areas are threatened by over-extract|on o
t|mber, deorestat|on, and |and-use convers|ons to
orest p|antat|ons, graz|ng |and, or crop|and. Th|s
process |s est|mated to a|ready contr|bute about 11
per cent to g|oba| greenhouse gas (GHG) em|ss|ons
a cons|derab|e amount that cou|d be avo|ded. A||
221
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es, together, account or another
15 per cent o GHG em|ss|ons, amount|ng to an
est|mated tota| o 26 per cent o GHGs (lPOO, 2007).
More recent|y, crop|ands or b|oue| product|on
have a|so started to expand |nto orest |ands
and wood|ands, wh||e |and |eases and sa|es to
transnat|ona| corporat|ons are a urther ma|or cause
o th|s expans|on.
/||c0||0|a| eoans|cn |n|c o|,|ano a|eas |s a process
oten dr|ven by the spread o sma||-sca|e arm|ng
|nto |ess su|tab|e cu|t|vat|on areas. At the same t|me,
b|oue| product|on cont|nues to spread |nto non-
agr|cu|tura| dry|ands (e.g. savannah, bush, shrub and
scrub|ands). Here too, transnat|ona| |and |eases and
sa|es are s|gn|fcant, a|though they represent a recent
trend (lLO, 2011).
|ano-0se c|anes cn a||c0||0|a| |ano, however,
must a|so be cons|dered, as the|r |mp||cat|ons may
be as great as the expans|on o agr|cu|ture |nto areas
devoted to other types o |and use and |and cover.
Oonvers|ons may take p|ace on agr|cu|tura| |and, or
examp|e rom |ntens|ve pasture |and to crop|and.
Add|t|ona| crop|and |s created ma|n|y as a resu|t
o popu|at|on pressure, but a|so or |ndustr|a||zed
arm|ng, such as |arge-sca|e arms or tree p|antat|ons
|n recent|y deorested areas.
S|nce 2005, about 0.5 per cent o the g|oba| |and
surace has been converted rom crop|and and dry|and
or ood and eed to crop|and or b|oue| product|on
(|.e. b|od|ese|, ethano|). Here aga|n, transnat|ona|
|and |eases and sa|es, a|though not yet |mportant |n
quant|tat|ve terms, are neverthe|ess an |nd|cator o
current and uture trends. However, b|oue| product|on
and |and |eases st||| account or a re|at|ve|y sma||
proport|on o cu|t|vated |and compared w|th that be|ng
used or the product|on o an|ma| eed (e.g. ma|ze,
cerea|s and soybeans). About 40 per cent o g|oba|
cerea| product|on |s used or an|ma| eed. Together
w|th pastur|ng, three quarters o a|| agr|cu|tura| |and
|s thus be|ng used to generate an|ma| products (e.g.
m||k, meat and eggs), wh||e on|y one quarter |s used
or produc|ng non-meat and non-da|ry products, such
as cerea|s, vegetab|es, tuber crops and other p|ants.
Land use and/or cover
Share
(%)
Surface
(mi||ions of ha)
Changes in |and use
1. A|icul|u|Il lI| 26 S,S8O 0|e ||i| ol ||e lI| i: e|Ie
C|o||11 !! !13J 1 ||o |o|| 11 11on
InIans|va pasIuras 7 910 Loss Io crop|and and an|ma| Iaad
41| |1 ||o1..|o 1 :?J 1 ||o .|o||11 11 |1|.|
A|olo|e:||] 2.5 S25 |o:|l] :|Iule lI|-u:e :]:|e|
511|11 ! !3J S|)|| .|1 ||o .|o||11 11 |1|.|
5o|.| ||o1..|o J: 5: 1 ||o |o|| 11 |1|.| |11
Z. ForasI |and 30 3,900 LargasI spaI|a| araa |ossas obsarvad
agradad IorasIs 14 1,BZ0 NosI convarIad |and usa Iypa (parI|y gratad)
ansa IorasIs 1Z 1,660 NosI IhraaIanad |and covar Iypa
||o|ec|e lo|e:|: 4 52O S|Iule lo|e:| I|eI:
S. |]lI| S5 4,55O |I|e:| |o|ec|e I|eI: |eIlie
e:e||: I| |u||I 21 2,ISO S|Iule lI| co.e| (I||l] |Ie)
ProIacIad dry|ands 10 1,300 Lossas Io b|oIua| and |and convars|ons (parI|y gratad)
8hrub|ands (gratad) 4 6Z0 ThraaIanad by c||maIa changa and |and |ossas Io b|oIua|s
and oIhar convars|ons
1 5.||-.| 1|1 : 5:J |1|1 .||1 \|1o |o 1)|..||.|1| |11 11 1|,|11
6. waI araas 4 6Z0 waIar surIacas and WaI|ands
louIl lI| :u|lIce 1OO 1S,OOO louIl lI| I|eI (e/cl. |ee|lI| I| A||I|c|icI)
Tab|a 1: |oba| |and usa and covar Iypas, and major spaI|a| changas
(parcanIaga and m||||on hacIaras)
$ource: Based on FAOSTAT (2006), w|th authors' est|mates or sub-categor|es and breakdowns.
Note: Bo|d onts |nd|cate genera| |osses o a part|cu|ar type, norma| onts |nd|cate stab|e s|tuat|ons, and |ta||cs
|nd|cate genera| ga|ns |n surace area.
222
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|a|| c/ ||e ene|a| a|n |n c0|||.a|eo |ano |s converted
to graz|ng |and, some o wh|ch has turned |nto
bad|ands due to extreme |and degradat|on and so||
dep|et|on. The pressure be|ng exerted on crop|ands
has |ncreased not on|y or the product|on o human
ood and an|ma| eed, but a|so or the product|on o
fbre (e.g. cotton, s|sa|) and, more recent|y, b|oue|s
(eedstock, tree p|antat|ons, b|od|ese| and ethano|).
Last but not |east, another extreme|y |mportant spat|a|
trend |s urban expans|on |nto agr|cu|tura| and dry|and
areas. On a g|oba| |eve|, an est|mated 5 per cent o
the |and surace |s current|y be|ng used or urban and
|nrastructure construct|on. Th|s trend |s cont|nu|ng
unabated, as |t c|ose|y corre|ates w|th econom|c
growth (|.e. growth o gross domest|c product (GDP)).
For examp|e, |n Germany the share o bu||t-up areas
has reached 10 per cent o the tota| |and area (Hurn|
et a|., 1996).
The ma|n quest|ons that emerge rom tab|e 1 |n
re|at|on to |and convers|ons |n agr|cu|ture are:
What |s the magn|tude o |and convers|ons |n
re|at|on to overa|| |and use?
What are the eects on sma||-sca|e arm|ng and on
ood secur|ty, both |oca||y and g|oba||y?
What are the |mp||cat|ons or |and pr|ces resu|t|ng
rom specu|at|on and |and grabb|ng?
What are the |mp||cat|ons or c||mate change?
ln the o||ow|ng sect|ons, th|s art|c|e d|scusses three
|mportant processes |n greater deta||: the recent
emergence o b|oue|s, the consequences o chang|ng
consumpt|on patterns and an|ma| product|on
systems, and the |mpacts o |and convers|ons on
sma||-sca|e arm|ng. These act|v|t|es current|y emp|oy
over 2.6 b||||on peop|e, or 40 per cent o the wor|d
popu|at|on, |nvo|v|ng women, men and ch||dren (von
Braun, 2005). No other sector |n the g|oba| economy
emp|oys a comparab|e number o persons.
8. Land convars|ons Ior b|oIua| producI|on
|moc||ance c/ o|c/0e| o|co0c||cn. There has a|ways
been a c|ose ||nk between agr|cu|ture and energy,
as |and that |s be|ng worked requ|res energy |nputs,
wh||e agr|cu|ture can a|so produce energy as an
output. Trad|t|ona||y, agro-energy |s produced |n the
orm o ue|wood, charcoa| and an|ma| dung. These
orms are st||| w|de|y used |n deve|op|ng countr|es and
cont|nue to be the most |mportant energy source, not
on|y or the 2.6 b||||on peop|e engaged |n sma||-sca|e
arm|ng (lEA, 2006), but a|so or most peop|e ||v|ng |n
towns. At the same t|me, the potent|a| or ||qu|d b|oue|
product|on |s greatest on crop|and |n the g|oba|
South, where |and and |abour are ava||ab|e at |ower
costs than |n the g|oba| North (Haze|| and Pachaur|,
2007, Farg|one et a|., 2008, Smeets et a|., 2007).
Ourrent product|on and use o ||qu|d b|oue|s, wh|ch are
now compet|ng or |and w|th agr|cu|tura| commod|t|es
such as ood, takes p|ace ma|n|y |n |ndustr|a||zed
and emerg|ng econom|es, but product|on |s a|so on
the r|se |n deve|op|ng countr|es (SOFA, 2008, HLPE,
2011a). On|y about 0.5 per cent o the g|oba| |and
surace |s be|ng used to produce ||qu|d b|oue|s (see
tab|e 1). Ethano| |s produced ma|n|y |n Braz||, Oanada,
Oh|na, France and the n|ted States. Germany |eads
|n b|od|ese| product|on, o||owed by Braz||, Argent|na,
France and the n|ted States (PEN21, 2011: 5).
B|od|ese| exporters |n deve|op|ng countr|es are rare,
w|th on|y Ma|ays|a and Tha||and expected to become
s|gn|fcant p|ayers |n the near uture, bes|des Braz||
and Argent|na. The ma|or eedstock used or ethano|
|s ma|ze and sugarcane, wh||e or b|od|ese| |t |s o||
pa|m and soybean (OEOD and FAO, 2011).
Braz||, the European n|on (E) and the n|ted States
are the ma|n users o ||qu|d b|oue|s, wh||e Oh|na and
lnd|a are emerg|ng users (lEA, 2010a). Most b|oue| |s
used or road transport, and a ||m|ted amount |s used
|n the mar|ne transport sector and, most recent|y, |n
av|at|on. The share o b|oue|s contr|but|ng to g|oba|
fna| energy consumpt|on |s st||| |ow, at 0.6 per cent
|n 2009, but product|on |s |ncreas|ng rap|d|y. ln 2010,
about 86 b||||on ||tres o ethano| and at |east 19 b||||on
||tres o b|od|ese| were produced. Ethano| product|on
grew fveo|d between 2000 and 2010, and b|od|ese|
|ncreased more than twentyo|d (PEN21, 2011).
Today, b|oue|s prov|de about 2.7 per cent o the ue|
used |n g|oba| transportat|on. Th|s share |s expected
to r|se to between 4 and 9.3 per cent |n 2030 and
up to 20 per cent |n 2050 (PEN21, 2011, lEA, 2009,
lEA, 2010b). G|oba| ethano| and b|od|ese| product|on
are pro|ected to |ncrease over the next decade to
155 b||||on ||tres and 42 b||||on ||tres, respect|ve|y,
and pro|ected use |s expected to be greater than
pro|ected product|on |n the E and the n|ted States
(OEOD and FAO, 2011). At 7 per cent, the vo|ume o
b|oue|s |n current |nternat|ona| trade |s rather sma||
(lEA, 2009), but as pro|ected demand and use w||| not
223
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
be at the same |ocat|ons, th|s share w||| a|so |ncrease,
as w||| pressure on |and, b|oue| eedstock and other
sources o energy rom b|omass. At the same t|me,
demand or a|ternat|ve orms o energy product|on
|s a|so expected to |ncrease (Ootu|a, F|nnegan and
Macqueen, 2011).
C0||en| ||enos. A number o po||c|es |n both deve|oped
and deve|op|ng countr|es support the mass|ve
|ncrease |n b|oue| product|on, based on mot|vat|ons
such as c||mate change m|t|gat|on, |ncreas|ng energy
secur|ty and urther|ng rura| deve|opment. These
po||c|es, wh|ch |nc|ude tax exempt|ons, b|end|ng and
consumpt|on mandates, and subs|d|es, are be||eved
to be the ma|n dr|vers o the g|oba| product|on o
b|oue|s (FAO-OEOD, 2009, DEFPA, 2010, HLPE
2011a). For examp|e, overa|| government support or
b|oue|s amounted to $1315 b||||on |n OEOD countr|es
|n 2007 (Steenb||k, 2007). Th|s was more than tota| a|d
comm|tments to agr|cu|ture and to sectors re|ated to
ood secur|ty, wh|ch amounted to approx|mate|y $12
b||||on |n 20072008 (OEOD-DAO, 2010). ln 2009,
government support or b|oue|s |n the n|ted States
and the E a|one amounted to $8 b||||on (lEA, 2010a).
At present, d|rect government support to the b|oue|
sector |s dec||n|ng, wh||e deve|opment and commerc|a|
banks, pens|on unds and pr|vate equ|ty unds are
|nvest|ng |arger sums (PEN21, 2011, Ol, 2011, van
Ge|der and German, 2011). At the same t|me, a|||ances
between governments and mu|t|nat|ona| bus|ness
|obb|es have promoted b|oue| deve|opment |n both
deve|oped and deve|op|ng countr|es (Franco et a|.,
2010), |ead|ng to the emergence o many p|ayers
seek|ng to produce and |nvest |n b|oue| product|on.
The |nvestment |andscape |n agr|cu|ture and b|oue|
product|on today |s very d|verse. D|rect p|ayers
such as trad|t|ona| agr|cu|tura| compan|es a|m|ng to
produce crops on the |and have been comp|emented
by |nd|rect p|ayers work|ng on the g|oba| stock
exchanges who treat |and as a specu|at|ve commod|ty
(HLPE, 2011b). lnvestors are ore|gn, domest|c
or rom the d|aspora, but the|r |mportance var|es
g|oba||y: |n Braz||, or examp|e, sugarcane product|on
|s predom|nant|y fnanced by domest|c entrepreneurs
and the government, wh||e |n the n|ted Pepub||c o
Tanzan|a, domest|c banks p|ay an |mportant ro|e (van
Ge|der and German, 2011).
ln 2006, approx|mate|y 1 per cent o g|oba| arab|e
|and (|.e. approx|mate|y 14 m||||on hectares) was
used or b|oue| crops (lEA, 2006). Lamb|n and
Meyro|dt (2011) est|mate that |n 2007 approx|mate|y
25 m||||on hectares were a|ready be|ng used or such
crops, and they pro|ect an annua| |ncrease o 1.5
to 3.9 m||||on hectares based on the current po||cy
env|ronment, w|th |and requ|rements or such crops
|n 2030 amount|ng to 44 to118 m||||on hectares. The
lEA (2010b) est|mates o 20 per cent o |and or those
crops |n 2050, wou|d trans|ate |nto between 100 and
650 m||||on hectares (Murphy et a|., 2011). l produced
on crop|and on|y, th|s wou|d amount to 745 per
cent o that |and-use category, wh|ch wou|d severe|y
threaten ood product|on. The current |and convers|on
|eve| to crop product|on or b|oue|s |s est|mated to
be |ess than 0.5 per cent o the g|oba| |and area (|ess
than 65 m||||on ha, as |nd|cated |n tab|e 1).
Vcs| |ano ccn.e|s|cns /c| o|c/0e| o|co0c||cn are
be||eved to be tak|ng p|ace at the expense o orests
and pastures (Me||||o et a|., 2009, F|scher et a|., 2009,
Hav||k et a|., 2010, Lamb|n and Meyro|dt, 2011).
Stud|es o the pa|m o|| |ndustry |n South As|a, or
examp|e, show that rom 1990 to 2005 c|ose to 60
per cent o o|| pa|m expans|on was at the expense o
orests, w|th strong negat|ve |mpacts on b|od|vers|ty
and carbon stocks (Koh and W||cove, 2008, Koh
et a|., 2011). The magn|tude o |and acqu|s|t|ons
and convers|ons or b|oue| product|on |s extreme|y
d|fcu|t to assess as there |s a |ack o |normat|on on
the |ocat|ons o b|oue| crop p|antat|ons and b|oue|
eedstock or|g|ns. The act that many crops used or
b|oue|s, such as ma|ze or o|| pa|m, can have mu|t|p|e
uses, urther comp||cates attempts to est|mate
the extent o b|oue| product|on. Furthermore, the
magn|tude o |nd|rect changes adds to the prob|em,
as |t |s oten d|fcu|t to estab||sh d|rect causa||ty, and
the |n|t|a| purpose o |and convers|ons m|ght not
a|ways be c|ear (Oha|mers et a|., 2011, Gao et a|.,
2011, Gawe| and Ludw|g, 2011).
2

|moac|s cn ca|ocn. D|rect |and-use changes seem to
have a re|at|ve|y sma|| |mpact on carbon em|ss|ons,
whereas |nd|rect |and-use changes cou|d create a
|arge carbon debt (Farg|one et a|., 2008, Me||||o et
a|., 2009, Lapo|a et a|., 2010, Bowyer, 2010). N|trous
ox|de em|ss|ons rom |ncreased use o ert|||zers w|||
contr|bute more to g|oba| warm|ng than such carbon
|osses (Me||||o et a|., 2009). Zah et a|. (2007) stud|ed
env|ronmenta| costs rom fe|d to tank and ound that
a|though most b|oue| sources reduce GHGs by more
than 20 per cent compared w|th convent|ona| ue|,
224
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
the ma|or ones, such as n|ted States corn, Braz|||an
sugarcane and Ma|ays|an pa|m o||, have greater
aggregate env|ronmenta| costs than oss|| ue|.
Nea||.e |moac|s cn na|0|a| |esc0|ces. B|oue|s are
e|ther compet|t|ve or cause add|t|ona| |and degradat-
|on. Bes|des so|| and |and, among the most contested
resources |s water, as the cu|t|vat|on o some b|oue|
eedstock such as sugarcane |eads to |ncreased water
w|thdrawa|s and to soc|a| and env|ronmenta| prob|ems
rom fe|d to watershed, part|cu|ar|y where water |s
a|ready scarce (de Fra|ture, G|ordano and Yongsong
L|ao, 2008, NEP, 2011b). Add|t|ona||y, ert|||zer and
pest|c|de use |n cu|t|vat|on, |nappropr|ate arm|ng
pract|ces, and untreated water rom process|ng p|ants
can |ead to |and degradat|on and |ncreased r|sks or
|oca| popu|at|ons (German et a|., 2010).
Much o the |and promoted or |arge-sca|e b|oue|
product|on |s dec|ared as "marg|na|" or "unused",
but |t |s requent|y used as common |and by v|||agers
or pastora||sts. lncreased |nvestment cou|d prov|de
opportun|t|es or |oca| ||ve||hoods and nat|ona|
econom|es (\ermeu|en and Ootu|a, 2010), but |t may
a|so resu|t |n d|spossess|on o |and, restr|cted access
to natura| resources and con1|cts among resource
users (see, or examp|e, Su||e and Ne|son, 2009,
Burgers et a|., 2011, F|nd|ater and Kand||kar, 2011).
|moac|s cn |ano o||ces. ln|t|a| ears that |ncreased
|nvestment may resu|t |n h|gher |and pr|ces (FAO,
2008) have been rep|aced by ev|dence that much o
the |and |s obta|ned at pr|ces be|ow |ts actua| va|ue
(Ol, 2011). lnvestors acqu|re vast areas o |and |n
many deve|op|ng countr|es because |t |s g|ven a|most
or ree (L|, 2011). Land dea|s oten |ack transparency,
and where |oca| peop|e are |nvo|ved |n b|oue|
product|on, emp|oyment contracts are oten vague
(Ol, 2011, Ootu|a, 2011).
|moac|s cn /cco ma||e|s. Pecent growth |n b|oue|
product|on and process|ng was the ma|or dr|ver o the
ood pr|ce h|ke |n 2008 (SOFA, 2008, HLPE, 2011a).
lncreased compet|t|on or, and restr|cted access to,
natura| resources, as we|| h|gher and vo|at||e ood
pr|ces can |ead to reduct|ons |n ca|or|e |ntake and
to |ncreased |eve|s o ma|nutr|t|on. Moreover, they
d|sproport|onate|y aect the most vu|nerab|e groups
(Posegrant et a|., 2008). To counteract grow|ng ood
|nsecur|ty due to b|oue| product|on, a recent HLPE
report (2011a) and the FAO-OEOD Expert Meet|ng
on Green|ng the Economy w|th Agr|cu|ture, he|d |n
September 2011 (FAO-OEOD, 2011), among others,
ca||ed upon the Oomm|ttee on Wor|d Food Secur|ty
to "demand o governments the abo||t|on o b|end|ng
targets or b|oue|s and the remova| o subs|d|es and
tar|s on b|oue| product|on and process|ng."
Po||cymakers have promoted b|oue|s as a means to
oster rura| deve|opment based on the expectat|on
that the|r product|on w||| |nvo|ve the part|c|pat|on
o sma||ho|ders |n outgrower schemes and create
emp|oyment. Th|s strategy seems to be successu|
where an a|ready estab||shed b|oue| |ndustry ex|sts,
a|though much depends on po||c|es, |oca| author|t|es
and sma||ho|der cooperat|ves (German et a|., 2010,
P|st, Fe|ntren|e and Levant, 2010). ln emerg|ng b|oue|
|ndustr|es, however, sma||ho|ders do not beneft,
rather, they bear much o the r|sk o an unsett|ed
|ndustry (\ermeu|en, Su||e and Fauveaud, 2009,
German et a|., 2010).
ln the current econom|c context, estab||sh|ng b|oue|
product|on |s compet|t|ve where econom|es o sca|e
are rea||zed, and th|s |s usua||y the case where
|arge-sca|e p|antat|ons are comb|ned w|th |ndustr|a|
process|ng. But |arge-sca|e product|on means that
sma||-sca|e producers may be exc|uded, so that
|nstead o creat|ng emp|oyment opportun|t|es, |abour
|s saved (L|, 2011) and |nequ|t|es |ncrease. Thereore
the quest|on |s whether |t |s eas|b|e to promote
|nnovat|ve bus|ness mode|s that wou|d br|dge |arge-
sca|e and sma||-sca|e product|on through po||cy
|nstruments a|med at steer|ng th|s deve|opment |n
order to ach|eve econom|es o sca|e, part|cu|ar|y or
eedstock process|ng, and creat|ng market access or
sma||ho|ders (Duey, 2007, Arndt et a|., 2009, Ma||k
et a|., 2009, \ermeu|en, Su||e and Fauveaud, 2009,
Gmunder and Portner, 2010).
There |s a consensus that the prov|s|on o energy rom
agr|cu|ture |s needed |n many p|aces to meet demand,
part|cu|ar|y |n the rura| South. Processed orms o
b|oenergy such as b|oue|s can be an opportun|ty, but
th|s energy shou|d not be produced at the expense
o ood, the env|ronment or the poor, wh|ch |s most|y
the case when produced on |arge-sca|e p|antat|ons
that produce eedstock or export |nstead o or |oca|
consumpt|on. Wh||e many countr|es have po||c|es |n
p|ace to steer deve|opment, they st||| |ack enorcement
(Schoneve|d et a|., 2011).
There |s cons|derab|e uncerta|nty about how present
|aw or vo|untary cert|fcat|on schemes, such as the
225
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
Poundtab|e on Susta|nab|e B|oue|s (PSB, 2011),
cou|d be eect|ve|y |mp|emented. Governments
urgent|y need to remove mandatory targets and
b|oue| subs|d|es that st|mu|ate |arge-sca|e b|oue|
eedstock product|on. They shou|d a|so ensure that
much-needed |nvestments |n agr|cu|ture are made
|n a respons|b|e way, that sma||ho|ders have r|ghts
to secure access to |and and natura| resources,
and, where they are |nvo|ved |n |arge-sca|e energy-
agr|bus|ness, they shou|d be oered decent work|ng
cond|t|ons.
0. Land convars|on Ior ||vasIoc| producI|on
L|vestock product|on and an|ma| source ood have
p|ayed a cr|t|ca| ro|e |n human deve|opment (Pando|ph
et a|., 2007) and have rega|ned prom|nence |n
the recent debate on the ood cr|s|s. Accord|ng to
est|mates by the FAO (2006a), the ||vestock sector
accounts or 40 per cent o agr|cu|tura| GDP and
(part|a||y) emp|oys 1.3 b||||on peop|e. The sector |s o
part|cu|ar |mportance to the economy |n deve|op|ng
countr|es, where |t contr|butes up to 80 per cent o
agr|cu|tura| GDP and serves as a ma|or source o
||ve||hood or about 600 m||||on rura| poor (OGlAP,
2005). Bes|des |ts econom|c |mportance to agr|cu|ture
|n genera|, ||vestock are a ma|or asset, part|cu|ar|y |n
pastora| and agropastora| systems (FAO, 2009a),
u|f|||ng var|ous unct|ons |n rura| househo|ds and
commun|t|es. ln add|t|on to be|ng an |mportant source
o ood and |ncome, ||vestock oer cons|derab|e
potent|a| or reduc|ng the vu|nerab|||ty o the|r owners
and expand|ng ||ve||hood opportun|t|es (Pando|ph et
a|., 2007).
lt |s est|mated by OGlAP (2005) that current|y two th|rds
o the wor|d's domest|c an|ma|s, such as rum|nants,
are kept |n deve|op|ng countr|es, where over 90 per
cent are owned by rura| sma||ho|ders. By 2007, the
product|on o meat and eggs |n deve|op|ng countr|es
had surpassed that |n deve|oped countr|es, and the
product|on gap or m||k was a|most c|osed (FAO,
2009a). The wor|d's ||vestock popu|at|on exper|enced
an unprecedented overa|| |ncrease o 53.7 per cent
between 1980 and 2009 or the our ma|or an|ma|
categor|es o catt|e, sheep and goats, p|gs, and
ch|cken. ln 2009, tota| stocks |n these categor|es
amounted to a|most 23 b||||on an|ma|s: 1.38 b||||on
catt|e (6 per cent), 1.96 b||||on sheep and goats (8.6
per cent), 942 m||||on p|gs (4.1 per cent), and 18.63
b||||on ch|cken (81.3 per cent). As tab|e 2 shows, the
|ncrease |n ||vestock has been most pronounced |n
Ar|ca and As|a, whereas the stat|st|cs show dec||n|ng
||vestock ho|d|ngs |n Europe and a moderate |ncrease
|n Amer|ca and Ocean|a.
The trend o |ncreas|ng ||vestock popu|at|ons
wor|dw|de seems to be cont|nu|ng, |n ||ne w|th an
expected doub||ng o meat consumpt|on by 2050
compared w|th the present rate o consumpt|on
(Nardone et a|., 2010). Th|s w||| resu|t |n annua|
g|oba| meat product|on o 465 m||||on tons and a m||k
output o 1,043 m||||on tons (FAO, 2006a). However,
Tab|e 2. C|owlh ol ||vesloc| aud sha|es ol d|lle|eul ||vesloc|, by |eg|ou, 198O-2OO9 (pe| ceul)
$ource: FAOSTAT, 2011.
Ame||ca As|a Al||ca Eu|ope 0ceau|a wo||d
luc|ease |u call|e 28.2 24.4 59.G -49.7 1O.5 18.4
luc|ease |u sheep aud goals -15.7 G4.8 81.9 -47.8 -47.O 25.2
luc|ease |u p|gs 4.9 4G.9 17O.2 -24.5 2O.7 18.O
luc|ease ch|c|eus 188.1 848.7 1G8.G -12.2 1OG.9 158.2
Sha|e ol call|e, 2OO9 8G.9 81.8 2O.O 9.1 2.8 1OO.O
Sha|e ol sheep aud goals, 2OO9 G.7 49.9 8O.8 7.G 5.G 1OO.O
Sha|e ol p|gs, 2OO9 17.O 59.G 2.9 19.9 O.G 1OO.O
Sha|e ol ch|c|eu, 2OO9 27.7 58.8 8.O 1O.4 O.G 1OO.O
Tola| sha|e ol ||vesloc| 2G.O 51.9 1O.4 1O.4 1.2 1OO.O
Tola| |uc|ease 87.G 12O.O 12O.1 -88.5 22.8 58.7
luc|ease |u humau popu|al|ou, 198O-2OO5 41.5 49.G 88.7 5.5 4G.O 4G.1
226
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
|t |s expected that growth rates o meat product|on
w||| decrease, whereas those o m||k w||| cont|nue to
r|se rap|d|y, as |ncreased demand or da|ry products
|n deve|op|ng countr|es appears to be cont|nu|ng
unabated (FAO, 2006a).
As a resu|t o |ncreas|ng demand or ||vestock
products and the rap|d growth |n ||vestock product|on,
||vestock systems have exper|enced proound
changes (lAASTD, 2008). However, not a|| ||vestock
systems have been equa||y aected and cha||enged
by chang|ng cond|t|ons and r|sks rom the eects o
c||mate change that can aect the ood system (God-
ray et a|., 2010). lndustr|a| ||vestock systems are on
the r|se wor|dw|de and are |nd|spensab|e or meet|ng
the g|oba| demand or ||vestock products. These
|ntens|ve systems are, however, be|ng |ncreas|ng|y
conronted w|th env|ronmenta| restr|ct|ons and r|s|ng
eed pr|ces (Sere et a|., 2008). M|xed crop-||vestock
systems where crops and an|ma|s are |ntegrated on
the same arm (lAASTD, 2008) w||| cont|nue to be
cr|t|ca| to uture ood secur|ty, as a |arge proport|on
o the g|oba| popu|at|on depends on these systems
or |ts ||ve||hood (Thornton et a|., 2009). lt |s expected
that armers |n these systems w||| urther d|vers|y and
|ntens|y the|r product|on |n the ace o the cha||enges
posed by |ncreas|ng compet|t|on or |and and r|s|ng
costs o |nputs as we|| as access to serv|ces (Sere et a|.,
2008). Pastora| systems are conronted w|th d|erent
deve|opments and resu|t|ng adaptat|on requ|rements.
On the one hand, |n su|tab|e areas, |mprovements |n
pastures and adapted management systems cou|d
|ncrease the econom|c v|ab|||ty o ||vestock rear|ng.
However, on the other hand, pastora| systems w||| a|so
have to cope w|th the grow|ng encroachment o crop
product|on (Sere et a|., 2008), acce|erat|ng pasture
degradat|on, and |ncreas|ng|y d|fcu|t access to eed
and water resources (Thornton, 2010).
D||.e|s c/ c|ane |n ||e ||.es|cc| sec|c|. lt |s
common|y assumed that the ma|or dr|vers o the
observed |ncrease |n product|on and consumpt|on o
||vestock products are re|ated to the grow|ng g|oba|
popu|at|on and to d|etary changes as a resu|t o
r|s|ng |ncomes among a cons|derab|e proport|on o
the wor|d's popu|at|on (Ne||emann et a|., 2009, FAO,
2006a). However, popu|at|on growth |s on|y one o
many actors, and, arguab|y, not the most prom|nent
(tab|e 2). A study by FAO (2009a) showed a pos|t|ve
corre|at|on between |ncreased |ncomes and ||vestock
consumpt|on |n countr|es w|th |ower |ncomes, but
a |ess pos|t|ve, or even a negat|ve, corre|at|on or
countr|es w|th h|gher GDP per cap|ta. Bes|des the
|mportant ro|e o |ncome |eve|s, urban|zat|on p|ays a
cons|derab|e ro|e |n boost|ng consumpt|on o meat
and m||k products as a resu|t o peop|e add|ng var|ety
to the|r d|et (De|gado, 2003). D|etary trends can be
summar|zed |n terms o decreas|ng |ntake o ru|t and
vegetab|es and |ncreas|ng |ntake o meat, sugar, sa|t
and pre-cooked and conven|ence oods (Popk|n,
1998, WHO/FAO, 2003 c|ted |n lAASTD, 2008). Soc|o-
cu|tura| actors, such as trad|t|ons and re||g|ous be||es,
a|so have a ma|or |n1uence on the consumpt|on o
||vestock products, wh||e natura| endowment hav|ng
a d|rect |mpact on product|on potent|a|. One examp|e
o soc|o-cu|tura| d|erent|at|on |s South As|a, where
meat consumpt|on |s |ower than expectat|ons based
on |ncome |eve|s (FAO, 2009a). Further dr|vers o
||vestock product|on that aect consumpt|on and
pr|ces are re|ated to the deve|opment o markets and
to |mprovements |n transport and trade (Hawkes,
2006).
Between 1980 and 2007, meat product|on |n deve|op-
ed countr|es |ncreased by on|y 24.3 per cent, whereas
|t a|most quadrup|ed |n deve|op|ng countr|es. lt was
ma|n|y the East and South As|an countr|es, Oh|na and
Braz|| that accounted or th|s |ncrease. Oh|na showed
the b|ggest growth |n meat product|on dur|ng th|s
per|od (652 per cent) and today accounts or a|most
50 per cent o the meat produced |n deve|op|ng
countr|es, or 31 per cent o the tota| wor|d product|on
(FAO, 2009a). lnd|a, on the other hand, showed
|mpress|ve growth o m||k product|on, account|ng or
15 per cent o the wor|d's m||k supp|y, but |t rema|ns a
rather sma|| producer o meat |n re|at|on to |ts s|ze and
popu|at|on (FAO, 2009a).
Annua| meat consumpt|on per cap|ta wor|dw|de |s
pro|ected to |ncrease sharp|y, by 29 per cent rom 2000
rom 37.4 kg to over 52 kg |n 2050 (FAO, 2006b).
Accord|ng to Bouwman et a|. (2005) and Bru|nsma
(2003), the greatest |ncrease |n meat consumpt|on
|s expected to occur |n deve|op|ng countr|es (42
per cent) and trans|t|on econom|es (33 per cent). ln
|ndustr|a||zed countr|es, a moderate |ncrease o 14
per cent (represent|ng an annua| meat consumpt|on
o rough|y 100 kg per person) |s orecast. G|ven that
the convers|on rate o p|ant to an|ma| matter |s on|y
about 10 per cent (Godray et a|., 2010), a urther
|ncrease |n meat consumpt|on w||| necessar||y a|ter
the rat|o o ood and eed product|on and w||| have
227
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
ma|or |mp||cat|ons or the pr|ces o stap|e oods and
|and convers|ons.
||.es|cc| o|co0c||cn ano |ano ccn.e|s|cn. lt |s
est|mated that about 26 per cent o the g|oba| |and
area |s used or ||vestock graz|ng, ma|n|y as pastora|
systems and to a much |esser extent as m|xed crop-
||vestock systems (De|gado et a|., 1999, FAO, 2006a).
n||ke |ndustr|a| ||vestock product|on systems, these
systems do not re|y on externa| |nputs o ert|||zers,
pest|c|des, |rr|gat|on and eed. Fodder product|on
|s oten absent |n extens|ve pastora| systems, or |s
||m|ted to shorter per|ods o comp|ementary eed|ng
(e.g. w|nter odder) or to eed products der|ved rom
decentra||zed and non-|ndustr|a||zed ood process|ng.
ln order to eed the current g|oba| ||vestock popu|at|on,
about 40 per cent o tota| arab|e |and |s used or eed-
crop product|on. FAO (2006a) est|mates that "||vestock
product|on accounts or 70% o a|| agr|cu|tura| |and
and 30% o the |and surace o the p|anet". Desp|te
the overa|| strong |ncrease |n the ||vestock popu|at|on,
between 1980 and 2009 the area under pasture
wor|dw|de |ncreased by on|y by 2 per cent, wh||e the
area under crops |ncreased by 66 per cent (FAOStat,
2011). The wor|d orest area dec||ned between 1990
and 2010 by 3.3 per cent, or by a|most 138 m||||on
ha (Wor|d Bank, 2011) |arger than the area o Peru.
These fgures |mp|y that the abso|ute |and area and
the share o arab|e |and used or eed product|on
and graz|ng are st||| grow|ng at the expense o orest
|ands. The FAO (2006b) reports that graz|ng |and |s a
key dr|ver o deorestat|on, part|cu|ar|y |n the Amazon
Bas|n, where 70 per cent o the c|eared orests |s used
as pasture and or eed crops. A|though most o the
wor|d's eed-crop product|on st||| takes p|ace |n OEOD
countr|es, |n the recent past |t has been observed that
d|erent deve|op|ng countr|es |n South Amer|ca (FAO,
2009a), but |ncreas|ng|y |n Ar|ca as we||, are rap|d|y
expand|ng the|r product|on o eed crops, notab|y
ma|ze and soybean.
Based on the deve|opment scenar|os |n FAO's report,
Ac||o /||c0||0|e. 7c.a|os 20'5/2030, Bru|nsma
(2003) and W|rsen|us, Azar and Berndes (2010)
ca|cu|ate an |ncrease o 280 m||||on ha |n the tota|
agr|cu|tura| area by 2030, or 5 per cent more than
today. Lamb|n and Meyro|dt (2011) present a h|gh
est|mate or an |ncrease |n the area under permanent
pasture o 151 m||||on ha by 2030, wh|ch wou|d be |n
||ne w|th most |and use mode|s that pro|ect an |ncrease
o about 10 per cent or the per|od 20102050. ln
the event that graz|ng systems are not expanded
but ||vestock product|on |s |ntens|fed to meet the
ant|c|pated demand or ||vestock products, crop|and
or an|ma| eed product|on wou|d have to |ncrease by
115 m||||on ha (Lamb|n and Meyro|dt, 2011).
The observed growth |n g|oba| ||vestock demand
and how |t trans|ates |n the uture |nto a||ocated |and
area w||| |arge|y depend on |nternat|ona| |nvestments
|n agr|cu|tura| |and, part|cu|ar|y |n deve|op|ng and
trans|t|on econom|es (HLPE, 2011b). Accord|ng to
data or 2011 rom the lnternat|ona| Land Ooa||t|on
(lLO), 9 per cent o reg|stered |arge-sca|e |and
acqu|s|t|ons were re|ated to graz|ng grounds or
an|ma| eed product|on. The lLO est|mates the tota|
arab|e |and and pasture area used or a||ocated to
|nternat|ona| |and |nvestors or ||vestock to be 55
m||||on ha. lnvestments d|rect|y re|ated to ||vestock
product|on are thus a very prom|nent dr|ver o |arge-
sca|e |and acqu|s|t|ons, g|ven that about 203 m||||on
ha o |and wor|dw|de are est|mated to have been
|eased or so|d or are under negot|at|on |n the per|od
between 2000 and 2010 (Anseeuw et a|., 2012).
||.es|cc| o|co0c||cn ano en.||cnmen|a| |mo||ca||cns.
Today, more than ha| o the earth's |and surace |s
used or agr|cu|ture, and est|mates suggest that 40
per cent o th|s |s moderate|y degraded, wh||e another
9 per cent |s h|gh|y degraded, resu|t|ng |n a g|oba|
reduct|on |n crop y|e|d o 13 per cent (Breu et a|.,
2011, O|deman, 1994, Wood, Sebast|an and Scherr,
2000). ln add|t|on, |t |s est|mated that about 20 per
cent, or 680 m||||on ha o the wor|d's graz|ng |and, and
73 per cent o range|ands |ocated |n dry|and areas
have been degraded as resu|t o overgraz|ng s|nce
1945 (De|gado et a|., 1999). Overgraz|ng |s a unct|on
o graz|ng and recovery t|me, the number o graz|ng
an|ma|s and natura| resource buer|ng capac|ty. The
eects o overgraz|ng |nc|ude a reduct|on |n so|| cover,
compact|on |ead|ng to reduced water |nf|trat|on, and
water- and w|nd-|nduced so|| eros|on. At the same
t|me, overgraz|ng can a|ter the compos|t|on o the
vegetat|on, w|th pa|atab|e perenn|a| spec|es be|ng
rep|aced by |ess pa|atab|e p|ants due to the|r reduced
ab|||ty to compete (L|n|ger et a|., 2010). Dry|ands
and mounta|n areas are part|cu|ar|y aected by such
overgraz|ng, as |n many cases ||vestock |s the ma|n
asset o the peop|e ||v|ng |n these oten marg|na|
areas (FAO, 2006b, De|gado et a|., 1999). Peduct|on
o overgraz|ng and better pasture product|v|ty can
228
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
be ach|eved by |nst|tut|ona| and regu|atory measures
re|at|ng to access and use o common|y poo|ed
resources, by better pasture management pract|ces,
and by |mprov|ng ||vestock qua||ty and product|v|ty.
Bes|des cha||enges re|ated to overgraz|ng, the
||vestock sector and the d|erent segments o the
product|on cha|n a|so have a cons|derab|e eect
on water use, water qua||ty and hydro|ogy, and
ecosystems. Est|mates by the FAO (2006a) |nd|cate
that act|v|t|es re|ated to the ||vestock sector account
or more than 8 per cent o g|oba| water use, wh||e
eed product|on accounts or another 7 per cent.
Bes|des |ts d|rect eects on the natura| resource base,
the ||vestock sector |s a ma|or actor contr|but|ng to
c||mate change. lt |s est|mated that ||vestock-re|ated
act|v|t|es are respons|b|e or 18 per cent o the wor|d's
GHG em|ss|ons or about 80 per cent o the overa||
em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es (Ste|ne|d et
a|., 2010). Greenhouse gases |n the ||vestock sector
ar|se e|ther d|rect|y (through enter|c ermentat|on
and manure) or |nd|rect|y, and a|ong the ood cha|n
(|and-use change, eed product|on, process|ng and
transport). L|vestock rear|ng |s respons|b|e or 9 per
cent o carbon d|ox|de (OO
2
) em|ss|ons, wh|ch are
re|eased when orests and other natura| vegetat|on
are rep|aced by pasture and eed crops. Ste|ne|d et
a|. (2010) est|mate that 34 per cent o ||vestock-re|ated
carbon em|ss|ons are due to deorestat|on, 25 per
cent are rom enter|c ermentat|on and 25.9 per cent
rom manure. A s|m||ar amount o OO
2
|s re|eased by
the on-arm use o oss|| ue|, by the manuactur|ng
o chem|ca| ert|||zers, by transport and by ||vestock
product process|ng. The ||vestock sector |s a|so
respons|b|e or em|ss|ons o other GHGs, |nc|ud|ng
37 per cent o human-|nduced methane (wh|ch has
23 t|mes the g|oba| warm|ng potent|a| (GWP) o OO
2
),
65 per cent o anthropogen|c n|trous ox|de (w|th 296
t|mes the GWP o OO
2
) and 64 per cent o ammon|a,
wh|ch |s a ma|or cause o ac|d ra|n (FAO, 2006a, FAO,
2009a, Ste|ne|d et a|., 2010).
|mo||ca||cns /c| ||e oe.e|comen| c/ ||e ||.es|cc| sec|c|.
The ||vestock sector p|ays an |mportant ro|e |n g|oba|
econom|c deve|opment and |n the ||ve||hoods o about
2.6 b||||on persons d|rect|y |nvo|ved |n the agr|cu|tura|
sector. ln part|cu|ar, the sector, |n comb|nat|on w|th
other agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es, prov|des opportun|t|es or
poverty reduct|on and greater ood secur|ty or the
grow|ng wor|d popu|at|on. However, rap|d changes
|n th|s ast-grow|ng sector a|so substant|a||y r|sk
marg|na||z|ng sma||ho|ders and the|r mu|t|unct|ona|
agr|cu|tura| systems, thereby aect|ng the ood
secur|ty o the wor|d's poor, part|cu|ar|y |n deve|op|ng
and trans|t|on econom|es. A second area o concern
re|ates to the r|sk o ||vestock-|nduced env|ronmenta|
degradat|on |mped|ng ecosystem serv|ces. Th|rd,
uncontro||ed urther deve|opment o ||vestock poses
a ma|or threat to human hea|th, g|ven that zoonot|c
d|seases transm|tted between an|ma|s and humans
account or 60 per cent o a|| human pathogens.
ln order or the ||vestock sector to address the above
cha||enges and contr|bute to g|oba| deve|opment, |t
must become an |ntegra| part o g|oba| agr|cu|ture,
meet|ng soc|a|, eco|og|ca| and econom|c
requ|rements s|mu|taneous|y. To ach|eve th|s, a|| three
||vestock product|on systems be|ow w||| have to be
careu||y adapted and urther deve|oped. The key to
such a deve|opment |s or |nvestments |n the ||vestock
sector to be made not on|y (1) |n |ndustr|a| product|on
systems but a|so (2) |n m|xed ||vestock crop systems
and (3) |n pastora| systems. Econom|ca||y v|ab|e and
soc|a||y acceptab|e |nvestments w||| need to address
|ncreased product|v|ty, env|ronmenta| concerns, and
the compet|ng |and resource demands o crop and ||-
vestock product|on systems. To ach|eve th|s, enab||ng
|nst|tut|ona| and po||cy rameworks and cooperat|on
at d|erent |eve|s are needed. ln order to make
||vestock systems a part o susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture
|nternat|ona| cooperat|on w||| be necessary, as we||
as coord|nated act|on at the reg|ona| and |oca| |eve|s
to ach|eve changes |n the way ||vestock products
are produced and consumed. Th|s transormat|on
w||| demand act|on rom a|| actors |n ||vestock and
agr|cu|ture systems, |nc|ud|ng producers, |nvestors,
procurers, dec|s|on-makers, researchers and not
|east o a||, rom consumers (or more |normat|on,
see the |ead art|c|e o lde| and Pe|chert |n chapter 2
o th|s Pev|ew).
. 0onvars|ons dua Io sma||-sca|a Iarm|ng
and rura| povarIy
ln the com|ng decades, g|oba| agr|cu|ture aces three
ma|or cha||enges: (|) produc|ng approx|mate|y 70
per cent more ood or a pro|ected popu|at|on o 9
b||||on peop|e by 2050 (FAO, 2009b), (||) dea||ng w|th
a var|ety o |ncreas|ng r|sks and shocks, |nc|ud|ng
c||mate change and commod|ty pr|ce vo|at|||ty, and (|||)
ensur|ng and enhanc|ng the prov|s|on o ecosystem
serv|ces such as c||mate change m|t|gat|on and
229
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
water regu|at|on. These cha||enges most prom|nent|y
concern sma||-sca|e arm|ng, wh|ch prov|des a
||ve||hood or about 2.6 b||||on peop|e ||v|ng most|y |n
|ow-|ncome countr|es o the g|oba| South (von Braun,
2005). These women, men and ch||dren account or
about 99 per cent o the g|oba| agr|cu|tura| popu|at|on
and current|y cu|t|vate approx|mate|y 50 per cent o
the wor|d's agr|cu|tura| |and, prov|d|ng an est|mated
25 per cent o g|oba| cerea| product|on (tab|e 3) and
about ha| o tota| ood product|on (lAASTD, 2008).
Ohang|ng agr|cu|tura| pract|ces have enab|ed wor|d
gra|n harvests to doub|e |n the past our decades,
|arge|y due to product|on ga|ns resu|t|ng rom
Green Pevo|ut|on techno|og|es, |nc|ud|ng h|gh-
y|e|d|ng cu|t|vars, chem|ca| ert|||zers and pest|c|des,
mechan|zat|on and |rr|gat|on (Fo|ey et a|., 2005). Yet
the ma|or|ty o sma||-sca|e arm|ng cont|nues to be
character|zed by |ow |abour product|v|ty, and |ow to
moderate |and product|v|ty. Sub-Saharan Ar|ca and
Lat|n Amer|ca have exper|enced the |east agr|cu|tura|
deve|opment, but may have the |argest potent|a| or
|mprovement |n the com|ng decades.
Sma||-sca|e arm|ng |nvo|ves grow|ng crops to be
used at |east |n part by |nd|v|dua| househo|ds. Such
arm|ng |s a s|gn|fcant source o ||ve||hood, and some
o the crops are so|d |n |oca| or nat|ona| markets
(L|n|nger, 2011). Farm|ng systems have evo|ved
through adaptat|on to var|ous natura| cond|t|ons.
Some systems ocus on cropp|ng, others on ||vestock
rear|ng, and st||| others on a comb|nat|on o both. ln
Ar|ca and As|a, average arm s|ze |s 1.7 ha, and gra|n
y|e|ds may vary rom 0.5 to 1.5 tons per hectare |n
a |ow-potent|a|, manua|, trad|t|ona| and sma||-sca|e
system. Farms |n deve|op|ng countr|es are tend|ng
to become sma||er, wh||e arms |n m|dd|e- to h|gh-
|ncome countr|es are becom|ng |arger (von Braun,
2005).
O the 1.4 b||||on peop|e ||v|ng |n extreme poverty
(defned as those ||v|ng on |ess than $1.25/day) |n
2005, approx|mate|y 1 b||||on (|.e. around 70 per cent)
||ved |n rura| areas (lFAD, 2011). S|gn|fcant progress
|n poverty a||ev|at|on has been ach|eved |n East As|a,
where today the |nc|dence o rura| poverty (based on
the $1.25/day ||ne) |s around 15 per cent. ln South
As|a and sub-Saharan Ar|ca, 4560 per cent o the
popu|at|on st||| suers rom extreme poverty, wh||e
8090 per cent o the rura| popu|at|on ||ves on |ess
than $2/day (lFAD, 2011). Thus, sma||-sca|e arm|ng
and rura| poverty are |ntr|ns|ca||y ||nked.
Wh||e there are househo|ds that ||ve |n pers|stent
poverty, re|at|ve|y |arge proport|ons o peop|e
cont|nuous|y move |n and out o poverty, somet|mes |n
Tab|e 8. Assessmeul ol sma||-sca|e ve|sus |a|ge-sca|e la|m|ug al lhe g|oba| |eve|
ToIa|
8ma||-sca|a
(maIabo||c)
Larga-sca|a
(machan|tad)
Laud uude| cu|l|val|ou (m||||ou ha)
a
Pe|ceulage
1 600
b
8OO 8OO
1OO 5O 5O
Peop|e |u ag||cu|lu|e (m||||ou)
Pe|ceulage ol peop|e |u ag||cu|lu|e
Z 600
b
2 575 25
1OO 99 1
humbe| ol la|ms (m||||ou)
Pe|ceulage ol sma||- aud |a|ge-sca|e la|ms
GO8 600
a
8
1OO 88.7 1.8
Cu|l|valed a|ea pe| la|m (ha) Z.6
c
1.3
c
1OO
c
Pe|ceulage ol |aud uude| ce|ea| p|oducl|ou 5O 5O 5O
Ave|age ce|ea| y|e|ds (lous/ha) Z
c
1
c
8
c
Auuua| ce|ea| p|oducl|ou (m||||ou lous)
Pe|ceulage cu|l|valed ou sma||- aud |a|ge-sca|e la|ms
1 600
b
4OO 12OO
1OO 25 75
$ources: Est|mat|ons (|n norma| ont) by the Oentre or Deve|opment and Env|ronment, based on ava||ab|e data
(|n bo|d) rom:
b
pub||c sources (FAO, WB, lAASTD), and
c
\on Braun, 2005.
Notes:
a
Ou|t|vated |and |s composed o most o the crop|and, p|us parts o an|ma| eed product|on |and, as
we|| as some agroorestry and b|oue| areas (see a|so tab|e 1).
230
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
a matter o years. Househo|ds a|| |nto poverty pr|mar||y
as a resu|t o a |ack o res|||ence to r|sks and shocks.
Apart rom |mportant aspects, |nc|ud|ng po||t|ca|
or soc|a| con1|cts, ||| hea|th and unoreseen soc|a|
expenses, many r|sks re|ate to arm|ng pract|ces,
|oss o access to |and and natura| resources, market
dynam|cs and pr|ce vo|at|||ty, poor harvests due
to env|ronmenta| r|sks and c||mate var|ab|||ty, and
weakened |nst|tut|ona| env|ronments. Oonverse|y,
househo|ds can escape rom poverty when they have
secured access to |and, educat|on and ownersh|p o
phys|ca| assets. Furthermore, opportun|t|es such as
markets, |nrastructure and enab||ng |nst|tut|ons p|ay
a key ro|e (lFAD, 2011).
ln conc|us|on, the status o sma||-sca|e arm|ng
|s |ntr|ns|ca||y ||nked to a comp|ex |nterp|ay o
determ|nants re|at|ng to a spec|fc |oca| context, but
|t |s a|so dr|ven by deve|opments at nat|ona| and
g|oba| |eve|s. Among these, the compet|ng demands
or ood, eed, fbre and ue| are the most prom|nent
actors that |ntens|y pressures on |and. These so-
ca||ed "te|econnect|ons" o |and-use change, where
product|on and consumpt|on o |and-based products
are |ncreas|ng|y d|stant and range across vary|ng
spat|a| sca|es, represent a ma|or cha||enge or
dev|s|ng uture strateg|es or susta|nab|e sma||-sca|e
arm|ng (GLP, 2005).
|ano ccn.e|s|cns |||c0| sma||-sca|e /a|m|n. Today,
near|y ha| o the g|oba| |and surace |s devoted to
agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es (O|deman, 1994, Fo|ey et a|.,
2005). Th|s spread o agr|cu|tura| |and or a grow|ng
wor|d popu|at|on represents, perhaps, the most
prom|nent eature o g|oba| change. The com|ng
decades w||| w|tness urther s|gn|fcant demograph|c
changes, w|th the rura| popu|at|on expected to peak
between 2025 and 2045, o||owed by a dec||ne, and the
deve|op|ng wor|d's urban popu|at|on w||| outnumber
the rura| popu|at|on. ln South-East As|a, the rura|
popu|at|on |s a|ready decreas|ng, |n North Ar|ca, West
As|a and |n South and Oentra| As|a, numbers may start
to dec||ne around 2025, and |n sub-Saharan Ar|ca,
around 2045 (lFAD, 2011). Neverthe|ess, poverty w|||
rema|n |arge|y a rura| prob|em. Any strategy or rura|
deve|opment and poverty a||ev|at|on w||| thus have to
cons|der that the ma|or|ty o the wor|d's poor w||| ||ve
|n rura| areas or many decades to come.
ln try|ng to understand the s|gn|fcance o sma||-sca|e
arm|ng or more recent |and convers|ons, demogra-
ph|c trends a|one prov|de an |ncomp|ete bas|s. We
need to draw a more d|erent|ated p|cture |n space and
t|me, and understand how the re|at|onsh|p between
popu|at|on growth and |and convers|on |s med|ated by
other actors such as env|ronmenta| cond|t|ons, |and
sett|e ment po||c|es and market orces. Agr|cu|tura|
|and has stead||y grown by 0.3 per cent per annum
dur|ng the past two decades. Yet most o th|s must
be attr|buted to the extens|on o permanent pasture,
wh||e crop|and has rema|ned a|r|y stat|c. There have
been |mportant reg|ona| d|erences, w|th a decrease
o crop|and |n Europe that |s oset by |arge ga|ns |n
Ar|ca and Lat|n Amer|ca. At the same t|me, |rr|gated
areas have shown a progress|ve but s|ow|ng growth
rate dur|ng that per|od (Wood et a|., 2000). Thereore,
|t may be assumed that sma||-sca|e arm|ng current|y
p|ays a prom|nent ro|e |n |and convers|ons |n Ar|ca
and to a certa|n extent |n Lat|n Amer|ca, a|though
pasture extens|on re|ated to commerc|a| arm|ng |s
probab|y more |mportant. ln As|a, the ro|e o sma||-
sca|e arm|ng |n |and convers|on |s |ess s|gn|fcant.
ln reg|ons aected by sma||-sca|e |and convers|ons,
|t appears that rap|d agr|cu|tura| expans|on and
|ntens|fcat|on ma|n|y occurs at the r|nges o h|gh-
potent|a| areas, where the natura| potent|a| |s
perce|ved to be underut|||zed. On the one hand, th|s
concerns orest edges and steep mounta|n s|opes,
on the other hand, these areas o rap|d agr|cu|tura|
expans|on are ma|n|y |n sem|-ar|d areas w|th good
so||s and the potent|a| or h|gh product|v|ty | water can
be prov|ded.
Accord|ng to Ohom|tz (2007), approx|mate|y 70 m||||on
peop|e ||ve |n remote trop|ca| orests, and about 800
m||||on rura| peop|e ||ve |n or near trop|ca| orests and
savannahs. The orests prov|de a ||ve||hood or these
peop|e, as they oer |and or arm|ng, ma|n|y through
sh|t|ng cu|t|vat|on, but they are a|so an |mportant
source o ood, |ncome, ue| and med|c|nes. Such
|and-use pract|ces have caused a 7001,100 m||||on
ha net |oss o orests over the past 300 years (NEP,
2011b). However, much ev|dence shows that |n recent
t|mes, commerc|a| agr|cu|ture and other act|v|t|es such
as road and urban construct|ons, rather than sh|t|ng
cu|t|vators and subs|stence armers, have been the
ma|n dr|vers o deorestat|on (DeFr|es et a|., 2010,
Ge|st and Lamb|n, 2002, Mertz et a|., 2009, Pude| et
a|., 2000).
Dry|ands, a second hotspot o sma||-sca|e agr|cu|tura|
231
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
expans|on, cover approx|mate|y 41 per cent per cent o
the g|oba| |and surace, and they are home to more than
2 b||||on peop|e, 90 per cent o whom ||ve |n deve|op|ng
countr|es (NEP, 2011b). Overa||, approx|mate|y 2
per cent o g|oba| terrestr|a| net pr|mary product|on
(NPP) |s |ost each year due to dry|and degradat|on,
or between 4 and 10 per cent o the potent|a| NPP |n
dry|ands (Z|ka and Erb, 2009). Among var|ous other
tr|ggers such as urban|zat|on, desert|fcat|on, w||dfre
and overgraz|ng, the transormat|on o grass|ands to
crop|ands and |nadequate cu|t|vat|on pract|ces p|ay a
key ro|e |n such degradat|on processes. ln add|t|on,
the expans|on o |arge- and sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture |s
push|ng pastora||sts |nto more marg|na| areas, thereby
orc|ng them |nto v|c|ous c|rc|es o |mpover|shment
and desert|fcat|on.
7c.a|os /0|0|e s||a|e|es. Sma||-sca|e /a|m|n
|n m0|||/0nc||cna| a||c0||0|a| |anoscaoes. Sma||-
sca|e arm|ng must be at the centre o any strategy
that pursues the goa| o eed|ng a grow|ng wor|d
popu|at|on wh||e address|ng rura| poverty |n a context
o |ncreas|ng env|ronmenta| degradat|on and c||mate
change. lt shou|d bu||d on a thorough understand|ng o
the man|o|d and chang|ng pressures on sma||-sca|e
arm|ng, the convers|ons re|ated to such pressures,
and the resu|t|ng econom|c, soc|a| and env|ronmenta|
|mpacts rom the |oca| to the g|oba| |eve|.
There |s a grow|ng consensus that susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| |ntens|fcat|on |n sma||-sca|e arm|ng
must address the system|c |nteract|ons between
agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty, env|ronmenta| serv|ce
prov|s|on and the |mprovement o human we||-be|ng.
A d|vers|ty o agr|cu|tura| and |and-use pract|ces,
comb|ned |n mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|tura| |andscapes
|s ||ke|y to ach|eve the best set o outcomes. Wh||e
agr|cu|tura| |ntens|fcat|on w||| cont|nue to p|ay an
|mportant ro|e |n uture g|oba| ood product|on,
context-spec|fc approaches are a|so needed |n
order to ach|eve susta|nab|e |and use based on
b|ophys|ca| as we|| as soc|o-econom|c cons|derat|ons
(DeFr|es and Posenzwe|g, 2010). Moreover, hot spot
areas o agr|cu|tura| expans|on on the r|nges o h|gh
potent|a| areas shou|d become the ma|n ocus or
such mu|t|unct|ona| agr|cu|tura| |andscapes. F|gure 1
schemat|ca||y presents the core e|ements o such an
approach.
ln F|gure 1, tota| product|on and env|ronmenta|
F|gura 1: AcIua| and poIanI|a| banahIs Irom agr|cu|Iura| acI|v|I|as accord|ng Io curranI agr|cu|Iura| poIanI|a|.
Note: Shaded area shows the ma|n ocus on promot|ng mu|t|-unct|ona| agr|cu|tura| |andscapes.
$ource: Authors
B
e
n
e
f
t
s
Agricultural potential
Negative
High
High Medium Low None
Main focus for multi-functional agricultural landscapes
Actual production benefts
Potential production benefts
Actual environmental
benefts at the farm level
Potential environmental
benefts at the farm level
Potential environmental
benefts at the agricultural
landscape
Low
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
232
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
benefts are dep|cted a|ong a grad|ent o decreas|ng
agr|cu|tura| potent|a|. Th|s st|pu|ates that rom h|gh
potent|a| areas oten dom|nated by |ntens|fed and
|arge-sca|e agr|cu|ture the product|on benefts
decrease rap|d|y towards more marg|na| areas,
dom|nated by sma||-sca|e and oten subs|stence
arm|ng (curve 1). Meanwh||e, the h|ghest potent|a|
or add|t|ona| product|on benefts can be |ocated |n
med|um to |ower agr|cu|tura| potent|a| areas (curve
3). Hence these areas m|ght oer the best returns
on |nvestments or product|v|ty |ncrease. ln terms o
actua| env|ronmenta| benefts (curve 2), assessment
|s more d|fcu|t, but genera||y they wou|d appear to be
rather negat|ve both |n h|gh- and |ow-potent|a| areas
compr|s|ng |arge- as we|| as sma||-sca|e arm|ng.
However, the potent|a| env|ronmenta| benefts
|ncrease s||ght|y rom h|gh- to |ower-potent|a| areas at
the arm |eve| (curve 4), and s|gn|fcant env|ronmenta|
benefts can be expected at the agr|cu|tura| |andscape
|eve|s (curve 5). Wh||e |arge-sca|e enterpr|ses cover
who|e |andscapes, sma||-sca|e enterpr|ses a||ow or
mu|t|p|e use areas |n-between, thereby |ncreas|ng
env|ronmenta| serv|ces and osett|ng trade-os o
more |ntens|ve components.
ln summary, strateg|es or susta|nab|e |ntens|fcat|on
o sma||-sca|e arm|ng shou|d ocus on deve|op|ng
agr|cu|tura| |andscapes |n areas w|th med|um to
|ow potent|a| or agr|cu|ture. There, the h|ghest
add|t|ona| product|on potent|a|s can be tapped
wh||e env|ronmenta| benefts can be |ncreased
s|gn|fcant|y. Such strateg|es, |n order to |eaprog
agr|cu|tura| deve|opment or |mproved we||-be|ng
w|thout comprom|s|ng env|ronmenta| hea|th, w|||
requ|re |nvestments on a g|oba| sca|e, as we|| as
an enab||ng po||cy and |nst|tut|ona| env|ronment.
For th|s purpose, the ongo|ng reva|uat|on o rura|
areas or ecosystem serv|ce prov|s|on beyond the
econom|ca||y product|ve unct|on o |and represents
an opportun|ty that shou|d be harnessed. nder the
gu|dance o strengthened pub||c |nst|tut|ons rom the
|oca| to the g|oba| |eve|, mu|t|unct|ona| sma||-sca|e
agr|cu|ture and pastora||sm shou|d eature at the
top o rura| deve|opment agendas. Key doma|ns o
|ntervent|on re|ate to |ega| and |nst|tut|ona| secur|ty
o |and and natura| resources, agr|cu|tura| extens|on
and capac|ty deve|opment, |nnovat|ve mechan|sms
that reward ecosystem serv|ce prov|s|ons, |mproved
econom|c governance and a regu|ated |ntegrat|on |nto
agr|cu|tura| markets, as we|| as po||t|ca| empowerment
o |arge|y marg|na||zed segments o rura| popu|at|ons.
E. Imp||caI|ons oI |and convars|ons Ior
Iood sacur|Iy
|mo||ca||cns c/ |coa| ano |cca| c|ane. G|oba| ood
secur|ty |s pr|mar||y dependent on the product|on
o ood |n agr|cu|ture (|nc|ud|ng ood products rom
orests and fsher|es), but a|so on the d|str|but|on and
ava||ab|||ty o ood or consumers and subs|stence
armers, and fna||y, on the amount o ood stored
at househo|d, commun|ty, enterpr|se, nat|ona| and
|nternat|ona| |eve|s. Food product|on w||| depend on
how much |and |s a||ocated to other uses such as
eed, fbre or a|| orms o ue|, how much |ncrease |n
product|on |s poss|b|e, part|cu|ar|y rom sma||-sca|e
arm|ng, and on the extent o change |n consumpt|on
patterns to an|ma| prote|n. Last but not |east, ood
product|on |s dependent on the ava||ab|||ty o |nputs
such as seeds, |and, water, natura| and |ndustr|a|
ert|||zers, and |n part|cu|ar, on the eects o c||mate
change on agr|cu|tura| product|on |n the near and
d|stant uture.
ln sma||-sca|e arm|ng, ood secur|ty w||| depend on
the extent o urther pressures exerted on arm s|zes,
the extent o so|| degradat|on that occurs, the degree
o pressure on |and, the spread o water scarc|ty,
the extent to wh|ch sma|| arm product|v|ty can be
enhanced w|th |nputs and research, and whether
market access can be ac|||tated. ln sum, there are a
number o |ntr|ns|c dr|vers o rura| poverty that need to
be addressed as a pr|or|ty.
|mo|c.emen| c/ /cco sec0|||, /|cm |cca| |c |coa|
|e.e|s. The o||ow|ng 10 measures cou|d he|p sma||-
sca|e armers to contr|bute to ood secur|ty:
'. Pe0|a||n |ano ccn.e|s|cns. prevent|ng |and
convers|ons on |and used by sma||-sca|e armers
and pastora||sts w||| secure the|r ||ve||hoods as
|ong as they have no a|ternat|ves.
2. Fns0||n |ano |en0|e. externa| |nvestments |n
|and qua||ty w||| become attract|ve or sma||-sca|e
armers when the|r |and |s secured, even | these
are not d|rect|y benefc|a| or product|on but rather
or ma|nta|n|ng ecosystem serv|ces. Tenure needs
to be guaranteed by States w|th the support o the
|nternat|ona| commun|ty.
3. |mo|c.|n ma||e| access. market cha|ns shou|d
be deve|oped or sma||-sca|e arm products,
|nc|ud|ng or the pre-process|ng and |abe|||ng o
products or storage and eas|er transport, thereby
mak|ng products more compet|t|ve.
233
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
4. De.e|co|n enoe| eq0||,. equa| r|ghts or ema|e
armers are se|dom guaranteed |n sma||-sca|e
arm|ng, yet women are oten the ma|n actors
on the arm, and the|r empowerment, both
econom|ca||y and |n dec|s|on-mak|ng, wou|d
contr|bute to |mproved ||ve||hoods.
5. Pa|s|n /a|m o|co0c||.||,. product|on per hectare
on sma||-sca|e arms cou|d be doub|ed |n the
com|ng 40 years w|th on|y moderate |nputs,
|mproved seeds and breeds, better arm
|mp|ements and research centred on sma||-sca|e
arm|ng.
. |nc|eas|n /a|m s|ze. Arrest|ng a urther dec||ne
|n |and s|ze per sma||-sca|e arm and ma|nta|n|ng
or even |ncreas|ng arm p|ots wou|d be benefc|a|
or moderate mechan|zat|on and modern|zat|on,
even |n sma||-sca|e arm|ng.
7. ||cmc||n s0s|a|nao|e |ano manaemen|.
Pevers|ng urther degradat|on o |and on sma||-
sca|e arms wou|d ensure |ncreased product|v|ty
and generate other ecosystem serv|ces rom so||,
water and b|od|vers|ty.
8. Pemc.|n s0os|o|es. subs|d|es or agr|cu|tura|
products, part|cu|ar|y |n deve|oped countr|es and
trans|t|on econom|es, shou|d be removed, as they
create pr|ce d|stort|ons and aect |nternat|ona|
commod|ty markets.
9. |n|e|na||z|n ||ansac||cn ccs|s. |ncorporat|ng
transact|on costs |n ood and eed pr|ces,
|nc|ud|ng g|oba| taxat|on on oss|| ue|s, wou|d
enab|e equa| access to markets or |arge- and
sma||-sca|e arm|ng a||ke.
'0. /n||c|oa||n c||ma|e c|ane. there |s need or a
better understand|ng o the |mp||cat|ons o c||mate
change and appropr|ate measures to be taken
aga|nst |t through research, ear|y warn|ng and
ear|y act|on.
|mo||ca||cns c/ |ano ccn.e|s|cns. Sma||-sca|e arm|ng
|s the most vu|nerab|e to ood |nsecur|ty, and |t |s ||ke|y
to be very strong|y aected by |and convers|ons,
part|cu|ar|y rom crop|and to ||vestock product|on, as
a resu|t o chang|ng consumpt|on patterns. Any ||ke|y
bans on the extens|on o crop|and |nto pastures and
orests w||| p|ace |ncreas|ng and add|t|ona| pressure
on arm s|zes, a|though the number o arms m|ght
decrease |n the com|ng decades. B|oue| product|on
and changes |n ||vestock product|on are add|t|ona|
actors that w||| have a potent|a||y grow|ng |n1uence
on sma||-sca|e arm|ng, prov|ded current po||c|es are
ma|nta|ned or enhanced. However, th|s |atter pressure
a|so concerns other |and use and cover types, as
b|oue| w||| aect not on|y crop|and but b|od|vers|ty
and natura| resources |n other |and-use systems as
we||.

234
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
The web o g|oba| cr|ses current|y conound|ng
the wor|d has had deep |mpacts on vu|nerab|e
commun|t|es |n deve|op|ng countr|es. As the wor|d
|urches rom one cr|s|s to another, b|ds to fnd so|ut|ons
have been mere|y compound|ng, rather than reso|v|ng,
the cr|ses. For examp|e, w|th regard to the oss||-ue|-
dr|ven c||mate cr|s|s, some saw agroue| product|on
and use as a key so|ut|on. However, agroue|s cannot
rep|ace oss|| ue|s because there |s s|mp|y not enough
arab|e |and to cu|t|vate the amount o crops needed to
meet the vorac|ous appet|te o combust|on eng|nes
|n cars and mach|nery. Moreover, agroue|s reta|n the
oss|| ue| product|on, transportat|on and ut|||zat|on
parad|gm (e.g. refner|es, p|pe||nes) thus caus|ng the
wor|d to |mag|ne there |s a change when |n act |t |s
bus|ness as usua|.
Moreover, the convers|on o |and rom the cu|t|vat|on o
crops or ood to crops or agroue|s has had an |mpact
on ood supp|y. Some argue that agroue| product|on
runs para||e| to that o ood product|on, and that one
does not |mpact the other. Oons|der|ng that the same
workorce |s engaged |n both processes, |t |s ev|dent
that the two cannot be de||nked and ne|ther can |and
uptake they are a|| |nterre|ated. Some promoters
o b|oue|s c|a|m that they do not use ood crops,
and that the|r crops (such as |atropha) are grown on
marg|na| |ands. The |atropha p|ant and the c|a|ms
around |t have a|so ra|sed new |ssues, |nc|ud|ng
that |ands cons|dered marg|na| m|ght appear so to
persons who ne|ther ||ve |n the |oca||ty nor understand
the dynam|cs o |oca| |and-use systems. The marg|na|
|and argument |s a|so seen as a p|oy used by
po||cymakers and specu|ators to mark out such |ands
or grabb|ng wh||e marg|na||z|ng the peop|e who own,
understand and use those |ands.
The n|ted Nat|ons est|mates that Ar|ca has at |east
500 m||||on hectares (ha) o marg|na|, unused and
underused |and and that the Democrat|c Pepub||c
o the Oongo |s be||eved to have around 150 m||||on
hectares (Dynes, 2008). However, the c|ass|fcat|on
o |and as be|ng marg|na| or not can be content|ous,
espec|a||y | |t a||s to cons|der |oca| know|edge and
techno|og|es.
The ood cr|s|s has a|so tr|ggered the search or
|and by specu|ators and others who see |ands |n
Ar|ca as su|tab|e and ava||ab|e or purchase or crop
product|on a|med at export out o Ar|ca. Th|s seems
||ke the co|on|a| cash-cropp|ng system return|ng
|n a d|erent gu|se. lnterest|ng|y, not a|| cases have
concerned |and grabbers rom outs|de Ar|ca. There
have been |nstances o Ar|cans grabb|ng |ands |n
other Ar|can countr|es and others p|ay|ng the ro|e o
m|dd|eman to ac|||tate the |and grabs, as revea|ed |n a
report by GPAlN (2009), or examp|e. The case o the
L|byan Arab Jamah|r|ya's |ncurs|on |nto Ma|| |s worthy
o note |n th|s regard. A mu|t|m||||on do||ar nat|ona| r|ce
|n|t|at|ve announced by the Government o Ma|| was
|ntended to he|p |oca| armers produce more so that
the country wou|d no |onger be dependent on r|ce
|mports.
However, the Government handed over an enormous
tract o pr|me r|ce |and to a L|byan |nvestment und
and some Oh|nese compan|es. ln add|t|on, |n 2004,
Ma||'s Pres|dent, Amadou Touman| Toure, oered up
to 100,000 ha to the L|byan Arab Jamah|r|ya as part
Absl|acl
On the grounds o equ|ty and eth|cs, |t |s necessary to ha|t the unsusta|nab|e p|under or use o resources
to the extent that they are permanent|y |ost to uture generat|ons. Land grabb|ng, a man|estat|on o greed,
shows a trend o peop|e ||v|ng as | there were no tomorrow. lt |s c|ear|y not s|mp|y a des|re to respond to
ood defc|ts somewhere, but a p|oy to contro| the ood systems o the wor|d and sub|ect peop|e to the
vagar|es o specu|at|on.
Commontary |. Land Grabb|ng and |uturo Conf||cts
hu|mmo Bassey
E/ecul|ve ||eclo|, Euv||oumeula| R|ghls Acl|ou, Cha||, l||euds ol lhe Ea|lh lule|ual|oua|, aud coo|d|ualo|,
0||walch lule|ual|oua|
235
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
o a |arger |nrastructure |nvestment pro|ect or the
area that |nc|uded the en|argement o a cana| and the
|mprovement o a road. Th|s was w|th|n the ramework
o the L|bya Ar|ca lnvestment Porto||o (LAP). The
arrangement showed that the |nrastructure prov|s|on
was contracted to OGO, a Oh|nese company owned
by Oh|na's b|g o|| corporat|on, SlNOPEO, wh||e an
unnamed Oh|nese frm was contracted to supp|y
Oh|nese hybr|d r|ce seeds. The GPAlN report revea|ed
that, a|though the pro|ect c|a|med to produce r|ce or
Ma||, there was "p|enty o reason to suspect that the
rea| mot|vat|on |s to export r|ce to L|bya."
A. PaIhs Io |and grabs
A |and grab dea| that wou|d have swa||owed up ha|
o the arab|e |and |n Madagascar was aborted. ln that
dea|, Daewoo, a company rom the Pepub||c o Korea,
was to |ease 1.3 m||||on ha o arab|e |and on that |s|and
State or the cu|t|vat|on o corn and o|| pa|m or export
back to |ts home country. The o|| pa|m seeds as we||
as corn were to be |mported rom Lat|n Amer|ca. The
ob|ect|ve o the scheme was to boost the Pepub||c
o Korea's ood secur|ty by prov|d|ng |t w|th up to 2.5
m||||on tons o corn per year, represent|ng ha| o |ts
corn |mports. Hong Jong-Wan, a manager at Daewoo,
was quoted as say|ng, "We want to p|ant corn there
to ensure our ood secur|ty. Food can be a weapon |n
th|s wor|d. We can e|ther export the harvests to other
countr|es or sh|p them back to Korea |n case o a ood
cr|s|s." The protests that ensued ater the reve|at|on o
the dea| |ed to |ts cance||at|on, and the po||t|ca| a||out
saw the unseat|ng o the pres|dent o the country.
3

Act|ons e|sewhere a|so have the potent|a| to |ntens|y
|and grabs |n Ar|ca. For examp|e, the move by the
Government o lndones|a to |mpose a two-year
morator|um on new pa|m o|| p|antat|ons |n order
to protect |ts rema|n|ng ra|norests has prompted
agr|bus|ness g|ants such as S|me Darby to sw|tch
the|r expans|on p|ans to Oameroon, Ghana and
L|ber|a. Th|s rush |nto Ar|ca |s set to cause mass|ve
deorestat|on and |oss o arm|and o the |oca|
commun|t|es (Lev|tt, 2011), wh|ch are sure con1|ct
tr|gger po|nts. The |mp||cat|on o th|s sh|t |s |nstruct|ve:
wh||e the lndones|an p|an |s we||-|ntent|oned, |t |s c|ear
that regu|at|ons ||m|ted to one country w||| s|mp|y
cause |nvestors and specu|ators to sh|t the|r act|v|t|es
e|sewhere where regu|at|ons may be |ax or non-
ex|stent.
8. Food cr|s|s, |and grabs and Iha
"naW co|on|taI|on"
The ood cr|s|s o 20072008 was character|zed by
some ana|ysts as a s||ent tsunam| (Fccncm|s|, 2008)
that h|t the deve|op|ng wor|d. However, there was
noth|ng s||ent about |t: the upheava| had been bu||d|ng
up over t|me and the rumb|es were aud|b|e and the
waves v|s|b|e. As noted by a recent report (O|ssokho
et a|., 2011), deve|op|ng countr|es have suered or
some decades rom sw|t changes |n the pr|ces o
the|r commod|ty exports, on wh|ch most o them re|y
heav||y or the|r export earn|ngs, and th|s prob|em has
been compounded by r|s|ng pr|ce vo|at|||ty |n ood
|mports rom the g|oba| markets. The|r proposed
so|ut|ons |nc|ude sh|e|d|ng the|r vu|nerab|e markets
rom pr|ce vo|at|||ty by promot|ng the product|on and
consumpt|on o what they term "non-traded" crops.
The ood cr|s|s comb|ned w|th the fnanc|a| cr|s|s have
prompted specu|ators to ocus on |nvest|ng |n |and or
the cu|t|vat|on o crops or energy and/or or ood. Th|s
rush or |and |n countr|es |n Ar|ca, South-East As|a and
Lat|n Amer|ca by other countr|es and corporat|ons has
|ed to atroc|ous |and grabs. The sca|e and purpose o
the |and grabs amount to noth|ng short o a "new wave
o co|on|zat|on". The crops cu|t|vated |n the grabbed
|ands are not |ntended to eed |oca| popu|at|ons,
|nstead, they are ma|n|y produced or export back to
the home countr|es o the "|nvestors," as exemp||fed
by the |and-grab dea| |nvo|v|ng Daewoo, c|ted above.
Another examp|e o an attempted |and grab dea| was
|n South Sudan where one "paramount ch|e" s|gned
o 600,000 ha o commun|ty |and, w|th a poss|b|||ty
o ced|ng a urther 400,000 ha, to a Da||as-based frm
|n 2008. Through the dea|, the frm was set to en|oy a
49-year |ease o the |and at a pr|nce|y sum o $25,000.
The terms o the |ease oered the company u|| r|ghts
to exp|o|t a|| natura| resources |n the |eased |and,
|nc|ud|ng the r|ght to:
Deve|op, produce and exp|o|t t|mber/orest
resources, |nc|ud|ng, w|thout ||m|tat|on, the
harvest|ng o current tree growth, the p|ant|ng and
harvest|ng o hardwood trees, and the deve|opment
o wood-based |ndustr|es,
Trade and proft rom any resu|t|ng carbon cred|ts
rom t|mber on the |eased |and,
Engage |n agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es, |nc|ud|ng the
cu|t|vat|on o b|oue| crops (e.g. |atropha p|ants and
pa|m o|| trees),
236
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Exp|ore, deve|op, m|ne, produce and/or exp|o|t
petro|eum, natura| gas and other hydrocarbon
resources or both |oca| and export markets, as
we|| as other m|nera|s, and a|so engage |n power
generat|on act|v|t|es on the |eased |and,
Sub|ease any port|on or a|| o the |eased |and or
sub-||cense any r|ght to undertake act|v|t|es on the
|eased |and to th|rd part|es.
However, res|stance to th|s dea| by the peop|e,
supported by so||dar|ty act|ons rom groups such as
the Oak|and lnst|tute, succeeded |n deeat|ng the dea|
(Ol, 2011).
Th|s examp|e o a |and-grab dea|, though o||ed,
shows the ma|n attract|ons or specu|ators. These
|nc|ude the poss|b|||ty to exp|o|t surace resources,
such as t|mber, and subso|| resources such as o||, gas
and so||d m|nera|s. The specu|ators a|m to engage
|n comprehens|ve exp|o|tat|on o the|r grabbed |and
|n a|| ways poss|b|e. Th|s |s why, |n th|s case, they
even |a|d c|a|m to the carbon stock |n the trees on
the |and. W|th new types o carbon s|nks be|ng
"commod|fed", |t |s conce|vab|e that |and grabbers
w||| seek to obta|n carbon cred|ts rom so|| carbon
sequestrat|on. Arguab|y, th|s wave o |and grabs |s
more ob|ect|onab|e than co|on|a||sm. A|though th|s
|and-grab dea| e|| through, there are others |ust as
obnox|ous that have not been stopped.
Somet|mes |and grabs may pass unnot|ced, as w|th
the recent dec|s|on by a m|n|ng company, Ar|can
Barr|ck Go|d, |n the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a
to erect a 14-k||ometre concrete ence around |ts
m|n|ng concess|on, ostens|b|y to keep v|||agers rom
sneak|ng |n to stea| go|d (Pe0|e|s, 2011). Oomp|et|on
o |ts so-ca||ed secur|ty ence |n 2012 w||| suggest
that |ts grabb|ng o the terr|tory |s |n perpetu|ty, and
w|th th|s stroke o gen|us the company |s poss|b|y
depr|v|ng the c|t|zens o access to parts o the |and
on wh|ch they cou|d st||| eke a ||v|ng w|thout |nterer|ng
w|th the m|n|ng act|v|t|es o the company. Equa||y, the
commun|t|es are depr|ved o access to the beauty o
the natura| |andscape, a|though the re|ent|ess c|aws
o m|n|ng mach|ner|es may have a|ready scarred |t.
0. 0onN|cIs and ras|sIanca
Oon1|cts and res|stance over |and grabs are a|so
|ncreas|ng |n the Ogon| |and o N|ger|a. The peop|e
o th|s reg|on are known or the|r ep|c batt|es
aga|nst degradat|on o the|r terr|tory through the o||
extract|on act|v|t|es o She|| Petro|eum Deve|opment
Oompany (She||) and the N|ger|an Nat|ona| Petro|eum
Oorporat|on (NNPO). She|| was expe||ed o||ow|ng
mass peaceu| upr|s|ngs |n 1993. S|nce then there
have been attempts to reopen the o|| we||s |n Ogon|,
but w|thout success. Poss|b|y as a step towards
ensur|ng a return o the o|| g|ant |nto the terr|tory, the
n|ted Nat|ons Env|ronment Programme (NEP) was
comm|ss|oned to assess the env|ronmenta| s|tuat|on
o Ogon||and.
The NEP assessment (2011a) presented to
Pres|dent Good|uck Jonathan on 4 August 2011
showed hydrocarbon po||ut|on |n surace water
throughout the creeks o Ogon||and and up to 8 cm
|n the groundwater that eeds dr|nk|ng we||s at 41
s|tes, |nc|ud|ng a ser|ous case |n N|s|s|oken Oga|e |n
E|eme, P|vers State. So||s were ound to have been
po||uted w|th hydrocarbons up to a depth o 5 metres
|n 49 observed s|tes, wh||e, benzene, a known cancer-
caus|ng chem|ca| was ound to be present |n dr|nk|ng
water at a |eve| 900 t|mes above the |eve| deemed
acceptab|e by the Wor|d Hea|th Organ|zat|on (WHO).
The report a|so documented that fsher|es have been
destroyed and that wet|ands around Ogon||and are
h|gh|y degraded or ac|ng degradat|on (Env|ronmenta|
P|ghts Act|on, 2011). These |mpacts comb|ned, have
|ed to an |rreparab|e |oss o ||ve||hoods, and w||| take
30 years to remed|ate. Po||ut|on appears to have
made a permanent grab on Ogon| |ands.
Wh||e the Government o N|ger|a and She|| d|ther over
what to do about the destroyed Ogon| env|ronment,
there are pers|stent eorts by both government and
pr|vate ent|t|es to urther grab mass|ve tracts o what
|s |et o |and |n the terr|tory or banana and other
p|antat|ons. One company |s canvass|ng the |dea o
produc|ng what |t euphem|st|ca||y ca||s "Ogon| o||s
rom |atropha. Because o the h|gh|y sens|t|zed state
o the Ogon| peop|e, there |s determ|ned res|stance,
and th|s |s c|ear|y not a |and grabbers' haven.
. 0onc|us|on
The push by transnat|ona| corporat|ons or |and to grow
crops or export and b|oue|s |n add|t|on to supp|y
the|r need or pu|p and paper |s compounded
by the appet|te o emerg|ng econom|es such as
Braz||, Oh|na and lnd|a or |ncreas|ng amounts o other
natura| resources, |nc|ud|ng water and m|nera|s. For
examp|e, |t |s sa|d that the Government o Mozamb|que
237
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
|s a||ocat|ng 60,000 square k||ometres o |and (7.6 per
cent o the country) |n our o |ts prov|nces Nampu|a,
N|assa, Zambez|a and Oabo De|gado to 40 Braz|||an
armers or commerc|a| soy cu|t|vat|on to supp|y the
ever-expand|ng Oh|nese market (Nhantumbo, 2011).
The |ssues ra|sed by |and grabs are |ndeed d|verse
and severe.
Land grab |s a rea| menace |n a wor|d r|dden
w|th cr|ses. Watson, a |ead|ng fgure |n sett|ng up
the lntergovernmenta| P|atorm on B|od|vers|ty
and Ecosystem Serv|ces, suggests that g|oba|
ecosystems ace severe threats rom fve key
dr|vers: |and convers|on (such as deorestat|on),
overexp|o|tat|on (such as overfsh|ng), the |ntroduct|on
o exot|c spec|es, po||ut|on and c||mate change (c|ted
by McOarthy, 2011).
On the grounds o equ|ty and eth|cs, |t |s necessary
to ha|t the unsusta|nab|e p|under or use o resources
to the extent that they are permanent|y |ost to uture
generat|ons. Land grabb|ng, a man|estat|on o greed,
shows a trend o peop|e ||v|ng as | there were no
tomorrow. lt |s c|ear|y not s|mp|y a des|re to respond
to ood defc|ts somewhere, but a p|oy to contro| the
ood systems o the wor|d and sub|ect peop|e to the
vagar|es o specu|at|on.
Land grabb|ng |s an unsusta|nab|e path and needs
to be re|gned |n. On|y a g|oba| exam|nat|on and a
g|oba| regu|atory ramework w||| be ab|e to stem the
1ood. Apart rom regu|at|ng th|s scourge, there |s a|so
the need to secure |and r|ghts and ensure that those
r|ghts are respected, espec|a||y |n the more vu|nerab|e
reg|ons and countr|es where such |aws do not ex|st.
The wor|d cannot aord new orms o con1|ct ar|s|ng
rom |and grabb|ng. More and more peop|e are
be|ng d|sp|aced by |and grabs, ||ve||hoods are be|ng
destroyed, and hunger |s be|ng |mported wh||e ood
products are exported.

238
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Land |nvestments the purchase or |ease o vast
tracts o |and rom most|y poor, deve|op|ng countr|es
by wea|th|er, ood-|nsecure countr|es and pr|vate
|nvestors or the product|on and export o ood and
agroue| crops have grown |nto an |nternat|ona|
phenomenon. Accord|ng to the Wor|d Bank, |n
2009 a|one near|y 60 m||||on hectares o ert||e |and
throughout the wor|d (|.e. a|most 4 per cent o g|oba|
crop|and) were acqu|red by |nvestors, oten at
g|veaway pr|ces. Over 70 per cent o these |and dea|s
were |n Ar|ca.
lnternat|ona| a|d agenc|es and mu|t||atera| |end|ng
|nst|tut|ons have common|y supported ore|gn d|rect
|nvestment (FDl) as a way to erad|cate hunger and
poverty. Many o them suggest that FDl can he|p
deve|op|ng countr|es by generat|ng |ncome and
emp|oyment and enab||ng the transer o techno|ogy
and know-how. ln add|t|on, |t |s be||eved to promote
the deve|opment o process|ng and econom|c and
soc|a| |nrastructure |n "host" countr|es. Th|s |mp||es
that Ar|can countr|es are thereore benefc|ar|es |n
such dea|s. However, current|y, ||tt|e |s understood
o the |ega|, soc|a| and econom|c |mp||cat|ons
o the |and dea|s |nvo|v|ng FDl. The authors o a
comprehens|ve research on |and grabs (FAO/lFAD/
llED, 2009) recogn|zed that the|r report had "on|y
started to scratch the surace o a very comp|ex set
o |ssues." The Oak|and lnst|tute's own ana|ys|s has
|dent|fed three ma|or |acunae, wh|ch po|nt to the
need or: (|) better data on and a better understand|ng
o the concept o "|and ava||ab|||ty", (||) a better
understand|ng o the |and dea|s (|.e. the|r nature and
the|r |mp||cat|ons or deve|op|ng countr|es and or
ood-|nsecure popu|at|ons), and (|||) address|ng the
|ssue o |and r|ghts.
G|ven the paramount |mportance o address|ng th|s
know|edge gap, the sca|e and rate at wh|ch these
|and dea|s are happen|ng, and the comp|ete |ack o
transparency surround|ng them, the Oak|and lnst|tute
|n|t|ated a research pro|ect, ent|t|ed nderstand|ng
Absl|acl
The Oak|and lnst|tute's ana|ys|s on |and |nvestment dea|s has |dent|fed three ma|or |acunae, wh|ch po|nt
to the need or:
better data on and a better understand|ng o the concept o "|and ava||ab|||ty",
a better understand|ng o the |and dea|s (|.e. the|r nature and the|r |mp||cat|ons or deve|op|ng coun-
tr|es and or ood-|nsecure popu|at|ons), and
address|ng the |ssue o |and r|ghts.
lnstead o us|ng marg|na| or |nert||e |and as |s oten c|a|med, most dea|s |dent|fed are actua||y tak|ng p|ace
|n the v|c|n|ty o water resources that oer |rr|gat|on potent|a|, or near other |nrastructure (ra||ways, roads) or
on ert||e so||s. Ma|or Ar|can r|vers, such as the N||e, the Zambez| and the N|ger, are tapped by these |and
grab dea|s, wh|ch g|ve the |nvestors contro| not on|y o the |and, but a|so o water.
Desp|te w|despread c|a|ms, the Oak|and lnst|tute's fe|d research and ana|ys|s o the |and dea|s |n seven
Ar|can countr|es has ound that the|r prom|ses o econom|c deve|opment through the|r |nvestments |n |and
and agr|cu|ture are oten overstated. Large-sca|e |and |nvestment may |mprove some macroeconom|c
|nd|cators o deve|opment, but |t may a|so resu|t |n cons|derab|e env|ronmenta| and soc|a| costs to the host
country, and |oss o ||ve||hoods or |ost econom|c opportun|t|es or |ts c|t|zens.
Commontary ||. Lva|uat|on of Land |nvostmont Doa|s |n
Afr|ca: ro||m|nary ||nd|ngs
Auu|adha N|lla|
0a||aud lusl|lule
239
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
Land lnvestment Dea|s |n Ar|ca |n 2009, wh|ch stud|ed
seven countr|es: Eth|op|a, Ma||, Mozamb|que, S|erra
Leone, South Sudan, the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a
and Zamb|a. ln June 2011, the lnst|tute re|eased a
paper wh|ch h|gh||ghts some o the ma|n fnd|ngs o
|ts frst phase o research on |and |nvestment dea|s
|n Ar|ca.
4

A. who ara Iha |nvasIors?
News coverage has tended to emphas|ze the ro|e
that countr|es such as Oh|na and the Gu| States
have p|ayed |n the acce|erat|on o |and acqu|s|t|ons |n
Ar|ca. However, the Oak|and lnst|tute's |nvest|gat|on,
|nvo|v|ng over 50 dea|s |n the seven Ar|can countr|es
covered, revea|ed a ma|or ro|e p|ayed a|so by
Western frms, wea|thy n|ted States and European
|nd|v|dua|s, and |nvestment unds w|th t|es to ma|or
banks such as Go|dman Sachs and JP Morgan. Other
|nvestors |nc|ude a|ternat|ve |nvestment frms such as
London-based Emergent Asset Management that
seeks to attract specu|ators, |nc|ud|ng un|vers|t|es |n
the n|ted States such as Harvard and \anderb||t,
w|th the prom|se o ga|n|ng access to agr|cu|tura|
|and that w||| y|e|d h|gh fnanc|a| returns or the|r
endowments. Another examp|e concerns severa|
Texas-based |nterests that are assoc|ated w|th a ma|or
600,000 ha dea| |n South Sudan wh|ch |nvo|ves K|nyet|
Deve|opment, LLO an Aust|n, Texas-based "g|oba|
bus|ness deve|opment partnersh|p and ho|d|ng
company," managed by Howard Eugene Doug|as,
a ormer n|ted States Ambassador at Large and
Ooord|nator or Peugee Aa|rs.
A key p|ayer |n the |argest |and dea| |n the n|ted
Pepub||c o Tanzan|a |s lowa agr|bus|ness entrepren-
eur, Bruce Pastetter, who concurrent|y serves as OEO
o Pharos Ag, co-ounder and Manag|ng D|rector o
Agr|So| Energy and OEO o Summ|t Farms, and |s an
|mportant donor to lowa State n|vers|ty. Pastetter was
recent|y appo|nted to the lowa Board o Pegents by
Terry Branstad, lowa's Governor. lowa State n|vers|ty
has prov|ded "pr|vate" research serv|ces that beneft
Pastetter's |nvestments |n the n|ted Pepub||c o
Tanzan|a.
Many European compan|es are a|so |nvo|ved |n |and
dea|s |n Ar|can countr|es, oten w|th support prov|ded
by the|r governments and embass|es |n those
countr|es. For |nstance, Swed|sh and German frms
have strong |nterests |n the product|on o b|oue|s |n the
n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a. Ma|or |nvestors |n S|erra
Leone |nc|ude Addax B|oenergy o Sw|tzer|and and
Qu|e| lnternat|ona| Ho|d|ngs o Portuga|. And S|erra
Leone Agr|cu|ture |s actua||y a subs|d|ary o Orad-|
(OAPAPO Penewab|e Agr|cu|ture Deve|opments Ltd.)
based |n the n|ted K|ngdom.
8. Ara |nvasIors buy|ng unusad
ava||ab|a |and?
The Oak|and lnst|tute's research ound severa|
cases where sma|| armers, v|ewed as "squatters",
have been orc|b|y removed rom the|r ancestra|
|ands w|th no compensat|on |n order to make room
or the cu|t|vat|on o export commod|t|es, |nc|ud|ng
b|oue|s and cut 1owers. ln Eth|op|a, or examp|e, the
v|||ag|zat|on process o near|y 700,000 |nd|genous
peop|e |s tak|ng p|ace |n the very same areas targeted
or |and |nvestment by |arge-sca|e |nvestors. Peop|e
who are be|ng orced o the|r ancestra| |ands are
ara|d to oppose d|sp|acement or ear o the|r ||ves
and threats o |mpr|sonment |n a country where
po||t|ca| v|o|ence and human r|ghts v|o|at|ons are
common.
ln Samana Dugu |n Ma|| |n 2010, when bu||dozers
moved |n to c|ear the |and, men, women and youth
rom the commun|ty who protested the cutt|ng o the|r
trees were met by po||ce orce, and were beaten and
arrested. And |n the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a,
the memorandum o understand|ng between
Agr|So| Energy rom the n|ted States and the |oca|
government st|pu|ates |n |ts frst art|c|e that the two
ma|n |ocat|ons Katumba and M|shamo or the
company's pro|ect are reugee sett|ements that w|||
have to be c|osed beore the pro|ect can start. Yet the
162,000 reugees ||v|ng there had 1ed Burund| |n 1972
and have been arm|ng th|s |and or 40 years.
Overa||, when armers are not s|mp|y removed rom
the|r |and, the |and |eased to |nvestors |n Ar|ca |s
e|ther a||ow |and or orests, genera||y used by the
|oca| popu|at|on or a w|de range o purposes (e.g.
co||ect|on o t|mber, w||d ood, frewood, med|c|na|
p|ants, conservat|on o watersheds and protect|on
aga|nst eros|on). lnstead o us|ng marg|na| or |nert||e
|and as |s oten c|a|med, most dea|s |dent|fed are
actua||y tak|ng p|ace |n the v|c|n|ty o water resources
that oer |rr|gat|on potent|a|, or near other |nrastructure
(ra||ways, roads) or on ert||e so||s. Ma|or Ar|can
r|vers, such as the N||e, the Zambez| and the N|ger,
240
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
are tapped by these |and grab dea|s, wh|ch g|ve the
|nvestors contro| not on|y o the |and, but a|so o water.
0. oas Iora|gn |nvasImanI |n |and |aad Io
aconom|c dava|opmanI?
The be||e that |arge-sca|e |and |nvestment |n Ar|ca
w||| resu|t |n much-needed econom|c deve|opment |s
strong|y promoted by ore|gn |nvestors, government
ofc|a|s and |nternat|ona| |nst|tut|ons. As a resu|t, many
Ar|can governments ervent|y encourage ore|gn
|nvestment |n agr|cu|tura| |and, and oer what some
have ca||ed "mouthwater|ng" |ncent|ves to |nvestors.
Ofc|a|s trust that |and dea|s w||| spur growth w|th
|ncom|ng cap|ta|, ass|st w|th |nrastructure and create
emp|oyment or |oca| peop|e. On the|r part, |nvestors
re|norce these |deas w|th bo|d prom|ses o econom|c
deve|opment, "modern|zat|on" and numerous |obs.
Desp|te w|despread c|a|ms, the Oak|and lnst|tute's
fe|d research and ana|ys|s o the |and dea|s |n the
seven countr|es has ound that the|r prom|ses o
econom|c deve|opment through the|r |nvestments |n
|and and agr|cu|ture are oten overstated. Large-sca|e
|and |nvestment may |mprove some macroeconom|c
|nd|cators o deve|opment, but |t may a|so resu|t |n
cons|derab|e env|ronmenta| and soc|a| costs to the
host country, and |oss o ||ve||hoods or |ost econom|c
opportun|t|es or |ts c|t|zens. An ana|ys|s o var|ous
econom|c |ssues re|ated to ore|gn |nvestment |n |and
demonstrates that the opportun|t|es or econom|c
deve|opment are |n act ||m|ted. There are severa|
reasons or th|s as d|scussed be|ow.
. InvasIor |ncanI|vas rasu|I|ng |n
Iorgona pub||c ravanuas
Ar|can governments are oer|ng a w|de range o
|ncent|ves to attract ore|gn |nvestment. These |nc|ude
fsca| |ncent|ves, such as duty exempt|ons, u|| or
part|a| tax ho||days, and/or reduct|ons |n the tax rate
or spec|fc types o act|v|t|es, as we|| as non-fsca|
|ncent|ves, |nc|ud|ng a||ow|ng expatr|ate emp|oyment
and rem|ttance o profts and other benefts or
ore|gn personne|. The oregone pub||c revenues
as a resu|t o |nvestor |ncent|ves can severe|y
underm|ne a country's tax base. lmport dut|es, or
examp|e, represent approx|mate|y 15 per cent o
tota| government revenue |n Mozamb|que and 45 per
cent |n S|erra Leone. The 2009/10 tax exempt|ons
|n the n|ted Pepub||c o Tanzan|a amounted to 95
b||||on Tanzan|an sh||||ngs ($425 m||||on) more than
ha| the 1.3 tr||||on Tanzan|an sh||||ngs ($795 m||||on)
the Government p|anned to borrow rom commerc|a|
sources or |nrastructure fnanc|ng |n 2010/11. Had
|t been co||ected, |t wou|d have prov|ded 40 per cent
more resources or educat|on or 72 per cent more
resources or hea|th |n 2009/2010.
E. LoW |and pr|cas and ranIa| Iaas
ln Ar|ca, |and |s read||y oered |n the orm o huge
tracts at extreme|y |ow pr|ces or |ease rates compared
w|th those |n other cont|nents (tab|es 4 and 5).
Tab|a 4: 8amp||ng oI Iarm|and |aasa Iaas, by |and daa|
LocaI|on aa| Pr|ca ($/ha/yr) Laasa Iarms
Elh|op|a Saud| Sla| l|ee |aud |eul 1O,OOO ha, GO-yea| |ease
Na|| Na||bya l|ee |aud |eul 1OO,OOO ha, 5O-yea| |ease
Elh|op|a Ka|ulu|| G.75
a
8OO,OOO ha, 99-yea| |ease
Sudau h||e T|ad|ug aud eve|opmeul O.O4 GOO,OOO ha al $25,OOO, 49-yea| |ease
S|e||a Leoue S|e||a Leoue Ag||cu|lu|e 2 48,OOO ha, 45-yea| |ease
S|e||a Leoue u|le| Ag||bus|uess SL L|m|led 5 12G,OOO ha, 49-yea| |ease
$ource: Based on Oak|and lnst|tute fe|d research, October 2010-June 2011.
Notes:
a
Karutur| |n|t|a||y |eased |and or |ust $1.25/ha (20 b|rr/ha), but |n subsequent negot|at|ons w|th the edera|
Government, that pr|ce was ra|sed to $6.75/ha (111 b|rr/ha).
241
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
Low pr|ces are certa|n|y attract|ve to ore|gn |nvestors.
Accord|ng to Susan Payne, Oh|e Execut|ve Ofcer
(OEO) o Emergent Asset Management, "ln South
Ar|ca and Sub Saharan Ar|ca the cost o agr||and,
arab|e, good agr||and that we're buy|ng |s one-
seventh o the pr|ce o s|m||ar |and |n Argent|na, Braz||
and Amer|ca. That a|one |s an arb|trage opportun|ty.
We cou|d be moron|c and not grow anyth|ng and we
th|nk we w||| make money over the next decade." (see:
http://www.oak|and|nst|tute.org/emergent-v|deo).
The benefts rom the |nvestments or the host
countr|es are underm|ned by these |ow pr|ces. Payne
a||udes to the act that, because o |ow |and pr|ces, |t |s
perhaps |n the |nvestor's best |nterest to s|t on the |and
and proft rom arb|trage between |ow |and acqu|s|t|on
pr|ces compared w|th the|r sa|es va|ues as the market
|mproves. Wh||e such specu|at|on oten enta||s h|gher
r|sk, returns on specu|at|ve |nvestments |n Ar|can
arm|and have been reported to reach 25 per cent.
lndeed, many o the |and dea|s |nvest|gated by the
Oak|and lnst|tute are not yet operat|ona|, |nd|cat|ng
that the |nvestments may have been made so|e|y or
specu|at|ve rather than product|ve purposes.
F. oas Iora|gn |nvasImanI |n agr|cu|Iura
|aad Io job craaI|on?
The prom|se o |ob creat|on |s oten the argument
presented by |nvestors, governments and |nternat|ona|
|nst|tut|ons to conv|nce |oca| commun|t|es o the
benefts o ore|gn |nvestment |n agr|cu|ture. Because
o the |arge ro|e agr|cu|ture p|ays |n Ar|can econom|es,
the sector has great potent|a| as a dr|ver o the|r
econom|c deve|opment and |ob creat|on. Act|v|t|es
such as storage to reduce post-harvest |osses and
to get the best rom market opportun|t|es, as we||
as |nvestments |n va|ue-added product|on, such as
process|ng, seem part|cu|ar|y re|evant to make the
most o the tremendous potent|a| o Ar|can agr|cu|ture.
lmprov|ng sma||ho|der product|v|ty and product|on |s
a|so essent|a| or a sector |arge|y dependent on am||y
arms.
Yet the ma|or|ty o |and dea|s |nvest|gated by the
Oak|and lnst|tute oer bas|c wage |abour emp|oyment,
most|y |ow-pay|ng pos|t|ons wh|ch present a number
o d|sadvantages. Oten, |t |s unc|ear how many
|obs w||| be created, or whether those |obs w|||
oer a|r compensat|on or |oca| armers' |ost |ands
and ||ve||hoods. Furthermore, modern agr|cu|tura|
schemes are h|gh|y mechan|zed and prov|de
re|at|ve|y ew, oten short-term, seasona| |obs. There
|s no |nd|cat|on that |nvestors are seek|ng to max|m|ze
|oca| emp|oyment or that governments are g|v|ng
pr|or|ty to |ob creat|on. On the contrary, |nvestors oten
fnd sca|ab|e, mechan|zed agr|cu|ture to be more
manageab|e, and governments |ure these |nvestors
by p|ac|ng ew or no ||m|ts on expatr|ate workers. lt
appears, thereore, that |oty emp|oyment c|a|ms
made by |nvestors genera||y are not substant|ated by
actua| |ob creat|on, or by |obs that br|ng s|gn|fcant
deve|opment benefts. lndeed, ev|dence shows that
|arge-sca|e agr|cu|tura| |nvestments prov|de m|n|ma|
benefts to |oca| commun|t|es, and th|s shou|d be
taken |nto cons|derat|on by deve|opment pract|t|oners
and po||cymakers when eva|uat|ng the |eg|t|macy
o "respons|b|e" agro-|nvestment. To tru|y spur |ob
creat|on, host governments wou|d need to estab||sh
|nvestment agreements that contr|bute to, rather than
detract rom, |oca| ||ve||hood opt|ons.
Oak|and lnst|tute's ev|dence |s supported by other
fnd|ngs, |nc|ud|ng a study by the Wor|d Bank
(2010) wh|ch ound scant ev|dence that ore|gn
|and |nvestment was creat|ng many |oca| |obs. The
requ|rements or |abour vary great|y among crops
and product|on systems, such that crop cho|ce and
organ|zat|on o product|on w||| have ar-reach|ng
|mpacts on the potent|a| or agr|cu|tura| |nvestment to
create emp|oyment. A 10,000-ha ma|ze p|antat|on |n
the Democrat|c Pepub||c o the Oongo, or examp|e,
created on|y 0.01 |obs per hectare, wh||e a sugarcane
p|antat|on generated 0.351 |obs per hectare. The
Tab|a 6: 8amp||ng oI avaraga Iarm|and pr|cas, by sa|ac-
Iad counIr|as, Z010
LocaI|on Avaraga pr|ca ($/ha/yr)
hew /ea|aud (da||y) 28,OOO
uu|led K|ugdom (ave|age
- a|| |aud lypes)
22,OOO
uu|led Slales (d|y|aud
|u co|u be|l)
1G,OOO
Po|aud 4,55O-8,125
B|a/|| (Nalo C|osso d|y-
|aud)
7,OOO
A|geul|ua (Ceul|a|
p|ov|uces)
5,OOO-1O,OOO
$ource: The Kn|ght Frank Farm|and lndex 2010.
242
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
Wor|d Bank report ound |ob creat|on |n Eth|op|a to
be s|m||ar|y ||m|ted, w|th an average o 0.005 |obs/
ha |n cases where fgures were prov|ded. The report
noted, "The patchy data that are ava||ab|e suggest
that |nvestments create ar ewer |obs than expected."
Oompar|ng these fgures w|th the |abour |ntens|ty o
am||y arms, sma||ho|der soybean product|on, or
examp|e, creates 0.125 |obs/ha near|y e|ght t|mes
more |obs than the 0.016 |obs/ha created by |arge-
sca|e soybean product|on.
A|so accord|ng to the Wor|d Bank, wage |abour
|ncome |s 2 to 10 t|mes |ower than the |ncome o the
average sma||ho|der. Moreover, as ment|oned ear||er,
most agr|cu|tura| wage |abour pos|t|ons are seasona|.
Thus the |mpress|ve number o pos|t|ons Karutur|
c|a|ms |t w||| create as many as 20,000 to 30,000 |n
Eth|op|a |s m|s|ead|ng |n terms o actua| emp|oyment
creat|on or |oca| deve|opment.
A |arge body o research supports the not|on that
sma|| arms are more product|ve, b|od|verse and
susta|nab|e than |arge, |ndustr|a|-sty|e p|antat|ons.
Furthermore, |n terms o |oca| peop|es' we||-be|ng,
sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture oers a number o benefts.
ln the frst p|ace, the product|on o goods by sma||
arms |s re|at|ve|y |ess cap|ta|-|ntens|ve (mean|ng
that more |abour |s used to produce each un|t o
the good) than that by |arge arms. Th|s |mp||es that
sma|| arms emp|oy re|at|ve|y more |abour, |nc|ud|ng
rura| unsk|||ed |abour, than do |arge arms, and thus
prov|de more ga|nu| ||ve||hood opt|ons or |oca|s.
Second|y, sma|| arms have h|gher output per |and
un|t because they ut|||ze the|r |and more efc|ent|y,
grow|ng mu|t|p|e crops, and thereby |mprove |oca|
ood secur|ty. Sma|| arms a|so are more product|ve
because o the|r re|at|ve|y h|gh concentrat|on o
|abour per hectare compared w|th |arger arms.
Add|t|ona||y, because the househo|d prov|des most
o the workorce, the costs o superv|s|on are |ow,
s|nce househo|d |abour |s genera||y se|-superv|s|ng
|n eort and d|||gence.
Last|y, s|nce sma|| arms ut|||ze re|at|ve|y more
|abour per |and un|t, they d|str|bute a re|at|ve|y |arger
proport|on o the|r profts, revenues and output to
the|r |abourers. The average arm s|ze or crop-based
arm|ng |n Ma|| |s |ust 4.7 ha, and one th|rd o the
805,000 arm househo|ds cu|t|vate |ess than 1 ha. To
put th|s |n perspect|ve, the area covered by the recent
|arge |and dea|s |dent|fed by Oak|and lnst|tute's
research |n Ma|| cou|d susta|n, conservat|ve|y,
112,537 arm am|||es we|| over ha| a m||||on peop|e
(686,478). lnstead, that |and |s now concentrated |n
the hands o 22 |nvestors, who are p|ann|ng to emp|oy
on|y a ew thousand p|antat|on workers.
. oas |nvasImanI |mprova
Iood sacur|Iy?
Most o the countr|es targeted by |nvestors suer rom
ood |nsecur|ty. Though the ood secur|ty argument
|s oten put orward by governments and |nvestors
|n support o |arge-sca|e agr|cu|tura| |nvestments,
Oak|and lnst|tute's research fnds ||tt|e assurance
that those |nvestments have |mproved ood secur|ty.
ln many cases |oca| ood arms are so|d |n order to
make room or the cu|t|vat|on o export commod|t|es,
|nc|ud|ng crops or b|oue|s and cut 1owers. Many
o the |and |eases |dent|fed are or the product|on
o agroue|s. ln Ma||, ha| o the |nvestors w|th |arge
|and ho|d|ngs |n the Ofce du N|ger |ntend to grow
crops or agroue|s, such as sugarcane, |atropha or
other o|eag|nous crops. S|m||ar|y, |n Mozamb|que
most o the |nvestments are |n the t|mber |ndustry
and agroue|s rather than |n ood crops. Food crops
represented on|y 32,000 ha o the 433,000 ha that
were approved or agr|cu|tura| |nvestments between
2007 and 2009.
h. Ara p|anIaI|ons mora producI|va and
prohIab|a Ihan sma||-sca|a Iarms?
Another argument put orward |n avour o |arge arms
|s that they are supposed|y more product|ve. However,
here too, the Oak|and lnst|tute's |nvest|gat|ons confrm
the ex|stence o a |arge body o prev|ous research
wh|ch shows that |n many |nstances sma|| arms are
more product|ve than |arge p|antat|ons. ln Ma||, or
examp|e, where the system o r|ce |ntens|fcat|on has
been adopted a|ong the N|ger P|ver near T|mbuktu,
armers have been ab|e to atta|n y|e|ds o 7 to 15
tons/ha/yr, (or an average o 9 tons/ha/yr), wh|ch |s
more than tw|ce the convent|ona| |rr|gated r|ce y|e|d
|n the area, and more than the orecasts o the Mou||n
Moderne du Ma||, one o the ma|or |nvestors |n |arge-
sca|e r|ce product|on. The sma||-sca|e, v|||age-based
|rr|gat|on schemes |nvo|ve p|ots o |ust 35 ha o
|and, shared by as many as 100 armers, thus each
househo|d has access to on|y one th|rd o a hectare.
Yet rom that p|ece o |and they are ab|e to earn $1,879
243
4. The Po|e o Ohanges |n Land se
more than doub|e the average annua| per cap|ta
|ncome o $676.
l the r|ce |ntens|fcat|on scheme were to be rep||cated
successu||y |n the Ofce du N|ger, 10,000 ha o
such sma||-sca|e |rr|gat|on schemes cou|d prov|de
||ve||hoods or 285,715 armers and dramat|ca||y
|ncrease r|ce product|on and revenues.
I. P|ac|ng susIa|nab|a agr|cu|Iura|
dava|opmanI |n Iha propar conIaxI
Pesearch conducted by the Oak|and lnst|tute
demonstrates that a renewed ocus on agr|cu|ture |s
cruc|a| or overcom|ng the current cr|s|s o wor|d hun-
ger |n the context o c||mate change, and or prov|d|ng
||ve||hoods to armers wh||e enab||ng deve|op|ng
countr|es to meet the M|||enn|um Deve|opment Goa|s.
However, the lnst|tute's research a|so shows that
|nvestment |n agr|cu|ture does not necessar||y trans|ate
|nto ood secur|ty or ||ve||hoods or sma||ho|der armers
who orm the bu|k o the wor|d's poor. As po|nted out
by O||v|er De Schutter (2009), n|ted Nat|ons Spec|a|
Papporteur on the P|ght to Food, the |ssue |s not one
o mere|y |ncreas|ng budget a||ocat|ons to agr|cu|ture,
but rather, "that o choos|ng rom d|erent mode|s o
agr|cu|tura| deve|opment wh|ch may have d|erent
|mpacts and beneft var|ous groups d|erent|y."
244
TPADE AND EN\lPONMENT PE\lEW 2013
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hoIas
1 The authors grateu||y acknow|edge the support prov|ded by the n|vers|ty o Bern, Oentre or Deve|opment and
Env|ronment and the Department o lntegrat|ve Geography, through the Spec|a| Pesearch Pro|ect o the Nat|ona|
Oentre o Oompetence |n Pesearch NOOP North-South |n the preparat|on o th|s art|c|e.
2 Land-use changes are categor|zed as d|rect and |nd|rect changes. D|rect changes occur when b|oue| eedstock,
such as soybean or b|od|ese|, d|sp|aces an ex|st|ng |and use system, such as graz|ng |and or catt|e. Th|s |n turn
may |ead to a change |n another area, or examp|e rom orest to graz|ng |and, wh|ch |s then known as an |nd|rect
change.
3 See: Hope or Madagascar, at: http://anantenana.wordpress.com/2009/06/18/the-truth-about-|and-grab/.
4 For more |normat|on about th|s research pro|ect, see: http://med|a.oak|and|nst|tute.org/spec|a|-|nvest|gat|on-
understand|ng-|and-|nvestment-dea|s-ar|ca.
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
A. InIroducI|on
The |ntersect|on o |nternat|ona| trade and agr|cu|ture
has become |ncreas|ng|y |mportant as more and
more countr|es and the|r armers part|c|pate |n g|oba|
markets. Nat|ona| trade-re|ated po||c|es, such as
subs|d|es and support measures, trade restr|ct|ons
and tar|s, have a ma|or |mpact not on|y on nat|ona|
agr|cu|tura| and ood systems, but a|so on agr|cu|tura|
perormance |n other countr|es. Due to the |ncreas|ng
|mportance and b|nd|ng nature o mu|t||atera|, reg|ona|
and b||atera| trade agreements, the ru|es estab||shed
there|n have s|gn|fcant eects on nat|ona| trade
po||c|es as we|| as on the structure and nature o the
g|oba| system o agr|cu|tura| trade and product|on
patterns. Nat|ona| trade po||c|es and |nternat|ona|
trade ru|es can thereore have a s|gn|fcant |mpact on
ood secur|ty.
The trade ramework that has |n1uenced the
po||c|es and pract|ces o many deve|op|ng countr|es
compr|ses the o||ow|ng: |oan cond|t|ona||t|es o the
|nternat|ona| fnanc|a| |nst|tut|ons, ru|es o the Wor|d
Trade Organ|zat|on (WTO), ru|es |n b||atera| and
reg|ona| trade agreements as we|| as un||atera| po||cy
measures (South Oentre, 2011). Gu|ded or ob||ged by
the ru|es and cond|t|ona||t|es w|th|n th|s ramework,
many deve|op|ng countr|es have s|gn|fcant|y |owered
the|r agr|cu|tura| tar|s and the|r domest|c support or
armers. At the same t|me, ||bera||zat|on o markets has
|ncreased pressure on costs, prompt|ng producers
towards greater spec|a||zat|on, wh|ch oten resu|ts
|n monocropp|ng, |ncreased mechan|zat|on and
ut|||zat|on o chem|ca|s (|ead|ng to h|gher dependence
on externa| |nputs), and enhanced sca|es o product|on.
ln contrast, deve|oped countr|es have not been sub|ect
to the cond|t|ona||t|es o the |nternat|ona| fnanc|a|
|nst|tut|ons. Moreover, WTO ru|es, by and |arge, have
a||owed them to ma|nta|n the|r trad|t|ona| support or
domest|c agr|cu|ture through a comb|nat|on o h|gh
subs|d|es, h|gh tar| peaks and export promot|on.
And |n the ree trade agreements (FTAs) |nvo|v|ng
deve|oped and deve|op|ng countr|es, agr|cu|tura|
subs|d|es are genera||y om|tted rom the agenda.
The trade ramework govern|ng g|oba| agr|cu|ture |s
thus an awkward comb|nat|on o ||bera||zat|on and
protect|on|sm. Wh||e deve|op|ng countr|es are requ|red
to undertake greater ||bera||zat|on, deve|oped countr|es
have been ab|e to reta|n the|r protect|on|st po||c|es.
AbsIracI
Peorms o the |nternat|ona| trade reg|me requ|re a s|gn|fcant reduct|on or remova| o harmu| subs|d|es
current|y prov|ded ma|n|y by deve|oped countr|es, wh||e at the same t|me a||ow|ng spec|a| treatment and
saeguard mechan|sms or deve|op|ng countr|es |n order to promote the|r sma||ho|der armers' ||ve||hoods.
Such reorms, coup|ed w|th po||c|es |n support o susta|nab|e sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture |n deve|op|ng coun-
tr|es, wou|d |mprove |oca| product|on or enhanc|ng ood secur|ty.
There |s a|so a need or regu|atory measures a|med at reorgan|z|ng the preva|||ng market structure o the
agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|n, wh|ch |s dom|nated by a ew mu|t|nat|ona| corporat|ons and marg|na||zes sma||-
ho|der armers and susta|nab|e product|on systems. Po||c|es that |ncrease the cho|ces o sma||ho|ders
to se|| the|r products on |oca| or g|oba| markets at a decent pr|ce wou|d comp|ement eorts to rect|y the
|mba|ances.
ln add|t|on, a sh|t to more susta|nab|e and eco|og|ca| agr|cu|tura| pract|ces wou|d beneft sma|| ho|der arm-
ers by |ncreas|ng product|v|ty wh||e strengthen|ng the|r res|||ence to shocks, such as c||mate change, and
reduc|ng the adverse |mpacts o convent|ona| agr|cu|tura| pract|ces on the env|ronment and hea|th. The
trade po||cy ramework shou|d thereore support such a sh|t.
Load Art|c|o: 1HL |MO1ANCL O| |N1LNA1|ONAL 1ADL,
1ADL ULL5 AND MAKL1 51UC1UL5
L|m L| 0h|ng
Th|rd wor|d haIWor|, and NarI|n khor, 8ouIh 0anIra
253
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
A|though |ncreased agr|cu|tura| trade can oer
opportun|t|es or the poor, the benefts have been
uneven|y d|str|buted. Grow|ng ev|dence |nd|cates that,
to date, sma||-sca|e armers and rura| commun|t|es |n
many countr|es have not benefted s|gn|fcant|y rom
agr|cu|tura| trade ||bera||zat|on (lAASTD, 2009), |nstead
|t |s the |argest agr|cu|tura| producers who have been
ab|e to beneft more eas||y rom the opportun|t|es
resu|t|ng rom |mproved market access. Thus, overa||,
the d|str|but|ona| eects o trade ||bera||zat|on, among
and w|th|n countr|es, have resu|ted |n the poorest
deve|op|ng countr|es and armers be|ng net |osers.
The most vu|nerab|e groups who exper|ence hunger
are the sma||ho|ders, |and|ess |abourers, pastora||sts,
fshero|k, orest dwe||ers and the urban poor. Any
trade reg|me that a||s to beneft these groups, or
aects them negat|ve|y, |s ||ke|y to |ead to the den|a| or
v|o|at|on o the r|ght to ood (De Schutter, 2009a). Such
a den|a| o an essent|a| r|ght under||nes the |mportance
o ensur|ng access o a|| peop|e, espec|a||y the poor,
to ood, as we|| as the need or g|v|ng pr|or|ty to ood
secur|ty |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
Wh||e many deve|op|ng countr|es once sought ood
se|-sufc|ency, th|s ob|ect|ve was gradua||y tempered
by a percept|on o econom|c efc|ency that recogn|zed
the advantages o |mport|ng ood at cheaper cost, so
|ong as there was sufc|ent ore|gn exchange to pay
or the |mports. As a resu|t, |oca| ood product|on was
not g|ven h|gh pr|or|ty |n nat|ona| po||c|es. Oheaper
ood |mports took an |ncreas|ng share o the domest|c
market |n many countr|es. However, wh||e th|s gave
consumers access to |ower pr|ced ood, there were
drawbacks, |nc|ud|ng a dec||ne or stagnat|on |n
domest|c ood product|on and adverse eects on sma||
armers' ||ve||hoods and rura| deve|opment. ln some
cases, the oods |mported rom deve|oped countr|es
were heav||y subs|d|zed, wh||e the poorer countr|es d|d
not have the resources to match the subs|d|es.
Th|s s|tuat|on has been exacerbated by r|s|ng wor|d
pr|ces o many ood |tems |n recent years, resu|t|ng
|n more expens|ve ood |mports and |n1at|on o
ood pr|ces |n |oca| markets, oten |ead|ng to soc|a|
|nstab|||ty. A urther |ncrease |n wor|d ood pr|ces
|n 2011 and 2012 has g|ven r|se to uncerta|nty and
|nsecur|ty |n the net ood |mport|ng countr|es. As a
resu|t, some o these countr|es have sh|ted the|r
ocus back to ach|ev|ng greater se|-sufc|ency and
|ncreas|ng |oca| ood product|on, and to adopt|ng
trade po||c|es |n support o th|s ob|ect|ve (lAASTD,
2009, Khor, 2009, South Oentre, 2011).
lt |s now |ncreas|ng|y recogn|zed that the |mmed|ate
need |s to ensure ava||ab|||ty o ood |n countr|es
current|y dependent on |mports. However, a |ong-
term so|ut|on shou|d |nc|ude boost|ng |oca| ood
product|on |n deve|op|ng countr|es where cond|t|ons
are su|tab|e. Wh||e there are many actors |nvo|ved
|n |ncreas|ng |oca| product|on, an appropr|ate trade
po||cy ramework |s a very |mportant requ|rement.
Trade po||cy reorm a|med at creat|ng a a|rer g|oba|
trad|ng system cou|d make a pos|t|ve contr|but|on to
ood secur|ty and poverty a||ev|at|on.
At the same t|me, there |s a grow|ng rea||zat|on that
agr|cu|ture cannot proceed on the energy- and |nput-
|ntens|ve paths o the past, and that a parad|gm sh|t
towards susta|nab|||ty |s needed, where sma||-sca|e
armers and agroeco|og|ca| methods prov|de the way
orward (e.g. De Schutter, 2010, Herren et a|., 2011,
lAASTD, 2009). Peduc|ng dependence on oss|| energy
|nputs and cutt|ng down on greenhouse gas (GHG)
em|ss|ons rom agr|cu|ture w||| requ|re |ncreas|ng |oca|
ood se|-sufc|ency and promot|ng |ess ue|- and
petrochem|ca|-|ntens|ve methods o product|on (see
comment by He|nberg |n th|s chapter).
To the extent that trade ru|es are a|r and promote
susta|nab|e or eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture, they shou|d be
ma|nta|ned and promoted. However, there are aspects
o ex|st|ng |nternat|ona| and reg|ona| trade ru|es that
run counter to the promot|on o a trad|ng system
support|ve o susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. ln add|t|on, the
preva|||ng market structure, where the supp|y cha|n |s
dom|nated by a ew mu|t|nat|ona| compan|es, has |ed
to the marg|na||zat|on o sma|| armers and the urther
entrenchment o unsusta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces.
Th|s s|tuat|on |s exacerbated by pressure on countr|es
to spec|a||ze |n produc|ng commod|ty cash crops and
undertake |arge-sca|e arm|ng.
Th|s chapter thus addresses our key |nterre|ated
areas: structura| ad|ustment and |mport ||bera||zat|on,
the |mba|ance |n trade ru|es govern|ng agr|cu|ture,
the |mba|ance |n market structure, and env|ronmenta|
susta|nab|||ty. lt ra|ses |ssues that need to be
addressed w|th a v|ew to estab||sh|ng a trade po||cy
ramework that |s support|ve o ood secur|ty and
susta|nab|||ty.
8. 8IrucIura| adjusImanI and
|mporI ||bara||taI|on
An |mportant actor |n the dec||ne o agr|cu|ture |n
many deve|op|ng countr|es, espec|a||y |n Ar|ca, has
254
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
been the structura| ad|ustment po||c|es prescr|bed
by the |nternat|ona| fnanc|a| |nst|tut|ons. These
po||ces aected rura| producers d|rect|y, as they
|ed to the d|smant||ng o |nst|tut|ons and nat|ona|
po||cy measures that ass|sted armers, |nc|ud|ng
the reduct|on or remova| o subs|d|es and cred|t,
ass|stance |n market|ng and ood process|ng, and
a drast|c reduct|on |n agr|cu|tura| tar|s (De Schutter,
2009a, Khor, 2009). The |mp|ementat|on o the WTO
Agreement on Agr|cu|ture a|so |ed countr|es to
||bera||ze the|r agr|cu|tura| trade, thereby compound|ng
the eect on agr|cu|tura| producers |n deve|op|ng
countr|es.
Stud|es by the Food and Agr|cu|ture Organ|zat|on o
the n|ted Nat|ons (FAO) have revea|ed that many
deve|op|ng countr|es s|gn|fcant|y ||bera||zed the|r
agr|cu|tura| |mports by |ower|ng tar|s as requ|red by
the cond|t|ona||t|es attached to |oans extended by the
|nternat|ona| fnanc|a| |nst|tut|ons. As observed by the
FAO:
Structura| ad|ustment programmes |mp|emented
over the past ew decades have resu|ted |n rad|ca|
reorm o the agr|cu|tura| sectors o many deve|op|ng
countr|es, a per|od dur|ng wh|ch the ma|or|ty o
OEOD agr|cu|tura| sectors have cont|nued to be
heav||y protected. The process adopted has, |n many
cases, severe|y damaged the capac|ty o deve|op|ng
countr|es to |ncrease |eve|s o agr|cu|tura| product|on
and/or product|v|ty. These un||atera| reorms tend to
have been re|norced by mu|t||atera| agreements
(FAO, 2003: 75, c|ted |n South Oentre, 2011).
At present, many o the poor countr|es that had
or|g|na||y |owered the|r app||ed tar|s under structura|
ad|ustment po||c|es |n the 1980s and 1990s are
no |onger so t|ght|y bound by |oan cond|t|ona||t|es.
However, severa| o these countr|es st||| ma|nta|n the|r
|ow app||ed tar|s, wh|ch are ar be|ow the|r WTO
bound rates (South Oentre, 2011). For examp|e, many
Ar|can countr|es have app||ed agr|cu|tura| tar|s o
1020 per cent, compared w|th the|r bound rates o
80100 per cent (WTO, 2010).
As a resu|t, a number o countr|es that were net
exporters or se|-sufc|ent |n many ood crops have
exper|enced a r|se |n |mports some o wh|ch are
heav||y subs|d|zed and a dec||ne |n |oca| product|on.
Tab|e 1 h|gh||ghts some cases o |mport surges,
the extent o the surges and the |mpact on |oca|
product|on. The |mport surges (FAO, 2003 and 2006)
have |ed to such |ow pr|ces on domest|c markets
that they have tended to dr|ve |oca| producers out o
bus|ness, threaten|ng the ab|||ty o those producers
to eed themse|ves and the|r am|||es (De Schutter,
2009a and 2011c).
There have been many case stud|es o the |nc|dence
and damag|ng eects o |mport ||bera||zat|on on
|oca| commun|t|es and rura| producers |n deve|op|ng
countr|es (see, or examp|e, Act|on A|d, 2008, FAO,
2003, Paman, 2004). These stud|es show how
armers |nvo|ved |n the product|on o var|ous ood
commod|t|es (e.g. stap|e crops such as r|ce and
wheat, as we|| as other produce such as m||k and
other da|ry products, vegetab|es and ru|t, pou|try
and sugar) exper|enced a a|| |n |ncomes and threats
to the|r ||ve||hoods as a resu|t o an |n1ux o |mports
wh|ch underm|ned otherw|se v|ab|e, efc|ent domest|c
product|on (see box 1 or a case study o Ghana). As
a resu|t, the deve|opment o the agr|cu|tura| sector
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, and thereore agr|cu|ture's
s|gn|fcant potent|a| growth mu|t|p||er or the who|e
economy, was underm|ned. And the eects on human
Tab|a 1: ImporI surgas oI sa|acIad commod|I|as, and Iha|r |mpacI on |oca| producI|on vo|uma, var|ous yaars
0ounIry/commod|Iy ExIanI oI |ncraasa
|n |mporIs
ParcanIaga Ia|| |n |oca|
producI|on
T|ma par|ods comparad
Seuega|. lomalo pasle 15 l|mes 5O pe| ceul 199O-1994, 1995-2OOO
Bu|||ua laso. lomalo pasle 4 l|mes 5O pe| ceul 199O-1994, 1995-2OOO
Jama|ca. vegelab|e o||s 2 l|mes G8 pe| ceul 199O-1994, 1995-2OOO
Ch||e. vegelab|e o||s 8 l|mes 5O pe| ceul 1985-1989, 1995-2OOO
ha|l|. ||ce 18 l|mes Sma|| 1984-1989, 1995-2OOO
ha|l|. ch|c|eu meal 8O l|mes Sma|| 1985-1989, 1995-2OOO
Keuya. da||y p|oducls 52 l|mes Cul |oca| m||| sa|es 198O-199O, 199O-1998
Beu|u. ch|c|eu meal 17 l|mes Sluuled 1985-1989, 1995-2OOO
Sc0|ce: Based on FAO, 2003, and Act|on A|d, 2008.
255
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
we|are, nat|ona| ood product|on and ood secur|ty
were severe.
The s|tuat|on has been exacerbated by h|gh agr|cu|-
tura| subs|d|es |n deve|oped countr|es, wh|ch enab|e
them to penetrate deve|op|ng countr|es' markets w|th
cheap exports, thereby d|srupt|ng |oca| product|on |n
the |mport|ng countr|es, prevent|ng access by those
countr|es to deve|oped-country markets and outcom-
pet|ng deve|op|ng countr|es' products |n th|rd markets
(South Oentre, 2011). Severa| stud|es have shown
that the h|gh subs|d|es have a||owed many agr|cu|-
tura| products to be so|d be|ow the cost o produc-
t|on (see a|so the comment |n th|s chapter by L||||s-
ton and Hansen-Kuhn regard|ng the extent o n|ted
States "dump|ng"). For examp|e, a ca|cu|at|on o the
dump|ng marg|ns or n|ted States commod|ty crops
rom 1990 through 2003 showed that wheat, corn,
soybeans, r|ce and cotton were cons|stent|y exported
at we|| be|ow the cost o product|on, rang|ng rom 10
per cent or corn to more than 50 per cent or cotton.
Accord|ng to the n|ted Nat|ons Spec|a| Papporteur
on the r|ght to ood, the open|ng up o the agr|cu|tura|
sector to compet|t|on by b|nd|ng countr|es to |ow
|mport tar| rates may thereore const|tute a ser|ous
threat to the r|ght to ood, espec|a||y |n the |east
deve|oped countr|es (LDOs) where agr|cu|ture
rema|ns a rag||e sector (De Schutter, 2009a). Th|s |s
because the greatest threat to ood secur|ty |s |n the
rura| areas, and a |arger proport|on o the popu|at|ons
|n the countr|es that are the most vu|nerab|e depend
on agr|cu|ture or the|r ||ve||hoods.
8ox 1: Tha |mpacI oI Irada ||bara||taI|on |n hana
The po||c|es o ood se|-sufc|ency and government encouragement o the agr|cu|tura| sector |n Ghana (through mar-
ket|ng, cred|t and subs|d|es or |nputs) he|ped to |ncrease ood product|on (or examp|e o r|ce, tomatoes and pou|try).
However, these po||c|es were reversed start|ng rom the m|d-1980s, and espec|a||y |n the 1990s. For examp|e, the pr|ce o
ert|||zer |ncreased o||ow|ng an e||m|nat|on o the subs|dy, and the market|ng ro|e o the State was phased out. ln add|t|on,
the m|n|mum guaranteed pr|ces o r|ce and wheat were abo||shed, as were many State agr|cu|tura| trad|ng enterpr|ses
and the seed agency respons|b|e or produc|ng and d|str|but|ng seeds to armers. Subs|d|zed cred|t was a|so d|scont|n-
ued. App||ed tar|s or most agr|cu|tura| |mports were reduced s|gn|fcant|y to the present 20 per cent, even though the
bound rate comm|tted to the WTO by Ghana was around 99 per cent. As a resu|t, |oca| armers were no |onger ab|e to
compete w|th |mports, the pr|ces o wh|ch were kept art|fc|a||y |ow by h|gh subs|d|es |n export|ng countr|es, espec|a||y
or r|ce, tomatoes and pou|try.
P|ce output |n the 1970s cou|d meet a|| the |oca| needs, but by 2002 |mports const|tuted 64 per cent o domest|c supp|y.
P|ce output e|| rom an annua| average o 56,000 tons (|n 19781980) |n the northern reg|on to on|y 27,000 tons or the
who|e country |n 1983. ln 2003, the n|ted States, wh|ch prov|ded subs|d|es to |ts armers or r|ce amount|ng to $1.3 b||-
||on, exported 111,000 tons o r|ce to Ghana. A study by the n|ted States Government ound that 57 per cent o n|ted
States r|ce arms wou|d not have covered the|r costs w|thout subs|d|es. ln 20002003 the average cost o product|on and
m||||ng o n|ted States wh|te r|ce was $415 per ton, but |t was exported or |ust $274 per ton a pr|ce 34 per cent be|ow
product|on cost.
Tomato product|on |n Ghana, espec|a||y |n the upper eastern reg|on, had been thr|v|ng unt|| a pr|vat|zat|on programme re-
su|ted |n the se|||ng o or c|osure o tomato-cann|ng actor|es, wh||e |mport tar|s were reduced. Th|s enab|ed the heav||y
subs|d|zed E tomato |ndustry to penetrate Ghana, d|sp|ac|ng the ||ve||hoods o tomato armers and |ndustry emp|oyees.
Tomato paste |mported by Ghana rose rom 3,200 tons |n 1994 to 24,077 tons |n 2002. Loca| tomato product|on has
stagnated s|nce 1995. Meanwh||e, tomato-based products rom Europe have made |nroads |nto Ar|can markets. ln 2004,
E a|d or processed tomato products was 6298 m||||on, and there were many more m||||ons |n |nd|rect a|d.
Ghana's pou|try sector began grow|ng |n the |ate 1950s, reached |ts pr|me |n the |ate 1980s then dec||ned steep|y |n the
1990s. The dec||ne was due to the w|thdrawa| o government support and the reduct|on o tar|s. Pou|try |mports rose by
144 per cent between 1993 and 2003, a s|gn|fcant share o wh|ch cons|sted o heav||y subs|d|zed pou|try rom Europe.
ln 2002, 15 European countr|es produced 9.010 m||||on tons o pou|try meat and 1.147 m||||on tons were exported at a
va|ue o 6928 m||||on, or an average o 6809 per ton. lt |s est|mated that the tota| subs|dy on exported pou|try (e.g. export
reunds, subs|d|es or cerea|s ed to the pou|try) was 6254 per ton. Between 1996 and 2002, E rozen ch|cken exports
to West Ar|ca rose e|ghto|d, ma|n|y due to |mport ||bera||zat|on. ln Ghana, th|s adverse|y aected ha| a m||||on ch|cken
armers. ln 1992, domest|c armers supp||ed 95 per cent o Ghana's market, but th|s share e|| to 11 per cent |n 2001, as
|mported pou|try became cheaper than |oca| pou|try.
Sc0|ces: Khor, 2008.
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
0. Imba|anca |n Irada ru|as
govarn|ng agr|cu|Iura
The trade ru|es that underp|n the g|oba| agr|cu|tura|
trade reg|me are a|so a source o concern. The WTO's
Agreement on Agr|cu|ture conta|ns ru|es |n three
areas market access, domest|c support and export
subs|d|es |n wh|ch the deve|oped countr|es were
expected to reduce the|r protect|on. However, they
have done very ||tt|e |n th|s regard.
There are many |oopho|es |n the system, wh|ch a||ow
the deve|oped countr|es to cont|nue to subs|d|ze
and protect the|r agr|cu|ture at the expense o
the deve|op|ng countr|es. The average support
to agr|cu|tura| producers |n the ma|or deve|oped
countr|es as a percentage o gross va|ue o arm
rece|pts was 30 per cent dur|ng the per|od 20032005,
represent|ng a|most $1 b||||on per day. These po||c|es
cost deve|op|ng countr|es about $17 b||||on per year,
a cost equ|va|ent to fve t|mes the recent |eve|s o
ofc|a| deve|opment ass|stance (ODA) to agr|cu|ture
(Anderson and \an der Mensbrugghe, 2006, c|ted |n
Homann, 2011). lt shou|d be po|nted out that these
fgures reer exc|us|ve|y to agr|cu|tura| subs|d|es, and
do not |nc|ude |nd|rect subs|d|es or energy (ue| and
e|ectr|c|ty) used |n agr|cu|ture.
The s|tuat|on has |mproved on|y s||ght|y |n recent
years: the Organ|sat|on or Econom|c Oo-operat|on
and Deve|opment (OEOD, 2010) est|mates that
the subs|d|es g|ven to arm producers |n a|| OEOD
countr|es tota||ed $252 b||||on |n 2009, wh|ch |s 22 per
cent o the tota| va|ue o gross arm rece|pts that year.
Th|s |s about the same |eve| as |n 2007 and 2008. The
|eve| o support |s even h|gher than th|s average |n
some countr|es: |n 20062008, |t was 27 per cent |n the
E, 49 per cent |n Japan, 60 per cent |n Sw|tzer|and
and 62 per cent |n Norway (OEOD, 2009). The |eve| o
support |s a|so very h|gh or certa|n products. Spec|fc
support or r|ce amounted to 60 per cent o tota|
producer r|ce rece|pts |n 20062008 (OEOD, 2009).
There are at |east three adverse eects o deve|oped
countr|es' subs|d|es on armers |n deve|op|ng
countr|es:
(|) they are unab|e to export to the subs|d|z|ng
deve|oped countr|es' markets,
(||) they are unab|e to compete |n th|rd markets
because the deve|oped countr|es' products are
so|d at art|fc|a||y |ow pr|ces, and
(||) they have to compete |n the|r own |oca| markets
w|th subs|d|zed products com|ng rom deve|oped
countr|es, wh|ch adverse|y aects the|r market
share, |ncomes and ||ve||hoods (South Oentre,
2011). The e||m|nat|on or substant|a| reduct|on o
both subs|d|es and protect|on|sm |n |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es |s thereore |mportant, part|cu|ar|y or
sma||-sca|e arm|ng around the wor|d (lAASTD,
2009).
nder the WTO, there has been some apparent
progress |n try|ng to address export subs|d|es. The
WTO Hong Kong M|n|ster|a| Oonerence |n 2005 agreed
that as part o the Doha Pound o trade negot|at|ons,
export subs|d|es o the deve|oped countr|es wou|d be
e||m|nated by the end o 2013. However, th|s may not
be rea||zed | the Doha negot|at|ons are not conc|uded,
and there has not been a b|nd|ng agreement on these
e|ements as yet.
On the |ssue o domest|c subs|d|es, a ma|or |oopho|e
|n the WTO Agreement on Agr|cu|ture |s that countr|es
are ob||ged to reduce the|r bound |eve|s o domest|c
support that are deemed "trade d|stort|ng", but there
are no constra|nts on the amount o subs|d|es deemed
to be non-d|stort|ng or m|n|ma||y d|stort|ng, wh|ch are
p|aced |n the so-ca||ed Green Box. Pecent stud|es have
shown that many o the Green Box subs|d|es are a|so
trade d|stort|ng as they have s|gn|fcant eects on the
market and on trade. Thereore, the ma|or subs|d|z|ng
countr|es can reduce the|r "trade- d|stort|ng subs|d|es"
wh||e chang|ng the types o domest|c subs|d|es
they g|ve, eect|ve|y prov|d|ng s|m||ar |eve|s or even
|ncreas|ng the tota| amount o subs|d|es (Khor, 2009).
nortunate|y, the Doha negot|at|ons are un||ke|y to
|mpose new eect|ve d|sc|p||nes on the Green Box
|tems, as the deve|oped countr|es have successu||y
|ns|sted that there be no new ru|es that wou|d p|ace a
cap on the Green Box subs|d|es (South Oentre, 2011).
The current negot|at|ng text proposes some changes
to the Green Box, but these do not a|ter the bas|c
e|ements, espec|a||y as there |s no cap on the Green
Box subs|d|es. Thus they cou|d |ncrease w|thout ||m|t
|n the uture.
The Doha negot|at|ons are mandated to substant|a||y
reduce (other) domest|c support |n deve|oped
countr|es. However, to date, the oers o the n|ted
States and the E |nd|cate the|r overa|| trade-
d|stort|ng support (OTDS) wou|d be reduced at the
bound |eve|, but not at the app||ed |eve| (Khor, 2009).
At present, the |eve| o the actua| OTDS o these
two econom|es |s ar be|ow the |eve| o the|r tota|
a||owed trade-d|stort|ng support. Thereore, they can
aord to reduce the |eve| o a||owed trade-d|stort|ng
257
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
support s|gn|fcant|y beore the cut reaches the |eve|
where the present actua| trade-d|stort|ng support |s
aected (South Oentre, 2011). ln other words, they
wou|d on|y cut "water" (|.e. the d|erence between
a||owed and actua| subs|d|es) and not the|r actua|
subs|d|es.
The fgures |n the agr|cu|ture negot|at|ng group Oha|r's
text wou|d not reduce the actua| present domest|c
support or the n|ted States. The a||owab|e OTDS or
th|s country |s to be cut by 70 per cent (|.e. rom the
present $48.3 b||||on a||owab|e |eve| to $14.5 b||||on).
The proposed $14.5 b||||on |eve| |s |n act doub|e the
est|mated 2007 actua| OTDS o $78 b||||on, thus
eect|ve|y a||ow|ng the n|ted State cons|derab|e
"water" to |ncrease rom th|s |eve|. Meanwh||e, the
a||owab|e OTDS or the E |s to be cut by 80 per
cent, wh|ch wou|d reduce the E's present a||owab|e
OTDS o 6110.3 b||||on to 622 b||||on. Accord|ng to
one est|mate, however, the actua| OTDS |s expected
to drop to 612 b||||on at the end o the Oommon
Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy reorm |n 2014. Thus the cut, though
|t appears to be |arge, wou|d a||ow or "water" v|s--v|s
what |s p|anned.
Wh||e there has been a |ower|ng o the app||ed OTDS
o the n|ted States and the E |n recent years, th|s
has been accompan|ed by a r|se |n the|r support to
Green Box |tems. As actua| OTDS |s cut, subs|d|es
cou|d be sh|ted to the Green Box and thereore tota|
domest|c support may not dec||ne. Thus the cuts |n
the|r a||owab|e OTDS may appear |arge, but |n act w|||
not reduce app||ed or p|anned reduct|ons |n OTDS,
and moreover, these w||| be oset by an |ncrease (|n
the case o the E) |n Green Box subs|d|es (South
Oentre, 2011). An ob|ect|ve conc|us|on wou|d be that
the OTDS fgures o 70 per cent cut or the n|ted
States and 80 percent cut or the E are not adequate
as they do not const|tute eect|ve and substant|ve, or
rea|, cuts.
Meanwh||e, the deve|op|ng countr|es are be|ng asked
to reduce the|r agr|cu|tura| tar|s urther. The Oha|r's
proposa| at the Doha ta|ks |s or a max|mum 36 per
cent tar| cut by deve|op|ng countr|es, wh||e the
LDOs are exempted rom any tar| reduct|on, and
sma||, vu|nerab|e econom|es w||| be accorded more
|en|ent treatment. However, the comb|nat|on o h|gh
subs|d|es |n deve|oped countr|es and |ow app||ed
tar|s |n deve|op|ng countr|es has caused h|gh|y
requent |mport surges, wh|ch have adverse|y aected
armers' ||ve||hoods and |ncomes.
Due to |ncreas|ng concern over th|s, a ma|or|ty o
deve|op|ng-country members o the WTO (wh|ch
|nc|ude the G-33, the Ar|can Group and the LDO
group) have proposed two new |nstruments Spec|a|
Products (SP), and a Spec|a| Saeguard Mechan|sm
(SSM) to be |ntroduced |nto the ru|es o the WTO
as part o the Doha negot|at|ons. The ob|ect|ve o
both |nstruments |s to promote the ||ve||hoods o
sma|| armers, ood secur|ty and rura| deve|opment |n
deve|op|ng countr|es. Such po||cy 1ex|b|||ty |s cr|t|ca||y
|mportant to advance deve|opment and susta|nab|||ty
goa|s (lAASTD, 2009), and wou|d sh|e|d deve|op|ng
countr|es' producers rom compet|t|on rom
|ndustr|a||zed countr|es' armers (De Schutter, 2009a).
nder the SP concept, deve|op|ng countr|es wou|d
be ent|t|ed to have no or |esser reduct|ons o tar|s
on a certa|n percentage o the|r agr|cu|tura| tar| ||nes
as part o the Doha Pound's agr|cu|ture moda||t|es.
nder the SSM, deve|op|ng countr|es wou|d be
a||owed to |mpose an add|t|ona| |ncrease |n tar|s,
on top o bound rates, |n s|tuat|ons o reduced |mport
pr|ces or |ncreased |mport vo|umes, |n order to protect
|oca| armers rom |mport surges and to avo|d poss|b|e
damage to domest|c product|ve capac|ty.
Acceptance o these two |nstruments was orma||zed
|n the WTO's Hong Kong M|n|ster|a| Dec|arat|on o
2005, wh|ch stated:
Members w||| have the 1ex|b|||ty to se|-des|gnate an
appropr|ate number o tar| ||nes as Spec|a| Products
gu|ded by |nd|cators based on the cr|ter|a o ood
secur|ty, ||ve||hood secur|ty and rura| deve|opment.
Deve|op|ng country Members w||| a|so have the r|ght
to have recourse to a Spec|a| Saeguard Mechan|sm
based on |mport quant|ty and pr|ce tr|ggers, w|th
prec|se arrangements to be urther defned.
The acceptance o these two concepts and
|nstruments was a ma|or step orward |n recogn|t|on
by the WTO o the r|ght o deve|op|ng-country
governments to take trade measures |n deence o
the|r armers' ||ve||hoods.
However, there |s cons|derab|e oppos|t|on rom
some agr|cu|tura| commod|ty-export|ng countr|es,
|nc|ud|ng severa| |arge deve|op|ng-country agr|cu|tura|
exporters,
1
wh|ch ear that the use o the SSM cou|d
resu|t |n |osses o |eg|t|mate exports. However, the
restr|ct|ons they have proposed wou|d prevent th|s
|nstrument rom work|ng |n an eect|ve and s|mp|e
way. As such, the SSM, even | estab||shed, may have
very ||m|ted use |n enab||ng deve|op|ng countr|es to
258
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
protect the|r armers rom |mport surges. ln any case,
the Doha negot|at|ons have h|t an |mpasse, and |t |s
un||ke|y that the SSM w||| be estab||shed any t|me soon.
lron|ca||y, there |s a|ready an agr|cu|tura| saeguard
|n the WTO (known as the spec|a| agr|cu|tura|
saeguard, SSG), but the e||g|b|||ty cr|ter|a have
d|sadvantaged most deve|op|ng countr|es, resu|t|ng
|n on|y 20 deve|op|ng countr|es be|ng e||g|b|e to use
the saeguard. Thus, most deve|op|ng countr|es have
no proper |nstrument to counter |mport surges. ln
order to rect|y the |mba|ance and enab|e deve|op|ng
countr|es to saeguard the|r ood secur|ty and armers'
||ve||hoods, more countr|es shou|d be e||g|b|e to make
use o the SSG.
ln add|t|on, reg|ona| and b||atera| FTAs have prevented
deve|op|ng countr|es rom us|ng the 1ex|b|||t|es |n the
WTO agreements (De Schutter, 2009a). Moreover,
many o these FTAs requ|re deve|op|ng countr|es to
reduce or e||m|nate the|r tar|s even urther (Khor,
2009, De Schutter, 2011b). For examp|e, |n the
Econom|c Partnersh|p Agreements between the
Ar|can, Oarr|bbean and Pac|fc (AOP) countr|es and
the E, the AOP countr|es are asked to e||m|nate the|r
tar|s on 80 per cent o the|r tar| ||nes, |nc|ud|ng or
agr|cu|tura| products, over vary|ng t|me per|ods. Yet
the reduct|on o agr|cu|tura| subs|d|es |s not part o
the FTA agenda. Thus deve|op|ng countr|es are not
ab|e to ga|n rom what may have been the most
advantageous or them, wh||e hav|ng to e||m|nate the|r
agr|cu|tura| tar|s to a |arger extent than requ|red o
them by the|r ob||gat|ons at the WTO (South Oentre,
2011).
. Imba|anca |n mar|aI sIrucIuras
lncreased trade |n agr|cu|tura| products |mp||es
that ood product|on |s red|rected towards serv|ng
externa| |nstead o domest|c markets. ln add|t|on, as
|arger armers are more eas||y ab|e to access ore|gn
markets and beneft rom such access, the |ncrease
|n agr|cu|tura| trade r|sks marg|na||z|ng sma|| armers.
And s|nce market power |s rare|y equa||y d|str|buted
a|ong the va|ue cha|n, th|s enab|es the more poweru|
actors to pass on costs and r|sks to the weaker actors
typ|ca||y sma||ho|der armers (lFAD, 2010).
As such, the ro|e o mu|t|nat|ona| corporat|ons,
part|cu|ar|y commod|ty traders, ood processors and
g|oba| reta||ers, becomes more |mportant (De Schutter,
2009a, Herren, 2011). The wor|d has w|tnessed a trend
towards agr|bus|ness conso||dat|on, and th|s trend |s
seen a|| a|ong the va|ue cha|n, w|th a ew mu|t|nat|ona|
compan|es prov|d|ng the ma|or|ty o |nputs such as
pest|c|des, seeds and crop genet|c techno|og|es, or
undertak|ng market|ng, ood process|ng and reta|||ng.
Th|s has resu|ted |n nat|ona|, reg|ona| and g|oba|
supp|y cha|ns that bypass trad|t|ona| markets where
sma||ho|ders se|| to |oca| markets and traders (Wor|d
Bank, 2008).
The wor|d seed, agrochem|ca| and b|otechno|ogy
markets are dom|nated by a ew mega compan|es
(see the comment o E|en|ta Dao |n th|s chapter).
ln 2004, the market share o the our |argest
agrochem|ca| and seed compan|es reached 60 per
cent or agrochem|ca|s and 33 per cent or seeds, up
rom 47 per cent and 23 per cent |n 2007 respect|ve|y
(Wor|d Bank, 2008). Where new techno|og|es
and products (e.g. transgen|c seeds) have been
deve|oped and protected by |nte||ectua| property
r|ghts (lPPs), |ndustry conso||dat|on has taken p|ace
rap|d|y (PANNA, 2010). The our |ead|ng compan|es
|n terms o ownersh|p o b|otechno|ogy patents had a
market share o 38 per cent |n 2004, and one company
had a 91 per cent share o the wor|dw|de transgen|c
soybean market (Wor|d Bank, 2008).
These compan|es have a vested |nterest |n
ma|nta|n|ng a monocu|ture-ocused, carbon-
|ntens|ve |ndustr|a| approach to agr|cu|ture, wh|ch
|s dependent on externa| |nputs (Homann, 2011).
lnternat|ona| supp|y cha|ns, oten dom|nated by ma|or
ood processors and reta||ers, a|so tend to source
rom |arge-sca|e monocrop product|on, rather than
rom d|verse mu|t|cropp|ng and |ntegrated ||vestock
and crop arm|ng systems. Th|s trend re|norces the
marg|na||zat|on o sma|| armers and o susta|nab|e
product|on systems. ln add|t|on, to comp|y w|th
the standards o g|oba| reta||ers, many armers are
encouraged to use |mproved var|et|es o seeds
and externa| |nputs, oten supp||ed by o||gopo||st|c
compan|es, wh|ch urther exacerbates dependence
and re||ance on convent|ona| agr|cu|ture (De Schutter,
2009a).
G|ven the|r |ncreased market power, commod|ty
buyers and |arger reta||ers wh|ch dom|nate g|oba|
ood cha|ns |mpose the|r pr|ces on producers (who
are |n an unavourab|e barga|n|ng pos|t|on) and set
standards that many sma||-sca|e armers are unab|e
to meet (De Schutter, 2009a, PANNA, 2010). Sma||-
sca|e armers are thereore unab|e to compete and
are re|egated to |ow-va|ue, |oca| markets, wh|ch
strong|y d|sadvantage them |n the compet|t|on
259
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
or |and, water or other product|ve resources (De
Schutter 2009b and 2011b). Th|s r|sks perpetuat|ng
unsusta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces, as sma||
armers are urther marg|na||zed. Furthermore,
dependence on th|s |ncreas|ng|y concentrated
g|oba| ood supp|y cha|n |ntens|fes vu|nerab|||ty
to shocks, whether rom extreme weather events
or excess|ve fnanc|a| specu|at|on |n agr|cu|tura|
markets (see comment by L||||ston and Hansen-
Kuhn |n th|s chapter).
However, mu|t|nat|ona| corporat|ons are ne|ther
sub|ected to much d|sc|p||ne, nor to ob||gat|ons
re|at|ng to the|r exerc|se o power on the market, wh|ch
resu|ts |n a cr|t|ca| governance gap (De Schutter,
2009a). Because o th|s and the|r market pos|t|ons,
most o the benefts rom g|oba| ood supp|y cha|ns
accrue to commod|ty buyers, ood processors and
reta||ers, rather than to deve|op|ng-country producers
(De Schutter, 2009b and 2011b).
lmprov|ng the rura| poor's market part|c|pat|on |s
|mportant, because | these markets work we|| and
are |nc|us|ve o sma||ho|der armers, they can prov|de
strong |ncent|ves or those armers to make the
necessary |nvestments and take the requ|s|te r|sks to
enhance the|r ab|||ty to respond to market demand
(lFAD, 2010), |nc|ud|ng |nvest|ng |n eco|og|ca|
agr|cu|ture or wh|ch there are va|uab|e n|che markets
(e.g. or organ|c produce, as d|scussed |n the next
sect|on). Moreover, | poor rura| armers were ab|e to
beneft rom the|r part|c|pat|on |n markets, they cou|d
gradua||y save and accumu|ate assets, |ncreas|ng
not on|y the|r own prosper|ty but a|so the|r capac|ty
to dea| w|th r|sks and shocks (lFAD, 2010). Th|s
wou|d a|so enab|e them to dea| better w|th some o
the cha||enges assoc|ated w|th c||mate change, or
examp|e.
E. Env|ronmanIa| susIa|nab|||Iy
Oonvent|ona| and |ntens|ve agr|cu|ture |s character-
|zed by mechan|zat|on and the use o chem|ca| ert|||z-
ers and pest|c|des, as we|| as a re||ance on |rr|gat|on
and oss|| ue|s. These have contr|buted to cons|der-
ab|e env|ronmenta| damage, |nc|ud|ng acce|erated
|oss o b|od|vers|ty and ecosystem serv|ces such as
those necessary or the product|on o ood and water
or or contro|||ng d|sease, |ncreased GHG em|ss|ons,
as we|| as cons|derab|e hea|th |mpacts (lAASTD,
2009, Wor|d Bank, 2008).
Moreover, c||mate change has the potent|a| to
underm|ne the resource base on wh|ch agr|cu|ture
depends. Agr|cu|ture has to cope w|th |ncreased
c||mate var|ab|||ty and more extreme weather events.
Wh||e |oca| mean temperature |ncreases o 13O
wou|d aect crop product|v|ty d|erent|y depend|ng
on |at|tudes, w|th trop|ca| and ar|d reg|ons suer|ng
more, warm|ng above 3O wou|d have |ncreas|ng|y
negat|ve |mpacts |n a|| reg|ons (Easter||ng et a|.,
2007). ln some Ar|can countr|es, y|e|ds rom ra|n-ed
agr|cu|ture, |mportant or the poorest armers, cou|d
be reduced by up to 50 per cent by 2020 (lPOO,
2007b), wh|ch wou|d |ncrease the number o peop|e
at r|sk o hunger.
However, the |mpacts o agr|cu|ture on the env|ron-
ment and human hea|th, and the re|at|onsh|p between
agr|cu|ture and c||mate change, are usua||y |gnored |n
|nternat|ona| trade d|scuss|ons, desp|te the repercus-
s|ons these cou|d have on the r|ght to adequate ood
(De Schutter, 2009a).
A progress|ve sw|tch to more |nput- and energy-|nten-
s|ve orms o agr|cu|tura| product|on cannot be attr|b-
uted d|rect|y to the |ncrease |n g|oba| trade |n agr|-
cu|tura| commod|t|es, but th|s trend has been encour-
aged by the spec|a||zat|on o countr|es |n cash crops
or export (De Schutter, 2009a). lntens|ve, |arge-sca|e
|ndustr|a| export-or|ented agr|cu|ture has |ncreased
under the trade ||bera||zat|on agenda (see comment
by L||||ston and Hansen-Kuhn |n th|s chapter), w|th ad-
verse consequences such as the |oss o so|| nutr|ents
and water rom agr|cu|tura| |ands, and unsusta|nab|e
so|| and water management (lAASTD, 2009).
ln add|t|on, the a||ure o markets to va|ue and |nter-
na||ze env|ronmenta| and soc|a| costs |n the pr|ces o
traded agr|cu|tura| products, or to prov|de |ncent|ves
or susta|nab|||ty, has a|so p|ayed a part |n entrench-
|ng unsusta|nab|e pract|ces |n agr|cu|ture (lAASTD,
2009). lnappropr|ate pr|c|ng and subs|dy po||c|es
and the a||ure to manage externa||t|es a|so h|nder the
w|despread adopt|on o more susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces (Wor|d Bank, 2008). The s|tuat|on |s com-
pounded by pr|ce vo|at|||ty, where extreme|y |ow agr|-
cu|tura| commod|ty pr|ces over the past two decades
o||owed by the recent pr|ce h|kes has d|scouraged
|ong-term |nvestments |n more susta|nab|e, eco|og|-
ca| agr|cu|ture (see comment by L||||ston and Hansen-
Kuhn |n th|s chapter).
G|ven the grow|ng concerns about c||mate change
and the |mperat|ve or a||ev|at|ng rura| poverty, there
|s an urgent need to move towards more susta|nab|e,
260
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
env|ronmenta||y r|end|y agr|cu|tura| pract|ces that are
more res|||ent and |ess |nput- and energy-|ntens|ve (De
Schutter, 2009a and 2010). Th|s |s espec|a||y pert|nent
|n the current context o the scarc|ty and h|gh pr|ces o
o|| (see comment by He|nberg |n th|s chapter). There
|s |ncreas|ng ev|dence that susta|nab|e or eco|og|ca|
agr|cu|ture can contr|bute to c||mate change
adaptat|on and m|t|gat|on wh||e a|so be|ng product|ve
(e.g. De Schutter, 2010, lTO and F|BL, 2007, N|gg|| et
a|., 2009, Sc|a|abba and Mu||er-L|nden|au, 2010, a|so
comment by He|nberg).
Accord|ng to the n|ted Nat|ons Spec|a| Papporteur
on the r|ght to ood, uture regu|at|on o |nternat|ona|
trade |n agr|cu|ture shou|d take |nto account the |mpact
o var|ous modes o agr|cu|tura| product|on on c||mate
change to a||ow countr|es to prov|de |ncent|ves |n avour
o orms o product|on, such as organ|c agr|cu|ture
and agroeco|og|ca| pract|ces, wh|ch respect the
env|ronment wh||e at the same t|me contr|but|ng to
ood secur|ty. Th|s supports the ca|| by the lnternat|ona|
Assessment on Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and
Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD) or a parad|gm
sh|t |n agr|cu|ture towards agroeco|ogy.
A ma|or task |s to transorm the un|orm mode| o qu|ck-
fx |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture that |s h|gh|y dependent on
externa| |nputs |nto 1ex|b|e, "regenerat|ve" agr|cu|tura|
systems that cont|nuous|y recreate the resources they
use and ach|eve h|gher product|v|ty and proftab|||ty
(o the systems, but not necessar||y o |nd|v|dua|
products) w|th m|n|ma| externa| |nputs, |nc|ud|ng
energy (Homann, 2011). A mosa|c o regenerat|ve
systems may |nc|ude b|odynam|c agr|cu|ture, organ|c
agr|cu|ture, agroeco|ogy, |ntegrated crop and ||vestock
arm|ng, and s|m||ar pract|ces.
The trade po||cy ramework shou|d support such a
transormat|on o agr|cu|ture, rather than encourage
the preva|||ng unsusta|nab|e system. Moreover, |
the |mpacts o structura| ad|ustment and |mport
||bera||zat|on and the |mba|ances |n trade ru|es and
market structure are not addressed, countr|es are
un||ke|y to move towards more susta|nab|e modes
o product|on. lt |s un||ke|y, or examp|e, that |arge
arms that re|y on s|gn|fcant subs|d|es to be proftab|e
w||| make a s|gn|fcant sh|t to eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture
pract|ces, un|ess there |s comprehens|ve reorm o the
system o subs|d|es, |nc|ud|ng |ower|ng or remov|ng
some o the so-ca||ed "green" subs|d|es that a||
|n the Green Box (Homann, 2011). At the same
t|me, armers shou|d be g|ven adequate support or
eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture pract|ces.
However, a support|ve trade ramework shou|d
avo|d protect|on|sm |n the gu|se o env|ronmenta|
protect|on (South Oentre, 2011). lt shou|d a|so
support the "green|ng" o subs|d|es and |n ways that
w||| g|ve greater po||cy space to deve|op|ng countr|es.
Env|ronmenta| standards, |abe|||ng and other |ssues
wou|d a|so need to be dea|t w|th rom a "susta|nab|e
deve|opment" perspect|ve. Deve|op|ng countr|es
shou|d be prov|ded w|th resources and techno|og|es
or upgrad|ng the|r ex|st|ng env|ronmenta|
techno|og|es and standards. ln add|t|on, the u||
and eect|ve part|c|pat|on o deve|op|ng countr|es |n
sett|ng |nternat|ona| standards shou|d be assured, as
a|so the concom|tant ass|stance, part|cu|ar|y to sma||-
sca|e armers, to comp|y w|th such standards.
Measures shou|d a|so be taken to encourage
organ|c arm|ng, wh|ch |s not on|y benefc|a| to the
env|ronment, but a|so prov|des trade opportun|t|es or
sma||ho|der armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es. N|che
markets such as organ|c can prov|de pr|ce prem|ums
and/or |ong-term contracts (lFAD, 2010). The tota|
g|oba| organ|c market was worth $55 b||||on |n 2009,
hav|ng grown by 5 per cent rom the prev|ous year,
desp|te the econom|c and fnanc|a| cr|s|s (W|||er and
K||cher, 2011). G|oba| revenues have |ncreased more
than threeo|d rom $18 b||||on |n 2000, and doub|e-
d|g|t growth rates were observed each year, except |n
2009. As there |s a s|gn|fcant |ncrease |n consumer
demand or organ|c oods wor|dw|de, there |s a|so an
opportun|ty or sma|| armers to market the|r surp|us
organ|c products |n nat|ona|, reg|ona| and g|oba|
markets. Thus a change |n consumer tastes and
demand towards organ|c oods, or more genera||y
oods produced us|ng eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture methods,
can mot|vate changes |n product|on systems. At the
same t|me, |t can |ncrease the opportun|t|es and
markets or sma|| armers, thereby |mprov|ng the|r
||ve||hoods (South Oentre, 2011).
Many governments |n both deve|oped and deve|op|ng
countr|es have announced p|ans to |ncrease organ|c
arm|ng pract|ces. However, wh||e deve|oped-country
governments oer s|gn|fcant subs|d|es or organ|c
arm|ng, s|m||ar fnanc|ng |s scarce |n deve|op|ng
countr|es. More proact|ve measures are requ|red |n
deve|op|ng countr|es to promote organ|c arm|ng and to
overcome obstac|es to product|on, market|ng and trade.
One |ssue that needs to be addressed |s the d|fcu|t|es
aced by deve|op|ng-country producers |n adher|ng to
organ|c standards. Th|s |s not so much an |ssue at
the nat|ona| |eve|, but |s a ma|or prob|em or potent|a|
261
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
exporters who need to comp|y w|th many techn|ca|
regu|at|ons, standards and cert|fcat|on systems. As
NOTAD (2004) po|nts out, |t |s |mportant to fnd a
ba|ance between the need or harmon|zat|on or trade
and a|r compet|t|on, and the need to take |nto account
|oca| and reg|ona| cond|t|ons and requ|rements. To
overcome the cha||enge o th|rd-party cert|fcat|on
aced by sma||ho|der armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es,
wh|ch |s expens|ve, var|ous schemes have been
deve|oped, such as part|c|patory guarantee systems
and group cert|fcat|on. These a|ternat|ves, wh|ch are
more access|b|e to sma||ho|der armers and prov|de
the qua||ty assurance that consumers need, shou|d
be urther promoted (a|so see the comment o Twarog
|n th|s chapter).
A support|ve trade ramework can thus ass|st |n
the trans|t|on to eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture and organ|c
arm|ng. Farmers us|ng susta|nab|e approaches
shou|d be supported by proact|ve State |ntervent|on
(South Oentre, 2011), |nc|ud|ng pub||c sector fnanc|a|
and techn|ca| support, as we|| as extens|on serv|ces
to |ntroduce best pract|ces |n eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture.
Other State-|ed serv|ces cou|d |nc|ude eco|og|ca|
rehab|||tat|on, prov|s|on o organ|c seeds, cred|t and
market|ng support. Ooncurrent|y, the domest|c tar|
po||cy shou|d enab|e sma|| armers to w|thstand
compet|t|on rom |mports.
F. A Irada IramaWor| supporI|va oI Iood
sacur|Iy and susIa|nab|||Iy
A trade ramework that |s support|ve o ood secur|ty
and susta|nab|||ty w||| need to ocus on sma||ho|der
armers |n deve|op|ng countr|es, and encourage
domest|c product|on. Th|s cou|d be ach|eved
by he|p|ng sma||-sca|e producers |mprove the|r
product|v|ty, part|cu|ar|y through eco|og|ca| means,
and strengthen|ng the|r access to |oca| markets wh||e
sh|e|d|ng them rom the negat|ve |mpacts o undu|y
subs|d|zed |mports o ood commod|t|es (De Schutter,
2009a). Support to susta|nab|e sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture,
espec|a||y |n terms o ensur|ng access to |and, water,
genet|c resources and cred|t, and by |nvest|ng |n and
|mprov|ng access to rura| |nrastructure |s cr|t|ca|, as
|s the need to untang|e |oca| ood econom|es rom
the gr|p o supp|y cha|ns dom|nated by mu|t|nat|ona|
corporat|ons (see a|so comment by L||||ston and
Hansen-Kuhn |n th|s chapter).
ln other words, the p||ght o sma||-sca|e armers |n
deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d be addressed through
a comb|nat|on o po||c|es that support eco|og|ca|
agr|cu|ture (through |nvestments |n P&D, extens|on
serv|ces and rura| |nrastructure, subs|d|es and
market|ng support) a|ong w|th an appropr|ate trade
po||cy that protects armers rom cheap |mports. At
the same t|me, reorm o the |nternat|ona| trade reg|me
shou|d |nc|ude requ|r|ng deve|oped countr|es to
sufc|ent|y reduce or remove harmu| subs|d|es, wh||e
prov|d|ng deve|op|ng countr|es w|th spec|a| treatment
and saeguard mechan|sms to promote the|r sma||
armers' ||ve||hoods (Khor, 2011).
At the |nternat|ona| |eve|, th|s shou|d |nc|ude the
e||m|nat|on o subs|d|es or agr|cu|tura| exports
(as agreed |n the WTO's Hong Kong M|n|ster|a|
Dec|arat|on, 2005) and urther d|sc|p||ne on domest|c
support, and the reduct|on o trade d|stort|ons
caused by the |arge domest|c subs|d|es prov|ded by
deve|oped countr|es (as stated |n the WTO's Doha
M|n|ster|a| Dec|arat|on).
At the nat|ona| |eve|, deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d
ca||brate the|r degree o trade ||bera||zat|on so that |t
|s |n ||ne w|th the|r ob|ect|ves and nat|ona| rea||t|es.
Oountr|es that do not have the potent|a| or |ntent|on to
produce certa|n oodstus may have |ow or no |mport
tar|s to enab|e the|r popu|at|ons to obta|n |mported
ood at the |owest cost. Those countr|es that |ntend
to |ncrease ood product|on can take advantage o
the 1ex|b|||t|es a||owed |n the WTO by sett|ng the|r
tar|s at the appropr|ate |eve|s |n order to nurture a
v|ab|e domest|c ood sector, as |ong as the app||ed
tar|s do not exceed the bound rates (South Oentre,
2011). Furthermore, those deve|op|ng countr|es w|th
an export |nterest shou|d be g|ven the opportun|ty
to expand the|r export earn|ngs through |mproved
market access.
However, the 1ex|b|||t|es ava||ab|e |n WTO agreements
may be aected | countr|es enter |nto FTAs |n wh|ch
they comm|t to e||m|nate the|r tar|s or a |arge
percentage o the|r products. Furthermore, a|though
LDOs are exempted rom reduc|ng the|r bound tar|s
|n the Doha negot|at|ons, they are not prov|ded w|th
s|m||ar exempt|ons on the bas|s o the|r LDO status
|n FTA negot|at|ons. Thus b||atera| FTAs shou|d a||ow
sufc|ent po||cy space or deve|op|ng countr|es to
promote the|r agr|cu|tura| deve|opment.
Bes|des the estab||shment o an appropr|ate tar|
po||cy, governments can prov|de var|ous orms
o encouragement to boost agr|cu|tura| act|v|t|es,
|nc|ud|ng subs|d|es, cred|t, estab||sh|ng secur|ty o
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
|and tenure and prov|s|on o |nputs (South Oentre,
2011). The WTO Agreement on Agr|cu|ture sets the
ru|es on the extent o subs|d|es a||owed. S|nce many
deve|op|ng countr|es prev|ous|y prov|ded on|y ||m|ted
subs|d|es, | any (ma|n|y because they |acked the
fnanc|a| resources), they are not a||owed to prov|de
the h|gh |eve|s o support g|ven by deve|oped
countr|es. However, the Agreement on Agr|cu|ture
a||ows deve|op|ng-country governments to prov|de a
certa|n |eve| o oe m|n|m|s support, equ|va|ent to 10
per cent o tota| agr|cu|tura| va|ue, as we|| as to make
use o the category o non-trade-d|stort|ng support
known as the Green Box. The deve|op|ng countr|es
can ava|| themse|ves o these 1ex|b|||t|es to prov|de
subs|d|es, as they deem appropr|ate, espec|a||y or
eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture. However, many o them ace
budgetary constra|nts or s|mp|y |ack the fnanc|a|
resources to do so.
The |nternat|ona| trade reg|me needs to be reormed
to bo|ster eorts to promote eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture
systems, wh|ch wou|d beneft sma||ho|der armers by
|ncreas|ng product|v|ty, wh||e a|so be|ng more res|||ent
to shocks such as c||mate change. Such systems
wou|d a|so reduce the |mpacts o agr|cu|ture on the
env|ronment and hea|th, and are thereore urgent|y
needed.
The opt|ons or act|on d|scussed be|ow are based on
the our themes o th|s |ead art|c|e.
1. av|aW oI sIrucIura| adjusImanI
racommandaI|ons and agr|cu|Iura| ||bara||taI|on
po||c|as
ln genera|, the need or spec|a| treatment or ood
products, a||ow|ng gradua| and |en|ent ||bera||zat|on,
|nstead o steep tar| reduct|ons, |s |mportant or
deve|op|ng countr|es. They shou|d be a||owed to
prov|de adequate support to the|r agr|cu|tura| sectors
and to have rea||st|c tar| po||c|es to advance the|r
agr|cu|ture, espec|a||y |n v|ew o the pers|stent|y h|gh
subs|d|es o deve|oped countr|es (Khor, 2009). The
deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d be a||owed to ca||brate
the|r agr|cu|tura| tar|s |n such a way as to ensure
that the|r |oca| products can be compet|t|ve, armers'
||ve||hoods and |ncomes susta|nab|e, and nat|ona|
ood secur|ty assured.
(1) The po||c|es o the |nternat|ona| fnanc|a| |nst|tu-
t|ons and reg|ona| deve|opment banks shou|d be re-
v|ewed and rev|sed as soon as poss|b|e, so that they
do not cont|nue to serve as barr|ers to ood secur|ty
and agr|cu|tura| deve|opment |n deve|op|ng countr|es
(Khor, 2009). An |ndependent ongo|ng rev|ew o the
trade aspects o the present and proposed cond|t|on-
a||t|es o |oans |s needed.
(2) Loan cond|t|ona||t|es shou|d not ob||ge deve|op|ng
countr|es to undertake ||bera||zat|on (|n rate and
scope) that |s beyond the|r cop|ng capac|ty, or wh|ch
wou|d be damag|ng to the ||ve||hoods and |ncomes
o the|r rura| producers. The approach to ||bera||zat|on
|n deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d be reor|ented to be
more rea||st|c, espec|a||y s|nce deve|oped countr|es
cont|nue to ma|nta|n h|gh subs|d|es (South Oentre,
2011).
(3) At present, deve|op|ng countr|es have 1ex|b|||t|es
under WTO ru|es to ad|ust the|r app||ed tar|s upwards
to the|r bound rates, and even beyond the bound
rates |n certa|n c|rcumstances. Loan cond|t|ona||t|es
shou|d not prevent or h|nder deve|op|ng countr|es
rom mak|ng use o these 1ex|b|||t|es (South Oentre,
2011).
(4) There |s an urgent need to prov|de a spec|a|
saeguard ac|||ty wh|ch cou|d be used s|mp|y and
eect|ve|y by deve|op|ng countr|es so that the needed
|ncrease |n tar|s can better protect the|r producers
rom the |mpacts o |mport surges (as d|scussed |n
the next sect|on).
(5) Pevenues rom such tar|s cou|d be used to
fnance rura| deve|opment and |nrastructure schemes
a|med at beneft|ng armers. Pub||c |nvestment |n
soc|a| protect|on or non-ood-produc|ng househo|ds
||v|ng |n poverty |s a|so needed (De Schutter, 2011b).
Oomp|ementary po||c|es and programmes to
ac|||tate trans|t|ons rom convent|ona| to susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture, and to support the net trade |osers through
pub||c |nvestment to st|mu|ate |ong-term growth |n the
agr|cu|tura| sector are a|so |mportant (Wor|d Bank,
2008).
Z. aIorm|ng Irada ru|as govarn|ng agr|cu|Iura
A ma|or cha||enge at the |nternat|ona| |eve| |s to mod|y
a number o key market d|stort|ons that act as a
d|s|ncent|ve to the trans|t|on to susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
pract|ces |n deve|op|ng countr|es (Homann, 2011).
Such d|stort|ons ar|se rom the s|gn|fcant subs|d|zat|on
o agr|cu|tura| product|on |n deve|oped countr|es and
the|r export o th|s output to deve|op|ng countr|es. As
|ong as such subs|d|es are not s|gn|fcant|y a|tered by
the current WTO negot|at|ons, |t |s d|fcu|t to |mag|ne
how deve|op|ng-country producers cou|d |mp|ement
263
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
a parad|gm sh|t towards eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture on the
mass|ve sca|e necessary to have an |mpact. Apart
rom rea| reduct|on o domest|c support |n deve|oped
countr|es, reorms shou|d |nc|ude |mproved market
access or deve|op|ng-country produce and po||cy
space to support the agr|cu|tura| sector, a||ow
expans|on o |oca| ood product|on, and the use
o eect|ve |nstruments to promote ood secur|ty,
armers' ||ve||hoods and rura| deve|opment. Th|s
necess|tates a recons|derat|on o trade ru|es |n the
WTO and |n var|ous FTAs (South Oentre, 2011) as
o||ows:
(1) Export subs|d|es |n deve|oped countr|es shou|d
be e||m|nated by 2013, as agreed |n the WTO's Hong
Kong M|n|ster|a| Dec|arat|on.
(2) There shou|d be an eect|ve deep reduct|on o
domest|c support (|n actua| |eve|s, and not |ust the
bound |eve|s) |n deve|oped countr|es, w|th as ew
|oopho|es as poss|b|e and w|th no or m|n|ma| "box
sh|t|ng" (|.e. sh|t|ng o subs|d|es towards those
deemed to be non-d|stort|ng or m|n|ma||y d|stort|ng,
wh|ch are not sub|ect to any d|sc|p||nes, but wh|ch
cou|d a|so have s|gn|fcant eects on the market and
on trade). Th|s shou|d |nc|ude reduct|ons |n the actua|
OTDS as we|| as an ob|ect|ve rev|ew o the nature and
eects o var|ous subs|d|es now c|ass|fed as Green
Box subs|d|es, |ead|ng to str|cter d|sc|p||nes and
reduct|ons.
(3) Deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d be a||owed adequate
po||cy space to enab|e them to use domest|c subs|d|es
or support|ng armers' ||ve||hoods and ood secur|ty.
These cou|d |nc|ude the prov|s|on o |ow-cost cred|t,
ass|stance or the supp|y o |nputs, storage ac|||t|es,
road and transport |nrastructure, strengthen|ng o
extens|on serv|ces, market|ng ac|||t|es and networks,
and support or va|ue-added process|ng o agr|cu|tura|
products. Deve|op|ng countr|es cou|d exam|ne the
avenues ava||ab|e to them or mak|ng use o domest|c
subs|d|es, or examp|e through the oe m|n|m|s
subs|d|es, and | th|s |s not sufc|ent, to exp|ore the
poss|b|||ty o us|ng more subs|d|es, |nc|ud|ng those |n
the Green Box.
(4) Deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d have adequate po||cy
space to make use o tar|s to protect the |nterests
o the|r domest|c armers and promote ood secur|ty
and rura| deve|opment. They shou|d be ab|e to use
the 1ex|b|||t|es |n the WTO ru|es to ad|ust the|r app||ed
tar|s to the appropr|ate |eve| as |ong as these do not
exceed the bound |eve|.
(5) The WTO ru|es shou|d enab|e deve|op|ng countr|es
to promote ood secur|ty, armers' ||ve||hoods and rura|
deve|opment through the eect|ve use o the SP and
SSM |nstruments. So ar, on|y deve|oped countr|es and
a ew deve|op|ng countr|es are ab|e to make use o a
spec|a| agr|cu|tura| saeguard (SSG), a|| deve|op|ng
countr|es shou|d be a||owed to make use o th|s ac|||ty
to prevent |mport surges unt|| a permanent SSM or
deve|op|ng countr|es |s estab||shed.
(6) The deve|op|ng countr|es' goa|s o ood secur|ty
and protect|on o armers' ||ve||hoods shou|d be g|ven
pr|or|ty by negot|ators o FTAs. The percentage o goods
|dent|fed or tar| e||m|nat|on by deve|op|ng countr|es
shou|d be ad|usted, | necessary, to accommodate
the need to exc|ude sens|t|ve agr|cu|tura| products. ln
the ||ght o the ood cr|s|s, deve|op|ng countr|es that
have s|gned or are negot|at|ng FTAs shou|d ensure
that such agreements w||| prov|de enough po||cy
space to a||ow them to |mpose sufc|ent|y h|gh tar|s
on agr|cu|tura| |mports so that they can rebu||d and
strengthen the|r agr|cu|ture sectors |n order to ach|eve
ood secur|ty and promote armers' ||ve||hoods and
rura| deve|opment.
3. Addrass|ng |mba|ancas |n mar|aI sIrucIura
Steps shou|d be taken or the estab||shment o nat|ona|
and |nternat|ona| ru|es or regu|at|ng the act|v|t|es o
commod|ty buyers, processors and reta||ers |n the
g|oba| ood supp|y cha|n. Spec|fc po||c|es to support
sma||ho|der armers, part|cu|ar|y women armers, |n
ga|n|ng access to markets wou|d a|so be |mportant.
(1) The app||cat|on o compet|t|on |aw to prevent the
creat|on, ma|ntenance and abuse o buyer power/
dom|nat|on pos|t|ons |n supp|y cha|ns |s necessary.
Oompet|t|on reg|mes sens|t|ve to excess|ve buyer
power |n the agr|ood sector, and compet|t|on
mechan|sms that a||ow aected supp||ers to |odge
comp|a|nts w|thout ear o repr|sa| by dom|nant buyers
are needed (De Schutter, 2009b).
(2) There |s a need or ant|trust measures to break
up monopo||es and g|oba| pr|ce-fx|ng carte|s, an
|nternat|ona| rev|ew mechan|sm to |nvest|gate and
mon|tor concentrat|on |n the agr|ood sector, and
|nvest|gat|ons |nto the behav|our o |nternat|ona|
corporat|ons engaged |n agr|cu|tura| trad|ng and ood
reta|||ng, and the|r |mpacts on armers, arm workers,
consumers and vu|nerab|e popu|at|ons (PANNA, 2010).
(3) States shou|d proact|ve|y adopt pub||c po||c|es
a|med at expand|ng the cho|ces o sma||ho|ders
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
to se|| the|r products on |oca| or g|oba| markets at
a decent pr|ce by strengthen|ng |oca| and nat|ona|
markets and support|ng cont|nued d|vers|fcat|on o
channe|s o trad|ng and d|str|but|on, support|ng the
estab||shment o armers' cooperat|ves and other
producer organ|zat|ons, estab||sh|ng or deend|ng
1ex|b|e and efc|ent producer market|ng boards under
government author|ty but w|th the strong part|c|pat|on
o producers |n the|r governance, us|ng the pub||c
procurement system to support sma|| armers,
and promot|ng and sca||ng up a|r trade systems,
|nc|ud|ng by ensur|ng access to product|ve resources,
|nrastructure and techn|ca| ass|stance (De Schutter,
2009b, lFAD, 2010, PANNA 2010).
(4) nderstand|ng gender-re|ated opportun|t|es and
r|sks |n agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|ns and markets, and
promot|ng gender equa||ty |n access|ng emerg|ng
opportun|t|es, are |mportant to support the emergence
o pro-poor agr|cu|tura| markets (lFAD, 2010).
(5) Agr|cu|tura| research and a|d have oten served
poweru| commerc|a| |nterests, |nc|ud|ng mu|t|nat|ona|
seed and ood reta|||ng compan|es, at the expense
o the va|ues, needs, know|edge and concerns o the
very peop|e who prov|de the ood. Farmers and other
c|t|zens need to p|ay a centra| ro|e |n defn|ng strateg|c
pr|or|t|es or agr|cu|tura| research and ood po||c|es
(Homann, 2011, see a|so Herren |n chapter three o
th|s Pev|ew).
4. An aganda Ior anv|ronmanIa| susIa|nab|||Iy
The regu|at|on o |nternat|ona| trade |n agr|cu|tura|
commod|t|es shou|d take |nto account the |mpact
o var|ous modes o agr|cu|tura| product|on on the
env|ronment and c||mate change |n order to a||ow
countr|es to prov|de |ncent|ves |n avour o susta|nab|e
product|on, such as organ|c arm|ng or agroeco|og|ca|
pract|ces, both o wh|ch respect the env|ronment and
contr|bute to ood secur|ty (De Schutter, 2009a).
(1) Perverse |ncent|ves and subs|d|es that promote
or encourage the use o chem|ca| pest|c|des
and ert|||zers, water and ue|, or encourage |and
degradat|on, shou|d be avo|ded (lAASTD, 2009,
Wor|d Bank, 2008). At the same t|me, regu|at|ons
and the|r |mp|ementat|on are needed to protect the
env|ronment and address po||ut|on, as |nput-|ntens|ve
agr|cu|ture has adverse |mpacts on the env|ronment
and human hea|th (lFAD, 2010).
(2) Agr|cu|tura| subs|d|es need to be red|rected to
encourage d|vers|fed crop product|on or |ong-term
so|| hea|th and |mproved env|ronmenta| |mpacts. A
ma|or sh|t |n subs|d|es |s needed so that governments
can he|p reduce the |n|t|a| costs and r|sks to armers
o trans|t|on|ng towards more susta|nab|e arm|ng
pract|ces (Herren et a|., 2011). Subs|d|es shou|d be
confned to those essent|a| or ac|||tat|ng the trans|t|on
to susta|nab|e product|on methods, such as support
or extens|on serv|ces and research and deve|opment,
reward|ng env|ronmenta| serv|ces, ensur|ng protect|on
aga|nst vo|at||e pr|ces and prov|d|ng spec|fc support
to sma||ho|ders (Homann, 2011).
(3) Farmers shou|d be g|ven access to support
or eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture pract|ces. Deve|op|ng
countr|es cou|d cons|der devot|ng a |arger share o
the|r agr|cu|tura| budgets to promot|ng eco|og|ca|
agr|cu|ture, wh|ch can boost both sma|| armers'
||ve||hoods and ood product|on, wh||e protect|ng
the env|ronment and conserv|ng resources such as
so|| ert|||ty and water. The support shou|d |nc|ude
extens|on serv|ces to tra|n armers |n the best opt|ons
ava||ab|e or susta|nab|e deve|opment techn|ques,
and the deve|opment o eco|og|ca| |nrastructure,
|nc|ud|ng |mproved water supp|y and so|| ert|||ty.
Farmers shou|d a|so have access to cred|t and
market|ng support.
(4) Both deve|op|ng and deve|oped countr|es shou|d
be encouraged to take measures to ac|||tate trade |n
organ|c oods or|g|nat|ng rom deve|op|ng countr|es.
Deve|op|ng countr|es cou|d cons|der the o||ow|ng
measures: (|) |ncrease awareness o the benefts o
organ|c ood product|on and trad|ng opportun|t|es, (||)
promote research and deve|opment and tra|n|ng, (|||)
|dent|y market|ng strateg|es and partnersh|ps, w|th
government support, (|v) prov|de fnanc|a| support
to organ|c producers, and (v) promote armers'
assoc|at|ons and non-governmenta| organ|zat|ons
(NGOs) (NOTAD, 2004).
(5) lmport|ng countr|es cou|d a|so |mp|ement
measures to promote |mports o organ|c oods rom
deve|op|ng countr|es by prov|d|ng |normat|on on
organ|c standards, and on regu|at|ons and market
opportun|t|es or deve|op|ng countr|es' exporters.
They shou|d a|so ac|||tate access to the|r organ|c ood
markets by s|mp||y|ng requ|rements and procedures
or |mport|ng products rom deve|op|ng countr|es and
app|y|ng the concept o equ|va|ence between nat|ona|
organ|c standards (NOTAD, 2004).
(6) B||atera| and mu|t||atera| donor agenc|es cou|d
prov|de appropr|ate techn|ca| ass|stance or the
265
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
export o organ|c products rom deve|op|ng countr|es.
(7) More genera||y, deve|op|ng countr|es cou|d
cons|der the o||ow|ng strateg|es to promote organ|c
agr|cu|ture: (|) organ|c po||cy and act|on p|ans shou|d
be ||nked to the overarch|ng ob|ect|ves o the country's
agr|cu|ture po||c|es to make them mutua||y support|ve,
and to remove obstac|es and b|ases aga|nst
organ|c agr|cu|ture, (||) the government shou|d g|ve
recogn|t|on and encouragement to the organ|c sector,
c|ose|y cooperate w|th the sector's organ|zat|ons and
armers, and p|ay an enab||ng and ac|||tat|ng ro|e, (|||)
estab||sh a part|c|patory process, w|th act|on p|ans
and pro|ects based on overa|| po||c|es and ob|ect|ves
(NOTAD and NEP, 2008a).
(8) Barr|ers to the part|c|pat|on o sma|| armers rom
deve|op|ng countr|es |n organ|c markets shou|d be
removed. Eorts to address |ssues such as d|fcu|t|es
o market access, |ack o market |nrastructure,
proh|b|t|ve th|rd-party cert|fcat|on, the |ack o
research, techn|ca|, po||cy and fnanc|a| support
are needed (NOTAD and NEP, 2008a). Grow|ng
domest|c markets are a|so |mportant, and urban
markets cou|d start to prov|de s|gn|fcant opportun|t|es
or sma||ho|der armers (lFAD, 2010).
(9) Eorts shou|d be made to enab|e sma||ho|der
armers, part|cu|ar|y women armers, to access
product|ve resources and part|c|pate |n agr|cu|tura|
dec|s|on-mak|ng, so as to ac|||tate the|r |nvestment
|n and adopt|on o eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture approaches.
266
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
Commontary |: Lnsur|ng |ood 5ocur|ty and Lnv|ronmonta|
os|||onco ~ 1ho Nood for 5upport|vo
Agr|cu|tura| 1rado u|os
h||o|a| Fuchs, haxus FoundaI|on, and |r|ch hoIImann, h0TA sacraIar|aI
Z
AbsIracI
Desp|te some recent |mprovement the press|ng and to date unreso|ved cr|s|s o hunger and ma|-nutr|-
t|on as we|| as the |oom|ng dangers rom the env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture ca|| or a more undamenta|
change than |s current|y under way. Both cr|ses are a|so c|ose|y ||nked to trade ru|es. Agr|cu|ture has a|ways
been a stumb||ng b|oc |n GATT and WTO rounds o trade ||bera||zat|on, yet agr|cu|ture's spec|fc|ty has
never been sufc|ent|y re1ected. Pather, agr|cu|ture has |ncreas|ng|y been treated ||ke any other |ndustr|a|
sector that shou|d str|ve to enhance (most|y |abour) product|v|ty, based on spec|a||zat|on, econom|es o
sca|e and |ndustr|a||zat|on o product|on methods. But th|s runs counter to the need or strengthen|ng rura|
||ve||hoods, ood secur|ty and such agr|cu|tura| pract|ces, wh|ch respect the p|anetary boundar|es through
enhanc|ng the reproduct|ve capac|t|es, the |atter be|ng the essence o rea| susta|nab|||ty. Based on a bet-
ter understand|ng o the spec|fc|ty o agr|cu|ture, more reg|ona||zed/|oca||zed ood product|on networks
shou|d be encouraged by trade ru|es, w|thout exc|ud|ng the supp|ementary ro|e trade w||| have to p|ay. The
key quest|on |s whether such transormat|on can be ach|eved through u||y exp|o|t|ng ex|st|ng 1ex|b|||t|es |n
WTO ru|es, or whether th|s w||| requ|re a more undamenta| change |n the trade too|-box.
A. InIroducI|on
Ater twe|ve years |n the th|rd m|||enn|um |t has be-
come ev|dent that severa| o the M|||enn|um Deve|op-
ment Goa|s (MDGs), ch|e1y among them the abate-
ment o hunger, w||| be very d|fcu|t, | not |mposs|b|e
to ach|eve. Bes|des, human|ty today |s consum|ng an
amount o resources equ|va|ent to those o 1.5 earths
3
,
w|th a pronounced worsen|ng tendency. O||mate
change has become a rea||ty, and |t |s h|gh|y un||ke|y
that the 2-degrees warm|ng ||m|t, wh|ch g|oba| gov-
ernance seeks to meet, can be kept.
4
The p|anetary
boundar|es or n|trogen and b|o-d|vers|ty have a|ready
been crossed most|y due to |ndustr|a||zed agr|cu|ture.
Be |t econom|c cr|ses, be |t system|c weaknesses, be
|t m|ss|ng po||t|ca| w||| the reasons or not yet be|ng
ab|e to reverse th|s trend up to date m|ght be mu|t|p|e.
But | we take ourse|ves and our own |ntents, ||ke the
p|edges or u|f||ment o human r|ghts and the |mp|e-
mentat|on o recent government summ|t dec|arat|ons
ser|ous|y, new eorts and new approaches to address
the g|oba| cha||enges seem to be necessary.
5
Th|s
commentary, th|nk|ng out-o-the-box, attempts to ana-
|yze what type o trade ru|es |s requ|red to encourage
and support a des|rab|e, much-needed transorma-
t|on o the ood and agr|cu|tura| sector, as out||ned |n
chapters one to our o th|s Pev|ew.
8. whaI |s aI sIa|a?
ln today's wor|d, 870 m||||on peop|e
6
st||| suer rom
hunger and more than a b||||on rom ma|-nutr|t|on. De-
sp|te recent resurgence o pub||c and pr|vate sector
attent|on |n agr|cu|ture the hunger prob|em pers|sts.
Moreover, the worsen|ng env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|-
cu|ture |s un||ke|y to be checked, even | today's con-
cept o green economy (most|y based on the para-
d|gm o "produc|ng more w|th |ess"
7
) |s be|ng turned
|nto pract|ce.
8
There are many reasons or hunger,
ma|-nutr|t|on and env|ronmenta| degradat|on, but |n-
ternat|ona| trade, |ts ru|es and resu|t|ng |ncent|ves p|ay
an |mportant ro|e |n the who|e sett|ng. lt |s quest|on-
ab|e whether w|th the current|y ex|st|ng WTO too|-box
the drast|c prob|ems ana|yzed |n th|s Pev|ew can e-
ect|ve|y be tack|ed. Desp|te some ca||s or comp|ete|y
exc|ud|ng agr|cu|ture rom the WTO, we search or a
better pathway |n a mu|t||atera|, but as we|| b||atera|
and reg|ona| trade ramework.
9
But th|s then needs
ma|or ad|ustments |n respect to agr|cu|ture.
267
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
0. Tha broadar conIaxI
Dr|ven by c||mate change and the assoc|ated me|t|ng
o the g|ac|ers |n the water cast|es o the wor|d, more
extreme weather patterns w||| occur, w|th damag|ng
eects to the a|ready most vu|nerab|e reg|ons |n the
deve|op|ng wor|d, |n part|cu|ar sub-Saharan Ar|ca
and South As|a. The st||| r|s|ng wor|d popu|at|on (w|th
h|ghest rates |n Ar|ca and South As|a, where hunger
and poverty prob|ems are a|ready the most acute),
over-consumpt|on, h|gh ood waste and chang|ng
consumpt|on patterns to more meat-based d|ets w|th
the assoc|ated sp|ra||ng expans|on o concentrate
eed product|on, as we|| as grow|ng amounts o b|o-
ue| product|on add pressure on the a|ready ||m|ted
|and resources. \o|at||e fnanc|a| markets, scarc|ty o
raw mater|a|s and the c|oser ||nk between ood and
energy pr|ces |ncrease ood pr|ce vo|at|||ty through
the fnanc|a||zat|on o commod|ty markets. Bes|des
the |oss o |and or the a|ready vu|nerab|e through
|and-use changes and "|andgrabs", |and degradat|on
and water shortages compound resource scarc|t|es.
Loss o b|od|vers|ty m|ght urther reduce the res|||ence
o the agr|cu|tura| systems. Aga|nst th|s very back-
ground, ood secur|ty m|ght turn rom a|ready be|ng
the "h|dden dr|ver o wor|d po||t|cs" (Lester Brown,
2011) to the most press|ng |nternat|ona| deve|opment
and secur|ty |ssue o the 21
st
century.
. Tha hungar cha||anga
l present trends cont|nue unabated, ood r|ots and
mass m|grat|on are ||ke|y to become more pro-
nounced |n the uture. ln 2008, some governments
were a|ready shaken - r|s|ng ood pr|ces were among
the causes or the "Arab spr|ng". Th|s ood cr|s|s was
an |mportant cata|yst or rea||z|ng the need or unda-
menta| transormat|on and quest|on|ng some o the
assumpt|ons that had dr|ven ood and agr|cu|tura|
po||cy |n recent decades. The cr|s|s |ed to a reversa| o
the |ong-term neg|ect o agr|cu|ture as a v|ta| econom-
|c sector. A|so, the dec||n|ng trend o pub||c und|ng
or agr|cu|ture was arrested and some new und|ng
secured, as p|edged at the L'Aqu||a G 8 summ|t |n
Ju|y 2009, wh|ch however |s st||| much beh|nd comm|t-
ments and rea| requ|rements. Some o the add|t|ona|
und|ng has been go|ng to |mportant areas, such as
sma||ho|der support, ro|e o women |n agr|cu|ture, the
env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture, |nc|ud|ng c||mate
change, and address|ng weaknesses o |nternat|ona|
markets through a|d or trade target|ng trade |nra-
structure, |normat|on, fnance and ac|||tat|on. Yet,
these measures f|| gaps, but are |nsufc|ent to |ead to
the much-needed turn-around.
A|though, there |s a better understand|ng o the c|r-
cumstances and a grow|ng po||t|ca| w||| or change,
there |s no consensus on how to br|ng about the
-turn and what d|rect|on needs to be taken |n th|s
regard. As th|ngs stand at the moment, pr|or|ty re-
ma|ns ocused on |ncreas|ng product|on, wh|ch |s st|||
very much b|ased towards expans|on o "somewhat-
|ess-po||ut|ng", externa|-|nput-dependent |ndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture (a sort o 'eco|ogy ||ght' approach), w|th
governments, |arge agro-ood and agro-chem|ca| en-
terpr|ses tempted to o||ow th|s ||ne |n search or '|obs
and growth'. Pather the a|m shou|d be towards sus-
ta|nab|e, s|te-spec|fc and aordab|e (not externa|-|n-
put-|ntens|ve) product|on methods that prov|de mu|t|-
unct|ona| benefts and emp|oyment creat|on as part
o a coherent and more ho||st|c approach re1ect|ng
the spec|fc|ty o agr|cu|ture.
E. ura| aconom|as
About 70 per cent o the hungry ||ve |n rura| areas (they
are am||y armers or agr|cu|tura| |aborers). Neo-||bera|
po||c|es (|.e. the Wash|ngton Oonsensus), st||| preva||-
|ng mass|ve subs|d|es or agr|cu|ture |n deve|oped
countr|es and ocus o the po||t|ca| e||te on urban ar-
eas |n the South have |ed to a d|scr|m|natory treatment
o rura| reg|ons |n deve|op|ng countr|es. However, ac-
cord|ng to FAO, sma||ho|der armers prov|de up to 80
per cent o the ood supp|y |n As|a and sub-Saharan
Ar|ca (FAO, 2012). That |s why sma||-sca|e agr|cu|ture
needs spec|a| attent|on. lnterest|ng|y, sma||-sca|e ag-
r|cu|ture |s oten more product|ve than |arge-sca|e |n-
dustr|a| arm|ng (see Oar|etto et a|., 2011). For assur-
|ng ood secur|ty, boost|ng tota| actor, rather than on|y
|abour product|v|ty |s a very necessary requ|rement.
There are d|erent ways o |ntens|fcat|on to boost
product|v|ty. lndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture, the deve|-
opment, or wh|ch the "green revo|ut|on" |s the best
known symbo|, and the ||bera||zat|on and g|oba||zat|on
o markets have undoubted|y contr|buted to ood se-
cur|ty o a grow|ng wor|d popu|at|on. Today fve b||||on
peop|e have enough to eat, wh|ch |s a great success.
But, at the same t|me, the share o the hungry and
ma|nour|shed |n tota| wor|d popu|at|on has not s|g-
n|fcant|y dec||ned and the|r abso|ute numbers have
even |ncreased. The |ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture
and concom|tant market ||bera||zat|on have thus not
succeeded |n overcom|ng the hunger prob|em. That |s
268
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
ma|n|y because hunger |s not pr|mar||y a supp|y-re|at-
ed, but a poverty-||nked |ssue o appropr|ate access
to ood (both |tems are thereore comb|ned |n MDG
goa| one). ln th|s regard, the current system reaches
|ts ||m|ts.
An a|ternat|ve product|on-|ntens|fcat|on strategy |s the
eco-unct|ona|-|ntens|fcat|on approach (Bommarco
et a|. 2012) |n agro-eco|og|ca| systems (agro-eco-
|og|ca| systems are more open, even to |nputs than
pure organ|c arm|ng systems, thus hav|ng a h|gher
y|e|d potent|a|)
10
(see A|t|er| et a|., 2011 and Branca
et a|., 2013). The a|m |s to boost y|e|ds o the tota|
product|on system (rather than on|y spec|fc crops)
re|y|ng on strengthen|ng s|te-spec|fc eco|og|ca| pro-
duct|on methods that harness the mu|t|-unct|ona||ty
o agr|cu|ture and strengthen |ts res|||ence. These
agro-eco|og|ca| approaches, through the use o |o-
ca| resources, sk|||s and |nputs, ft we|| |nto strateg|es
or strengthen|ng rura| econom|es and ||ve||hoods.
A|though such orms o agr|cu|ture are know|edge-
|ntens|ve, v|rtua||y a|| o these sk|||s and techno|og|es
are read||y ava||ab|e (a ma|or d|erence to most other
sectors, where many new techno|og|es or enhanc-
|ng energy/mater|a|/resource efc|ency st||| have to be
deve|oped). What |s rather |ack|ng |s adequate pub||c
support to efc|ent extens|on serv|ces or know|edge
d|ssem|nat|on, pub||c |nvestment |n adequate phys|-
ca| |nra-structure, |and reorm or secure tenure r|ghts
(|nc|ud|ng or women) and access to fnanc|ng. The
agr|cu|tura| |ndustry |s a|ready, and |n the uture w|||
even more support such approaches or spec|fc
products and process|ng methods.
11
Governments
shou|d o||ow th|s trend.
lncreas|ng product|v|ty must, on the one hand, be
|ntegrated |nto a broader soc|a| and env|ronmenta|
ramework o prov|d|ng sufc|ent rura| ||ve||hoods -
w|th rura| econom|es mov|ng |nto the ocus - and, on
the other hand, guarantee the regenerat|ve capac|ty
and enhanced res|||ence o the natura| resources and
product|on actors, cu|m|nat|ng |n permanent|y h|gh
so|| ert|||ty.
12

Even | |t was |n the market-|og|c o the past to con-
centrate on reg|ons and areas where sufc|ent pur-
chas|ng power preva||ed, rev|ta||z|ng rura| econom|es
and ||t|ng peop|e out o poverty creates new markets
or the uture. Bes|des, at t|mes o ever h|gher pub||c
|ndebtedness, wh|ch makes soc|a| saety nets 1|msy
and th|n, v|ta||zed rura| reg|ons become essent|a| or
the v|ab|||ty o commun|t|es. From a po||t|ca| perspec-
t|ve, rev|ta||zed rura| econom|es reduce the pressure
on m|grat|on to urban areas and beyond borders, thus
prevent|ng nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| po||t|ca| tens|ons.
F. Tha h|gh anv|ronmanIa| cosIs oI
Iha curranI moda oI agr|cu|Iura|
|ndusIr|a||taI|on
Bes|des the unreso|ved hunger prob|em, agr|cu|tura|
|ndustr|a||zat|on has come at h|gh env|ronmenta|
costs. Today's convent|ona| agr|cu|ture, be|ng a very
externa|-|nput-dependent product|on system w|th a
negat|ve, | not rare|y 'catastroph|c' energy ba|ance
(see the commentary o Pundgren |n chapter 1), de-
sp|te some |mprovements d|sproport|onate|y contr|b-
utes to c||mate change, po||ut|on o water, |and deg-
radat|on and b|od|vers|ty |oss. The a|ready crossed
p|anetary carry|ng capac|ty or n|trogen does not a|-
|ow any uncr|t|ca| uture |nput |ntens|fcat|on |n agr|cu|-
ture. Agr|cu|ture and re|ated |and-use changes cause
at |east one th|rd o g|oba| GHG em|ss|ons (| |nd|rect
em|ss|ons |n p|ant and equ|pment, transport, as we||
as a|ong the ood process|ng and market|ng cha|n
are taken |nto account, agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to
c||mate change |s we|| over 40 per cent, see the com-
mentary o GPAlN |n chapter one). GHG em|ss|ons
o agr|cu|ture are set to |ncrease by 40-60 per cent t|||
2030, whereas a dec||ne o the same order o magn|-
tude wou|d be requ|red |n order not to exceed the two
degree g|oba| warm|ng goa|. Bes|des, a h|gher trade
|ntens|ty may urther contr|bute to c||mate change (see
Schm|tz et a|., 2012) and ra|se hea|th re|ated costs.
12
. Tha counIarva|||ng aIIacI oI Irada
|s ||m|Iad
The damage to agr|cu|ture |s not on|y cost|y, |t |s a|so
a ser|ous env|ronmenta|, hea|th and ||e threat or
the uture deve|opment o a|| o us. O||mate change
and the env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture, wh|ch |s
caused by the "m|n|ng" o the most cr|t|ca| resources
or regenerat|ve agr|cu|ture, ||ke so|| organ|c content,
w||| drast|ca||y constra|n supp|y, ma|n|y |n a|ready vu|-
nerab|e reg|ons. ln theory, trade can br|dge some o
the reg|ona||y ar|s|ng supp|y gaps, but the h|gher the
requency and sever|ty o droughts and 1oods, the
more |nsecure the ava||ab|||ty
14
and aordab|||ty
15
o
|mported ood.
h. uasI|ons
Th|s takes us to a number o quest|ons resu|t|ng rom
269
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
the above-made ana|ys|s:
How b|g |s the chance o address|ng these
prob|ems w|th today's trade too| boxes?
W||| |t be poss|b|e and sufc|ent to tack|e the huge
cha||enges by u||y exp|o|t|ng the ex|st|ng 1ex|b|||ty
opt|ons and mechan|sms |n the current trade ru|es?
Or |s a more undamenta| change needed |n order
to so|ve the 21
st
century |ssues o hunger, rura|
poverty, ||nger|ng mass m|grat|on and requ|red
strengthen|ng o agr|cu|tura| res|||ence?
We want to exp|ore these quest|ons by start|ng rom
the undamenta| observat|on that agr|cu|ture |s spe-
c|a|.
I. Agr|cu|Iura |s spac|a|
Agr|cu|ture has been and st||| |s |n near|y any b||atera|
or reg|ona| negot|at|ons a ma|or obstac|e to ree trade
agreements. Agr|cu|ture seems to be spec|a|, and |n-
deed there are good reasons or agr|cu|ture's spec|a|
ro|e. Agr|cu|ture, be|ng a management system or ha|
o the terrestr|a| b|omass produc|ng areas, and be|ng
thereore cr|t|ca| |n many env|ronmenta| respects, |s
bound to the |and, wh|ch means |t cannot be moved
to more avourab|e cond|t|ons. lt has |ong |nvestment
|nterva|s (whether to have m||k cows or not |s |nc|ud-
|ng breed|ng or examp|e a very |ong-|ast|ng dec|-
s|on, wh|ch |s as we|| |n1uenced by po||c|es e.g. m||k
quotas). Agr|cu|ture |s the |tem or ood secur|ty, |t |s a
strong component or rura| deve|opment, |t |s c|ose|y
||nked to |andscape and |ts care, to |oca| c||mate, eco|-
ogy and b|od|vers|ty, |t |s ma|n|y organ|zed |n am||y
and generat|ona| structures and |t |s strong|y based
on |oca| or s|te-spec|fc trad|t|ons and |dent|fcat|on
patterns (a armer |s not on|y a producer o goods, but
a|so a manager o an agro-eco|og|ca| system and a
soc|a| abr|c) (see Brodheur et a|., 2010). Th|s |s true
not on|y |n Europe, but pr|nc|pa||y as we|| |n key agr|-
cu|tura| export|ng countr|es ||ke Austra||a and Braz||,
or |n the Ar|can countrys|de. Bes|des, agr|cu|ture em-
p|oys b||||ons o peop|e |n the deve|op|ng wor|d.
16

Agr|cu|ture's ro|e or deve|opment has or |ong been
underva|ued, and has on|y very recent|y been re|n-
v|gorated. lt has the potent|a| to ||t peop|e out o pov-
erty (see Wor|d Bank, 2008), prov|de many eco|og|-
ca| and amen|ty serv|ces and cou|d be turned rom a
key source o g|oba| warm|ng |nto a sector that can
s|gn|fcant|y m|t|gate |t and adapt ood product|on to
the per||s o c||mate change at very |ow costs re|at|ve
to other sectors. To exp|o|t th|s potent|a|, agr|cu|ture
needs a sh|t to strengthen |ts regenerat|ve potent|a|.
Trade ru|es need to support, not comprom|se th|s
move.
nortunate|y, the externa||t|es produced by |ndustr|a|
agr|cu|ture are not, and w||| not, at |east |n the ore-
seeab|e uture
17
, be |ntegrated |n product pr|ces. ln
act, enhanced externa| |nput use
18
and spec|a||zat|on
have made |t harder to |nterna||ze externa||t|es, be-
cause agr|cu|tura| |nput-pr|ce dynam|cs has outpaced
the evo|ut|on o ood pr|ces (see fgure 1) (the h|gher
the |nput pr|ces, the more un||ke|y that they are taxed,
or examp|e). Oonverse|y, rea||y susta|nab|e orms o
product|on, such as agro-eco|og|ca| approaches,
system|ca||y embody |arge parts o externa| costs,
because the|r prevent|ve approach avo|ds or m|n|-
m|zes most externa||t|es. Such product|on methods
generate many pub||c benefts and goods, such as
strengthen|ng b|od|vers|ty, avo|d|ng ground water and
r|ver po||ut|on or reduc|ng GHG em|ss|ons, to name
but a ew. Yet, ne|ther the avo|ded pub||c costs nor
the pub||c benefts are recogn|zed by the market,
wh|ch encourages |ncreased |abour, but not tota| ac-
tor/system product|v|ty. As | that where not enough,
organ|c producers espec|a||y have to prov|de docu-
mentary ev|dence (|n the orm o |nspect|on, aud|t|ng
and cert|fcat|on) that the|r products are |ndeed meet-
|ng str|ngent standards. Market |og|c |s thus put on |ts
head, |nstead o reward|ng the most efc|ent, c|ean
and susta|nab|e product|on system, preva|||ng market
ru|es award the 'po||ut|ng' ree r|ders.
19

F|gura 1: ava|opmanI oI Iood and IarI|||tar pr|cas, 1970
Io Z010
Sc0|ces. L|mes (2012: 10), reerr|ng to Kotsch|
(orthcom|ng).
1
9
7
0
-
1
9
7
5
-
1
9
8
0
-
1
9
8
5
-
1
9
9
0
-
1
9
9
5
-
2
0
0
0
-
2
0
0
5
-
2
0
1
0
-
6 -
5 -
4 -
3 -
2 -
1 -
0 -
Fertilizer Price Index / Food Price Index
(ratio 1970 = 1)
270
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
Faced w|th th|s d||emma and as a resu|t o enhanced
||bera||zat|on, the |ncreased compet|t|ve pressure |n
the preva|||ng d|storted market cond|t|ons h|ts hard
part|cu|ar|y the arms that produce the most common
goods and serv|ces (whether |n deve|oped or deve|-
op|ng countr|es). G|ven th|s d||emma, a new approach
to address th|s |ssue |s overdue.
A|though GATT and WTO have treated agr|cu|ture |n a
spec|fc agreement (here, because o the po||t|ca| sen-
s|t|v|ty o ood secur|ty and agr|cu|ture's c|ose assoc|a-
t|on w|th natura| resources and the hea|th and saety o
peop|e), even |ate|y the sector profted on|y rom some
end-o-p|pe 1ex|b|||t|es and spec|a| sae-guards, wh||e
sub|ect|ng agr|cu|ture to the across-the-board |ndustry
|og|c o ||bera||zat|on (see be|ow).
Green Box measures, bes|des be|ng m|sused or at
|east |nd|rect|y support|ng convent|ona| orms o ag-
r|cu|tura| product|on (recent|y, o a|| domest|c agr|-
cu|tura| support, green-box subs|d|es accounted or
between 75 and 85 per cent |n the E and the S,
respect|ve|y, Lunenborg, 2013), have so ar been on|y
marg|na||y eect|ve |n reduc|ng prob|emat|c |mpacts.
As out||ned above, th|s gener|c |ndustry-b|ased ap-
proach to agr|cu|ture contr|buted to the preva|||ng
prob|ems o rura| poverty, ood |nsecur|ty, ma|nutr|t|on
and env|ronmenta| degradat|on |n agr|cu|ture we cur-
rent|y observe. Yet, to boost tota| actor and system
product|v|ty, resource, mater|a| and energy efc|ency
w||| requ|re undamenta| changes |n how we grow
and consume ood - noth|ng |ess than a new v|s|on
|s necessary o how we arm, take better care o the
p|anet's b|o|og|ca| resources and ||ve equ|tab|y w|th|n
our p|anetary means.
20
The key quest|on |s whether
such ar-reach|ng changes can be ach|eved through
u||y exp|or|ng ex|st|ng 1ex|b|||t|es |n the current trade
too|-box, or | |t w||| necess|tate a d|erent deve|op-
ment and trade ocus as part o a undamenta| trans-
ormat|on o g|oba| agr|cu|ture.
Some undamenta|s have to be taken |nto account
when try|ng to answer th|s quest|on.
J. Agr|cu|Iura`s d|vars|Iy |s |ay
Nature depends on |nteract|on (p|ants w|th |nsects,
so|| ert|||ty w|th so|| m|crobes, etc.) and thereore on
d|vers|ty. D|vers|ty p|ays a p|vota| ro|e |n agr|cu|ture
(FAO, 2004). Spec|a||zat|on |n agr|cu|ture |s an |ssue,
but at the same t|me |t must be |ntegrated |n a strat-
egy o d|vers|fcat|on.
21
Tscharnke et a|. (2012) po|nt
out, that |ntegrat|on strateg|es, comb|n|ng crop and
w||d||e, are more su|tab|e or ood secur|ty than segre-
gat|on, |.e. separat|ng crop product|on rom w||d||e ar-
eas, wh|ch |s ma|n|y advocated by today's agr|cu|tura|
|ndustry. Th|s observat|on speaks or agro-eco|og|ca|
approaches, wh|ch o||ow an |ntegrated d|vers|ty strat-
egy, keep|ng a|so an eye on 1our|sh|ng w||d||e. On the
|atter, a recent E est|mate conc|udes that the Natura
2000 network |n the E a|one produces eco-system
serv|ces worth some 300 b||||on Euros.
22
Snapp et a|. (2010) |n a |arge |ong-term and part|y
part|c|pat|ve study |n Ma|aw| have ound that crop d|-
vers|fcat|on cou|d secure y|e|ds w|th a stab|||z|ng e-
ect at ha| o the ert|||zer rate.
23
Bes|des, d|vers|ty |s
a core |tem or res|||ence aga|nst natura| shocks, but
as we|| aga|nst market d|srupt|ons, ever more |mpor-
tant |n today's rag||e wor|d. Moreover, d|verse nutr|-
ent ava||ab|||ty |s an essent|a| ob|ect|ve o susta|nab|e
ood secur|ty.
So|| ert|||ty - the heart o tru|y susta|nab|e (regenera-
t|ve) and resource-efc|ent agr|cu|ture or ood secu-
r|ty - can best be assured by po|y-cu|ture, adequate
nutr|ent recyc||ng, the |ntegrat|on o crop and ||vestock
product|on and the eect|ve use o unct|ona| b|od|-
vers|ty. Future trade ru|es shou|d m|rror and support
th|s |nterp|ay.
ln the end, any agr|cu|tura| management approach
8ox Z: Tha Iraadm||| oI axIarna|-|npuI |nIans|va producI|on: axpar|anca oI a soy Iarmar |n ArganI|na
Fabr|c|o Oast|||os |s a soy armer |n the sma|| town o Labou|aye |n Argent|na. Accord|ng to Mr. Oast|||os, he can no |onger
make a proft on h|s 130 ha arm, spec|a||zed |n soy product|on or export (dest|ned e|ther or b|o-d|ese| or concentrate
an|ma| eed). Somebody w|th a current arm s|ze o 500 ha |s st||| proftab|e, but | |nput pr|ce trends cont|nue one m|ght
need 5,000 ha |n the uture to make a proft. Accord|ng to Mr. Oast|||os, th|s w||| speed up the concentrat|on o |and owner-
sh|p so that the |and w||| |ncreas|ng|y be owned by a ew |nst|tut|ona| |nvestors.
Sc0|ce: Hu|smann (2012: 193).
271
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
wou|d have to meet the our pr|nc|p|es o susta|nab|e
agr|cu|ture as mapped out |n the Peport o the Poya|
Soc|ety (2009): to be |ong-|ast|ng, res|||ent, autark|c
and prosper, by not over-extract|ng resources.
k. Tha curranI approach oI Iha wT
ln the Doha Pound negot|at|ons, the moda||t|es o
2008 on agr|cu|ture |n respect to ood secur|ty are
ma|n|y met by proposa|s or spec|a| saeguard mech-
an|sms (SSM)
25
, spec|a| products (SP) and ew other
spec|a| and d|erent|ated treatment (SDT) prov|s|ons.
S|ng|e (stap|e) crops ("spec|a| products") or spec|fc
countr|es cou|d thereore, at |east or certa|n per|ods,
be exc|uded rom the ||bera||zat|on process. The ne-
got|at|ons on these |ssues have become very com-
p|ex, perhaps too comp|ex to conc|ude the round.
Bes|des, SDT as o today |n the WTO ru|ebook w|th
|ts ocus on s|ng|e crops does not system|ca||y take
|nto account the d|vers|ty |mperat|ve o agr|cu|ture. A
more |oca||y and reg|ona||y-or|ented trade approach
cou|d he|p to strengthen rura| econom|es w|th d|verse
product|on patterns, wh|ch w||| be supp|emented by
trade or se|||ng surp|us produce and enr|ch|ng |oca|
supp|y. We argue that SDT, SSM and the spec|a| and
sens|t|ve product prov|s|ons o today as be|ng con-
centrated on countr|es (not |oca| reg|ons) and s|ng|e
crops or products, moreover |n a ||m|ted t|merame,
w||| not be sufc|ent to meet |ong-term ood secur|ty,
env|ronmenta| and ||ve||hood needs, as they are not
targeted, |n the end, to strengthen rura| econom|es
(see as we|| Haber||, 2010: 304).
Trade, |nstead o be|ng |ust a method o match|ng
supp|y and demand |n |ts recent terms, push|ng or
open markets and ||bera||zat|on requ|res |n the |og|c
o seek|ng abso|ute or comparat|ve advantage ever
h|gher |eve|s o spec|a||zat|on, |ndustr|a||zat|on and
sca|e o product|on. The recent|y oten h|gh||ghted
g|oba| va|ue cha|n concept pronounces th|s concept
even urther. lt |s not by chance that agr|cu|ture has
been the b|ggest stumb||ng b|oc |n near|y a|| trade
negot|at|ons. lt |s not on|y trad|t|on-based re|uctance
or change |n the agr|cu|tura| sector that creates d|-
fcu|t|es or urther trade ||bera||zat|on, |t |s |ts d|vers|ty,
||ve||hood and |nherent non-|ndustry and assurance o
se|-sufc|ency |og|c, that causes th|s res|stence.
Wh||e the preamb|e o the Agreement on Agr|cu|ture
(AoA) recogn|zes ood secur|ty as a |eg|t|mate con-
cern, the actua| prov|s|ons o the agreement treat ood
secur|ty as a dev|at|on rom the pr|mary ob|ect|ve o
agr|cu|tura| trade ||bera||zat|on (De Schutter, 2011c:7).
L. Tha raqu|rad parad|gm sh|II - bayond
Iha d|choIomy oI ||bara||taI|on
and proIacI|on
We need to res|st the temptat|on o resort|ng to short-
cuts that cure symptoms, rather than dea||ng w|th root
causes.
Pecent reports ||ke the Ecoa|r Trade D|a|ogue (2009),
lAASTD (2009), SOAP (2011), FAO/GEA (2012), po|nt
at the |mportance o a renewed (rather than on|y re-
ormed) trade arch|tecture to p|ay |ts proper ro|e |n
8ox 3: 8o|| IarI|||Iy and Iha |mporIanca oI humus
Be |t c||mate change w|th more extreme weather patterns, over-usage (degradat|on) o |and, |oss o b|od|vers|ty or over-
s|mp||fcat|on through spec|a||zat|on, agr|cu|ture needs a thorough regenerat|ve potent|a|, not |east or efc|ency reasons,
as repa|r |s a|ways more cost|y.
24
To guarantee and strengthen the regenerat|ve potent|a| shou|d be at the center o a||
uture measures. One key e|ement or the regenerat|ve potent|a| |n many respects |s humus. H|gh humus content copes
w|th many o the endanger|ng |ssues, and strengthens the res|||ence capac|ty o a|most a|| crops. lncreas|ng the humus
content |eads to a "||v|ng" so||. Oompost|ng and th|s |s why we h|gh||ght |t here exp||c|t|y as an examp|e and |ts use
or enhanc|ng the humus content o so||s |s a|so a very eect|ve and cost-efc|ent method o carbon sequestrat|on. Ac-
cord|ng to lPOO (2007c: sect|on 8.4.3), so|| organ|c matter sequestrat|on accounts or a|most 90 per cent o the techn|ca|
carbon sequestrat|on potent|a| o agr|cu|ture and |s thus the p|vota| c||mate m|t|gat|on measure (|n contrast, more efc|ent
app||cat|on o ert|||zers represents not more than some 2 per cent o the carbon sequestrat|on potent|a|). ln th|s respect,
agro-eco|og|ca| product|on methods w|th - |nter a||a - var|ous compost techn|ques have proven to serve the regenerat|ve
agr|cu|tura| potent|a| wh||e m|t|gat|ng potent|a||y very s|gn|fcant amounts o OO2 (see the commentary o Leu |n chapter 1
and Gatt|nger et a|., 2012, or a more e|aborate ana|ys|s). Agro-eco|og|ca| approaches are a|so more d|verse approach-
es. Trade ru|es shou|d ac|||tate and support such product|on methods and a|so respect |oca| and reg|ona| d|vers|ty and
preerence requ|rements.
272
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
|mprov|ng ood secur|ty, armers we|are and env|ron-
menta| |ssues.
26
Th|s need or a new approach to the
trade arch|tecture, we mean, shou|d go beyond the
trad|t|ona| d|chotomy o ||bera||zat|on and protect|on.
a) Tha prob|ams W|Ih Iha curranI |nIarnaI|ona| ru|as
ra|aI|ng Io agr|cu|Iura| Irada
The prob|ems w|th the current |nternat|ona| trade ru|es
re|at|ng to agr|cu|ture are three-o|d: (|) they st||| a|-
|ow una|r cond|t|ons (h|gh subs|d|es, part|y sh|ted to
the green box |n the North), (||) a too ear|y push or
open markets |n the South (a|though the North kept
|ts borders c|osed t||| the sector was sufc|ent|y com-
pet|t|ve), and (|||) o||ow|ng the abso|ute and compara-
t|ve advantage approach or |ndustr|a| sectors, oster
spec|a||zat|on, econom|es o sca|e and c|ose|y-re|ated
|ndustr|a||zat|on o agr|cu|ture, w|th a|| |ts negat|ve |m-
pacts.
Whereas WTO d|sc|p||nes or the frst two |ssues (un-
a|r cond|t|ons) are current|y |ust too weak and can
be '1ex|b|||zed' or bypassed by reg|ona| ree trade
agreements and b||atera|s, the th|rd |ssue the |nher-
ent trend to spec|a||zat|on and |ndustr|a||zat|on |s
more undamenta|. The |ncent|ves on spec|a||zat|on,
|ndustr|a||zat|on and econom|es o sca|e run the r|sk o
|eopard|z|ng |ong-term overa|| agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty
growth and the res|||ence o agr|cu|tura| product|on.
b) A bas|c pra-cond|I|on: 8a|anca baIWaan Iha
parad|gms oI Iood sovara|gnIy and ||bara||taI|on
lt becomes more and more v|s|b|e that o|csoe|||,
(convent|ona||y measured |n GDP) |s not the same as
.e|/a|e, or we|| be|ng. We|are, espec|a||y |n re|at|on
to ood, a|so re|ates to hea|th, trust and |dent|fcat|on.
Peop|e |ook or such |tems more strong|y today. There
|s greater consumer attent|on to credence va|ues
||ke an|ma| we|are, |oca| or|g|n o products and how
ood saety |s assured.
27
Peop|e ||ve up to va|ues ||ke
se|-determ|nat|on and sovere|gnty, as we|| |n ra|s|ng
the|r vo|ce po||t|ca||y, but espec|a||y |n respect to ood.
Thereore "Food Sovere|gnty" came up as a term to
express th|s att|tude.
By hav|ng u|| respect or th|s att|tude, ood sover-
e|gnty, un|ess |ntegrated |n an overa|| ramework,
m|ght |ead to too ragmented organ|zat|ona| patterns
|n terms o d|er|ng regu|at|ons, mak|ng (trade-) ex-
change between reg|ons, wh|ch w||| st||| be necessary
and benefc|a|, too comp||cated and at |ast cost|y.
Thereore a ba|anced approach between ||bera||zat|on
and ood sovere|gnty |s requ|red.
L|bera||zat|on or ood sovere|gnty aga|nst th|s back-
ground |s not an e|ther-or quest|on, but one o bet-
ter synerg|z|ng the benefts o both approaches. We
see th|s synergy |n a greater emphas|s on reg|ona|-
|zed/|oca||zed (see box 4 be|ow) ood product|on
networks, a|med at strengthen|ng s|te-spec|fc eco-
|og|ca| approaches that prov|de mu|t|-unct|ona| and
rura| ||ve||hood benefts wh||e not exc|ud|ng trade (we
emphas|ze, that we don't advocate se| sufc|ency
at househo|d |eve|, product|on shou|d be market-
or|ented, by |eav|ng not marketab|e goods or se|-
consumpt|on). Such approach |oca||y-adapted mo-
sa|c product|on patterns that |ntegrate g|oba| market
concerns was termed by the M|||enn|um Ecosystem
Assessment (MEA) "g|oca||zat|on", wh|ch we th|nk
shou|d be g|ven more attent|on today.
28
Based on the above, we wou|d see the o||ow|ng gu|d-
|ng pr|nc|p|es or uture agr|cu|tura| trade.
c) u|d|ng pr|nc|p|as Ior agr|cu|Iura| Irada
|; 7|e o|e-em|nence c/ c.e|a|| |ano-0se
G|ven that agr|cu|tura| |and |s scarce, to eed 9
b||||on peop|e every patch o su|tab|e |and |s needed
or cu|t|vat|on. Agr|cu|tura| product|on cannot on|y
concentrate on most avoured reg|ons, as the
common trade theory wou|d suggest. /|| ava||ab|e
|and has to be used so every reg|on has to be
product|ve and |esser avoured reg|ons have to
contr|bute the|r share. So sub-opt|mum use has to
be |ntegrated |nto the overa|| ood supp|y strategy.
8ox 4: Avo|d|ng conIus|on on Iha Iarms "rag|ona|" and "|oca|"
The emphas|s on the promot|on o reg|ona||zed or '|oca||zed' ood product|on does not suggest an ant|-g|oba||zat|on, nor
a pro se|-sufc|ency dr|ve. Pather, we are conv|nced that produc|ng or customers |n reg|ona|/|oca| markets (and us|ng
surp|us produce or home consumpt|on and trade) |s a more susta|nab|e mode o product|on rom a reproduct|ve ang|e.
The terms 'reg|ona|' or '|oca|' denote an overseeab|e geograph|ca| reg|on ||ke a d|str|ct, county or prov|nce that m|ght
extend across borders. ln the o||ow|ng we use the term "reg|ona|/|oca|" to c|ar|y, that we don't mean the v|||age-|eve|, but
rather a county or prov|nc|a| |eve|.
273
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
||; 7|e o|e-em|nence c/ o|.e|s||,
As out||ned above, d|vers|ty |s a key component o
agr|cu|ture. The spec|a||zat|on potent|a| |s thereore
||m|ted. Due to d|vers|ty requ|rements reg|ons can-
not concentrate so|e|y on one crop. A m|n|mum o
d|vers|ty requ|res a m|x o products (crop rotat|on),
where not every crop can have a comparat|ve ad-
vantage. D|verse product|on patterns buer pr|ce
h|kes and guaranty a more stab|e proft. And d|ver-
s|ty |s a nutr|t|ona| requ|rement, too. Last, but not
|east, d|vers|ty |s |mperat|ve or |mprov|ng the uture
res|||ence o agr|cu|ture to c||mate change. Thus |t
makes sense to pr|mar||y or|ent d|verse product|on
patterns towards |oca| demand.
29
|||; 7|e o|e-em|nence c/ |e|cna|/|cca| /cco o|co0c||cn
Peg|ona|/|oca| ood product|on and consumpt|on
|s be|ng |dent|fed as a new mega trend.
30
Peg|ona|/
|oca| product|on has benefts on env|ronmenta| and
soc|a| grounds. On the soc|a| s|de, more reg|on-
a||y/|oca||y-or|ented market re|at|ons prom|se more
decent |obs |n rura| areas not on|y |n agr|cu|ture,
but |n rura| support serv|ces as |t creates a rura|
economy. The env|ronmenta| benefts o a reg|ona|/
|oca| ocus are pr|mar||y |n d|verse product|on pat-
terns, wh|ch through more mosa|c-||ke structures
serve b|od|vers|ty |ssues better, |ncrease c|ose
nutr|ent cyc|es, tend to reduce externa| |nput use
and strengthen res|||ence o the product|on and the
eco-system at |arge.
31
Moreover, there |s grow|ng preerence o peop|e
or reg|ona|/|oca| product|on due to trust and |den-
t|fcat|on. Peop|e want to have a c|ose re|at|onsh|p
w|th the|r ood and ood producers. Bes|des, resh-
ness |s o grow|ng va|ue. Such ood |s best pro-
duced reg|ona||y/|oca||y and |mports comp|ement
|n terms o add|t|on and supp|ementat|on, ava||-
ab|||ty, seasona||ty and cu|tura| d|vers|ty.
32
Traded
goods shou|d a|so be resorted to |n cases where
|oca| products wou|d have a d|st|nct negat|ve en-
v|ronmenta| or soc|a| |mpact, such as greenhouse
product|on |n w|nter, |ntens|ve |rr|gat|on or |ong-
term co|d storage. Th|s |s a undamenta||y d|erent
approach to the comparat|ve advantage/ree trade
mode| that concentrates spec|a||zed product|on |n
the most avourab|e product|on s|tes, |eav|ng the
d|str|but|on to (g|oba|) trade.
Moreover, ood saety |ssues p|ay an |mportant
part |n th|s regard. The recent horse meat scanda|
|n Europe has made v|s|b|e, how vu|nerab|e |arge
cascaded va|ue cha|ns |n ood product|on are. Not
the |east aga|nst th|s background, ood |ndustr|es
|ncreas|ng|y tend to source |oca||y.
33
Po||t|cs shou|d
o||ow su|t |n ad|ust|ng concerned po||c|es.
|.; 7|e o|e-em|nence cn soec|a|||es
Export |n re|at|on to ood shou|d be ocused on
spec|a|t|es (where the va|ue added |s h|gh) and
surp|us produce. Agr|cu|tura| spec|a|t|es m|rror
necessar||y the or|g|n and or|g|na||ty o the
reg|on as we|| as comparat|ve phys|ca| and c||mat|c
advantages. The trade system needs to ac|||tate
and supp|ement such approaches and structures,
rather than whee||ng the baton o mass-product|on
and the "|ndustr|a||zat|on" |og|c.
34

.; 7|aoe as a ccmo|emen|
Trade |s a dr|ver or prosper|ty. D|sregard|ng
perverse subs|d|es, trade dr|ves costs down, wh|ch
makes ood more aordab|e and access|b|e. Trade
a|so contr|butes to cu|tura| d|vers|ty o ood. At
the same t|me, (hyper-)||bera||zed trade concepts
fnd the|r ||m|ts when |t comes to too narrow
spec|a||zat|on, mono-cropp|ng, h|gh market-power
concentrat|on, and eros|on o |oca| and reg|ona|
|dent|t|es and cu|tures. Trade |n ood shou|d not, or
not pr|mar||y, rep|ace |oca||zed supp|y,
35
but rather
comp|ement |t.
l these precond|t|ons were met, ood secur|ty and
the env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture cou|d be ad-
dressed |n a pro-act|ve and construct|ve manner.
36
d) Tha naW Irada Iormu|a
As a gu|d|ng pr|nc|p|e or uture trade |n agr|cu|tura|
goods we suggest the ormu|a: "Peg|ona| |s frst
cho|ce", or, to read |t d|erent|y: "as much reg|ona|-
|zed/|oca||zed ood product|on as poss|b|e, as much
traded ood as necessary".
For the t|me be|ng, as externa||t|es are ma|n|y not
|nterna||zed, carbon taxes are the rare except|on
rather than the ru|e and carbon-oset markets are
|arge|y dysunct|ona| a|| o wh|ch actors that wou|d
pr|or|t|ze reg|ona|/|oca| product|on through '|og|ca|'
market mechan|sms reg|ona|/|oca| preerences
||ke "buy |oca|" schemes shou|d be respected by
trade ru|es.
Systemat|c concentrat|on on g|oba||zed ood supp|y
|s part|y underm|n|ng the endeavour o estab||sh|ng
reg|ona||y/|oca||y appropr|ate and tru|y susta|nab|e
product|on and consumpt|on patterns (| there |s too
much export or|entat|on and thereore spec|a||zat|on,
there are too many |mport surges, too much ocus on
|ust econom|c efc|ency, and too ||tt|e heed pa|d to the
274
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
mu|t|-unct|ona||ty, reproduct|ve and res|||ence capac-
|ty o agr|cu|ture) (Howse and Te|te|, 2007: 11).
lt makes a d|erence whether enhanced reg|ona||y/
|oca||y-ocused product|on and consumpt|on happen
more by chance through h|gher pr|ced consumer
preerences desp|te a genera| export or|entat|on, or
whether the reg|ona|/|oca| ocus |s part o a strategy,
and any surp|us |s traded away |n an organ|zed man-
ner. lt wou|d be a task or trade po||c|es to shape ad-
equate normat|ve ru|es that create the r|ght |ncent|ve
structure |n th|s regard.
37
Karap|nar and Haber|| (2010)
advocate a "ra|nbow revo|ut|on" (|nstead o "|ust" a
green revo|ut|on) |n th|s respect, where ta||or made
approaches to each spec|fc |oca||ty are tack|ed |n a
broad |nc|us|ve approach.
Aga|nst the background o these pr|nc|p|es, what can
be ach|eved w|th the current trade-ru|e too| box?
N. Tha curranI Irada Ioo| box |n ragard Io
rag|ona|/|oca| Iood supp|y
Some o the app||ed WTO ru|es |nc|ude a range o
po||cy measures that are o some support to reg|ona|/
|oca| ood product|on:
The prov|s|ons on the "green box" |n Annex ll o the
AoA.
38
The use o the oe m|n|m|s prov|s|on on trade-
d|stort|ng support (up to 10 per cent o the tota|
va|ue o agr|cu|tura| product|on and 10 per cent o
the va|ue o any spec|fc crop |n a g|ven year or
most deve|op|ng countr|es).
reg|ona| content requ|rements, and
geograph|ca| |nd|cat|ons (to be extended to ood
|tems).
But these ru|es have an overa|| ||m|ted eect on oster-
|ng reg|ona|/|oca| ood product|on and consumpt|on.
The ach|evement o ood secur|ty |s bas|ca||y treated
by the ex|st|ng WTO ru|es as grounds or except|on or
a very ||m|ted range o trade ||bera||zat|on measures
(De Schutter, 2011c:16).
As po|nted out |n the |ead art|c|e o th|s chapter by
L|m L| Oh|ng and Mart|n Khor, there |s st||| qu|te some
room or |mprovement |n u||y exp|o|t|ng ex|st|ng 1ex-
|b|||t|es on SDT, SSM and SP as we|| as the green box
to ach|eve a better |eve| o ood secur|ty. No doubt,
th|s track shou|d be o||owed. Yet, w|th the beneft o
h|nds|ght, |t seems to be ar more comp|ex or |nter-
ested governments to turn concept |nto act|on |n th|s
regard.
F|rst, to be eect|ve, such approach requ|res a
c|ear w||||ngness and strategy by concerned gov-
ernments. Due to the neo-||bera| po||c|es o the |ast
decades and the current fnanc|a| cr|s|s states have
been weakened |n the|r regu|atory and fnanc|a|
capac|ty to dev|se such strateg|es. Second, pro-
act|ve|y exp|o|t|ng the 1ex|b|||t|es |n the ex|st|ng WTO
too|-box a|so requ|res a |eve| o co-operat|on and
to|erance by other WTO member countr|es.
The '|obs and growth' dependency o states and the
|nterest o commerc|a| pressure groups that proft
rom the status quo, who have contr|buted to shap|ng
and bu||d|ng up current neo-||bera| market structures,
may stand aga|nst the requ|red |eve| o co-operat|on
and to|erance. Th|rd, |n part|cu|ar deve|op|ng coun-
tr|es err on the s|de o caut|on not to v|o|ate WTO com-
m|tments. The|r governments are thus not very ||ke|y
to |aunch po||c|es that u||y exp|o|t the 1ex|b|||t|es |n the
WTO agreements w|thout strong assurance and con-
fdence that these |n|t|at|ves m|ght not negat|ve|y a-
ect th|rd part|es' commerc|a| |nterests and |eave them
exposed to potent|a| ||t|gat|on (De Schutter, 2011c:3).
Fourth, ex|st|ng 1ex|b|||t|es can be ||m|ted or made
d|fcu|t to exp|o|t by reg|ona| or b||atera| trade agree-
ments that create WTO-p|us d|sc|p||nes.
A|| |n a||, the ex|st|ng 1ex|b|||t|es |n WTO ru|es are not
sufc|ent and are un||ke|y to be u||y exp|o|ted.
h. A|raady ax|sI|ng rag|ona|/|oca|
Iood approachas
ln the ||ght o the grow|ng concern o c|t|zens on where
the|r ood comes rom
39
, many reta|| bus|nesses a|-
ready oer grow|ng numbers o reg|ona| products.
Pegard|ng a h|gher |eve| o ood sovere|gnty and the
grow|ng ro|e o c|v|| soc|ety |n th|s respect, some con-
tours o reg|ona| ood po||cy counc||s
40
or |oca||zed/
reg|ona| ood networks are a|ready v|s|b|e.
41
These
reg|ona||zed/|oca||zed ood networks make dec|s|ons
on the|r ood, as |t a|ready happens today when re-
g|ons ca|| themse|ves "GMO ree reg|on", or examp|e
(others m|ght opt or GMOs). The Braz|||an c|ty Be|o
Hor|zonte
42
|s a good examp|e on how a reg|ona|/|o-
ca| structured pattern has overcome the ood secu-
r|ty prob|em |n a very short t|me (Be|o Hor|zonte then
became the b|uepr|nt or the "ome zero" programme
wh|ch near|y erad|cated hunger |n Braz||).
Trade ru|es wou|d have to to|erate and pub||c and
pr|vate procurement wou|d have to accept such sys-
275
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
tems o preerences or reg|ona|/|oca| produce. Where
peop|e dec|de consc|ous|y about the|r ood and nutr|-
t|on, th|s shou|d not be overru|ed by any, part|cu|ar|y
mercant|||st doctr|ne.
. uI|oo|
There are many reasons why the s|tuat|on o ood se-
cur|ty and the env|ronmenta| cr|s|s o agr|cu|ture |s un-
sat|sactory today. l we ser|ous|y want to ach|eve ood
secur|ty, pract|ce equa||ty and protect the p|anet, hav-
|ng a|ready crossed some p|anetary boundar|es, the
current system needs ad|ustment. For the uture, we
have to th|nk out o the box. To respect the pr|nc|pa|
reg|ona|/|oca| nature o agr|cu|ture and ad|ust re|ated
po||c|es cou|d be one o the frst steps. What |s re-
qu|red |s a strengthen|ng o reg|ona| and s|te-spec|fc
ho||st|c approaches that prov|de d|verse benefts as
part o more |oca||zed ood product|on networks. lt
shou|d however be emphas|zed |n th|s regard that |t
|s not our |ntent|on to create new protect|on|st mea-
sures. Pather, we want to advocate a more reason-
ab|e ood-market approach, wh|ch harnesses the
potent|a| o rea||y susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| product|on
to (|) enhance susta|nab|e product|v|ty o the who|e
product|on system (not on|y |nd|v|dua| products), (||)
assure ood secur|ty and rura| ||ve||hoods, (|||) re1ect
and cap|ta||ze on the d|vers|ty o agr|cu|ture to assure
|ts re-product|ve capac|ty, (|v) strengthen unct|ona|
b|o-d|vers|ty, and (v) bu||d up res|||ence to resource
constra|nts and c||mate change as we|| as |mprove
agr|cu|ture's c||mate m|t|gat|on potent|a|.
276
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
Much o the |nternat|ona| debate on trade and agr|-
cu|ture, rom the ound|ng o the Wor|d Trade Orga-
n|zat|on (WTO) to the recent r|se o agr|cu|tura| com-
mod|ty pr|ces, has ocused on the damag|ng eects
o agr|cu|tura| dump|ng (|.e. export|ng at be|ow cost
o product|on) by agr|bus|ness corporat|ons based |n
the E and the n|ted States. S|nce 2008, as a resu|t
o the g|oba| ood pr|ce cr|s|s, th|s ocus has sh|ted
to concerns about pr|ce vo|at|||ty. But both dump|ng
and vo|at|||ty are symptoms o the same bad po||cy
dec|s|ons: a weaken|ng o government overs|ght |n
sett|ng and |mp|ement|ng agr|cu|tura|, fnanc|a| and
trade ru|es. Wh||e th|s approach has been a boon to
agr|bus|ness compan|es operat|ng around the g|obe,
|t has been damag|ng to armers and those strug-
g||ng w|th ood |nsecur|ty. Equa||y |mportant, th|s era
o vo|at|||ty threatens to overwhe|m eorts to trans|t|on
to more res|||ent, eco|og|ca||y r|end|y agr|cu|tura| pro-
duct|on that |s essent|a| |n the present context o c||-
mate change. The |nternat|ona| debate needs to sh|t
once aga|n to a ocus on the r|ght k|nds o ru|es to
rebu||d res|||ent ood systems. Substant|ve structura|
reorms o agr|cu|tura|, fnanc|a| and trade po||c|es
wou|d be a ma|or step orward.
A. L|bara||t|ng Irada and |ncraas|ng
Iood |nsacur|Iy
The ||bera||zat|on o trade ru|es great|y acce|erated
|n 1994 w|th the passage o the North Amer|can Free
Trade Agreement (NAFTA), wh|ch set the standard
or subsequent b||atera| and reg|ona| trade
agreements |nvo|v|ng the n|ted States, such as the
Oentra| Amer|ca-Dom|n|can Pepub||c-n|ted States
Free Trade Agreement (OAFTA), and those negot|ated
between Mex|co and other trad|ng partners. lt a|so
|n1uenced the nature o trade dea|s pursued by the
E. Short|y ater the passage o NAFTA, the WTO
came |nto be|ng |n 1995, and var|ous WTO agreements
(part|cu|ar|y the Agreement on Agr|cu|ture) |nduced
the urther open|ng up o markets |n deve|op|ng
countr|es. These b||atera| and mu|t||atera| agreements
||m|ted the po||cy opt|ons ava||ab|e to these countr|es
to protect the|r armers rom dumped |mports and to
support the|r armers |n boost|ng ood product|on. Th|s
wave o agreements to ||bera||ze trade and deregu|ate
cap|ta| movements opened deve|op|ng econom|es
to ore|gn corporate |nvestment that ocused on
expand|ng |arge-sca|e |ndustr|a| ood product|on or
export. As a resu|t o these changes, many countr|es
that had prev|ous|y produced most o the|r own ood
became dependent on |mports. A dramat|c examp|e
|s that o Ha|t|, wh|ch produced 80 per cent o |ts r|ce
requ|rements |n the 1980s, but now, o||ow|ng decades
o deregu|at|on and ||bera||zat|on, |mports 80 per cent
o |ts r|ce (Guerea, 2010).
Dur|ng the WTO's frst decade o ex|stence, dump|ng
by mu|t|nat|ona| agr|bus|ness compan|es was both
w|despread and h|gh|y destruct|ve. The lnst|tute or
Agr|cu|ture and Trade Po||cy (lATP, 2005) ca|cu|ated
dump|ng marg|ns or n|ted States commod|ty crops
dur|ng the per|od 19902003 and ound that wheat,
corn, soybeans, r|ce and cotton were cons|stent|y
exported at we|| be|ow the cost o product|on (rang|ng
rom 10 per cent or corn to more than 50 per cent
or cotton). A subsequent study by W|se (2010) a|so
ound that dump|ng o n|ted States commod|ty
crops and meat on Mex|co was commonp|ace dur|ng
the per|od 19972005.
Commontary ||: |rom Dump|ng to vo|at|||ty: 1ho Lossons of
1rado L|bora||zat|on for Agr|cu|turo
8an L||||sIon and karan hansan-kuhn, InsI|IuIa Ior Agr|cu|Iura and Trada Po||cy
AbsIracI
The weaken|ng o agr|cu|tura|, fnanc|a| and trade ru|es has contr|buted s|gn|fcant|y to |ncreased vo|at||-
|ty and corporate concentrat|on |n agr|cu|tura| markets. Th|s |ncreased vo|at|||ty |s harmu| to |ong-term
|nvestments to protect the env|ronment and bu||d c||mate res|||ence |n agr|cu|ture. Pub||c |nvestment and
regu|at|on |s needed to ensure stab|e ood supp||es and a|r pr|ces, and to ac|||tate a sh|t to susta|nab|e
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces.
277
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
Wh||e trade ||bera||zat|on, or ree trade, was touted as
a way to |mprove ood secur|ty, |t has unquest|onab|y
a||ed (Murphy, 2009). F|oods o dumped |mports,
espec|a||y dur|ng the harvest, can be devastat|ng
or deve|op|ng-country armers, and they |ncrease
dependence on ood |mports. Add|t|ona||y, trade
ru|es have ac|||tated the urther concentrat|on o
g|oba| ood supp|y |n |arge pr|vate frms, thereby
d|sempower|ng not on|y armers and consumers, but
even governments. Dependence on th|s |ncreas|ng|y
concentrated g|oba| ood supp|y cha|n, dom|nated
by pr|vate p|ayers, |ncreases |mport|ng countr|es'
vu|nerab|||ty to shocks, whether rom extreme weather
events or excess|ve fnanc|a| specu|at|on |n agr|cu|tura|
commod|ty markets. Moreover, the sh|t towards a
greater ro|e or the pr|vate sector |n manag|ng the
g|oba| ood supp|y has co|nc|ded w|th r|s|ng g|oba|
rates o hunger rom 788 m||||on wor|dw|de |n 1995
1997 to 925 m||||on |n 2010 (FAO, 2011).
8. n|Iad 8IaIas agr|cu|Iura|
po||cy: Fraadom Io Ia||
Work|ng |n tandem w|th eorts to urther ||bera||ze
trade, n|ted States arm po||cy has retreated rom |ts
trad|t|ona| ro|e |n manag|ng agr|cu|tura| markets. Over
the past ha| century, the country's agr|cu|tura| po||cy
has sh|ted rom a system o supp|y management
that he|ped moderate pr|ces or both armers and
consumers, to a system more dependent on so-
ca||ed ree-market orces. Th|s trans|t|on cu|m|nated
|n the 1996 Farm B||| (known as Freedom to Farm),
wh|ch removed the |ast vest|ges o supp|y and pr|ce
management (except or sugar), ostens|b|y to a||ow
armers to respond to market pr|ces and export to
new markets overseas. But as armers expanded
product|on w|th no supp|y management, agr|cu|tura|
commod|ty pr|ces co||apsed. The o||ow|ng decade o
|ow pr|ces oten be|ow the cost o product|on not
on|y |ed to |ncreased dump|ng on export markets, but
a|so spurred the n|ted States Oongress to attempt to
compensate or |ts po||cy a||ure by approv|ng a ser|es
o emergency subs|dy payments, and u|t|mate|y
mak|ng those payments permanent |n the 2002 Farm
B|||.
Dur|ng th|s decade o |ow pr|ces and |ncreased
dump|ng, n|ted States arm subs|dy payments
soared, peak|ng |n 2000 and 2001, and aga|n |n 2005.
But s|nce 2005, payments to domest|c armers have
stead||y dropped as commod|ty pr|ces have r|sen.
43

H|gher commod|ty pr|ces have not necessar||y meant
h|gher profts or armers. Oosts o |nputs, |nc|ud|ng
seeds and ert|||zer, have a|so dramat|ca||y |ncreased,
reduc|ng the potent|a| profts o sma|| and med|um-
s|zed armers |n the n|ted States (W|se, 2011, SDA,
2010). The cost/pr|ce squeeze acce|erated the trend
|n n|ted States agr|cu|ture away rom sma|| and
med|um-s|zed arms to very |arge arms that were ab|e
to spread costs over |arger |and areas. These |arge
arms were a|so the benefc|ar|es o about 75 per cent
o commod|ty programme subs|d|es. As a resu|t, over
the past 25 years, the number o sma||, commerc|a||y
v|ab|e arms (w|th sa|es o between $10,000 and
$250,000) has a||en by 40 per cent, and that o very
|arge arms (w|th sa|es o more than $1 m||||on) has
|ncreased by 243 per cent (Hoppe, MacDona|d and
Korb, 2010). A|so dur|ng th|s per|od, the percentage
o n|ted States agr|cu|tura| product|on contro||ed
by the top our frms |n a g|ven sector has |ncreased
substant|a||y. For examp|e, |n bee pack|ng |t rose
rom 72 per cent |n 1990 to 83.5 per cent |n 2005
(Hendr|ckson and Heernan, 2007).
E subs|d|es to agr|cu|ture under the Oommon
Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy (OAP) are now |arge|y decoup|ed
(unconnected to product|on or pr|ces, mak|ng them
"m|n|ma||y trade-d|stort|ng" to the WTO). Wh||e the
true extent o the decoup||ng depends on how the
subs|d|es are measured, tota| E subs|d|es have not
var|ed as dramat|ca||y as those o the n|ted States
over the past ew years (Berthe|ot, 2011).
44
Wh||e the
OAP d|ers substant|ve|y rom the n|ted States Farm
B|||, the under|y|ng cha||enge |s the same how to
red|rect support away rom |arge-sca|e product|on or
export towards programmes that can prov|de greater
ood secur|ty, rura| ||ve||hoods and a trans|t|on to
susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture. The current comp|ex system
o support enab|es agr|bus|nesses to exp|o|t the
system to the detr|ment o armers |n both deve|op|ng
and deve|oped countr|es.
0. F|nanc|a| mar|aI daragu|aI|on
How fnanc|a| markets and commod|ty utures markets
are regu|ated |s another actor that strong|y aects
agr|cu|tura| product|on. A ser|es o |aws passed by the
n|ted States Oongress, beg|nn|ng |n the ear|y 1990s
and cu|m|nat|ng |n 2004, succeeded |n open|ng up
commod|ty utures markets to a 1ood o new specu|a-
t|ve money. ln 2004, Hank Pau|son, Treasury Secretary
|n the George W. Bush Adm|n|strat|on and then ch|e
execut|ve ofcer o Go|dman Sachs, successu||y
|obb|ed or an exempt|on rom the ru|e that |nvestment
278
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
banks ma|nta|n |arge enough currency reserves to
cover the|r unsuccessu| trades. The ru|e exempt|on
reed b||||ons o do||ars that Go|dman Sachs and our
other banks used or h|gh-r|sk |nvestments, |nc|ud|ng
commod|ty |ndex und bets (lATP, 2008). Oommod|ty
|ndex unds (wh|ch dea| |n agr|cu|ture, energy and
meta|s) exp|o|ted these new |oopho|es and 1ooded
commod|ty markets w|th money, bett|ng thereby to
dr|ve up pr|ces, regard|ess o the market undamenta|s
o supp|y and demand. For examp|e, |n March 2008,
the unregu|ated b|ggest p|ayers, Morgan Stan|ey
and Go|dman Sachs, owned 1.5 b||||on bushe|s o
Oh|cago Board o Trade corn utures contracts, wh||e
a|| corn producers and processors had the means to
hedge on|y 11 m||||on bushe|s aga|nst pr|ce sw|ngs.
These unregu|ated unds contro||ed 33 per cent o
a|| n|ted States agr|cu|tura| utures contracts dur|ng
the per|od 20062008 (Suppan, 2009). Most o th|s
excess|ve specu|at|ve act|v|ty takes p|ace |n over-the-
counter trad|ng, wh|ch |s traded o-exchange and |s
not sub|ect to trade data report|ng requ|rements, or to
marg|n co||atera| and other requ|rements o regu|ated
exchanges. When these Wa|| Street unds so|d o the|r
contracts |n m|d-2008, pr|ces tumb|ed. Over|everaged
fnanc|a| frms, w|thout reserves to cover |osses, were
|nso|vent counterpart|es to these r|sk bets unt|| they
were recap|ta||zed by the n|ted States Oongress and
taxpayers. Today, these same fnanc|a| specu|ators
cont|nue to destab|||ze commod|ty markets |n the
n|ted States and e|sewhere (see a|so the comment
o Mu||er |n th|s chapter).
The ro|e o excess|ve specu|at|on on |nternat|ona|
agr|cu|ture markets has been we|| documented
by a host o |nternat|ona| agenc|es and research
|nst|tut|ons, |nc|ud|ng, most recent|y, NOTAD
(2011). The NOTAD report, through an ana|ys|s o
data as we|| as extens|ve |nterv|ews w|th fnanc|a|
traders, descr|bes the new orces o fnanc|a||zat|on
|n commod|ty markets, beg|nn|ng |n 2004, and the|r
contr|but|on to stead||y r|s|ng pr|ces and |ncreas|ng
vo|at|||ty.
F|na||y, |t |s |mposs|b|e to overstate the enormous
costs o fnanc|a| market deregu|at|on to government
budgets around the wor|d. Agr|cu|ture has not been
spared by the g|oba| fnanc|a| co||apse, as |ess and
|ess money |s now ava||ab|e or ood a|d, and or
|nvestments or |ncreas|ng product|on |n deve|op|ng
countr|es, or promot|ng susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and
or agr|cu|tura| adaptat|on to c||mate change, among
many other needs.
. InvasImanIs |n aco|og|ca| agr|cu|Iura
undarm|nad by vo|aI|||Iy
Extreme|y |ow agr|cu|tura| commod|ty pr|ces over
the past two decades, o||owed by recent sp|kes |n
pr|ces, d|scourage |ong-term |nvestments |n more
susta|nab|e, eco|og|ca| agr|cu|ture that w||| beneft
the env|ronment, water qua||ty and quant|ty, and the
c||mate. When pr|ces are |ow, armers strugg|e to make
a ||v|ng, and ocus a|most exc|us|ve|y on |ncreas|ng
product|on to make up or the |ow pr|ces. When pr|ces
shoot up or are pro|ected to |ncrease, governments
and academ|cs oten adv|se armers to devote even
more |and to product|on, oten |n env|ronmenta||y
sens|t|ve areas. Th|s tens|on between the usua||y
ut||e eorts to respond to pr|ces and |nvestments or
|ong-term env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty |s ev|dent |n
recent cha||enges ac|ng n|ted States conservat|on
programmes, spec|fca||y the Oonservat|on Peserve
Program (OPP) and the Oonservat|on Stewardsh|p
Program (OSP).
The Oonservat|on Peserve Program |s part o the
Farm B||| that pays armers to set as|de and protect
marg|na| arm|and rom agr|cu|tura| product|on. OPP
|and |s cr|t|ca| to s|ow|ng down so|| eros|on, and
protect|ng w||d||e and waterways. lndeed, |t has
protected tens o m||||ons o acres over the years.
But th|s popu|ar programme has seen a s|gn|fcant
dec||ne |n part|c|pat|on as armers have taken over
more |and or product|on |n an attempt to beneft rom
r|s|ng commod|ty pr|ces. From October 2008 to Ju|y
2010, 3.4 m||||on acres o OPP |and went back |nto
arm product|on (Oowan, 2010).
The Oonservat|on Stewardsh|p Program |s the
country's |argest conservat|on programme, cover|ng
35 m||||on acres nat|onw|de, and |t |s access|b|e to a||
armers regard|ess o s|ze or type o crop product|on.
lt rewards armers based on the|r conservat|on
pract|ces that protect the so||, water, a|r and natura|
resources. ln past Farm B|||s, the OSP was woeu||y
underunded. The 2008 Farm B||| took a ma|or step
orward by a||ow|ng an est|mated 13 m||||on acres to
be e||g|b|e or OSP's mu|t|-year contracts each year.
Desp|te th|s und|ng |ncrease, on|y 57 per cent o
e||g|b|e armers cou|d part|c|pate |n the programme |n
2009 and 2010 because o a |ack o unds, accord|ng
to the n|ted States Department o Agr|cu|ture (SDA).
And the programme |s ||ke|y to ace cutbacks under
current eorts to reduce government debt. A 2012
budget b||| passed by the House o Pepresentat|ves
|n June 2011 wou|d cut over $1 b||||on |n conservat|on
279
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
spend|ng, |nc|ud|ng $210 m||||on d|rect|y rom the OSP
(current|y unded at $1.2 b||||on a year), and potent|a||y
orce the SDA to break contracts w|th armers that
were s|gned ear||er th|s year.
45
lt |s unc|ear exact|y how
much und|ng or conservat|on programmes w||| be cut
as part o the recent debt ce|||ng b||| passed |n August
2011. A|though some conservat|on programmes |n the
n|ted States Farm B||| support pract|ces that w||| both
reduce carbon em|ss|ons and |ncrease adaptat|on to
c||mate change, the b||| does not exp||c|t|y address
c||mate change. Desp|te the |ack o comprehens|ve
c||mate change |eg|s|at|on, the Obama Adm|n|strat|on
and the SDA have strong|y supported treat|ng
agr|cu|ture |arge|y as a source o carbon em|ss|on
oset cred|ts or po||uters part|c|pat|ng |n a carbon
market. Th|s perspect|ve on agr|cu|ture's p|ace w|th|n
c||mate po||cy |s re1ected |n a June 2011 SDA
announcement o grants or pro|ects geared a|most
ent|re|y to measur|ng GHG em|ss|on reduct|ons, and
how those reduct|ons cou|d be converted |nto oset
cred|ts or a carbon market (SDA, 2011). There
are no government p|ans or s|gn|fcant resources
ocused on he|p|ng agr|cu|ture |n the n|ted States
to trans|t|on towards more c||mate-res|||ent pract|ces
and product|on.
The expected cuts |n conservat|on programmes |n the
n|ted States, and the den|a| by Oongress o c||mate
change as a ma|or destab|||z|ng actor |n agr|cu|tura|
product|on are |n contrast w|th Europe's c||mate
change or|entat|on w|th|n |ts Oommon Agr|cu|tura|
Po||cy. That c||mate change |s happen|ng and must be
addressed |n agr|cu|ture po||cy |s understood w|th|n
the OAP. ln May 2011 the European Par||ament's
Agr|cu|ture Oomm|ttee agreed to ma|nta|n und|ng or
agr|cu|ture and to |ncrease |ts emphas|s on produc|ng
enough ood wh||e |mprov|ng env|ronmenta| pract|ces.
ln add|t|on to |ncreas|ng |ncent|ves or susta|nab|e
product|on, the E w||| more d|rect|y ||nk payments
to "green|ng measures" that reduce GHG em|ss|ons
(EurAct|v, 2011).
E. From vo|aI|||Iy Io susIa|nab|||Iy
The seeds o current pr|ce and supp|y vo|at|||ty |n
agr|cu|tura| markets were p|anted severa| decades
ago through a ser|es o po||cy dec|s|ons that
have gradua||y strengthened the ho|d o |arge
agr|bus|nesses over markets and d|sempowered both
armers and countr|es strugg||ng w|th ood |nsecur|ty.
To he|p address the enormous cha||enges re|ated
to ood |nsecur|ty and env|ronmenta| and c||mate
degradat|on |n the com|ng years, market reorms are
needed to make agr|cu|ture more econom|ca||y and
env|ronmenta||y susta|nab|e. The |ssue |s not on|y
re|ated to trade, |t a|so |nvo|ves d|sentang||ng |oca|
ood econom|es rom the gr|ps o vu|nerab|e supp|y
cha|ns dom|nated by transnat|ona| corporat|ons.
lt |s not on|y about whether subs|d|es are r|ght or
wrong, but rather how best to |nvest pub||c money
and estab||sh regu|atory overs|ght to create the r|ght
ood system. A new set o va|ues must be |n|ected
|nto po||cy-mak|ng that g|ves pr|or|ty to ood secur|ty,
armers' ||ve||hoods, env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty and
res|||ence, and democrat|c dec|s|on-mak|ng.
The o||ow|ng are some |n|t|a| steps that shou|d be
taken:
A reassessment o trade ru|es to enab|e deve|op|ng
countr|es to protect and support sectors v|ta| to
the|r ood secur|ty and rura| ||ve||hoods.
Support or the estab||shment o ood reserves as
a too| to m|t|gate pr|ce and supp|y vo|at|||ty and
strengthen ood secur|ty when domest|c product|on
a||s.
Prevent|on o excess|ve specu|at|on |n commod|ty
markets through the estab||shment o commod|ty-
spec|fc pos|t|on ||m|ts and |ncreased transparency
|n over-the-counter trad|ng.
Greater |nvestment |n agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng
pract|ces, as out||ned |n the reports o the
lnternat|ona| Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge
Sc|ence and Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD,
2008), to strengthen both ood secur|ty and
res|||ence to c||mate change, w|th an emphas|s
on support|ng sma||-sca|e armers, part|cu|ar|y
women.
Peorm o nat|ona| arm po||c|es, part|cu|ar|y the
n|ted States Farm B||| and the E's Oommon
Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy, to e||m|nate dump|ng,
encourage env|ronmenta| susta|nab|||ty and
prevent o||gopo||st|c contro| o market pr|ces and
pract|ces.
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
ln many deve|op|ng countr|es, agr|cu|ture |s the ma|n
source o rura| ||ve||hoods and the oremost prov|der
o emp|oyment. More than one th|rd o the wor|d's
popu|at|on der|ve the|r ||ve||hoods rom |and, grow|ng
ood or the|r am|||es and or |oca| markets pr|mar||y
stap|es grown ma|n|y on sma|| |and ho|d|ngs. Thus,
sma|| arm systems de acto rema|n the backbone o
ood secur|ty |n deve|op|ng countr|es even today.
However, rura| poverty and rura| hunger are
w|despread, and the ma|or|ty o a|| poor and hungry
peop|e wor|dw|de ||ve |n rura| areas (lFAD, 2010).
To address th|s s|tuat|on, governments need to
reth|nk current ood secur|ty strateg|es. S|nce the
1980s, po||c|es concern|ng ood secur|ty have been
|ncreas|ng|y trade-or|ented. Due to |ow wor|d market
pr|ces, cheap |mports o ood products have been
avoured over nat|ona| product|on or ach|ev|ng ood
secur|ty. Moreover, |t has been a common be||e that
overa|| econom|c growth wou|d automat|ca||y |ead to
the a||ev|at|on o hunger (FAO, 2008), and that the
|ntegrat|on o sma|| and med|um armers |nto export-
or|ented, g|oba| va|ue cha|ns wou|d he|p reduce
poverty and hunger |n deve|op|ng countr|es.
Yet, |ook|ng at sma|| producers and the ood secur|ty
s|tuat|on |n var|ous deve|op|ng countr|es today,
overa||, th|s strategy has not de||vered. On the
contrary, ood |nsecur|ty and poverty |n rura| areas
have |ncreased |n recent years (FAO, 2008). Sma||
producers have aced mu|t|p|e cr|ses, among them
h|gh pr|ce vo|at|||ty, the econom|c downturn due to
the g|oba| fnanc|a| and econom|c cr|s|s, and weather
extremes due to c||mate change a|| o wh|ch have
exacerbated each other (Fan and Heady, 2010). S|nce
sma|| producers oten have ||m|ted adapt|ve capac|ty
and res|||ence to adequate|y react to externa| shocks,
the |eve| o uncerta|nty, |n part|cu|ar, threatens the|r
econom|c s|tuat|on. A|| s|gns po|nt to th|s |eve| o
uncerta|nty |ncreas|ng as a resu|t o a worsen|ng o
anthropogen|c c||mate change |n the com|ng years
and decades.
Thereore, |t |s necessary to reth|nk current ood
secur|ty strateg|es, |nc|ud|ng the ro|e and system
o agr|cu|tura| trade |n the ||ght o g|oba| warm|ng.
Food secur|ty strateg|es now have to cope w|th three
cha||enges:
(|) agr|cu|tura| product|on |s becom|ng |ncreas|ng|y
aected by chang|ng c||mat|c cond|t|ons,
(||) |n para||e|, agr|cu|ture markets are be|ng
destab|||zed by c||mat|c |mpacts, and
(|||) at the same t|me, agr|cu|ture has to contr|bute to
m|t|gat|ng c||mate change and must augment |ts
carbon s|nk capac|t|es, rather than rema|n|ng a
ma|or source o greenhouse gas em|ss|ons. G|ven
these cha||enges, ood secur|ty strateg|es that re|y
Commontary |||: oth|nk|ng |ood 5ocur|ty 5tratog|os |n 1|mos of
C||mato Chango: 1ho Caso for og|ona||zat|on of
Agr|cu|tura| 1rado and Loca| Markots
0hr|sI|na 0hamn|It, ha|nr|ch 8|| FoundaI|on, and
T||man 8anIar|us, armanWaIch
AbsIracI
A susta|nab|e transormat|on o sma|| arm systems |n deve|op|ng countr|es w||| on|y succeed | |t |s |nte-
grated |nto overa|| agr|cu|tura| and ood deve|opment strateg|es. lssues concern|ng the agr|cu|tura| trad|ng
system, as one o the ma|or dr|vers o the ex|st|ng ood product|on system, need to be ||nked to the debate
on agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to adaptat|on and c||mate change m|t|gat|on. S|nce trade ||bera||zat|on and ex-
port or|entat|on tend to underm|ne adapt|ve strateg|es and encourage |nput-|ntens|ve, "c||mate-unr|end|y"
arm|ng, the susta|nab|e transormat|on o the agr|cu|tura| sector requ|res a undamenta| reth|nk|ng o cur-
rent trade po||c|es.
The pr|nc|p|e o "econom|c subs|d|ar|ty" oers gu|dance or th|s transormat|on (Sachs and Santar|us,
2007). lt |mp||es that econom|c exchanges |n the ood system shou|d be carr|ed out preerab|y at the |oca|
and nat|ona| |eve|s, wh||e exchanges at the cont|nenta| or g|oba| |eve| shou|d have on|y a comp|ementary
unct|on.
281
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
on trade and that push or the urther |ntegrat|on o
deve|op|ng countr|es' ood product|on systems |n
the g|oba| market are not appropr|ate.
ln th|s paper, we frst ana|yse how the present system
o g|oba||zed agr|cu|tura| product|on and market|ng
exacerbates anthropogen|c c||mate change, and why
sma|| producers that are |ntegrated |nto g|oba| va|ue
cha|ns are part|cu|ar|y at r|sk due to c||mate change.
We then d|scuss how the current pattern o agr|cu|tura|
trade and product|on shou|d be mod|fed |n order to
stop the v|c|ous c|rc|e o |ncreased trade-or|entat|on
exacerbat|ng c||mate change, and |ncreased c||mate
change endanger|ng sma|| armers' ood secur|ty.
F|na||y, we present po||c|es or a reg|ona||zat|on
o agr|cu|tura| trade 1ows and the |ntegrat|on o
sma||ho|ders |n |oca| and reg|ona| markets.
A. Tha g|oba| agr|cu|Iura| Irad|ng sysIam
|s conIr|buI|ng Io c||maIa changa.
Humans have exchanged agr|cu|tura| products ever
s|nce they started arm|ng. The ma|n purpose o those
trade 1ows was to supp|ement the d|et w|th products
that cou|d on|y be grown |n other c||mat|c zones and
geograph|ca| sett|ngs. W|th trade ||bera||zat|on, trade
|n agr|cu|ture started to serve an add|t|ona| purpose:
to advance econom|c efc|ency through |ncreased
compet|t|on among producers wor|dw|de. Agr|cu|tura|
product|on can respond to |ncreased compet|t|on |n a
number o ways, two o wh|ch, |n part|cu|ar, can have
negat|ve |mpacts on c||mate, name|y an expans|on
o the area under cu|t|vat|on, and spec|a||zat|on and
|ntens|fcat|on o product|on processes.
The expans|on o agr|cu|ture |s the ma|n reason or
the c|ear|ng o pr|mary orests, and or the convers|on
o natura| pra|r|es to |and or grow|ng crops or or
||vestock graz|ng. lt |s a|so respons|b|e or the dra|n|ng
o wet|ands or |rr|gat|on and cu|t|vat|on (OBD, 2003).
Today, changes |n |and use |n agr|cu|ture and orestry,
as we|| as em|ss|ons rom arm|ng and ||vestock,
contr|bute over 30 per cent to g|oba| anthropogen|c
GHG em|ss|ons, re|eas|ng |n part|cu|ar methane,
n|trous ox|de, and, to a |esser extent, carbon d|ox|de
(lPOO, 2007a, see a|so the comment o GPAlN |n
chapter 1 o th|s Pev|ew). The convers|on o trop|ca|
orests and savannahs |nto agr|cu|tura| |and |s
part|cu|ar|y em|ss|on-|ntens|ve, pr|mar||y due to the
burn|ng o the b|omass or|g|na||y ex|st|ng on the |and,
and to the re|ease o organ|c carbon stored |n so||s
(Steen et a|., 2004).
Bes|des the convers|on o |and or agr|cu|ture,
|ncreased spec|a||zat|on and |ntens|fcat|on o
product|on, wh|ch enab|es armers to part|c|pate |n
g|oba| markets, genera||y enta||s the greater use o
pest|c|des, ert|||zers, water and ue|. Huge amounts
o GHGs are em|tted through the product|on and
use o externa| |nputs, such as agrochem|ca|s, arm
mach|nery and pumped |rr|gat|on. ln the n|ted States,
or examp|e, arm |nputs account or more than 90 per
cent o the tota| d|rect and |nd|rect energy used |n
agr|cu|ture (Saunders, 2004). L|kew|se, downstream
em|ss|ons |ncrease as the process|ng, packag|ng and
reta|||ng o ood |tems that are exported become more
energy-|ntens|ve.
At the same t|me, grow|ng compet|t|on |s ||ke|y to
undercut |ess |ntens|ve arm|ng pract|ces that susta|n
a broad var|ety o crops, hedges, trees and cu|tura|
|andscapes, and thus threatens sma||-sca|e, s|te-
or|ented, |ntegrated arm|ng systems, part|cu|ar|y
|n deve|op|ng countr|es (OBD, 2003). For |nstance,
w|th an|ma|s mov|ng rom pastures to |ntens|ve eed-
|ot product|on, and the number o catt|e, p|gs and
pou|try stead||y |ncreas|ng to meet grow|ng meat-
based d|ets, more methane |s re|eased rom enter|c
ermentat|on and an|ma| waste, |n contrast, grass-ed
an|ma|s em|t |ess methane than ||vestock that |s ed
on a h|gh prote|n d|et

(Saunders, 2004, Kotsch| and
Mu||er-Samann, 2004, see a|so the |ead art|c|e o lde|
and Pe|chert |n chapter 2 o th|s Pev|ew).
ln add|t|on to the |mpacts o c||mate change rom
the |ntens|fcat|on and expans|on o agr|cu|tura|
product|on or export, the overa|| vo|ume o transport
|ncreases as trade grows. Average d|stances o ood
sh|pments are set to |ncrease even more, as resh ru|t
reach Europe rom lnd|a, or |nstance, and soybean
sh|pments rom Braz|| to Oh|na r|se. However, the
exp|os|on o ood m||es |s the Ach|||es' hee| o g|oba|
va|ue cha|ns |n agr|cu|ture, mak|ng them vu|nerab|e
to steep r|ses |n o|| pr|ce and the |mpacts o c||mate
change.
8. .Wh||a c||maIa changa |s andangar|ng
sma|| producars
Notw|thstand|ng these env|ronmenta| cha||enges,
and a grow|ng awareness o c||mate-change-re|ated
|ssues, eorts to |ntegrate sma|| and med|um producers
|nto g|oba| va|ue cha|ns cont|nue unabated. Market|ng
cha|ns are be|ng |mproved and sma|| producers are
be|ng encouraged and ass|sted |n comp|y|ng w|th
282
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
|nternat|ona| pr|vate and pub||c ood qua||ty and saety
standards (see, or examp|e, Humphrey, 2005, and
P|nga||, Khwa|a and Me||er, 2005). Sma|| producers
|n g|oba| va|ue cha|ns have a|ways aced certa|n r|sks
because usua||y they are the |east poweru| and most
vu|nerab|e p|ayers |n the cha|n, and because they are
pr|ce takers or both the|r product|on |nputs and the|r
output. Moreover, they are oten conronted w|th a
rag||e ba|ance between (a) product|on or the market,
and thus |ncome generat|on, (b) product|on or the|r
own consumpt|on, and (c) househo|d expend|ture or
ood. However, these three aspects are |ncreas|ng|y
aected by chang|ng temperatures, more requent
weather extremes such as droughts or heavy ra|ns,
and grow|ng |nstab|||ty o ecosystem serv|ces. Thus
c||mate change has become an |mportant actor |n
destab|||z|ng the rag||e ood secur|ty s|tuat|on o sma||
producers |n g|oba| va|ue cha|ns.
Look|ng at sma||ho|ders' product|on or the market,
part|c|pat|on |n g|oba| va|ue cha|ns oten demands
spec|a||zat|on |n a ew cash crops and an |ntens|fcat|on
o product|on. As a consequence, many armers have
g|ven up more d|vers|fed product|on systems, such
as m|xed cropp|ng. However, m|xed cropp|ng |s much
better su|ted to cop|ng w|th the |mpacts o c||mate
change. ln contrast, | weather extremes or new|y
|ntroduced paras|tes h|t the ew cash crops grown |n
spec|a||zed arms, producers r|sk a tota| |oss o the|r
harvest. Furthermore, as spec|a||zat|on |s at odds w|th
susta|nab|e |and and water management, |t decreases
rather than bu||ds up so|| ert|||ty. And a poor so||
structure r|sks eros|on and reduces the so||'s ab|||ty to
capture water and store carbon. Th|s too weakens the
ab|||ty o the product|on system to cope w|th extreme
droughts or heavy ra|ns. Thus susta|nab|e so|| and
water management are und|sputed|y among the most
|mportant e|ements or agr|cu|tura| adaptat|on and or
the res|||ence o sma|| producers.
As spec|a||zed sma||ho|ders must re|y on buy|ng the|r
own ood rom the market, they r|sk be|ng h|t tw|ce
by the |mpacts o c||mate change. An |ncreas|ng|y
vo|at||e and rag||e g|oba| ood product|on system
due to c||mate change means that sma|| producers
ace a h|gher r|sk not on|y o product|on |osses, but
a|so o sharp|y |ncreas|ng ood pr|ces. The vo|at|||ty
o ood pr|ces has |ncreased tremendous|y over the
past ew years, |n part due to harvest |osses resu|t|ng
rom c||mate change. Yet severa| stud|es show that
h|gh pr|ces on wor|d markets are se|dom passed
on to beneft sma|| producers, rather, they are oten
transerred d|rect|y to consumer pr|ces (see, or
examp|e, Jha, 2007, and Ho1er and Och|eng, 2009).
Thus sma|| producers ace the prospect o hav|ng
to spend more money to buy the|r ood wh||e the|r
|ncomes e|ther a|| or rema|n stagnant.
0. aIh|n||ng Iha aconom|cs oI dava|op|ng
counIr|as` Iood sysIams
Over the course o the past ew decades, var|ous
concepts and strateg|es have been deve|oped that
both reconc||e agr|cu|ture w|th eco|og|ca| cyc|es and at
the same t|me g|ve sma|| producers greater econom|c
stab|||ty and res|||ence. Examp|es o such strateg|es
|nc|ude resource-conserv|ng agr|cu|ture, agroeco|ogy
and organ|c agr|cu|ture (see, or examp|e, A|t|er| and
von der We|d, 2000, Pretty, 1995, and Pretty et a|.,
2006). The FAO has recent|y ca||ed or a s|gn|fcant
transormat|on o the agr|cu|tura| sector |n order to
meet c||mate change and ood secur|ty cha||enges.
The FAO's concept o "c||mate smart" agr|cu|ture
a|ms to susta|nab|y |ncrease product|v|ty, enhance
res|||ence (adapt|ve capac|ty) and reduce GHGs
(m|t|gat|on), and thus contr|bute to the ach|evement o
nat|ona| ood secur|ty and deve|opment goa|s (FAO,
2010).
However, these strateg|es mark on|y the beg|nn|ng
o a susta|nab|e reorm o the ood system. As they
neg|ect to take trade and econom|c cond|t|ons |nto
account, they r|sk succumb|ng to h|gh pr|ce vo|at|||ty,
|mport surges and unregu|ated compet|t|on, as we|| as
to the overwhe|m|ng power o ood compan|es (e.g.
processors, reta||ers and d|str|butors) |n the g|oba|
trade arena. lncreas|ng|y, th|s |s occurr|ng even |n the
new|y g|oba||zed market or organ|c produce. As |ong
as market |ncent|ves rema|n unchanged, |nvestments
|n bus|ness-as-usua| pract|ces w||| cont|nue.
A susta|nab|e transormat|on o sma|| arm systems |n
deve|op|ng countr|es w||| on|y succeed | |t |s |ntegrated
|nto overa|| agr|cu|tura| and ood deve|opment
strateg|es. lssues concern|ng the agr|cu|tura| trad|ng
system, as one o the ma|or dr|vers o the ex|st|ng
ood product|on system, need to be ||nked to the
debate on agr|cu|ture's contr|but|on to adaptat|on and
c||mate change m|t|gat|on. S|nce trade ||bera||zat|on
and export or|entat|on tend to underm|ne adapt|ve
strateg|es and encourage |nput-|ntens|ve, "c||mate-
unr|end|y" arm|ng, the susta|nab|e transormat|on
o the agr|cu|tura| sector requ|res a undamenta|
reth|nk|ng o current trade po||c|es.
283
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
The pr|nc|p|e o "econom|c subs|d|ar|ty" oers
gu|dance or th|s transormat|on (Sachs and
Santar|us, 2007). lt |mp||es that econom|c exchanges
|n the ood system shou|d be carr|ed out preerab|y
at the |oca| and nat|ona| |eve|s, wh||e exchanges at
the cont|nenta| or g|oba| |eve| shou|d have on|y a
comp|ementary unct|on. Econom|c subs|d|ar|ty
a|ms at |oca||z|ng econom|c act|v|t|es whenever
poss|b|e and reasonab|e, and |s comm|tted to
shorter rather than |onger commod|ty cha|ns. lnstead
o endanger|ng sma|| producers through vo|at||e
wor|d market pr|ces and mak|ng them the hubs
or the extract|on o cap|ta|, goods and resources,
the reg|ona||zat|on o trade 1ows cou|d serve as a
cata|yst to spur susta|nab|e deve|opment at the |oca|
|eve|. lt w||| be successu| part|cu|ar|y | product|on
|nvo|ves orward and backward ||nkages w|th other
sectors o the |oca| economy, such as w|th |oca| |nput
prov|ders, processors and trad|t|ona| reta|| out|ets.
l sma||ho|der agr|cu|ture |s we|| |ntegrated |nto the
|oca| economy, and rura| non-arm emp|oyment |n
the product|on o o-arm goods and serv|ces |s
st|mu|ated, the reg|ona||zat|on o trade 1ows w|||
contr|bute s|gn|fcant|y to poverty a||ev|at|on and to
overa|| econom|c deve|opment (see a|so, FAO, 2005).
. Po||c|as Io promoIa susIa|nab|a |oca|
Iood sysIams
ln order to |aunch a trans|t|on towards a (re-)
reg|ona||zat|on o trade 1ows, and to oster short
product|on cha|ns, po||cy changes are requ|red at
subnat|ona|, nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| |eve|s. At the
nat|ona| |eve|, frst and oremost governments need
to ensure that they are a||owed sufc|ent po||cy
space v|s--v|s ex|st|ng b||atera| and mu|t||atera| trade
ob||gat|ons. Th|s |nc|udes a||ow|ng governments
adequate space to stab|||ze domest|c ood pr|ces and
protect sma|| armers rom excess|ve pr|ce vo|at|||ty.
Oountr|es a|so need to be ab|e to |mp|ement po||c|es
and measures that chart the|r own defned paths to
susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture and ood systems (see th|s
chapter's |ead art|c|e by L| and Khor). Po||cy space not
on|y |mp||es hav|ng more 1ex|b|||ty |n the use o tar|s,
quotas and other border contro| measures, |t a|so,
|mp||es reedom rom constra|nts |mposed by b||atera|
and mu|t||atera| agreements on domest|c regu|atory
competence or on |nvestments wh|ch |n1uence the
agr|cu|tura| sector's product|on structure.
The ma|n task at the subnat|ona| |eve| |s to enab|e
sma|| armers to rega|n |ong-term access to the|r
domest|c and |oca| markets. F|rst and oremost, th|s
|nc|udes po||c|es that go beyond trade, wh|ch protect
the |and r|ghts o commun|t|es and the|r access to
bas|c natura| resources, and espec|a||y those that
strengthen women's r|ghts and |and ent|t|ements.
Po||c|es shou|d promote a decentra||zed rura|
|nrastructure to oster |oca| market|ng and ensure that
rura| and urban areas are sufc|ent|y connected so
that the h|nter|ands become the ma|n supp||ers o ood
or towns and c|t|es. Most |mportant|y, sma|| armers
shou|d be supported |n ach|ev|ng a "cr|t|ca| econom|c
mass" through assoc|at|ve orms o econom|c act|v|ty,
such as cooperat|ve orms o product|on, stor|ng and
market|ng. Deve|op|ng-country governments as we||
as |nternat|ona| donors shou|d prov|de |nst|tut|ona|
and fnanc|a| support, |nc|ud|ng pub||c fnances or
m|crocred|t and |oan programmes, to oster such
assoc|at|ons.
Furthermore, a range o po||c|es that have proved
v|ab|e |n the past cou|d acce|erate the trans|t|on rom
convent|ona| to more susta|nab|e arm|ng pract|ces.
For |nstance, pena||z|ng po||uters w|th taxes and |ev|es
w||| |nduce them to reduce the|r em|ss|ons. Subs|d|es
or ert|||zers and pest|c|des shou|d be abo||shed,
and taxes on ert|||zers and other |ndustr|a| arm
|nputs |mposed or |ncreased so as to acce|erate the
trans|t|on towards arm|ng pract|ces that cu|t|vate on-
arm nutr|ent cyc|es. ln add|t|on, governments cou|d
oster the deve|opment o susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura|
process and product|on standards, |nc|ud|ng
standard mon|tor|ng and ver|fcat|on schemes. The
|mp|ementat|on o such schemes cou|d be supported
by |ow-|nterest |oans or |nvest|ng |n susta|nab|e
arm|ng pract|ces. Those |oans cou|d be oered by
commun|t|es, nat|ona| governments and |nternat|ona|
donors. l armers' tra|n|ng and fe|d schoo|s or
susta|nab|e arm|ng pract|ces are supported, and |
the capac|t|es o |oca| NGOs are sca|ed up, th|s w|||
cata|yse urther act|v|t|es |n the arm|ng commun|t|es
and generate |oca| ownersh|p |n the process. Last
but not |east, commun|cat|on strateg|es that prov|de
better |normat|on to the pub||c cou|d promote a sh|t
|n consumpt|on patterns towards more susta|nab|e
and |oca||y produced ood |tems.
The trans|t|on towards more susta|nab|e ood systems
can be urther advanced through a set o po||c|es at
var|ous mu|t||atera| orums. ln part|cu|ar, po||c|es that
make |ong-d|stance transportat|on more expens|ve
cou|d contr|bute s|gn|fcant|y to the (re-)reg|ona||zat|on
o product|on cha|ns. S|nce agr|cu|tura| trade |s very
284
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
transport-|ntens|ve, the expans|on o g|oba| markets
and va|ue cha|ns wou|d not have been proftab|e
| re|ght costs had been h|gh. ln part|cu|ar, ore|gn
products can compete |n domest|c markets (e.g.
Braz|||an ch|cken |egs compet|ng w|th |oca| pou|try |n
West Ar|ca) on|y | transport costs are |ow, otherw|se,
the |ower marg|na| product|on costs abroad wou|d
soon be negated by h|gher transport costs. Over
and above the r|s|ng o|| pr|ces that can be expected
|n the ace o the g|oba| peak o|| scenar|o, measures
to |nterna||ze env|ronmenta| costs |n transport pr|ces
shou|d be pursued. For |nstance, the |nc|us|on o a|r
trafc |n the European Em|ss|ons Trad|ng Scheme
|s a frst step |n th|s d|rect|on. Add|t|ona| measures
cou|d be advanced through negot|at|ons at the n|ted
Nat|ons Framework Oonvent|on on O||mate Ohange,
the lnternat|ona| O|v|| Av|at|on Organ|zat|on, and the
Wor|d Mar|t|me Organ|zat|on.
285
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
The dom|nant market structure and po||cy approach
o the preva|||ng mode| o |ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture have
resu|ted |n concentrat|on and contro| by a handu| o
g|ant corporat|ons over agr|cu|tura| |nputs, process|ng
and reta|| markets. Th|s a||ows them to d|ctate the
pr|ces o both |nputs and produce. O||gopo||es
upstream and downstream o the agr|cu|tura|
market pose ser|ous threats to wor|d ood secur|ty,
aggravate c||mate change, |mper|| the ||ve||hoods
o m||||ons o peop|e and commun|t|es that depend
on agr|cu|ture and great|y reduce the|r res|||ence
to env|ronmenta| and human-|nduced shocks. The
parad|gm o accumu|at|on under|y|ng th|s agr|cu|tura|
mode| breeds |ncome d|spar|ty and h|gh|y skewed
power re|at|ons. The resu|t|ng soc|a| |nequ|ty and
env|ronmenta| degradat|on eect|ve|y cance|s out the
supposed benefts rom h|gher product|v|ty and more
efc|ent product|on systems.
A. 0orporaIa concanIraI|on |n agr|cu|Iura|
|npuIs, procass|ng and raIa|||ng
About 73 per cent o the tota| g|oba| commerc|a| market
or seeds, est|mated at $27.4 b||||on, was contro||ed by
the top 10 compan|es |n 2009 (ETO Group, 2011b).

Just three compan|es contro||ed 53 per cent o that
Tab|a Z: wor|d`s Iop 10 saad compan|as, Z009
0ompan|as by ran||ng 8aad sa|as
($ m||||on)
Nar|aI shara
(par canI)
1. |o|:I||o (u|i|e S|I|e:) I 29I 2I
2. u|o|| (|io|ee|) (u|i|e S|I|e:) 4 641 1I
S. S]|e||I (SWi|e|lI|) 2 564 9
4. |oue |i|I|Ii| (||I|ce) 1 252 5
5. |I| 0 |I|e:/wi|lel Solu|io|:
(u|i|e S|I|e:)
1 1OO 4
6. |wS A (e||I|]) 99I 4
I. BI]e| C|oScie|ce (e||I|]) IOO S
8. oW A|oScie|ce: (u|i|e S|I|e:) 6S5 2
9. SI|I|I (1II|) 491 2
1O. ||-!|iloliu| A/S (e||I||) S85 1
ToIa| sa|as and mar|aI sharas
oI Iha Iop 10
Z0 06Z 73
Sc0|ce: ETO Group (compan|es' report|ng, currenc|es
have been converted to S do||ars us|ng
h|stor|ca| average exchange rates).
Tab|a 3: wor|d`s Iop 10 agrocham|ca| compan|as, Z009
0ompan|as by ran||ng Agrocham|ca|
sa|as ($
m||||on)
Nar|aI
shara
(par canI)
1. S]|e||I (SWi|e|lI|) 8 491 19
2. BI]e| C|oScie|ce (e||I|]) I 544 1I
S. BAS| (e||I|]) 5 OOI 11
4. |o|:I||o (u|i|e S|I|e:) 4 42I 1O
5. oW A|oScie|ce: (u|i|e S|I|e:) S 9O2 9
6. u|o|| (u|i|e S|I|e:) 2 4OS 5
I. Su|i|o|o C|e|icIl (1II|) 2 SI4 5
8. |ulI|| (Au:||IliI) 2 O82 5
9. |I|||e:|i|-AI| ||u:||ie: (|:|Iel) 2 O42 5
1O. A|]:|I |ileScie|ce (1II|) 1 196 S
ToIa| sa|as and mar|aI sharas oI
Iop 10
39 46B 89
Sc0|ce: ETO Group (compan|es' report|ng, currenc|es
have been converted to S do||ars us|ng
h|stor|ca| average exchange rates).
Commontary |v: Gott|ng |armors off tho 1roadm|||: Addross|ng
Concontrat|on |n Agr|cu|tura| |nputs, rocoss|ng
and ota|| Markots
E|an|Ia 0. ano,
AcI|on roup on Eros|on, Tachno|ogy and 0oncanIraI|on
AbsIracI
As corporat|ons become b|gger and ewer at both ends o the agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|n, armers are
sandw|ched between the sp|ra|||ng costs o agr|cu|tura| |nputs d|ctated by the seed and agrochem|ca|
compan|es and the ever-|ncreas|ng pressures on the pr|ces o the|r produce |mposed by mega-processors
and mega-reta||ers that gobb|e up ava||ab|e supp|y |n the market. Th|s has grave adverse |mpacts on the
|oca| econom|es and on the ||ve||hoods o armers, on |oca| ood secur|ty and commun|ty res|||ence, and
on b|od|vers|ty and the env|ronment.
286
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
tota| market, w|th Monsanto the wor|d's |argest seed
company and ourth |argest pest|c|de company
account|ng or 27 per cent o the wor|d's commerc|a|
seed market (tab|e 2).
The commerc|a| seed sector, wh|ch supp||es an
est|mated 20 per cent o the tota| seed requ|rements
g|oba||y, |s |nextr|cab|y ||nked to the agrochem|ca|
market. O the top s|x agrochem|ca| compan|es, fve are
among the wor|d's |argest seed compan|es. Near|y 90
per cent o the wor|d market or agr|cu|tura| chem|ca|s
|n 2009, est|mated at $44 b||||on, was contro||ed by the
top 10 pest|c|de compan|es (K Food Group, 2010,
ETO Group, 2011b). The top s|x compan|es, wh|ch se||
propr|etary ormu|as, accounted or over 72 per cent
o the g|oba| agrochem|ca| market (tab|e 3).
lnte||ectua| property r|ghts (lPPs) such as patents, trade
secrets and p|ant var|ety protect|on are key to protect|ng
the bus|ness |nterests o g|ant corporat|ons by a||ow|ng
them monopo|y contro| over the|r propr|etary products
and processes (He|nemann, 2009, lAASTD, 2009).
Oompan|es use patents to edge out compet|tors and
|mpede urther |nnovat|on on propr|etary products
and processes wh|ch cou|d otherw|se be adopted or
|mproved on by others. Ant|c|pat|ng the devastat|ng
eects o c||mate change on agr|cu|ture, g|ant
compan|es have started to pos|t|on the|r commerc|a|
|nterests |n the deve|opment o so-ca||ed "c||mate-
ready" or "c||mate-smart" crops. Between June 2008
and June 2010, the wor|d's s|x |argest seed and
agrochem|ca| compan|es f|ed patent app||cat|ons on
tra|ts and genes that deve|oped crop res|stance to
ab|ot|c stresses such as drought, pests and sa||n|ty
(ETO Group, 2011a). The "patent grab" corresponds to
261 patent am|||es |nvo|v|ng 1,663 patent documents
wor|dw|de. Even |n the ace o the c||mate cr|s|s, the
proft mot|ve re|gns supreme among corporate p|ayers
|n the seed and agrochem|ca| |ndustr|es.
O||gopo||st|c trends a|so reverberate down the
agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|n, part|cu|ar|y |n the process|ng
and reta|||ng sectors. ln 2009, the 10 |argest ood and
beverage compan|es accounted or more than 37 per
cent o the tota| revenue o th|s sector (Leatherhead
Food, c|ted |n ETO Group, 2011b). The three |argest
compan|es Nest|e, Peps|Oo and Krat together
contro| 45 per cent o the revenues generated by the
wor|d's top 10 frms and 17 per cent o the revenues
generated by the top 100 frms |n the ood process|ng
sector (|b|d.) (tab|e 4).
ln the reta|| market, the wor|d's 10 b|ggest reta||
compan|es had comb|ned sa|es o $753 b||||on |n
2009, account|ng or 41 per cent o the tota| revenues
earned by the top 100 grocery reta|| frms va|ued at
$1.84 tr||||on (P|anet Peta||, c|ted |n ETO Group, 2011b).
The comb|ned share o the top three supermarket
Tab|a 4: wor|d`s Iop 10 Iood and bavaraga
compan|as, Z009
0ompan|as by ran||ng Food and
bavaraga
sa|as
($
m||||on)
ToIa|
sa|as
($
m||||on)
Nar|aI shara
(par canI)(as
parcanIaga
oI shara oI
Iop 10)
1. |e:|le (SWi|e|lI|) 91 56O 98 IS5 2S.6
2. |e:iCo (u|i|e S|I|e:) 4S 2S2 4S 2S2 11.2
S. ||Il| (u|i|e S|I|e:) 4O S86 4O S86 1O.4
4. AB||Be. (Beliu|) S6 I58 S6 I58 9.5
5. A| (u|i|e S|I|e:) S2 241 69 2OI 8.S
6. CocI-ColI (u|i|e S|I|e:) SO 99O SO 99O 8.O
I. |I|: ||c. (u|i|e S|I|e:) SO OOO SO OOO I.I
8. u|ile.e| (!|e |e||e|lI|:) 29 18O 55 S1O I.5
9. !]:o| |oo: (u|i|e
S|I|e:)
26 IO4 26 IO4 6.9
1O. CI|ill (u|i|e S|I|e:) 26 5OO 116 5I9 6.8
ToIa| sa|as and mar|aI
sharas oI Iha Iop 10
3B7 661 647 901 100
Sc0|ce: Leatherhead Food Pesearch, c|ted |n ETO
Group, 2011b
Tab|a 6: wor|d`s Iop 10 Iood raIa||ars,
Z009
0ompan|as by ran||ng rocary
sa|as
($
m||||on)
Nar|aI
shara (as
parcanIaga
oI shara oI
Iop 10)
ho. oI
counIr|as oI
oparaI|on
1. wIl|I|| (u|i|e S|I|e:) 191 I11 25.5 15
2. CI||elou| (||I|ce) 1O4 29O 1S.9 S4
S. Sc|WI| |ou
(e||I|])
65 O12 8.6 2S
4. !e:co (u|i|e |i|o|) 6S 288 8.4 14
5. Ali (e||I|]) 62 268 8.S 15
6. ||oe| (u|i|e S|I|e:) 61 II2 8.2 1
I. A|0| (1II|) 52 8I4 I.O 9
8. |e|I (e||I|]) 51 625 6.9 2
9. ReWe |ou (e||I|]) 51 4S5 6.8 14
1O. A|ol (u|i|e
|i|o|)
48 55S 6.4 1O
ToIa| Top 10 76Z BZ9 100
Sc0|ce: P|anet Peta|| at: http://www.p|anetreta||.net.
287
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
cha|ns Wa|mart, Oarreour and Schwarz Group
46

accounted or 48 per cent o the tota| revenues o the
top 10 compan|es |n that sector |n 2009 (tab|e 5).
As the purchas|ng power o consumers |n emerg|ng
econom|es ga|ns strength and the markets |n many
deve|oped countr|es stagnate, the wor|d's |argest
processors and reta||ers are rap|d|y mov|ng |nto those
econom|es. ln part|cu|ar, |n Braz||, Oh|na, lnd|a and the
Puss|an Federat|on, where demand |s expand|ng and
even outpac|ng that |n |ndustr|a||zed countr|es. G|ant
supermarkets are scramb||ng to estab||sh operat|ons,
org|ng |o|nt ventures w|th ma|or |oca| reta||ers and
swapp|ng assets among them to ensure market
dom|nance. ln 2009, mergers and acqu|s|t|ons |n the
ood and beverage sector were va|ued at $43 b||||on
(lMAP, 2010).
1. Farmars and o||gopo||as |n Iha agr|cu|Iura|
va|ua cha|n
As corporat|ons become b|gger and ewer at both
ends o the agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|n, armers are
sandw|ched between the sp|ra|||ng costs o agr|cu|tura|
|nputs d|ctated by the seed and agrochem|ca| g|ants
and the ever-|ncreas|ng pressures on the pr|ces o
the|r produce |mposed by mega-processors and
mega-reta||ers that gobb|e up ava||ab|e supp|y |n
the market. Th|s has grave adverse |mpacts on the
|oca| econom|es and on the ||ve||hoods o armers, on
|oca| ood secur|ty and commun|ty res|||ence, and on
b|od|vers|ty and the env|ronment.
Z. h|gh |npuI cosIs and |oW producI pr|cas
Wh||e the commerc|a| seed sector may represent on|y
about 20 per cent o the tota| seed requ|rements o
armers wor|dw|de, the o||gopo|y en|oyed by the |arge
seed and agrochem|ca| compan|es enab|es them to
w|e|d |mmense contro| over agr|cu|tura| |nputs |n gen-
era|. Th|s |s because commerc|a| seeds are oten de-
ve|oped by the same compan|es that se|| pest|c|des,
and are marketed |n tandem w|th agr|cu|tura| chem|-
ca|s that are promoted to protect crops rom pests
and d|seases and to y|e|d h|gher and better qua||ty
produce. Furthermore, as a resu|t o mass|ve promo-
t|on and government support o agrochem|ca|s or
"crop protect|on", even armers who depend on tra-
d|t|ona| shar|ng and exchange o seeds have become
consumers o pest|c|des, herb|c|des and ung|c|des.
The agrochem|ca| market |s dom|nated by g|ant pes-
t|c|de compan|es that have the power to d|ctate the
pr|ces and supp|y o the|r products g|oba||y, at |east
so |ong as the ||espan o the patents granted to them
(usua||y 20 years).
ln the process|ng and reta|||ng sectors, compan|es
c|a|m to procure the|r products and raw mater|a|s
|oca||y through such schemes as contract grow|ng
and |oca| partnersh|ps. Nest|e, or examp|e, boasts
o |nnovat|ve partnersh|ps w|th |oca| m||k producers
|n Pak|stan to supp|y |ts expanded operat|ons |n the
country (Farm|ng F|rst, 2010). Wa|mart's 2009 annua|
report pro|ects that |ts stores w||| buy rom over one
m||||on Oh|nese armers |n 2011, wh|ch wou|d urther
boost the mega-reta||er's stand|ng as Oh|na's s|xth
|argest export market (E|||ot, 2005 c|ted |n ETO
Group, 2011b). Such pract|ces c|a|m to |ncrease
armers' |ncomes, but process|ng and reta|||ng
compan|es such as Wa|mart exert "never-end|ng
downward pressure on |ts supp||ers to prov|de |t
w|th |ncreas|ng|y |ower pr|ces that s|mp|y aren't
susta|nab|e" (Donne||y, 2011 c|ted |n ETO Group,
2011b).
3. |sampoWar|ng Iarmars
Oontract arm|ng or commerc|a| grow|ng arrangements
by process|ng and reta|||ng compan|es |n many
deve|op|ng countr|es oten requ|re armers to use a
package o commerc|a| seeds, synthet|c ert|||zers
and agrochem|ca|s, and to adopt spec|fc arm|ng
pract|ces to comp|y w|th str|ct market requ|rements
or un|orm|ty, wh|ch are guaranteed by comp|y|ng
w|th str|ct processes and product|on standards such
as G|oba|GAP, at pr|ces |arge|y d|ctated by the oten
exc|us|ve buyer. Wh||e documented cases show that
contract arm|ng genera||y |ncreases |ncome and
|mproves techn|ca| capab|||t|es o m|dd|e-|ncome
armers, sma||-sca|e armers ace a power |mba|ance,
soc|a| d|erent|at|on, r|sks o contract v|o|at|ons and
an unsusta|nab|e env|ronment resu|t|ng rom the use
o agrochem|ca|s and un|orm var|et|es |n the|r sma||
|andho|d|ngs (M|not, 2007).
Some po||c|es o governments and pr|vate bank|ng
|nst|tut|ons a|so exp||c|t|y or |mp||c|t|y promote
and support the use o commerc|a| seeds and
chem|ca| |nputs, such as prov|d|ng crop |nsurance
and product|on |oans on|y to users o packages
o agr|cu|tura| |nputs (lAASTD, 2009, Greenpeace,
2009). Such po||c|es deter armers rom adopt|ng
eco-unct|ona| arm|ng systems, thus eect|ve|y
||m|t|ng the poss|b|||t|es or them to exerc|se the|r
r|ghts to make dec|s|ons on the|r arms.
288
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
4. Nonocropp|ng and un|Iorm|Iy
ln deve|op|ng countr|es, the vast ma|or|ty o armers
are st||| sourc|ng the|r seeds through trad|t|ona| sav|ng,
reus|ng, shar|ng and exchange pract|ces. However,
g|ant seed compan|es are stead||y expand|ng to these
potent|a||y |ucrat|ve markets to se|| commerc|a| seeds,
oten a|ded by governments |n the|r eorts to |ncrease
commod|ty exports. lndeed, some governments
are act|ve|y promot|ng and even support|ng the use
o commerc|a| seeds touted by the corporat|ons
or |ncreas|ng product|v|ty. Mass|ve promot|on
o commerc|a| seeds breeds monocropp|ng and
un|orm|ty, thereby push|ng out trad|t|ona| ood crops
and |oca| var|et|es (Barker, 2007).
The h|gh|y mechan|zed bu|k process|ng o ood and
eed products by processors a|so requ|res un|orm|ty
|n terms o eatures and qua||t|es o raw mater|a|s
sourced rom armers. Peta||ers ||kew|se |mpose on
armer-supp||ers un|orm qua||ty requ|rements on
standard var|et|es to cater to consumer demands and
to ac|||tate bu|k hand||ng, packag|ng, storage and
reta|| d|sp|ay.
6. ThraaIs Io |oca| Iood sacur|Iy and ||va||hoods
Such pressure to produce or the market can have
adverse |mpacts on |oca| ood secur|ty (Barker, 2007,
tv|k||ngsondet, 2010). Sma||-sca|e armers caught
up |n contract arm|ng and commerc|a| grow|ng
arrangements oten end up w|th no |and to cu|t|vate
the|r househo|ds' ood requ|rements and many |ose
the|r |ands |n cases o crop a||ures (M|not, 2007).
Even those who grow ood crops somet|mes end
up se|||ng a|| the|r products and buy|ng cheaper and
|ower qua||ty ood or the|r own consumpt|on |n the
|oca| market.
The expans|on o mega-reta|| compan|es |n many
deve|op|ng countr|es where the reta|| |ndustry (|nc|ud|ng
the so-ca||ed underground economy |ed ma|n|y by
women entrepreneurs) const|tutes a ma|or sector |n
the nat|ona| economy poses a ser|ous threat to |oca|
||ve||hoods. ln lnd|a, or examp|e, reta|| |s the second-
|argest emp|oyer ater the agr|cu|tura| sector, emp|oy|ng
some 33 m||||on peop|e (Arno|dy, 2010 and Na|r-
Ghaswa||a, 2010, c|ted |n ETO Group, 2011b) whose
|obs and ||ve||hoods are threatened by the entry o
transnat|ona| mega-reta|| cha|ns on the domest|c scene.
Preva|||ng pract|ces |n the agr|cu|tura| |nput, process-
|ng and reta|| |ndustr|es a|so ra|se ser|ous eth|ca| ques-
t|ons about g|oba| ood secur|ty. Decades o breed|ng
or h|gher y|e|ds and |ndustr|a| arm|ng pract|ces have
resu|ted |n the dec||ne o essent|a| nutr|ents and m|n-
era|s |n the ood supp|y (Jones, 2004, c|ted |n ETO
Group, 2009). Oonsumers and reta||ers |n deve|oped
countr|es waste a|most as much ood annua||y (222
m||||on tons) as the ent|re net ood product|on o sub-
Saharan Ar|ca (230 m||||on tons) (ETO Group, 2011).
6. aduc|ng Iarmars` ras|||anca and capac|Iy Io
adapI Io Iha advarsa |mpacIs oI c||maIa changa
Monocropp|ng and un|orm|ty adverse|y aect
armers' capac|ty to respond to env|ronmenta| and
human-|nduced stresses, s|nce crop and var|eta|
d|vers|ty |n arms are the armers' best |nsurance
aga|nst the adverse eects o c||mat|c change. lPPs
on seeds |mpede armers' r|ghts to save, reuse,
share and exchange seeds, and they reduce the
capac|ty o commun|t|es or on-arm |nnovat|ons and
deve|opment o |oca||y adapted var|et|es that respond
to new env|ronmenta| cha||enges (He|nemann, 2009).
7. Agr|cu|Iura Ior aqu|Iy and Wa||-ba|ng
Agr|cu|ture or deve|opment has been so trag|ca||y
narrowed down to |ncreas|ng product|v|ty |n order to
boost econom|c deve|opment by ra|s|ng GDP, that |t
has not rea||y trans|ated |nto benefts or the ma|or|ty
o armers who are st||| m|red |n poverty. The current
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture mode| breeds o||gopo||es across
the agr|cu|tura| va|ue cha|n and |s |ncompat|b|e w|th an
eco-unct|ona| agr|cu|tura| system. The current system
accumu|ates profts or a ew at |mmeasurab|e costs to
the env|ronment and soc|ety. A sh|t to env|ronmenta||y
susta|nab|e, soc|a||y equ|tab|e and econom|ca||y v|ab|e
agr|cu|ture w||| requ|re a undamenta| transormat|on
o the dom|nant agr|cu|tura| system and deve|opment
mode| to one that promotes equ|ty and the we||-be|ng
o peop|e and the p|anet as exp||c|t goa|s.
B. Enab||ng susIa|nab|a aconom|as
Agr|cu|ture as the backbone o the economy |n most
deve|op|ng countr|es shou|d support and promote
rura| ||ve||hoods. Through strateg|c pub||c |nvestments
as we|| as po||c|es and support programmes that have
an |nherent b|as to up||t sma||ho|ders and support
eco-unct|ona| arm|ng pract|ces, product|ve act|v|t|es
on- and o-arm have the potent|a| to create |obs
and ||ve||hoods |n rura| areas. Th|s cou|d eect|ve|y
arrest the cont|nu|ng t|de o m|grat|on to c|t|es and |ts
assoc|ated negat|ve soc|a|, econom|c and po||t|ca|
consequences (lAASTD, 2009, Greenpeace, 2009,
289
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
tv|k||ngsondet, 2010).
As a comp|ement to |ntervent|ons at the |oca| and
nat|ona| |eve|s, trade pract|ces that breed o||gopo||es
and |nh|b|t compet|t|on need to be curbed at the g|oba|
|eve|. Th|s requ|res str|cter regu|at|on o corporate
pract|ces, ant|-trust act|ons and a morator|um on
mergers and acqu|s|t|ons (Barker, 2007, K Food
Group, 2010). lPPs and techno|og|ca| "advances"
(e.g. hybr|d|zat|on, genet|c eng|neer|ng and term|nator
techno|ogy wh|ch |nherent|y proh|b|ts shar|ng, reuse
and sav|ng o seeds among armers) that promote
monopo|y contro| over products and |mpede
|nnovat|ons by sma||er p|ayers shou|d be rev|ewed
and corrected. Subs|d|es that beneft on|y the b|g
p|ayers |n the agr|cu|tura| sector shou|d be phased
out, and po||c|es that exert pressure on armers to
adopt commerc|a| agr|cu|tura| |nputs reversed.
9. 0onsarv|ng d|vars|Iy
Long-term susta|nab|||ty |n agr|cu|ture can on|y be rea||zed
when supported by hea|thy eco|og|ca| and b|o|og|ca||y
d|verse ecosystems. Orop and var|eta| d|vers|ty are the
sma||ho|der armers' best |nsurance aga|nst crop a||ures,
agro-eco|og|ca| stresses and c||mate change (Ho,
2008, lAASTD, 2009, K Food Group, 2010). D|vers|ty
nurtured on-arm by armers prov|des a wea|th o hea|thy
and susta|nab|e products that can cater to the demands
o consumers who are becom|ng |ncreas|ng|y aware o
env|ronmenta|, hea|th and ood |ssues. On-arm and
|n-s||0 conservat|on o agr|cu|tura| b|od|vers|ty shou|d
be promoted and supported by prov|d|ng appropr|ate
|ncent|ves and recogn|t|on to armers and commun|t|es.
ln add|t|on, the r|ghts and access o commun|t|es to these
resources need to be protected rom m|sappropr|at|on
and b|op|racy.
10. EmpoWar|ng sma||ho|dars
Governments can p|ay a key ro|e |n |ncreas|ng the
qua||ty and quant|ty o pub||c |nvestment |n agr|cu|ture,
and mak|ng product markets work better or
sma||ho|ders (Wor|d Bank, 2008). The perormance o
sma||-sca|e producer organ|zat|ons and sma||ho|ders
pract|c|ng agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng can be enhanced
by bu||d|ng the|r capab|||t|es, ac|||tat|ng the|r access
to fnanc|a| serv|ces, |mprov|ng pr|ce |ncent|ves and
reduc|ng the|r exposure to un|nsured r|sks (lAASTD,
2009, Wor|d Bank, 2008).
Beyond econom|c empowerment, some undamenta|
steps towards empower|ng sma||ho|ders |nc|ude
protect|ng the|r tenure r|ghts over |and, |mprov|ng
the|r access to product|ve resources, |ncreas|ng the|r
po||t|ca| vo|ce and enab||ng the|r act|ve part|c|pat|on
|n dec|s|on-mak|ng (Wor|d Bank, 2008, lAASTD, 2009,
K Food Group, 2010). Prov|d|ng access to bas|c
serv|ces and soc|a| protect|on, such as educat|on,
hea|th, nutr|t|on, soc|a| we|are and |nrastructure, are
a|so essent|a| or armer empowerment (WFP and
FAO, 2009).
11. PromoI|ng Iood sovara|gnIy and Iha r|ghI Io Iood
G|oba| and nat|ona| ood secur|ty can be susta|ned
on|y | |oca| ood secur|ty |s assured, both |n
commun|t|es that produce ood and |n urban areas
that depend on the ormer or the|r ood supp|y.
Food sovere|gnty the r|ght o sovere|gn States
and commun|t|es to democrat|ca||y determ|ne the|r
own agr|cu|tura| and ood po||c|es shou|d beg|n at
the |oca| |eve| w|th commun|t|es tak|ng centre stage
(lAASTD, 2009, Greenpeace, 2009, tv|k||ngsondet,
2010, K Food Group, 2010). Food sovere|gnty goes
beyond ood se|-sufc|ency, |t |ncorporates agrar|an
reorms, |oca| markets, b|od|vers|ty, autonomy rom
externa| pressures, cooperat|on and a|| aspects o
|oca| ood product|on (lAASTD, 2009).
Governments and the |nternat|ona| commun|ty need
to respect and ensure the r|ght o every person to
adequate ood as a undamenta| component o sus-
ta|nab|e so|ut|ons to ood cha||enges (WFP and FAO,
2009, tv|k||ngsondet, 2010). Pespect|ng armers'
r|ghts to agr|cu|tura| genet|c resources |s an essent|a|
component o promot|ng the r|ght to ood.
1Z. 8upporI|ng agro-aco|og|ca| Iarm|ng
The v|ab|||ty and benefts o agro-eco|og|ca| arm|ng
systems have been we|| estab||shed |n numerous
stud|es. There |s now a need to red|rect research and
|nvestments at the nat|ona| and |nternat|ona| |eve|s |n
order to |ncrease product|v|ty |n an env|ronmenta||y
susta|nab|e and soc|a||y equ|tab|e manner (Ho, 2008,
Greenpeace, 2009, K Food Group, 2010, tv|k||ngs-
ondet, 2010). Nat|ona| support programmes and
agr|cu|tura| educat|on curr|cu|a need to be reshaped,
and dec|s|on-makers, |mp|ementers and extens|on
serv|ce prov|ders reor|ented towards respect|ng and
support|ng the centra| ro|e o sma||ho|der armers and
peasants |n agr|cu|tura| deve|opment through agro-
eco|og|ca| arm|ng (lAASTD, 2009).
290
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
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FAO food index
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The connect|on between ood and o|| |s system|c,
and the pr|ces o both ood and ue| have r|sen and
a||en more or |ess |n tandem |n recent years (fgure
1). Modern agr|cu|ture uses o|| products to ue| arm
mach|nery, to transport other |nputs to the arm, and
to transport arm output to the u|t|mate consumer. O||
|s oten a|so used as |nput |n agr|cu|tura| chem|ca|s.
O|| pr|ce |ncreases thereore put pressure on a|| these
aspects o commerc|a| ood systems.
Thus there |s concern that h|gh and vo|at||e pr|ces
o crude o|| may cause ood pr|ces to cont|nue to
|ncrease (B|oomberg, 2011).
Moreover, as o|| pr|ces r|se, so does demand or
b|oue|s, wh|ch are the on|y non-oss|| ||qu|d ue|s ab|e
to rep|ace petro|eum products |n ex|st|ng combust|on
eng|nes and motor veh|c|es. But b|oue|s are oten
made rom corn and other agr|cu|tura| products. As
demand or these a|ternat|ve ue|s |ncreases, crop
pr|ces are orced upwards, mak|ng ood even |ess
aordab|e.
Export-|ed agr|cu|tura| strateg|es a|so |ncrease the
wor|d's vu|nerab|||ty to h|gh o|| pr|ces. Most donor
agenc|es have encouraged the |ess |ndustr|a||zed
countr|es to ocus on the product|on o cash crops
at the expense o stap|es or |oca| consumpt|on. As
a resu|t, peop|e |n these countr|es are orced to re|y
|ncreas|ng|y on |mports o oten subs|d|zed cerea|s
or those unded by ood a|d programmes. However,
r|s|ng transport costs contr|bute to r|s|ng pr|ces o
ood |mports, mak|ng them ever |ess aordab|e. Fue|
costs represent as much as 50 to 60 per cent o tota|
sh|p operat|ng costs.
49
From ear|y 2007 to m|d-2008,
as ue| pr|ces soared, the cost o sh|pp|ng ood a|d
c||mbed by about $50 per ton a near|y 30 per cent
|ncrease, accord|ng to the n|ted States Agency or
lnternat|ona| Deve|opment (Garber, 2008).
Meanwh||e, many poor armers who cannot aord ma-
ch|nery, ue|s and commerc|a| arm |nputs fnd them-
se|ves at a d|sadvantage |n the g|oba| ood economy.
Oompound|ng th|s are agr|cu|tura| po||c|es |n |ndustr|-
a||zed ood-export|ng countr|es that subs|d|ze domes-
t|c producers and dump surp|uses onto deve|op|ng
countr|es, thus add|ng to the econom|c d|sadvantag-
es o the sma||ho|der armers |n those countr|es. As a
resu|t, m||||ons o those armers are be|ng dr|ven out
o bus|ness annua||y. At the same t|me, deve|op|ng
countr|es are g|v|ng |ncreas|ng pr|or|ty to product|on
or export, desp|te a burgeon|ng |and|ess, poor urban
c|ass (whose |mmed|ate ancestors were subs|stence
armers) that |s chron|ca||y ma|nour|shed and hungry.
Soar|ng ood and ue| pr|ces have a d|sproport|onate
Commontary v: 5oar|ng O|| and |ood r|cos 1hroaton
Affordab|o |ood 5upp|y
|chard ha|nbarg,
PosI 0arbon InsI|IuIa
AbsIracI
The current g|oba| ood system |s h|gh|y ue|- and transport-dependent. Fue|s w||| a|most certa|n|y become
|ess aordab|e |n the near and med|um term, mak|ng the current, h|gh|y ue|-dependent agr|cu|tura|
product|on system |ess secure and ood |ess aordab|e. lt |s thereore necessary to promote ood se|-
sufc|ency and reduce the need or ue| |nputs to the ood system at a|| |eve|s.
F|gura Z: Evo|uI|on oI Iood and Iua| pr|cas, Z000 Io Z009
Sc0|ces. S Energy lnormat|on Adm|n|strat|on
and FAOstat.
291
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
|mpact on deve|op|ng countr|es and on poor peop|e
|n deve|oped countr|es. Amer|cans, who, on average,
spend |ess than one tenth o the|r |ncome on ood, are
ab|e to absorb the h|gher ood pr|ces more eas||y than
the wor|d's poorest 2 b||||on peop|e, who spend 50 to
70 per cent o the|r |ncome on ood.
Why are o|| pr|ces so h|gh? Specu|at|ve |nvestment |n
commod|t|es p|ays a ro|e, though there |s a persuas|ve
case to be made that o|| pr|ces wou|d be r|s|ng even
| o|| utures specu|at|on were ent|re|y curta||ed. The
o|| |ndustry |s chang|ng, and rap|d|y. As Jeremy
G||bert, ormer ch|e petro|eum eng|neer or BP, has
put |t, "The current fe|ds we are chas|ng we've known
about or a |ong t|me |n many cases, but they were too
comp|ex, too ractured, too d|fcu|t to chase. Now our
techno|ogy and understand|ng [are] better, wh|ch |s a
good th|ng, because these d|fcu|t fe|ds are a|| that
we have |et" (G||bert, 2011).
The trends |n the o|| |ndustry are c|ear and
und|sputed: exp|orat|on and product|on are
becom|ng more cost|y, and are g|v|ng r|se to greater
env|ronmenta| r|sks, wh||e compet|t|on or access to
new prospect|ve reg|ons |s generat|ng |ncreas|ng
geopo||t|ca| tens|ons. Accord|ng to the lnternat|ona|
Energy Agency (lEA, 2010a), the rate o wor|d crude
o|| product|on reached |ts peak |n 2006. The lMF
has |o|ned a chorus o energy |ndustry ana|ysts |n
conc|ud|ng that scarc|ty and h|gh pr|ces are here to
stay (lMF 2010 and 2011).
A co||apse |n demand or o|| resu|t|ng rom sharp|y
dec||n|ng g|oba| econom|c act|v|ty cou|d cause o||
pr|ces to a||, as happened |n |ate 2008. lndeed, th|s |s
a|r|y probab|e. But wh||e |t wou|d make o|| c|eaoe|, |t
wou|d not make ue| more a//c|oao|e to most peop|e.
lt |s theoret|ca||y poss|b|e or the wor|d to curb o||
demand through po||c|es that ||m|t consumpt|on,
and |t |s a|so conce|vab|e that some unexpected
techno|og|ca| breakthrough cou|d rap|d|y resu|t |n a
cheap, eect|ve a|ternat|ve to petro|eum. However,
these |atter two deve|opments are rather |mprobab|e.
Thus there |s no ||ke|y scenar|o |n wh|ch the serv|ces
prov|ded by o|| w||| become more aordab|e w|th|n the
context o a stab|e g|oba| economy at any t|me |n the
oreseeab|e uture.
Wh||e wea|thy consumers are ab|e to absorb
|ncrementa| |ncreases |n ood pr|ces, a sudden
|nterrupt|on |n the ava||ab|||ty o ue| (due to geopo||t|ca|
events) or a s|gn|fcant gradua| curta||ment o oss||
ue| product|on (due to the cont|nu|ng dep|et|on
o wor|d hydrocarbon reserves) cou|d |ead to a
breakdown o the ood system at every |eve|, rom
armer to processor to d|str|butor to reta||er, and fna||y
to consumer.
To summar|ze, h|gh o|| pr|ces contr|bute to soar|ng ood
pr|ces. Our modern g|oba| ood system |s h|gh|y o||-
dependent, but petro|eum |s becom|ng |ess and |ess
aordab|e. Extreme weather events a|so contr|bute to
h|gh ood pr|ces, and, to the extent that such events
resu|t rom anthropogen|c g|oba| warm|ng, they are
a|so u|t|mate|y ue|-re|ated. Thus there |s no so|ut|on to
the wor|d's worsen|ng ood cr|s|s w|th|n current energy
and agr|cu|tura| systems.
What |s needed |s a ma|or redes|gn|ng o both ood and
energy systems. The goa| o managers o the g|oba|
ood system shou|d be to reduce |ts dependence
on oss|| energy |nputs wh||e a|so reduc|ng GHG
em|ss|ons rom |and-use act|v|t|es. Ach|ev|ng th|s
goa| w||| requ|re |ncreas|ng |oca| ood se|-sufc|ency
and promot|ng |ess ue|- and petrochem|ca|-|ntens|ve
methods o product|on.
G|ven the degree to wh|ch the modern ood system has
become dependent on oss|| ue|s, many proposa|s
or de||nk|ng ood and oss|| ue|s may seem rad|ca|.
However, eorts to th|s end must be |udged not by the
degree to wh|ch they support the ex|st|ng |mperat|ves
o the g|oba| ood system, but by the|r ab|||ty to so|ve
the undamenta| cha||enge that aces us: the need
to eed a g|oba| popu|at|on o seven b||||on (and
count|ng) w|th a d|m|n|sh|ng supp|y o ue|s ava||ab|e
to ert|||ze, p|ough and |rr|gate fe|ds, and to harvest
and transport crops. Farmers need to reduce the|r
dependence on oss|| ue|s |n order to bu||d res|||ence
aga|nst uture resource scarc|ty and pr|ce vo|at|||ty.
ln genera|, armers can no |onger assume that products
der|ved rom petro|eum and natura| gas (ch|e1y d|ese|,
gaso||ne, synthet|c ert|||zers and synthet|c pest|c|des)
w||| rema|n aordab|e |n the uture, and they shou|d
thereore change the|r bus|ness p|ans accord|ng|y.
Wh||e many approaches cou|d be exp|ored, wh|ch
|n any case wou|d depend on spec|fc geograph|c
|ocat|ons, the necessary out||nes o a genera| trans|t|on
strategy are a|ready c|ear, as d|scussed be|ow.
Farmers shou|d move towards regenerat|ve ert|||ty
systems that bu||d humus and sequester carbon |n
so||s, thus contr|but|ng to so|v|ng c||mate change
rather than exacerbat|ng |t.
Farmers shou|d reduce the|r use o pest|c|des |n
avour o |ntegrated pest management systems that
292
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
re|y pr|mar||y on b|o|og|ca|, cu|tura| and phys|ca|
contro|s.
More o the renewab|e energy that w||| power
arm|ng act|v|t|es can and must be generated on
arms. W|nd and b|omass product|on, |n part|cu|ar,
can prov|de armers w|th added |ncome wh||e a|so
power|ng arm operat|ons.
Oountr|es and reg|ons shou|d take proact|ve steps
to reduce the energy needed to transport ood
by reorgan|z|ng the|r ood product|on systems.
Th|s w||| enta|| support or |oca| producers and
or |oca| networks that br|ng producers and
consumers c|oser together. More efc|ent modes
o transportat|on, such as sh|ps and tra|ns, must
rep|ace |ess efc|ent modes, such as trucks and
p|anes.
The end o the oss|| ue| era shou|d a|so be
re1ected |n changes |n d|etary and consumpt|on
patterns among the genera| popu|at|on, w|th a
preerence or oods that are grown |oca||y, that are
|n season and that undergo |ess process|ng. A|so,
a sh|t away rom energy- and meat-|ntens|ve d|ets
shou|d be encouraged.
W|th |ess ue| ava||ab|e to power agr|cu|tura|
mach|nery, the wor|d w||| need many more armers.
But or armers to succeed, current agr|cu|tura|
po||c|es that avour |arger-sca|e product|on and
product|on or export w||| need to change |n avour
o support to sma||-sca|e subs|stence arm|ng,
garden|ng and agr|cu|tura| cooperat|ves. Such
po||c|es shou|d be ormu|ated and put |n p|ace both
by |nternat|ona| |nst|tut|ons, such as the FAO and
the Wor|d Bank, and a|so by nat|ona| and reg|ona|
governments.
l such a trans|t|on |s undertaken proact|ve|y and
|nte|||gent|y, there cou|d be many add|t|ona| benefts,
w|th more emp|oyment |n arm|ng, more env|ronmenta|
protect|on, |ess so|| eros|on, a rev|ta||zat|on o rura|
cu|ture and s|gn|fcant |mprovements |n pub||c hea|th.
Some o th|s transormat|on w||| |nev|tab|y be dr|ven
by market orces, |ed by the r|s|ng pr|ce o oss||
ue|s. However, w|thout p|ann|ng, the trans|t|on may
prove destruct|ve, s|nce market orces act|ng a|one
cou|d bankrupt armers wh||e |eav|ng consumers
w|th ew, | any, opt|ons or secur|ng ood supp||es.
Pemov|ng oss|| ue|s rom the ood system too
qu|ck|y, beore a|ternat|ve systems are |n p|ace, wou|d
be catastroph|c. Thus the trans|t|on process requ|res
careu| cons|derat|on and p|ann|ng.
There are reasons or hope. A recent report on
Ar|can agr|cu|ture by NOTAD and NEP (2008b)
suggests that organ|c, sma||-sca|e arm|ng can
de||ver the amount o |ncreased y|e|ds thought to be
poss|b|e on|y through |ndustr|a| arm|ng, and w|thout
the env|ronmenta| and soc|a| damages caused by
the |atter. Pecent research by Badg|ey et a|. (2007)
a|so conc|udes that organ|c and |ow-|nput methods
can |ncrease y|e|ds |n deve|op|ng countr|es wh||e
ma|nta|n|ng y|e|ds |n |ndustr|a||zed countr|es.
Genera||y, sma||er arms have greater b|od|vers|ty
(Ho|e et a|., 2005), p|ace greater emphas|s on so||-
bu||d|ng (D'Souza and lkerd, 1996) and d|sp|ay greater
|and-use efc|ency than |arge arms (Posset, 1999).
Neverthe|ess, desp|te these prom|s|ng trends and
fnd|ngs, |t |s ax|omat|c that no ood system t|ed to the
earth's fn|te so|| and water resources can support an
ever-expand|ng and ever more resource-demand|ng
popu|at|on. The prudent path towards reorm|ng the
g|oba| ood system must thereore coord|nate agr|-
cu|tura| po||cy w|th appropr|ate popu|at|on, educa-
t|on, econom|c, transport and energy po||c|es. The
trans|t|on to a post-petro|eum ood system w||| need
to be comprehens|ve. ln |ts sca|e and requ|red speed
|t prom|ses to be one o the greatest cha||enges |n
human h|story. But the cha||enge w||| on|y grow the
|onger |t |s postponed.
293
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
A. Tha axIanI oI spacu|aI|on
nt|| the turn o the century, there was very ||tt|e
specu|at|on and fnanc|a| |nvestment |n ood, at best,
very ew spec|a||zed traders and fnanc|a| ana|ysts
were act|ve |n th|s area. However, th|s has dramat|ca||y
changed |n recent years. Dur|ng the per|od 2003
2008 a|one, |nvestment |n the two b|ggest g|oba|
commod|ty |ndex unds shot up rom $13 to $317
b||||on a spectacu|ar growth o 2,300 per cent.
48
Or|g|na||y, commod|ty exchanges, at wh|ch or
|nstance wheat utures contracts are traded, p|ayed
a construct|ve ro|e or "rea|" agr|cu|ture. Farmers were
ab|e to se|| the|r product|on to the m|||er at the "uture"
pr|ce quoted on the commod|ty exchange we|| |n
advance o the harvest|ng date. ln th|s way, both
s|des cou|d better p|an the|r bus|ness, because they
knew at what pr|ce the product wou|d be so|d, and
the armers were no |onger exposed to urther pr|ce
1uctuat|ons. Thus commod|ty exchanges prov|ded r|sk
management, or rather r|sk reduct|on, serv|ces. S|nce
about 1999, the |nternat|ona| fnance |obby persuaded
regu|ators to re|ax or ||t restr|ct|ons on commod|ty
utures trad|ng, wh|ch banks and |nvestment und
managers v|ewed as a |ucrat|ve bus|ness. However,
th|s eventua||y |ed to a perverse market s|tuat|on. The
act that specu|ators at commod|ty exchanges on|y
need to have a ract|on o the|r contracts backed by
proper (rea|) unds (the so-ca||ed marg|n) resu|ts |n an
art|fc|a| |ncrease |n |nvestments through cred|t.
The Oh|cago Board o Trade (OBOT) Exchange
\o|ume Peport o May 2011, reported trad|ng o some
2.6 m||||on utures and opt|ons contracts |n that month.
W|th a s|ng|e contract, about 136 tons o wheat (5,000
bushe|s at 27 kg) were traded, resu|t|ng |n a tota|
trad|ng vo|ume o 358 m||||on tons o wheat (at a va|ue
o about $90 b||||on), and that at |ust one commod|ty
exchange |n Oh|cago.
49
By way o compar|son, th|s
trad|ng vo|ume |s equ|va|ent to some 52 per cent o
the tota| g|oba| wheat product|on o 2009.
Bes|des "orma|" trad|ng operat|ons at commod|ty
exchanges, many dea|s are made d|rect|y between
fnanc|a| market part|c|pants outs|de the ofc|a|
exchanges v|a te|ephone or v|a so-ca||ed "dark
poo|s" (as over-the-counter (OTO) transact|ons). The
superv|sory author|t|es get very ||tt|e |normat|on on the
nature and vo|ume o such dea|s. Th|s |s symptomat|c
and a contr|butory cause o the current fnanc|a| cr|s|s:
s|nce po||cymakers and regu|ators are not aware o the
r|sk exposure and what consequences and dom|no
eects the deau|t o one market part|c|pant may have
on the stab|||ty or rag|||ty o the fnanc|a| system, they
do not have so||d |normat|on on the bas|s o wh|ch to
make |normed and reasonab|e dec|s|ons. Th|s a|so
app||es to the commod|ty trad|ng market.
Accord|ng to the Bank or lnternat|ona| Sett|ements
(BlS), the tota| vo|ume o OTO transact|ons |n 2010
amounted to $601 tr||||on.

Th|s amount |s equ|va|ent
to 10 t|mes the s|ze o the wor|d's GDP, est|mated at
around $60 tr||||on that year. The |argest share o OTO
transact|ons concerned |nterest-re|ated dea|s, but
commod|ty transact|ons were est|mated to amount to
about $3 tr||||on a|most the equ|va|ent o Germany's
GDP.
8. ImpacI on commod|Iy pr|cas
Pr|ce vo|at|||ty |n certa|n commod|ty markets, |nc|ud|ng
or some gra|ns, has s|gn|fcant|y |ncreased, though
|t |s very d|fcu|t to determ|ne to what extent th|s |s
Commontary v|: A Cr|t|ca| Ana|ys|s of Commod|ty and
|ood r|co 5pocu|at|on
|r| N||ar
F|nanca EIh|cs LId.
AbsIracI
There |s an urgent need or po||cymakers to fnd ways o keep|ng fnanc|a| |nvestors out o commod|ty
markets. lnvestment unds shou|d be mob|||zed and encouraged to |nvest |n product|on and research
and deve|opment, rather than v|rtua||y or phys|ca||y hoard|ng commod|ty stocks or mere|y specu|at|ve
purposes, thus keep|ng them away rom rea| econom|c act|v|ty. There |s no econom|c |ust|fcat|on or such
s|phon|ng away o product|on actors.
294
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
due to the eect o esca|at|ng specu|at|on on spec|fc
commod|ty pr|ces. Whereas |n the d|stant past pr|ces
var|ed on|y marg|na||y, today a doub||ng o pr|ces
or a drop o 50 per cent or more |s no |onger a rare
occurrence. Th|s |eve| o extreme vo|at|||ty can hard|y
be exp|a|ned by market undamenta|s a|one. A recent
study by Lag|, Bar-Yam and Bertrand (2011) attr|butes
ood pr|ce vo|at|||ty |arge|y to specu|at|on and, to a
|esser extent, to the expans|on o b|oue| product|on.
50

An |||ustrat|ve examp|e o specu|at|ve act|v|t|es can be
seen |n the h|story o o|| pr|ces, spec|fca||y o West
Texas lntermed|ate (WTl), over the past fve years
(fgure 4). From the |eve| o $60 per barre| at the end
o 2006, the pr|ce shot up to over $140 per barre| (|.e.
by some 140 per cent), on|y to a|| sharp|y short|y
thereater by over 70 per cent, to some $40 per barre|.
W|thout doubt, the econom|c cr|s|s o 20082009
dampened o|| demand, but un||ke|y by as much as
70 per cent. L|kew|se, |t |s h|gh|y un||ke|y that demand
|n the two preced|ng years rose by 140 per cent. And
there was no shortage o supp|y that m|ght have
|ust|fed such an aberrat|on.
Dur|ng the |ong phase o r|s|ng commod|ty pr|ces,
most|y rom 2003 onwards, many arguments were
advanced to exp|a|n the |ncrease, |nc|ud|ng r|s|ng
demand |n rap|d|y |ndustr|a||z|ng countr|es and the
po||t|ca| |nsecur|ty |n severa| produc|ng reg|ons such
as lraq. A|though the g|oba| econom|c cr|s|s |n 2008
2009 dampened o|| demand, the undamenta| actors
pers|sted, so that |t |s un||ke|y that those actors caused
o|| pr|ces to ease by as much as 70 per cent. Pather,
|t was the cons|derab|e specu|at|on |n the market that
drove those pr|ces, th|s app||ed both to the|r upward
and downward movements.
ln the course o the second ha| o 2008, numerous
specu|ators were hard h|t by the dramat|c
deve|opments |n the wor|d's fnanc|a| markets and the
resu|t|ng |oss |n the ace va|ue o bonds and shares.
Specu|ators were ob||ged to ||qu|date |oans or wh|ch
they no |onger had sufc|ent cover. As a resu|t, any
pos|t|ons on the ma|or p|ayers' books that st||| had any
va|ue and cou|d be so|d eas||y to generate ||qu|d|ty |n a
crash|ng env|ronment, |nc|ud|ng a s|gn|fcant vo|ume
o orward contracts on commod|t|es, were so|d,
wh|ch |ed to a cons|derab|e eas|ng o commod|ty
pr|ces. Other actors who a|so had sma|| co||atera|
on orward contracts got |nto troub|e because a|||ng
F|gura 4: ava|opmanI oI Iha pr|ca
oI o|| (wTI), Z007-Z011
F|gura 3: 0orra|aI|on baIWaan Iha numbar oI T0 conIracIs and commod|Iy pr|ca dava|opmanI, Z006-Z009
Sc0|ce: Ghosh, 2010.
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01.01.2008 01.01.2010
160 -
140 -
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40 -
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Sc0|ce: http://www.fnanzen.net.
295
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
cornpr|ces had eaten |nto the|r co||atera|. They too had
to se|| the|r pos|t|ons |n order to meet the|r payment
ob||gat|ons. Th|s ava|anche o se|||ng cont|nued and
caused a mass|ve pr|ce dec||ne, dropp|ng be|ow the
|eve| o departure beore the pr|ce r|se even though a||
"market undamenta|s" that shou|d have dr|ven pr|ces
up st||| pers|sted. Ne|ther producers nor consumers
o commod|t|es can ad|ust the|r |eve| o product|on
and consumpt|on to such extreme and qu|ck pr|ce
movements. The errat|c pr|ce behav|our thereore
becomes a ser|ous prob|em.
Apart rom h|gher pr|ce vo|at|||ty, an unusua||y h|gh
corre|at|on (see fgure 5) has a|so recent|y been
observed |n the pr|ce movements o apparent|y
econom|ca||y separate markets, such as or shares
and commod|t|es. ln theory, that shou|d make ||tt|e
sense, as the|r rat|ona|es and undamenta|s are very
d|erent. lndeed, h|gh commod|ty pr|ces shou|d
dampen proft expectat|ons o compan|es. The
reason or th|s corre|at|on |s that, unt|| a ew years
ago, commod|ty market deve|opments were ch|e1y
a unct|on o phys|ca| supp|y and demand, and
had ||tt|e to do w|th deve|opments |n the fnanc|a|
markets. However, the |ncreas|ng standard|zat|on
and s|mp||fcat|on o commod|ty exchange trad|ng
|ed to fnanc|a| |nvestors becom|ng |ncreas|ng|y
attracted to a|ternat|ve orms o |nvestment that d|d
not o||ow the trend o convent|ona| fnanc|a| markets,
so as to spread the|r r|sk. Paradox|ca||y, th|s run on
commod|ty exchange contracts u|t|mate|y |ed to a
neutra||zat|on o the very beneft they oered. At the
same t|me, deve|opments on commod|ty markets
have converged w|th those on |nternat|ona| fnanc|a|
markets, contrary to what shou|d occur, g|ven that
|t |s market undaments, such as harvest vo|ume or
extreme weather events, that norma||y shou|d have
the ma|or |mpact on commod|ty pr|ces.
0. Tha ro|a oI spacu|aIors
The above ana|ys|s shows that supp|y and demand
between producers and consumers are no |onger
the exc|us|ve determ|nants o commod|ty pr|ces,
the dr|v|ng orces and |nterests o fnanc|a| markets
are a|so |ncreas|ng|y |n1uenc|ng those pr|ces. Th|s
makes commod|ty pr|ces dependent on |nternat|ona|
monetary po||cy and the cap|ta| stock s|tuat|on o |arge
banks. Such a deve|opment |s h|gh|y prob|emat|c,
because every |oca| fnanc|a| cr|s|s can eas||y tr|gger
a g|oba| econom|c one, as w|tnessed over the past
three years.
For the ma|or|ty o fnanc|a| actors, whether they are
banks or |nvestment unds, the overr|d|ng |nterest |s
to make money rom commod|ty pr|ce vo|at|||ty, and
not the acqu|s|t|on o rea| goods. They buy orward
contracts on the de||very o commod|t|es |n the uture
at an a|ready predeterm|ned pr|ce. Short|y beore such
contracts become due, they conc|ude other contracts
to even out the|r fnanc|a| pos|t|ons w|thout hav|ng
ever moved a k||ogram o meta| or a bushe| o gra|n. l
the|r bet turns out to be successu|, they make some
money, otherw|se they |ncur a |oss. lt |s est|mated that
F|gura 6: 0orra|aI|on baIWaan shara and commod|Iy pr|cas (oW Jonas IndusIr|a| Avaraga varsus oW Jonas 88
0ommod|Iy Indax), 8apI. Z007-8apI. Z011
2008 2009 2010 2011
160 -
140 -
120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
Dow Jones Industrial Average
Dow Jones UBS Commodity Index
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
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e
Sc0|ce: http://www.trades|gna|on||ne.de.
296
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
current|y on|y about 2 per cent o utures contracts
|ead to a rea| phys|ca| de||very o commod|t|es, the
rest are ||qu|dated beore de||very. Yet, contrary to what
wou|d be assumed, th|s ||qu|dat|on does not tr|gger a
pr|ce dec||ne, because the resu|t|ng reed |nvestment
cap|ta| |s |mmed|ate|y re|nvested |n new contracts
the so-ca||ed "ro||over" o contracts.
Oap|ta| |nvested |n th|s way tends to stay |n commod|ty
utures markets |n the med|um term, wh|ch |eads to
pr|ce bubb|es that |n turn attract more specu|at|ve
|nvestment. Th|s |s what happened |n the per|od
20032008 and aga|n |n the subsequent two years.
l the market thus attracts more and more money
v|a commod|ty |ndex unds or s|m||ar veh|c|es, th|s
acce|erates pr|ce deve|opments. Thus the |ncreas|ng
part|c|pat|on o fnanc|a| |nvestors |n commod|ty
markets or specu|at|ve purposes dr|ves up utures
pr|ces and |ndex unds, |ust as w|th shares on the
stock exchange, because or each buyer there ex|sts
a se||er.
The |nvestment unds manager a|so se||s commod|ty
|nvestments | the pr|ce pers|stent|y dec||nes (or |
|nvestors pu|| the|r money out o the unds), and
thus re|norces the dec||n|ng pr|ce trend. No |nvestor,
specu|ator or und manager buys an agr|cu|tura|
commod|ty at t|mes o bumper harvests or |ow
demand, rather, they are attracted by harvest a||ures
and extreme demand s|tuat|ons. Th|s |s why both
specu|ators and fnanc|a| |nvestors re|norce errat|c
pr|ce 1uctuat|ons. The|r ro|e |n pr|ce ormat|on or
ood must thereore be v|ewed w|th cons|derab|e
scept|c|sm and concern.
ln the case o wheat, the econom|c data prov|de a
rather so||d p|cture product|on has a|ways kept pace
w|th demand (fgure 6). lt |s thereore paradox|ca|
that |n recent years the pr|ce o wheat has been very
vo|at||e.
S|nce ear|y 2009, |arge fnanc|a| |nvestors have
|nvested |n commod|t|es by acqu|r|ng the stocks
o ent|re warehouses, and s|nce these are acqu|red
d|rect|y rom the producers, they do not eature |n the
rea| economy. Th|s provokes product|on shortages
and pr|ce booms w|th the s|mp|e ob|ect|ve o proft
max|m|zat|on by the |nternat|ona| fnanc|a| sector,
wh|ch |s detr|menta| to the rea| economy and to
soc|ety at |arge.
There |s no rea| need or the agro-ood |ndustry or the
economy to g|ve fnanc|a| |nvestors v|rtua| or phys|ca|
bags o wheat or other scarce commod|t|es or
d|vers|y|ng the|r fnanc|a| porto||o and thus creat|ng
art|fc|a| demand. The wor|d market or ood and
other commod|t|es |s a|ready under heavy demand
pressure, wh|ch the ood and commod|ty sector has
managed to keep |n check by expand|ng product|on.
However, | there |s add|t|ona| and unnecessary
demand pressure rom fnanc|a| |nvestors, th|s rag||e
market equ|||br|um w||| be |eopard|zed.
F|gura 6: Evo|uI|on oI producI|on and consumpI|on oI WhaaI (1,000 Ions)
Sc0|ce: n|ted States Department o Agr|cu|ture, ||co0c||cn, S0oo|, ano D|s|||o0||cn oa|aoase,
2008 (http://www.as.usda.gov/psdon||ne/).
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Polynimial
World Consumption
Linear
Linear
World Production
Polynimial
297
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
The dr|ve or h|gh product|v|ty and proftab|||ty
through agro-|ndustr|a| mode|s has created ser|ous
env|ronmenta| and soc|a| prob|ems. Thus bus|ness
as usua| |s not an opt|on. The wor|d needs to
undergo a undamenta| sh|t towards susta|nab|e and
eco|og|ca| agr|cu|tura| and ood systems. Th|s has
been h|gh||ghted by an |ncreas|ng number o n|ted
Nat|ons stud|es, |nc|ud|ng a report by the lnternat|ona|
Assessment o Agr|cu|tura| Know|edge, Sc|ence and
Techno|ogy or Deve|opment (lAASTD, 2008), many
NOTAD reports (|nc|ud|ng |ts 7|aoe ano Fn.||cnmen|
Pe.|e. 200
51
ano 20'0), NEP's G|een Fccncm,
Peoc|| (NEP, 2011;, and reports by the H|gh Leve|
Pane| o Experts on Food Secur|ty and Nutr|t|on (HLPE,
2011), and the n|ted Nat|ons Spec|a| Papporteur on
the P|ght to Food (Human P|ghts Oounc||, 2010).
W|th|n the broad scope o env|ronmenta||y r|end|y
agr|cu|ture, organ|c agr|cu|ture p|ays a very |mportant
ro|e,
52
be|ng, |n many ways, the go|d standard |ead|ng
the way. lt |s a|so c|ear|y defned and thereore
ver|fab|e. There are standards or organ|c product|on
and process|ng wh|ch can be used both to gu|de
operators and to assess | a system |s organ|c or
not. Such c|ar|ty enab|es producers to c|a|m w|th
sufc|ent back|ng that the|r products are organ|c, and
to be econom|ca||y rewarded or the|r susta|nab|e
product|on pract|ces, s|nce organ|c products can
genera||y be so|d at h|gher pr|ces and are |n h|gh
demand.
Organ|c guarantee systems (OGSs) are set up to
guarantee to consumers that products have been
produced |n accordance w|th organ|c pr|nc|p|es and
pract|ces. The ma|n components o an OGS are:
A product|on and process|ng standard, and
A conorm|ty assessment system to ensure that the
standard |s be|ng o||owed.
There are d|erent opt|ons or conorm|ty assessment.
Se|-c|a|m, re|at|onsh|ps based on persona| trust,
part|c|patory guarantee systems
53
and th|rd-party
cert|fcat|on can a|| work we|| at |oca| and nat|ona|
|eve|s. For exchanges across d|stances (|nc|ud|ng
reg|ona| or |nternat|ona| trade), usua||y th|rd-party
cert|fcat|on |s needed. ln countr|es that regu|ate the|r
markets and cert|fcat|on systems, there |s genera||y
an add|t|ona| |ayer, that o accred|tat|on, superv|s|on
or approva| o cert|fcat|on bod|es. The organ|c pr|vate
sector system a|so oers th|s add|t|ona| |ayer o g|oba|
organ|c guarantee through the lnternat|ona| Organ|c
Accred|tat|on Serv|ce.
ln recent decades, there has been a pro||erat|on o
pub||c and pr|vate OGSs wor|dw|de. Oten these
systems are |s|ands: products so|d as organ|c
must comp|y 100 per cent w|th a|| the deta||s o any
part|cu|ar system, and each OGS has usua||y been
set up w|th |oca| or nat|ona| c|rcumstances |n m|nd.
L|tt|e thought has been g|ven to the benefts o the
1ow o products across systems, part|cu|ar|y |nward
1ows. Sma|| deta||s or d|erences |n OGS at the
|eve|s o standards, cert|fcat|on or accred|tat|on/
approva| can become b|g barr|ers to trade. Th|s |ack
o harmon|zat|on and equ|va|ency across systems |s
a ma|or h|ndrance to the deve|opment o the organ|c
sector.
Th|s comes at a h|gh pr|ce. Farmers strugg|e
to demonstrate that they meet a|| the ru|es and
requ|rements |n a|| the d|erent markets where
they w|sh to se||, wh|ch cou|d even be two d|erent
stores on the same street. S|m||ar|y, processors and
traders strugg|e to source acceptab|y cert|fed fna|
products and |ngred|ents or processed products.
And cert|fcat|on bod|es pay h|gh costs or mu|t|p|e
accred|tat|ons. Moreover, dea||ng w|th OGS d|verts
Commontary v||: Lot tho Good roducts Grow and ||ow
8oph|a TWarog
h0TA sacraIar|aI
AbsIracI
Peduc|ng techn|ca| barr|ers to trade |n organ|c agr|cu|tura| products through harmon|zat|on and equ|va|ency
o organ|c standards and conorm|ty assessment systems |s o ma|or |mportance or |ncreas|ng organ|c
markets, boost|ng trade |n organ|c products and reduc|ng transact|on costs. Th|s wou|d promote the
much-needed g|oba| sh|t towards susta|nab|e and eco|og|ca| ood and agr|cu|tura| systems.
298
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
resources rom more core act|v|t|es such as
product|on. At the same t|me, consumers pay h|gher
pr|ces and have ewer organ|c products to choose
rom. F|na||y, as growth |n organ|c agr|cu|ture |s
h|ndered |n these ways, the env|ronment becomes
more degraded due to the spread o non-organ|c,
env|ronmenta||y damag|ng orms o agr|cu|ture.
A. ImporIanca oI organ|c Irada
The wor|d needs strong, v|brant |oca| ood systems
w|th |oca| markets and |oca| re|at|onsh|ps. These
shou|d be act|ve|y supported by |oca| consumers,
reta||ers and governments a||ke. There |s a who|e
array o act|ons that need to be undertaken, |nc|ud|ng
deve|opment o |oca| and reg|ona| |nrastructure such
as roads and markets, prov|s|on o m|ss|ng serv|ces
such as cred|t to sma||ho|der armers, support or the
conservat|on and exchange o |oca| seeds, breeds and
re|ated trad|t|ona| know|edge, part|c|patory research
|n partnersh|p w|th |oca| operators and |n response
to |oca| needs, extens|on serv|ces to support organ|c
product|on, and support to sma||ho|der armers to
organ|ze |nto groups (NOTAD-NEP, 2008a).
Trade |n organ|c products can a|so p|ay an |mportant
comp|ementary ro|e. Organ|c products current|y
account or a very sma|| share o overa|| sa|es o ood
and agr|cu|tura| products. There |s great potent|a| or
th|s share to |ncrease. Over the past ew decades,
the b|ggest constra|nt on growth |n organ|c sa|es has
been the shortage o a cons|stent supp|y.
Most operators and governments read||y we|come
opportun|t|es to export organ|c produce as |t prov|des
sources o |ncome and ways to st|mu|ate domest|c
product|on. However, what |s oten over|ooked |s the
|mportant ro|e that |mports (e.g. o resh produce,
processed products or |ngred|ents or process|ng)
can p|ay |n expand|ng domest|c organ|c markets.
The |arger the range o organ|c products on oer, the
greater |s consumer |nterest. As the markets grow,
the h|gh transact|on costs and |og|st|ca| |nefc|enc|es
are reduced as quant|t|es |ncrease, know|edge and
exper|ence are ga|ned, short and |ong supp|y cha|ns
are deve|oped and ma|nta|ned, and trust |s bu||t
a|ong the supp|y cha|n through stab|e re|at|onsh|ps.
ln genera|, the overa|| benefts rom |ncreas|ng the
s|ze o the organ|c market by attract|ng new organ|c
consumers w||| outwe|gh the poss|b|e d|sadvantages
some domest|c producers ear |n terms o compet|t|on
|n the|r home markets.
54
S|nce consumers o organ|c
products w||| st||| genera||y preer |oca| products,
domest|c organ|c operators can beneft rom th|s by
market|ng the|r products as
nat|ona|, through a nat|ona| |abe| such as the
nat|ona| 1ag, and/or
|oca|, through d|rect sa|es or by s|gns on |oca|
products at po|nt o fna| sa|e.
These |oca| or nat|ona| |abe|s may even attract new
consumers o organ|c, who are |nterested |n buy|ng
|oca| products. ln add|t|on, |ngred|ents or processed
products oten have to be sourced rom many d|erent
countr|es, wh|ch means that |mports are necessary or
deve|op|ng the organ|c processed products |ndustry,
wh|ch |s one o the most rap|d|y grow|ng segments o
the organ|c market.
Openness to trade |n organ|c products a|so shows
so||dar|ty w|th the rest o the organ|c wor|d, espec|a||y
w|th organ|c producers rom deve|op|ng countr|es. ln
most o these countr|es, the domest|c organ|c markets
are part|cu|ar|y sma||. Thereore, organ|c exports
can be an |mportant pu|| actor or the deve|opment
o susta|nab|e agr|cu|tura| pract|ces and |mproved
||ve||hoods or the wor|d's poor. On sma||ho|der arms
|n deve|op|ng countr|es, oten one or two products
are exported, but dozens o other products are be|ng
produced |n an organ|c manner and so|d |oca||y. Th|s
|mproves ood secur|ty (NOTAD-NEP, 2008b) and
the hea|th o |oca| popu|at|ons.
ln genera|, organ|c trade acts as an |mportant
st|mu|us to organ|c product|on and sa|es. However, |ts
potent|a| |s ||m|ted by techn|ca| barr|ers to trade due to
d|erences |n OGSs. Oonsequent|y, |t produces the
odd s|tuat|on that convent|ona| products can cross
borders more eas||y than organ|c products. Th|s on|y
serves to exacerbate another more undamenta| t||t
aga|nst organ|c products |n the market's p|ay|ng fe|d.
At present, apart rom a|r-trade products, organ|c
products are the on|y goods that have |nterna||zed
some env|ronmenta| costs |n the|r pr|ces. ln contrast,
the cons|derab|e damage to the env|ronment,
hea|th and other econom|c sectors caused by agro-
|ndustr|a| agr|cu|ture |s not at a|| re1ected |n the pr|ces
o convent|ona| ood and agr|cu|tura| products. These
costs to soc|ety and to the p|anet are very h|gh, but
are pa|d by soc|ety |n terms o h|gher hea|th costs,
env|ronmenta| c|ean-up, and |ob |osses |n fsher|es that
are aected by agrochem|ca| run-o, to c|te a ew costs.
For examp|e, the frst ever pan-European N|trogen
Assessment perormed a costbeneft ana|ys|s o
n|trogen ert|||zer use |n Europe, wh|ch revea|ed
299
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
that the overa|| env|ronmenta| costs "(est|mated at
6706320 b||||on per year at current rates) outwe|gh
the d|rect econom|c benefts o react|ve n|trogen |n
agr|cu|ture. The h|ghest soc|eta| costs are assoc|ated
w|th |oss o a|r qua||ty and water qua||ty, ||nked to
|mpacts on ecosystems and espec|a||y on human
hea|th" (Sutton et a|., 2011). However, these costs are
not re1ected |n the pr|ces o the ood and agr|cu|tura|
products produced w|th heavy |nputs o the synthet|c
n|trogen ert|||zers. The |ong-term so|ut|on to th|s
prob|em c|ear|y shou|d be to change the under|y|ng
|ncent|ve structures so that negat|ve externa||t|es
are du|y re1ected |n the pr|ces o a|| agr|cu|tura|
products. At the very |east, governments shou|d stop
subs|d|z|ng these harmu| |nputs. Th|s cou|d u|t|mate|y
resu|t |n organ|c product|on becom|ng the norm, w|th
OGSs no |onger needed. ln the meant|me, however, |t
|s |mportant to reduce the techn|ca| barr|ers to trade
caused by d|erences |n OGSs so that the organ|c
agr|cu|ture sector can grow. The ma|n too|s or th|s are
harmon|zat|on and equ|va|ence.
8. Fac|||IaI|ng organ|c Irada Ihrough
harmon|taI|on and aqu|va|anca
Equ|va|ency shou|d be the bas|s or |nternat|ona| trade
|n organ|c products, supp|emented by harmon|zat|on
where des|red and app||cab|e. Nat|ona| organ|c
standards and regu|at|ons shou|d be |n ||ne w|th
|nternat|ona| organ|c standards and a|so, very
|mportant|y, take |nto account nat|ona| agroeco|og|ca|,
soc|o-econom|c and cu|tura| perspect|ves.
lnternat|ona| trade shou|d be based on mutua| respect
or th|s po||cy space.
Oountr|es and pr|vate sector standard setters
shou|d not orce the rest o the wor|d to comp|y |n
a prescr|pt|ve manner w|th every s|ng|e deta||ed
spec|fcat|on |n the|r OGSs, wh|ch m|ght not ft we||
|n the others' contexts. Pather, the way orward |s to
expect the best wh||e at the same t|me embrac|ng
d|vers|ty. Oountr|es and pr|vate OGSs shou|d a||ow
|mports o organ|c products that are produced and
guaranteed |n a manner equ|va|ent (not |dent|ca|) to
the|r own.
For over a decade, NOTAD, FAO and the lnternat|ona|
Federat|on o Organ|c Agr|cu|ture Movements
(lFOAM), through the|r |o|nt lnternat|ona| Task Force
on Harmon|zat|on and Equ|va|ence |n Organ|c
Agr|cu|ture (20022008), have worked together, a|ong
w|th a host o key pub||c and pr|vate sector actors, to
deve|op the o||ow|ng too|s to oster trade based on
equ|va|ency:
For conorm|ty assessment, the lnternat|ona|
Pequ|rements or Oonorm|ty Assessment Bod|es
(lPOOB) are perormance requ|rements or organ|c
cert|fers adapted rom lSO 65, wh|ch ac|||tate
recogn|t|on across systems.
For product|on and process|ng standards, the
Equ|too| |s a gu|de to assess|ng d|er|ng standards
|n a structured and transparent manner.
nder a successor |o|nt |n|t|at|ve, the G|oba| Organ|c
Market Access (GOMA) pro|ect, the Equ|too| has been
enhanced through the deve|opment o the Oommon
Ob|ect|ves and Pequ|rements or Organ|c Systems
(OOPOS). OOPOS he|ps governments and other
organ|c standard setters to |dent|y the under|y|ng
ob|ect|ves the|r organ|c product|on and process|ng
systems a|m to ach|eve, and then to eva|uate other
standards to see |, on the who|e, they ach|eve those
ob|ect|ves (|n a s|m||ar or d|erent but equa||y va||d
manner). lFOAM, the |nternat|ona| pr|vate sector
standard sett|ng body, |s us|ng OOPOS to deve|op
the lFOAM am||y o standards those wh|ch have
been assessed and ound to be overa|| equ|va|ent to
OOPOS.
The pub||c and pr|vate sectors shou|d make u|| use
o these too|s. Spec|fca||y, or the purpose o trade |n
organ|c products, and part|cu|ar|y as regards |mports
o organ|c products rom other systems, pub||c and
pr|vate sector actors |nvo|ved |n regu|at|ng organ|c
guarantee systems shou|d:
1. For producI|on and procass|ng sIandards,
se OOPOS and the Equ|too| to eva|uate other
product|on and process|ng standards to determ|ne
| comp||ance w|th those standards wou|d, as a
who|e, ach|eve the most |mportant under|y|ng
ob|ect|ves o organ|c product|on systems.
Z. For conIorm|Iy assassmanI sysIams,
Bu||d trust among accred|tors and superv|s|ng
bod|es (|nc|ud|ng governments) to mutua||y
recogn|ze accred|tat|on/approva| systems o
cert|fcat|on bod|es and other means o conorm|ty
assessment.
se lPOOB to eva|uate the perormance
requ|rements or cert|fcat|on bod|es.
The |andscape o |nternat|ona| trade |n organ|c
products |s current|y chang|ng. Many reg|ons are
undergo|ng reg|ona| harmon|zat|on o parts or a||
300
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
o the|r OGSs. For many years, the E had the on|y
harmon|zed system, a|though the deve|opment o the
Nat|ona| Organ|c Program |n the n|ted States cou|d
a|so be cons|dered a sort o |nterna| harmon|zat|on o
a web o pr|vate and State OGSs. S|nce 2005, w|th the
support o lFOAM, FAO, NOTAD and NEP, var|ous
deve|op|ng-country reg|ons have a|so engaged |n
reg|ona| cooperat|on and harmon|zat|on.
ln East Ar|ca, the East Ar|can Organ|c Products
Standard (EAOPS) was deve|oped through a
reg|ona| pub||c-pr|vate sector consu|tat|ve process
|n 20052007, and adopted as the East Ar|can
Oommun|ty standard |n 2007.
The Pac|fc ls|ands o||owed th|s mode| to deve|op
the|r own reg|ona| standard, wh|ch they adopted |n
2008.
The Oentra| Amer|can countr|es p|us the Dom|n|can
Pepub||c are current|y fna||z|ng u|| harmon|zat|on
o the|r organ|c regu|at|ons re|at|ng to standards
p|us conorm|ty assessment aspects.
Pub||c and pr|vate sector actors rom South,
East and South-East As|an countr|es have been
cooperat|ng s|nce 2010 to deve|op the As|an
Peg|ona| Organ|c Standard (APOS), the drat o
wh|ch was fna||zed |n February 2012.
These eorts at harmon|zat|on can both expand the
reg|ona| markets and deve|op a sense o common
reg|ona| |dent|ty, w|th pos|t|ve sp|||over eects |n terms
o South-South cooperat|on |n a number o areas.
Pegu|at|ons concern|ng organ|c |mports need to be
updated to re1ect th|s sh|t|ng |andscape and a||ow
or recogn|t|on o reg|ona| organ|c standards. Th|s
wou|d |nvo|ve separat|ng equ|va|ency determ|nat|ons
o standards and o conorm|ty assessment systems.
Ourrent|y th|s |s not the case. For examp|e, under the
E |mport approva| system there |s no avenue or
the East Ar|can Oommun|ty to subm|t the EAOPS
or approva| because a common organ|c conorm|ty
assessment system compr|s|ng accred|tors and
superv|s|on o cert|fcat|on has not yet been deve|oped.
Thus the reg|on does not ft |nto the category o a
th|rd-country ||st.
For regu|at|ons that ma|nta|n ||sts o approved
cert|fcat|on bod|es (such as |n the E and the n|ted
States), cert|fcat|on bod|es shou|d be a||owed to
cert|y to d|erent standards |n d|erent reg|ons. For
examp|e, a European cert|fcat|on body operat|ng |n
Europe and |n East Ar|ca shou|d be ab|e to use the
E standard or operators |n Europe and the East
Ar|can Organ|c Products Standard or operators |n
East Ar|ca.
0. A |andmar| |n Iac|||IaI|ng organ|c Irada
ln 2008, Oanada and the n|ted States s|gned an
equ|va|ency agreement w|th u|| system recogn|t|on,
|nc|ud|ng or |mports. Oert|fcat|on bod|es around
the wor|d need on|y obta|n one accred|tat|on and
operators on|y one cert|fcat|on to access both
markets. Th|s equ|va|ency agreement thus promotes
organ|c trade creat|on w|thout trade d|vers|on, wh|ch
may occur under more exc|us|onary agreements. lt
thus shares the benefts w|th the rest o the wor|d. lt
|s a best pract|ce to be emu|ated, and hopeu||y a|so
rep||cated mu|t||atera||y wor|dw|de.
301
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
The Peg|ona| \a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der
Oorporat|on (P\AOSO) |n the reg|on o Fre|burg |n
southern Germany |s an |nnovat|ve enterpr|se |n
the area o soc|a|-eco|og|ca| |nvestment. lt a|ms at
acqu|r|ng agr|cu|tura| enterpr|ses |n the reg|on o
Fre|burg w|th cash |nvestments rom |oca| consumers
and c|t|zens, who take an act|ve |nterest |n the
susta|nab|e deve|opment o organ|c agr|cu|ture and
the prov|s|on o sae and good qua||ty ood rom the
reg|on. The unds ra|sed are used by P\AOSO to
acqu|re or part|c|pate |n product|on ac|||t|es that are
then |eased to |nterested P\AOSO member armers
or entrepreneurs accord|ng to cr|ter|a set by the
P\AOSO.
Acqu|s|t|ons concern the product|on, process|ng
and d|str|but|on o organ|c produce, |nc|ud|ng seeds,
arms, energy generat|on, ert|||zer product|on,
restaurants and hote|s, as we|| as reta|| out|ets. As
a c|t|zen corporat|on, |t a|ms to attract pr|vate and
|nst|tut|ona| |nvestors, who prov|de sma|| and med|um-
s|zed enterpr|ses w|th a so||d cap|ta| base a|med at
bu||d|ng and conso||dat|ng sound, reg|ona||y-ocused
econom|c structures.
A. Assur|ng susIa|nab|a managamanI and
appropr|aIa raIurn on |nvasImanI
The pressure o secur|ng sufc|ent cap|ta| returns
has a ma|or bear|ng on agr|cu|tura| product|on, and
thereore on the ||ves o armers and agr|cu|tura|
producers. Spec|a||zat|on, mechan|zat|on and
econom|es o sca|e tend to become the |ynchp|n,
even or organ|c product|on at enterpr|se |eve|.
However, the or|entat|on o agr|cu|ture based on|y
on return-dr|ven cr|ter|a |mp||es |osses on the soc|o-
eco|og|ca| s|de, because manpower |s rep|aced
by techno|ogy or |ow-|ncome, seasona| |abour.
Th|s changes the cu|tura| |andscape. A urther
consequence o th|s deve|opment |s that techn|ca||y
d|sadvantaged reg|ons become more marg|na||zed
over t|me. The same app||es to sectors that are
|ess |ucrat|ve, such as da|ry arm|ng, sma||-sca|e
agr|cu|ture |n genera|, or breed|ng o new, reg|ona||y
cu|t|vated p|ant var|et|es. From an agr|cu|tura| po|nt o
v|ew, |t makes more sense to have an |nterconnected
and mu|t|unct|ona| management approach.
Yet |n order to surv|ve compet|t|ve market pressure,
a s|gn|fcant share o the costs o convent|ona|
agr|cu|tura| producers becomes externa||zed. Aga|nst
th|s background, the preva|||ng cap|ta| return concept
needs to be ca||ed |nto quest|on. One thereore
wonders whether the creat|on o spec|fc soc|o-
eco|og|ca| va|ues does not a|so represent a k|nd o
"net y|e|d".
P\AOSO shareho|ders obta|n two types o returns on
the cap|ta| they |nvest: a monetary and a qua||tat|ve
one. The organ|zat|on's annua| bus|ness report, |n
add|t|on to prov|d|ng |normat|on on the net monetary
y|e|d o |ts |nvestments, a|so takes |nto account the
Commontary v|||: Commun|ty-5upportod Organ|c roduct|on:
1ho Caso of tho og|ona| va|uo-addod C|t|zon
5haroho|dor Corporat|on |n 5outhorn Gormany
0hr|sI|an h|ss
ag|ona| Va|ua-addad 0|I|tan 8haraho|dar 0orporaI|on
AbsIracI
The Peg|ona| \a|ue-added O|t|zen Shareho|der Oorporat|on supports:
The creat|on and susta|nab|e operat|on o sma|| and med|um-s|zed enterpr|ses |n the |oca| product|on,
process|ng and market|ng o organ|c ood through a ded|cated |nvestment strategy that assures the
econom|c |ndependence o enterpr|ses through shareho|der part|c|pat|on o |nterested c|t|zens and
consumers o the reg|on and co||aborat|on |n ex|st|ng c|usters.
The gather|ng and eva|uat|on o data on non-monetary benefts or serv|ces generated by supported
armers and enterpr|ses on the bas|s o 64 soc|a|, econom|c and eco|og|ca| |nd|cators.
302
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
soc|a| and eco|og|ca| eects o P\AOSO act|v|t|es by
prov|d|ng |normat|on on the creat|on o va|ue other
than on|y mater|a| va|ue. The act that every econom|c
process has a pos|t|ve and negat|ve |mpact on va|ue
creat|on or the economy |s beyond doubt. Thereore,
or each P\AOSO share, both the m|cro- and macro-
econom|c revenues are reported. The categor|es o
susta|nab|e management |nc|ude the var|ab|es |n
Tab|e 6.
8. haW opporIun|I|as Ihrough
rag|ona| naIWor|s
Through the engagement o the P\AOSO |n areas
beyond on|y agr|cu|tura| product|on, |ess |ucrat|ve
operat|ons and ent|t|es can be supported or
strengthened. L|kew|se, cross-||nk|ng enab|es the
P\AOSO to channe| cap|ta| rom urban centres |nto
rura| areas.
0. Farm succass|on
For years, the number o peop|e tak|ng over the|r
am||y arms has been constant|y dec||n|ng. On the
other hand, there are many we||-tra|ned armers and
gardeners who cannot acqu|re the|r own arms due
to the h|gh cap|ta| requ|rements. W|th the |nstruments
and |ntermed|at|on prov|ded by the P\AOSO, a arm
can be acqu|red by an |nterested armer | there |s
no am||y successor |nterested |n runn|ng |t, thus
ac|||tat|ng cont|nu|ty o product|on and the robustness
o the reg|ona| network.
. 0ommun|Iy and consumar parI|c|paI|on
and d|a|ogua
The term "c|t|zen shareho|der corporat|on" was
|ntent|ona||y used or P\AOSO. lt denotes that,
w|th the acqu|s|t|on o shares, |nterested c|t|zens
and consumers rom the reg|on around the c|ty o
Fre|burg become part|a| owners o the |and and
assets o P\AOSO. They take an act|ve |nterest
|n the susta|nab|e management o the network,
the management o the so|| and conservat|on
o the env|ronment as we|| as |n |mprov|ng rura|
||ve||hoods. The pr|nc|p|es o the P\AOSO env|sage
a permanent d|a|ogue between the shareho|ders and
the operators/tenants o the |nd|v|dua| ent|t|es on the
most des|rab|e d|rect|on o the|r act|v|t|es and re|ated
product|on methods.
E. ag|ona| varsus g|oba| mar|aI
or|anIaI|on
The bus|ness mode| o P\AOSO has a c|ear reg|ona|
ocus. \a|ue creat|on rema|ns w|th|n the reg|on, and
cap|ta| |s sought rom c|t|zens w|th|n the reg|on who
take an act|ve |nterest |n susta|nab|e agr|cu|ture, |ts
F|gura 7: Tha concapIua| sIrucIura oI VA080
Tab|a 6: kay susIa|nab|a managamanI cr|Iar|a
8IaIhng Eco|og|ca| cr|Iar|a Econom|c var|ab|as
Sl|uclu|e ol emp|oymeul So|| le|l|||ly |sl||bul|ou ol va|ue c|eal|ou
Leve| ol wages B|od|ve|s|ly Va|ue c|eal|ou lo| lhe |eg|ou
l|uclual|ou eve|opmeul ol o|gau|c cu|l|val|ou a|ea Reg|oua| eugagemeul
ua||ly ol job luucl|ous Resou|ce cousumpl|ou |a|ogue w|lh|u lhe va|ue-c|eal|ou cha|u
lmp|emeulal|ou ol Eu ||ecl|ve ou
0|gau|c Ag||cu|lu|e
VA080
O|t|zens/consumers as
shareho|ders
Process|ng Trade and market|ng Agr|cu|ture
303
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
mu|t|-unct|ona||ty |nc|ud|ng the conservat|on o |oca|
b|od|vers|ty and the env|ronment and the creat|on
o rura| ||ve||hoods. Th|s mode| oers a number o
econom|c, env|ronmenta| and soc|a| benefts.
1. Econom|c banahIs:
No one-s|ded spec|a||zat|on o product|on: the
network|ng and consu|tat|ve approach as we||
as the pr|nc|pa|s o organ|c agr|cu|ture prevent
|ops|ded spec|a||zat|on,
Less pressure to reduce costs and |ncrease the
sca|e o product|on,
Pr|or|ty g|ven to qua||ty over econom|es o sca|e
through act|ve support to sma||ho|der armers and
sma||-sca|e process|ng and market|ng compan|es,
Mutua| support w|th|n the network through
counse|||ng and support o partner compan|es,
No dependence on spec|fc market|ng systems
and market|ng partners,
Ma|nta|n|ng manager|a| sovere|gnty through
shareho|der |nvo|vement, as there |s no dependence
on externa| fnanc|a| agenc|es,
Oontr|but|on to rura| deve|opment and susta|nab|e
||ve||hoods through the creat|on o new compan|es
and arms, and
Mob|||zat|on o cap|ta| rom w|th|n the reg|on.
Z. Env|ronmanIa| banahIs:
Short transport d|stances,
Sma|| produc|ng un|ts that respect the mu|t|-
unct|ona||ty o agr|cu|ture,
Promot|on o organ|c agr|cu|ture and susta|nab|e
process|ng and market|ng methods (w|th resu|t|ng
|mprovements |n so|| ert|||ty and b|od|vers|ty, and
contr|but|on to c||mate change m|t|gat|on), and
D|rect contr|but|on o consumers to transorm|ng
Tab|a 7: varv|aW oI |ay |nvasImanIs oI VA080
ProjacI haIura oI |nvasImanI InvasIad cap|Ia| (B)
a||y la|m, C|oos Pu|chase aud |ease 297,G28
Na||el ga|deu, le|dmauu Pu|chase aud |ease 1OG,294
Rea| eslale |uveslmeuls Pu|chase aud |ease 11G,449
C|op a|ea. 7,94 ha Pu|chase aud |ease 228,5OO
halu|a| lood who|esa|e compauy, Bodau Lld. S||eul pa|lue| 2O,OOO
lood |ela|| oul|el, R|ese|le|d Lld.h Sha|eho|de| 1O,OOO
0|gau|c-Cale||ug, Noce|||u S||eul pa|lue| 15,OOO
l|u|l ga|deu, Joe| S|ege| S||eul pa|lue| 45,OOO
RVACSC e||ve|y Se|v|ce Lld., B|ohle l||sche||sle Sha|eho|de| 15,OOO
RVACSC e||ve|y Se|v|ce Lld., B|ohle l||sche||sle Loau 25,OOO
RVACSC Rea| Eslale Sha|eho|de| 7G,OOO
RVACSC o|gau|c ma||el oul|el, B|oNa||l Cmbh B|e|sach Sha|eho|de| 85,OOO
RVACSC Rea| Eslale Loau 7O,OOO
InvasIad cap|Ia| 1,069,B71
Approvad |nvasImanI projacIs
Ag||cu|lu|a| mach|ue|y Pu|chase 85,OOO
Cousl|ucl|ou ol la|m house Loau 27O,OOO
RVACSC e||ve|y Se|v|ce Lld., B|ohle l||sche||sle luc|ease ol sha|es 15,OOO
RVACSC e||ve|y Se|v|ce Lld., B|ohle l||sche||sle Loau 2O,OOO
ToIa|: 340,000
P|annad projacIs
P|ocess|ug lac|||ly lo| d||ed l|u|l aud vegelab|es Pu|chase ol su|lab|e bu||d|ug 18O,OOO
Na||el ga|deu |u ouauesch|ugeu (uew eule|p||se) Pa|l|a| owue|sh|p GO,OOO
luc|eas|ug lhe uumbe| ol oul|els lo| RVACSC o|gau|c ma||el oul|el
B|oma||el |u lhe c|ly ol l|e|bu|g aud |u adjaceul a|eas
luc|ease ol sha|eho|d|ug 28O,OOO
l|u|l ga|deu (c|eal|ou ol uew eule|p||se) Pa|l|a| owue|sh|p 5O,OOO
0|gau|c ch|c|eu la|m (c|eal|ou ol uew eule|p||se) Pa|l|a| owue|sh|p 8O,OOO
Vegelab|e p|ocess|ug lac|||ly (c|eal|ou ol uew eule|p||se) Pa|l|a| owue|sh|p 85,OOO
Cash |ese|ve lo| |aud acqu|s|l|ou 1OO,OOO
aqu|rad cap|Ia| 7B6,000
304
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
agr|cu|tura| pract|ces to more env|ronmenta||y
r|end|y ones.
3. 8oc|a| banahIs:
Better work|ng and soc|a| cond|t|ons,
Greater recogn|t|on o the arm|ng proess|on,
lncreased attract|veness o agr|cu|ture or young
peop|e and the |oca| commun|ty, and
Ass|stance to young peop|e or creat|ng
agr|bus|nesses.
F. VA080 govarnanca bod|as and
curranI cap|Ia|
An P\AOSO share current|y costs 6500, and takes the
orm o a reg|stered share w|th restr|cted transerab|||ty,
so that |t cannot be so|d w|thout the exp||c|t consent
o the other shareho|ders. Ourrent|y, the P\AOSO has
470 shareho|ders and a cap|ta| stock o 61.7 m||||on.
The current cap|ta| |s |nvested |n the arms and
enterpr|ses as shown |n Tab|e 7.
305
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
Commontary |X: 1ho 5LKLM |n|t|at|vo: A Cornor |||ar
for tho Commun|ty
ha|my Abou|a|sh and
NaIIh|as ka|Ia|, 8EkEN
AbsIracI
The great cha||enges conront|ng our wor|d today ood |nsecur|ty, c||mate change and poverty are |ong-
term prob|ems, ma|n|y caused by unsusta|nab|e econom|c pract|ces. These common econom|c pract|ces
have to be transormed |nto susta|nab|e ones, preerab|y |n a ho||st|c way. The SEKEM
55
ln|t|at|ve has
adopted th|s approach s|nce |ts |ncept|on |n 1977. lts ho||st|c bus|ness mode| not on|y o||ows econom|c
pr|nc|p|es, but a|so attempts to |ntegrate eco|og|ca|, soc|eta| and cu|tura| d|mens|ons. lt thereby meets
market demands and comp||es w|th standard econom|c procedures, protects the env|ronment and
promotes c||mate change adaptat|on and m|t|gat|on, guarantees eth|ca| standards and human r|ghts, and
promotes the human deve|opment o |ts emp|oyees, supp||ers and the surround|ng commun|t|es.
31 October 2011 th|s date w||| go down |n h|story
as the day when the wor|d popu|at|on exceeded 7
b||||on peop|e. One ma|or concern revo|v|ng around
th|s |andmark |s how to prov|de enough ood or the
wor|d's grow|ng popu|at|on when a|ready around one
b||||on peop|e wor|dw|de are suer|ng rom hunger.
ln add|t|on, c||mate change threatens hundreds o
thousands o armers w|th unpred|ctab|e weather
events and sh|ts |n seasons, wh|ch |n turn exacerbate
ood |nsecur|ty.
Egypt re1ects th|s g|oba| p|cture: |ts popu|at|on |s
grow|ng by around 2 per cent annua||y, wh||e the
N||e De|ta, the most ert||e and thereore the most
|mportant |and str|p or Egypt's domest|c agr|cu|tura|
product|on, |s threatened by r|s|ng sea |eve|s. A|ready
today, sa||n|zat|on o groundwater const|tutes a
prob|em that w||| most ||ke|y worsen |n the uture.
Bus|ness-as-usua| approaches strugg|e to de||ver
so|ut|ons, wh||e c||mate change |s worsen|ng and
a b||||on peop|e st||| suer rom hunger. At the same
t|me, b|g agr|bus|ness corporat|ons |ncrease the|r
profts through quest|onab|e approaches, such as the
use o genet|ca||y mod|fed seeds or vast monocu|ture
fe|ds.
56
The success o SEKEM shows that eco|og|ca|
arm|ng can adapt better to c||mate change and has
the potent|a| to eed the wor|d | |t |s adopted w|de|y
over the next years.
57
Desp|te the|r shortcom|ngs, bus|nesses are cruc|a|
to tack||ng the |ssues re|ated to ood |nsecur|ty and
c||mate change. However, to be eect|ve, those
bus|nesses need to ensure that the surround|ng
commun|t|es, wh|ch are usua||y the|r supp||ers,
part|c|pate |n tack||ng the cha||enges and beneft rom
the bus|nesses. On|y | these peop|e are |nc|uded
|n the process and beneft rom the bus|nesses can
susta|nab|e so|ut|ons or ood secur|ty and c||mate
change be ound.
The SEKEM ln|t|at|ve o||ows such a commun|ty-
based approach. SEKEM was ounded w|th the |dea
o promot|ng susta|nab|e deve|opment beneft|ng
the |oca| commun|ty and the env|ronment |n the
surround|ng v|||ages.
A. V|s|on and m|ss|on oI 8EkEN
The SEKEM ln|t|at|ve was estab||shed by Dr. lbrah|m
Abou|e|sh over 34 years ago about 60 km north-east
o Oa|ro |n rura| Egypt. On return|ng to Egypt ater 21
years o study and work |n Austr|a, he not|ced how
Egypt's soc|o-econom|c abr|c had deter|orated. H|s
response to th|s was to deve|op the o||ow|ng v|s|on
or h|s country:
S0s|a|nao|e oe.e|comen| |c.a|os a /0|0|e .|e|e
e.e|, |0man oe|n can 0n/c|o ||s c| |e| |no|.|o0a|
oc|en||a|, .|e|e man||no |s ||.|n |ce||e| |n scc|a|
/c|ms |e/ec||n |0man o|n||,, ano .|e|e a|| eccncm|c
ac||.||, |s ccno0c|eo |n accc|oance .||| ecc|c|ca|
ano e|||ca| o||nc|o|es.
306
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
Th|s v|s|on |ntegrates eco|ogy w|th econom|c, soc|eta|
and cu|tura| ||e and |s the gu|d|ng pr|nc|p|e o a||
SEKEM act|v|t|es as shown |n fgure 8.
8. Imp|amanI|ng 8EkEN`s v|s|on
1. EsIab||sh|ng b|odynam|c agr|cu|Iura as a
compaI|I|va so|uI|on Io Iha anv|ronmanIa|, soc|a|
and Iood sacur|Iy cha||angas oI Iha IWanIy-hrsI
canIury
SEKEM's bus|ness mode| |s based on the concept o
"b|odynam|c agr|cu|ture", a spec|fc orm o organ|c
agr|cu|ture that v|ews the arm as "a se|-conta|ned,
se|-susta|n|ng ecosystem respons|b|e or creat|ng
and ma|nta|n|ng |ts |nd|v|dua| hea|th and v|ta||ty w|thout
any externa| or unnatura| add|t|ons. [.] So||, p|ants,
an|ma|s and humans together create th|s |mage o a
ho||st|c ||v|ng organ|sm".
58

W|th th|s orm o agr|cu|ture, y|e|ds |n trad|t|ona|
arm|ng systems |n deve|op|ng countr|es and |n
reg|ons where so||s are degraded can be |ncreased by
up to 180 per cent (Sc|a|abba, 2007). ln Egypt, where
desert |and on wh|ch SEKEM started |ts operat|ons |s
the most degraded orm o so|| poss|b|e, SEKEM has
F|gura B: 8EkEN`s acI|v|I|as basad on |Is v|s|on Ior EgypI
SEKEM engages with all of its stakeholders
in a holistic and transparent way
In 2010, the SEKEM Companies and
Foundation employed 1 856 and 271
people respectively
SEKEM actively endorses the UN Global
Compact principles and promotes human
rights together with the Cooperative of
SEKEM Employees (CSE)
SEKEM was awarded by UniFern to provide
all its female employees with equal oppor-
tunities
SEKEM is at the forefront of national
and international initiatives for
sustainable development
The SEKEM Development Foundation
(SDF) operates a broad range of educa-
tional institutions, provides health services
and supports the cultural and artistic
development of SEKEM employees and
members of the surrounding communities
To spread knowledge about biodynamic
agriculture, SEKEM established the Egyp-
tian Biodynamic Association (EBDA)
SEKEM established the Helipolis Academy
for Sustainable Development to foster
research and development
The core business of the SEKEM group are
land reclamation, organic farming, phyto-
pharmaceutical and textile production
The SEKEM companies include the largest
producer of organic tea and the largest
producer of organic herbs in the Middle
East
SEKEM companies are compliant with 14
international standars and certificates
(Demeter, Fairtrade, ISO, etc.)
The SEKEM group has implemented a
comprehensive management system,
integrating the four dimensions of sustain-
able development and annually reports on
progress and achievements
SEKEM cultivates 1 628 feddan (ca 684 ha) of
farmland and its suppliers from the EBDA
cultivate more than 7 200 feddan (ca 3 000 ha)
Roughly 30 percent of raw materials used in
processing come from SEKEM firms
SEKEM constantly monitors and improves
the efficiency of water usage and energy
consumption
One of the major priorities of SEKEM is
caring about the fertility of soil and the
biodiversity of plants and the related
ecosystem
Animal husbandry at SEKEM includes cattle,
chickens, bees and pigeons, all living accord-
ing to Demeter standards
Cultural
Life
Social
Life
Ecology
Economic
Life
Sc0|ce: Peproduced rom SF|FV (20'0;.
307
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
s|gn|fcant|y contr|buted to the ava||ab|||ty o hea|thy
and aordab|e ood through th|s orm o organ|c
agr|cu|ture. lndeed, |t |s a p|oneer |n b|odynam|c
agr|cu|ture |n the MENA (M|dd|e East and North
Ar|ca) reg|on, and |n estab||sh|ng the organ|c market
|n Egypt.
Today, the organ|zat|on and |ts b|odynam|c supp||ers
own over 20,000 acres o arm|and o wh|ch 9,000
acres are cu|t|vated. To spread know|edge about
b|odynam|c agr|cu|ture, SEKEM act|ve|y supports the
Egypt|an B|odynam|c Assoc|at|on (EBDA) wh|ch oers
tra|n|ng on the app||cat|on o b|odynam|c methods.
Ourrent|y there are about 200 arms under the EBDA.
About 1 per cent o the overa|| agr|cu|tura| |and |n
Egypt has been converted to organ|c agr|cu|ture.
Z. 8upporI|ng |nd|v|dua| dava|opmanI Ihrough
ho||sI|c aducaI|on and mad|ca| cara
To promote human deve|opment, the SEKEM
Deve|opment Foundat|on (SDF) was ounded |n
1983 under |ts prev|ous name, Assoc|at|on or
Ou|tura| Deve|opment |n Egypt. lt supports and
operates a broad range o educat|ona|, soc|a| and
cu|tura| |nst|tut|ons. There |s a k|ndergarten, var|ous
programmes or soc|a||y d|sadvantaged ch||dren,
schoo|s and a vocat|ona| tra|n|ng centre, wh|ch
together educate about 600 ch||dren and students.
The SDF prov|des hea|th serv|ces through a med|ca|
centre wh|ch serves 30,000 peop|e |n surround|ng
v|||ages. lt a|so supports cu|tura| and art|st|c
deve|opment. A|| o these programmes create |obs,
prov|de better |earn|ng opportun|t|es and hea|th care
or the peop|e |n the surround|ng v|||ages, and enab|e
the soc|eta| |nc|us|on o ch||dren w|th spec|a| needs,
thus contr|but|ng to the a||ev|at|on o poverty, fght|ng
soc|a| exc|us|on and |mprov|ng ||teracy. lt a|so ensures
the |ntegrat|on o SEKEM w|th|n the w|der soc|a|
commun|ty o the reg|on, and thereby contr|butes to
cu|tura| understand|ng between the |oca| popu|at|on
and the SEKEM sta who m|ght have a d|erent
background.
3. 0raaI|ng Wor|p|acas IhaI raspacI human d|gn|Iy
and supporI amp|oyaa dava|opmanI
The SEKEM Group cons|sts o e|ght compan|es: two
o them process the raw mater|a|s grown on |ts fe|ds
(L|bra and SEKEM or Land Pec|amat|on), wh||e Lotus
processes herbs and sp|ces, lSlS produces h|gh-
qua||ty organ|c oodstus, NatureTEX manuactures
text||es and ATOS Pharma manuactures phyto-
pharmaceut|ca|s. These products are d|str|buted and
so|d on the domest|c (70 per cent) and |nternat|ona|
markets (30 per cent). The e|ghth company |s E| M|zan
wh|ch oers grat|ng and p|ant cu|t|vat|on serv|ces or
ru|t and vegetab|e growers.
The SEKEM Group o compan|es thereore orms an
|ntegrated va|ue cha|n as a|| compan|es are c|ose|y
|nter||nked. ln 2010, these compan|es emp|oyed over
1,800 peop|e, most|y h|red rom among the surround-
|ng |oca| commun|t|es. They oer hea|th |nsurance
and pens|on schemes wh|ch promote soc|a| secu-
r|ty and equa| opportun|t|es through tra|n|ng, part|c-
u|ar|y to advance the proess|ona| equa||ty o women
|n the workp|ace, promoted through the pro|ect "One
Bus|ness Oommun|ty. equa| opportun|ty", wh|ch
was started |n 2009. The Oode o Oonduct o SEKEM
|s based on |ts v|s|on or susta|nab|e deve|opment,
wh|ch |s dep|cted through the Susta|nab|||ty F|ower
(fgure 8) and urther refned us|ng the pr|nc|p|es o
the n|ted Nat|ons G|oba| Oompact (NGO) and the
re|evant convent|ons o the n|ted Nat|ons and the ln-
ternat|ona| Labour Organ|zat|on.
4. 8u||d|ng bus|nass moda|s |n accordanca W|Ih
aco|og|ca| and aIh|ca| pr|nc|p|as
Eco|og|ca| and eth|ca| pr|nc|p|es shou|d go beyond
|abour r|ghts and organ|c agr|cu|ture. They shou|d
run through the ent|re bus|ness mode| start|ng w|th
resource efc|ency, awareness ra|s|ng w|th|n and
beyond the company and educat|ng and exchang|ng
v|ews w|th others about them. Through |ts educat|on,
tra|n|ng and consu|tancy, SEKEM seeks to create
capac|ty |n order to sca|e up successu| and
susta|nab|e bus|ness mode|s. These are prov|ded by
the Susta|nab|e Deve|opment Oenter o the He||opo||s
Academy, the SEKEM schoo|s and through the
po||cy work o SEKEM's management. Add|t|ona||y,
SEKEM has deve|oped c|ose t|es w|th d|erent
bus|nesses throughout the wor|d wh|ch o||ow the
same eco|og|ca| and eth|ca| pr|nc|p|es. These t|es go
beyond norma| bus|ness re|at|onsh|ps. ln 1996, the
lnternat|ona| Assoc|at|on or Partnersh|p |n Eco|ogy
and Trade (lAP) was ormed, wh|ch deve|oped the
Susta|nab|||ty F|ower (fgure 9) that serves as the
conceptua| ramework or perormance mon|tor|ng
and eva|uat|on. The SEKEM Group has |mp|emented
th|s comprehens|ve management system, |ntegrat|ng
the our d|mens|ons o susta|nab|e deve|opment
(eco|ogy, economy, soc|ety, cu|ture), and prov|des
annua| reports on progress and ach|evements re|at|ng
308
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
to the F|ower.
6. InnovaI|ng Ior susIa|nab|a dava|opmanI Ihrough
rasaarch |n naIura| and soc|a| sc|ancas
Susta|nab|e bus|nesses need to be |nnovat|ve |n order
to rema|n susta|nab|e and compet|t|ve. The He||opo||s
Academy or Susta|nab|e Deve|opment, estab||shed
by the SDF, a|ms at |mprov|ng the capac|ty to conduct,
pub||sh and d|ssem|nate re|evant soc|a| and sc|ent|fc
research |n the areas o med|c|ne, pharmaceut|ca|s,
renewab|e energy, b|odynam|c agr|cu|ture, arts and
soc|a| sc|ences. One among many such sc|ent|fc
serv|ces |s the breed|ng o predators that serve as a
orm o b|o|og|ca| pest contro|.
lncorporated w|th|n the He||opo||s Academy are
severa| |aborator|es and the Susta|nab|e Deve|opment
Oenter, wh|ch |s the oca| po|nt or a|| |ssues revo|v|ng
around susta|nab|e deve|opment, wh||e E| M|zan
prov|des hea|thy, proftab|e |ndoor and outdoor
grated seed||ngs to Egypt's vegetab|e producers and
to SEKEM or Land Pec|amat|on.
6. Advocacy Ior a ho||sI|c approach Io
susIa|nab|a dava|opmanI
lt requ|res more than |ust a ew susta|nab|e bus|nesses
to contr|bute to ood secur|ty and to c||mate change
m|t|gat|on and adaptat|on. The po||cy engagement o
the SEKEM management ocuses on th|s aspect. ln
F|gura 9: Tha 8usIa|nab|||Iy F|oWar
Sc0|ce: SF|FV (20'0;.
309
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
add|t|on, SEKEM |s seek|ng to |nst|tut|ona||ze |ts eorts
through the He||opo||s n|vers|ty or Susta|nab|e
Deve|opment the frst non-proft un|vers|ty |n the
reg|on. The un|vers|ty seeks to educate the youth,
both |n Egypt and those com|ng rom abroad, on the
concept o susta|nab|||ty and |ts urther app||cat|ons |n
a|| the d|erent sectors o the economy. Pespond|ng
to the cha||enges o the twenty-frst century such
as c||mate change, resource scarc|ty, a grow|ng
popu|at|on and extreme poverty, He||opo||s n|vers|ty
was estab||shed to dr|ve research and de||ver
|nnovat|ve fnd|ngs that cou|d prov|de susta|nab|e
so|ut|ons or some o the ma|or prob|ems conront|ng
Egypt|an soc|ety.
0. 0oncraIa susIa|nab|||Iy aIIacIs and
ga|ns |n Iarms oI aconom|c, soc|a| and
anv|ronmanIa| |mpacIs
The act|v|t|es o SEKEM have had substant|a| pos|t|ve
|mpacts on the commun|ty, nature and bus|nesses. The
commun|ty has profted s|gn|fcant|y rom the cu|tura|
act|v|t|es o the SEKEM Deve|opment Foundat|on,
wh|ch |s ma|n|y unded through the SEKEM Group.
Over 600 students |n |ts schoo| and the vocat|ona|
tra|n|ng centre proft every year rom the educat|on
they rece|ve. The schoo|s are open to everyone and
are accred|ted by the Government. The dua| system
o the vocat|ona| tra|n|ng centre (oer|ng pract|ca|
exper|ence |n the workshops as we|| as theoret|ca|
courses) |s a huge success, and |ts graduates are
|n great demand. Add|t|ona||y, the med|ca| centre
prov|des hea|th-care serv|ces to over 30,000 peop|e
|n the surround|ng v|||ages and to emp|oyees o the
SEKEM compan|es. Other ac|||t|es, such as concerts
and art courses, promote the |nd|v|dua| deve|opment
o the part|c|pants.
W|th regard to the env|ronment, SEKEM has created
a new b|otope by turn|ng desert |and |nto ert||e
and ||v|ng so||s through compost and b|odynam|c
agr|cu|tura| methods. The so||'s water ho|d|ng capac|ty
has been |ncreased, and thereby water consumpt|on
reduced. New techno|og|es, such as subsurace
|rr|gat|on, have urther contr|buted to cutt|ng down on
water consumpt|on. SEKEM's ma|n arm s|te serves
as a hab|tat or more than 60 spec|es o b|rds both
m|grat|ng and |oca| more than 90 var|et|es o trees
and shrubs, and a broad range o sma|| an|ma|s
such as hedgehogs, ||zards, snakes and oxes.
Furthermore, over the years, over one m||||on tons
o OO2-equ|va|ents have been sequestered |n the
so||, wh|ch shows the great potent|a| o agr|cu|ture
to m|t|gate c||mate change. The pos|t|ve eects o
the |ntroduct|on o organ|c agr|cu|ture |nto the reg|on
are man|o|d and |nva|uab|e or the env|ronment.
For examp|e, SEKEM has succeeded not on|y |n
rera|n|ng rom pest|c|de use |n |ts own operat|ons,
but, more broad|y, cutt|ng chem|ca| use by more than
90 per cent on Egypt|an cotton arms. To rep|ace
chem|ca|s, SEKEM uses pheromone traps and
cu|t|vates m|croorgan|sms that serve as natura| orms
o pest contro|. As a resu|t, the average y|e|d o raw
cotton has |ncreased by a|most 30 per cent, wh||e the
cotton's e|ast|c|ty and overa|| qua||ty |s super|or to that
o convent|ona||y grown cotton. Wh||e SEKEM |s not
grow|ng cotton on |ts arms any more, |t st||| benefts
rom |ts ormer engagement through the |ncreased
cotton qua||ty rom |ts supp||ers.
ln terms o econom|cs, the SEKEM Group has
ach|eved an annua| growth rate o about 15 per cent
over the past ew years. lts ho||st|c approach and |ts
soc|a| and cu|tura| act|v|t|es have strengthened soc|a|
cohes|on w|th|n SEKEM, wh|ch was ev|dent |n the
atermath o the Egypt|an upr|s|ng when some SEKEM
emp|oyees even vo|unteered to protect the SEKEM
prem|ses at n|ght.
. Lassons Io ba |aarnad
SEKEM sees |tse| as part o a cu|tura| soc|ety |n wh|ch
|ts econom|c act|v|t|es mean|ng bus|ness revenues
p|ay an |mportant part, but not the ma|or ro|e. Pather,
the fnanc|a| aspect |s cons|dered to be on|y one o
many other aspects such as promot|ng educat|on and
the arts, cu|t|vat|ng |and and prov|d|ng hea|th care.
Over 30 years o exper|ence have proved that human
deve|opment |s cruc|a| or susta|nab|e arm|ng. Peop|e
have to be at the centre o such eorts: the more an
|nst|tut|on cares or the peop|e (e.g. through better
emp|oyment cond|t|ons, equa| treatment, educat|on,
med|ca| care, |nsurance and pens|on schemes), the
more the peop|e w||| care or the organ|zat|on and
everyth|ng v|ta| or |ts bus|ness.
However, organ|c arm|ng |s not enough, organ|c
arms do not necessar||y emp|oy, or examp|e,
susta|nab|e energy management systems. Some
organ|c armers m|ght even cu|t|vate the|r |and
w|th monocu|tures, thereby neg|ect|ng b|od|vers|ty
and the benefts o agr|cu|tura| methods such
as agroorestry. We|| aware o th|s, SEKEM
app||es b|odynam|c agr|cu|ture approaches, or
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TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
agroeco|og|ca| arm|ng, wh|ch goes beyond the
usua| organ|c standards. Th|s shou|d be a gu|d|ng
pr|nc|p|e or management |n order to eect|ve|y
embed these eco|og|ca| and eth|ca| pr|nc|p|es w|th|n
the corporate cu|ture. SEKEM |s current|y seek|ng
to deve|op and standard|ze gener|c gu|de||nes or
the Susta|nab|||ty F|ower, as we|| as to |ntegrate
the gu|de||nes and perormance |nd|cators |nto an
assessment sotware. Through th|s new p|atorm,
agr|cu|tura| producers, traders, brand owners
and other stakeho|ders w||| be ab|e to assess,
cont|nuous|y |mprove and |o|nt|y commun|cate the|r
susta|nab|||ty perormance. The Susta|nab|||ty F|ower
gu|de||nes are based on the susta|nab|||ty report|ng
standards o the G|oba| Peport|ng ln|t|at|ve (GPl), but
are ad|usted to the needs o the agr|cu|tura| sector.
311
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
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hoIas
1 Many deve|op|ng countr|es have adopted a deens|ve stance |n re|at|on to the ||bera||zat|on o trade |n agr|cu|ture.
However, the deve|op|ng countr|es w|th more efc|ent agr|cu|tura| sectors, wh|ch wou|d beneft rom h|gher earn|ngs
rom the|r exports | there were ewer restr|ct|ons on the|r market access, espec|a||y to deve|oped countr|es, have
now been at the oreront o attempts to ||bera||ze g|oba| agr|cu|tura| trade through the Doha negot|at|ons. There
|s tens|on between these countr|es and the ma|or|ty o deve|oped countr|es that have tr|ed to reta|n the|r s|zeab|e
agr|cu|tura| support and re|at|ve|y h|gh tar|s, as we|| as between them and those deve|op|ng countr|es that are
seek|ng to deend the|r sma|| armers' ||ve||hoods rom |mport surges. The agr|cu|tura||y efc|ent countr|es have
been advocat|ng restr|ct|ons on the use o the SSM or deve|op|ng countr|es to avo|d |mport surges, on the
grounds that the|r own armers wou|d be aected by |mport restr|ct|ons (South Oentre, 2011).
2 The authors wou|d ||ke to thank the o||ow|ng peer rev|ewers or the|r comments on ear||er vers|ons o th|s
commentary: K|emens van de Sand, O||v|er de Schutter, Gunnar Pundgren, Hans Herren, Mark Ha||e, Nad|a
E|-Hage Sc|a|abba, Peter Lunenborg, Stephan A|brecht, Soph|a Murphy, L|m L| Oh|ng, Franz-Theo Gottwa|d and
Thomas Braunschwe|g.
3 For more |normat|on, see: http://awsassets.panda.org/down|oads/|pr_2012_summary_book|et_fna|.pd.
4 The Wor|d Bank has |ust pub||shed a frst study (prepared by the Potsdam lnst|tute or O||mate lmpact Pesearch
and O||mate Ana|yt|cs) exam|n|ng the spec|fc |mp||cat|ons o a g|oba| warm|ng o 4 degrees by the end o th|s
century (Wor|d Bank, 2012).
5 For more |normat|on, see the O|ub o Pome d|scuss|on paper by Johnston (2011).
6 See: http://www.ao.org/news/story/en/|tem/161819/, us|ng a new est|mat|on methodo|ogy. ln prev|ous years,
based on the prev|ous methodo|ogy o est|mat|on, c|ose to one b||||on hungry were reported. The new report
emphas|zes that concentrat|on on export crops does oten not work |n respect to ood secur|ty.
7 For more |normat|on, see lnteragency Peport to the Mex|can G20 Pres|dency (2012).
8 For a more e|aborate cr|t|que, see Homann (2011).
9 Bruntrup et a|. (2011).
10 Today the average y|e|ds o c|an|c systems are est|mated to be about 75 per cent o those o convent|ona| systems
(Seuert et a|. 2012). Agro-eco|og|ca| systems are more open to |nputs and can thereore be more product|ve, see
Snapp 2011, ootnote 22.
11 See or examp|e Bayer produc|ng b|o|og|ca| remed|es http://www.presse.bayer.de/baynews/baynews.ns/|d/
Bayer-Orop_sc|ence-acqu|res_Germany-based-b|ocontro|-company-Prophyta_GmbH?open.
12 The preservat|on o the "regenerat|ve capac|ty o agr|cu|ture" was at the very root o the concept o "susta|nab|||ty",
wh|ch was frst co|ned as a pr|nc|p|e |n German orestry by Oar| von Oar|ow|tz more than 300 years ago.
13 A recent E survey est|mates the hea|th costs o road transport a|one to be 100 b||||on Euro annua||y |n Europe
(European Env|ronment Agency, 2013). The transport o agr|cu|tura| goods and oodstus accounts or about 20
per cent o tota| transport (lNPA, 2012).
14 ln autumn 2012, the kra|ne, or |nstance, announced new export restr|ct|ons or wheat.
15 ln Egypt, or examp|e, where most ood |s |mported, due to currency exchange rates ood has recent|y become
more and more cost|y (Schwe|zer Bauer, 2013).
16 O the deve|op|ng wor|d's 5.5 b||||on peop|e, some 3 b||||on ||ve |n rura| areas - more than 40 per cent o human|ty.
O these rura| |nhab|tants, an est|mated 2.5 b||||on are |n househo|ds |nvo|ved |n agr|cu|ture, and 1.5 b||||on are |n
sma||ho|der househo|ds. Agr|cu|ture prov|des the ||ve||hood or approx|mate|y 2.6 b||||on peop|e (Wor|d Bank, 2008
and NEP, 2011).
17 The attempt o the European Oomm|ss|on to sk|p va|ue-added tax reduct|on or unsusta|nab|e product|on |s at
|east a prom|s|ng step |n the r|ght d|rect|on (see Agrar-lno 183, Ju|y/August 2012, Hamburg, Germany).
18 S|nce the 1960s, g|oba| per cap|ta cerea| product|on |ncreased by rough|y a th|rd. Oonverse|y, g|oba| use o
n|trogen and phosphorus ert|||zers soared by 8 and 2.5 t|mes, g|oba| pest|c|des use expanded by 8 t|mes and
water consumpt|on or |rr|gat|on doub|ed (lAASTD, 2009: 7).
19 As apt|y put by Pundgren (2012), "how we defne 'efc|ency, product|v|ty and re|ated techno|ogy' w||| determ|ne the
ob|ect|v|ty o our d|scourse on what we understand by 'modern agr|cu|ture'. Paradox|ca||y, we current|y cons|der
319
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
product|on methods as 'modern' that are among the most po||utant, most resource-squander|ng, most energy-
|ntens|ve and most dependent on subs|d|es".
20 The 3
rd
E SOAP Fores|ght Exerc|se ta|ks about a "rad|ca| change |n ood product|on and consumpt|on", wh|ch |s
necessary (SOAP, 2011:129).
21 See a|so Nether|ands Env|ronmenta| Pesearch Agency and Stockho|m Pes|||ence Oenter (2009).
22 European Oomm|ss|on (2013).
Natura 2000 |s the centrep|ece o E nature and b|od|vers|ty po||cy. lt |s an E-w|de network o nature protect|on
areas estab||shed under the 1992 Hab|tats D|rect|ve. The a|m o the network |s to assure the |ong-term surv|va| o
Europe's most va|uab|e and threatened spec|es and hab|tats. lt |s compr|sed o Spec|a| Areas o Oonservat|on
des|gnated by Member States under the Hab|tats D|rect|ve, and a|so |ncorporates Spec|a| Protect|on Areas, wh|ch
they des|gnate under the 1979 B|rds D|rect|ve. Natura 2000 |s not a system o str|ct nature reserves, where a||
human act|v|t|es are exc|uded. Whereas the network w||| certa|n|y |nc|ude nature reserves most o the |and |s ||ke|y
to cont|nue to be pr|vate|y owned and the emphas|s |s on ensur|ng that uture management |s susta|nab|e, both
eco|og|ca||y and econom|ca||y. The estab||shment o th|s network o protected areas a|so u|f|s a Oommun|ty
ob||gat|on under the N Oonvent|on on B|o|og|ca| D|vers|ty. Natura 2000 protects around 18 per cent o |and |n the
E countr|es. For more |normat|on, see http://ec.europa.eu/env|ronment/nature/natura2000/.
23 Th|s ten-year part|y part|c|pat|ve study |n Ma|aw| (a country that temporar||y used a 90 per cent subs|dy or
ert|||zers and better seeds to boost ma|ze y|e|ds) compared monocu|ture ma|ze w|th |egume-d|vers|fed ma|ze that
|nc|uded annua| and sem|perenn|a| (SP) growth hab|ts |n tempora| and spat|a| comb|nat|ons, |nc|ud|ng rotat|on,
SP rotat|on, |ntercrop, and SP |ntercrop systems. Modest ert|||zer |ntens|fcat|on doub|ed gra|n y|e|d compared
w|th monocu|ture ma|ze. B|od|vers|ty |mproved ecosystem unct|on urther: SP rotat|on systems at ha|-ert|||zer
rates produced equ|va|ent quant|t|es o gra|n, on a more stab|e bas|s (y|e|d var|ab|||ty reduced rom 22% to 13%)
compared w|th monocu|ture. Across s|tes, proftab|||ty and armer preerence matched: SP rotat|ons prov|ded
twoo|d super|or returns, whereas d|vers|fcat|on o ma|ze w|th annua| |egumes prov|ded more modest returns. The
study thus prov|des ev|dence that, |n Ar|ca, crop d|vers|fcat|on can be eect|ve at a countryw|de sca|e, and that
shrubby, gra|n |egumes can enhance env|ronmenta| and ood secur|ty.
24 A recent European N|trogen Assessment, prepared |n the context o the 6th E Pesearch Framework Programme,
ound that the costs o n|trogen use |n agr|cu|ture |n E countr|es m|ght be s|gn|fcant|y h|gher than |ts benefts
(Sutton et a|., 2011).
25 The ob|ect|ve o the SSM |s to address s|tuat|ons o a ser|ous dec||ne |n nat|ona| pr|ces because o surges o cheap
|mports. Thereore, the SSM does not target upward sw|ngs |n pr|ces, wh|ch |s the current cha||enge or most
countr|es.
26 For examp|e: "The governance and regu|at|on o trade, the res|||ence o ood exchange patterns, w||| thereore
be at the heart o uture ood systems and ood secur|ty, even |n a scenar|o where max|mum reg|ona| ood se|
sufc|ency |s sought. lnnovat|on |n regu|at|on systems o g|oba| agr|cu|tura| trade |s thereore cruc|a|, but at the
same t|me |s at the heart o very |mportant controvers|es |n the fe|d o econom|cs." (The SOAP report, 3
rd
ed|t|on,
2011).
27 See the d|erent ood saety approaches |n the S and the E. ln the S, or |nstance, c|ean|ng o bee carcasses
beore d|str|but|on as an end-o-the-p|pe-approach w|th |act|c ac|d, or bro||ers w|th ch|or|ne |s pract|ced, whereas
the E |s hav|ng a str|ct hyg|ene reg|me 'rom arm to ork', |ook|ng or harmu| m|crobes ||ke sa|mone||a not to
appear |n any product at any step o the va|ue cha|n. These are d|erent cu|tures, wh|ch cou|d the European
mode| be|ng more cost|y strong|y be aected | ree trade agreements come |nto orce. These cu|tura| d|erences
cannot on|y be matched by sc|ent|fc |ust|fcat|on, as |t |s the case under current WTO ru|es.
28 When |n 2005 the M|||enn|um Ecosystems Assessment (w|th some 1300 experts |nvo|ved the |argest ever g|oba|
assessment) was conc|uded, our scenar|os/deve|opment paths were presented: the g|oba| orchestrat|on, the
order through strength, the adapt|ng mosa|c and the techno garden scenar|o. The mood o the conc|us|on was
that the authors wou|d, | asked, opt or the g|oba| orchestrat|on scenar|o. Now, seven years and many summ|ts
and the econom|c cr|s|s o 2008 |ater, at |east or agr|cu|ture and ood secur|ty we wou|d more opt or the adapt|ng
mosa|c scenar|o. lt |ooks or reg|ona| so|ut|ons, by hav|ng the g|oba| |ssues |n m|nd. ln the MEA assessment th|s
approach was ca||ed "G|oca||zat|on" (or more |normat|on, see www.maweb.org/en/|ndex.aspx).
29 Exper|ence o organ|c product|on systems |n East Ar|ca, or |nstance, show that o the d|verse basket o produced
|tems at arm |eve|, on|y ew are dest|ned or market|ng beyond the |oca|/reg|ona| |eve|, |nc|ud|ng or export. Th|s
concerns |tems such as sp|ces, vegetab|es, 1owers, nuts, roots or ru|ts. For more |normat|on, see NEP-NOTAD,
2008b.
320
TPADE AND ENvlPONMENT PEvlEW 2013
30 See |n|e| a||a www.|ebensm|tte|prax|s.de/hande|/entsche|der/1638-megatrend-reg|ona||taet.htm|.
31 At the Wor|d Econom|c Forum 2012, Grac|ano da S||va, D|rector-Genera| o FAO sa|d |n respect to ood secur|ty: "To
st|mu|ate |oca| markets |s a key |ssue" (www.weorum.org/v|deos/ensur|ng-ood-secur|ty-annua|-meet|ng-2012).
32 Dac|an O|o|os, E Oomm|ss|oner or Agr|cu|ture and Pura| Deve|opment h|gh||ghted |n a speech on Loca| Farm|ng
and Short Supp|y Oha|ns: Enhanc|ng the Loca| D|mens|on o the Oommon Agr|cu|tura| Po||cy" on 20 Apr|| 2012 the
|mportance o short supp|y cha|ns and the re|ated consumer preerences, wh|ch the European Oomm|ss|on wants
to support (http://europa.eu/rap|d/press-re|ease_SPEEOH-12-283_en.htm).
33 See Nest|es approach to source |oca||y whenever poss|b|e and to strengthen rura| deve|opment (www.nest|e.com/
csv/rura|deve|opment).
34 lnterest|ng|y spec|a|t|es are oten the non-|ndustr|a|, more art|sana| products ||ke Sw|ss cheese, based on grass
and hay- (not s||age) eed. W|th 64.000 tons, Sw|tzer|and exports one th|rd o |ts cheese product|on.
35 Not "ood must trave|", as Pasca| Lamy c|a|med |n February 2012 |n Geneva at the conerence o the "Econom|st"
on Feed|ng the Wor|d the 9 b||||on do||ar quest|on.
36 lt shou|d not go w|thout comment at th|s |uncture that agr|cu|ture |s not the on|y sector that requ|res a more |oca|/
reg|ona| ocus aced w|th new env|ronmenta| and econom|c cha||enges than pract|ces |n the |ast ew decades.
The much-requ|red drast|c changes |n the energy m|x towards renewab|e sources are bound to go |n tandem w|th
a much h|gher ocus on |oca|/reg|ona| product|on, wh|ch matches |oca|/reg|ona| consumpt|on and thus avo|ds
transm|ss|on and convers|on |osses. 'D|stant' sources o energy supp|y w||| st||| be requ|red to match |oca|/reg|ona|
product|on-consumpt|on gaps.
37 See a|so the d|scuss|on and suggest|ons |n De Schutter (2011c).
38 Est|mates suggest that some 60 per cent o tota| support deve|op|ng countr|es have prov|ded to the|r agr|cu|tura|
sector |n recent years |s ||nked to green-box measures (Nassar et a|., 2009). As the AoA does not set any spend|ng
||m|ts on the green box, deve|op|ng countr|es' 1ex|b|||ty |n pro-act|ve|y us|ng |t |s then a unct|on o budgetary
capac|ty or constra|nts. The ex|st|ng set o green-box measures |arge|y re1ects the po||c|es o deve|oped countr|es
|n p|ace dur|ng the ruguay Pound negot|at|ons. The box thus needs to better re1ect |nterests |n protect|ng ood
secur|ty, rura| ||ve||hoods and res|||ence.
39 ln many restaurants |n Western Europe, the or|g|n o the meat has to be or |s be|ng announced these days to bu||d
consumer confdence.
40 See www.armandoodpro|ect.org.
41 See www.terramadre.org/pag|ne/rete/comun|ta.|asso.
42 See www.wor|duturecounc||.org/uture_po||cy_award_short||st.htm|.
43 See SDA br|efng, at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Br|efng/FarmPo||cy/gov-pay.htm.
44 However, Berthe|ot argues that the n|ted States \EETO tax cred|ts or ethano| product|on shou|d be counted as
subs|d|es to agr|cu|ture, wh|ch wou|d ra|se the tota| support to agr|cu|ture prov|ded by the n|ted States. lt shou|d
be noted, though, that the \EETO tax cred|ts are schedu|ed to end |n 2012.
45 House Agr|cu|ture Appropr|at|ons B|||, amended June 13, 2011. See: http://repub||cans.appropr|at|ons.house.gov/
p|oadedF||es/6.13.11_FY_12_Agr|cu|ture_Oonerence_Summary.pd.
46 Schwarz Group owns the L|d| and Kau1and supermarket cha|ns.
47 Wor|d Sh|pp|ng Oounc||, Pecord ue| pr|ces p|ace stress on ocean sh|pp|ng, at: www.wor|dsh|pp|ng.org/pd/WSO_
ue|_statement_fna|.pd, 2 May 2008.
48 For more |normat|on, see: http://news.or.at/stor|es/2082522/.
49 Accord|ng to FAOstat and the OBOT Exchange \o|ume Peport o May 2011, see: (www.cmegroup.com/
wrappedpages/web_month|y_report/Web_\o|ume_Peport_OBOT.pd).
50 Lag| et a|. have a|so rev|ewed the |mportance o key market undaments as exp|anatory actors or ood pr|ce h|kes,
|n part|cu|ar: (a) weather, part|cu|ar|y droughts |n Austra||a, (b) |ncreas|ng demand or meat |n the deve|op|ng wor|d,
espec|a||y |n Oh|na and lnd|a, (c) currency exchange rates, and (d) ||nkage between o|| and ood pr|ces through
h|gher product|on and transportat|on costs. The authors ound no s|gn|fcant corre|at|on |n th|s regard.
51 ln that vo|ume, see part|cu|ar|y Twarog or an overv|ew o organ|c agr|cu|ture as a trade and susta|nab|e deve|opment
321
5. The lmportance of lnternational Trade and Trade Pules for Transforming Global Agriculture
opportun|ty.
52 Accord|ng to the defn|t|on by lFOAM (2008a), "organ|c agr|cu|ture |s a product|on system that susta|ns the hea|th
o so||s, ecosystems and peop|e. lt re||es on eco|og|ca| processes, b|od|vers|ty and cyc|es adapted to |oca|
cond|t|ons, rather than the use o |nputs w|th adverse eects. Organ|c agr|cu|ture comb|nes trad|t|on, |nnovat|on
and sc|ence to beneft the shared env|ronment and promote a|r re|at|onsh|ps and a good qua||ty o ||e or a||
|nvo|ved." Note that organ|c agr|cu|ture does not by defn|t|on have to be cert|fed, cert|fcat|on |s s|mp|y one way
to guarantee the organ|c |ntegr|ty o a product or consumers.
53 These are |oca||y based qua||ty assurance systems that cert|y producers based on the act|ve part|c|pat|on o
stakeho|ders and bu||t on a oundat|on o trust, soc|a| networks and know|edge exchange (lFOAM, 2008b).
54 Th|s |s not to argue or comp|ete ||bera||zat|on o agr|cu|tura| markets. Part|cu|ar|y |n poorer deve|op|ng countr|es
where agr|cu|tura| support structures have been d|smant|ed (e.g. |n many Ar|can countr|es), |t |s d|fcu|t or |oca|
producers to compete w|th |mports, espec|a||y when those |mported products have been subs|d|zed or otherw|se
pub||c|y supported |n the|r countr|es o or|g|n. Even |n deve|oped econom|es, some |nd|v|dua| armers may strugg|e
to compete.
55 SEKEM |n anc|ent Egypt|an means "v|ta||ty rom the sun".
56 Th|s |ssue |s d|scussed extens|ve|y |n the ||terature. See, or examp|e, NPlSD, 1974, Swanson, 2007, lnter-
Academy Oounc||, 2004, Thompson, 2007, Sh|va, 2007 and Mayet, 2007.
57 Th|s content|on |s supported by numerous stud|es, such as those by Pretty and H|ne, 2001, Lotter, 2003, Badg|ey
et a|., 2007, Ha|berg, 2007, Sc|a|abba, 2007, H|ne, 2008, Jordan, 2009, Azeez, 2009, lAASTD, 2009, and De
Schutter, 2011a. NOTAD/NEP, 2008b.
58 See: Demeter SA, B|odynam|c Agr|cu|ture At a G|ance, 2009, at: http://demeter-usa.org/down|oads/Demeter-
At-A-G|ance.pd.

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