1 Lecture

18-Aug-11
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Functional Devices Functional Devices EE5433R: Optical Devices : Optical Devices
A/Prof. Hong Minghui
Room No: E2-04-09 Tel: 6516-1636
E-mail: elehmh@nus.edu.sg
Lecture 1
Chapter 1 Photodetector
1.1 General introduction
1
1.2 Photodetector devices and structures
1.3 Photodetector characteristics
Chapter 2 Solar cell
2.2 Solar cell physics
Functional Devices Functional Devices EE5433R: Optical Devices : Optical Devices
Optical Optical
Devices
Photodetector Solar Cell LED
Laser
2
Light to electric conversion: Photodetector and Solar cell
Electric to light conversion: LED and Laser
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Four Sections in EE5433R Functional Devices
Course introduction
1.Optical Devices (9 hours)
2.Electronic Devices
3. Magnetic Devices
3
3. Magnetic Devices
4. Thermal and Mechanical devices
More in-depth physics;
More state-of-the-art technologies;
Approach to this course
More state of the art technologies;
Require related background knowledge;
Require more self-learning.
You must be aware that it is a multi-disciplinary field with
4
You must be aware that it is a multi disciplinary field with
a wide range of topics covered, provides basic essential
knowledge for you to explore further. There will be a lot
of fun in learning different things.
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Chapter 1: Photodetector
Contents
Chapter 2: Solar cell
Chapter 3: LED
Chapter 4: Laser
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One lecture / week for three hours
CA (term paper: 40%, Quiz 20%) 60 %
Course Details
Final Examination 40 %
Total 100 %
Academic Calendar
Instructional
Class room: E1-06-09
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Instructional
Period
Week 2 Friday 19 August 2011 (18:00 to 21:00) Lecture 1 Chapters 1 + 2
Week 3 Friday 26 August 2011 (18:00 to 21:00) Lecture 2 Chapters 2 + 3
Week 4 Friday 2 September 2011 (18:00 to 21:00) Lecture 3 Chapter 4 + Quiz
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Term paper
A. Each student needs to submit his/her own term paper;
B. Task: to design an optical application system;
C. This optical system needs to consist of at least one optical device: p y p
photodetector, LED, laser and solar cell. Highly encouraged to
include emerging and more optical devices effectively together;
C. Term paper needs to include following parts: 1) Design objective;
2) System functions and applications; 3) Experimental setup;
4) Budget to make the system; 5) Advantages and technical
limits of the system and 6) Conclusions and references.
7
y )
D. The report is to be typed on A4 size paper using 12 point Times
New Roman font, with 1.5 line spacing, and margin of 1 on all
sides. The maximum length of the report is 10 pages (including
list of references and appendices, but not the title page and the
content page). Submit it before 23/September/2011.
Maxwells Equations (SI Unit)
Light: Electromagnetic (EM) Wave
f
V = D
0 V = B
c
V =
c
B
E
t
c
V = +
c
D
H J
t
Divergence equations Curl equations
8
ct
D = Electric flux density
E = Electric field vector
= charge density
B = Magnetic flux density
J = current density
H = Magnetic field vector
Flux lines start and end
on charges or poles
Changes M/E fluxes with time E/M fields
Currents J (moving charges) H-fields
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Electric and magnetic fields oscillate in space and time
They are perpendicular to each other;
y p p
They are perpendicular to their propagation directions.
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
, Re , exp t i i t e e = + E r E k k r
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
, Re , exp t i i t e e = + H r H k k r
'
'
k' = 2t/
9
Right hand rule
10
THz THz
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11
THz technology: a very hot research topic THz technology: a very hot research topic
THz applications
Photodetectors can be classified into thermal and photon detectors,
depending on how electrical signal is generated depending on how electrical signal is generated.
Thermal detector: optical power is absorbed by a sensor, causing a rise
in elements temperature and then converted into a voltage.
Photon detector: light is absorbed by a detector, creating charge
carriers and then gives rise to photo-current and signal voltage.
Advantages and disadvantages:
12
Photodetector: light signal to electrical signal
Advantages and disadvantages:
1). Thermal detectors: slow/poor sensitivity, but can detect
light over a wide wavelength range.
2). Photon detectors: fast/more sensitive, but limited wavelength range.
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Thermal detectors
13
Laser power meter
Photon detectors
Direct conversion of photons into
charge carriers (electrons holes)
Phototube
Photodiode
charge carriers (electrons, holes) .
Photon detectors:
1). Phototube: emission of
electrons by absorbed photons,
photoelectric effect.
2). Photocell: change in
Photodiode
Photocell
14
electrical conductivity by absorbed photons.
3). Photodiode: absorbed photons generate
electron-hole pairs, separated in pn junction
and collected by electrodes.
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Nobel prize in Physics 1921, Albert Einstein
"for his services to Theoretical physics and especially
Phototube: photoelectric effect
for his services to Theoretical physics, and especially
for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".
Image intensifier, PMT/ICCD
15
15
15
Optical imaging in weak light environment
16 16
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17 17
Range Performance
Illumination and reflection
Assume that illuminance = E
Reflected illuminance by target = E
Reflected illuminance by background =
b
E
Contrast between them = ( -
b
) E
Atmospheric Transmittance
After traveling to the camera lens it becomes = ( -
b
) E exp(- L);
18
After traveling to the camera lens, it becomes = ( -
b
) E exp(- L);
: loss (extinction or attenuation) coefficient due to light absorption and
scattering in air; L: distance between target and camera; Atmospheric
transmittance = T
ATM
= t
A
L
, where t
A
= exp(-).
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Range Prediction
19
EBI: equivalent background illumination; K: gain of a imaging intensifier.
Range Prediction
20
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Photoelectric effect
The metal plate is
called photocathode
The emitted electrons
are called photoelectrons
21 21
are called photoelectrons
* Vacuum to let electrons travel a long distance and reach the collector.
Energy of photon = Energy needed
to remove an electron + Kinetic
energy of emitted electron
h: Planck's constant,
max k
E h + =| v
22 22
h Planck s constant,
v: Frequency of incident photon,
|. Work function, the minimum energy required to remove a de-localized electron from
the surface of any given metal,
E
kmax:
Maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons,
v
0:
Threshold frequency for the photoelectric effect to occur,
M: Mass of the ejected electron, and
V
m:
Velocity of the ejected electron.
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Spectral sensitivity
A parameter to describe the efficiency of photoelectric effect
A parameter to describe the efficiency of photoelectric effect
S() is expressed in mAW
-1
Quantum yield is another parameter
23
Photomultiplier Tube (PMT):
Multiplication of electrons; cascade of
photoelectrons from a few photons,
p p
amplifying a weak light signal with very
low noise.
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Animation 1
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Photomultiplier Tube (PMT) specification
25
26 Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy
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27 Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy
Photocell: varying photoconductivity
Photoconductive detectors
Electrons can be promoted from valence
band (VB) to conduction band (CB) by an
external light source. Once an electron is
in CB, it becomes mobile and contributes
to electrical conductivity. This increase in
a materials conductivity upon absorption
of light is termed as photoconductivity. g p y
Operating principle of photoconductive
detector or photocell.
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For a photon to be absorbed, hv > E
g
.
Photons entering material are absorbed with
a probability o per unit length. p y p g
For light propagating a distance x into
material, its intensity is reduced according
to Beers law:
where I(0) is intensity just inside surface.
o is attenuation coefficient of the material.
( ) ( ) ( ) ax I x I = exp 0
For light propagation of l, a fraction of incident
light is absorbed:
It takes into account R (reflected from surface).
( )( )
l
in
abs
abs
e R
P
P o
q

= = 1 1
Behaviors of a photocell
A uniform semiconductor is irradiated
from the side by light, photons absorbed
create electronhole pairs inside the
semiconductor. A voltage V
0
is applied ,
giving rise to an electric field E = V
0
/L
in the material. Then electrons and holes
move in opposite directions, giving rise
to a signal current is in an external to a signal current is in an external
circuit. This current induces a voltage
drop is R
L
in a series load resistor R
L
,
which constitutes the detector signal.
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One important characteristic of photocell: presence of background current I
0
,
even when there is no incident light. This occurs because semiconductor has
ll b t fi it l t i l d ti it d t th ll t d some small but finite electrical conductivity due to thermally generated
electronhole pairs. For its electrical resistance of R
d
, background current
i
0
= V
0
/(R
L
+ R
d
). Total current is then i = i
0
+ i
s
.
Signal current is produced when charge carriers move in presence of electric
field. Electron velocity v
e
(t) is not linear with t. Collisions (with electrons,
phonons, and impurities) randomize its motion, so it moves at a constant
average drift velocity:
where
e
(
h
) is electron (hole) mobility. Electrons and holes contribute to the current i
s
.
E E
h h e e
= = v ; v
In most materials
h
<<
e
, hole motion is of minor importance. Holes become
trapped at impurity sites, and become immobile and stop contributing to
h t t Th f th h l t ib ti t i b l t d photocurrent. Therefore, the holes contribution to i
s
can be neglected:
( )
L
E e
t i
eE i V P
L
V
e eE
t
Fx
t
W
P
e
o
o
=
= =
= = = =

v
v v
P: power; W: work done; t: time;
The current is maintained if electron remains in conduction band, which is limited by
electron lifetime. Integrating the current over time gives total charge in the current pulse.
F: force applied; x: moving distance;
v: electron velocity; E: electric field,
V
0
: voltage, L: length
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( )
2
Q
L
V e
L
E e
dt t i
o e e
s
t t
= = =
}
We define the photoconductive gain G of the detector as
Consider the electron transit time t
tr
defined as the time it takes for the
2
L
o
V
e
e
Q
G
t
= =
electron to travel the entire length L of the semiconductor:
o e
tr
V
L
E
L L
t
e
2
e
v
= = =
tr
t e
Q
G
t
= =
Photoconductive gain > 1 when electron stays in CB longer than time it traverses
semiconductor. When electron reaches electrode at the edge, current pulse
ends since there is no further motion of charges in electric field Effective t ends, since there is no further motion of charges in electric field. Effective t
would be limited by transit time t
tr
and gain limited to unity. This is indeed the
case if no additional electrons are released into semiconductor to take the place
of the ones that have left. If contact between electrodes and semiconductor is
ohmic, there is no barrier to injection of new electrons into semiconductor,
electrons leaving semiconductor are readily replenished by new ones.
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Electrons excited by light from VB to CB can effectively remain in CB for a
time longer than transit time. This replenishment process continues until
electronhole recombination occurs, or hole transits across semiconductor.
Photoconductive gain is linear with applied voltage V
0
,. Higher voltage gives
higher gain and a larger signal. But if electrons are not replenished, the gain
saturates at unity at applied voltage of V
sat
= L
2
/t
.
Increasing voltage beyond V
sat
can improve time response of detector (Limited g g y
sat
p p (
by t
tr
), but would not increase the signal. This feature is a characteristic of
photodiode detectors. The pn junctions in these devices present a barrier
for injected charges, and no replenishment of electrons occurs.
Discussion so far is on effective charge
generated by a single absorbed photon.
Number of photons striking semiconductor Number of photons striking semiconductor
per unit time is P
in
/hv, where P
in
is
incident power and hv is photon energy.
Signal current (charge generated per
unit time) is :
s abs
in
i Gq
hv
P
= q
Common photoconductive materials (spectral sensitivity): CdS (400700 nm), CdSe
(500900 m), PbS (13.2 m), and PbSe (1.55.2 m). Highly sensitive, can operate
at room temperature (their noise properties are better at low temperature).
hv
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Photoconductive Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP)
QWIPs operation is similar to extrinsic semiconductor detectors.
Di i f f i l i i i d i i h d i Distinct feature from conventional intrinsic and extrinsic photoconductors is
discreteness: incident photons are only absorbed in discrete quantum wells which
are much narrower than inactive barrier regions.
Direct photoemission of electrons from the well,
contributes to photocurrent. Gain is a result of
extra-current injection from contact to balance j
electron loss from well due to photoemission.
If extra-injection is sufficiently large, the fraction
trapped in the well equals to direct photoemission.
Total photocurrent: direct photoemission and extra current injection.
Transitions between energy within same band.
Inter-subband Absorption
gy
Transition energy inversely proportional to square of well-thickness.
Wide range wavelength:
Short-wave infrared (SWIR) ~ 2m
Medium-wave infrared (MWIR) ~ 4m
Long-wave infrared (LWIR) ~10m
Very long-wave infrared (VLWIR) >14m
Transitions: Bound to Bound; Bound to Continuum; Bound to Quasi-Bound
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Bound-to-Bound: Photoexcitation to another bound state within same energy
band; Excited carriers escape out of well by tunneling. QWs used for QWIPs
are designed with two bound states
i QW ith th i ti in QW with their energy separation
corresponding to minimum energy of
photons to be detected. Energy of
the excited state is ideally a little
below barrier edge so that excited
electrons can easily escape from QW and give rise to a photocurrent when a
d t l t i fi ld i li d Thi i th b d t b d t iti
39
modest electric field is applied. This is the bound-to-bound transition
Bound-to-Continuum: Excited bound state situated
in continuum; Photoexcited electrons escape without
tunneling: Low bias voltage and Low dark current.
Injection mechanism: band-edge profiles with and without the
Photoconductive Quantum Well Infrared Photodetector (QWIP)
photoemission is shown in dashed and solid lines, respectively.
Due to photoemission of electrons, the well becomes
slightly charged, leading to an increase in the
electric field and injection.
QWIP detectors for MWIR (2 to 5m) detection: Spectroscopy for biological,
environmental, communications and security applications.
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(a) The technology developed can provide low-cost medical thermal imaging. The QWIPs is fabricated from
quantum wells or barriers of AlGaInAs or GaInAsP material.
(b) Thermal imaging of a person taken at an Focal Plane Arrays (FPA) operating temperature of 100K.
(c) Thermal picture of a human hand with clearly visible blood vessels.
Atmospheric Air Transmittance
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Photodiode: converts photons to electrons
43
Light Absorption in Semiconductor
Quantum efficiency: number of
electrons produced per photon
Photons with sufficient energy excites electrons, creating electrons & holes. Light
absorption occurs in junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away, these
carriers are swept from the junction by built-in field, producing photocurrent.
44
44
(a) Zero bias
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p-n junction has a space charge region
at the interface, which is depleted of
Photodiode
SiO
2
Electrode
R
e
h
+
I
ph
hv > E
g
V
r
V
out
most carriers.
A photon generates an electron-hole
pair in this region, and moves rapidly
by drift under an electric field.
An electron-hole pair generated
outside depletion region move by
net
eN
d
x
W
E
n
Depletion
region
AR
coating
Electrode
p
+
45
outs de deplet on reg on move by
diffusion at a much slower speed.
If reversed biased, junction depletion
region increases.
eN
a
x
E (x)
E
max
Photodiode
I-V Characteristic
Photocurrent increases with incident optical power
I = q A (L + W + L ) G assuming uniform photo generation rate G I
L
= q A (L
N
+ W + L
P
) G
L
assuming uniform photo-generation rate G
L
I = I
dark
+ I
L
Dark current: current without incident optical power
V
A
I
V
I
46
P n
L
n
L
p W
Increasing light intensity
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If the depletion width is negligible compared to L
n
+ L
p
, I
L
is
proportional to light intensity.
Photodiode
p p n g n n y.
Spectral response - an important characteristic of photodetector: how
photocurrent I
L
varies with the wavelength of incident light.
Frequency response : how fast the detector can respond to a time
varying optical signal. Generated minority carriers diffuse to depletion
b f l l b d ll ff l
47
region before electrical current is obtained externally. Diffusion is a slow
process, maximum frequency response ~ tens of MHz for pn junctions.
Higher frequency response (a few GHz) can be achieved by p-i-n diodes.
p-i-n Photodiode
Intrinsic layer (550m) increases space charge region, minimizes diffusion current
SiO
E( )
In contrast to pn junction
SiO
2
p
+
i-Si
n
+
Electrode
net
eN
d
x
E(x)
E
0
e
h
+
hu > E
g
W
Electrode
E
built-in-field is uniform
48
eN
a
x
R
I
ph
V
r
V
out
Small depletion layer capacitance gives high modulation frequencies.
High Quantum efficiency.
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p-i-n Photodiode
A reverse biased p-i-n photodiode is illuminated with a short wavelength
photon that is absorbed very near the surface.
The photogenerated electron has to diffuse to the depletion region where
it is swept into the i- layer and drifted across.
hu > E
g
p
+
i-Si
e
Drift
Diffusion
E
h
+
W l
Drift
V
r
Reverse-biased
p-i-n Photodiode
(a) Structure;
(b) Equilibrium energy
band diagram;
(c) Energy band diagram
under reverse bias.
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p-i-n Photodiode
i-region is very lightly doped (effectively intrinsic). Diode is designed such that
most of light is absorbed in i-region. Under small reversed bias, i-region is
depleted, and carriers generated in i-region are collected rapidly due to a strong
electric field. If W
i
is the thickness of i-region,
F 5 10
7
/ h f 20 GH
( )
sat i i
max
1
across time transit carrier
1
v / W W
f ~ =
n-InP buffer
i-InGaAs
p
+
InGaAs
Silicon nitride
Contact metal
51
For
i
= 5 m, v
sat
=10
7
cm/s, then f
max
= 20 GHz.
p-i-n diodes operating at 1.3 m and 1.55 m
(In
0.53
Ga
0.47
As deposited on InP substrate) are used
extensively in optical fiber communications.
n
+
-InP substrate
Back
contact
metal
hv
p-i-n Photodiode
52
In
0.53
Ga
0.47
As deposited on InP substrate: Bandgap energy versus lattice
constant of selected III-V compounds and alloys
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p-i-n Photodiode
Common Semiconductor Compounds: Lattice matching
GaAs and AlAs have the same lattice constants
These compounds are used to grow a ternary compound that is lattice
matched to a GaAs substrate (Al
1-x
Ga
x
As)
0.87 < < 0.63 m
Quaternary compound Ga
x
In
1-x
As
y
P
1-y
is lattice matched at optimal x and y.
1.0 < < 1.65 m
53
Optical telecommunication laser compounds
In
0.72
Ga
0.28
As
0.62
P
0.38
( =1.3 m)
In
0.58
Ga
0.42
As
0.9
P
0.1
( =1.55 m)
Avalanche Photodiode
Electrons generated have sufficient energy to create additional electron-
hole pairs with higher internal gain; Disadvantages: more noise and slower hole pairs with higher internal gain; Disadvantages: more noise and slower
54
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pn Diode Detectors
Depletion
Region
Reverse bias
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
N-Type
(Charge neutral)
Electron density
Hole density
Electric Field
E
55
Depletion Region
Photon generating
e-h pair
Current under reverse bias is very small, few
electrons feel electric field at depletion layer.
Photons incident on depletion layer generate e-h
pairs in a strong electric field and are swept out
of depletion layer quickly.
APD Diode Detectors
P Type N Type
Reverse bias
Under sufficiently high electric field, electron
acquires sufficient energy to ionize atoms leading
Avalanche
multiplication
P-Type
(Charge neutral)
N-Type
(Charge neutral)
Depletion Region
acquires sufficient energy to ionize atoms, leading
to avalanche effect. Rather than contributing a
single electron-hole pair to output current, each
photon contributes multiple carriers to output
current, substantially increasing output current at
a given optical power input.
Depletion Region
High electric field
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SiO
2 Electrode
R
I
photo
Impact ionization processes resulting
in avalanche multiplication
t p+
net
hu> E
g
p
e
h
+
Electrode
n+
E
h
+
t
n
+
p
e
Avalanche region
E
e
-
x
x
E(x)
Absorption
region
Avalanche region
e
h
+
E
c
E
v
Impact of an energetic electron's kinetic
energy excites VB electrons to CB.
Organic Photodetectors
Organic photodetectors: to enhance numerous
sectors ranging from industrial markets for
process control, object recognition and light
management to consumer electronics for motion
detection and interactive surface applications.
ISORG Magic Pad 3-D multimedia interactive tablet
uses OPDs to detect motion in three dimensions. OPDs
are still in product development but likely will appear in
various products and applications in the years to come.
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1.3 Photodetector Characteristics
59
Spectral Response: output variation with wavelength.
Quantum Efficiency: ratio of signal output incident photon number;
Response Time: a. Rise time: detector's output to rise as suddenly to constant
irradiance. b. Fall time: irradiance turned off, output falls to 1/e of initial value.
Photodiode
Detector Responsivity
Depends on quantum efficiency and photon energy.
Each absorbed photon generates an electron hole pair Each absorbed photon generates an electron-hole pair.
Incident photons depends on optical power P
inc
and photon energy hv.
Generated current
Detector responsivity: Current
f h
q
P I
inc ph
q =
60
generated per unit of optical power
W A
f h
q
24 . 1
q q = = 9
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Chapter 2 Solar Cell
Grand Energy Challenge
Grand energy challenge
Grand Energy Challenge: what will WE need?
Double demand by 2050;Triple demand by 2100
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Grand Energy Challenge
Energy sources and cost
Grand energy challenge
Current main energy sources: oil, gas, coal: depletion, CO
2
green house effect;
Clean & substantial energy: wind, geothermal, hydro, nuclear, bio-mass.
d f l h d l A case study of Nuclear energy: cheap and clean energy
Pros: provides huge amount of energy. Germany 23% electricity from this energy.
Cons: safety, nuclear pollution. Recent Japan earthquake, radiation leaking.
How to store, transport, protect and dispose nuclear waste safely?
One 1,000MW nuclear station generates 20T radiation
waste (put inside a special container, after 40 years,
liquid wastes are cooled down to storage temperature
Energy sources and cost
liquid wastes are cooled down to storage temperature.
The waste should not be leaked out into environment
in 200,000 years. Who can make sure in such a long
time there is not any natural or human disaster for
radiation leaking to destroy our Nature? (every year ~ 400T radiation waste)
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Solar electricity: future most highly
used clean and substantial energy.
gy
Photovoltaic (solar) panel
Solar Cell generates electricity directly
from Sunlight.
It supplies a voltage and a current to a
resistive load (light, battery, motor).
65
Solar cell: light energy to electrical energy
It is like a battery as it supplies DC power.
It is not like a battery 100% as its supplied
voltage changes with load resistance.
66
Plenty Solar Energy for our use!
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History
1839 Becquerel observed that there was a light dependant voltage between
two electrodes immersed in an electrolyte;
h ff d d l 1876 The same effect was demonstrated in selenium;
1941 First silicon based solar cell demonstrated;
1954 First Si p-n junction solar cell reported in Bell Lab; 1950s, CdS, GaSe,
InP, CdTe p-n junction PV devices studied experimentally and theoretically;
1958, First PV-powered satellite was launched US$200/Watt;
1970 i i l d i i f PV h V i
67
1970s, energy crisis led to intense interest for PV research. Various
strategies and routes for cheaper, more efficient devices were explored.
Our understanding of PV science is mainly rooted in this period;
Late 1990s, expanding production scale makes solar electricity competitive.
Applications
Renewable and consumes no fuel;
Power for remote locations; Power for remote locations;
No pollution and clean energy;
Wide power-handling capabilities;
High power-to-weight ratio
Solar panels on Microsoft building
68
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49% 46% 5%
Sun daily provides ~ 10,000 times more
energy to the Earth than we consume
AM1.5
AM0
6
69
Power reaching earth AM0 1.37 KW/m
2
Air Mass (AM)
Degree to which the atmosphere affects
Sunlight received at the earth`s surface;
Light absorbed scattered by atmosphere Light absorbed, scattered by atmosphere.
Spectrum reaching the earths surface is
both attenuated and changed in shape;
The factor reflects the length of light
passing through the atmosphere.
70
Standard Test Conditions: Temperature 25; integarted irradiance 1000W/m
2
;
AM1.5 (air mass spectrum, corresponding to an angle of elevation of 41.81
o
)
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Metal Insulator Semiconductor
Metal:
CB and VB overlap; Electrons move freely inside the metal;
Resistivity increase with T; Electrons pass their energy to lattice in ~ 10
-12
s
Insulator:
CB empty or very few electrons;
Very high resistivity, Eg > 3eV;
Semiconductor:
71
Semiconductor:
Conductivity between conductor
& insulator; resistivity decreases
with T; Eg: 0.1 to 3 eV.
Silicon: Group 4 in period table. Many Si atoms in close proximity form the
bands of forbidden energy states Eg. Light absorption is a function of Eg.
Si is covalently bonded to share electrons.
1) When Si atom is replaced with Group 3 atom (Al & B), it forms a positive
particle (hole), moving around the crystal by diffusion or drift under an
electric field. It becomes p-type Si.
2) When a Si atom is replaced with Group 5 atom (As & P), it forms an
l t i d th t l l b diff i d ift d
72
electron, moving around the crystal also by diffusion or drift under an
electric field. It becomes n-type Si.
3) Selectively doping the Si crystal can change its resistivity and which
type of charges controls current.
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Intrinsic & Extrinsic/doped semiconductor
73
Intrinsic semiconductor
conductivity depends strongly
Conductivity
conductivity depends strongly
on temperature .
Extrinsic semiconductor
conductivity depends
additionally on excitation
|
.
|
\
|
+ = + =
kT
E
T e C e n
G
h e h e i i
2
exp ) ( ) (
2
3
o
74
additionally on excitation
of dopants into CB.
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Solar cell: a large pn junction photodiode.
When p-type Si contacts n-type Si, holes from p-side diffuse to n-side.
While electrons diffuse from n-side to p-side
Photovoltaic Effect
While electrons diffuse from n side to p side.
Left immobile ions create a depletion region (surface charge layer) and an
internal electric field.
This electric field makes it easy for
current to flow in one direction, but
hard to flow in the other. It separates
electrons and holes created by Sunlight
75
electrons and holes created by Sunlight
absorption. Then separated electrons
and holes are collected by electrodes
to generate output power.
R
Photovoltaic Effect
Fundamental absorption:
annihilation or absorption of photons for hv > E
g
by the excitation of an
electron from VB to CB, leaves a hole in VB. For hv < E
g
semiconductor is
n f m V , n V . F E
g,
m n u
transparent to light.
76
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PN junction under Sunlight illumination
Absorption of light:
Eph < Eg: no electron-hole pair (EHP)creation
Eph > Eg: EHP creation drift and diffusion current and voltage
p-rejionon n-rejionon Depletion
region
CB
EHP generated in depletion
region and within a diffusion
length away from depletion
region are swept across the
junction by the electric field.
Other EHP recombine before
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VB
Bandgap
Thermal Equilibrium
Other EHP recombine before
they can be collected.
Photocurrent is in reverse
bias direction.
Diffusion length
Silicon: (10 m - 100 m)
< 800nm light absorbed within 10 m;
> 800nm electron-hole generation all over the volume
For an effective solar cell, the diffusion length has to be 2-3 times larger
than the cell thickness.
18.08.2011 New Generation Silicon Solar Cells
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79
80
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Due to recombination, 1<n<2
81
82
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83
84
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43
Maximum power point (MPP)
Wils n s 209
Solar Cell characteristics
depends on:
Temperature
Irradiance
Solar cell characteristics
Wilson s. 209
Fill factor
85
Efficency coefficent
Performance of solar cell
86

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