Analysis and Comparison of Battery Energy Storage

Technologies for Grid Applications

Andoni Saez-de-Ibarra
1,4
,
Aitor Milo
1
, Haizea Gaztaaga
1
,
Ion Etxeberria-Otadui
1
,
Senior Member, IEEE
1
IK4IKERLAN
Technology Research Centre
P J. M. Arizmendiarrieta 2 20500
Arrasate-Mondragon, Gipuzkoa, Spain
asaezdeibarra@ikerlan.es
Pedro Rodrguez
2,3
,
Senior Member, IEEE
2
Technical University of Catalonia
Jordi Girona, 31, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
3
Abengoa Research
Energa Solar, 1, 41014, Sevilla, Spain
Seddik Bacha
4
, Member, IEEE,
Vincent Debusschere
4
4
Grenoble Electrical Engineering
Laboratory (G2ELAB), Grenoble-INP
11, rue des Mathmatiques 38402
Saint Martin dHres, France
Abstract Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESSs) could
contribute to the generation/consumption balance of the grid
and could provide advanced functionalities at different grid
levels (generation, T&D, end-user and RES integration). In this
paper an analysis and comparison of Battery Energy Storage
(BES) technologies for grid applications is carried out. The
comparison is focused on the most installed technologies in the
recent experimental BESS installations. Furthermore, the paper
presents a new methodology aimed at selecting the most suitable
BES technology for a specific grid application. This
methodology defines a priority level for each technical and
economical characteristic of the BES technologies. Finally, the
proposed methodology is applied for a specific grid application
confirming its contribution in the selection of the best-suited
technology.
Index Terms Batteries, Energy storage, Methodology.
I. INTRODUCTION
The electric power system is submitted to a continuous
state of stress. The high variability of the consumption is one
cause of this stress. The electricity consumption profiles are
heavily variable during the day, the week, and also during the
year. The midday and evening energy peaks are very different
with respect to night consumption (off-peak hours). Thus, the
grids are overloaded at certain times of the day (peaks) and
underutilized at other times. The growing consumption in big-
cities also generates imbalance and congestion problems in the
grid. On the last few years the integration of Renewable
Energy Sources (RES) has increased this stress level by their
intermittent behaviour [1].
Until now, these problems have been solved by means of
over-sizing Transmission and Distribution (T&D) networks,
building new power plants, developing more efficient energy
management systems and using traditional energy storage
systems such as pumped hydroelectric. However, the
problems generated by the rapid increase of the daily variable
consumption and the massive penetration of RES are
demanding immediate solutions to face them [2]. In this way
the cost reduction and the technology improvement developed
on new Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) have
demonstrated that these systems can be a complementary
solution for a better grid operation in terms of efficiency and
reliability [3], [4].
These systems could locally mitigate the daily variability
of the consumption by accumulating the excess energy at off-
peak hours and discharging it at peak hours. They could also
contribute to filter the RES intermittent power [5], [6].
In addition to the described actions, BESSs could
participate in other services and provide other functionalities
to the power system [7]. These functionalities and services
could be deployed over the four network levels as it is shown
in Fig. 1: generation, T&D, end-user and RES integration
levels [8]. These functionalities include all grid operation
services.
Level Category Functionality
Generation
Electric Supply
-Electric Energy Time Shift
-Electric Supply Capacity
Ancillary
Services
-Load Following
-Area Regulation
-Electric Supply Reserve Capacity
-Voltage Support
T&D Grid System
-Transmission Support
-Transmission Congestion Relief
-T&D Upgrade Deferral
End-user
End User/Utility
Customer
-Time-of-Use (TOU) Energy Cost
Management
-Demand Charge Management
RES
Integration
Renewable
Integration
-Renewable Energy Time Shift
-Renewable Capacity Firming
This work was supported in part by the Spanish Ministry of Economy
and Competitiveness (Research Project SMART-PV ENE2011-29041-C02-
02 and Research Project COOPER DPI2012-37363-C02-02).
Figure 1. BESS functionalities classification at different grid levels [8]
Among the existing BESS solutions different technologies
can be distinguished: advanced batteries and flow batteries.
Each of these technologies may be suitable for different
functionalities.
Among the different battery technologies, the appropriate
technology selection is a critical process to assure a technical
and economical success in the achievement of above shown
functionalities. In this way, numerous research works have
been carried out comparing technical and economical
characteristics of different BESS technologies in order to
contribute to the selection process [9][12]. However, these
comparisons are focused on the analysis of conventional
performances of each technology without considering a more
integral comparison that also includes the influence of these
characteristics on the final installation. In order to take into
account this integral comparison, in this paper a methodology
that customizes the BESS technology selection process is
presented. This methodology is later applied to a specific
application, confirming its contribution in the orientation of
the selection of the most suitable technology.
II. BESS FUNCTIONALITIES AT THE DIFFERENT GRID
LEVELS
In this section, a review of the functionalities that a BESS
could provide at different grid levels (Generation, T&D, end-
user and RES integration) is done.
At generation level, the energy storage systems operation
is oriented to the participation in the wholesale electricity
market. Applications such as the Electric Energy Time Shift
and Electric Supply Capacity [8] are currently covered by high
energy storage systems like Compressed Air Energy Storage
(CAES) and pumped hydroelectric facilities. Nowadays,
BESS cost is too high to be competitive with those storage
systems for these particular applications [9]. Nevertheless they
could be used to provide other generation level functionalities
related to the ancillary services such as Load Following, Area
Regulation, Electric Supply Reserve Capacity or Voltage
Support [8].
The integration of BESS at T&D level opens the
possibility to cover both T&D functionalities such as
Transmission Support, Transmission Congestion Relief or
Transmission & Distribution Upgrade Deferral [8] as well as
above mentioned ancillary services. The system installed by
American Electric Power (AEP) in West Virginia [3] is an
example of the integration of BESS at T&D level. The
1.2MW/7.2MWh system has been developed to achieve peak
demand reduction (T&D functionality) and the backup power
service (ancillary service).
At the moment, the integration of BESS at the end-user
level is residual, mostly oriented to provide power supply at
isolated installations. Recently this integration is taking more
relevance in some countries like Germany and Japan due to
the incentive policies to promote domestic self-consumption.
The main functionalities that BESS can provide at the end-
user level are Time-of-Use (TOU) Energy Cost Management
and Demand Side Management [8]. These systems could also
cover some functionalities associated to the T&D level.
Indeed they could contribute to decrease the domestic peak
demand and hence the distribution network congestion level.
Finally, BESS installation at RES integration level is
aimed at improving RES integration efficiency and reliability
by reducing the negative impact of the natural resources
intermittencies. Due to the capacity of BESS to
instantaneously inject or absorb energy, these systems are
well-suited to fulfil the functionalities identified at this level
such as Renewable Energy Time Shift and Renewable
Capacity Firming [8]. Ancillary services like Voltage Support
or Area Regulation could also be provided by these systems.
The 8MW/32MWh installation of A123 in California
(Tehachapi) is an example of BESS application at RES
integration level. It has been installed to improve a wind farm
integration into the grid as well as to provide ancillary services
and T&D functionalities [13].
III. RELEVANT EXPERIMENTAL BESS INSTALLATIONS FOR
GRID APPLICATIONS
At present the business model for BESS integration at end-
user level is not so developed as at generation, T&D and RES
integration levels. In consequence the research presented in
this paper is focused on generation, T&D and RES integration
applications.
In the following, a review of the most relevant and recent
experimental BESS installations around the world for
generation, T&D and RES integration applications is
presented. Their location, technology used, provider,
connection date, power and energy characteristics and
functionalities are depicted in Table I [3], [13][24].
As it can be concluded from Table I, the most used
technologies in recent experimental BESS installations are
lithium-ion batteries (Li-ion), sodium sulphur batteries (NaS)
and advanced lead acid batteries (adv. Pb acid). Some
conclusions on the installations trend during the last two years
can also be extracted from Table I. From 2010 to 2012, the
NaS installations have maintained their installed capacity
(more than 300MW) [9], [25]; the adv. Pb acid installations
have duplicated their capacity (from 35 to 70 MW) [9], [25];
and the Li-ion installations have multiplied by 5 their capacity
(from 20 to 100 MW) [9], [25]. It can also be noticed that the
nickel cadmium (NiCd) technology has maintained its
capacity (27 MW) and the flow batteries have tripled their
capacity (from 3 to 10 MW) [9], [25]. Currently, in general the
worldwide installed BESS capacity is around 500MW [25].
Concerning the functionalities, it is noteworthy that the
main objective of several recent experimental installations is
to provide RES integration functionalities, but they can also
cover other functionalities of generation and T&D levels.
TABLE I. RELEVANT EXPERIMENTAL BESS INSTALLATION
IV. MOST RELEVANT BATTERY ENERGY STORAGE
TECHNOLOGIES COMPARISON
In this section, technical and economical criteria that
characterize BES technologies are firstly described. The
considered criteria are oriented to the integration of BESS at
generation, T&D and RES integration levels. After that and
based on these criteria, a comparison of the most installed
technologies in the recent experimental BESS installations is
carried out. The considered technologies are the Li-ion, the
NaS and the adv. Pb acid.
A. Considered technical and economical criteria
The considered technical and economical criteria for the
following comparison are described below. These criteria are
considered to be the most representative ones for grid
applications. Nevertheless if the application requires it other
criteria could also be included.
1) Power to energy ratio [kW/kWh]: It describes the ratio
between power and energy.
2) Energy density [Wh/m
3
]: It represents the available
energy per volume unit.
3) Energetic efficiency [%]: It shows the relation between
the discharged energy and the amount of energy needed to
restore the initial charge state, under specific conditions. It is
measured in a percentage.
4) Life cycles [cycles]: It determines the quantity of
consecutive charge and discharge processes that a battery can
undergo while mantaining some minimum performances.
5) Calendar life [time]: It determines the period of time
in which the battery mantains some minimum performances
without being used.
6) Capital cost & BMS cost [/kWh]: It represents the
cost of the BESS with its BMS (Battery Management
System) incorporated.
7) Maintenance cost [/kWh]: It represents the cost of
maintenance of the BESS in order to assure some specific
performances.
8) Commercial maturity: It indicates the period of time in
which the technology has been in use and the development
experienced in that period.
9) Security: It represents the safe operation range of the
BESS.
Location Technology Provider
Connection
date
Peak power and
energy capacity
Functionalities
JAPAN NaS NGK July 2004 9,6MW58MWh Demand Charge Management, Area Regulation
USA (HI) Adv. Pb acid Xtreme Power Sept. 2012 10MW20MWh
Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming,
Electric Supply Reserve Capacity, Area Regulation
CHINA Li-ion BYD Dec. 2011 6MW36MWh Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming
SPAIN Li-ion Saft Oct. 2012 1,1MW560kWh (30min)
Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming,
Area Regulation
USA (WV) NaS NGK June 2006 1,2MW7,2MWh Area Regulation, Electric Supply Reserve Capacity
USA (MA) ZnBr Premium Power Apr. 2012 500kW2,8MWh
Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming,
Transmission Congestion Relief
USA (CA) Li-ion A123 June 2012 8MW32MWh
Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming,
Area Regulation, Voltage Support
USA (TX) Adv. Pb acid Xtreme Power May 2012 36MW 24MWh
Area Regulation, Renewable Energy Time Shift and
Capacity Firming
USA (NY) NaS NGK Mar. 2009 1MW 7,2MWh Demand Charge Management
USA (MI) Li-ion A123 July 2011 500kW 1MWh Electric Energy Time Shift, Area Regulation
JAPAN NaS NGK Aug. 2008 34MW245MWh Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming
USA (MI) Adv. Pb acid Xtreme Power June 2011 0,75MW2MWh
Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming,
Area Regulation
CHINA Li-ion BYD Sept. 2011 3MW12MWh Area Regulation, Demand Charge Management
USA (AK) Ni-Cd ABB (Saft) Aug. 2003 27MW-6,75MWh (15min) Electric Supply Reserve Capacity, Load Following
USA (OH) VRB Ashlawn Energy Dec. 2012 1MW8MWh
Electric Energy Time Shift, Load Following, Electric
Supply Reserve Capacity, Voltage Support,
Transmission Congestion Relief
USA(WV) Li-ion AES (A123) Oct. 2011 32MW 8MWh (15min) Renewable Energy Time Shift and Capacity Firming
B. Value assignment for each criterion and comparison of
technologies
Based on the described criteria, in the following the Li-ion,
the NaS and the adv. Pb acid technologies are compared in
detail. The results of the comparison in terms of value
assignment of criteria are depicted in the spider chart of Fig. 2.

1) Power to energy ratio [kW/kWh]: The Li-ion
technology (~15 kW/kWh) has the highest power to energy
ratio, much higher than the one of the adv. Pb acid (~5
kW/kWh) and NaS technologies (~2 kW/kWh) [26], [27].
2) Energy density [Wh/m
3
]: The Li-ion has the greatest
energy density (200-350 Wh/m
3
) followed by the NaS
technology (150-250 Wh/m
3
). The adv. Pb acid technology
has the lowest energy density value (50-100 Wh/kg ) [10].
3) Energetic efficiency [%]: The Li-ion has the greatest
efficiency with 90-94%, followed by the adv. Pb acid (75-
90%) and the NaS (75%) [9].
4) Life cycles [cycles]: The Li-ion and the NaS
technologies have similar life cycles around 5000 cycles and
the adv. Pb acid technology has aproximately a durability of
1000 cycles [9], [16].
5) Calendar life [time]: The NaS has the best calendar
life (15-20 years) followed by Li-ion (5-20 years depending
on temperature and SOC) and by adv. Pb acid (5-15 years
depending on temperature and SOC) [26].
6) Capital cost & BMS cost [/kWh]: The Li-ion batteries
are the most expensive ones. So it has the lowest value in this
criteion followed by the NaS technology. The adv. Pb acid
technology is much cheaper than the other technologies
having the best score [10], [12].
7) Maintenance cost [/kWh]: The NaS batteries have
the most expensive maintenance cost, due to their high
operation temperature. This technology is followed by the Li-
ion and adv. Pb acid technologies, which requires little
maintenance. Thus, the lowest score is for the NaS, followed
by Li-ion and adv. Pb acid [3].
8) Commercial maturity: The NaS is the most mature
technology and Li-ion and adv. Pb acid technologies are still
in demonstration stage [11].
9) Security: The adv. Pb acid is the most secure
technology followed by Li-ion and NaS technologies [26].
In conclusion, as it can be observed in Fig. 2, there is not a
technology that prevails over the others at all criteria. The
comparison between the arithmetic additions of criterias
values show that Li-ion is the best positioned technology.
However, for a specific functionality, some characteristics are
considered to be much more important than others, i.e. the
security characteristic in transport applications (trains, electric
vehicles, planes). As a result, this arithmetic addition could
not been enough to select a BES technology. In order to rate
the importance of some BES characteristics for a specific
application a new selection methodology is proposed in this
paper.
V. METHODOLOGY FOR THE SELECTION OF BATTERY
ENERGY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
In this section the proposed BES technology selection
methodology is described and applied for a specific
application.
A. Description of the methodology
The proposed methodology is based on the flow chart
depicted in Fig. 3.
The first step of the methodology consists in defining the
main aspects of the application where the BESS will be
installed. These aspects include, among other, the energetic
and location requirements, specific legal regulations,
functionality to be provided, etc. The second step includes the
numerical identification of the above described criteria for
each considered BES technology. The third step contains the
weight up value assignment of each criterion. This assignment
process will be done based on the application analysis of step
1. The following step calculates each technology qualification
applying equation (1).
EESS technologies comparison
5
10
Power to energy ratio
5
10
Energy density
5
10
Energy efficiency
5
10 Life cycles
5
10
Calendar life
5
10
Capital cost & BMS cost 5
10
Maintenance cost
5
10
Commercial maturity
5
10
Security
Li-ion
NaS
Adv. Pb acid

Application
analysis
Weight value
assignment
Equation result
interpretation:
technology election
i
a a a ,..., ,
2 1
Sec i EnDen PErat
K a K a K a Qual + + + = ...
2 1
3 2 1 Tech Tech Tech
Qual Qual Qual > >
IdentiIication oI
criteria values Sec EnDen PErat
K K K ,..., ,
identiIication
- energetic requirement
- location needs
- legal regulations
- ..
- Iunctionality to provide
Figure 2. Relevant BESS technologies comparison.
Figure 3. BESS selection methodology flow chart
uoli = o
1
() K
PLuto
+ o
2
() K
Lncg dcnst
+
o
3
() K
Lncgctc c]]ccnc
+ o
4
() K
L]c ccIcs
+
o
5
() K
CuIcndu I]c
+o
6
() K
CuptuI & BMS cost
+
o
7
() K
Munt cost
+ o
8
() K
CommccuI Mutut
+
o
9
() K
Sccut

(1)
Where:
o

() is the weight up value of the functionality for the

i criterion. The sum of all o

values for each

functionality must be 100, so each criterion has a
weight up value between 0 and 100. It must be
noticed that if a o

() value increases over 100/9

(which represents the equitable weighting value),
another value must decrease.
K
Ctcon
is the value of each criterion for each technology,
with a value between 0 and 10. These values can
be obtained from the spider chart of Fig. 2.
The result of this equation will be a value up to 900
because there are 9 criteria multiplied each one by the
functionality weight up value. The higher the value, the better
is the technology. The different qualifications obtained for the
different BES technologies are then compared to select the
best technology for the considered application. By replacing
the coefficients K
x
of each criterion by cost values, equation
(1) could also represent a cost equation. In that case, the lower
the value, the better is the corresponding technology.
B. Methodology application
The considered case study is a 500 kWh/1MW BESS for
RES integration functionality. The following requirements are
defined for the application:
Country legal regulations demand a high security
installation.
In order to follow green politics an efficient
installation is required.
The cost factor is considered to be very important.
It is considered that the RES integration functionality
requires a high power to energy ratio for high peak
power response.
Based on those requirements, among the technical and
economical characteristics identified in section IV, the most
important criteria for this application are the security, the
energetic efficiency, the capital and the BMS cost, the power
to energy ratio and the life cycles (since it affects on the
replacement cost). These criteria are weighted up with a 15%.
In terms of importance, the next criterion is considered to be
the commercial maturity with a weight up value of 10%. The
other characteristics that are the calendar life, the maintenance
cost and the energy density, which are less relevant in this
application, are weighted up with a 5%. These values for
different criteria are depicted in Table II. The defined values
are compared with the values obtained by applying the
equitable weighting.
TABLE II. WEIGHT UP VALUE TABLE WITH EQUITABLE WEIGHTING AND
FOR RES INTEGRATION FUNCTIONALITY
Weight up
value
Technical and
economical criteria
Equitable
weighting
RES
integration
functionality
o
1
() Power to energy ratio 11.11 15
o
2
() Energy density 11.11 5
o
3
() Energetic efficiency 11.11 15
o
4
() Life cycles 11.11 15
o
5
() Calendar life 11.11 5
o
6
() Capital and BMS cost 11.11 15
o
7
() Maintenance cost 11.11 5
o
8
() Commercial maturity 11.11 10
o
9
() Security 11.11 15
o

() Total 99.99 100

Considering the weight value assignment of Table II (both
the one corresponding to the equitable weighting and the one
customized for RES integration) the proposed methodology is
applied and the results obtained are shown in Table III.
TABLE III. METHODOLOGY APPLICATION RESULTS FOR EQUITABLE
WEIGHTING AND FOR RES INTEGRATION FUNCTIONALITY
Technologies
Li-ion NaS Adv. Pb acid
Results
Equitable
weighting
789
(87.65%)
633
(70.36%)
744
(82.71%)
RES
integration
functionality
765
(85.00%)
615
(68.33%)
755
(83.89%)
Applying the equitable weighting the Li-ion technology
(789 88%) is much better than the others with a significant
margin, 5% respect to adv. Pb acid (744 83%) and 18%
respect to NaS technology (633 70%). The difference of the
adv. Pb acid is due to its low energy density and power to
energy ratio values, that are counteracted in part by its low
capital cost and high security. Concerning the NaS
technology, the main reason of the difference comes from its
low security and high maintenance cost.
Applying the weighting defined for the RES integration
functionality, the best qualification is also for the Li-ion
technology (765 85%) but with a lower value than in the
previous case. This is due to the high capital cost and the BMS
cost of the Li-ion that influences considerably the
qualification. It must be noticed that the adv. Pb acid
technology (755 84%) has increased its qualification value,
due to its low cost and high security levels. The NaS
technology qualification value (615 68%) has decreased. Its
qualification is even further from the other two technologies
because of its low security and high cost are more penalized.
These results confirm the choice adopted in the
experimental installations of Table I, where for the RES
integration functionality the most applied technologies are the
Li-ion and the adv. Pb acid technologies.
VI. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper an analysis and comparison of Battery Energy
Storage (BES) technologies for grid applications has been
presented. The comparison has been focused on the most
installed technologies that have been identified in the review
of the recent experimental BESS installations: Li-ion, NaS and
adv. Pb acid. These technologies have been firstly compared
according to defined technical and economical criteria but
without taking into account the final application requirements.
This comparison has been later complemented by means of
applying a methodology that has been proposed in this paper.
This methodology, based on specific application requirements,
defines a priority level for each technical and economical
characteristic of the BES technologies. In consequence, it
allows a more integral comparison. The methodology has been
applied to a RES integration application confirming its
contribution in the orientation of the selection of technologies.
It has been shown that the Li-ion and adv. Pb acid
technologies would be the best suitable technologies for that
application.
REFERENCES
[1] D. A. Halamay, T. K. A. Brekken, A. Simmons and S. McArthur,
Reserve requirement impacts of large-scale integration of wind, solar,
and ocean wave power generation, IEEE Trans. Sustainable Energy,
vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 321328, Jul. 2011.
[2] M. Liserre, T. Sauter and J. Y. Hung, Future energy systems:
Integrating renewable energy sources into the smart power grid through
industrial electronics, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 18
37, Mar. 2010.
[3] A. Nourai, Installation of the first distributed energy storage system at
American Electric Power (AEP), SAND2007-3580, Sandia National
Laboratories, Jun. 2007. [Online]. Available: http://www.sandia.gov.
[4] C. Venu, Y. Riffonneau, S. Bacha and Y. Baghzouz, Battery storage
system sizing in distribution feeders with distributed photovoltaic
systems, PowerTech 2009 IEEE Bucharest, pp. 15, Jul. 2009.
[5] H. Beltran, E. Bilbao, E. Belenguer, I. Etxeberria-Otadui and P.
Rodriguez, Evaluation of storage energy requirements for constant
production in PV power plants, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60,
no. 3, pp. 12251234, Mar. 2013.
[6] J. T. Bialasiewicz, Renewable energy systems with photovoltaic
power generators: operation and modeling, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron., vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 27522758, Jul. 2008.
[7] A. Nourai and D. Kearns, Batteries included: Realizing smart grid
goals with intelligent energy storage, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol.
8, no. 2, pp. 4954, Mar./Apr. 2010.
[8] J. Eyer and G. Corey, "Energy Storage for the Electricity Grid: Benefits
and Market Potential Assessment Guide, " SAND2010-0815, Sandia
National Laboratories, Feb. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.sandia.gov.
[9] D. Rastler, Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, Electricity Energy
Storage Technology Options: A White Paper Primer on Applications,
Costs and Benefits, Dec. 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www.epri.com.
[10] H. Chen, T. N. Cong, W. Yant, C. Tan, Y. Li and Y. Ding, Progress in
electrical energy storage system: A critical review, Progress in
Natural Science, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 291312, Mar. 2009.
[11] Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy and Transport, 2011
Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan.
[Online]. Available: http://setis.ec.europa.eu/about-setis/technology-
map/2011_Technology_Map1.pdf/view.
[12] P. Poonpun and W. T. Jewell, Analysis of the cost per kilowatt hour to
store electricity, IEEE Trans. Energy Conversion, vol. 23, no. 2, pp.
529534, Jun. 2008.
[13] http://www.sandia.gov/ess/project_map/index.html.
[14] K.C. Divya and J. stergaard, Battery energy storage technology for
power systems An overview, Electric Power Systems Research,
vol. 79, no. 4, pp. 511520, Apr. 2009.
[15] A. Bito, Overview of the Sodium-Sulfur (NAS) Battery for the IEEE
Stationary Battery Committee, Jun. 2005. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ieee.org/portal/cms_docs_pes/pes/subpages/meetings-
folder/2005_sanfran/Non-Track/Overview_of_the_Sodum_-
_NAS_IEEE_StaBatt_12-16Jun05_R.pdf.
[16] Xtreme Power Company Solar Projects. [Online]. Available:
http://www.xtremepower.com/projects/solar.php.
[17] BYD Li-ion batteries for RES integration (36MWh). [Online].
Available:http://www.sustainablebusiness.com/index.cfm/go/news.disp
lay/id/23281.
[18] ACCIONA, ACCIONA incorporates energy storage into a grid-
connected PV solar plant for the first time in Europe, ILIS Project,
Oct. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://www.acciona.com/news/acciona-
incorporates-energy-storage-into-a-grid-connected-pv-solar-plant-for-
the-first-time-in-europe.
[19] Premium Power - Zinc-Flow Technology. [Online]. Available:
http://www.premiumpower.com/.
[20] National Energy Technology Laboratory, Energy Storage A key
enabler of the smart grid, Sep. 2009. [Online]. Available:
http://www.netl.doe.gov/smartgrid/referenceshelf/whitepapers/Energy
%20Storage_2009_10_02.pdf.
[21] U.S. Energy Storage project activities database by the Electric Power
Research Institute, EPRI. (2012).
[22] A. Li, BYD Solar & Energy Storage SolutionGrid Parity, World
Innovation day, Poland, Sept. 2012. [Online]. Available: http://sdi-
wielkopolska.pl/media/28571/byd_solar_and_energy_storage_solution
_-_grid_parity_-_a._li.pdf.
[23] Greentechmedia, Greentechgrid [Online]. Available:
http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/How-China-Will-Impact-
the-Grid-Scale-Energy-Storage-Market.
[24] Ashlawn Energy. [Online]. Available:
http://www.ashlawnenergy.com/index.php.
[25] D. Rastler, Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, Electricity Energy
Storage Technology Options: System Cost Benchmarking, IPHE
Workshop Hydrogen - A competitive Energy Storage Medium for
large scale integration of renewable electricity, Nov. 2012. [Online].
Available: http://www.iphe.net/docs/Events/Seville_11-
12/Workshop/Presentations/Session%201/1.4_IPHE%20workshop_Ras
tler.pdf.
[26] G. Fuchs, B. Lunz, M. Leuthold and D. Uwe Sauer, Technology
Overview on Electricity Storage Overview on the potential and on the
deployment perspectives of electricity storage technologies, Jun. 2012.
[27] M. Conte, P. P. Prosini and S. Passerini, Overview of energy/hydrogen
storage: state-of-the-art of the technologies and prospects for
nanomaterials, Materials Science and Engineering: B, vol. 108, no. 1
2, pp. 28, Apr. 2004.