Grammar in Spoken and Written Text

Chapter 5 of Grammar (2005), Michael Swan

Speech and Writing

Grammar used to be based only on written text since spoken text was evanescent.
With recording technology, now we can analyze speech. Prototypically, speech is
interactive while writing is a monologue. Each has its distinct grammatical characteristics.

When building phrases, clauses, and utterances, we must keep in mind the following:
Writers, unlike speakers, can pause and reflect on their production. In turn, readers
are better are decoding than listeners.
Writing tends to be architectural, with dense packaging of information. Speech is
more linear with its information-bearing elements more spaced out. For this reason,
writing often nominalizes.
Written sentences vary enormously in length and complexity. They exhibit
hierarchical organization and embedding. The average spoken clause length is
around seven words.

Reference and Context
Until now we have mostly been dealing with small pieces of texts like clauses and
sentences. Longer texts, spoken or written, need to be structured to communicate
successfully.
One important aspect in constructing a text is reference. In order to avoid lexical
repetition, there is a wide spread tendency among languages to use anaphoric pronouns.
Eg. Daenerys of the House Targaryen, Mother of Dragons and Breaker of Chains,
is coming this afternoon. She [Daenerys of the House Targaryen, Mother of
Dragons and Breaker of Chains] is very young.

When using references, there is potential for ambiguity.
Eg. Tony told Steve he was in charge. (Who is he referring to?)

Pro-forms in general work to recapitulate the elements in a text.
Substituting a verb: Clean the kitchen! I already did!
Substituting an adjective or relative clause: I want a super fluffy dog who can fit in
my shoe. I wouldnt like such a dog
Substituting an object: I think we will pass this course with flying colors. I hope
so.
When its unnecessary to make a reference explicit, we use ellipsis, that is, elements can be
left out.
Eg. Why did you do that (I did that) to annoy you
I wanted to jump over the fence, but I was unable to (jump over the fence)

Reference in Writing and Speech
Writing tends to have more pronouns than speech and reference is mainly internal.
In speech, however, anchored in here and now, the reference is towards the physical
surroundings. This is why demonstratives are naturally more common in speech. Speech, in
turn, has more substitute words like one, do and so.


Given and New Information

Information flow and topic-maintenance
Texts are build integrating new and given information. To make the informational
status of an element explicit we use the definite article.
Eg. Thewoman started singing.

Order also shows the distinction between new and given information. Sentence and
causes begin with what is known/taken for granted and leave the main information at the
end. English subjects tend to be more definite than indefinite. Indefinite subjects are often
postponed.
Eg. A man is looking at me. vs. There was a man looking at me.

Merging topic and subject is mostly unproblematic in written language, since we
can make lexical or syntactic changes to make this work. In spoken English, on the other
hand, topic and subject are more often detached. Some structures like left-dislocation allow
the listener more time to process what is being said.
Eg. This guy who rang up, he said

Sound can also be manipulated to structure spoken text. For that we use intonation.
Given material usually carries a rising intonation that indicates there is something still to
come. Phonological features also work to give special focus or emphasis to a certain
element.

Text Structure
Readers and listeners can process text more easily if the structural relations and
transitions between one part and another are made explicitly (p.46). For this we use
discourse markers: words and phrases whose main function is text management.
Eg. Firstly, therefore, on the one hand.

English discourse markers tend to be register-specific, that is, we use different
markers in informal speech and formal writing. Spoken text, since is mostly conversational,
involves a larger amount of structural devices. We use those to take over, shift, or take back
the conversation.

Face
Grammar provides ways in which to facilitate the speaker-listener interaction and to
minimize the threats to face. English has grammatical structures to express respect or
consideration and to make suggestions, requests, and questions less direct.
Eg. Could you Would you

Although both writing and speech can be more or less formal, formality is more often
associated to the written text. While formality is often expressed through lexicon
(start/commence, say/state), it can also be expressed through grammar.
Eg. Contractions, phrasal verbs, and preposition stranding are consider informal.
Pronouns in coordinated subjects: Me and Peter vs. Peter and I.

With the current reduction of the prestige gap between speech and writing, some of
these forms are becoming more widely acceptable.

Types of texts
Certain texts have their own special organization characteristics.
Eg. Letters, newspaper headlines, ads, literary works.
Global Warming is real, says everybody.