Introduction

Implementation of Match Filter & Interference Based Detection Method For
Spectrum Sensing In Cognitive Radio.

J.C.O.E.T. Yavatmal. Page 1
1. INTRODUCTION:-
The available electromagnetic radio spectrum is a limited natural resource and getting
crowded day by day due to increase in wireless devices and applications. It has been also
found that the allocated spectrum is underutilized because of the static allocation of the
spectrum. Also, the conventional approach to spectrum management is very inflexible in the
sense that each wireless operator is assigned an exclusive license to operate in a certain
frequency band. And, with most of the useful radio spectrum already allocated, it is difficult
to find vacant bands to either deploy new services or to enhance existing ones. In order to
overcome this situation, we need to come up with a means for improved utilization of the
spectrum creating opportunities for dynamic spectrum access. Recently, cognitive radios
have been proposed as a possible solution to improve spectrum utilization via opportunistic
spectrum sharing. Cognitive radios are considered lower priority or secondary users of
spectrum allocated to a primary user. Their fundamental requirement is to avoid interference
to potential primary users in their vicinity. The first application of cognitive radios is studied
under IEEE 802.22 standard group in order to enable secondary use of UHF spectrum for a
fixed wireless access. Although cognitive radios promise dramatic improvements in spectrum
utilization and revolution in the way the spectrum is used, their realization still requires
technical proofs of feasibility and regulatory approval. The growing interest in cognitive
radio research from signal processing and communication communities has spurred an
increasing number of papers in the recent years. There are a large number of proposals for all
communication layers, but the system infrastructure has not been clearly defined. In addition,
most of these research results rely on theoretical analysis or computer simulations.
In order to deal with the complete task in cognitive radio network, the cognitive
user has to perform an additional task than a normal wireless user & that task is to sense the
network to be used i.e. the detection of spectrum holes. This detection of holes is called as the
spectrum sensing. Spectrum sensing aims to determine spectrum availability and the presence
of the licensed users. In our project we have discussed the following techniques to detect the
presence of the spectrum holes.
1. Matched filter detection
2. Interference based detection
1. Matched Filter Detection:
A matched filter (MF) is a linear filter designed to maximize the output signal to
noise ratio for a given input signal. When secondary user has a priori knowledge of primary
user signal, matched filter detection is applied. Matched filter operation is equivalent to
correlation in which the unknown signal is convolved with the filter whose impulse response
is the mirror and time shifted version of a reference signal.
2. Interference Based Detection:
Interference is basically regulated and controlled at the transmitter side by minimizing
the necessary radiated power, thus reducing interference. However, interference actually
occurs at the receiver side, so a new technique for measuring interference has been
proposed by FCC, namely interference temperature. An interference temperature
model manages the interference at receiver by imposing interference temperature
limits, which is the extra amount of interference that can be tolerated by the receiver. Any
un-licensed transmission must not violate the interference temperature limit at the
licensed receivers to use the spectrum band. The interference temperature model has
certain limitations like: it considers the interference caused by single secondary user,
not multiple secondary users and it is unsuitable when secondary user is unaware of the
position of nearby primary users.
1.1 Spectrum:
Spectrum is a group of various types of electromagnetic radiations of all feasible
wavelengths, used for wireless communication.
Fig 1: SpectrumBand
1.2 Spectrum Management in India:
Radio frequency spectrum is a limited natural resource. The word Spectrum basically
refers to a Collection of various types of electromagnetic radiations of different wavelengths.
In India, the radio frequencies are arbitrarily confined between 9 kHz and 3000 GHz and are
being used for 40 different types of services like fixed communication, mobile
communication, broadcasting, radio navigation, radiolocation, fixed and mobile satellite
service, aeronautical satellite service, radio navigational satellite service etc.
Some of the important and typical characteristics of the radio frequency spectrum are
as below.
1. Radio frequency spectrum does not respect international geographical boundaries as it is
spread over a large terrestrial area.
2. Use of radio frequency spectrum is susceptible to overlapping interference and requires the
Application of complex engineering tools to ensure interference free operation of various
Wireless networks.
3. Unlike other natural resources, radio frequency spectrum is not consumed upon its usage.
It is also liable to be wasted if it is not used optimally and efficiently. Radio frequency
spectrum usage is therefore to be shared amongst the various radio services and must be used
efficiently, optimally and economically in conformity with the provisions of national and
international laws.
The limitation of the radio frequency spectrum is mainly due to the following factors.
1. Propagation characteristics of different types of radio waves.
2. Availability of technology and equipment for different types of radio frequency
spectrum applications.
3. The suitability of frequency bands for specific applications.
1.3 Need For Spectrum Allocation:
1. Spectrum allocation is necessary in order to ensure interference free operation for
each radio service. Each frequency band is shared amongst various radio services but
the sharing is possible only with the use of similar systems. Sharing is also possible
by way of geographical separation, time-sharing and through technical solutions like
smart antenna and intelligent radio system.
Some of the typical frequency bands allocated for certain types of radio services in
India are as given below
Frequency Band Radio Service
9 14 kHz Radio Navigation
495 505 kHz Mobile (Distress & Calling)
535 1605.5 kHz Broadcasting
2065 2107 kHz
2170 2178.5 kHz
2190.5 2194 kHz
Maritime Mobile
610 806 MHz Fixed, Mobile, Broadcasting Radio Astronomy
890 960 MHz Mobile, Fixed, Broadcasting
942 960 MHz Mobile satellite
1350 1400 MHz Radio Location
1710 1930 MHz Mobile, Fixed, Space operation, space research
Unlicensed
Frequency Ranges
in India
Application/Specifications
50-200 kHz Very low power devices
13553-13567 kHz. Very low power radio frequency devices, indoor only
26.957MHz-27.283
MHz
Low power wireless equipment (max. Effective Radiated Power of
5 watts)
335 MHz Low power wireless equipment for the remote control of cranes
402-405 MHz Medical RF wireless devices (max. radiated power of 25
microwatt) with channel emission band width within 300 kHz
865-867 MHz Low power wireless device (max. transmitter power of 1 watt-4
watts Effective Radiated Power) with 200 kHz carrier bandwidth
865MHz- 867 MHz Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFID) (MTP of 1 watt-4
watts ERP) with 200 kHz carrier band width
2400 MHz - 2483.5
MHz
Low power wireless equipment (e.g. Wi-Fi) (max. transmitter
output power of 1 watt-4 watts ERP) with spectrum spread of 10
MHz or higher
5150MHz-5350
MHz
Low power equipment for Wireless Access Systems (max. mean
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power of 200 mW and max. mean
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power density of 10 mW/MHz in any
1 MHz bandwidth) indoor only
5725MHz-5825
MHz
Low power equipment for Wireless Access Systems (MMEIRP of
200 mW and MMEIRP density of 10 mW/MHz in any 1 MHz
bandwidth) indoor only
5825MHz-5875
MHz
Low power equipment (MTOP of 1 watt-4 watts ERPower) with
spectrum spread of 10 MHz or higher
Fig.1.2- Average Occupancy of Spectrum in Percentage.
1.4 Spectrum and Mobile Telephone Services:
Mobile telephone service providers in India use GSM and CDMA technologies. GSM
technology works in the frequency bands of 900 and 1800 MHz in India and CDMA
technology works in the 800 MHz band. 800, 900 and 1800 MHz bands were earlier allotted
to the defence services for their mobile communication usage. However, upon the launch of
mobile communication services for public, coordination was sought from the defence
department to make the spectrum available for mobile services. Since the mobile
communication technologies provide international roaming facilities, it is essential to allocate
spectrum in the common bands which are being used the world over. Also, the mobile
handsets being used is imported hence conform to the GSM 900/1800 bands. If radio
frequencies are allotted in other bands then handsets will not be compatible with it and new
handsets will have to be developed which will be costlier and therefore the cost of mobile
communication services will also increase.
Presently, 25 MHz spectrum in 900 MHz band (890 915 / 935 960 MHz) and 75
MHz in the 1800 MHz band (1710 1785 / 1805 1880 MHz) is earmarked for GSM
services. However, out of this total 100 MHz, only 15 MHz in GSM 1800 band is available
for use as the remaining 60 MHz is still to be vacated by the defence department. Also out of
the total 25 MHz in GSM 900 band, a total of 20.2 MHz is available for GSM networks and
Railways train safety systems. The minimum amount of spectrum required for launching
GSM services is 2 x 4.4 MHz presently, the government has allotted a cumulative maximum
spectrum of up to 4.4 MHz in GSM 900 and 1800 MHz band to mobile operators. For
CDMA services, 20 MHz spectrum in the 800 MHz band (824 844 / 869 889 MHz) is
available. In this 20 + 20 MHz spectrum, 14 CDMA carriers of nominal 1.25 MHz each are
possible for assignment to service providers.
1.5 Spectrum management in CRN:
In order to address challenges like Interference Avoidance, QOS Awareness Seamless
Communication we provide different functionalities required for spectrum management in
CR networks. The spectrum management process consists of four major steps:
1.5.1 Spectrum Sensing:
A CR user can only allocate an unused portion of the spectrum. Therefore, the CR
user should monitor the available spectrum bands, capture their information, and then detect
the spectrum holes.
1.5.2 Spectrum Decision:
Based on the spectrum availability, CR users can allocate a channel. Thisallocation
not only depends on spectrum availability, but it is also determined based on internal policies.
1.5.3 Spectrum Sharing:
Since there may be multiple CR users trying to access the spectrum, CR network
access should be coordinated in order to prevent multiple users colliding in overlapping
portions of the spectrum.
1.5.4 Spectrum Mobility:
If the specific portion of the spectrum in use is required by a primary user, the
communication needs to be continued in another vacant portion of the spectrum.
1.6 Spectrum sensing techniques for cognitive radio systems:
Current spectrum regulation is based on a fixed frequency allocation policy. The radio
frequency spectrum is divided to frequency bands that are then allocated to different systems.
The allocations are decided by the regulatory authorities in each country such as the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States. Most of the spectrum has already
been allocated to different systems. Moreover, the allocations vary from country to country.
Whenever a new wireless system is introduced a frequency band needs to be made available
for it, which may require worldwide collaboration. Hence, although the current frequency
allocation policy guarantees low interference because each system operates in a different
band, it is also very rigid and inflexible. This has resulted in apparent spectrum scarcity that
realizes as heavy congestion in certain frequency bands. However, many of the frequency
bands have been allocated to legacy systems that are rarely used or to systems whose degree
of frequency band utilization varies sharply from time to time and location to location.
Hence, there are still plenty of spectrums available. Merely because of the fixed frequency
allocation policy it cannot be exploited. Consequently, the radio frequency spectrum is very
inefficiently utilized depending on time, frequency band, and location. Hence, there is an
increasing need for more dynamic way of utilizing the radio frequency spectrum. Dynamic
spectrum access provides a flexible way of utilizing the available resources more evenly.
Dynamic spectrum access may be broadly categorized under three different models dynamic
exclusive use model, spectrum commons model, and hierarchical access model. Similar
categorization with slightly different terminology and more subcategories for the three main
models has been given.
The dynamic exclusive use model maintains the current spectrum allocation structure
where frequency bands are licensed to different systems for exclusive use. The difference is
that the spectrum is allocated in more dynamic manner either by using spatial and temporal
traffic analysis or by allowing the licensees to lease out and trade spectrum. For more
information, the spectrum commons model refers to a concept found successful in the
unlicensed industrial scientific and medical (ISM) bands where different users share the
spectrum, for example, by competing equally for the available resources in a fair manner.
The spectrum commons model entails both the fully open sharing model, where the
spectrum is unwonted and access is available to anyone, as well as managed commons where
the spectrum is owned and controlled, for example, by a group of entities. In managed
commons there are stronger restrictions and rules on how to use the spectrum than under the
open sharing model. For more detailed discussion of the spectrum commons model. The
hierarchical access model adopts the current structure, where frequency bands are licensed to
different primary systems, and opens the licensed spectrum to secondary users. The access by
secondary users is allowed under the condition that the interference caused to the primary
systems is maintained below an allowed level.
The allowed level of interference is defined by the regulating bodies. The hierarchical
access model may be subdivided to spectrum overlay and spectrum underlay approaches.
Spectrum underlay is based on ultra-wideband (UWB) devices that operate at short ranges
with low transmit powers. By imposing severe constraints on the allowed transmit powers,
the interference caused to the primary systems is maintained at low level. Hence, there is no
need for spectrum sensing in spectrum underlay. As opposed to spectrum underlay, spectrum
overlay is based on the cognitive radios sensing the spectrum in order to find spectrum
opportunities. Hence, rather than imposing severe constraints on transmit powers, the
interference caused to the primary users is kept below the allowed level by the secondary
users ability to identify through sensing when the spectrum is unoccupied and thus may be
utilized.
In this thesis, we focus on the spectrum overlay approach, referred to as opportunistic
spectrum access in the literature as well. Moreover, we focus on spectrum sensing and more
precisely on spectrum sensing in the physical layer. However, first we briefly discuss the
other main challenges faced by the cognitive radios in obtaining awareness of the state of the
radio spectrum and achieving dynamic spectrum access. Fig.3.presents a network of
cognitive radios operating in the midst of licensed primary systems. The operation of a
cognitive radio for dynamic spectrum access consists of two main components: spectrum
sensing and spectrum opportunity exploitation. Due to hardware limitations and energy
constraints, a cognitive radio may not be able to sense the whole spectrum simultaneously.
Hence, a sensing policy that defines when and which frequency band to sense must be
implemented. Sensing policy may be implemented either individually.
Figure 3: A network of cognitive radios.
The cognitive radios sense the radio frequency spectrum for spectrum opportunities
and exploit them in an agile manner or collaboratively. Note that here we assume that the
sensing periods are already synchronized among different cognitive radios. This is necessary
because simultaneous transmission and sensing on the same frequency band is not in general
possible. The sensing policy defines whether a cognitive radio performs sensing in a given
sensing period and, if so, which channel or channels it senses. It is expected that collaborative
sensing policies offer benefits over individually selected policies in scenarios where the users
perform collaborative sensing in the physical layer as well. This is due to a guaranteed
diversity order by the collaborative policies, i.e., it can be guaranteed that there are
multiple spatially dispersed cognitive radios sensing the same band simultaneously.
Individual sensing policies using a decision-theoretic approach by formulating the
design of optimal sensing policy as a partially observable Markov decision process (POMDP)
have been proposed in [911]. Myopic sensing policies that seek at maximizing the
immediate reward have been analyzed in [12, 13]. After sensing the spectrum and finding
spectral opportunities, the cognitive radios need to decide their access policy in order to
exploit the available opportunities. Access policy answers question such as when and on
which channels to transmit or whether to transmit at all in order to conserve the energy of
battery-operated terminals if the channel quality is bad. Similarly as sensing policy, access
policy can be individually or collectively decided as well. An integral part of spectrum
exploitation is also interference management.
The cognitive radio system must ensure that its combined interference caused to the
primary systems stays within the bounds set by the regulatory bodies. Sensing and access
policies are closely connected to each other. For example, if it is noticed that the throughput
on a certain frequency band is constantly very low, there may not be any reason to sense that
frequency band either. That is, it is desirable to sense bands where persistent spectral
resources are available. Or if the cognitive user does not expect to transmit anything in the
near future, it may be wise to refrain from sensing as well in order to conserve energy.
Moreover, both sensing policy and access policy are areas where cognition most naturally
comes into play. In dynamic signal environments techniques such as reinforcement learning
have great potential for achieving the most efficient utilization of the available resources.
2. Background:
As an intelligent radio, cognitive radio is the key technology that provides the
capability to use the RF spectrum in a dynamic manner. A crucial requirement of cognitive
radios is that they must rapidly fill in spectrum holes without causing harmful interference to
the PU. This task is fulfilled by the function of spectrum sensing. However, there are two
challenges in spectrum sensing. One of them is that due to effect of multipath and shadowing,
the sensing result of a single cognitive radio user is not reliable. Thus, collaborative spectrum
sensing techniques are often used to combat the effect of fading. Another significant
challenge is sensing the whole of the spectrum at a particular physical location in a short
observation time. Hence, wideband spectrum sensing is of prime importance to ensure
efficient operation for both the primary and the secondary (cognitive radio) networks.
1.2.1 Cognitive Radio:
Cognitive Radio (CR) is a system model for wireless communication. It is built on
software defined radio which an emerging technology is providing a platform for flexible
radio systems, multiservice, multi-standard, multiband, reconfigurable and reprogrammable
by software for Personal Communication Services (PCS). It uses the methodology of sensing
and learning from the environment and adapting to statistical variations in real time. The
network or wireless node changes its transmission or reception parameters to communicate
efficiently anywhere and anytime avoiding interference with licensed or unlicensed users for
efficient utilization of the radio spectrum. Cognitive modules in the transmitter and receiver
must work in a harmonious manner which is achieved via a feedback channel connecting
them. Receiver is enabled to convey information on the performance of the forward link to
the transmitter. Thus CR by necessity is an example of a feedback communication system.
The concept was first originated by Defence Advance Research Products Agency (DARPA)
scientist, Dr. Joseph Mitola and the result of that concept is IEEE 802.22, which is a standard
aimed at using cognitive radio for Wireless Regional Area Network (WRAN) using white
spaces in the TV frequency spectrum while assuring that no harmful interference is caused to
the incumbent operation, i.e., digital TV and analog TV broadcasting, and low power
licensed devices. IEEE P802.22.1 is a standard being developed to enhance harmful
interference protection for low power licensed devices elements that can dynamically alter
the parameters of their operation to improve the offered Quality of Services.
Reconfigurations are software-defined, that is, they are accomplished by activating the
appropriate software at the transceiver operating in TV Broadcast Bands in the 700 MHz
band. IEEE P802.22.2 is a recommended practice for the installation and deployment of
IEEE 802.22 System. IEEE 802.22 WG is a working group of IEEE 802 LAN/MAN
standards committee which is chartered to write the 802.22 standard. The two 802.22 task
groups (TG1 and TG2) are writing 802.22.1 and 802.22.2 respectively.
1.2.2 Definition:
Cognitive radio is an intelligent wireless communication system that is aware of its
surrounding environment (i.e., outside world), and uses the methodology of understanding-
by-building to learn from the environment and adapt its internal states to statistical variations
in the incoming RF stimuli by making corresponding changes in certain operating parameters
(e.g., transmit-power, carrier-frequency, and modulation strategy).
1.2.3 Classification:
According to its operational area, Cognitive Radio can be classified into following
systems:
A Multiband System: A multiband system which is supporting more than one Frequency
band used by a wireless standard (e.g., GSM 900, GSM 1800, GSM 1900).
A Multi-standard system: A multi-standard system that is supporting more than one
Standard. Multi-standard systems can work within one standard family (e.g., UTRA FDD,
UTRA-TDD for UMTS) or across different networks (e.g., DECT, GSM, UMTS, WLAN).
A Multi-service system: A multi-service system which provides different services (e.g.,
telephony, data, video streaming).
A Multi-channel system: A multi-channel system that supports two or more independent
transmission and reception channels at the same time.
1. 2.4 Cognitive Radio Characteristics:
Cognitive Radio operation is based on three main principles:
I. Reconfigurability:
This property of cognitive radios refers to their ability to dynamically modify their
configuration. Reconfigurability can efficiently be realized through the use of network
elements that can dynamically alter the parameters of their operation to improve the
offered Quality of Services. Reconfigurations are software-defined, that is, they are
accomplished by activating the appropriate software at the transceiver.
Reconfigurability includes following capabilities:
Frequency Agility:
It is the ability of a radio to change its operating frequency. This ability usually
combines with a method to dynamically select the appropriate operating frequency
based on the sensing of signals from other transmitters or on some other method.
Dynamic Frequency Selection:
It is defined in the rules as a mechanism that dynamically detects signals
from other radio frequency systems and avoids co channel operation with those
systems.
Adaptive Modulation/Codlings:
A cognitive radio could select the appropriate modulation type for use with a
particular transmission system to permit interoperability between systems.
Transmit Power Control:
Transmit power control is a feature that enables cognitive radio to
dynamically switch between several transmissions power levels in the data
transmission process.
II. Cognition:
The stochastic nature of the environment conditions raises the need for the
existence of the second main attribute of cognitive radio systems, namely, cognition.
Cognition refers to the process of knowing through perception, reasoning, knowledge and
intuition with a focus on information available from the environment. Thus, Cognitive
capability includes the features of spectrum sensing, spectrum sharing, location
identification, and network and service discovery.
III. Self-management:
Each transceiver should be capable of self-adapting to its environment without the
need to be instructed by a central management entity with higher rationality. This concept,
which is aligned to the autonomic computing paradigm, provides significant reduction of
system complexity because it does not call for a centralized management entity. It includes
the following features:
1. Spectrum/Radio Resource Management:
To efficiently manage and organize spectrum holes information among Cognitive
Radios, good spectrum management scheme is necessary.
2. Mobility and Connection Management:
Due to the heterogeneity of CRNs, routing and topology information is more and
more complex. Good mobility and connection management can help neighborhood
discovery, detect available Internet access and support vertical handoffs, which help
cognitive radios to select route and networks.
3. Trust/Security Management:
Since CRNs are heterogeneous networks in nature, various heterogeneities (e.g.
wireless access technologies, system/network operators) introduce lots of security
issues. Trust is thus a prerequisite for securing operations in CRNs.
2.5 Architecture of the Cognitive Radio Networks:
Current wireless network environment employs heterogeneity in terms of both
spectrum policy and communication technologies. Hence, a clear description of the
cognitive radio network architecture is crucial for development of communication
protocols. The components of the cognitive radio network architecture, as shown in
Fig. 1. It can be classified into two groups as the primary network and the cognitive
network. Primary network is referred to as the legacy network that has an exclusive
right to certain spectrum band. While cognitive network does not have a license to
operate in the desired band. The basic elements of the primary and unlicensed
networks are defined as follows.
Figure 1 Cognitive radio network architecture
1. Primary User:
Primary user has a license to operate in a certain spectrum band. This access can be
only controlled by its base-station and should not be affected by the operations of any other
unauthorized user.
2. Primary Base-Station:
Primary base-station is a fixed infrastructure network component which has a
spectrum license. In principle, the primary base-station does not have any cognitive radio
capability for sharing spectrum with cognitive radio users. However, primary base-station
may be required to have both legacy and cognitive radio protocols for the primary network
access of cognitive radio users
3. Cognitive Radio User:
Cognitive radio user has no spectrum license. Hence, the spectrum access is allowed
only in an opportunistic manner. Capabilities of the cognitive radio user include spectrum
sensing, spectrum decision, spectrum handoff and cognitive radio. The cognitive radio user is
assumed to have the capabilities to communicate with not only the base-station but also other
cognitive radio users.
4. Cognitive Radio Base-Station:
Cognitive radio base-station is a fixed infrastructure component with cognitive radio
capabilities. Cognitive radio base-station provides single hop connection to cognitive radio
users without spectrum access license. Cognitive radio users can either communicate with
each other in a multihop manner or access the base-station.
5. Spectrum broker:
Spectrum broker is a central network entity that provides the sharing of spectrum
resources among different CR networks. Hence, spectrum broker can be connected to each
network like star topology in Networks and can act as centralized server having all
information about spectrum resources to enable coexistence of multiple CR networks.
2.6 Cognitive Radio Network Access:
Cognitive radio users can access their own cognitive radio Base-station both in
licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands. Since all interactions occur inside the cognitive
radio network, their medium access scheme is independent of that of primary network.
2. Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Access:
Cognitive radio users can communicate with other cognitive radio users through ad
hoc connection on both licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands. Also cognitive radio users
can have their own medium access technology.
3. Primary Network Access:
The cognitive radio user can access the primary base-station through the licensed
band, if the primary network is allowed. Unlike other access types, cognitive radio users
should support the medium access technology of primary network. Furthermore, primary
base-station should support cognitive radio capabilities.
2.7 Benefits:
As always in the modern world, benefits often lie within the economical boundaries.
If we could use cognitive radio, we would be able to:
Make use of the most suitable frequency for the purpose of our transmission.
Be able to re-use many frequencies and therefore extend the existing wireless
communication systems.
If the frequencies are not going to run out, prices on the licensed spectrum will
naturally drop, which in end will yield better consumer prices.
Cognitive radio provides new business models. A service provider could be a
manager for the resources.
1.3.8 Applications of Cognitive Radios:
Cognitive Radio Networks can be applied to the following cases:
1. Leased Network:
Primary network may provide a leased network by allowing cognitive radio user to access
its licensed spectrum in an opportunistic manner without harming the
communication of the primary user.
2. Cognitive Mesh Network:
For providing broadband connectivity wireless mesh networks are emerging as a
cost-effective technology. However mesh networks require higher capacity to meet the
requirements of the applications that demand higher throughput. Since the cognitive
radio technology enables the access to larger amount of spectrum, therefore cognitive
radio networks will be a good choice to meet the requirements of mesh networks.
3. Emergency network:
Cognitive Radio Networks can be implemented for Public safety and emergency
networks. In the case of natural disasters, when primary networks are temporarily disable their
spectrum band can be used by CR users. CR networks can communicate on available
spectrum band in ad hoc mode without the need for an infrastructure and by maintaining
communication priority and response time.
4. Military network:
CR networks can be used in military radio environment. CR networks can enable
the military radios to choose arbitrary intermediate frequency (IF) bandwidth, modulation
schemes, and coding schemes, adapting to the variable radio environment of battlefield
1.3.3 MATLAB 7.12.0(R2011a):
We have used Matlab, version R2011a for implementation of spectrum sensing
methods i.e. (Matched Filter Detection& Interference Based Detection)
Fig. 4 Matlab Version Details
We have downloaded this software from http://www.mathworks.com
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written
to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK
projects, which together represent the state-of-the-art in software for matrix computation.
MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates
computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. The purpose of this to introduce
Matlab to students of mathematics. It is not exhaustive, but describes commands and subroutines that
might be commonly used by mathematicians. Typical uses include:
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including Graphical User Interface building
MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time. MATLAB has
evolved over a period of years with input from many users. In university environments, it is
the standard instructional tool for introductory and advanced courses in mathematics,
engineering, and science. In industry, MATLAB is the tool of choice for high-productivity
research, development, and analysis.
1.3.1 Some features of MATLAB:
1. MATLAB Help Facilities:
1.1 Inline help
1.2 Web based support and help
1.3Recording your MATLAB session

2. MATLAB Matrices and Vectors:
2.1 Dense matrices and vectors
2.2 Sparse matrices and vectors
2.3 Range operators
3. MATLAB arithmetic operators:
3.1 Matrix-vector operations
3.2 Array operations
3.3 Backslash operator
3.4 Complex arithmetic
4. MATLAB software:
4.1 Elementary functions
4.2 Linear algebra
4.3Nonlinear functions
4.4 Ordinary differential equations
4.5 Fourier transformations
2.1 Need of Cognitive Radio Technology:
The progressive growth of the wireless communications, has led to under-utilization
of the spectrum. The usage of radio spectrum resources and the regulation of radio emissions
are coordinated by national regulatory bodies like the Federal Communications Commission
(FCC). The FCC assigns spectrum to licensed holders, also known as primary users, on a
long-term basis for large geographical regions. It has been observed by Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) that major portion of the spectrum remain unutilized
most of the time; as it is reserved only for the licensed (primary) users while other is heavily
used. Figure shows the underutilized spectrum.
The relatively low utilization of the licensed spectrum suggests that spectrum scarcity
is largely due to inefficient fixed frequency allocations rather than any physical shortage of
spectrum. This observation has prompted the regulatory bodies to investigate a radically
different access paradigm. Cognitive Radio (CR) has come out as a prominent solution to this
problem which allows the secondary users to use the licensed band when it is not in use this
new communication paradigm named as Cognitive Radio; can dramatically enhance
spectrum efficiency, and is also referred to as the Next Generation (XG) or Dynamic
Spectrum Access (DSA) network.
2.2 Physical Architecture of the Cognitive Radio:
Fig. 7 Physical Architecture of Cognitive Radio.
The Cognitive Radio Architecture is comprised of three sub-systems, as shown in
Figure:
Digital Transceiver.
Channel monitoring and spectrum sensing module.
Communication management and control.
A generic architecture of a cognitive radio transceiver is shown in Fig. 8. The main
components of a cognitive radio transceiver are the radio front-end and the baseband
processing unit. Each component can be reconfigured via a control bus to adapt to the time-
varying RF environment.
In the RF front-end, the received signal is amplified, mixed and A/D converted. In the
baseband processing unit, the signal is modulated or demodulated and encoded or decoded.
The baseband processing unit of a cognitive radio is essentially similar to existing
transceivers. However, the novelty of the cognitive radio is the RF front-end. Hence, next, we
focus on the RF Front-end of the cognitive radios.
Fig.9. Physical architecture of the cognitive radio
(A) Cognitive radio transceiver and
(B) Wideband RF/analog front-end architecture
(A) Cognitive Radio Transceiver:
Fig. 8 Cognitive radio transceiver
(B) Wideband RF/Analog Front-End Architecture:
The novel characteristic of cognitive radio transceiver is a wideband sensing
capability of the RF Front-end. This function is mainly related to RF hardware technologies
such as wideband antenna, power amplifier and adaptive filter. RF hardware for the cognitive
radio should be capable of turning to any part of large range of frequency spectrum. Also
such spectrum sensing enables real-time measurements of spectrum information from radio
environment.
Fig. 9 Wideband RF/analog front-end architecture
The components of a cognitive radio RF front-end are as follows:
1. RF filters:
The RF filter selects desired band by band pass filtering the received RF signal.
2. Low Noise Amplifier (LNA):
The LNA amplifies the desired signal while simultaneously minimizing noise component.
3. Mixer:
In the mixer, the received signal is mixed with locally generated RF frequency and Converted
to the baseband or the intermediate frequency (IF).
4. Voltage Controlled Oscillator:
The VCO generates a signal at a specific frequency for a given voltage to mix with
the incoming signal. This procedure converts the incoming signal to base band or an
intermediate frequency.
5. Phase Locked Loop (PLL):
The PLL ensures that a signal is locked on a specific frequency and can also be used
to generate precise frequencies with fine resolution.
6. Channel Selection Filter:
The channel selection filter is used to select the desired channel and to reject the
adjacent channels. There are two types of channel selection filters. First are the direct
Conversion receiver uses a low-pass filter for the channel selection and the second is the
super heterodyne receiver adopts a band passes filter.
7. Automatic Gain Control (AGC):
The AGC maintains the gain or output power level of a signal level. Amplifier is
constant over a wide range of input signal levels. In this architecture, a wideband signal is
received through the RF front-end, sampled by the high speed analog-to-digital (A/D)
converter, and measurements are performed for the detection of the licensed user signal.
However, there exist some limitations on developing the cognitive radio front-end. The
wideband RF antenna receives signals from various transmitters operating at different power
levels, bandwidths, and locations.
As a result, the RF front-end should have the capability to detect a weak signal in a
large dynamic range. However, this capability requires a multi-GHz speed A/D converter
with high resolution. The requirement of a multi-GHz speed A/D converter necessitates the
dynamic range of the signal to be reduced before A/D conversion. This reduction can be
achieved by filtering strong signals. Since strong signals can be located anywhere in the wide
spectrum range, tunable notch filters are required for the reduction. Another approach is to
use multiple antennas such that signal filtering is performed in the spatial domain rather than
in the frequency domain. Multiple antennas can receive signals selectively using beam
forming techniques. The key challenge of the physical architecture of the cognitive radio is
an accurate detection of weak signals of licensed users over a wide spectrum range. Hence,
implementation of RF wideband front-end and A/D converter is critical issues in Cognitive
Radio Networks.
2.3 Need For Spectrum Allocation:
Spectrum allocation is necessary in order to ensure interference free operation for each
radio service. Each frequency band is shared amongst various radio services but the sharing
is possible only with the use of similar systems. Sharing is also possible by way of
geographical separation, time-sharing and through technical solutions like smart antenna and
intelligent radio system.
2.4 Spectrum Allotment Procedure:
In the case of licensed telecom service providers spectrum was initially allotted in
accordance with the relevant provisions of the service license agreements. However, due to
an exponential increase in the number of mobile subscribers additional spectrum is required
by the mobile operators. Serving a larger number of subscribers requires either a larger
amount of spectrum or an increase in the number of base stations. Therefore, additional
spectrum is required at some stage as a techno economic solution to meet the growth of
mobile services. Department of Telecommunications has evolved guidelines for the allotment
of extra spectrum, based on the justification and fulfillment of the prescribed criteria. The
subscriber-based criteria have been formulated taking into account demographic
characteristics of different categories of service areas, average traffic per subscriber, number
of base stations in a specified area etc. Spectrum is allotted subject to completion of
coordination and availability at a particular location.
As spectrum is a scarce resource, its equitable allotment for systems using different
technologies seems to be the solution. The government while formulating its spectrum policy
should try to create a flexible and technology neutral regime to allow new technologies equal
access to spectrum. It should also enable market mechanisms to promote efficient use of
spectrum by developing market incentives and differential pricing of spectrum in congested
areas. Also auctions or fixed fee access can ensure that spectrum owners will want to
minimize the quantum of spectrum. The government may also permit public and private users
to trade spectrum to allow new users access to spectrum.
2.5 Classification of Spectrum Sensing:
Implementation of Match Filter &
J.C.O.E.T. Yavatmal.
Fig.12
2.5.1. Cyclostationary Sensing
The most challenging task in the designing and implementation of cognitive radio is
spectrum sensing. By using spectrum sensing, cognitive radios can adapt themselves to the
eternal wireless spectrum environment. An effective method used for signal detection i
Cyclostationary sensing. A modulated radio signal is considered as a Cyclostationary process
and the statistical properties of a Cyclostationary process vary periodically over time. The
autocorrelation function is the cyclic processes with a periodicity
from the primary user as,
X (t) = s (t) + n (t)
Where n (t) represents additive white Gaussian noise, while s
then s (t) has some visible and distinct properties which can be exploited by sensing
Cyclostationary properties, for example
are: carrier frequency, modulation type, symb
the mean function of the received signal x (t), is a periodic signal
is expressed as the reciprocal of the carrier frequency. Spectral correlation and auto
correlation functions can be used to extract weak signals from noise.
2.5.2. Matched Filter:
When we have some prior knowledge about the primary users signal such
modulation scheme used, signal shape; then a matched filter becomes the
Transmitter
Detection
Cyclostati
onary
Matched
Filter
Energy
Detection
Fig.12. Classification of Spectrum Sensing
Sensing:
most challenging task in the designing and implementation of cognitive radio is
eternal wireless spectrum environment. An effective method used for signal detection i
autocorrelation function is the cyclic processes with a periodicity T. If we consider a signal
X (t) = s (t) + n (t)
e white Gaussian noise, while s (t) is the transmitted signal,
Cyclostationary properties, for example, by differentiating it from noise. These properties
are: carrier frequency, modulation type, symbol duration and so on. The autocorrelation and
the mean function of the received signal x (t), is a periodic signal with period T, where T
correlation functions can be used to extract weak signals from noise.
When we have some prior knowledge about the primary users signal such
modulation scheme used, signal shape; then a matched filter becomes the
Spectrum Sensing
Energy
Detection
Cooperative
Detection
Centralized
sensing
Decentralized
sensing
Interfer
e
Detectio
Interference Based Detection Method For
Page 25
most challenging task in the designing and implementation of cognitive radio is
eternal wireless spectrum environment. An effective method used for signal detection is
T. If we consider a signal
t) is the transmitted signal,
noise. These properties
correlation and
with period T, where T
When we have some prior knowledge about the primary users signal such as
modulation scheme used, signal shape; then a matched filter becomes the optimal
Interfer
e--nce
based
Detectio
n
choice for transmitter detection. This means if the pre knowledge of modulation scheme is
not correct, the matched filter will perform poorly therefore, correct prior knowledge
about the primary users signal has to be ensured.
2.5.3. Energy Detection:
The straight forward method for detecting unknown signals is energy detection. When
a primary user is assumed to be unknown to the secondary receiver detector, it will become
an energy detector, also referred to as radiometers. The energy of a received wave form can
be measured by squaring the output of band pass filter with a bandwidth W,
and then integrating the received power over a time interval T. The output of the integrator is
compared with a predefined threshold to determine presence or absence of primary user.
2.5.4. Cooperative Detection:
As the name suggests, cooperative detection implies there is some sense of cooperation i.e.
the sensing information is exchanged between neighbors in a network of cognitive radios. This
gives an obvious advantage, as information from a single secondary user might be
incorrect and it also alleviates multipath and shadowing effects. In cooperative
detection, information from many secondary users is incorporated to detect the primary user.
2.5.5. Centralized Sensing:
In the centralized sensing method, the secondary users base station gathers
sensing information from all available secondary users in range, to detect the presence of
spectrum holes in the network. The secondary users base station can instruct available
secondary users to undertake different measurements at different times so that different
actions can be taken at the same instant. An example of this might include some secondary
users might be measuring signal level on channel while others might be instructed to
measure signal level on adjacent channels to determine an alternative channel if change
becomes necessary.
2.5.6. Decentralized Sensing:
In decentralized sensing, the primary transmitter signal detects users
on the basis of their independent local observations. However, there are some limitations in
decentralized detection such as a higher level of decision making ability is required at each
radio and the cognitive radio network might have to be set up in a more ad hoc fashion.
Sensing functions and data transmissions can be colocated in a single user device. This
architecture is considered as suboptimal spectrum sensing because of conflicts between
sensing and data transmission. A wireless device cannot sense the medium and transmit at
the same instance, as co-locating sensing functions and data transmissions in a
single user device can hugely deteriorate data transport efficiency. To avoid these kinds
of problems, two networks are deployed separately, such as a sensing network for
cooperative spectrum management and an operational network for data transmission. A
sensing network will be deployed, which will sense the spectrum and gather radio spectrum
information. The operational network uses this information from maps created by the
sensing network and then determines the available spectrum for operation.
2.5.7. Interference Based Detection:
Interference is basically regulated and controlled at the transmitter side by minimizing
the necessary radiated power, thus reducing interference. However, interference actually
occurs at the receiver side, so a new technique for measuring interference has been
proposed by FCC, namely interference temperature. An interference temperature
model manages the interference at receiver by imposing interference temperature limits,
which is the extra amount of interference that can be tolerated by the receiver. Any un-
licensed transmission must not violate the interference temperature limit at the licensed
receivers to use the spectrum band. The interference temperature model has certain
limitations like: it considers the interference caused by single secondary user, not
multiple secondary users and it is unsuitable when secondary user is unaware of the
position of nearby primary users.
2.6 Objectives:
In this project we are Implementing Match Filter Detection and Interference
Detection Spectrum Sensing Method in Matlab Simulink, to determine the availability of
vacant spectrum of licensed band and features of spectrum, such as energy level, modulation
scheme, power spectral density, SNR level, CSD.
2.7 Summary
This Chapter reviews the techniques and algorithms developed and implemented for the
spectrum sensing for cognitive radios. Since the purpose of this work is to analyze the
transmitter detection techniques.
3.1 Tools Used for Interference Based Detection:
1. Subsystem(even and odd)
Represent system within another system
o Library
Ports & Subsystems
o Description
A Subsystem block represents a subsystem of the system that contains it. The
Subsystem block can represent a virtual subsystem or a nonvirtual subsystem. Theprimary
difference is that nonvirtual subsystems provide the ability. You can create conditionally
executed nonvirtual subsystems that are executed only when a transition occurs on a
triggering, function-call, action, or enabling input.
o Parameters and Dialog Box
3. Scope and Floating Scope:
Display signals generated during simulation
o Library
Sinks
o Description
The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope block
can have multiple axes(one per port) and all axes have a common time range with
independent y-axes. The Scope produces a point-to-point plot. If the signal is discrete, the
Scope produces a stair-step plot.
Selection of scope properties
4. Product:
Multiply and divide scalars and nonscalars or multiply and invert matrices
o Library
Math Operations
o Description
Default Product Block UseBy default, the Product block outputs the result of
multiplying two inputs: two scalars, ascalar and a nonscalar, or two nonscalars that have the
same dimensions.
5.Buffer:
Buffer input sequence to small or large frame size
o Library:
Signal management buffer
o Description:
The Buffer block always performs frame-based processing. The block redistributes
the data in each column of the input to produce an output with a different frame size.
Buffering a signal to a largerframe size yields an output with a slower frame rate than the
input. For example, consider the following illustration for scalar input.
6.Welch Filter:
Power spectral density or mean-square spectrum estimate using periodogram method
o Library
Estimation / Power Spectrum Estimation
o Description
The Periodogram block estimates the power spectral density (PSD)or mean square
spectrum (MSS) of the input.The block averages the squared magnitude of the FFT computed
overwindowed sections of the input. It then normalizes the spectral averageby the square of
the sum of the window samples. See Periodogram and Welch's Method in the Signal
Processing Toolbox documentationfor more information. The block treats M-by-N frame-
based matrix input.
7.Vector Scope:
Display vector or matrix of time-domain, frequency-domain, or user-defined data
o Library
Sinksdspsnks4
o Description
The Vector Scope block is a comprehensive display tool similarto a digital
oscilloscope. The block can display time-domain, frequency-domain,or user-defined signals.
You can use the Vector Scope block to plotconsecutive time samples from a vector, or to plot
vectors containingdata such as filter coefficients or spectral magnitudes. To computeand plot
the periodogram of a signal with a single block, use the SpectrumScope block.
3.2 Tools Used For Matched Filter Detection:
1.Bernoulli Binary Generator:
Generate Bernoulli-distributed random binary numbers
o Library
Random Data Sources sub library of Common Sources
o Description:
The Bernoulli Binary Generator block generates random binary numbers using
aBernoulli distribution. The Bernoulli distribution with parameter p produces zero
withprobability p and one with probability 1-p. The Bernoulli distribution has mean value 1-
pand variance p (1-p). The Probability of a zero parameter specifies p, and can be any real
number between zero and one.
1.1 Attributes of Output Signal:
The output signal can be a frame-based matrix, a sample-based row or column vector,
or a sample-based one-dimensional array.
2. AWGN Channel:
Add white Gaussian noise to input signal
o Library
Channels
o Description:
The AWGN Channel block adds white Gaussian noise to a real or complex input
signal. When the input signal is real, this block adds real Gaussian noise and produces a real
output signal. When the input signal is complex, this block adds complex Gaussian noise and
produces a complex output signal. This block inherits its sample time from the input signal.
3. Discrete Time Eye Diagram Scope:
Display multiple traces of modulated signal
o Library
Comm Sinks
o Description:
The Discrete-Time Eye Diagram Scope block displays multiple traces of a modulated
signal to produce an eye diagram. You can use the block to reveal the modulation
characteristics of the signal, such as pulse shaping or channel distortions.
3.2.1 Simulink:
Simulink is a graphical programming interface included as part of the MATLAB
simulation package. The package provides an interface with the USRP2s allowing for the
rapid development of SDR prototypes. Initially, the Simulink interface for the USRP2 was
based on a wrapper for GNU Radio that would allow the user to take advantage of existing
Simulink functionality to prototype with real hardware .Future revisions of the Simulink
software would replace this GNU Radio wrapper with proprietary modules, improving the
versatility of the interface while maintaining the advantage of access to existing MATLAB
and Simulink functionality. Simulink also provides a powerful platform for calculations, and
its Instrument Control Toolbox provides the ability to easily send data between network
linked computers. The calculation capabilities of Simulink are a subset of those provided by
MATLAB, with the addition of some graphically configurable communications specific
functions. Simulink gives facility to design model based design of any system.
3.2.2 Model-Based Design:
Model-Based Design is a process that enables faster, more cost-effective development
of dynamic systems, including control systems, signal processing, and communication
systems. In Model-Based Design, a system model is at the center of the development process,
from requirements development, through design, implementation, and testing. The model is
an executable specification that is continually refined throughout the development process.
After model development, simulation shows whether the model works correctly.
3.2.3 Model-Based Design allows you to improve efficiency by:
Using a common design environment across project teams
Linking designs directly to requirements
Integrating testing with design to continuously identify and correct errors
Refining algorithms through multi domain simulation
Automatically generating embedded software code
Developing and reusing test suites
Automatically generating documentation
3.2.4 How to add new model in Simulink:
Fig.3.2.4:- How to Create New Model in Matlab
3.2.5 How to add blocks from Simulink library
Fig.3.2.5 :- Simulink Library Browser
4. SYSTEM IMPLIMENTATION
4. A Match Filter Implementation:
4.1 Definition:
Optimal filter essentially matches the received signal with the message signal is called
matched filter or correlate or For an input signal, x(t), the output of the filter matched to s(t)
is identical at time T only to the output of a correlateor performing the integration of the
x(t)*s(t) over the duration of the symbol T.
(1)
Matched filtering is a spectrum sensing method that is designed to improve signal
reception by increasing the Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (SNR). The SNR is the ratio of the signals
power to the power of the noise. This ratio is a good metric that can be used to determine the
reliability of signal reception. A signal is much easier to receive if it has a high SNR. A high
SNR indicates the strength of the signal relative to noise. When a radio signal is transmitted it
is filtered using a modulation scheme. The filtering makes the signal more recognizable to a
receiver and insures that it cant be decoded without prior knowledge of modulation scheme
used by the transmitter. Matched filtering is very similar to demodulating a signal.
Demodulation is a process of filtering a received signal in the same way it was filtered by the
transmitter to recover as much of the transmitted data as possible. When a signal is
demodulated with its correct modulation scheme the output of the correct modulator
resembles data more than the output of an incorrect modulation scheme.
4.2Advantages:
Matched filter detection needs less detection time because it requires only O (1/SNR)
samples to meet a given probability of detection constraint. When the information of the
primary user signal is known to the cognitive radio user, matched filter detection is optimal
detection in stationary Gaussian noise.
Matched Filter Detection:
When primary user signal information, such as modulation type, pulse shape, packet
format, etc., is known to a cognitive radio, the optimal detector in stationary Gaussian noise
is the matched filter since it maximizes the received SNR. The matched filter works by
correlating a known signal, or template, with an unknown signal to detect the presence of the
template in the unknown signal provides a graphical representation of this process. Because
most wireless network systems have pilots, preambles, synchronization word, or spreading
codes, these can be used for coherent (matched filter) detection. A big plus in favor of the
matched filter is that it requires less time to achieve a high processing gain due to coherency.
The main shortcoming of the matched filter is that it requires a priori knowledge of the
primary user signal which in a real world situation may not be available.
Flowchart of Matched Filter:
4.B System Implementation For Matched Filter:
Add pulse signal and noise signal
Input Gaussian noise
Matched filter
stop
y
e
If signal overlap
Primary user present
Secondary user and primary user present
start
Input signal 1 (primary user)
Convert input signal into pulse form
No
Yes
stop
Fig.4.B. Simulink Model For Matched Filter.
5.3.2Subsystem model(Matched Filter):
QPSK modulated Input signal scope 3
Fig 3- I/p Gaussian noise scope 4
4. B Interference Implementation:
The cognitive users must be aware of the interference generated at primary receivers.
Depending on the level of the generated interference, the performance of the primary system
can be negatively affected. Therefore, the harmful interference should be controlled by the
secondary users using different techniques and taking into account the effects of the
propagation channel. As the performance of the primary system must fulfill always the
requirements of the policies and regulatory bodies, the interference management in cognitive
systems has become an important issue. The interference management tries to avoid the
harmful interference in the primary system by using quantitative criteria and performance
criteria of the coexistence between the licensed and unlicensed systems.
The interference generated among unlicensed users, when they are sharing the same
resources, must be managed as well. In this section some techniques are given for sharing
resources among cognitive users. Different quantitative criteria in order to manage the
produced interference and to quantify the level of harmful interference at the primary system,
are presented some typical and recent performance criteria are also presented. The
interference temperature model, which has been studied thoroughly. Finally, some techniques
to know approximately the location of the primary receivers, to apply successfully the
interference temperature technique.
Fig 5.4(a):-Interference Caused By Shadowing Uncertainty
4.1Opportunistic Spectrum Access (OSA):
The current use of the radio frequency spectrum is pushing researchers and designers
to use higher frequencies with more demanding propagation properties. Since the licensed
frequencies are not used all the time, the use of this unused spectrum will be interesting for
secondary unlicensed users. Therefore, when there exists some access opportunity in the
spectrum resources of the licensed system, the cognitive users should be able to use it. Thus,
in cognitive radio the term Opportunistic Spectrum Access (OSA) is adopted.
This solution can be defined as the technique which allows cognitive radio users to
share the licensed spectrum in space and time, whether the licensed users are using the
spectrum or not, since the constraints can be based on generated interference .In this
approach it is possible to find at least three basic components called spectrum opportunity
identification, spectrum opportunity exploitation and regulatory policy .These different
components will be described below. A channel opportunity can be figure out as the
opportunity of the secondary users to transmit when a channel is not being used by primary
users. In other words, take advantage of the spectrum holes .Indeed, when the primary and
secondary users are geographically distributed over some area, the spectrum opportunities
can be also identified when some pair of secondary users can transmit successfully without
causing harmful interference at the primary users. Whether the primary signal is present or
not? Thus, the secondary network should be able to identify where and when it is possible to
transmit respecting interference thresholds at the primary system given by the regulatory
policy.
In Figure 5.1, A and B denote a transmitter and a receiver of the secondary system
respectively. The straight radius is the minimum distance between the secondary transmitter
and any primary receiver to avoid interference. If the primary receiver is out of this radius,
the produced interference in the primary node is allowed. In fact, this radius depends on the
power transmitted by the secondary transmitters and the interference margin of the primary
receivers. On the other hand, the dotted radius is the required distance between a secondary
receiver and a primary transmitter for a some interference level at the secondary receivers.
When there is some primary transmitter inside this radius, the interference produced in the
secondary receiver is higher than the allowed one at this node. In this case, this last radius
depends on the power transmitted by primary users and on the interference margin of the
secondary receivers. The spectrum opportunity is defined in any specific pair of secondary
users (secondary transmitter and receiver). Hence, the failed communications among
secondary users because of collisions among them are still considered as access opportunity.
Multicast and broadcast opportunities are still an open issue. In order to avoid the loss of
performance below limits established by the regulatory policies, some threshold parameters
are defined. This means that in these scenarios can be defined as the maximum interference
level allowed by a primary receiver.
Figure: Primary and secondary transmitter receiver.
Figure shows the dotted line in the figure shows the required distance between the
secondary receiver and some primary transmitters rSR to fulfill with some allowed
interference level. The straight line shows the minimum distance between the secondary
transmitters and the primary receivers rPR to achieve some allowed interference level at
these receivers.
When the level of interference is higher than this threshold, the harmful interference
at the primary system coming from the secondary system occurs. Since the sensing
algorithms used to detect the presence of the primary signals are not completely reliable, it is
necessary to define another parameter to quantify this probability of error. The parameter is
then the maximum allowed probability of error detecting the presence of the primary signal.
This is directly related to the probability of miss detection (PMD) and the probability of false
alarm (PFA). Inside the radius where the transmission is not allowed for the secondary
transmitters, the probability of miss detection will be considered as probability of error. In
order to achieve transmissions without any interference problems between a pair of
secondary nodes (transmitter and receiver), the receiver should detect the presence of primary
transmitters, and the transmitter should detect the presence of primary receivers.
All of this following the approach shown in Figure. Each cognitive radio user, assuming its
current operation status (as a transmitter/receiver), should detect the presence of primary
users who can interfere or can be interfered with. Currently, there is no simple solution to the
problem of locating primary users, but it is possible to find some solutions in literature. A
simple way to suspect the presence of the primary receivers is explained. In other words, the
technique transforms the problem of detecting primary receivers into detecting the presence
of primary transmitters in distances higher or equal to rpcov +rPR. The parameter rpcov
defines the coverage radius of the primary transmitter.
Figure: Proposed scenario for the detection problem of the primary receivers.
The technique changes the problem of detecting primary receivers into detecting the presence
of primary transmitters within distances higher or equal to rpcov + rPR. The rpcov defines the
coverage radius of the primary transmitters and rPR the distance of the unlicensed
transmitters to avoid the interference at the licensed receivers and rPR is the radius of the
interference range of the secondary transmitters to avoid interference with the licensed
receivers. This technique is based on the idea that if the coverage radius of the primary
transmitter is inside the interference range of the secondary transmitter, the presence of the
primary receivers is probable. Indeed, within the area calculated with this technique, in some
cases there will not be primary receivers. So that, in this case one transmission opportunity is
lost and it leads to overlooked opportunities. Since the cognitive devices are not able to sense
all the N channels at the same time due to hardware limitations, a sensing strategy for
intelligent channel selection is necessary to track the quick variation of spectrum
opportunities. This strategy should be able to find a free channel to immediate access and
obtain some statistical information, in order to use it in the future to make decisions about the
spectrum occupancy The optimal sensing strategy is based on some sequential decision, by
making the best tradeoff between the gaining immediate access in the current temporal slot
and the gaining information about the future states of the system. For instance, in can be
found a technique which introduces a simple and computationally efficient spectrum sensing
scheme for OFDM in Cognitive Radio. It uses a sequential detection (SD) scheme where
many secondary users cooperate to detect the same primary user proposed a design of
optimal sensing strategies within the framework of Partially Observable Markov Decision
Process (POMDP).Commonly, the used spectrum sensing techniques do not offer a total
reliability. Hence, the access strategy should depend as well on how much and when the
secondary users should trust in the sensing device. In this case, it is important to take into
account its receiver operation characteristic (ROC) A tradeoff between minimizing
overlooked spectrum opportunities and avoiding the collisions with primary users should be
made.
The detector can work with two different approaches, conservative or aggressive,
depending on the probability of miss detection (PMD) and false alarm (PFA). When PMD is
higher than PFA, the system is working in a conservative way to avoid the collisions with the
primary system. On the other hand, if the PFA is higher than PMD, the system is working in
an aggressive way which is suitable to reduce the number of overlooked spectrum
opportunities. It is proved that the optimal performance point of the sensing detector is when
it is working in the transition point between the conservative and aggressive region. This
point is achieved when the device trusts directly in the decision of the detector. Therefore, the
device should access the licensed resource just if the channel is detected to be available.
When the secondary users detect the spectrum opportunity, it is necessary to
knowhow to exploit this opportunity, in other words, which modulation, transmission power
and which sharing technique among secondary users should be used. For instance, in an
OFDM cognitive system, the subcarriers spacing and symbol intervals need to be equal to the
spectral and temporal duration of the spectrum opportunity. Adjacent subcarriers to channels
occupied by primary users may be null or allocated with low power to achieve the
interference constraints. Hence, power control plays an important role in terms of
interference management. Once the secondary users are able to transmit individually without
causing harmful interference at the primary receivers, the secondary users must avoid
collisions with one another.
Fig 5.4(b):-Trade-off between Missed Detections and False Alarms.
Flow Chart of Interference:
J.C.O.E.T. Yavatmal Page 47
4. C System Implementation for Interference:-
Figure: Interference Model
Subsystem of Interference Method:
Subsystem for QPSK Modulator:
Input Scope 1:
Input Scope 2:
OUTPUT PRODUCT SCOPE 3
Matched Filter Result:
Result:
After introducing noise signal, in transmitter input signal, at output side of
matched filter we observed that signal are continuously varying with respect to time. At
particular time both signals are consider means, both users are present.
Interference Output Result:
Result:
After taking product of two input signal, interference of two signal has been
created and from graphical analysis ,it observed that after interference ,power of signal
increases (that is 0.005to 0.55)as compare to original signal (that is 0.05 to 0.25)and
hence this method is useful for sensing primary user status in spectrum.
5.1 COMPARISON:
5.1.1 Match Filter:
1. Matched filter requires a priori knowledge of the primary user signal such as the
modulation type and order, the pulse shape, and the packet format.
2. The matched filters that it requires less time to achieve high processing gain due
to coherency.
3. It is difficult for a cognitive radio to have a direct measurement of a channel
between a primary receiver and a transmitter.
4. It is transmitter-based detection spectrum sensing technique.
5.1.2 Interference:
1. Interference is typically regulated in a transmitter-centric way, which means
interference can be controlled at the transmitter through the radiated power the
out-of-band emissions and location of individual transmitters.
2. It is interference-based detection spectrum sensing technique.
3. As additional interfering signals appear the noise floor increases at various points
within the service area as indicated by the peaks above the original noise floor.
4. The interference is defined as the expected fraction of primary users with service
disrupted by the secondary operations.
5. This method considers factors such as the type of unlicensed signal modulation,
antennas, ability to detect active licensed channels, power control and activity
levels of the licensed and unlicensed users.
6. The sensor nodes detect the leakage Low power to determine the channel used by
the primary receiver and this information is used by the unlicensed users to
determine the operation spectrum.
Conclusion:
As the demand of radio spectrum increases in past few years and licensed bands
are used inefficiently, improvement in the existing spectrum access policy is expected.
Dynamic spectrum access is imagine to resolve the spectrum shortage by allowing
unlicensed users to dynamically utilize spectrum holes across the licensed spectrum on
non interfering basis.
This research was aimed towards the detection and classification of primary users
waveform in cognitive radio networks. The primary requirement of a spectrum sensing
system is its real time processing and decision making. The proposed methodology has
been implemented on a desktop PC and requires MATLAB support for simulation.
Finally it is concluded that, in implementation of spectrum sensing by using
Matched Filter & Interference Method, we can easily detect users as well as observed
visually response of both method but every detection technique has an SNR threshold
below which it will fail to operate robustly. So by using the results of different techniques
at the same time better results can be obtained.
7.1 FUTURE WORK:
Most of the research on spectrum sensing is mainly focused on reliable sensing to
meet the regulatory requirements. One of the important areas for the research is to focus
on user level cooperation among cognitive radios and system level cooperation among
different cognitive radio networks to overcome the noise level uncertainties. In this work,
the noise level uncertainties are catered by a proper combination of spectrum sensing
techniques.
Another area for research is cross layer communication in which spectrum sensing
and higher layer functionalities can help in improving quality of service (QOS).
Many different areas of the design and implementation of the project suered from
a lack of computational power. The sensing system suered from a lack of speed during
early testing as the computers were slow to perform complicated procedures in Simulink.
Future work on this project should consider dedicated computers or hardware in the
design.
References
1. Juan-Andres Bazerque and Georgios B. Giannakis Distributed Spectrum
Sensing for Cognitive Radios by Exploiting Sparsity University of
Minnesota,{bazer002,georgios}@umn.edu.
2. Arumugam Nallanathan London, Improved Cooperative Spectrum Sensing
in Cognitive Radio United Kingdom,arumugam.nallanathan@kcl.ac.uk.
3. Hemalatha.M1, Prithviraj.V2,Jayalalitha.S3, Thenmozhi.K3,Bharadwaj.D4
Girish G.Koundinya5 A Survey Report On Spectrum Sensing Techniques In
Cognitive Radio, hemalatha@it.sastra.edu,
4. Jie Dong, Haiyang Liu, Xi Wu Spectrum Sensing Techniques in Practical
Cognitive Radio Applications, {dongjie, liuhaiyang, wuxi}@srrc.com.cn .
5. Tevfik Yucek and Huseyin Arslan A Survey of Spectrum Sensing
Algorithms for Cognitive Radio Applications.
6. Zhi Quan, Student Member, IEEE, Shuguang Cui, Member, IEEE, and Ali H.
Sayed, Fellow, IEEE Optimal Linear Cooperation for Spectrum Sensing in
Cognitive Radio Networks.
7. Alberto Rabbachin, Member, IEEE, Tony Q.S. Quek, Member, IEEE,
Hyundong Shin, Member, IEEE, and Moe Z. Win, Fellow, IEEE Cognitive
Network Interference.
8. Afef Ben Hadj Alaya-Feki, Sana Ben Jemaa, Berna Sayrac, Paul Houze Eric
Moulines Informed spectrum usage in cognitive radio networks: Interference
cartography eric.moulines@enst.fr.
9. X. Hong, C.-X.Wang, H.-H. Chen, and Y. Zhang, Secondary spectrum
access networks: spatial modeling and system design, IEEE Vehi. Technol.
Mag., accepted for publication, 2009.
10. N. Devroye, P. Mitran, et al., "Limits on communications in a cognitive radio
channel," IEEE Communications Magazine, Vol.44, No.6, pp. 44-49, 2006.
11. X. Hong, Z. Chen, C.-X.Wang, S. A. Vorobyov, and J. S. Thompson
Interference cancellation for cognitive radio networks, IEEE Vehi.
Technol. Mag submitted for publication.
12. John C. Bancroft Introduction to matched filters.
13. C.-X. Wang, X. Hong, H.-H. Chen, J. S. Thompson, On capacity of
cognitive radio networks under average interference power constraints,
IEEE Trans. Wireless Communication., revised version submitted for
publication.
14. Mansi Subhedar1 and Gajanan Birajdar2Spectrum Sensing Techniques In
Cognitive Radio Networks: A Survey, mansi_subhedar@rediffmail.com1.
15. T.H.N. Velivasaki, T.V. Zahariadis, P.T. Trakadas, C.N. Capsalis
Interference Analysis of Cognitive Radio Networks in a Digital Broadcasting
Spectrum Environment ccaps@central.ntua.gr.
16. Ahmed Shaik, Haixiao Weng, Xiaopeng Dong, Todd H. Hubing and Daryl G.
Beetner Matched Filter Detection and Identification of Electronic Circuits
Based on their Unintentional Radiated Emissions University of Missouri-
Rolla.
17. Jarmo Lundn Spectrum Sensing For Cognitive Radio And Radar Systems
Mirja.Lemetyinen@Tkk.Fi
18. M. A. R. Eltokhy Analog Matched Filter Circuit For DS-CDMA Wireless
Applications Helwan University.
19. Ivan Pardina Garcia, Interference Management in CR s/m, Chapter 5.

Introduction

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Implementation of Match Filter & Interference Based Detection Method For

Spectrum Sensing In Cognitive Radio.

You might also like