Factors That Affect Learning

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Factors that Affect Learning

In Latin American and Asian Cultures
TESL Program
Carson-Newman College
Fall 2010

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING 2

ABSTRACT

School systems in the United States tend to reflect traditional
Anglo-Saxon values and are not culturally sensitive to the
values and multiple factors that affect student learning. The
purpose of this paper is to educate teachers about the cultural
values and factors that affect the learning of Latin American
and Asian students. Furthermore, the paper presents research
that shows ways students from these cultures learn best and
provides suggestions for teaching to preferred learning styles.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING IN
LATIN AMERICAN AND ASIAN CULTURES

Minority children are placed disproportionately in special education programs
with an overrepresentation of Asian students in gifted programs (Garguilo, 2009).

Latin American students and American students receive different lessons in the
classroom by the same instruction because the expectations and the interactions between
the students and teachers promote different school cultures. Studies show that Latino
students receive academically less competitive classes than other students, especially in
middle school and high school (Portales, 2005).

The United States encompasses a diverse population of people and immigrants
from all parts of the world. While our society claims to be culturally pluralistic, our
schools lack to reflect this ideal. From the facts and observations above, one observes
that our public school systems are not effectively serving culturally diverse students.
Schools are shaped by cultural practices and values and reflects the norms of the
society for which they have been developed (Hollins, 2008). American schools were
built on the Anglo-Saxon practices of Protestantism, capitalism, and republicanism. They
reflect the American values of democracy, freedom, equality, justice, human rights,
competition, and success. Competition and success are based on an individuals
achievement (Hollins, 2008). Since our schools are shaped by these practices and values,
the styles of teaching and learning reflect these values. However, are these teaching and
learning styles effective for enriching the education of students with opposing values
such as cooperation and collectivism?
Teachers have no choice but to inquire into each students unique culture and
learning history, to determine what instructional materials might best be used, and
to determine when a students cultural and life experiences are compatible, or
potentially incompatible, with instruction. To do less is to build emotional blocks

to communication in an already complicated instructional situation. -Berliner,
1986, p. 29 (Hollins, 2008).

The purpose of this paper is to inform teachers in United States school systems
about the cultural values and factors that affect the learning of Latin Americans and
Asians. Additionally, literature research and the results of an independent study discuss
popular learning styles that might identify with each culture and its values. Some
suggestions for teaching to culturally popular learning styles are provided to assist
teachers in catering lessons toward Latinos and/or Asians.
CULTURAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT LEARNING
Before discussing cultural values as they relate to learning, one must be aware of
some cultural factors that affect learning. Dr. Christine Bennett concluded that there are
five cultural factors that might influence learning: (1) childhood socialization, (2)
sociocultural tightness, (3) ecological adaptation, (4) biological effects, and (5) language
(Irvine, 1995).
Childhood socialization refers the common child-rearing practices of a culture.
The ways in which the caretakers in a culture raise their children influences the childrens
developmental skills. For example, Bennett found that African Americans might have
better motor proficiency skills because African American mothers tend to have more
physical contact with the babies than Euro-American mothers.
Sociocultural tightness is determined by whether a culture is a high-context or
low-context culture. High-context cultures regard time in a polychronic format, which
means schedules are based around people and events. People in these cultures gain

knowledge using intuition and spiral logic. Low-context cultures see time as linear with
tight schedules. Knowledge is believed to be gained through analytical reasoning.
The environments of particular cultures require the people to acquire skills or to
adapt in order to survive. This describes ecological adaptation. The environment may
include geography or social settings. Some environments lead to skills that are
beneficial. For example, Native Americans may have better perceptual skills because
they have been taught to recognize their families herds from a distance and to interpret
signs of dangerous weather and approaching predators. On the other hand, harmful
environments, such as impoverished areas, create problems that can be learning deficits
for children.
Biological effects like genetics, brain development, and physical development
impact how an individual processes information. Some scientists believe that persons
from different ethnicities or cultures have specific cognitive characteristics. Scientists
Pasteur and Toldson believe that Whites are more likely to be left-brain dominant and
African Americans are more right-brain dominant (Irvine, 1995). Although this can be
seen as stereotyping race, biological factors such as a persons hereditable traits should be
considered when perceiving a persons learning style.
Finally, a persons language influences how a person learns, especially with a
second language. Language reflects the worldviews, the thought processes, and the
lifestyles of its people (DeCapua, 2004). The values of the culture are expressed
through language, whether it be communicated nonverbally or spoken in the words of the
cultures primary language. Hence, ones native language shapes how a person thinks
and perceives knowledge.

HISPANIC CULTURE
The values of Latin America are influenced by an Ibero-Catholic culture; that is
the culture established by Spanish Catholics (Harrison, 1998). The overall values of the
Latin American culture are best described by the Chadwick Center on
www.chadwickcenter.org. It defines eight set values: familismo, children, marianismo,
machismo, personalismo, respeto, simpatia, and religion/spirituality. Familismo is the
value that upholds family as the most important people group, and in some households,
children are treated with a lot of love and affection. Marianismo is the emphasis on
women to follow the Virgin Marys example in living a pure life. The women are to
follow the Virgin Marys example in being spiritually strong, morally superior,
nurturing, and self-sacrificing Her role is to role is to keep the house, rear the children,
and serve and take orders from her husband. Machismo refers to male dominance and
the role of the man to have responsibility in providing, protecting, and defending his
family. Respeto means respecting others, especially higher authorities. Latinos always
try to act with simpatia, or kindness, by being polite and pleasant towards others and by
avoiding any conflict. Lastly, religion and spirituality sets the rules for leading life; all
values are held together by their faith, which is predominantly rooted in Catholic beliefs.
Childhood Socialization
The values of family, personal relationships, respect, and trust and the sex-role
distinctions are reflected in Hispanic families childhood rearing practices. The father is
the head of the household, who is to be obeyed and respected. Latin American families
may differ in parenting styles; some might be more authoritarian and others may be more
permissive. However, most reviews describe parent-child relationships as warm and

nurturing (J ulian, 1994). In fact, Hispanic parents generally nurture their children longer
than Anglo-Saxon Americans. Children in the deeply rooted Anglo-Saxon value-based
American school systems are expected to be self-reliant and independent by the fourth or
fifth grade. However, Hispanic parents do not rear their children to be self-reliant until
about the sixth or seventh grade (Portales, 2005).
The results from a survey conducted by J ulian, McKenry, and McKelvey show
that Hispanic parents are more concerned with their children obeying, getting along with
others, and exhibiting self-control rather than performing well in school and
demonstrating creativity (1994). This data reflects the belief that socialization is more
important than independent success as defined by traditional Anglo-Saxon standards.
Additionally, Hispanic parents are less likely than Anglo parents to encourage self-
dependence and analytic skills (Irvine, 1995).
Sociocultural Tightness
Hispanic parents do no encourage analytic skills because Hispanic culture is a
high-context culture. They believe that knowledge is gained through spiral logic and
intuition. Time is viewed in relation to events, and schedules are loose. Present time has
a higher importance than future time, and Latinos focus more on meeting present needs
rather than long-term goals. Activities move at a relaxed pace without time constraints
(Enriquez).
Latinos tend to discourse in a higher context by expressing what they want to say
without many details or talking around the main point. The message is implied and is to
be understood through nonverbal behaviors and the understanding of cultural knowledge,
values, and background (DeCapua, 2004). High context communication is especially

used in confrontation; they try their best to maintain kindness (simpatia) and friendship
while confronting another about a certain argumentative matter.
Ecological Adaptation
Many social environment factors place young Latin Americans at risk for not
receiving a good education or dropping out of school. According to the World Banks
report from 2005, 8.2% of Latin Americans live on $1.25 a day and 17.1% live on $2 per
day. This extreme poverty hinders the learning of Latino students. Most Latin American
youth claim that they leave school because they have to get a job to help support
themselves and their family. A number of students also report that they do not have
enough money to buy school supplies or to pay for transportation.
Latin American countries lack schools that provide quality education to students.
A high percentage of Mexican females (40%) drop out of school because they do not feel
like they are getting a good education. Students from other countries, like Honduras and
Peru, state that schools are not equipping them with the necessary skills to obtain a good
job (Cunningham, 2008).
Biological Factors
In addition to environmental factors, many biological factors can affect the
learning and intelligence of Latinos. Since most Latin American countries are
underdeveloped and have high poverty rates, children probably do not receive the proper
nutrition and medical attention that they need. Furthermore, the mothers may not receive
prenatal care and good nutrition that can cause low birth rates or other problems that can
lead to mental retardation (Dunlap, 1997).


Language
Spanish is the official language in most Latin American countries. It originated in
Spain from the Vulgar Latin language. The language was introduced to the Americas
during the Spanish conquest that began in the 1400s (Accredited Language Services).
Like English, it is one of the romance languages that uses the Roman alphabet. Spanish
is syllable-stressed, and the intonation is similar to that of English (Avery, 2005).
Although many Latin Americans speak Spanish, Latinos from different countries
speak different dialects that are influenced by indigenous languages. Hundreds of these
languages are still spoken today. In fact, some who speak indigenous languages speak
solely the tribal language and no Spanish at all. However, many of these languages do
not have written literature and are endangered of becoming extinct (The Archive of
Indigenous Languages of Latin America).
ASIAN CULTURE
China, J apan, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Hong-Kong, and Singapore are countries
identified with having Confucian heritage cultures (Mariani). Confucianism believes
that theres a continuous, life-long learning process of becoming human and realizing
ones full human potential. Although it defines learning as learning for the sake of the
self, it emphasizes community with the individual being the center of relationships
(Wei-ming). A person relates to another with respect to age, seniority, rank and family
background, so authority figures, including teachers, and elders are highly respected
(Mariani). The main values of Confucian cultures include family over the individual,
self-control to achieve goals, and cultural appreciation (J ulian, 1994).


Childhood Socialization
Traditional Asian families teach children to be committed, dutiful, and self-
sacrificial to elders. The oldest son usually receives the family inheritance; therefore,
sex-roles are a key factor in childhood rearing practices as well.
Some researchers have found that the value systems of some Asian families are
similar to those of Middle Class Anglo-Saxon Americans. These families value hard
work, conformation, and cohesion within the family. However, other researchers, Lin
and Fu, say that Chinese parents are more controlling of their children than Caucasian
parents, and they push their children harder to achieve and to become independent
(J ulian, 1994).
Social-cultural Tightness
Like Latin Americans, Asians typically live in a high-context culture. Therefore,
Asians do not directly communicate by completely expressing themselves with words
rather they equally rely on gestures, body language, eye contact, pitch, intonation, word
stress, and the use of silence to communicate messages. It is considered impolite to ask
very direct questions or give direct answers (Carteret, 2009). Asians value politeness and
maintaining face. Face can be best described as reflecting ones pride, dignity, honor,
and self-esteem while maintaining group harmony and togetherness. Loss of face results
in shame and embarrassment for the individual and the group as a whole (DeCapua,
2004).
Being in a high-context culture, Asians follow a polychronic time format and
view time as something that cannot be controlled. Time is not seen as linear, rather many

events may be happening at one time. Asians might show up late for appointments or
meetings. On the other hand, the J apanese have a reputation for being very punctual
(Carteret, 2009).
Ecological Adaptation
The natural environment of native countries may have an effect on the cultural
values of Asian students. Some of the geographical regions, like the high mountains and
large seas in and around China and J apan, can influence cultural tightness. These
surroundings isolate the cultures from other cultures around them and reduce any outside
influence on cultural values and beliefs. These cultures have certain rules and
expectations of what is normal, and there are consequences for cultural deviation
(Triandis, 2002).
Confucian Asia consists of some of the worlds leading countries in terms of
academics (Adams, 2002). The high quality of academia may be related to the countries
economic statuses. J apan is quickly becoming the most economically advanced country
in the world. China has been a rapidly developing economy since the 1980s. Other
newly industrialized countries like South Korea and Taiwan continue to positively
develop (Lee, 2005).
High economic growth leads to more job opportunities and greater incomes for
the head of the household. Since the family patriarchs receive good incomes, they are
able to support their families without other members of the household entering the
workforce (Morris, 2006). Therefore, in contrast to most Hispanic families, most Asian
youth do not drop out of school to help support their families.

Developing economies create more competitive jobs. For example, college
graduates in the Republic of China have to heavily compete to get good jobs upon
graduation. Hence, many Asians stay in school for long periods of time to receive the
training and skills they believe they need for the work force (Morris, 2006).
Biological Factors
Research has shown that East Asians have higher IQs than people from other
parts of the world. The data from survey conducted in 1991 by Lynn shows that East
Asians have an average IQ of 103 followed by European and American Caucasians with
IQs of 100. While IQ tests may be culturally biased, J ensen suggests that intelligence is
heritable, and therefore, Asians are naturally apt to learn. However, some
environmentalists suggest that other factors may contribute to high intelligence such as
the quality of education and nutrition (Irvine, 1995).
Language
Chinese is the most popular spoken and written language in the world. Its writing
system is the oldest manuscript. Chinese characters have influenced the spoken and
written languages of other Confucian languages such as Korean, J apanese, and
Vietnamese (Eastasianculture.com). Different variations of Chinese are spoken
throughout China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore. Chinese is a tonal language,
which means the change in pitch can change the meaning of a word (Avery, 1992).
In some East Asian languages, there exist specific words that describe attitudes
toward education. For instance, the J apanese have a word, seishin, that describes the
attitude that helps one tackle a task. Gambaru, another J apanese word, refers to the
positive thought that motivates one to persevere in order to gain positive intrinsic

rewards. The Chinese also have a term pronounced hae-xue-xin that may be defined as
ones desire to learn. In a study conducted by J in Li, this Chinese term was understood
and recognized by 92 percent of Chinese students ages 10-18 (Li, 2001).
LEARNING STYLES
According to research, Hispanics tend to be field dependent learners. This means
that in the classroom, they usually prefer group learning activities opposed to individual
exercises, and they freely share objects and information with each other. They are
extrinsically motivated and are sensitive to others praise and remarks. They prefer
visual representations and remember content as it relates to people and the social context.
In addition, they learn by doing (Irvine, 1995).
Since Asians highly value collectivism and cooperation yet still hold an individual
outlook, Asians are probably more field dependent learners but can be field independent
as well. For example, Chinese children spend a lot of time memorizing and copying new
words and short stories. This kind of memorizing requires individual practice and shows
intrinsic motivation. However, Asian students are still perceived to be dependent upon
the teacher (Mariani). Research has shown that most students from Asian countries are
also visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic learners (Reid, 1987).
Learning Styles Survey
An additional independent study was conducted to determine whether the above
research regarding Latino and Asian cultural learning preferences was accurate. To
conduct this study, 13 Latin Americans and 9 Asians took a learning style preference
questionnaire designed by J oy Reid (Appendix 1). The questionnaire included 30
statements with which the students had to strongly agree, agree, be undecided, disagree,

or strongly disagree. Each item was numerically scored and identified with one of six
learning styles: visual, tactile, auditory, kinesthetic, group, and individual. The
questionnaires were taken individually by each individual either on paper or on the
computer.
Each item accumulates points for its distinctive category. If the responder marks
strongly agree, the item receives five points; agree, four points; undecided, three points;
disagree, two points; and strongly disagree, one point. Each learning style category has
five items. After scoring all five items in a learning style category, the items are added
up and multiplied by two in order to calculate the total score for the learning style. The
maximum score that a learning style can receive is 50. Scores of 38-50 indicate a major
learning style preference; 25-37 a minor learning style preference; and 0-24 a negligible
learning style (Reid, 1984).
The Latin American subjects included 4 males and 9 females. Three males and
four females are from Mexico, two females are from Guatemala, one female is from
Honduras, one male is from Nicaragua, one female is from Uruguay, and one female is
from Argentina. All of them are Spanish speaking. A couple of Mexican females speak
indigenous languages such as Tarascan and Ztosil. The ages range from 12-25 with the
majority being in middle school and high school and a few with high school diplomas or
some college education.
The Asian subjects included 5 males and 5 females. Two males and one female
are from Korea, one male and one female are from China, one male and two females are
from Taiwan, and one male and one female are from J apan. The subjects from China and
Taiwan speak Chinese; one Taiwanese female speaks Taiwanese. All of the Koreans

speak Korean, and the J apanese speak J apanese. The ages range from 19-26, and all are
college undergraduate or graduate students.

Figure 1. Overall Collected Data from Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

Results
By comparing the overall data of Latin American and Asian groups, one can tell
that there isnt a large discrepancy among the average learning styles of Latin Americans
and Asians respectively. Latin Americans equally prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic,
and individual learning styles as major learning styles with scores of 38 and 39. Asians
Country Gender Language Age Grade Visual Tactile Auditory Kinesthetic Group Individual
Mexico F Spanish/Ztosil 16 10 46 36 38 38 44 44
Mexico F Spanish/Tarascan 16 11 40 34 42 40 38 32
Mexico F Spanish 11 6 38 36 40 34 36 26
Mexico F Spanish 15 9 38 36 44 42 38 34
Mexico M Spanish 16 10 42 44 42 50 44 34
Mexico M Spanish 16 10 46 24 30 36 34 46
Mexico M Spanish 21 CollegeJr. 26 26 46 30 30 34
Nicaragua M Spanish 25 HSDiploma 36 40 38 40 36 30
Honduras F Spanish 12 6 38 38 36 42 22 50
Guatemala F Spanish 15 9 44 46 46 42 44 46
Argentina F Spanish 24 CollegeFr. 36 36 38 38 18 46
Uruguay F Spanish 21 CollegeSo. 30 28 32 34 24 40

Average 38 34 39 38 33 39
SouthKorea M Korean 19 Level2ELI 42 38 40 32 40 24
SouthKorea M Korean 26 Level2ELI 42 34 36 36 42 28
SouthKorea F Korean 26 Graduate 44 36 30 24 26 24
China M Chinese 25 Graduate 36 42 44 48 40 38
China F Chinese 22 Graduate 28 38 36 44 30 36
Taiwan M Chinese 21 CollegeJr. 36 34 42 34 30 34
Taiwan F Chinese/Taiwanese 26 Graduate 36 38 30 40 34 37
Taiwan F Chinese 26 Graduate 48 40 24 44 22 22
Japan M Japanese 23 CollegeJr. 34 28 40 32 14 50
Japan F Japanese 24 CollegeSr. 34 42 34 34 20 42

Average 38 37 36 37 30 34

prefer the visual learning style with a score of 38. Both groups chose group learning as
their least preferred learning style.
Figure 2. Disaggregated Data of Latin American Learning-Styles
by Country/Region
Mexico F Spanish/Ztosil 16 10 46 36 38 38 44 44
Mexico F Spanish/Tarascan 16 11 40 34 42 40 38 32
Mexico F Spanish 11 6 38 36 40 34 36 26
Mexico F Spanish 15 9 38 36 44 42 38 34
Mexico M Spanish 16 10 42 44 42 50 44 34
Mexico M Spanish 16 10 46 24 30 36 34 46
Mexico M Spanish 21 College
Jr.
26 26 46 30 30 34
Average 39 34 40 39 38 36
Nicaragua M Spanish 25 HS
Diploma
36 40 38 40 36 30
Honduras F Spanish 12 6 38 38 36 42 22 50
Argentina F Spanish 24 College
Fr.
36 36 38 38 18 46
Uruguay F Spanish 21 College
So.
30 28 32 34 24 40
Average 37 35 37 38 27 44

The above table displays the data from the Latin Americans that has been
disaggregated by country into two categories: Mexicans and Central/South Americans.
According to the data, Mexicans prefer visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and group learning.
Central and South Americans prefer kinesthetic and individual learning. The biggest
difference between the groups is that Mexicans highly prefer group learning and
somewhat prefer individual learning, while Central/South Americans highly prefer
individual learning and are negligible to group learning.


Figure 3. Disaggregated Data of Asian Learning-Styles
by Country
South
Korea
M Korean 19 Level2
ELI
42 38 40 32 40 24
South
Korea
M Korean 26 Level2
ELI
42 34 36 36 42 28
South
Korea
F Korean 26 Graduate 44 36 30 24 26 24
Average 43 36 35 31 36 25
Average 32 40 40 46 35 37
Taiwan M Chinese 21 College
Jr.
36 34 42 34 30 34
Taiwan F Chinese/Taiwanese 26 Graduate 36 38 30 40 34 37
Taiwan F Chinese 26 Graduate 48 40 24 44 22 22
Average 40 37 32 39 29 31
Japan M Japanese 23 College
Jr.
34 28 40 32 14 50
Japan F Japanese 24 College
Sr.
34 42 34 34 20 42
Average 34 35 37 33 17 46

Figure 3 shows the scores of Asian learning styles that have been disaggregated
by country. Koreans mostly prefer visual learning and least prefer individual learning.
On the other hand, Chinese students most prefer tactile, auditory, and kinesthetic
learning and least prefer visual learning. Taiwanese students mostly prefer visual and
kinesthetic learning and least prefer group learning. Finally, J apanese students highly
prefer individual learning and least prefer group learning.
Discussion

The results of this survey support researchs claim that Hispanics prefer visual
and kinesthetic learning styles. Hispanics also benefit from auditory learning probably
because it involves interpersonal communication.
However, the data does not support the claim that Latin Americans are field
dependent learners. Most Mexicans are field dependent learners, but the Central and
South Americans are not. This result may have a couple of explanations. First of all, the
Central and South Americans are the minorities within the Hispanic culture group and
may not have others to identify with from their home country. Hispanics tend to be
collectivistic and collaborative, but they tend to mingle more with their fellow
countrymen and maintain boundaries between other Latin American countries. Secondly,
the split of independent and group learners may solely reflect personal preference without
any respect to a cultural norm.
Latinos as a whole least prefer the tactile learning style. In fact, only three Latino
individuals had this category as a major learning style. However, it is interesting to note
that the indigenous/Spanish speakers ranked tactile learning as their least preferred styles.
Tactile learning may not be favored among these students because they probably do not
know how to write in their native language. The low quality of education in Latin
American countries may affect ones literacy levels and ability to write in Spanish or an
indigenous language. To write in English would be even more challenging without any
background knowledge of letter formation or written form. Nevertheless, as with group
learning, tactile learning may only be an individual preference that reflects ones
personality.


Looking at the data as a whole, it appears that overall Asians do not have a
specific preference in the way that they learn. However, the disaggregated Asian scores
indicate major differences among the Asian countries. Koreans have a strong preference
for visual learning and are the most field dependent learners than any other group. On
the opposite spectrum, the J apanese do not like group learning, but work best as
individuals. They enjoy auditory learning over visual learning. The Chinese prefer
auditory over visual learning as well, but learn best through kinesthetic learning. Chinese
students rank high in tactile learning, which may relate to the copying and memorizing
text.
Like the Koreans, Taiwanese students prefer visual learning. They are also very
similar to Chinese learners in that they benefit from kinesthetic learning. Comparable to
J apanese students, Taiwanese students also least prefer working in groups. However,
Taiwanese students differ from all three groups in that they have a low rank for auditory
learning. This may be due to the fact that the Taiwanese speak not only Chinese but
Taiwanese as well. Having to audibly discern between two similar languages may be
difficult, but training ones ear to hear a completely different language adds a different
level of difficulty that could create some barriers to learning.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
Considering that Hispanics learn best kinesthetically, visually, and audibly, a
variety of activities should be included when teaching. Total physical response activities
incorporate all three of these learning styles and are especially beneficial for ESL

beginners. Modeling also encompasses kinesthetic, visual, and auditory learning styles.
Teachers should give visual concrete examples that can be verbally explained and easily
mimicked. In reflecting on the high-context Hispanic culture, educators should try to
avoid abstract representations because Hispanic students do not typically think
analytically. Additionally, teachers should not assign long-term projects that require
students to think of time as linear. Short-term assignments would be favorable to long-
term projects since Latin American thinking is generally not future oriented.
Although our research has shown that not all Hispanic students are field
dependent learners, some collaborative activities along with individual activities would
benefit the group as a whole. Informal class discussions can be beneficial for all students
to work together to gain understanding. However, debating would cause friction among
the group, and Hispanics do not want to lose their group unity and lessen Hispanic values
of respect and kindness (Irvine, 1995).
Hispanic students are extrinsically motivated by family and the teacher-student
relationships. Therefore, personal rewards such as verbal praise, pats, and hugs would
encourage a student to continue learning. The teacher should ensure a positive school
environment to optimize learning for all students.
When teaching Asian students, teachers should also include a variety of visual,
auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic activities. Therefore, lectures, visual presentations,
hands-on activities, and TPR activities would also stimulate learning. In addition, since
Asians practice so much memorization, audio-linguistic methods that use memorization,
drills, and practice might be helpful with these learners.

Korean and Chinese students would benefit from cooperative group activities and
projects. Since Taiwanese and J apanese students prefer individual learning, individual
worksheets, activities, projects, and assignments would suffice. However, teachers
should be careful to not single out a student in the classroom. Theres a J apanese proverb
that says, The nail that sticks up gets hammered down. Focusing on the individual
rather than the group as a whole is looked down upon by this culture (Mariani).
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the values of each culture affect the way a student from a culture
learns. One learns about the world and how to behave according to the rules and values
of ones culture. The learner applies these rules in the same way in the classroom. It is
important for a teacher to be aware of these values and what kind of learners they create.
While taking into consideration the differences in cultural values is good, a
teacher must be careful to not overgeneralize or stereotype a student based on the cultural
norm of his/her ethnicity. Rather the teacher should get to know the student as an
individual to understand his or her background that can affect learning. Teachers should
also individually assess students to find out what ways he or she learns best. By knowing
the ways students learn best, a teacher can effectively plan lessons to promote optimal
learning for all students in the classroom.


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APPENDIX 1

Name:

Country:

Language:

Age:

Level of Education:

For how many years have you been studying English?

Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

Directions
People learn in many different ways. For example, some people learn primarily with their
eyes (visual learners) or with the ears (auditory learners); some people prefer to learn by
experience and/or by "hands-on" tasks (kinesthetic or tactile learners); some people learn
better when they work alone while others prefer to learn in groups.
This questionnaire has been designed to help you identify the way(s) you learn best--the
way(s) you prefer to learn.
Read each statement on the following pages. Please respond to the statements AS THEY
APPLY TO YOUR STUDY OF ENGLISH.
Decide whether you agree or disagree with each statement. For example, if you strongly
agree, mark:

SA
Strongly
agree
A
Agree
U
Undecided
D
Disagree
SD
Strongly
Disagree
X

Please respond to each statement quickly, without too much thought. Try not to change
your responses after you choose them. Please answer all the questions. Please use a pen
to mark your choices.
Perceptual Learning-Style Preference Questionnaire

SA
Strongly
agree
A
Agree
U
Undecided
D
Disagree
SD
Strongly
Disagree
X


Item SA A U D SD
1. When the teacher tells me the instructions I understand better.
2. I prefer to learn by doing something in class.
3. I get more work done when I work with others.
4. I learn more when I study with a group.
5. In class, I learn best when I work with others.
6. I learn better by reading what the teacher writes on the
chalkboard.

7. When someone tells me how to do something in class, I learn
it better.

8. When I do things in class, I learn better.
9. I remember things I have heard in class better than things I
have read.

10. When I read instructions, I remember them better.
11. I learn more when I can make a model of something.
12. I understand better when I read instructions.
13. When I study alone, I remember things better.
14. I learn more when I make something for a class project.
15. I enjoy learning in class by doing experiments.
16. I learn better when I make drawings as I study.
17. I learn better in class when the teacher gives a lecture.
18. When I work alone, I learn better.

19. I understand things better in class when I participate in role-
playing.

20. I learn better in class when I listen to someone.
21. I enjoy working on an assignment with two or three
classmates.

22. When I build something, I remember what I have learned
better.

23. I prefer to study with others.
24. I learn better by reading than by listening to someone.
25. I enjoy making something for a class project.
26. I learn best in class when I can participate in related
activities.

27. In class, I work better when I work alone.
28. I prefer working on projects by myself.
29. I learn more by reading textbooks than by listening to
lectures.

30. I prefer to work by myself


Self-Scoring Sheet
Instructions
There are 5 questions for each learning category in this questionnaire. The questions are
grouped below according to each learning style. Each question you answer has a
numerical value.

SA
Strongly
agree
A
Agree
U
Undecided
D
Disagree
SD
Strongly
Disagree
5 4 3 2 1
Fill in the blanks below with the numerical value of each answer. For example, if
answered Strongly Agree (SA) for question 6 (a visual question), write a number 5 (SA)
on the blank next to question 6 below.
Visual
6 =5
When you have completed all the numerical values for Visual, add the numbers. Multiply
the answer by 2, and put the total in the appropriate blank.
Follow the process for each of the learning style categories. When you are finished, look
at the scale at the bottom of the page; it will help you determine your major learning style
preference(s), your minor learning style preference(s), and those learning style(s) that are
negligible.
If you need help, please ask your teacher.

Visual
Question Score
6
10

12
24
29
Total
Score =Total x 2

Tactile
Question Score
11
14
16
22
25
Total
Score =Total x 2

Auditory
Question Score
1
7
9

17
20
Total
Score =Total x 2

Group
Question Score
3
4
5
21
23
Total
Score =Total x 2

Kinesthetic
Question Score
2
8
15
19
26

Total
Score =Total x 2

Individual
Question Score
13
18
27
28
30
Total
Score =Total x 2

Major learning Style Preference 38-50
Minor Learning Style Preference 25-37
Negligible 0-24

Explanation of Learning Style Preferences
Students learn in many different ways. The questionnaire you completed and scored
showed which ways you prefer to learn English. In many cases, students' learning style
preferences show how well students learn material in different situations.
The explanations of major learning style preferences below describe the characteristics of
those learners. The descriptions will give you some information about ways in which you
learn best.
Visual Major Learning Style Preference

You learn well from seeing words in books, on the chalkboard, and in workbooks. You
remember and understand information and instructions better if you read them. You don't
need as much oral explanation as an auditory learner, and you can often learn alone, with
a book. You should take notes of lectures and oral directions if you want to remember the
information.
Auditory Major Learning Style Preference
You learn from hearing words spoken and from oral explanations. You may remember
information by reading aloud or moving your lips as you read, especially when you are
learning new material. You benefit from hearing audio tapes, lectures, and class
discussions. You benefit from making tapes to listen to, by teaching other students, and
by conversing with your teacher.
Kinesthetic Major Learning Style Preference
You learn best by experience, by being involved physically in classroom experiences.
You remember information well when you actively participate in activities, field trips,
and role-playing in the classroom. A combination of stimuli--for example, an audiotape
combined with an activity--will help you understand new material.
Tactile Major Learning Style Preference
You learn best when you have the opportunity to do "hands-on" experiences with
materials. That is, working on experiments in a laboratory, handling and building models,
and touching and working with materials provide you with the most successful learning
situation. Writing notes or instructions can help you remember information, and physical
involvement in class related activities may help you understand new information.
Group Major Learning Style Preference
You learn more easily when you study with at least one other student, and you will be
more successful completing work well when you work with others. You value group
interaction and class work with other students, and you remember information better
when you work with two or three classmates. The stimulation you receive from group
work helps you learn and understand new information.
Individual Major Learning Style Preference
You learn best when you work alone. You think better when you study alone, and you
remember information you learn by yourself. You understand new material best when
you learn it alone, and you make better progress in learning when you work by yourself.
Minor Learning Styles

In most cases, minor learning styles indicate areas where you can function well as a
learner. Usually a very successful learner can learn in several different ways.
Negligible Learning Styles
Often, a negligible score indicates that you may have difficulty learning in that way. One
solution may be to direct your learning to your stronger styles. Another solution might be
to try to work on some of the skills to strengthen your learning style in the negligible
area.
This explanation was adapted from the C.I.T.E. Learning Styles Instrument, Murdoch Teacher Center,
Wichita, Kansas 67208.
Copyright 1984, by If you wish to use this questionnaire, contact

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