UNIT I DC MACHINES

Three phase circuits, a review. Construction of DC machines Theory of operation of DC

generators Characteristics of DC generators- Operating principle of DC motors Types of DC
motors and their characteristics Speed control of DC motors- Applications
DC GENERATOR
A dc generator is an electrical machine which converts mechanical energy into direct current
electricity. This energy conversion is based on the principle of production of dynamically
induced emf.
CONSTRUCTION:

Cross Sectional View of DC Generator
Above figure shows the constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC generator. A DC generator
consists of two basic parts, stator and rotor.
Basic constructional parts of a DC generator are described below:
Yoke: The outer frame of a generator or motor is called as yoke. Yoke is made up of cast iron or
steel. Yoke provides mechanical strength for whole assembly of the generator (or motor). It also
carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.
Poles: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of screws or welding. Poles are to support field
windings. Field winding is wound on poles and connected in series or parallel with armature
winding or sometimes separately.
Pole shoe: Pole shoe is an extended part of the pole which serves two purposes, (i) to prevent
field coils from slipping and (ii) to spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a generator. Armature core is cylindrical in shape
on which slots are provided to carry armature windings.
Commutator and brushes: As emf is generated in the armature terminals, it must be taken out
to make use of generated emf. But if we can't directly solder wires to Commutator conductors as
they rotate. Thus commutator is connected to the armature conductors and mounted on the same
shaft as that of armature core. Conducting brushes rest on commutator and they slides over when
rotor (hence commutator) rotates. Thus brushes are physically in contact with armature
conductors hence wires can be connected to brushes.
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A DC GENERATOR:

According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a conductor moves in a
magnetic field (thereby cutting the magnetic flux lines), a dynamically induced emf is produced
in the conductor. The magnitude of generated emf can be given by emf equation of DC
generator. If a closed path is provided to the moving conductor then generated emf causes a
current to flow in the circuit.
Thus in DC generators, when armature is rotated with the help of a prime mover and field
windings are excited (there may be permanent field magnets also), emf is induced in armature
conductors. This induced emf is taken out via commutator-brush arrangement.
EMF EQUATION OF A DC GENERATOR:
Let = flux/pole in Wb (weber)
Z = total no. of armature conductors
P = no. of generator poles
A = no. of parallel paths in armature
N = rotational speed of armature in revolutions per min. (rpm)
E = emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Now,
Generated e.m.f Eg = e.m.f generated in any one of the parallel paths i.e E.
Average e.m.f geneated /conductor = d/dt volt (n=1)
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d = P Wb
No.of revolutions/second = N/60
Time for one revolution, dt = 60/N second
Hence, according to Faraday's Laws of Electroagnetic Induction,
E.M.F generated/conductor is

For a simplex wave-wound generator, No.of parallel paths = 2
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/2
E.M.F. generated/path is

For a simplex lap-wound generator
No.of parallel paths = P
No.of conductors (in series) in one path = Z/P
E.M.F.generated/path

In general generated e.m.f


where A = 2 - for simplex wave-winding
A= P - for simplex lap-winding
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATOR:
In a separately excited DC generator, the field winding is excited by an external
independent source. There are generally three most important characteristic of DC generator:
Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator
The curve which gives the relation between field current (I
f
) and the generated voltage (E
0
) in
the armature on no load is called magnetic or open circuit characteristic of a DC generator.
The plot of this curve is practically same for all types of generators, whether they are separately
excited or self-excited. This curve is also known as no load saturation characteristic curve of
DC generator. Here in this figure below we can see the variation of generated emf on no load
with field current for different fixed speeds of the armature. For higher value of constant speed,
the steepness of the curve is more. When the field current is zero, for the effect residual
magnetism in the poles, there will be a small initial emf (OA) as show in figure.


Let us consider a separately excited DC generator giving its no load voltage E
0
for a constant
field current. If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop in the machine then the
voltage will remain constant. Therefore, if we plot the rated voltage on the Y axis and load
current on the X axis then the curve will be a straight line and parallel to X-axis as shown in
figure below. Here, AB line indicating the no load voltage (E
0
).
When the generator is loaded then the voltage drops due to two main reasons-
1) Due to armature reaction,
2) Due to ohmic drop ( IaRa ).
Internal or Total Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator
The internal characteristic of the separately excited DC generator is obtained by
subtracting the drops due to armature reaction from no load voltage. This curve of actually
generated voltage ( Eg ) will be slightly dropping. Here, AC line in the diagram indicating
the actually generated voltage (E_g ) with respect to load current. This curve is also called
total characteristic of separately excited DC generator.

External Characteristic of Separately Excited DC Generator
The external characteristic of the separately excited DC generator is obtained by subtracting
the drops due to ohmic loss ( Ia Ra ) in the armature from generated voltage ( Eg ).
Terminal voltage(V) = Eg - Ia Ra.
This curve gives the relation between the terminal voltage (V) and load current. The external
characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. Here, AD line in the diagram
below is indicating the change in terminal voltage(V) with increasing load current. It can be
seen from figure that when load current increases then the terminal voltage decreases
slightly. This decrease in terminal voltage can be maintained easily by increasing the field
current and thus increasing the generated voltage. Therefore, we can get constant terminal
voltage.

Separately excited DC generators have many advantages over self-excited DC generators.
It can operate in stable condition with any field excitation and gives wide range of output
voltage.
The main disadvantage of these kinds of generators is that it is very expensive of
providing a separate excitation source.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SELF EXCITED DC GENERATOR:
In shunt wound DC generators the field windings are connected in parallel with armature
conductors as shown in figure below. In these types of generators the armature current I
a
divides
in two parts. One part is the shunt field current I
sh
flows through shunt field winding and the
other part is the load current I
L
goes through the external load.



Three most important characteristic of shunt wound dc generators are discussed below:
Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator
This curve is drawn between shunt field current(I
sh
) and the no load voltage (E
0
). For a given
excitation current or field current, the emf generated at no load E
0
varies in proportionally with
the rotational speed of the armature. Here in the diagram the magnetic characteristic curve for
various speeds are drawn. Due to residual magnetism the curves start from a point A slightly up
from the origin O. The upper portions of the curves are bend due to saturation. The external load
resistance of the machine needs to be maintained greater than its critical value otherwise the
machine will not excite or will stop running if it is already in motion. AB, AC and AD are the
slops which give critical resistances at speeds N
1
, N
2
and N
3
. Here, N
1
> N
2
> N
3
.
Critical Load Resistance of Shunt Wound DC Generator
This is the minimum external load resistance which is required to excite the shunt wound
generator.

Internal Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator
The internal characteristic curve represents the relation between the generated voltage Eg
and the load current I
L
. When the generator is loaded then the generated voltage is decreased due
to armature reaction. So, generated voltage will be lower than the emf generated at no load. Here
in the figure below AD curve is showing the no load voltage curve and AB is the internal
characteristic curve.
External Characteristic of Shunt Wound DC Generator
AC curve is showing the external characteristic of the shunt wound DC generator. It is
showing the variation of terminal voltage with the load current. Ohmic drop due to armature
resistance gives lesser terminal voltage the generated voltage. That is why the curve lies below
the internal characteristic curve.

The terminal voltage can always be maintained constant by adjusting the of the load terminal.

When the load resistance of a shunt wound DC generator is decreased, then load current
of the generator increased as shown in above figure. But the load current can be increased to a
certain limit with (up to point C) the decrease of load resistance. Beyond this point, it shows a
reversal in the characteristic. Any decrease of load resistance, results in current reduction and
consequently, the external characteristic curve turns back as shown in the dotted line and
ultimately the terminal voltage becomes zero. Though there is some voltage due to residual
magnetism.
Now, when I
L
increased, then terminal voltage decreased. After a certain limit, due to heavy load
current and increased ohmic drop, the terminal voltage is reduced drastically. This drastic
reduction of terminal voltage across the load, results the drop in the load current although at that
time load is high or load resistance is low.
That is why the load resistance of the machine must be maintained properly. The point in which
the machine gives maximum current output is called breakdown point (point C in the picture).
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERIES GENERATOR:
In these types of generators the field windings, armature windings and external load circuit all
are connected in series as shown in figure below.
Therefore, the same current flows through armature winding, field winding and the load.
Let, I = Ia = Isc = I
L

Here, Ia = armature current
Isc = series field current
I
L
= load current
There are generally three most important characteristics of series wound DC generator which
show the relation between various quantities such as series field current or excitation current,
generated voltage, terminal voltage and load current.
Magnetic or Open Circuit Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The curve which shows the relation between no load voltage and the field excitation
current is called magnetic or open circuit characteristic curve. As during no load, the load
terminals are open circuited, there will be no field current in the field since, the armature, field
and load are series connected and these three make a closed loop of circuit. So, this curve can be
obtained practically be separating the field winding and exciting the DC generator by an external
source. Here in the diagram below AB curve is showing the magnetic characteristic of series
wound DC generator. The linearity of the curve will continue till the saturation of the poles.
After that there will be no further significant change of terminal voltage of DC generator for
increasing field current. Due to residual magnetism there will be a small initial voltage across the
armature that is why the curve started from a point A which is a little way up to the origin O.
Internal Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The internal characteristic curve gives the relation between voltage generated in the
armature and the load current. This curve is obtained by subtracting the drop due to the
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from the no load voltage. So, the actual generated
voltage ( Eg) will be less than the no load voltage (E0). That is why the curve is slightly
dropping from the open circuit characteristic curve. Here in the diagram below OC curve is
showing the internal characteristic or total characteristic of the series wound DC generator.
External Characteristic of Series Wound DC Generator
The external characteristic curve shows the variation of terminal voltage (V) with the
load current ( I
L
). Terminal voltage of this type of generator is obtained by subtracting the
ohomic drop due to armature resistance (Ra) and series field resistance ( Rsc) from the actually
generated voltage ( Eg).
Terminal voltage V = Eg - I(Ra + Rsc)

The external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve because the
value of terminal voltage is less than the generated voltage. Here in the figure OD curve is
showing the external characteristic of the series wound DC generator.
It can be observed from the characteristics of series wound DC generator, that with the
increase in load (load is increased when load current increases) the terminal voltage of the
machine increases. But after reaching its maximum value it starts to decrease due to excessive
demagnetizing effect of armature reaction. This phenomenon is shown in the figure by the dotted
line. Dotted portion of the characteristic gives approximately constant current irrespective of the
external load resistance. This is because if load is increased, the field current is increased as field
is series connected with load. Similarly if load is increased, armature current is increased as the
armature is also series connected with load. But due to saturation, there will be no further
significance raises of magnetic field strength hence any further increase in induced voltage. But
due to increased armature current, the effect of armature reaction increases significantly which
causes significant fall in load voltage. If load voltage falls, the load current is also decreased
proportionally since current is proportional to voltage as per Ohm's law. So, increasing load,
tends to increase the load current, but decreasing load voltage, tends to decrease load current.
Due these two simultaneous effects, there will be no significant change in load current in dotted
portion of external characteristics of series wound DC generator. That is why series DC
generator is called constant current DC generator.
CHARACTERISTICS OF DC COMPOUND GENERATOR:
In compound wound DC generators both the field windings are combined (series and
shunt). This type of generators can be used as either long shunt or short shunt compound wound
generators as shown in the diagram below. In both the cases the external characteristic of the
generator will be nearly same. The compound wound generators may be cumulatively
compounded or differentially compounded. Differentially compound wound generators are very
rarely used. So, here we mainly concentrate upon the characteristic of cumulatively compound
wound generators.

In series wound DC generators, the output voltage is directly proportional with load current and
in shunt wound DC generators, output voltage is inversely proportional with load current.
The electric current in the shunt field winding produces a flux which causes a fall in
terminal voltage due to armature reaction and ohmic drop in the circuit. But the current in the
series field also produces a flux which opposes the shunt field flux and compensates the drop in
the terminal voltage and try to operate the machine at constant voltage.
The combination of a series generator and a shunt generator gives the characteristic of a
cumulative compound wound generator.
At no load condition there is no current in the series field because the load terminals are
open circuited. But the shunt field current helps to produce field flux and excite the machine.
When the dc generator supplies load, the load current increases and current flows through the
series field. Therefore, series field also provides some field flux and emf is also increased. The
voltage drop in the shunt machine is therefore compensated by the voltage rise in the series
machine.
Characteristics of DC Compound Generator:
For small distance operation the flat compounded generators are generally used because the
length of the feeder is negligible. But to maintain constant voltage over a long period, the over
compounded generators are used. It works as a generator and a booster (boost the terminal
voltage).
External characteristic of DC compound wound generator is drawn between the terminal
voltage and the load current. By adjusting the no. of amp-turns in the series field winding we can
get following external characteristics:
If the series turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal
voltage also increases, then the generator is called over compounded. The curve AB in
the figure showing this characteristic. When the load current increases then the flux
provides by the series field also increases. It gives the additional generated voltage. If the
increase in generated voltage is greater than the voltage drops due to armature reaction
and ohmic drop then, terminal voltage of the generator is increased.
If the series turns are so adjusted that with the increase in load current the terminal
voltage remains constant, then the generator is called flat compounded. The curve AC in
the figure showing this characteristic. When the load current increases then the flux
provides by the series field also increases and gives the additional generated voltage. If
the increase in generated voltage is equal to the voltage drops due to armature reaction
and ohmic drop then, rated terminal voltage of the generator remains same as no load
voltage.
If the series field winding has lesser no. of turns then the rated terminal voltage becomes
less than the no load voltage, then the generator is called under compounded. Because,
the increase in generated voltage is lesser than the voltage drops due to armature reaction
and ohmic drop. Curve AD in the figure is showing this characteristic.

DC MOTOR:
A motor is a device which converts an electrical energy into the mechanical energy . The
energy conversion process is exactly opposite to that involved in a d.c. generator. In a generator
the input mechanical energy is supplied by a prime mover while in a d.c. motor, input electrical
energy is supplied by a d.c. supply. The construction of a d.c. machine is same whether it is a
motor or a generator.
Principle of Operation of a D.C. Motor
The principle of operation of a d.c. motor can be stated in a single statement as 'when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field' it experiences a mechanical force'. In a
practical d.c. motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors
play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a force.
As a conductors are placed in the slots which are in the periphery, the individual force
experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the armature which is called
a torque. The torque is the product of force and the radius at which this force acts. So overall
armature experiences a torque and starts rotating. Let us study this motoring action in detail.
Consider a single conductor placed in a magnetic field as shown in the Fig .1(a). The
magnetic field is produced by a permanent magnet but in a practical d.c. motor it is produced by
the field winding when it carries a current.

Fig. 1
Now this conductor is excited by a separate supply so that it carries a current in a particular
direction. Consider that it carries a current away from an observe as shown in the Fig. 1(b). Any
current carrying conductor produces its own magnetic field around it. hence this conductor also
produces its own flux, around. The direction of this flux can be determined by right hand thumb
rule. For direction of current considered, the direction of flux around a conductor is clockwise.
For simplicity of understanding, the main flux produced by the permanent magnet is not shown
in the Fig. 1(b).
Now there are two fluxes present,
1. The flux produced by the permanent magnet called flux.
2. The flux produced by the current carrying conductor.
There are shown in the Fig.2(a). Form this, it is clear that on one side of the conductor, both
the fluxes are in same direction. In this case, on the left of the conductor there is gathering of the
flux lines as two fluxes help each other. As against this, on the right of the conductor, the two
fluxes are in opposite direction and hence try to cancel each other. Due to this, the density of the
flux lines in this area gets weakened. So on the left, there exists high flux density area while on
the right of the conductor there exists low flux density area as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 2
This flux distribution around the conductors acts like a stretched rubber band under tension.
This exerts a mechanical force on the conductor which acts from high flux density area towards
low flux density area. i.e. from left to right for the case considered as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

Fig. 3

Key point : In the practical d.c. motor, the permanent magnet is replaced by a field winding
which produces the required flux called main flux and all the armature conductors, mounted on
the periphery of the armature drum, get subjected to the mechanical force. Due to this, overall
armature experiences a twisting force called torque and armature of the motor starts rotating.

1. Direction of Rotation of Motor
The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor in a motor is given by,
F = B l I Newton (N)
B = Flux density due to the flux produced by the field winding.
l = Active length of the conductor.
I = Magnitude of the current passing through the conductor.
The direction of such force i.e. the direction of rotation of a motor can be determined by
Fleming's left hand. So Fleming's right hand rule is to determine direction of induced e.m.f. i.e.
for generating action while Fleming's left hand rule is to determine direction of force experienced
i.e. for motoring action.
1.1 Fleming's left hand rule
The rule states that, 'Outstretch the three fingers of the left hand namely the first finger,
middle finger and thumb such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. Now point the
first finger in the direction of magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current
then the thumb gives the direction of the force experienced by the conductor'.
The Fleming's left hand rule can be diagramatically shown as in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
Apply the rule to crosscheck the direction of force experienced by a single conductor, placed
in the magnetic field, shown in the Fig. 2(a), (b), (c) and (d).

Fig. 2
It can be seen from the Fig. 2 that if the direction of the main field in which current carrying
conductor is placed, is reversed, force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction.
Similarly keeping main flux direction unchanged, the direction of current passing through the
conductor is reversed. The force experienced by the conductor reverses its direction. However if
both the directions are reversed, the direction of the force experienced remains the same.
Key point : So in a practical motor, to reverse its direction of rotation, either direction of main
field produced by the field winding is reversed or direction of the current passing through the
armature is reversed.
The direction of the main field can be reversed by changing the direction of current passing
through the field winding, which is possible by interchanging the polarities of supply which is
given to the field winding . In short, to have a motoring action two fluxes must exist, the
interaction of which produces a torque.
Significance of Back E.M.F.
It is seen in the generation action, that when a conductor cuts the lines of flux, e.m.f. gets
induced in the conductor. The question is obvious that in a d.c. motor, after a motoring action,
armature starts rotating and armature conductors cut the main flux. So there is a generating
action existing in a motor.
After a motoring action, there exists a generating action. There is an induced e.m.f. in the
rotating armature conductors according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. This
induced e.m.f. in the armature always acts in the opposite direction of the supply voltage. This is
according to the Lenz's law which states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is always so as to
oppose the cause producing it. In a d.c. motor, electrical input i.e. the supply voltage is the cause
and hence this induced e.m.f. opposes the supply voltage. This e.m.f. tries to set up a current
through the armature which is in the opposite direction to that, which supply voltage is forcing
through the conductor.
So as this e.m.f. always opposes the supply voltage, it is called back e.m.f. and denoted as
E
b
. Though it is obtained as E
b
, basically it gets generated by the generation action which we
have seen earlier in case of generation. So its magnitude can be determined by the e.m.f.
equation which is derived earlier. So,


where all symbols carry the same meaning as seen earlier in case of generators.

Fig. 1

This e.m.f. is shown schematically in the Fig. 1(a). So if V is supply voltage in volts and R
a
is the value of the armature resistance, the equivalent electric circuit can be shown as in the Fig.
1(b).
TYPES OF D.C. MOTORS
Similar to the d.c. generators, the d.c. motors are classified depending upon the way of
connecting the field winding with the armature winding. The difference types of d.c. motors are ;
1. Shunt motor
2. Series motors
3. Compound motors
The compound motors are further classified as ;
1. Short shunt compound
2. Long shunt compound

DC SHUNT MOTOR:
In this type, the field winding is connected across the armature winding and the combination is
connected across the supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. shunt motor

Let R
sh
be the resistance of shunt field winding.
R
a
be the resistance of armature winding.
The value of R
a
is very small while R
sh
is quite large. Hence shunt field winding has more
number of turns with less cross-sectional area.
1.1 Voltage and Current Relationship
The voltage across armature and field winding is same equal to the supply voltage V.
The total current drawn from the supply is denoted as line current I
L
.
I
L
= I
a
+ I
sh

Ish = V/R
sh

and V = E
b
+ I
a
R
a
+ V
brush

V
brush
is generally neglected.
Now flux produced by the field winding is proportional to the current passing through it i.e.
Ish.


Note : As long as supply voltage is constant, which is generally so in practice, the flux produced
is constant. Hence d.c. shunt motor is called constant flux motor.

DC SERIES MOTOR:
In this type of motor, the series field winding is connected in series with the armature and the
supply, as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 D.C. series motor

Let R
se
be the resistance of the series field winding. The value of R
se
is very small and it is
made of small number of turns having large cross-sectional area.
1.1 Voltage and Current Relationship
Let I
L
be the total current drawn from the supply.
So I
L
= I
se
= I
a

and V = E
b
+ I
a
Ra + I
se
R
se
+ V
brush

V = E
b
+ Ia (Ra + R
se
) + V
brush

Supply voltage has to overcome the drop across series field winding in addition to E
b
and
drop across armature winding.
Note : In series motor, entire armature current is passing through the series field winding. So flux
produced is proportional to the armature current.
for series motor

DC COMPOUND MOTOR:
The compound motor consists of part of the field winding connected in series and part of
the field winding connected in parallel with armature. It is further classified as long shunt
compound and short shunt compound motor.
1.1 Long Shunt Compound Motor
In this type, the shunt field winding is connected across the combination of armature and the
series field winding as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Long shunt compound motor
Let Rse be the resistance of series field and R
sh
be the resistance of shunt field winding. The
total current drawn from supply is I
L
.
So I
L
= I
se
+ I
sh

But I
se
= I
a

.
.
. I
L
= Ia+ I
sh

And I
sh
= V/R
sh

And V = E
b
+ I
a
R
a
+ I
se
R
se
+ V
brush

But as I
se
= I
a
,
.
.
. V = E
b
+ I
a
(R
a
+ R
se
) + V
brush


1.2 Short Shunt Compound Motor
In this type, the shunt field is connected purely in parallel with armature and the series field
is connected in series with this combination shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Short shunt compound motor

I
L
= Ise
The entire line current is passing through the series field winding.
and I
L
= I
a
+ I
sh

Now the drop across the shunt field winding is to be calculated from the voltage equation.
So V = E
b
+ I
se
R
se
+ I
a
R
a
+ V
brush

but I
se
= I
L

.
.
. V = E
b
+ I
L
R
se
+ I
a
R
a
+ V
brush

.
.
. Drop across shunt field winding is,
= V - I
L
R
se
= E
b
+ I
a
R
a
+ Vbrush

Apart from these two, compound motor can be classified into two more types,
i) Cumulatively compound motors and ii) Differential compound motors.
Note : If the two field windings are wound in such a manner that the fluxes produced by the two
always help each other, the motor is called cumulatively compound. If the fluxes produced by
the two field windings are trying to cancel each other i.e. they are in opposite direction, the
motor is called differential compound.
A long shunt compound motor can be of cumulative or differential type. Similarly short
shunt compound motor can be cumulative or differential type.

TORQUE EQUATION OF A D.C. MOTOR
It is seen that the turning or twisting force about an axis is called torque. Consider a wheel of
radius R meters acted upon by a circumferential force F newtons as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The wheel is rotating at a speed of N r.p.m. Then angular speed of the wheel is,
= (2N)/60 rad/sec
So workdone in one revolution is,
W = F x distance travelled in one revolution
= F x 2 R joules
And P = Power developed = Workdone/Time
= (F x 2R) / (Time for 1 rev) = (F x 2R) / (60/N) = (F x R) x (2N/60)
.
.
. P = T x watts
Where T = Torque in N - m
= Angular speed in rad/sec.
Let T
a
be the gross torque developed by the armature of the motor. It is also called armature
torque. The gross mechanical power developed in the armature is E
b
I
a
, as seen from the power
equation. So if speed of the motor is N r.p.m. then,
Power in armature = Armature torque x

.
.
. E
b
I
a
= x (2N/60)
but E
b
in a motor is given by,
E
b
= (PNZ) / (60A)
.
.
. (PNZ / 60A) x Ia = T
a
x (2N/60)

This is the torque equation of a d.c. motor.
TORQUE SPEED EQUATIONS:

Before analysing the various characteristics of motors, let us revise the torque and speed
equations are applied to various types of motors.
.
.
. T I
a
from torque equation.
This is because, 0.159(PZ)/A is a constant for a given motor.
Now is the flux produced by the field winding and is proportional to the current passing
through the field winding.
I
field

But for various types of motors, current through the field winding is different. Accordingly
torque equation must be modified.
For a d.c. shunt motor, I
sh
is constant as long as supply voltage is constant. Hence flux is
also constant.
.
.
. T Ia for shunt motors
For a d.c. series motor, I
se
is same as I
a
. Hence flux is proportional to the armature
current I
a
.
.
.
. T I
a
I
a
2

for series motors.
Similarly as E
b

= (PNZ)(60A), we can write the speed equation as,
E
b


N
.
.
. N E
b
/
But V = E
b
+ I
a
R
a
neglecting brush drop
.
.
. E
b
= V - I
a
R
a

.
.
. Speed equation becomes,
N (V-I
a
R
a
)/
So for shunt motor as flux is constant,
.
.
. N V - I
a
R
a

While for series motor, flux is proportional to I
a
.


FACTORS AFFECTING THE SPEED OF A D.C. MOTOR
According to the speed equation of a d.c. motor we can write,

The factors Z, P, A are constants for a d.c. motor.
But as the value of armature resistance R
a
and series field resistance R
se
is very small, the
drop I
a
R
a
and (R
a
+ R
se
) is very small compared to applied voltage V. Hence neglecting these
voltage drops the speed equation can be modified as,

Thus the factors affecting the speed of a d.c. motor are,
1. The flux
2. The voltage across the armature
3. The applied voltage V
depending upon these factors the various methods of speed control are,
1. Changing the flux by controlling the current through the field winding called flux control
methods.
2. Changing the armature path resistance which in turn changes the voltage applied across the
armature called rheostatic control.
3. Changing the applied voltage called voltage control method.
D.C. Motor Characteristics
The performance of a d.c. motor under various conditions can be judged by the following
characteristics

i) Torque - Armature current characteristics (T Vs I
a
) :
The graph showing the relationship between the torque and the armature current is called a
torque-armature current characteristic. These are also called electrical characteristics.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics(N Vs I
a
) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and armature current characteristic.
iii) Speed - Torque characteristics(N Vs T) :
The graph showing the relationship between the speed and the torque of the motor is called
speed-torque characteristics of the motor. These are also called mechanical characteristic.
The nature of these characteristics can easily be obtained by using speed and torque
equations derived in previous post. These characteristics play a very important role in selecting a
type of motor for a particular application.

Characteristics of dc shunt motor:
i) Torque - Armature current characteristics
For a d.c. motor T

I
a

For a constant values of R
sh
and supply voltage V, I
sh
is also constant and hence flux is also
constant.
.
.
. T
a
I
a

The equation represents a straight line, passing through the origin, as shown in the Fig. 1.
Torque increases linearly with armature current. It is seen earlier that armature current is decided
by the load. So as load increases, armature current increases, increasing the torque developed
linearly.

Fig. 1 T Vs I
a
for shunt motor
Now if shaft torque is plotted against armature current, it is known that shaft torque is less
than the armature torque and the difference between the two is loss torque T
f
as shown. On no
load T
sh
= 0 but armature torque is present which is just enough to overcome stray losses shown
as T
a0
. The current required is I
a0
on no load to produce T
a0
and hence T
sh
graph has an intercept
of I
a0
on the current axis.
To generate high starting torque, this type of motor requires a large value of armature
current at start. This may damage the motor hence d.c. shunt motors can develop moderate
starting torque and hence suitable for such applications where starting torque requirement is
moderate.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics
From the speed equation we get,
N (V - I
a
Ra)/
V - I
a
Ra as is constant
So as load increases, the armature current increases and hence drop I
a
Ra also increases.
Hence for constant supply voltage, V - I
a
Ra decreases and hence speed reduces. But as Ra
is very small, for change in I
a
from no load to full load, drop I
a
Ra is very small and hence drop in
speed is also not significant from no load to full load.

Fig. 2 N Vs I
a
for shunt motor

So the characteristics is slightly droping as shown in the Fig. 2.
But for all practical purposes these type of motors are considered to be a constant speed
motors.
iii) Speed - Torque characteristics
These characteristics can be derived from the above two characteristics. This graph is similar
to speed-armature current characteristics as torque is proportional to the armature current. This
curve shows that the speed almost remains constant through torque changes from no load to full
load conditions. This is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 N Vs T for shunt motor

Characteristics of dc series motor:
i) Torque - Armature current characteristics
In case of series motor the series field winding is carrying the entire armature current. So
flux produced is proportional to the armature current.
.
.
. Ia
Hence T
a
I
a
I
a
2


Thus torque in case of series motor is proportional to the square of the armature current. This
relation is parabolic in nature as shown in the Fig. 1.


As load increases, armature current increases and torque produced increases proportional to
the square of the armature current upto a certain limit.
As the entire I
a
passes through the series field, there is a property of an electromagnet called
saturation, may occur. Saturation means though the current through the winding increases, the
flux produced remains constant. Hence after saturation the characteristics take the place of
straight line as flux becomes constant, as shown. The difference between T
a
and T
sh
is loss torque
T
f
which is also shown in the Fig. 2.
At start as T
a
I
a
2

, these types of motors can produce high torque for small amount of
armature current hence the series motors are suitable for the applications which demand high
starting torque.
ii) Speed - Armature current characteristics
From the speed equation we get,
N (E
b
/) ) V - I
a
R
a
- I
a
R
se
)/ I
a
as I
a
in case of series motor
Now the values of R
a
and R
se
are so small that the effect of change in I
a
on speed overrides
the effect of change in V - I
a
R
a
- I
a
R
se
on the speed.
Hence in the speed equation, E
b
Vand can be assumed constant. So speed equation reduced
to,
N 1/I
a

So speed-armature current characteristics is rectangular hyperbola type as shown in the Fig.
2.
iii) Speed - Torque characteristics
In case of series motors, T I
a
2

and N 1/I
a

Hence we can write, N 1/T
Thus as torque increases when load increases, the speed decreases. On no load, torque is
very less and hence speed increases to dangerously high value. Thus the nature of the speed-
torque characteristics is similar to the nature of the speed-armature current characteristics.
The speed-torque characteristics of a series motor is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 N Vs T for series motor

DC Compound Motor Characteristics:

Compound motor characteristics basically depends on the fact whether the motor is
cumulatively compound or differential compound. All the characteristics of the compound motor
are the combination of the shunt and series characteristic.
Cumulative compound motor is capable of developing large amount of torque at low speeds
just like series motor. However it is not having a disadvantages of series motor even at light or
no load. The shunt field winding produces the definite flux and series flux helps the shunt field
flux to increase the total flux level.
So cumulative compound motor can run at reasonable speed and will not run with
dangerously high speed like series motor, on light or no load condition.
In differential compound motor, as two fluxes oppose each other, the resultant flux decreases
as load increases, thus the machine runs at a higher speed with increase in the load. This property
is dangerous as on full load, the motor may try to run with dangerously high speed. So
differential compound motor is generally not used in practice.
The various characteristics of both the types of compound motors cumulative and the
differential are shown in the Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c).

Fig. 1 characteristics of d.c. compound motor

The exact shape of these characteristics depends on the relative contribution of series and
shunt field windings. If the shunt field winding is more dominant then the characteristics take the
shape of the shunt motor characteristics. While if the series field winding is more dominant then
the characteristics take the shape of the series characteristics.

Why Series Motor is Never Started on No Load?
It is seen earlier that motor armature current is decided by the load. On light load or no load, the
armature current drawn by the motor is very small.
In case of a d.c. series motor, I
a
and
on no load as I
a
is small hence flux produced is also very small.
According to speed equation,
N 1/

as E
b
is almost constant.
So on very light load or no load as flux is very small, the motor tries to run at dangerously
high speed which may damage the motor mechanically. This can be seen from the speed-
armature current and the speed-torque characteristics that on low armature current and low
torque condition motor shows a tendency to rotate with dangerously high speed.
This is the reason why series motor should never be started on light loads or no load
conditions. For this reason it is not selected for belt drives as breaking or slipping of belt causes
to throw the entire load off on the motor and made to run motor with no load which is dangerous.
STARTING METHODS OF A DC MOTOR
Basic operational voltage equation of a DC motor is given as
E = E
b
+ I
a
R
a
and hence I
a
= (E - E
b
) / R
a

Now, when the motor is at rest, obviously, there is no back emf E
b
, hence armature current will
be high at starting.
This excessive current will-
1. Blow out the fuses and may damage the armature winding and/or commutator brush
arrangement.
2. Produce very high starting torque (as torque is directly proportional to armature current),
and this high starting toque will produce huge centrifugal force which may throw off the
armature windings.
Thus to avoid above two drawbacks, starters are used for starting of DC machine.

Starting Methods of a DC Motor
Thus, to avoid the above dangers while starting a DC motor, it is necessary to limit the starting
current. For that purpose, starters are used to start a DC motor. There are various starters like, 3
point starter, 4 point starter, No load release coil starter, thyristor starter etc.
The main concept behind every DC motor starter is, adding external resistance to the armature
winding at starting.













3 POINT STARTER:
The internal wiring of a 3 point starter is as shown in the figure.


When motor is to be started, the lever is turned gradually to the right. When lever touches point
1, the field winding gets directly connected across the supply, and the armature winding gets
connected with resistances R1 to R5 in series. Hence at starting full resistance is added in series
with armature. Then as the lever is moved further, the resistance is gradually is cut out from the
armature circuit. Now, as the lever reaches to position 6, all the resistance is cut out from the
armature circuit and armature gets directly connected across the supply. The electromagnet E (no
voltage coil) holds the lever at this position. This electromagnet releases the lever when there is
no (or low) supply voltage.

When the motor is overloaded beyond a predefined value, over current release electromagnet D
gets activated, which short circuits electromagnet E , and hence releases the lever and motor is
turned off.






4 POINT STARTER:

The main difference between a 3 point starter and a 4 point starter is that the no voltage coil
is not connected in series with field coil. The field gets directly connected to the supply, as the
lever moves touching the brass arc. The no voltage coil (or Hold on coil) is connected with a
current limiting resistance Rh. This arrangement ensures that any change of current in the shunt
field does not affect the current through hold on coil at all. This means that electromagnet pull of
the hold-on coil will always be sufficient so that the spring does not unnecessarily restore the
lever to the off position.
This starter is used where field current is to be adjusted by means of a field rheostat.

2 POINT STARTER: (DC Series motor starter)
Construction of DC series motor starters is very basic as shown in the figure. A start
arm is simply moved towards right to start the motor. Thus at first maximum resistance is
connected in series with the armature and then gradually decreased as the start arm moves
towards right. The no load release coil holds the start arm to the run position and leaves it at no
load.


SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR:
We know, back emf of a DC motor E
b
is the induced emf due to rotation of the armature
in magnetic field. Thus value of the E
b
can be given by the EMF equation of a DC generator.

E
b
=
PNZ
/
60A

(where, P= no. of poles, =flux/pole, N=speed in rpm, Z=no. of armature conductors, A=parallel
paths)

E
b
can also be given as,
E
b
= V- I
a
R
a


thus from above equations

N =
E
b
60A
/
PZ


but, for a DC motor A, P and Z are constant

N K
E
b
/

(where, K=constant)

thus, it shows speed is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to the flux
per pole.

SPEED CONTROL METHODS OF DC MOTOR
Speed Control of Shunt Motor
1. Flux Control Method

It is seen that speed of the motor is inversely proportional to flux. Thus by decreasing flux
speed can be increased and vice versa.
To control the flux, a rheostat is added in series with the field winding, as shown in the
circuit diagram. Adding more resistance in series with field winding will increase the speed, as it
will decrease the flux. Field current is relatively small and hence I
2
R loss is small, hence this
method is quiet efficient. Though speed can be increased by reducing flux with this method, it
puts a limit to maximum speed as weakening of flux beyond the limit will adversely affect the
commutation.
2. Armature Control Method

Speed of the motor is directly proportional to the back emf E
b
and E
b
= V- I
a
R
a
.
That is when supply voltage V and armature resistance R
a
are kept constant, speed is
directly proportional to armature current I
a
. Thus if we add resistance in series with armature,
I
a
decreases and hence speed decreases.Greater the resistance in series with armature, greater the
decrease in speed.

3. Voltage Control Method

a) Multiple voltage control: In this method the, shunt filed is connected to a fixed exciting
voltage, and armature is supplied with different voltages. Voltage across armature is changed
with the help of a suitable switchgear. The speed is approximately proportional to the voltage
across the armature.


b) WARD-LEONARD SYSTEM:
Ward Leonard control system is introduced by Henry Ward Leonard in 1891. Ward Leonard
method of speed control is used for controlling the speed of a DC motor. It is a basic armature
control method. This control system is consisting of a dc motor M_1 and powered by a DC
generator G. In this method the speed of the dc motor (M_1) is controlled by applying variable
voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained using a motor-generator set which
consists of a motor M_2(either ac or dc motor) directly coupled with the generator G. It is a very
widely used method of speed control of DC motor.
Principle of Ward Leonard Method
Basic connection diagram of the Ward Leonard speed control system is shown in the figure
below.

The speed of motor M
1
is to be controlled which is powered by the generator G. The
shunt field of the motor M
1
is connected across the dc supply lines. Now, generator G is driven
by the motor M
2
. The speed of the motor M
2
is constant. When the output voltage of the
generator is fed to the motor M
1
then the motor starts to rotate. When the output voltage of the
generator varies then the speed of the motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of
the generator the speed of motor can also be controlled. For this purpose of controlling the output
voltage, a field regulator is connected across the generator with the dc supply lines to control the
field excitation. The direction of rotation of the motor M
1
can be reversed by excitation current
of the generator and it can be done with the help of the reversing switch R.S. But the motor-
generator set must run in the same direction.
Advantages of Ward Leonard System
1. It is a very smooth speed control system over a very wide range (from zero to normal
speed of the motor).
2. The speed can be controlled in both the direction of rotation of the motor easily.
3. The motor can run with a uniform acceleration.
4. Speed regulation of DC motor in this ward Leonard system is very good.
Disadvantages of Ward Leonard System
1. The system is very costly because two extra machines (motor-generator set) are required.
2. Overall efficiency of the system is not sufficient especially it is lightly loaded.
Application of Ward Leonard System
This Ward Leonard method of speed control system is used where a very wide and very
sensitive speed control is of a DC motor in both the direction of rotation is required. This speed
control system is mainly used in colliery winders, cranes, electric excavators, mine hoists,
elevators, steel rolling mills and paper machines etc.
Speed Control Of Series Motor
1. Flux Control Method
a) Field diverter :

A variable resistance is connected parallel to the series field as shown in fig. This variable
resistor is called as diverter, as desired amount of current can be diverted through this resistor
and hence current through field coil can be decreased. Hence flux can be decreased to desired
amount and speed can be increased.

b) Armature divertor:

Diverter is connected across the armature as in fig .
For a given constant load torque, if armature current is reduced then flux must increase. As,
Ta Ia
This will result in increase in current taken from the supply and hence flux will increase and
subsequently speed of the motor will decrease.

c) Tapped field control:

As shown in fig field coil is tapped dividing number of turns. Thus we can select different value
of by selecting different number of turns.






d) Paralleling field coils:

In this method, several speeds can be obtained by regrouping coils as shown in fig

2. Variable Resistance In Series With Armature
By introducing resistance in series with armature, voltage across the armature can be
reduced. And hence, speed reduces in proportion with it.

3. Series-Parallel Control
This system is widely used in electric traction, where two or more mechanically coupled
series motors are employed. For low speeds, motors are joined in series, and for higher speeds
motors are joined in parallel.
When in series, the motors have the same current passing through them, although voltage
across each motor is divided. When in parallel, voltage across each motor is same although
current gets divided.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Construction details
1. Explain the constructional details of a DC Generator. Describe its working principle and
derive its emf equation. (16) (N/D-12)
2. Explain in detail, the functions of various parts of a DC motor. (16)
Emf equation
1. A six pole lap connected DC generator has a useful flux per pole of 0.045 Wb. If the no-load
voltage at 400 rpm is 300 V, find the conductors on the armature periphery. (8) (N/D-09)
2. Derive the emf equation from fundamentals and also explain why the lap winding is preferred
compared to wave winding for low voltage high current machines. (8)
3. Derive an expression for emf generated in a DC machine. (8)
Self and separately excited generators
1. A separately excited generator, when running at 1000 rpm supplies 200 A at 125 V. What
will be the load current when the speed drops to 800 rpm, if the field current is unchanged?
Assume the armature resistance as 0.04 and the brush drop is 2 V.
(16) (N/D-09)


Characteristics of series, shunt and compound generators
1. Explain in detail, the characteristics of a DC generator with neat diagrams. (16) (N/D-09)
2. A DC shunt generator has a terminal voltage of 160 V and a no-load induced emf of 168 V.
The resistances of armature and field are 0.03 and 20 respectively. Find the armature
current, field current and load current. Neglect armature reaction. (6)
Principle of operation of a DC motor
1. Explain the principle of operation of a DC motor with relevant diagrams. (8) (N/D-11)
Back emf and torque equation
1. Explain the significance of back emf. (6)
2. Prove that the torque developed by a DC motor is proportional to flux and armature current.
(8)
Characteristics of series, shunt and compound motors
1. A 25 kW, 250 V, DC shunt generator has an armature and a field resistance of 0.06 and
100 respectively. Determine the total armature power developed during operating
condition. (6) (A/M-10)
2. A 4 pole, 220 V DC shunt motor has 540 lap-wound conductors. It takes 32 A from the
supply mains and develops output power of 5.595 kW. The field winding takes 1 A. The
armature resistance is 0.9 and the flux per pole is 30 mWb. Calculate the speed in rpm and
the torque developed in Nm. (6) (A/M-10)
3. Explain in detail, the different classifications of DC motors with respect to their equivalent
circuits. (8) (N/D-09)
4. Estimate the percentage reduction in speed of a separately excited DC generator working with
constant excitation of 400 V, bus bar voltage is decreasing as its load varies from 600 kW to
400 kW. The machine resistance is 0.02 . Neglect the armature reaction. (8) (A/M-
11)
5. The armature winding of a 200 V, 4 pole series motor is lap connected. There are 280 slots
with 4 conductors per slot. The current is 45 A and the flux per pole is 18 mWb. The field
resistance is 0.3 , armature resistance 0.5 and the total iron and the friction losses are 800
W. The pulley diameter is 0.41 m. Find the pull in newton at the rim of the pulley. (10)
6. Explain the speed-current, speed-torque and torque-current characteristics of a DC shunt and
series motor. (8)



Types of starters
1. Draw the schematic diagram of a 3 point starter and explain its working principle. (8)
(M/J-12)
2. Explain the operation of a 4 point starter with a neat diagram and also write its advantages
over a three point starter. (10) (A/M-10)
Speed control of DC shunt motors
1. (i) A 4 pole DC motor runs at 600 rpm on full load and takes 25 A , 450 V the armature is lap
wound with conductors and flux per pole is given by the equation = (1.7 X 10
-2
) x I
0.5
Wb
where I is the motor current. If the supply voltage and torque are halved, calculate the speed
at which the motor will run. Neglect stray losses. (8)
(ii) Explain the various types of speed control techniques of DC Machines. (8) (M/J-12)
2. Explain the procedure to predetermine the efficiencies of a DC Machine as a motor and as a
generator. (8) (N/D-12)
3. Explain in detail, the Ward-Leonard system of speed control of a DC motor.
4. Explain in detail, the different methods of speed control of a DC motor. (16) (N/D-12)















UNIT II TRANSFORMER
Introduction Single phase transformer construction and principle of operation EMF equation
of transformer-Transformer noload phasor diagram Transformer onload phasor diagram
Equivalent circuit of transformer Regulation of transformer Transformer losses and
efficiency-All day efficiency auto transformers.

SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Working Principle of 1-Phase Transformer
1. Introduction
The main advantage of alternating currents over direct current is that, the alternating currents
can be easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage or high voltage to low. Alternating
voltages can be raised or lowered as per requirements in the different stages of electrical network
as generation, transmission, distribution and utilization. This is possible with a static device
called transformer. The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. It transfer an
electric energy from one circuit to other when there is no electrical connection between the tow
circuits. Thus we can define transformer as below :
Key point : The transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which an electrical power
is transformed from one alternating current circuit to another with the desired change in voltage
and current, without any change in the frequency.
The use of transformers in transmission system is shown in the Fig 1.1.

Fig. 1.1 Use of transformer in transmission system

2. Principle of working
The principle of mutual induction states that when tow coils are inductively coupled and if
current in one coil is changed uniformly then an e.m.f. gets induced in the other coil. This e.m.f
can drive a current, when a closed path is provided to it. The transformer works on the same
principle. In its elementary form, it consists of tow inductive coils which are electrically
separated but linked through a common magnetic circuit. The two coils have high mutual
inductance. The basic transformer is shown in the Fig 1.2.
One of the two coils is connected to source of alternating voltage. This coil in which
electrical energy is fed with the help of source called primary winding (P). The other winding is
connected to load. The electrical energy transformed to this winding is drawn out to the load.



Fig.1.2 Basic transformer


Fig 1.3 Symbolic representation
This winding is called secondary winding (S). The primary winding has N
1
number of turns
while the secondary winding has N
2
number of turns. Symbolically the transformer is indicated
as shown in the Fig 1.3.
When primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage, it circulates an alternating
current. This current produces an alternating flux ()which completes its path through common
magnetic core as shown dotted in the Fig 1.2. Thus an alternating, flux links with the secondary
winding. As the flux is alternating, according to Faraday's law of an electromagnetic induction,
mutually induced e.m.f. gets developed in the secondary winding. If now load is connected to the
secondary winding, this e.m.f. drives a current through it.
Thus through there is no electrical contact between the two windings, an electrical energy
gets transferred from primary to the secondary.
Key point : The frequency of the mutual induced e.m.f. is same as that of the alternating source
which is supplying energy to the primary winding.

3. Can D.C. Supply be used for Transformer?
The d.c. supply can not be used for the transformers.
The transformer works on the principle of mutual induction, for which current in one coil
must change uniformly. If d.c. supply is given, the current will not change due to constant supply
and transformer will not work.
Practically winding resistance is very small. For d.c., the inductive reactance X
L
is zero as
d.c. has no frequency. So total impedance of winding is very low for d.c. Thus winding will draw
very high current if d.c. supply is given to it. This may cause the burning of windings due to
extra heat generated and may cause permanent damage to the transformer.
There can be saturation of the core due to which transformer draws very large current from
the supply when connected to d.c.
Thus d.c. supply should not be connected to the transformers.

CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMER

There are two basic parts of a transformer i) Magnetic Core ii) Winding or Coils.
The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular in size. It is further divided into tow
parts. The vertical position on which coils are wound is called limb while the top and bottom
horizontal portion is called yoke of the core. These parts are shown in the Fig.1(a).
Core is made up of lamination. Because of laminated type of construction, eddy current
losses get minimised. Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5 mm thick) are
used. These laminations are insulated from each other by using insulation like varnish. All
laminations are varnished. Laminations are overlapped so that to avoid the air gap at joints. For
this generally 'L' shaped or 'I' shaped laminations are used which are shown in the Fig 1(b).


Fig. 1 Construction of transformer

The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to be used either circular or
rectangular. The different cross-section of limbs, practically used are shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Different cross-sections

Types of Windings
The coils used are wound on the limbs and are insulated from each other. In the basic
transformer shown in the Fig 1.2 (see post : Working Principle of 1-Phase Transformer ) the two
windings wound are shown on two different limbs i.e. primary on one limb while secondary on
other limb. But due to this leakage flux increases which effects the transformer performance
badly. Similarly it is necessary that the windings should be very closes to each other to have high
mutual inductance. To achieve this, the tow windings are split into number of coils and are
wound adjacent to each other on the same limb. A very common arrangement is cylindrical coils
as shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Cylindrical concentric coils

Such cylindrical coils are used in the core type transformer. Theses coils are mechanically
strong. These are wound in the helical layers. The different layers are insulated from each other
by paper, cloth or mica. The low voltage winding is placed near the core from ease of insulating
it from the core. The high voltage is placed after it.
The other type of coils which is very commonly used for the shell type of transformer is
sandwiching coils. Each high voltage portion lies between the two low voltage portion
sandwiching the high voltage portion. Such subdivision of windings into small portion reduces
the leakage flux. Higher the degree of subdivision, smaller is the reactance. The sandwich coil is
shown in the Fig. 4. The top and bottom coils are low voltage coils. All the portion are insulated
from each other by paper.

Fig. 4 Sandwich coils



CONSTRUCTION OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER
The various constructions used for the single phase transformers are,
1. Core type 2. shell type and 3. Berry type
1. Core Type Transformer
It has a single magnetic circuit. The core rectangular having two limbs. The winding
encircles the core. The coils used are of cylindrical type. As mentioned earlier, the coils are
wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper or mica. Both
the coils are placed on both the limbs. The low voltage coil is placed inside near the core while
high voltage coil surrounds the low voltage coil. Core is made up of large number of thin
laminations.
As The windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs, the natural cooling is more
effective. The coils can be easily removed by removing the laminations of the top yoke, for
maintenance.
The Fig. 1(a) shows the schematic representation of the core type transformer while the Fig
1(b) shows the view of actual construction of the core type transformer.

Fig. 1 Core type transformer
2. Shell Type Transformer
It has a double magnetic circuit. The core has three limbs. Both the windings are placed on
the central limb. The core encircles most part of the windings. The coils used are generally
multilayer disc type or sandwich coils. As mentioned earlier, each high voltage coil is in between
tow low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the yokes.
The core is laminated. While arranging the laminations of the core, the care is taken that all
the joints at alternate layers are staggered. This is done to avoid narrow air gap at the joint, right
through the cross-section of the core. Such joints are called over lapped or imbricated joint.
Generally for very high voltage transformers, the shell type construction is preferred. As the
windings are surrounded by the core, the natural cooling does not exist. For removing any
winding for maintenance, large number of laimnations are required to be removed.
The Fig. 2(a) shows the schematic representation while the Fig. 2(b) shows the outaway
view of the construction of the shell type transformer.

Fig 2 Shell type transformer

3. Berry Type Transformer
This has distributed magnetic circuit. The number of independent magnetic circuits are more
than 2. Its core construction is like spokes of a wheel. Otherwise it is symmetrical to that of shell
type.
Diagramatically it can be shown as in the Fug. 3.

Fig. 3 Berry type transformer
The transformers are generally kept in tightly fitted sheet metal tanks. The tanks are
constructed of specified high quality steel plate cut, formed and welded into the rigid structures.
All the joints are painted with a solution of light blue chalk which turns dark in the presence of
oil, disclosing even the minutes leaks. The tanks are filled with the special insulating oil. The
entire transformer assembly is immersed in the oil. Oil serves two functions :i) Keeps the coil
cool by circulation and ii) Provides the transformers an additional insulation.
The oil should be absolutely free from alkalies, sulphur and specially from moisture.
Presence of very small moisture lowers the dielectric strength of oil, affecting its performance
badly. Hence the tanks are sealed air tight to avoid the contact of oil with atmospheric air and
moisture. In large transformers, the chambers called breather are provided. The breathers prevent
the atmospheric moisture to pass on to the oil. The breathers contain the silica gel crystal which
immediately absorb the atmospheric moisture. Due to long and continuous use, the sludge is
formed in the oil which can contaminate the oil. Hence to keep such sludge separate from the oil
in main tank, an air tight metal drum is provided, which is placed on the top of tank. This is
called conservator.



4. Comparison of Core and Shell Type Transformers


E.M.F EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER
When the primary winding is excited by an alternating voltage V
1
, it circulates alternating
current, producing an alternating flux . The primary winding has N
1
number of turns. The
alternating flux linking with the primary winding itself induces an e.m.f in it denoted as E
1
.
The flux links with secondary winding through the common magnetic core. It produces induced
e.m.f. E
2
in the secondary winding. This is mutually induced e.m.f. Let us derive the equations
for E
1
and E
2
.
The primary winding is excited by purely sinusoidal alternating voltage. Hence the flux
produced is also sinusoidal in nature having maximum value of
m
as show in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Sinusoidal flux
The various quantities which affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. are :
= Flux

m
= Maximum value of flux
N
1
= Number of primary winding turns
N
2
= Number of secondary winding turns
f = Frequency of the supply voltage
E
1
= R.M.S. value of the primary induced e.m.f.
E
2
= R.M.S. value of the secondary induced e.m.f.
From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction the voltage e.m.f. induced in each turn is
proportional to the average rate of change of flux.
.
.
. averagee.m.f. per turn = average rate of change of flux
.
.
. averagee.m.f. per turn = d/dt
Now d/dt = Change in flux/Time required for change in flux
Consider the 1/4 th cycle of the flux as shown in the Fig.1. Complete cycle gets completed in
1/f seconds. In 1/4 th time period, the change in flux is from 0 to
m
.
.
.
. d/dt = (
m
- 0)/(1/4f) as dt for 1/4 th time period is 1/4f seconds
= 4 f
m
Wb/sec
.
.
. Average e.m.f. per turn = 4 f
m
volts
As is sinusoidal, the induced e.m.f. in each turn of both the windings is also sinusoidal in
nature. For sinusoidal quantity,
From factor = R.M.S. value/Average value = 1.11
.
.
. R.M.S. value of induced e.m.f. per turn
= 1.11 x 4 f
m
= 4.44 f
m

There are number of primary turns hence the R.M.S value of induced e.m.f. of primary
denoted as is E
1
,
E
1
= N
1
x 4.44 f
m
volts
While as there are number of secondary turns the R.M.S values of induced e.m.f. of
secondary denoted is E
2
is,
E
2
= N
2
x 4.44 f
m
volts
The expression of E
1
and E
2
are called e.m.f. equation of a transformer.
Thus e.m.f. equations are,
E
1
= 4.44 f
m
N
1
volts ............(1)
E
2
= 4.44 f
m
N
2
volts .............(2)

Ratios of a Transformer

Consider a transformer shown in Fig.1 indicating various voltages and currents.

Fig. 1 Ratios of transformer

1. Voltage Ratio
We known from the e.m.f. equations of a transformer that
E
1
= 4.44 f
m
N
1
and E
2
= 4.44 f
m
N
2

Taking ratio of the two equations we
get,


This ratio of secondary induced e.m.f. to primary induced e.m.f. is known as voltage
transformation ratio denoted as K,
Thus,

1. If N
2
> N
1
i.e. K > 1, E
2
> E
1
we get then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
2. If N
2
< N
1
i.e. K < 1, we get E
2
< E
1
then the transformer is called step-down transformer.
3. If = i.e. K= 1, we get E
2
= E
1
then the transformer is called isolation transformer or 1:1
transformer.
2. Concept of Ideal Transformer
A transformer is said to be ideal if it satisfies following properties :
i) It has no losses.
ii) Its windings have zero resistance.
iii) Leakage flux is zero i.e. 100% flux produced by primary links with the secondary.
iv) Permeability of core is so high that negligible current is required to establish the flux in it.
Key point : For an ideal transformer, the primary applied voltage V
1
is same as the primary
induced e.m.f. V
2
as there are no voltage drops.
Similarly the secondary induced e.m.f. E
2
is also same as the terminal voltage V
2
across the
load. Hence for an ideal transformer we can write,


No transformer is ideal in practice but the value of E
1
is almost equal to V
1
for properly
designed transformer.

3. Current ratio
For an ideal transformer there are no losses. Hence the product of primary voltage V
1
and
primary current I
1
, is same as the product of secondary voltage V
2
and the secondary current I
2
.
So V
1
I
1
= input VA and V
2
I
2
= output VA
For an ideal transformer,
V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2



Key point : Hence the currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage transformation ratio.
4. Voltage ampere rating
When electrical power is transferred from primary winding to secondary there are few power
losses in between. These power losses appear in the form of heat which increase the temperature
of the device.Now this temperature must be maintained below certain limiting values as it is
always harmful from insulation point of view. As current is the main cause in producing heat, the
output maximum rating is generally specified as the product of output voltage and output current
i.e.V
2
I
2
. This always indicates that when transformer is operated under this specified rating, its
temperature rise will not be excessive. The copper loss (I
2
R) in the transformer depends on the
current 'I' through the winding while the iron or core loss depends on the voltage 'V' as frequency
of operation is constant. None of these losses depend on the power factor (cos ) of the load.
Hence losses decide the temperature and hence the rating of the transformer. As losses depend on
V and I only, the rating of the transformer is specified as a product of these two parameters VxI.

Key point : Thus the transformer rating is specified as the product of voltage and current called
VA rating.
On both sides, primary and secondary VA rating remains same. This rating is generally
expresses in KVA (kilo volt amperes rating).
Now V
1
/V
2
= I
2
/I
1
= K
.
.
. V
1
I
1
= V
2
I
2



If V
1
and V
2
are the terminal voltages of primary and secondary then from specified KVA
rating we can decide full load currents of primary and secondary, I
1
and I
2
. This is the safe
maximum current limit which may carry, keeping temperature rise below its limiting value.


Key point : The full load primary and secondary currents indicate the safe maximum values of
currents which transformer windings can carry.

Ideal Transformer on No Load

Consider an ideal transformer on no load as shown in the Fig. 3. The supply voltage is and as it is
V
1
an no load the secondary current I
2
= 0.
The primary draws a current I
1
which is just necessary to produce flux in the core. As it
magnetising the core, it is called magnetising current denoted as I
m
. As the transformer is ideal,
the winding resistance is zero and it is purely inductive in nature. The magnetising current is I
m
is
very small and lags V
1
by 30
o
as the winding is purely inductive. This I
m
produces an alternating
flux which is in phase with I
m
.

Fig. 1 Ideal transformer on no load

The flux links with both the winding producing the induced e.m.f.s E
1
and E
2
, in the primary
and secondary windings respectively. According to Lenz's law, the induced e.m.f. opposes the
cause producing it which is supply voltage V
1
. Hence E
1
is in antiphase with V
1
but equal in
magnitude. The induced E
2
also opposes V
1
hence in antiphase with V
1
but its magnitude depends
on N
2
. Thus E
1
and E
2
are in phase.
The phasor diagram for the ideal transformer on no load is shown in the Fig. .2.

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for ideal transformer on no load
It can be seen that flux is reference. I
m
produces hence in phase with . V
1
leads I
m
by
90
o
as winding is purely inductive so current has to lag voltage by 90
o
.
E
1
and E
2
are in phase and both opposing supply voltage .
The power input to the transformer is V
1
I
1
cos (V
1
^ I
1
) i.e. V
1
I
m
cos(90
o
) i.e. zero. This is
because on no load output power is zero and for ideal transformer there are no losses hence input
power is also zero. Ideal no load p.f. of transformer is zero lagging.

Practical Transformer on No Load

Actually in practical transformer iron core causes hysteresis and eddy current losses as it is
subjected to alternating flux. While designing the transformer the efforts are made to keep these
losses minimum by,
1. Using high grade material as silicon steel to reduce hysteresis loss.
2. Manufacturing core in the form of laminations or stacks of thin lamination to reduce eddy
current loss.
Apart from this there are iron losses in the practical transformer. Practically primary winding
has certain resistance hence there are small primary copper loss present.
Thus the primary current under no load condition has to supply the iron losses i.e. hysteresis
loss and eddy current loss and a small amount of primary copper loss. This current is denoted as
I
o
.
Now the no load input current I
o
has two components :
1. A purely reactive component I
m
called magnetising component of no load current required to
produce the flux. This is also called wattless component.
2. An active component I
c
which supplies total losses under no load condition called power
component of no load current. This also called wattful component or core loss component of I
o
.
Thtotal no load current I
o
is the vector addition of I
m
and I
c
.


In practical transformer, due to winding resistance, no load current I
o
is no longer at
90
o
with respect to V
1
. But it lags V
1
by angle
o
which is less than 90
o
. Thus cos
o
is called no
load power factor of practical transformer.

Fig 1. Practical transformer on no load

The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 1. It can be seen that the two components I
o
are,


This is magnetising component lagging V
1
exactly by 90
o
.


This is core loss component which is in phase withV
1
.
The magnitude of the no load current is given by,


While
o
= no load primary power factor angle
The total power input on no load is denoted as W
o
and is given by,


It may be denoted that the current is very small, about 3 to 5% of the full load rated current.
Hence the primary copper loss is negligibly small hence I
c
is called core loss or iron loss
component. Hence power input W
o
on no load always represent the iron losses, as copper loss is
negligibly small. The iron losses are denoted as P
i
and are constant for all load conditions.


Transformer on Load (M.M.F Balancing on Load)

When the transformer is loaded, the current I
2
flows through the secondary winding. The
magnetic and phase of I
2
is determined by the load. If load is inductive, I
2
lags V
2
. If load is
capacitive, I
2
leads V
2
while for resistive load, I
2
is in phase withV
2
.
There exists a secondary m.m.f. N
2
I
2
due to which secondary current sets up its own flux

2
. This flux opposes the main flux which is produced in the core due to magnetising
component of no load current. Hence the m.m.f. is N
2
I
2
called demagnetising ampere-turns. This
is shown in the Fig.1(a).
The flux
2
momentarily reduces the main flux , due to which the primary induced e.m.f.
also E
1
reduces.

This additional current drawn by primary is due to the load hence called load component of
primary current denoted as I
2
' as shown in the Fig.1(b).

Fig. 1 Transformer on load


This current I
2
' is in antiphase with I
2
. The current sets up its own flux
2
' which opposes
the flux
2
and helps the main flux. This flux
2
' neutralises the flux
2
produced by I
2
. The
m.m.f. i.e. ampere turns N
2
I
2
' balances the ampere turns N
2
I
2
. Hence the net flux in the core is
again maintained at constant level.
Key point : Thus for any load condition, no load to full load the flux in the core is practically
constant.
The load component current I
2
' always neutralises the changes in the loads. Hence the
transformer is called constant flux machine.
As the ampere turns are balanced we can write,
N
2
I
2
=N
2
I
2
'
.
.
. I
2
' =(N
2
/N
1
) = K I
2
..................(1)
Thus when transformer is loaded, the primary current I
1
has two components :
1. The no load current I
o
which lags V
1
by angle
o
. It has two components I
m
and I
c
.
2. The load component I
2
' which in antiphase with I
2
. And phase of I
2
is decided by the load.
Hence primary current I
1
is vector sum of I
o
and I
2
'.
.
.
.
1
=
o
+
2
...............(2)
Assume inductive load, I
2
lags E
2
by
2
, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2(a).
Assume purely resistive load, I
2
in phase with E
2
, the phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.2(b).
Assume capacitive load, I
2
leads E
2
by
2
, the phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 2(c).
Note that I
2
' is always in antiphase with I
2
.

Fig. 2
Actually the phase of I
2
is with respect to V
2
i.e. angle
2
is angle between I
2
and V
2
. For the
ideal case, E
2
is assumed equal to V
2
neglecting various drops.
The current ratio can be verified from this discussion. As the no load current I
o
is very small,
neglecting I
o
we can write,
I
1
~ I
2
'
Balancing the ampere turns,
N
1
I
1
= N
1
I
1
= N
2
I
2

.
.
. N
2
/N
1
= I
1
/I
2
= K
Under full load conditions when I
o
is very small compared to full load currents, the ratio of
primary and secondary current is constant.
.

Effect of Winding Resistances

1. Effect OF Winding Resistances
A practical transformer windings process some resistances which not only cause the power
losses but also the voltage drops. Let us see what is the effect of winding resistance on the
performance of the transformer.
Let R
1
= primary winding resistance in ohms
R
2
= secondary winding resistance in ohms
Now when current I
1
flows through primary, there is voltage drop I
1
R
1
across the winding.
The supply voltage V
1
has to supply this drop. Hence primary induced e.m.f. E
1
is the vector
difference between V
1
and I
1
R
1
.

Similarly the induced e.m.f. in secondary is E
2
. When load is connected, current I
2
flows and
there is voltage drop I
2
R
2
. The e.m.f. E
2
has to supply this drop. The vector difference between
E
2
and I
2
R
2
is available to the load as a terminal voltage.

The drops I
1
R
1
and I
2
R
2
are purely resistive drops hence are always in phase with the respective
currents I
1
and I
2
.
1.1 Equivalent Resistance
The resistance of the two windings can be transferred to any one side either primary or
secondary without affecting the performance of the transformer. The transfer of the resistances
on any one side is advantageous as it makes the calculations very easy. Let us see how to transfer
the resistances on any one side.
The total copper loss due to both the resistances can be obtained as,
total copper loss = I
1
2
R
1
+ I
2
2
R
2

= I
1
2
{ R
1
+(I
2
2
/I
1
2
) R
2
}
= I
1
2
{R
1
+ (1/K
2
) R
2
} .......(3)
Where I
2
/I
1
= 1/K neglecting no load current.
Now the expression (3) indicates that the total copper loss can be expressed as I
1
2
R
1
+
I
1
2
.R
2/
K
2
. This means R
2
/K
2
is the resistance value of R
2
shifted to primary side which causes
same copper loss with I
1
as R
2
causes with. This value of resistance which R
2
/K
2
is the value of
R
2
referred to primary is called equivalent resistance of secondary referred to primary. It is
denoted as R
2
'.
R
2
' = R
2
/K
2
........(4)
Hence the total resistance referred to primary is the addition of R
1
and R
2
' called equivalent
resistance of transformer referred to primary and denoted as R
1e
.
= R
1
+ R
2
'= R
1
+ R
2
/K
2
.........(5)
This resistance R
1e
causes same copper loss with I
1
as the total copper loss due to the
individual windings.
total copper loss = I
1
2
R
1e
= I
1
2
R
1
+ I
2
2
R
2
......(6)
So equivalent resistance simplifies the calculations as we have to calculate parameters on
one side only.
Similarly it is possible to refer the equivalent resistance to secondary winding.
total copper loss = I
1
2
R
1
+ I
2
2
R
2

= I
2
2
{(I
1
2
/I
2
2
) R
1
+ R
2
}
= I
2
2
( K
2
R
1
+ R
2
) ........(7)
Thus the resistance K
2
R
1
is primary resistance referred to secondary denoted as R
1
'.
R
1
' = K
2
R
1
.......(8)
Hence the total resistance referred to secondary is the addition of R
2
and R
1
'called equivalent
resistance of transformer referred to secondary and denoted as R
2e
.
R
2e
= R
2
+ R
1
' = R
2
+ K
2
R
1
.........(9)
total copper loss = I
2
2
R
2e
........(10)
The concept of equivalent resistance is shown in the Fig. 1(a), (b) and (c).

Fig. 1 Equivalent resistance
Key Point : When resistance are transferred to primary, the secondary winding becomes zero
resistance winding for calculation purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due to R
1e
. Similarly
when resistances are referred to secondary, the primary becomes resistanceless for calculation
purpose. The entire copper loss occurs due to R
2e
.
Important Note : When a resistance is to be transferred from the primary to secondary, it must
be multiplied by K
2
. When a resistance is to be transferred from the secondary to primary, it
must be divided by K
2
. Remember that K is N
1
/N
2
.
The result can be cross-checked by another approach. The high voltage winding is always
low current winding and hence the resistance of high voltage side is high. The low voltage side is
high current side and hence resistance of low voltage side is low. So while transferring resistance
from low voltage side to high voltage side, its value must increase while transferring resistance
from high voltage side to low voltage side, its value must decrease.

Key point :
High voltage side Low current side High resistance side
Low voltage side High current side Low resistance side
Effect of Leakage Reactance
1. Effect of Leakage Reactance
Uptill now it is assumed that the entire flux produced by the primary links with the
secondary winding. But in practice it is not possible. Part of the primary flux as well as the
secondary flux completes the path through air and links with the respecting winding only. Such a
flux is called leakage flux. Thus there are two leakage fluxes present as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig .1 Individual impedance

The flux
L1
is the primary leakage flux which is produced due to primary current I
1
. It is in
phase with I
1
and links with primary only.
The flux
L2
is the secondary leakage flux which is produced due to current I
2
. It is in phase
with I
2
and links with

the secondary winding only.
Due to the leakage flux
L1
there is self inducede.m.f. e
L1
in primary. While due to leakage
flux
L2
there is self inducede.m.f. e
L2
in secondary. The primary voltage V
1
has to overcome
this voltage e
L1
to produce E
1
while induced e.m.f. E
2
has to overcome e
L2
to produce terminal
voltage V
2
. Thus the self inducede.m.f.sare treated as the voltage drops across the fictitious
reactance placed in series with the windings. These reactances are called leakage reactance of the
winding.
So X
1
= Leakage reacatnce of primary winding.
and X
2
= Leakage reactance of secondary winding.
The value of X
1
is such that the drop I
1
X
1
is nothing but the self inducede.m.f. e
L1
due to
flux
L1
. The value of X
2
is such that the drop I
2
X
2
is equal to the self inducede.m.f. e
L2
due to
flux
L1
.
Leakage fluxes with the respective windings only and not to both the windings. To reduce
the leakage, as mentioned, int eh construction both the winding's are placed on same limb rather
than on separate limbs.
1.1 Equivalent Leakage Reactance
Similar to the resistances, the leakage reactances also can be transferred from primary to
secondary or viceversa. The relation through K
2
remains same for the transfer of recatnaces as it
is studied earlier for the resistances.
Let X
1
is leakage reactance of primary and X
2
is leakage reactance of secondary.
Then the total leakage reacatance referred to primary is X
1e
given by,
X
1e
= X
1
+ X
2
' where X
2
' = X
2
/K
2

While the total leakage reacatnce referred to secondary is given by ,
X
2e
= X
2
+ X
1
' where X
1
' = K
2
X
1

And K = N
2
/N
1
=transformation ratio

Equivalent Impedance
The transformer primary has resistance R
1
and reactance X
1
. While the transformer
secondary has resistance R
2
and reacatnce X
2
. Thus we can say that the total impedance of
primary winding is Z
1
which is,
Z
1
= R
1
+ j X
1
..........(1)
And the total impedance of the secondary winding is which is ,
Z
2
= R
2
+ j X
2
...........(2)
This is shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1 Individual impedance

The individual magnitudes of and are,
Z
1
= (R
1
2
+ X
1
2
) ...........(3)
and Z
2
= (R
2
2
+ X
2
2
) .........(4)
Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance also can be referred to any one side.
Let Z
1e
= total equivalent impedance referred to primary
then Z
1e
= R
1e
+ j X
1e

Z
1e
= Z
1
+ Z
2
' = Z
1
+ Z
2
/K
2
............(5)
Similarly Z
2e
= total equivalent impedance referred to secondary
then Z
2e
= R
2e
+ j X
2e

Z
2e
= Z
2
+ Z
1
' = Z
2
+ K
2
Z
1
............(6)
The magnitude of Z
1e
and Z
2e
are,
Z
1e
= (R
1e
2
+ X
1e
2
) ........(7)
and Z
2e
= (R
2e
2
+ X
2e
2
) ...........(8)
It can be denoted that,
Z
2e
= K
2
Z
1e
and Z
1e
= Z
2e
/K
2

The concept of equivalent impedance is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig 2 Equivalent impedance




Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load
Phasor Diagrams for Transformer on Load
Consider a transformer supplying the load as shown in the Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
The various transformer parameters are,
R
1
= Primary winding resistance
X
1
= Primary leakage reactance
R
2
= Secondary winding resistance
X
2
= Secondary leakage reactance
Z
L
= Load impedance
I
1
= Primary current
I
2
= Secondary current = I
L
= Load current
now
1
=
o
+
2
'
where I
o
= No load current
I
2
'= Load component of current decided by the load
= K I
2
where K is transformer component
The primary voltage V
1
has now three components,
1. -E
1
, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V
1

2. I
1
R
1
, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I
1

3. I
1
X
1
, the drop across the reactance, leading I
1
by 90
o



The secondary induced e.m.f. has also three components,
1. V
2
, the terminal voltage across the load
2.I
2
R
2
, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I
2

3. I
2
X
2
, the drop across the reactance, leading I
2
by 90
o



The phasor diagram for the transformer on load depends on the nature of the load power
factor. Let us consider the various cases of the load power factor.

1.1 Unity power factor load, cos
2
= 1
As load power factor is unity, the voltage V
2
and I
2
are in phase. Steps to draw the phasor
diagram are,
1. Consider flux as reference
2. E
1
lags by 90
o
. Reverse E
1
to get -E
1
.
3. E
1
and E
2
are inphase
4. Assume V
2
in a particular direction
5. I
2
is in phase with V
2
.
6. Add I
2
R
2
and I
2
X
2
to to get E
2
.
7. Reverse I
2
to get I
2
'.
8. Add I
o
and I
2
' to get I
1
.
9. Add I
1
R
1
and to -E
1
to get V
1
.
Angle between V
1
and I
1
is
1
and cos
1
is primary power factor. Remember that I
1
X
1
leads
I
1
direction by 90
o
and I
2
X
2
leads I
2
by 90
o
as current through inductance lags voltage across
inductance by 90
o
. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.2

Fig. 2 Phasor diagram for unity power factor load

Lagging Power Factor Load, cos
2

As load power factor is lagging cos
2
, the current I
2
lags V
2
by angle
2
. So only changes in
drawing the phasor diagram is to draw I
2
lagging V
2
by
2
in step 5 discussed earlier.
Accordingly direction of I
2
R
2
, I
2
X
2
, I
2
', I
1
, I
1
R
1
and I
1
X
1
will change. Remember that whatever
may be the power factor of load, I
2
X
2
leads I
2
by 90
o
and I
1
X
1
leads I
1
by 90
o
.
The complete phasor diagram is shown in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Phasor diagram for lagging power factor

Loading Power Factor Load, cos
2

As load power factor is leading, the current I
2
leads V
2
by angle
2
. So change is to draw
I
2
leading I
2
by angle
2
. All other steps remain same as before. The complete phasor diagram is
shown in the Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Phasor diagram for leading power factor


Equivalent circuit of Transformer
1. Equivalent circuit of Transformer
The term equivalent circuit of a machine means the combination of fixed and variable
resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates performance and working of the machine.
For a transformer, no load primary current has two components,
I
m
= I
o
sin
o
= Magnetizing component
I
c
= I
o
cos
o
= Active component
I
m
produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X
o
called no load reractance
while I
c
is active component representing core losses hence is assumed to flow through the
reactance R
o
. Hence equivalent circuit on no load can be shown as in the Fig. 1. This circuit
consisting of R
o
and X
o
in parallel is called exciting circuit. From the equivalent circuit we can
write,
R
o
= V
1
/I
c

and X
o
= V
1
/I
m



Fig. 1 No load equivalent circuit


When the is connected to the transformer then secondary current I
2
flows. This causes
voltage drop across R
2
and R
2
. Due to I
2
, primary draws an additional current
I
2
' = I
2
/ K. Now I
1
is the phasor addition of I
o
and I
2
'. This I
1
causes the voltage drop across
primary resistance R
1
and reactance X
1
.
Hence the equivalent circuit can be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2
But in the equivalent circuit, windings are not shown and it is further simplified by
transferring all the values to the primary or secondary. This makes the transformer calculation
much easy.
So transferring secondary parameters to primary we get,
R
2
'= R
2
/K
2
, X
2
' = X
2
/K
2
' , Z
2
' = Z
2
/K
2

While E
2
' = E
2
/K' I
2
' = K I
2

Where K = N
2
/N
1

While transferring the values remember the rule that
Low voltage winding High current Low impedance
High voltage winding Low current High impedance
Thus the exact equivalent circuit referred to primary can be shown as in the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Exact equivalent circuit referred to primary

Similarly all the primary value can be referred to secondary and we can obtain the equivalent
circuit referred to secondary.
R
1
' = K
2
R
1
, X
1
' = K
2
X
1
, Z
1
' = K
2
Z
1

E
1
'= K E
1
, I
o
' = I
1
/K' I
o
' = I
o
/K
Similarly the exciting circuit parameters also gets transferred to secondary as R
o
'and X
o
'.
The circuit is shown in the Fig.4.

Fig. 4 Exact equivalent circuit referred to secondary

Now as long as no load branch i.e. exciting branch is in between Z
1
and Z
2
', the impedances
can not be combined. So further simplification of the circuit can be done. Such circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit.
1.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
To get approximate equivalent circuit, shift the no load branch containing R
o
and X
o
to the
left of R
1
and X
1
. By doing this we are creating an error that the drop across R
1
and X
1
due to I
o
is
neglected. Hence such an equivalent circuit is called approximate equivalent circuit.
So approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary can be as shown in the Fig. 5.

Fig. 5 Approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary

In this circuit now R
1
and R
2
' can be combined to get equivalent resistance referred to
primary R
1e
as discussed earlier. Similarly X
1
and X
1
' can be combined to get X
1e
. And equivalent
circuit can be simplified as shown in the Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

We know that, R
1e
= R
1
+ R
2
'= R
1
+ R
2
/K
2

X
1e
= X
1
+ X
2
' = X
1
+ X
2
/K
2

Z
1e
= R
1e
+ j X
1e

R
o
= V
1
/I
c
and X
o
=

V
1
/I
m

I
c
= I
o
cos
o
and Im = I
o
sin
o

In the similar fashion, the approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary also can be
obtained.

Voltage Regulation of Transformer
1. Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Because of the voltage drop across the primary and secondary impedances it is observed that
the secondary terminal voltage drops from its no load value (E
2
) to load value (V
2
) as load and
load current increases.
This decrease in the secondary terminal voltage expressed as a fraction of the no load
secondary terminal voltage is called regulation of a transformer.
The regulation is defined as change in the magnitude of the secondary terminal voltage,
when full load i.e. rated load of specified power factor supplied at rated voltage is reduced to no
load, with primary voltage maintained constant expressed as the percentage of the rated terminal
voltage.
Let E
2
= Secondary terminal voltage on no load
V
2
= Secondary terminal voltage on given load
then mathematically voltage regulation at given load can be expressed as,


The ratio (E
2
- V
2
/ V
2
) is called per unit regulation.
The secondary terminal voltage does not depend only on the magnitude of the load current
but also on the nature of the power factor of the load. If V
2
is determined for full load and
specified power factor condition the regulation is called full load regulation.
As load current increases, the voltage drops tend to increase V
2
and drops more and more. In
case of lagging power factor V
2
< E
2
and we get positive voltage regulation, while for leading
power factor E
2
< V
2
and we get negative voltage regulation.
The voltage drop should be as small as possible hence less the regulation better is the
performance of a transformer.
1.1 Expression for Voltage Regulation
The voltage regulation is defined as,
%R = (E
2
- V
2 /
V
2
) x 100 = (Total voltage drop/V
2
) x 100
The expression for the total approximate voltage drop is already derived.
Total voltage drop = I
2
R
2e
cos I
2
X
2e
sin
Hence the regulation can be expressed as,


'+' sing for lagging power factor while '-' sing for leading power factor loads.
The regulation van be further expressed interms of I
1
, V
1
, R
1e
and X
1e
.
V
2
/V
1
=I
1
/I
2
= K
.
.
. V
2
= KV
1
, I
2
= I
1
/K
while R
1e
=R
2e
/K
2
, X
1e
= X
2e
/K
2

Substituting in the regulation expression we get,


1.2 Zero Voltage Regulation
We have seen that for lagging power factor and unity power factor condition V
2
< E
2
and we
get positive regulation. But as load becomes capacitive, V
2
starts increasing as load increase. At a
certain leading power factor we get E
2
= V
2
and the regulation becomes zero. If the load is
increased further, E
2
becomes less than V
2
and we get negative regulation.
.
.
. for zero voltage regulation,
E
2
= V
2

.
.
. E
2
- V
2
= 0
or V
R
cos - V
x
sin = 0 .......... -ve sing as leading power factor
where V
R
= I
2
R
2e
/V
2
= I
1
R
1e
/V
1
and V
x
= I
2
X
2e
/V
2
= I
1
X
1e
/V
1

.
.
. V
R
cos = V
x
sin
.
.
. tan = V
R
/V
x

.
.
. cos = cos {tan
-1
(V
R
/Vx)}
This is the leading p.f. at which voltage regulation becomes zero while supplying the load.
1.3 Constants of a Transformer
From the regulation expression we can define constants of a transformer.
%R= (( I
2
R
2e
cos I
2
X
2e
sin )/ E
2
) x 100
= {(I
2
R
2e
/E
2
) cos (I
2
X
2e
/E
2
) sin } x 100
The ratio (I
2
R
2e
/E
2
) or (I
1
R
1e
/E
1
) is called per unit resistive drop and denoted as V
R
.
The ratio (I
2
X
2e
/E
2
) or (I
1
X
1e
/E
1
) is called per unit reactive drop and is denoted as Vx.
The terms V
R
and Vx are called constants of a transformer because for the rated output I
2
,
E
2
, R
1e
, X
1e
, R
2e
, X
2e
are constants. The regulation can be expressed interms of V
R
and Vx as,
%R = (V
R
cos
iuu Vx sin ) x 100
On load condition, E
2
= V
2
and E
1
= V
1

where V
1
and V
2
are the given voltage ratings of a transformer. Hence V
R
and Vx can be
expressed as,
V
R
= I
2
R
2e
/ V
2
= I
1
R
1e
/ V
1

and
Vx =I
2
R
2e
/ V
2
= I
1
X
1e
/ V
1

where V
1
and V
2
are no load primary and secondary voltages,
V
R
and Vx can be expressed on percentage basis as,
Percentage resistive drop = V
R
x 100
Percentage reactive drop = Vx x 100
Key Point : Note that and are also called per unit resistance and reactance respectively.
LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
1. Losses in a Transformer
In a transformer, there exists two types of losses.
i) The core gets subjected to an alternating flux, causing core losses.
ii) The windings carry currents when transformer is loaded, causing copper losses.
1.1 Core or Iron Losses
Due to alternating flux set up in the magnetic core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of
magnetisation and demagnetisation. Due to hysteresis effect there is loss of energy in this
process which is called hysteresis loss.
It is given by, hysteresis loss = K
h

B
m
1.67
f v watts
where K
h

= Hysteresis constant depends on material.
B
m
= Maximum flux density.
f = Frequency.
v = Volume of the core.
The induced e.m.f. in the core tries to set up eddy currents in the core and hence responsible
for the eddy current losses. The eddy current loss is given by,
Eddy current loss = K
e

B
m
2
f
2
t
2
watts/ unit volume
where K
e

= Eddy current constant
t = Thickness of the core
As seen earlier, the flux in the core is almost constant as supply voltage V
1
at rated
frequency f is always constant. Hence the flux density B
m
in the core and hence both hysteresis
and eddy current losses are constants at all the loads. Hence the core or iron losses are also called
constant losses. The iron losses are denoted as P
i
.
The iron losses are minimized by using high grade core material like silicon steel having very
low hysteresis loop by manufacturing the core in the form of laminations.
1.2 Copper Losses
The copper losses are due to the power wasted in the form of I
2

R loss due to the resistances
of the primary and secondary windings. The copper loss depends on the magnitude of the
currents flowing through the windings.
Total Cu loss = I
1
2

R
1
+ I
2
2

R
2
= I
1
2

( R
1
+ R
2
' )= I
2
2

( R
2
+R
1
' )
= I
1
2

R
1e
= I
2
2

R
2e

The copper looses are denoted as. If the current through the windings is full load current, we
get copper losses at full load. If the load on transformer is half then we get copper losses at half
load which are less than full load copper losses. Thus copper losses are called variable losses.
For transformer VA rating is or. As is constant, we can say that copper losses are proportional to
the square of the KVA rating.
So, P
cu

I
2
(KVA)
2

Thus for a transformer,
Total losses = Iron losses + Copper losses
= P
i
+P
cu


Key point : It is seen that the iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the copper losses
depend on the current. The losses are not dependent on the phase angle between voltage and
current. Hence the rating of the transformer is expressed as a product of voltage and current and
called VA rating of transformer. It is not expressed in watts or kilo watts. Most of the times,
rating is expressed in KVA.

EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER

Efficiency of a Transformer
Due to the losses in a transformer, the output power of a transformer is less than the input
power supplied.
.
.
. Power output = Power input - Total losses
.
.
. Power input = Power output + Total losses
= Power output + P
i
+P
cu

The efficiency of any device is defined as the ratio of the power output to power input. So
for a transformer the efficiency can be expresses as,
= Power output/power input
.
.
. = Power output/(power output + P
i
+ P
cu
)
Now power output = V
2
I
2
cos
where cos = Load power factor
The transformer supplies full load of current I
2
and with terminal voltage V
2
.
P
cu
= Copper losses on full load = I
2
2

R
2e

.
.
. = (V
2
I
2
cos
2
)/(V
2
I
2
cos
2
+ P
i
+ I
2
2

R
2e
)
But V
2
I
2
= VA rating of a transformer
.
.
. = (VA rating x cos ) / (VA rating x cos + P
i
+ I
2
2

R
2e
)

This is full load percentage efficiency with,
I
2
= Full load secondary current
But if the transformer is subjected to fractional load then using the appropriate values of
various quantities, the efficiency can be obtained.
Let n =Fraction by which load is less than full load = Actual load/Full load
For example, if transformer is subjected to half load then,
n = Half load/Full load = (1/2)/2 = 0.5
when load changes, the load current changes by same proportion.
.
.
. new I
2
= n (I
2
) F.L.
Similarly the output V
2
I
2
cos
2
also reduces by the same fraction. Thus fraction of VA
rating is available at the output.
Similarly as copper losses are proportional to square of current then,
new P
cu
= n
2

(P
cu
) F.L.
Key Point : So copper losses get reduced by n
2
.
In general for fractional load the efficiency is given by,


where n = Fraction by which load power factor lagging, leading and unity the efficiency
expression does not change, and remains same.

1. Condition for Maximum Efficiency
When a transformer works on a constant input voltage and frequency then efficiency varies
with the load. As load increases, the efficiency increases. At a certain load current, it achieves a
maximum value. If the transformer is loaded further the efficiency starts decreasing. The graph
of efficiency against load current I
2
is shown in the Fig.1

Fig. 1

The load current at which the efficiency attains maximum value is denoted as I
2m
and
maximum efficiency is denoted as
max
.
Let us determine,
1. Condition for maximum efficiency.
2. Load current at which
max
occurs.
3. KVA supplied at maximum efficiency.
The efficiency is a function of load i.e. load current I
2
assuming cos constant. The
secondary terminal voltage V
2
is also assumed constant. So for maximum efficiency,
d /d I
2
= 0
Now = (V
2
I
2
cos
2
)/(V
2
I
2
cos
2
+ P
i
+ I
2
2

R
2e
)


.
.
. (V
2
I
2
cos
2
+ P
i
+ I
2
2

R
2e
)(V
2
cos
2
) - (V
2
I
2
cos
2
)(V
2
cos
2
+ 2I
2


R
2e
) = 0
Cancelling (V
2
cos 2) from both the terms we get,
V
2
I
2
cos
2
+ P
i
+I
2
2

R
2e
- V
2
I
2

2
- 2I
2
2

R
2e
= 0
.
.
. P
i
- I
2
2

R
2e
= 0
.
.
. P
i
= I
2
2

R
2e
= P
cu

So condition to achieve maximum efficiency is that,
Copper losses = Iron losses
1.1 Load Current I
2m
at Maximum Efficiency
For
max
, I
2
2

R
2e
= P
i
but I
2
= I
2m

I
2m
2

R
2e
= P
i

I
2m
= (P
i
/

R
2e
)
This is the load current at
max
,
Let (I
2
)F.L. = Full load current
.
.
. I
2m
/(I
2
) F.L.= (1/(I
2
) F.L.)(P
i
/

R
2e
)
.
.
. I
2m
/(I
2
) F.L.= (P
i
)/({(I
2
) F.L.}
2

R
2e
)
= (P
i
)/((P
cu
) F.L.)
.
.
. I
2m
= (I
2
)F.L.(P
i
)/((P
cu
) F.L.)
This is the load current at
max
interms of full load current.
1.2 KVA supplied at maximum Efficiency
For constant V
2
the KVA supplied is the function of.
KVA at
max
= I
2m
V
2
= V
2
(I
2
) F.L. x (P
i
)

/((P
cu
)F.L.)
KVA at
max
= (KVA rating) x (P
i
)

/((P
cu
)F.L.)
Substituting condition for in the expression of efficiency, we can write expression for
max
as,


ii) KVA at = KVA rating x (P
i
)

/((P
cu
)F.L.)


Effect of Power factor on Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is given by,


Now, input = output + losses = V
2
I
2
cos + losses
Using in (1), = 1 - (losses / (V
2
I
2
cos + losses))

Let losses/V
2
I
2
= x and using in (2),

Thus as the power factor of the load is more i.e. cos is higher, x/cos is lesser. Hence the
second term in the equation (3) becomes lesser and efficiency will be more.
Key Point : As power factor increases, the efficiency increases.
Thus the family of efficiency curves are obtained as power factor increases, as shown in the
Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Effect of p.f. on efficiency


Effect of Frequency and Supply Voltage on Iron Losses
Effect of Frequency and Supply Voltage on Iron Losses
The iron losses of a transformer includes two types of losses,
1. Hysteresis loss and 2. Eddy current loss
For a given volume and thickness of laminations, these losses depend on the operating
frequency, maximum flux density and the voltage.

It is known that for a transformer,
V = 4.44 f
m
N = 4.44 f B
m
A N
Where A = area
.
.
. B
m
(V/f) .......... For constant A and N
Thus as voltage changes, the maximum flux density changes and both eddy current and
hysteresis losses also changes. As voltage increases, the maximum flux density in the core
increases and total iron loss increases.
As frequency increases, the flux density in the core decreases but as the iron loss is directly
proportional to the frequency hence effect of increased frequency is to increase the iron losses.
Key Point : Thus iron loss increases as the voltage and frequency increases for the transformer.
ALL DAY EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
For a transformer, the efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. This
is its efficiency. But power efficiency is not the true measure of the performance of some special
types of transformers such as distribution transformers.
Distribution transformer serve residential and commercial loads. The load on such
transformers vary considerably during the period of the day. For most period of the day these
transformers are working at 30 to 40 % of full load only or even less than that. But the primary
of such transformers is energised at its rated voltage for 24 hours, to provide continuous supply
to the consumer. The core loss which depends on voltage, takes place continuously for all the
loads. But copper loss depends on the load condition. For no load, copper loss is negligibly small
while on full load it is at its rated value. Hence power efficiency can not give the measure of true
efficiency of such transformers. in such transformers, the energy output is calculated in kilo watt
hour (kWh). Then ratio of total energy output to total energy input (output + losses) is calculated.
Such ratio is called energy efficiency or All Day Efficiency of a transformer. Based on this
efficiency, the performance of various distribution transformers is compared. All day efficiency
is defined as,


While calculating energies, all energies can be expressed in watt hour (Wh) instead of kilo
watt hour (kWh).
Such distribution transformers are designed to have very low core losses. This is achieved
by limiting the core flux density to lower value by using a relative higher core cross-section i.e.
larger iron to copper weight ratio. The maximum efficiency in such transformers occurs at about
60-70 % of the full load. So by proper designing, high energy efficiencies can be achieved for
distribution transformers.
The calculation of all day efficiency for a transformer are illustrated in the Ex. 1.



AUTOTRANSFORMER:
An Autotransformer has only one single voltage winding which is common to both
sides. This single winding is tapped at various points along its length to provide a percentage
of the primary voltage supply across its secondary load. Then the autotransformer has the usual
magnetic core but only has one winding, which is common to both the primary and secondary
circuits.
Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are linked together
both electrically and magnetically. The main advantage of this type of transformer design is that
it can be made a lot cheaper for the same VA rating, but the biggest disadvantage of an
autotransformer is that it does not have the primary/secondary winding isolation of a
conventional double wound transformer.
The section of winding designated as the primary part of the winding is connected to the
AC power source with the secondary being part of this primary winding. An autotransformer can
also be used to step the supply voltage up or down by reversing the connections. If the primary is
the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the secondary circuit is connected across only
a portion of the winding, then the secondary voltage is stepped-down as shown.
Autotransformer Design


When the primary current I
P
is flowing through the single winding in the direction of the
arrow as shown, the secondary current, I
S
, flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in the
portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage, V
S
the current flowing out of the
winding is the difference of I
P
and I
S
.
The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one single tapping point.
Auto-transformers can be used to provide different voltage points along its winding or increase
its supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage V
P
as shown.
Autotransformer with Multiple Tapping Points


The standard method for marking an auto-transformer windings is to label it with capital (upper
case) letters. So for example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the common
neutral connection is marked as N or n. For the secondary tappings, suffix numbers are used for
all tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding. These numbers generally start at
number 1 and continue in ascending order for all tapping points as shown.
Autotransformer Terminal Markings


An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages to either change
its value or to keep it constant. If the voltage adjustment is by a small amount, either up or down,
then the transformer ratio is small as V
P
and V
S
are nearly equal. Currents I
P
and I
S
are also
nearly equal.
Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference between the two
currents can be made from a much smaller conductor size, since the currents are much smaller
saving on the cost of an equivalent double wound transformer.
However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since there is no second
winding) of an autotransformer for a given VA or KVA rating are less than for a double wound
transformer.
Autotransformers are clearly much cheaper than conventional double wound
transformers of the same VA rating. When deciding upon using an autotransformer it is usual to
compare its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.
This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the winding. If the ratio n is
defined as the ratio of the lower voltage to the higher voltage, then it can be shown that the
saving in copper is: n.100%. For example, the saving in copper for the two autotransformers
would be:

The Autotransformer have many advantages over conventional double wound
transformers. They are generally more efficient for the same VA rating, are smaller in size, and
as they require less copper in their construction, their cost is less compared to double wound
transformers of the same VA rating. Also, their core and copper losses, I
2
R are lower due to less
resistance and leakage reactance giving a superior voltage regulation than the equivalent two
winding transformer.
Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the primary to
secondary winding isolation of a conventional double wound transformer. Then
autotransformers can not safely be used for stepping down higher voltages to much
lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.
If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, current stops flowing through the
primary winding stopping the transformer action resulting in the full primary voltage
being applied to the secondary circuit.
If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the resulting primary current
would be much larger than an equivalent double wound transformer due to the increased
flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.
Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and secondary windings,
earthing of the secondary winding automatically earths the primary as there is no
isolation between the two windings. Double wound transformers are sometimes used to
isolate equipment from earth.
The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction
motors, used to regulate the voltage of transmission lines, and can be used to transform voltages
when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity.An autotransformer can also be made from
conventional two-winding transformers by connecting the primary and secondary windings
together in series and depending upon how the connection is made, the secondary voltage may
add to, or subtract from, the primary voltage.
The Variable Autotransformer
As well as having a fixed or tapped secondary that produces a voltage output at a specific
level, there is another useful application of the auto transformer type of arrangement which can
be used to produce a variable AC voltage from a fixed voltage AC supply. This type of Variable
Autotransformer is generally used in laboratories and science labs in schools and colleges and
is known more commonly as the Variac.
The construction of a variable autotransformer, or variac, is the same as for the fixed
type. A single primary winding wrapped around a laminated magnetic core is used as in the auto
transformer but instead of being fixed at some predetermined tapping point, the secondary
voltage is tapped through a carbon brush.This carbon brush is rotated or allowed to slide along
an exposed section of the primary winding, making contact with it as it moves supplying the
required voltage level.
Then a variable autotransformer contains a variable tap in the form of a carbon brush that
slides up and down the primary winding which controls the secondary winding length and hence
the secondary output voltage is fully variable from the primary supply voltage value to zero
volts.
The variable autotransformer is usually designed with a significant number of primary
windings to produce a secondary voltage which can be adjusted from a few volts to fractions of a
volt per turn. This is achieved because the carbon brush or slider is always in contact with one or
more turns of the primary winding. As the primary coil turns are evenly spaced along its length.
Then the output voltage becomes proportional to the angular rotation.
Variable Autotransformer

The variac can adjust the voltage to the load smoothly from zero to the rated supply
voltage. If the supply voltage was tapped at some point along the primary winding, then
potentially the output secondary voltage could be higher than the actual supply voltage. Variable
autotransformers can also be used for the dimming of lights and when used in this type of
application, they are sometimes called dimmerstats.
Variacs are also very useful in Electrical and Electronics workshops and labs as they can
be used to provide a variable AC supply. But caution needs to be taken with suitable fuse
protection to ensure that the higher supply voltage is not present at the secondary terminals under
fault conditions.
PART B
Construction details
1. Explain in detail, the constructional features of a transformer with neat diagrams.
(16)
Principle of operation
1. Explain the working principle of a transformer. (6)

Emf equation
1. Derive the emf equation of a transformer. (6) (N/D-12)
2. Derive the emf equation of a transformer and prove that the number of turns on HV winding
and LV winding is in the ratio of their voltages. (8) (A/M-10)
Transformer on no-load
1. Explain in detail, the operation of a transformer on no-load and load. (10) (N/D-12)
2. The required no-load voltage ratio in a 1, 50 Hz, core type transformer is 6000/250 V. Find
the number of turns in each winding, if the flux is 0.06 Wb.
(10)
3. Draw and explain the no-load vector diagram of an ideal transformer and a practical
transformer. (8)
Equivalent circuit
1. Draw and explain the equivalent circuit of a transformer on no-load and load. (8) (N/D-12)
2. Develop the equivalent circuit of a transformer on no-load and load.
(16)
3. Calculate in terms of the primary, the equivalent resistance and the leakage reactance of a
transformer which gives the following data on test with the secondary terminals short
circuited:
Applied voltage = 60 V; Current = 100 A; Power input = 1.2 kW. (10)
Transformer on-load
1. Draw and explain the phasor diagram of a single phase transformer supplying the following:
a) a UPF load
b) a lagging power factor load (8) (A/M-10)
2. Explain the various losses in a transformer. (8)
3. A single phase transformer is rated at 240/120 V, 50 Hz, find voltage and frequency of
secondary at no-load for the following conditions:
a) if primary voltage is 120 V at 25 Hz
b) if primary voltage is 240 V DC (6)
4. Explain the principle of operation of a single phase transformer and its behaviour on load
with phasor diagrams. (16)
Regulation
1. The maximum efficiency of a single phase 11000/400 V, 550 kVA transformer is 97.5% and
the efficiency occurs at 80% of full load at unity power factor. The percentage impedance is
3.5% and the load power factor is varied while the load current and the supply voltage are
held constant at their rated values. Determine the load power factor, at which the secondary
terminal voltage is minimum. Also find the value of the secondary voltage. (16) (M/J-12)





UNIT III INDUCTION MACHINES AND SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Principle of operation of three-phase induction motors Construction Types Equivalent
circuit Construction of single-phase induction motors Types of single phase induction motors
Double revolving field theory starting methods - Principles of alternator Construction
details Types Equation of induced EMF Voltage regulation. Methods of starting of
synchronous motors Torque equation V curves Synchronous motors.
A three phase induction motor runs on a three phase AC supply. 3 phase induction motors
are extensively used for various industrial applications because of their following advantages -
They have very simple and rugged (almost unbreakable) construction
They are very reliable and having low cost
They have high efficiency and good power factor
Minimum maintenance required
3 phase induction motor is self starting hence extra starting motor or any special starting
arrangement is not required
They also have some disadvantages
Speed decreases with increase in load, just like a DC shunt motor
If speed is to be varied, we have sacrifice some of its efficiency

CONSTRUCTION OF A 3 PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
A 3 phase induction motor also consists of a stator and a rotor. Basically there are two types of
3 phase IM - 1. Squirrel cage induction motor and 2. Phase Wound induction motor (slip-
ring induction motor). Both types have similar constructed rotor, but they differ in construction
of rotor. This is explained further
.
Stator


The stator of a 3 phase IM (Induction Motor) is made up with number of stampings, and
these stampings are slotted to receive the stator winding. The stator is wound with a 3 phase
winding which is fed from a 3 phase supply. It is wound for a defined number of poles, and the
number of poles is determined from the required speed. For greater speed, lesser number of poles
is used and vice versa. When stator windings are supplied with 3 phase ac supply, they produce
alternating flux which revolves with synchronous speed. The synchronous speed is inversely
proportional to number of poles (Ns = 120f / P). This revolving or rotating magnetic flux induces
current in rotor windings according to Faraday's law of mutual induction.

Rotor
Rotor of a 3 phase induction motor can be of either two types, squirrel cage rotor and phase
wound rotor (or simply - wound rotor).
Squirrel cage rotor

Most of the induction motors (upto 90%) are of squirrel cage type. Squirrel cage type rotor has
very simple and almost indestructible construction. This type of rotor consist of a cylindrical
laminated core, having parallel slots on it. These parallel slots carry rotor conductors. In this type
of rotor, heavy bars of copper, aluminum or alloys are used as rotor conductors instead of wires.
Rotor slots are slightly skewed to achieve following advantages -
1. it reduces locking tendency of the rotor, i.e. the tendency of rotor teeth to remain under stator
teeth due to magnetic attraction.
2. increases the effective transformation ratio between stator and rotor
3. increases rotor resistance due to increased length of the rotor conductor

The rotor bars are brazed or electrically welded to short circuiting end rings at both ends. Thus
this rotor construction looks like a squirrel cage and hence we call it. The rotor bars are
permanently short circuited, hence it is not possible to add any external resistance to armature
circuit.

Phase wound rotor


Phase wound rotor is wound with 3 phase, double layer, distributed winding. The
number of poles of rotor are kept same to the number of poles of the stator. The rotor is always
wound 3 phase even if the stator is wound two phase.
The three phase rotor winding is internally star connected. The other three terminals of the
winding are taken out via three insulated sleep rings mounted on the shaft and the brushes resting
on them. These three brushes are connected to an external star connected rheostat. This
arrangement is done to introduce an external resistance in rotor circuit for starting purposes and
for changing the speed / torque characteristics.
When motor is running at its rated speed, slip rings are automatically short circuited by means of
a metal collar and brushes are lifted above the slip rings to minimize the frictional losses.
2. Rotating Magnetic field (R.M.F.)
The rotating magnetic field can be defined as the field or flux having constant amplitude but
whose axis is continuously rotating in a plane with a certain speed. So if the arrangement is made
to rotate a permanent magnet, then the resulting field is a rotating magnetic field. But ion this
method, it is necessary to rotate a magnet physically to produce rotating magnetic field.
But in three phase induction motors such a rotating magnetic field is produced by supplying
currents to a set of stationary windings, with the help of three phase a.c. supply. The current
carrying windings produce the magnetic field or flux. And due to interaction of three phase
fluxes produced due to three phase supply, resultant flux has a constant magnitude and its axis
rotating in space, without physically rotating the windings. This type of field is nothing but
rotating magnetic field. Let us study how it happens.
2.1 Production of R.M.F.
A three phase induction motor consists of three phase winding as its stationary part called
stator. The three phase stator winding is connected in star or delta. The three phase windings are
displaced from each other by 120
o
. The windings are supplied by a balanced three phase a.c.
supply. This is shown in the Fig. 1. The three phase windings are denoted as R-R' , Y-Y' and B-
B'.

Fig. 1 Star or delta connected 3phase winding
The three phase currents flow simultaneously through the windings and are displaced from
each other by 120
o
electrical. Each alternating phase current produces its own flux which is
sinusoidal. So all three fluxes are sinusoidal and are separated from each other by 120
o
. If the
phase sequence of the windings is R-Y-B, then mathematical equations for the instantaneous
values of the three fluxes
R
,
Y
and
B
can be written as,

R
=
m
sin(t) =
m
sin ...........(1)

Y
= sin (t - 120
o
) =
m
sin ( - 120
o
) ............(2)

B
=
m
sin (t - 240
o
) =
m
sin ( - 240
o
) .............(3)
As winding are identical and supply is balanced, the magnitude of each flux is
m
. Due to
phase sequence R-Y-B, flux lags behind
R
by 120
o
and
B
lags
Y
by 120
o
. So
B
ultimately
lags
R
by 240
o
. The flux
R
is taken as reference while writing the equations.
The Fig. 2(a) shows the waveforms of three fluxes in space. The Fig.2(b) shows the phasor
diagram which clearly shows the assumed positive directions of each flux. Assumed positive
direction means whenever the flux is positive it must be represented along the direction shown
and whenever the flux is negative it must be represented along the opposite direction to the
assumed positive direction.
Let
R
,
Y
and
B
be the instantaneous values of the three fluxes. The resultant flux
T
is
the phasor addition of
R
,
Y
and
B
.

Let us find
T
at the instants 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in the Fig. 2(a) which represents the
values of as 0
o
, 60
o
, 120
o
and 180
o
respectively. The phasor addition can be performed by
obtaining the values of
R
,
Y
and
B
by substituting values of in the equation (1), (2) and (3).

Fig. 2

Case 1 : = 0
o

Substituting in the equations (1), (2) and (3) we get,

R
=
m
sin 0
o
= 0

Y
=
m
sin(-120
o
) = -0.866
m


B
=
m
sin (-240
o
) = + 0.866
m


Fig. 3(a) Vector diagram of = 0
o

The pahsor addition is shown in the Fig. 3(a). The positive values are are shown in assumed
positive directions while negative values are shown in opposite direction to the assumed positive
directions of the respective fluxes. Refer to assumed positive directions shown in the Fig 3(b).
BD is drawn perpendicular from B on
T
. It bisects
T
.
.
.
. OD = DA =
T
/2
In triangle OBD = 30
o

.
.
. cos 30
o
= OD/OB = (
T
/2)/(0.866
m
)
.
.
.
T
= 2 x 0.866
m
x cos 30
o

= 1.5
m

So magnitude of
T
is 1.5
m
and its position is vertically upwards at = 0
o
.
Case 2 = 60
o

Equation (1),(2) and (3) give us,

R
=
m
sin 60
o
= +0.866
m


Y
=
m
sin (-60
o
) = -0866
m


B
=
m
sin (-180
o
) = 0
So
R
is positive and
Y
is negative and hence drawing in appropriate directions we get
phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(b).

Fig 3(b) Vector diagram of = 60
o

Doing the same construction, drawing perpendicular from B on at D we get the same result
as,

T
= 1.5
m

But it can be seen that though its magnitude is 1.5 m it has rotated through 60
o
in space, in
clockwise direction, from its previous position.
Case 3 : = 120
o

Equations (1),(2) and (3) give us,

R
= m sin 120
o
= +0.866 m

Y
= m sin 0
o
= 0

B
= m sin (-120
o
) = -0.866 m
So
R
is positive and
B
is negative. showing
R
and
B
in the appropriate directions, we get
the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig . 3(c).

Fig. 3(c) Vector diagram of = 120
o

After doing the construction same as before i.e. drawing perpendicular from B on
T
, it can
be provided again that,

T
= 1.5 m
But the position of
T
is such that it has rotated further through 60
o
from its previous
position, in clockwise direction. And from its position at = 0
o
, it has rotated through 120
o
in
space, in clockwise direction.
Case 4 : = 180
o

From equations (1),(2) and (3),

R
= m sin (180
o
) = 0

Y
= m sin (60
o
) = +0.866 m

B
= m sin (-60
o
)
= -0.866 m


Fig. 3(d) Vector diagram of = 180
o

So
R
= 0 ,
Y
is positive and
B
is negative. Drawing
Y
and
B
in the appropriate
directions, we get the phasor diagram as shown in the Fig. 3(d).

From phasor diagram, it can be easily proved that,

T
= 1.5 m
Thus the magnitude of
T
once again remains same. But it can be seen that it has further
rotated through 60
o
from its previous position in clockwise direction.
So for an electrical half cycle of 180
o
, the resultant
T
has also rotated through . This is
applicable for the windings from the above discussion we have following conclusions :
a) The resultant of the three alternating fluxes, separated from each other by , has a constant
amplitude of 1.5 m where m is maximum amplitude of an individual flux due to any phase.
b) The resultant always keeps on rotating with a certain speed in space.
Key point : This shows that when a three phase stationary windings are excited by balanced
three phase a.c. supply then the resulting field produced is rotating magnetic field. Though
nothing is physically rotating, the field produced is rotating in space having constant amplitude.
2.2 Speed of R.M.F.
There exists a fixed relation between frequency f of a.c. supply to the windings, the number
of poles P for which winding is wound and speed N r.p.m. of rotating magnetic field. For a
standard frequency whatever speed of R.M.F. results is called synchronous speed, in case of
induction motors. It is denoted as .

= (120 f)/P = speed of R.M.F.
Where f = Supply frequency in Hz
p = Number of poles for which winding is wound
This is the speed which R.M.F rotates in space. Let us see how to change direction of
rotation of R.M.F.
2.3 Direction of R.M.F.

Fig. 4

The direction of the R.M.F. is always from the axis of the leading phase of the three phase
winding towards the lagging phase of the winding. In a phase sequence of R-Y-B, phase R leads
Y by 120
o
and Y leads B by120
o
. So R.M.F. rotates from axis of R to axis of Y and then to axis
of B and so on. So its direction is clockwise as shown in the Fig. 4(a). This direction can be
reversed by interchanging any two terminals of the three phase windings while connecting to the
three phase supply. The terminals Y and B are shown interchanged in the Fig. 4(b). In such case
the direction of R.M.F. will be anticlockwise.
As Y and B of windings are connected to B and Y from winding point of view the phase
sequence becomes R-Y-B. Thus R.M.F. axis follows the direction from R to B to Y which is
anticlockwise.
Key point : Thus by interchanging any two terminals of three phase winding while connecting it
to three phase a.c. supply, direction of rotation of R.M.F. gets reversed.

Basic working principle of an Induction Motor
In a DC motor we need to give 2 supplies, i.e. one supply to stator and another supply to the
rotor. But in an induction motor we need to give the supply only to the stator. As the supply
given to the stator is an AC supply, alternating flux will be produced in the stator coil. This
alternating flux revolves with synchronous speed. The rotor conductors are short circuited, hence
current will start flowing through the rotor conductors according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. That is why such motors are called as induction motors.
(This action is same as that occurs in transformers, hence induction motors can be called as
rotating transformers.) Now, induced current in rotor will also produce alternating flux around it.
This rotor flux is lags behind the stator flux. The direction of induced rotor current, according to
Lenz's law, is such that it will tend to oppose the cause of its production. As the cause of
production of rotor current is the relative velocity between rotating stator flux and rotor flux, the
rotor will tend to rotate in the same direction as that of stator flux to minimize the relative
velocity. This is the basic working principle of induction motor of either type, single phase of
3 phase
Synchronous speed:
The rotational speed of the rotating magnetic field is called as synchronous speed.

where, f = frequency of the spply
P = number of poles
Slip:
Rotor tries to catch up the synchronous speed of the stator field, and hence it rotates. But in
practice, rotor never succeeds in catching up. Because, if rotor catches up the stator speed, there
wont be any relative speed difference between the stator and the rotor, hence no induced rotor
current and no torque production to maintain the rotation. That is why the rotor rotates at speed
which is always less the synchronous speed.
The difference between the synchronous speed (N
s
) and actual speed (N) of the rotor is called as
slip.

We have already seen that the induction motor can be treated as generalized transformer.
Transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The induction motor also
works on the same principle. The energy transfer from stator to rotor of the induction motor
takes place entirely with the help of a flux mutually linking the two. Thus stator acts as a primary
while the rotor acts as a rotating secondary when induction motor is treated as a tranformer.
If E
1
= Induced voltage in stator per phase
E
2
= Rotor induced e.m.f. per phase on standstill
k = Rotor turns / Stator turns
then k = E
2
/ E
1

Thus if V
1
is the supply voltage per phase to stator, it produces the flux which links with
both stator and rotor. Due to self induction E
1
, is the induced e.m.f. in stator per phase while E
2

is the induced e.m.f. in rotor due to mutual induction, at standstill. In running condition the
induced e.m.f. in rotor becomes E
2r
which is s E
2
.
Now E
2r
= Rotor induced e.m.f. in running condition per phase
R
2
= Rotor resistance per phase
X
2r
= Rotor reactance per phase in running condition
R
1
= Stator resistance per phase
X
1
= Stator reactance per phase
So induction motor can be represented as a transformer as shown in the Fig. 1.

When induction motor is on no load, it draws a current from the supply to produce the flux in air
gap and to supply iron losses.
1. I
c
= Active component which supplies no load losses
2. I
m
= Magnetizing component which sets up flux in core and air gap
These two currents give us the elements of an exciting branch as,
R
o
= Representing no load losses = V
1
/I
c

and X
o
= Representing flux set up = V
1
/I
m

Thus,
o
=
c
+
m

The equivalent circuit of induction motor thus can be represented as shown in the Fig. 2.

The stator and rotor sides are shown separated by an air gap.
I
2r
= Rotor current in running condition
= E
2r
/Z
2r
= (s E
2
)/(R
2
2
+(s X
2
)
2
)
It is important to note that as load on the motor changes, the motor speed changes. Thus slip
changes. As slip changes the reactance X
2r
changes. Hence X
2r
= sX
2
is shown variable.
Representing of rotor impedance :
It is shown that, I
2r
= (sE
2
)/(R
2
2
+(s X
2
)
2
) = E
2
/((R
2
/s)
2
+ X
2
2
)
So it can be assumed that equivalent rotor circuit in the running condition has fixed
reactance X
2
, fixed voltage E
2
but a variable resistance R
2
/s, as indicated in the above equation.
Now R
2
/s = R
2
+ (R
2
/s) - R
2


So the variable rotor resistance R
2
/s has two parts.
1. Rotor resistance R
2
itself which represents copper loss.
2. R
2
(1 - s)/s which represents load resistance R
L
. So it is electrical equivalent of mechanical
load on the motor.
Key Point : Thus the mechanical load on the motor is represented by the pure resistance of value
R
2
(1 -s)/s.
So rotor equivalent circuit can be shown as,

Fig. 3 Rotor equivalent circuit
Now let us obtain equivalent circuit referred to stator side.
Equivalent circuit referred to stator :
Transfer all the rotor parameters to stator,
k = E
2
/E
1
= Transformation ratio
E
2
' = E
2
/ k
The rotor current has its reflected component on the stator side which is I
2r
'.
I
2r
' = k I
2r
= (k s E
2
)/(R
2
2
+(s X
2
)
2
)
X
2
' = X
2
/K
2
= Reflected rotor reactance
R
2
' = R
2
/K
2
= Reflected rotor resistance
R
L
' = R
L
/K
2
= (R
2
/K
2
)(1-s / s)
= R
2
' (1-s / s)
Thus R
L
' is reflected mechanical load on stator.
So equivalent circuit referred to stator can be shown as in the Fig. 4

Fig. 4 Equivalent circuit referred to stator
The resistance R
2
' (1 -s)/ s = R
L
' is fictitious resistance representing the mechanical load on the
motor.
1.1 Approximate Equivalent Circuit
Similar to the transformer the equivalent circuit can be modified by shifting the exciting
current (R
o
and X
o
) purely across the supply, to the left of R
1
and X
1
. Due to this, we are
neglecting the drop across R
1
and X
1
due to I
o
, which is very small. Hence the circuit is called
approximate equivalent circuit. The circuit is shown in the Fig.5.


Now the resistance R
1
and R
2
' while reactance X
1
and X
2
' can be combined. So we get,
R
1e
= Equivalent resistance referred to stator = R
1
+ R
2
'
X
1e
= Equivalent reactance referred to stator = X
1
+ X
2
'
R
1e
= R
1
+ (R
2
/K
2
)
and X
1e
= X
1
+ (X
2
/K
2
)
While
1
=
o
+
2r
' .........phasor diagram
and
o
=
c
+
m

Thus the equivalent circuit can be shown in the Fig.6

Power Equations from Equivalent Circuit
With reference to approximate equivalent circuit shown in the Fig. 6, we can write various
power equations as,
P
in
= input power = 3 V
1
I
1
cos
where V
1
= Stator voltage per phase
I
1
= Current drawn by stator per phase
cos = Power factor of stator
Stator core loss = I
m
2

R
o

Stator copper loss = 3 I
1
2
R
o

where R
1
= Stator resistance per phase
P
2
= Rotor input = (3 I
2r
'
2

R
2
')/s
P
c
= Rotor copper loss = 3 I
2r
'
2

R
2
'
Thus P
c
= s P
2

P
m
= Gross mechanical power developed

T = Torque developed

where N = Speed of motor
But N = N
s
(1-s) =, so substituting in above

and I
2r
' = V
1
/(( R
1e
+ R
L
') + j X
1e
)
where R
L
' = R
2
' (1-s)/s
I
2r
' = V
1
/(( R
1e
+ R
L
')
2

+ X
1e
2

)
Key Point : Remember that in all the above formula all the values per phase values.
1.3 Maximum Power Output
Consider the approximate equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig.7
In this circuit, the exciting current I
o
is neglected hence the exciting no load branch is not
shown.
.
.
. I
1
= I
2r
'
The total impedance is given by,
Z
T
= (R
1e
+ R
L
')+ where R
L
' = R
2
' (1-s)/s
I
1
= V
1
/((R
1e
+ R
L
')
2
+(X
1e
)
2
)
The power supplied to the load i.e. P
out
per phase is,
Per phase P
out
= I
1
2


R
L
' watts per phase
.
.
. Total = 3 I
1
2


R
L
'


To obtain maximum output power, differentiate the equation of total P
out
with respect to variable
R
L
' and equal to zero.

But Z
1e
= (R
1e
2
+X
1e
2
) = Leakage impedance referred to stator
.
.
. Z
1e
2
= R
L
'
2

Thus the mechanical load on the induction motor should be such that the equivalent load
resistance referred to stator is equal to the total leakage impedance of motor referred to stator.
Slip at maximum P
out
: This can be obtained as,
R
L
' = Z
1e
= R
2
'(1-s)/s where R
L
' = R
2
/K
2

.
.
. s Z
1e
= R
2
' - sR
2
'
.
.
. s(Z
1e
+ R
2
') = R
2
'

This is slip at maximum output.
Expression for maximum P
out
: Using the condition obtained in expression of total P
out
, we can
get maximum P
out
.
.
.
. (P
out
)
max
= 3 I
1
2
Z
1e
as R
L
' = Z
1e


But R
1e
2
+ X
1e
2
= Z
1e



1.4 Maximum Torque
In case of induction motor, the speed of the motor decreases with increase in load. Thus the
maximum power output is not obtained at a slip which corresponds to maximum torque. In the
previous section we have seen the condition for maximum power output. In this section we will
find the condition which gives maximum torque.
The expression for torque is given by,


The condition for maximum torque can be obtained from maximum power transfer theorem.
When I
2r
'
2
R
2
'/s is maximum consider the approximate equivalent circuit of induction motor as
shown in The Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

The value of R
o
is assumed to be negligible. Hence the circuit will be reduced as shown
below.

Fig. 9

The thevenin's equivalent circuit for the above network is shown in the Fig.10 across the
terminals x and y.

Fig. 10

Fig. 10



The mechanical torque developed by rotor is maximum if there is maximum power transfer
to the resistor R
2
'/s. This takes place when R
2
'/s equals to impedance looking back into the
supply source.


This is the slip corresponding to the maximum torque. The maximum torque is given by,


Substituting,



From the above expression, it can be seen that the maximum torque is independent of rotor
resistance.
1.5 Synchronous Watt
The torque produced in the induction motor is given by,



Thus torque is directly proportional to the rotor input. By defining new unit of torque which
is synchronous watt we can write,
T = P
2
synchronous-watts
If torque is given in synchronous-watts then it can be obtained in N-m as,



Key Point : Unit synchronous watt can be defined as the torque developed by the motor such
that the power input to the rotor across the air gap is 1 W while running at synchronous speed.


SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR
For general lighting purpose in shops, offices, houses, schools etc. Single phase a.c. supply is
commonly used. Hence instead of d.c. motors, the motors which work on single phase a.c.
supply are very popularly in use. These a.c. motors are called single phase induction motors. The
numerous domestic applications use single phase motors. The power rating of such motors is
very small. Some of them are even fractional horse power motors, which are used in applications
like small toys, small fans, hair dryers etc. This chapter explains the construction, working
principle and applications of various types of single phase induction motors.
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motors
Similar to a d.c. motor, single phase induction motor has basically two main parts.one
rotating and other stationary. The stationary part in single phase induction motors is called stator
while the rotating part is called rotor.
The stator has laminated construction, made up of stampings. The stampings are slotted on
its periphery to carry the winding called stator winding or main winding. This is excited by a
single phase a.c. supply. The laminated construction keeps iron losses to minimum. The
stampings are made up of material like silicon steel which minimises the hysteresis loss. The
stator winding is wound for certain definite number of poles means when excited by single phase
a.c. supply, stator produces the magnetic field which creates the effect of certain definite number
of poles. The number of poles for which stator winding is wound, decides the synchronous speed
of the motor. The synchronous speed is denoted as N
s
and it has a fixed relation with supply
frequency f and number of poles P. The relation is given by,

The induction motor never rotates with the synchronous speed but rotates at a speed which is
slightly less than the synchronous speed.
The rotor construction is of squirrel cage type. In this type, rotor consists of uninsulated
copper or aluminium bars, placed in the slots. The bars are permanently shorted at both the ends
with the help of conducting rings called end rings. The entire structure looks like cage hence
called squirrel cage rotor. The construction and symbol is shown in the Fig..1

Fig. 1
As the bars are permanently shorted to each other, the resistance of the entire rotor is very
very small. The air gap between stator and rotor is kept uniform and as small as possible. The
main feature of this rotor is that it automatically adjusts itself for same number of poles as that of
the stator winding.
The schematic representation of two pole single phase induction motor is shown in the Fig.2.


WORKING PRINCIPLE:
For the motoring action, there must exist two fluxes which interact with each other to produce
the torque. In d.c. motors, field winding produces the main flux while d.c. supply given to
armature is responsible to produce armature flux. The main flux and armature flux interact to
produce the torque.
In the single phase induction motor, single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding.
The stator winding carries an alternating current which produces the flux which is also
alternating in nature. This flux is called main flux. This flux links with the rotor conductors and
due to transformer action e.m.f. gets induced in the rotor. The induced e.m.f. drives current
through the rotor as rotor circuit is closed circuit. This rotor current produces another flux called
rotor flux required for the motoring action. Thus second flux is produced according to induction
principle due to induced e.m.f. hence the motor is called induction motor. As against this in d.c.
motor a separate supply is required to armature to produce armature flux. This is an important
difference between d.c. motor and an induction motor.
Another important difference between the two is that the d.c. motors are self starting while
single phase induction motors are not self starting.
Let us see why single phase induction motors are not self starting with the help of a theory
called double revolving field theory.

Double Revolving Field Theroy
According to this theory, any alternating quantity can be resolved into two rotating components
which rotate in opposite directions and each having magnitude as half of the maximum
magnitude of the alternating quantity.
In case of single phase induction motors, the stator winding produces an alternating
magnetic field having maximum magnitude of
1m
.
According to double revolving field theory, consider the two components of the stator flux,
each having magnitude half of maximum magnitude of stator flux i.e. (
1m
/2). Both these
components are rotating in opposite directions at the synchronous speed N
s
which is dependent
on frequency and stator poles.
Let
f
is forward component rotating in anticlockwise direction while
b
is the backward
component rotating in clockwise direction. The resultant of these two components at any instant
gives the instantaneous value of the stator flux at the instant. So resultant of these two is the
original stator flux.

Fig. 1 Stator flux and its two components
The Fig. 1 shows the stator flux and its two components
f
and
b
. At start both the
components are shown opposite to each other in the Fig.1(a). Thus the resultant
R
= 0. This is
nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at start. After 90
o
, as shown in the Fig.
1(b), the two components are rotated in such a way that both are pointing in the same direction.
Hence the resultant
R
is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the two components. So
R
=
(
1m
/2) + (
1m
/2) =
1m
. This is nothing but the instantaneous value of the stator flux at = 90
o
as shown in the Fig 1(c). Thus continuous rotation of the two components gives the original
alternating stator flux.
Both the components are rotating and hence get cut by the motor conductors. Due to cutting
of flux, e.m.f. gets induced in rotor which circulates rotor current. The rotor current produces
rotor flux. This flux interacts with forward component
f
to produce a torque in one particular
direction say anticlockwise direction. While rotor flux interacts with backward component
b
to
produce a torque in the clockwise direction. So if anticlockwise torque is positive then clockwise
torque is negative.
At start these two torque are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. Each torque tries
to rotate the rotor in its own direction. Thus net torque experienced by the rotor is zero at start.
And hence the single phase induction motors are not self starting.

Torque speed characteristics
The two oppositely directed torques and the resultant torque can be shown effectively with
the help of torque-speed characteristics. It is shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2 Torque-speed characteristic

It can be seen that at start N = 0 and at that point resultant torque is zero. So single phase
motors are not self starting.
However if the rotor is given an initial rotation in any direction, the resultant average torque
increase in the direction in which rotor initially rotated. And motor starts rotating in that
direction. But in practice it is not possible to give initial torque to rotor externally hence some
modifications are done in the construction of single phase induction motors to make them self
starting.
Another theory which can also be used to explain why single phase induction motors is not
self starting is cross-field theory.


Shaded Pole Induction Motor
This type of motor consists of a squirrel cage rotor and stator consisting of salient poles i.e.
projected poles. The poles are shaded i.e. each pole carries a copper band on one of its unequally
divided part called shading ban Fig.1(a) shows 4 pole shaded pole construction while Fig. 1(b)
shows a single pole consisting of copper shading band.


Key point : When single phase a.c. supply is given to the stator winding, due to shading
provided to the poles, a rotating magnetic field is generated.
The production of rotating magnetic field can be explained as below :
The current carried by the stator winding is alternating and produces alternating flux. The
waveform of the flux is shown in the Fig. 2(a). The distribution of this flux in the pole area is
greatly influenced by the role of copper shading band. Consider the three instants say t
1
, t
2
and t
3

during first half cycle of the flux as shown, in the Fig 2(a).

At instant t = t
1
, rate of rise of current and hence the flux is very high. Due to the transformer
action, large e.m.f. gets induced in the copper shading band. This circulates current through
shading band as it is short circuited, producing its own flux. According to lenz's law, the
direction of this current is so as to oppose the cause i.e. rise in current. Hence shading ring flux is
opposing to the main flux. Hence there is crowding of flux in nonshaded part while weakening of
flux in shaded part. Overall magnetic axis shifts in nonshaded part as shown in the Fig. 2(b).

At instant t = t
2
, rate of rise of current and hence the rate of change of flux is almost zero as flux
almost reaches to its maximum value. So d/dt = 0. Hence there is very little induced e.m.f. in
the shading ring. Hence the shading ring flux is also negligible, hardly affecting the distribution
of the main flux. Hence the main flux distribution is uniform and magnetic axis lies at the centre
of the pole face as shown in the Fig. 2(c).
At the instant t = t
3
, the current and the flux is decreasing. The rate of decrease is high
which again induces a very large e.m.f. in the shading ring. This circulates current through the
ring which produces its own flux. Now direction of the flux produced by the shaded ring current
is so as to oppose the cause which is decrease in flux. So it oppose the decrease in flux means its
direction is same as that of main flux, strengthening it. So there is crowding of flux in the shaded
part as compared to nonshaded part. Due to this the magnetic axis shifts to the middle of the
shaded part of the pole. This is shown in the Fig. 2(d).
This sequence keeps on repeating for negative half cycle too. Consequently this produces an
effect of rotating magnetic field, the direction of which is from nonshaded part of the pole to the
shaded part of the pole. Due to this, motor produces the starting torque is low which is about 40
to 50% of the full load torque for this type of motor. The torque speed characteristics is shown in
the Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Torque-speed characteristics of shaded pole motor
Due to absence of centrifugal switch the construction is simple and robust but this type of
motor has a lot of lamination as :
1. The starting torque is poor.
2. The power factor is very low.
3. Due to I
2
R, copper losses in the shading ring the efficiency is very low.
4. The speed reversal is very difficult. To achieve the speed reversal, the additional set of
shading rings is required. By opening one set and closing other, direction can be reversed
but the method is complicated and expensive.
5. The size and power rating of these motors is very small. These motors are usually
available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW.
Application
These motors are cheap but have very low starting torque, low power factor and low
efficiency. These motors are commonly used for the small fans, by motors, advertising displays,
film projectors, record players, gramophones, hair dryers, photo copying machines etc.
Capacitor Start Induction Motors
he construction of this type of motors is similar to the resistance split phase type. The difference
is that in series with the auxiliary winding the capacitor is connected. The capacitive circuit
draws a leading current, this feature used in this type to increase the split phase angle between
the two currents I
m
and Ist.
Depending upon whether capacitor remains in the circuit permanently or is disconnected
from the circuit using centrifugal switch, these motors are classified as,
1. Capacitor start motor and 2. Capacitor start capacitor run motors
The connection of capacitor start motor is shown in the Fig. 1(a). The current I
m
lags the
voltage by angle
m
while due to capacitor the current Ist leads the voltage by angle
st
. Hence
there exists a large phase difference between the two currents which is almost 90
o
, which is an
ideal case. The phasor diagram is shown in the Fig.1(b).

The starting torque is proportional to ' 'and hence such motors produce very high starting torque
.
When speed approaches to 75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, the starting winding gets
disconnected due to operation of the centrifugal switch. The capacitor remains in the circuit only
at start hence it is called capacitor start motors.
Key point : In case of capacitor start capacitor run motor, there is no centrifugal switch and
capacitor remain permanently in the circuit. This improves the power factor.
The schematic representation of such motor is shown in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Capacitor start capacitor run motor

The phasor diagram remains same as shown in the Fig.1(b). The performance not only at start
but in running condition also depends on the capacitor C hence its value is to be designed so as
to compromise between best starting and best running condition. Hence the starting torque
available in such type of motor is about 50 to 100% of full load torque.
The direction of rotation, in both the types can be changed by interchanging the connection
of main winding or auxiliary winding. The capacitor permanently in the circuit improves the
power factor. These motors are more costly than split phase type motors.
The capacitor value can be selected as per the requirement of starting torque, the starting
torque can be as high as 350 to 400 % of full load torque. The torque-speed characteristics is as
shown in the Fig.3.

Fig.3 Torque speed characteristic of capacitor split phase motor

Applications
These motors have high starting torque and hence are used for hard starting loads. These are
used for compressors, conveyors, grinders, fans, blowers, refrigerators, air conditions etc. These
are most commonly used motors. The capacitor start capacitor run motors are used in celling
fans, blowers and air-circulations. These motors are available upto 6 kW.

Split Phase Induction Motor
This type of motor has single phase stator winding called main winding. In addition to this, stator
carries one more winding called auxiliary winding or starting winding. The auxiliary winding
carries a series resistance such that its impedance is highly resistive in nature. The main winding
is inductive in nature.

Let I
m
= Current through main winding
and Ist = Current through auxiliary winding

As main winding is inductive, current I
m
lags voltage by V by a large angle
m
while Ist is
almost in phase in V as auxiliary winding is highly resistive. Thus three exists a phase difference
of between the two currents and hence between the two fluxes produced by the two currents.
This is shown in the Fig.1(c). The resultant of these two fluxes is a rotating magnetic field. Due
to this, the starting torque, which acts only in one direction is produced.

Fig. 1 Split phase induction motor

The auxiliary winding has a centrifugal switch in series with it. When motor gather a speed upto
75 to 80% of the synchronous speed, centrifugal switch gets opened mechanically and in running
condition auxiliary winding remains out of the circuit. So motor runs only stator winding. So
auxiliary winding is designed for short time use while the main winding is designed for
continuous use. As the current I
m
and are splitted from each other by angle ' ' at start, the motor
is commonly called split phase motor.
The torque-speed characteristics of split phase motors is shown in the Fig.2.

Fig. 2

The starting torque Tst is proportional to the split angle ' ' but split phase motors give poor
starting torque which is 125 to 150% of full load torque.
The direction of rotation of this motor can be reversed by reversing the terminals of either
main winding or auxiliary winding. This changes the direction of rotating magnetic field which
in turn changes the direction of rotation of the motor.

Applications
These motors have low starting current and moderate starting torque. These are used for
easily started loads like fans, blowers, grinders, centrifugal pumps, washing machines, oil
burners, office equipments etc. These are available in the range of 1/120 to 1/2 kW.


Equivalent Circuit of Single Phase Induction Motor
The double revolving field theory can be effectively used to obtain the equivalent circuit of a
single phase induction motor. The method consists of determining the values of both the fields
clockwise and anticlockwise at any given slip. When the two fields are known, the torque
produced by each can be obtained. The difference between these two torques is the net torque
acting on the rotor.
Imagine the single phase induction motor is made up of one stator winding and two
imaginary rotor windings. One rotor is rotating in forward direction i.e. in the direction of
rotating magnetic field with slip s while other is rotating in backward direction i.e. in direction of
oppositely directed rotating magnetic field with slip 2 - s.
To develop the equivalent circuit, let us assume initially that the core loss is absent.
1. Without core loss
Let the stator impedance be Z
Z = R
1
+ j X
1

Where R
1
= Stator resistance
X
1
= Stator reactance
And X
2
= rotor reactance referred to stator
R
2
= rotor resistance referred to stator
Hence the impedance of each rotor is r
2
+ j x
2
where
x
2
= X
2
/2
The resistance of forward field rotor is r
2
/s while the resistance of backward field rotor is r
2

/(2 - s). The r
2
value is half of the actual rotor resistance referred to stator.
As the core loss is neglected, R
o
is not existing in the equivalent circuit. The x
o
is half of the
actual magnetising reactance of the motor. So the equivalent circuit referred to stator is shown in
the Fig.1.

Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit without core loss
Now the impedance of the forward field rotor is Z
f
which is parallel combination of (0 + j
x
o
) and (r
2
/s) + j x
2




While the impedance of the backward field rotor is Z
b
which is parallel combination of (0 +
j x
o
) and (r
2
/ 2-s) + j x
2
.

Under standstill condition, s = 1 and 2 - s = 1 hence Z
f
= Z
b
and hence V
f
= V
b
. But in the
running condition, V
f
becomes almost 90 to 95% of the applied voltage.
.
.
. Z
eq
= Z
1
+ Z
f
+ Z
b
= Equivalent impedance
Let I
2f
= Current through forward rotor referred to stator
and I
2b
= Current through backward rotor referred to stator
.
.
. I
2f
= /((r
2
/s) + j x
2
) where V
f
= I
1
x Z
f

and I
2b
= /((r
2
/2-s) + j x
2
)
P
f
= Power input to forward field rotor
= (I
2f
)
2
(r
2
/s) watts
P
b
= Power input to backward field rotor
= (I
2b
)
2
(r
2
/2-s) watts
P
m
= (1 - s){ Net power input}
= (1 - s) (P
f
- P
b
) watts
P
out
= P
m
- mechanical loss - core loss
.
.
. T
f
= forward torque = P
f
/(2N/60) N-m
and Tb = backward torque = P
b
/(2N/60) N-m
T = net torque = T
f
- T
b

while T
sh
= shaft torque = P
out
/(2N/60) N-m
% = (net output / net input) x 100
2. With core loss
If the core loss is to be considered then it is necessary to connect a resistance in parallel
with, in an exciting branch of each rotor is half the value of actual core loss resistance. Thus the
equivalent circuit with core loss can be shown as in the Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit with core loss

Let Z
of
= Equivalent impedance of exciting branch in forward rotor
= r
o
(j x
o
)
and Z
ob
= Equivalent impedance of exciting branch in backward rotor
= r
o
(j x
o
)
.
.
. Z
f
= Z
of
( r
2
/s + j x
2
)
All other expressions remains same as stated earlier in case of equivalent circuit without
core loss.

Synchronous Motor
Electrical motor in general is an electro-mechanical device that converts energy from electrical
domain to mechanical domain. Based on the type of input we have classified it into single phase
and 3 phase motors. Among 3 phase induction motors and synchronous motors are more widely
used.
When a 3 phase electric conductors are placed in a certain geometrical positions (In certain angle
from one another) there is an electrical field generate. Now the rotating magnetic field rotates at
a certain speed, that speed is called synchronous speed. Now if an electromagnet is present in
this rotating magnetic field, the electromagnet is magnetically locked with this rotating magnetic
field and rotates with same speed of rotating field. Synchronous motors is called so because the
speed of the rotor of this motor is same as the rotating magnetic field. It is basically a fixed speed
motor because it has only one speed, which is synchronous speed and therefore no intermediate
speed is there or in other words its in synchronism with the supply frequency. Synchronous
speed is given by

Construction of Synchronous Motor
Normally it's construction is almost similar to that of a 3 phase induction motor, except the fact
that the rotor is given dc supply, the reason of which is explained later. Now, let us first go
through the basic construction of this type of motor

From the above picture, it is clear that how this type of motors are designed. The stator is given
is given three phase supply and the rotor is given dc supply.
Main Features of Synchronous Motors
Synchronous motors are inherently not self starting. They require some external means to bring
their speed close to synchronous speed to before they are synchronized.
The speed of operation of is in synchronism with the supply frequency and hence for constant
supply frequency they behave as constant speed motor irrespective of load condition
This motor has the unique characteristics of operating under any electrical power factor. This
makes it being used in electrical power factor improvement.
Principle of Operation Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motor is a doubly excited machine i.e two electrical inputs are provided to it. Its
stator winding which consists of a 3 phase winding is provided with 3 phase supply and rotor is
provided with DC supply. The 3 phase stator winding carrying 3 phase currents produces 3 phase
rotating magnetic flux. The rotor carrying DC supply also produces a constant flux. Considering
the frequency to be 50 Hz, from the above relation we can see that the 3 phase rotating flux
rotates about 3000 revolution in 1 min or 50 revolutions in 1 sec. At a particular instant rotor and
stator poles might be of same polarity (N-N or S-S) causing repulsive force on rotor and the very
next second it will be N-S causing attractive force. But due to inertia of the rotor, it is unable to
rotate in any direction due to attractive or repulsive force and remain in standstill condition.
Hence it is not self starting.
To overcome this inertia, rotor is initially fed some mechanical input which rotates it in same
direction as magnetic field to a speed very close to synchronous speed. After some time magnetic
locking occurs and the synchronous motor rotates in synchronism with the frequency.
Methods of Starting of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motors are mechanically coupled with another motor. It could be either 3 phase
induction motor or DC shunt motor. DC excitation is not fed initially. It is rotated at speed very
close to its synchronous speed and after that DC excitation is given. After some time when
magnetic locking takes place supply to the external motor is cut off.
Damper winding : In case, synchronous motor is of salient pole type, additional winding is
placed in rotor pole face. Initially when rotor is standstill, relative speed between damper
winding and rotating air gap flux in large and an emf is induced in it which produces the required
starting torque. As speed approaches synchronous speed , emf and torque is reduced and finally
when magnetic locking takes place, torque also reduces to zero. Hence in this case synchronous
is first run as three phase induction motor using additional winding and finally it is synchronized
with the frequency.
Application of Synchronous Motor
Synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power factor improvement.
Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical power factor, it is used in power system in
situations where static capacitors are expensive.
Synchronous motor finds application where operating speed is less (around 500 rpm) and high
power is required. For power requirement from 35 kW to 2500 KW, the size, weight and cost of
the corresponding three phase induction motor is very high. Hence these motors are preferably
used. Ex- Reciprocating pump, compressor, rolling mills etc.


Prior to understanding this synchronous motor excitation, it should be remembered that any
electromagnetic device must draw a magnetizing current from the ac source to produce the
required working flux. This current lags by almost 90 to the supply voltage. In other words, the
function of this magnetizing current or lagging VA drawn by the electromagnetic device is to set
up the flux in the magnetic circuit of the device.
The synchronous motor is doubly fed electrical motor i.e it converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy via magnetic circuit. Hence it comes under electromagnetic device. It
receives 3 phase ac electrical supply to its armature winding and DC supply is provided to rotor
winding.Synchronous motor excitation refers to the DC supply given to rotor which is used to
produce the required magnetic flux.
One of the major and unique characteristics of this motor is that it can be operated at
any electrical power factor leading, lagging or unity and this feature is based on the excitation of
the synchronous motor.

When the synchronous motor is working at constant applied voltage V, the resultant air gap flux
as demanded by V remains substantially constant. This resultant air gap flux is established by the
co operation of both AC supply of armature winding and DC supply of rotor winding.
CASE 1: When the field current is sufficient enough to produce the air gap flux, as demanded by
the constant supply voltage V, then the magnetizing current or lagging reactive VA required
from ac source is zero and the motor operate at unity power factor. The field current, which
causes this unity power factor is called normal excitation or normal field current.
CASE 2: If the field current is not sufficient enough to produce the required air gap flux as
demanded by V, additional magnetizing current or lagging reactive VA is drawn from the AC
source. This magnetizing current produces the deficient flux (constant flux- flux set up by dc
supply rotor winding). Hence in this case the motor is said to operate under lagging power factor
and the is said to be under excited.
CASE 3: If the field current is more than the normal field current, motor is said to be over
excited. This excess field current produces excess flux ( flux set up by DC supply rotor winding
resultant air gap flux) must be neutralized by the armature winding. Hence the armature
winding draws leading reactive VA or demagnetizing current leading voltage by almost 90o
from the AC source. Hence in this case the motor operate under leading power factor.
This whole concept of excitation and power factor of synchronous motor can be summed up in
the following graph. This is called V curve of synchronous motor.

V Curves of Synchronous Motor
What is Hunting?
Causes of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
Effects of Hunting
Reduction of Hunting
We come across the term HUNTING when we study about three phase synchronous motor
operations. The word hunting is used because after sudden application of load the rotor has to
search or hunt for its new equilibrium position. That phenomena is referred as hunting in
synchronous motor. Now let us know what is the condition of equilibrium in synchronous motor.
A steady state operation of synchronous motor is a condition of equilibrium in which the
electromagnetic torque is equal and opposite to load torque. In steady state , rotor runs at
synchronous speed thereby maintaining constant value of torque angle ().
What is Hunting?
Unloaded synchronous machine has zero degree load angle. On increasing the shaft load
gradually load angle will increase. Let us consider that load P
1
is applied suddenly to unloaded
machine shaft so machine will slow down momentarily. Also load angle () increases from zero
degree and becomes
1
. During the first swing electrical power developed is equal to mechanical
load P
1
. Equilibrium is not established so rotor swings further. Load angle exceeds
1
and
becomes
2
. Now electrical power generated is greater than the previous one. Rotor attains
synchronous speed. But it does not stay in synchronous speed and it will continue to increase
beyond synchronous speed. As a result of rotor acceleration above synchronous speed the load
angle decreases. So once again no equilibrium is attained. Thus rotor swings or oscillates about
new equilibrium position. This phenomenon is known as hunting or phase swinging.
Causes of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
Sudden change in load.
Sudden change in field current.
A load containing harmonic torque.
Fault in supply system.
Effects of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
It may lead to loss of synchronism.
Produces mechanical stresses.
Increases machine losses and cause temperature rise.
Cause greater surges in electric current and power flow.
Reduction of Hunting in Synchronous Motor
Two techniques should be used to reduce hunting. These are
Use of Damper Winding : It consists of low electrical resistance copper / aluminium brush
embedded in slots of pole faces in salient pole machine. Damper winding damps out hunting by
producing torque opposite to slip of rotor. The magnitude of damping torque is proportional to
the slip speed.
Use of Flywheels : The prime mover is provided with a large and heavy flywheel. This increases
the inertia of prime mover and helps in maintaining the rotor speed constant.
Designing synchronous machine with suitable synchronizing power coefficients.
The working principle of alternator is very simple. It is just like basic principle of DC generator.
It also depends uponFaraday's law of electromagnetic induction which says the electric current is
induced in the conductor inside a magnetic field when there is a relative motion between that
conductor and the magnetic field.
For understanding working of alternatorlet's think about a single rectangular turn placed in
between two opposite magnetic pole as shown above.

Say this single turn loop ABCD can rotate against axis a-b. Suppose this loop starts rotating
clockwise. After 90 rotation the side AB or conductor AB of the loop comes in front of S-pole
and conductor CD comes in front of N-pole. At this position the tangential motion of the
conductor AB is just perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines from N to S pole. Hence rate of
flux cutting by the conductor AB is maximum here and for that flux cutting there will be an
induced current in the conductor AB and direction of the induced current can be determined
byFlemming's right hand rule. As per this rule the direction of this electric current will be from A
to B. At the same time conductor CD comes under N pole and here also if we apply Fleming
right hand rule we will get the direction of induced current and it will be from C to D.
Now after clockwise rotation of another 90 the turn ABCD comes at vertical position as shown
below. At this position tangential motion of conductor AB and CD is just parallel to the magnetic
flux lines, hence there will be no flux cutting that is no current in the conductor. While the turn
ABCD comes from horizontal position to vertical position, angle between flux lines and
direction of motion of conductor, reduces from 90 to 0 and consequently the induced current in
the turn is reduced to zero from its maximum value.

After another clockwise rotation of 90 the turn again come to horizontal position and here
conductor AB comes under N-pole and CD comes under S-pole, and here if we again
applyFlemming's right hand rule, we will see that induced current in conductor AB, is from point
B to A and induced current in the conductor CD is from D to C.

As at this position the turn comes at horizontal position from its vertical position, the electric
current in the conductors comes to its maximum value from zero. That means current is
circulating in the close turn from point B to A, from A to D, from D to C and from C to B. Just
reverse of the previous horizontal position when the current was circulating as A B C D
A.
While the turn further proceeds to its vertical position the current is again reduced to zero. So if
the turn continues to rotate the current in the turn continually alternate its direction. During every
full revolution of the turn, the electric current in the turn gradually reaches to its maximum value
then reduces to zero and then again it comes to its maximum value but in opposite direction and
again it comes to zero. In this way the current completes one full sine wave form during each
360 revolution of the turn. So we have seen how an alternating current is produced in a turn is
rotated inside a magnetic field. From this, we will now come to the actual working principle of
alternator.
Now we cut the loop and connect its two ends with two slip rings and stationary brush is placed
on each slip ring. If we connect two terminals of an external load with these two brushes, we will
get an alternating current in the load. This is our elementary model of alternator.

Having understood the very basic principle of alternator, let us now have an insight into its basic
operational principal of a practical alternator. During discussion of basic working of alternator,
we have considered that the magnetic field is stationary and conductors (armature) is rotating.
But generally in practical construction of alternator, armature conductors are stationary and field
magnets rotate between them. The rotor of an alternator or a synchronous generator is
mechanically coupled to the shaft or the turbine blades, which on being made to rotate at
synchronous speed N
s
under some mechanical force results in magnetic flux cutting of the
stationary armature conductors housed on the stator. As a direct consequence of this flux cutting
an induced emf and current starts to flow through the armature conductors which first flow in
one direction for the first half cycle and then in the other direction for the second half cycle for
each winding with a definite time lag of 120 due to the space displaced arrangement of 120
between them as shown in the figure below. This particular phenomena results in 3 power flow
out of the alternator which is then transmitted to the distribution stations for domestic and
industrial uses.

3 Phase Generated Voltage
Construction wise, an alternatorgenerally consists of field poles placed on the rotating fixture of
the machine i.e. rotor as shown in the figure above. Once the rotor or the field poles are made to
rotate in the presence of armature conductors housed on the stator, an alternating 3 voltage
represented by aa bb cc is induced in the armature conductors thus resulting in the generation
of 3 electrical power. All modern day electrical power generating station use this technology
for generation of 3 power, and as a result the alternator or synchronous generator has become a
subject of great importance and interest for power engineers of late.
An alternator is basically a type of a.c generator also known as synchronous generator, for the
simple reason that the field poles are made to rotate at synchronous speed N
s
= 120 f/P for
effective power generation.
Where f signifies the alternating current frequency and the P represents the number of poles.
In most practical construction of alternator, it is installed with a stationary armature winding and
a rotating field unlike in the case of DC generator where the arrangement is exactly opposite.
This modification is made to cope with the very high power of the order of few 100 Mega watts
produced in an ac generator contrary to that of a DC generator. To accommodate such high
power the conductor weigh and dimension naturally has to be increased for optimum
performance. And for this reason is it beneficial to replace these high power armature windings
by low power field windings, which is also consequently of much lighter weight, thus reducing
the centrifugal force required to turn the rotor and permitting higher speed limits.
There are mainly two types of rotor used in construction of alternator,
Salient pole type.
Cylindrical rotor type.
Salient Pole Type
The salient pole type of rotor is generally used for slow speed machines having large diameters
and relatively small axial lengths. The pole in this case are made of thick laminated steel sections
riveted together and attached to a rotor with the help of joint.
An alternator as mentioned earlier is mostly responsible for generation of very high electrical
power. To enable that, the mechanical input given to the machine in terms of rotating torque
must also be very high. This high torque value results in oscillation or hunting effect of the
alternator orsynchronous generator. To prevent these oscillations from going beyond bounds the
damper winding is provided in the pole faces as shown in the figure. The damper windings are
basically copper bars short circuited at both ends are placed in the holes made in the pole axises.
When thealternator is driven at a steady speed, the relative velocity of the damping winding with
respect to main field will be zero. But as soon as it departs from the synchronous speed there will
be relative motion between the damper winding and the main field which is always rotating at
synchronous speed. This relative difference will induce electric current in them which will exert
a torque on the field poles in such a way as to bring the alternator back to synchronous speed
operation.
The salient features of pole field structure has the following special feature-
They have a large horizontal diameter compared to a shorter axial length.
The pole shoes covers only about
2
/
3
rd of pole pitch.
Poles are laminated to reduce eddy current loss.
The salient pole type motor is generally used for low speed operations of around 100 to 400 rpm,
and they are used in power stations with hydraulic turbines or diesel engines.

Basic Construction of Alternator
The cylindrical rotor is generally used for very high speed operation and are employed in steam
turbine drivenalternators like turbo generators.
The cylindrical rotor type machine has uniform length in all directions, giving a cylindrical shape
to the rotor thus providing uniform flux cutting in all directions. The rotor in this case consists of
a smooth solid steel cylinder, having a number of slots along its outer periphery for hosing the
field coils.
The cylindrical rotor alternators are generally designed for 2-pole type giving very high speed of
N
s
= (120 f)/P = (120 50) / 2 = 3000 rpm.
Or 4-pole type running at a speed of N
s
= (120 f) / P = (120 50) / 4 = 1500 rpm. Where f is
the frequency of 50 Hz.
The a cylindrical rotor synchronous generator does not have any projections coming out from the
surface of the rotor, rather central polar area are provided with slots for housing the field
windings as we can see from the diagram above. The field coils are so arranged around these
poles that flux density is maximum on the polar central line and gradually falls away as we move
out towards the periphery. The cylindrical rotor type machine gives better balance and quieter-
operation along with lesser windage losses.

PART B
Construction
1. Explain in detail, the construction features of a slip ring induction motor.
(16)
2. Explain in detail, the construction and principle of operation of a 3 phase induction motor.
(8)
Types
1. Compare the slip ring rotor with the squirrel cage rotor. (8) (N/D-
09)
2. Explain the auto-transformer starter and the star delta starter used to start the three phase
Induction motors.
(8)
3. Distinguish between squirrel cage induction motor and slip ring induction motor.
(8)
Principle of operation of three-phase induction motors
1. Explain the principle of operation of a three phase induction motor. (8)
(N/D-11)
2. The equivalent circuit of a single phase, 6-pole SCIM operating from a 220 V line voltage at
60 Hz is given below. Calculate the following:
a) Stator current
b) Output power
c) Ttorque
d) Efficiency at a slip of 2.5 %.
The fixed winding and friction losses are 350 W. Neglect the core loss.

(8)
(N/D-11)
Equivalent circuit
1. A 50 HP, 440 V, 3 phase, 50 Hz induction motor with star connected stator winding gave the
following results.
No-load test: 400 V, 24 A, wattmeter readings 5150 W and 3350 W
Blocked rotor test: 33.6 V, 65 A, wattmeter readings 2150 W and 766 W
Calculate the parameters of the equivalent circuit.. (8) (A/M-
11)
2. Derive the equivalent circuit of 3 phase induction motor. (8) (April/May 2011)
1. relative to the stator winding, motor speed and frequency of emf induced in the rotor. (6)
Starting and speed control
1. A 4 pole, 3 phase induction motor operates from a supply whose frequency is 50 Hz.
Calculate the following:
a) The speed at which the magnetic field of the stator is rotating
b) The speed of rotor when the slip is 0.04
c) The frequency of rotor current when the slip is 0.03
d) The frequency of rotor current at standstill. (16) (A/M-
11)
2. Describe the various methods of speed control of 3 phase induction motor. (16) (M/J-
12)
3. Explain the speed-torque characteristic of an induction motor.
(8)
4. Explain the various methods of starting a single phase induction motor?
(8)
5. Explain any one method of speed control of a 3-phase induction motor.
(8)
Single-phase induction motors
1. Justify that the single phase induction motors are not self starting by using double field
revolving theory.
(8) (N/D-11)
2. Explain the principle of operation of a shaded pole single phase induction motor. (8) (N/D-
09)
3. Explain in detail, the operation of following types of a single phase Induction motor with neat
circuit diagrams:
(16)
a) Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motor
b) Shaded pole motor
Construction of synchronous machines
1. Explain the construction and working principle of a synchronous motor.
(8)
Induced emf
1. Derive an expression for induced emf of a synchronous generator. (8) (N/D-
09)
2. How are the synchronous motors started?
(8)
Voltage regulation ; emf and mmf methods
1. Explain the method of obtaining the voltage regulation of a synchronous generator using emf
method. (10)
(N/D-09)
2. Explain the synchronous impedance method of determining the voltage regulation of a
synchronous machine. (8) (A/M-
11)
3. Find the synchronous impedance and synchronous reactance of an alternator in which a given
field current provides an armature current of 200 A on a short circuit and a generated emf of
50 V on open circuit. The armature resistance is0.1 . To what induced voltage must the
alternator be excited, if it is to deliver a load of 100 A at a pf of 0.8 lagging with a terminal
voltage of 200 V? (8) (A/M-
11)
4. Explain the tests to be conducted for finding the voltage regulation of a three phase
synchronous generator using emf method.
(6) (N/D-11)
Brushless alternators
1. Explain in detail, the construction and principle of operation of brushless alternator. (8) (A/M-
11)

UNIT IV BASICS OF MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Errors in Measurement - Classification of
Transducers Variable resistive Strainguage, thermistor RTD transducer - Variable Capacitive
Transducer Capacitor Microphone - Piezo Electric Transducer Variable Inductive transducer LVDT,
RVDT
UNIT-4
BASICS OF MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION:
Measurement is an act or the result of quantitative comparison between an unknown
magnitude and the predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared the result is expressed
in numerical values.
The two requirements were:
1. The standard used for the comparison must be accurately known and commonly
accepted.
2. The procedure and equipment used must be provable.
STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHRACTERISTICS OF MEASUREMENT:
Static characteristics are those that must be considered when the system or instrument is
used to condition not varying with time or vary only quite slowly.
The main Static characteristics are
1. Accuracy.
2. Sensitivity.
3. Reproducibility.
4. Drift.
5. Precision
6. True value.
7. Static error.
1. Accuracy:
It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of the
quantity being measured.
2. Sensitivity:

It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change in the
measured quantity.
3. Reproducibility:
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may
be specified in turns of units for a given period of time.
4. Drift:
Drift means that with given input the measured values do not vary with time. It is
undesirable in instruments because it is rarely apparent and cannot be easily compensated.
It is classified into three types they are
(i) Zero drift.
(ii) Span or Sensitivity drift.
(iii) Zonal drift
Zero drift:
If entire calibration shifts due to slippage permanent or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift occurs as shown in fig 1.1
Characteristics with Zero drift


Output



INPUT Nominal characteristics


Span or Sensitivity drift:

If there is proportional change in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is
called span or sensitivity drift as shown in fig


Characteristics with span drift

Output



Nominal characteristics Input

Zonal drift:

If the drift occurs only over a portion of span over a portion of instrument, it is called as
zonal drift .
5. Precision:
Precision is measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e. given a fixed value of a
quantity. It is a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of measurements.
6. True value:
True value of a quantity to be measured is defined as the average of an infinite number
of measured values when the average deviation to the various contributing factors tends to zero.
7. Static error:
Static error is defined as the difference between the measured value and true value of
the quantity.


The expression for static error is given by

Static error = A
m
A
r


where A
m
is

measured value.
A
r
is True value.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
The dynamic characteristic of an instrument refers to performance of instrument when it is
subjected to time varying input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation
constitute the dynamic characteristics.
Some of Dynamic characteristics are
1. Speed of response
2. Measuring lag
3. Fidelity
4. Dynamic error
Speed of response:
It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to changes in
the measured quantity.
Measuring lag:
It refers to retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to a change in the
input signal. The measurement lags are of two types
(i) Retardation type.
(ii) Time delay

(i)Retardation type:
In this type, the response of an instrument begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred.
(ii)Time delay type:

In this type response begins after a dead time, after the application of input. Dead time
simply shift the response along the time scale and causes a corresponding dynamic error.
3. Fidelity:
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of a system to reproduce the output in the same
form as the input.
4. Dynamic error:
Dynamic error is difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with the time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS:
Error:
The difference between the actual value and observed value is called error.
Types of Error:
Errors are mainly classified into three types they are
(i) Gross errors.
(ii) Systematic errors.
(iii) Random errors.
Gross errors:
Gross errors are largely due to human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and
calculating measurement results. As long human beings are involved, some gross errors will
definitely be committed. Although complete elimination of gross errors is probably impossible,
one should try to anticipate and correct them. Some gross errors easily detected while others may
be very difficult to detect. The experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
For example, h e may due to an oversight, read the temperature as 4l.5C while the actual
reading may be 31.5C. He may transpose the reading while recording. For example, he may
read 45.8C and record .48.5C instead. Gross errors may be of any therefore their mathematical
analysis is impossible.
This error can be eliminated by
1.Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2.Taking number of readings of same quantity and by number of observers.
Systematic error:
Systematic error is broadly classified into three types they are
1)Instrumental errors.
2)Environmental errors.
3)Observational errors
Instrumental errors:
These errors arise due to the following factors
(i) Due to inherent short comings in instrument
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments.
(iii) Due to loading effects.
(i) Inherent short comings of instruments:
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure.
They may due to:
Construction
Calibration or operation of instrument or measuring devices

Example:
If the spring used for producing controlling torque of permanent magnet instrument has
become week, the instrument will read high. These errors are eliminated by careful planning and
recalibration.
(ii)Misuse of instruments:
These errors are due to the fault of the experimenter than that of the instrument.
Example:
An experimenter may fail to adjust the zero of instrument, poor initial adjustments.
(iii) Loading effects:
These errors are committed by beginners, due to improper use of instrument
Environmental errors:
Errors which are introduced due to using an instrument in different conditions than in
which it was assembled and calibrated are called environmental errors.
These may due to
Temperature.
Pressure.
Humidity.
Dust.
Vibration.
These can be eliminated by
Using instrument in controlled conditions of temperature and pressure
If above condition is not possible then deviation in local condition must be
determined and suitable correction to instrumental readings applied.
Automatic compensation employing devices for such deviation is also possible.
Although new calibration may be made in the new conditions.
observational errors:
The errors which occur due to improper observation made by the observer are called
observational errors.
Random or Residual error
Errors which occur due to the magnitude of small factors which change or fluctuate from
one measurement to another and are surely to change. The happenings or disturbances about
which we unaware are lumped together are called random or residual
Limiting error:
All the analog instruments are guaranteed by the manufacturer have nominal value and a
specified percentage of deviation (from the nominal value). The limiting of these deviations from
the marked value is known as limiting errors
Fractional or Relative limiting error:
It is defined as the ratio of the error to the specified (nominal) magnitude of a quantity is
called fractional error. It is expressed as,
Relative limiting error E
r =

.A
a

-

A
s



A
s
where

Aa
is Actual value and A
s
is

nominal value


.Classification of Transducers

(i) Active Transducers
Active transducers are self generating type of transducers. These transducer develop an
electrical parameter which is proportional to quantity under measurement. These transducers do
not require any external source i power for their operation. They can be subdivided into the
following commonly used types :

Active Transducers


Photovoltaic Thermoelectric Piezoelectric Electromagnetic
(ii) Passive Transducers
Passive transducers do not generate any electrical signal by themselves. To obtain an
electrical signal from such transducers, an external source of power is essential. Passive
transducers depend upon the change in an electrical parameter They are also known as externally
power driven transducers. They can be subdivided into the following commonly used types.






RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER:
Resistive transducers are those in which the resistance changes due to a change in some
physical phenomenon. The change in the value of the resistance with a change in the length of
the conductor can be used to measure displacement.
Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or semiconductor
changes when strained. This can be used for the measurement of displacement, force and
pressure.
The resistivity of materials changes with changes in temperature. This property can be
used for the measurement of temperature.
Potentiometer
A resistive potentiometer (pot) consists of a resistance element provided with a sliding
contact, called a wiper. The motion of the sliding contact may be translatory or rotational. Some
have a combination of both, with resistive elements in the form of a helix, as shown in Fig (c) .
They are known a helipots.
Translatory resistive elements, as shown in Fig 5.1(a) are linear (straight) devices.
Rotational resistive devices are circular and are used for the measurement of angular
displacement, as shown in Fig (b).
Helical resistive elements are multi turn rotational devices which can be used for the
measurement of either translatory or rotational motion. A potentiometer is a passive transducer
since it requires an external power source for its operation.


Fig. : (a) Translatory Type (b) Rotational Type (c) Helipot.

STRAIN GAUGE TRANSDUCER
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses the variation in electrical
resistance in wires to sense the strain produced by a force on the wires.It is well known that
stress (force/unit area) and strain (elongation or compression/unit length) in a member or portion
of any object under pressure is directly related to the modulus of elasticity.Since strain can be
measured more easily by using variable resistance transducers, it is a common practice to
measure strain instead of stress, to serve as an index of pressure. Such transducers are popularly
known as strain gauges.
If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of the
fact that both the length and diameter of the conductor changes. Also, there is a change in the
value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain, a property called the piezo-
resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo resistive gauges.
Many detectors and transducers, e.g. load cells, torque meters, pressure gauges,
temperature sensors, etc. employ strain gauges as secondary transducers.When a gauge is
subjected to a positive stress, its length increases while its area of cross-section decreases. Since
the resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its
area of cross-section, the resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. The change in
resistance value of a conductor under strain is more than for an increase in resistance due to its
dimensional changes. This property is called the piezo-resistive effect.
Types of strain gauges.
1. Wire strain gauges
2. Foil strain gauges
3. Semiconductor strain gauges
Resistance Wire Gauge
Resistance wire gauges are used in two basic forms, the unbonded type, and the bonded
type.
1. Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
An unbonded strain gauge consists of a wire streched between two points in an insulating
medium, such as air. The diameter of the wire used is about 25 m. The wires are kept under
tension so that there is no sag and no free vibration. Unbonded strain gauges are usually
connected in a bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced with no load applied as shown in Fig 5.3.
When an external load is applied, the resistance of the strain gauge changes, causing an
unbalance of the bridge circuit resulting in an output voltage. This voltage is proportional to the
strain. A displacement of the order of 50 m can be detected with these strain gauges.

Fig. : Unbonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge
2. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauges
A metallic bonded strain gauge is shown in Fig
A fine wire element about 25 m (0.025 in.) or less in diameter is looped back and forth
on a carrier (base) or mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing
stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier.

Fig. 5.4: Bonded resistance Wire Strain Gauge
which may be a thin sheet of paper, bakelite, or teflon. The wire is covered on the top with a thin
material, so that it is not damaged mechanically. The spreading of the wire permits uniform
distribution of stress. The carrier is then bonded or cemented to the member being studied. This
permits a good transfer of strain from carrier to wire.
A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance, as seen from the following
equation

where p = the specific resistance of the material in m
l = the length of the conductor in m A = the area of the conductor in
m
2

As a result of strain, two physical parameters are of particular interest.
1. The change in gauge resistance.
2. The change in length.
The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is called the gauge factor (GF). It is the
ratio of the change in resistance R/R to the change in the length l/l

where K = gauge factor
R = the change in the initial resistance in s
R - the initial resistance in m (without strain)
l = the change in the length in m
l = the initial length in m (without strain)
Since strain is defined as the change in length divided by the original length,


where is the strain in the lateral direction.
The resistance of a conductor of uniform cross-section is


where p = specific resistance of the conductor
l = length of conductor
d = diameter of conductor
When the conductor is stressed, due to the strain, the length of the conductor increases by
l and the simultaneously decreases by d in its diameter. Hence the resistance of the conductor
can now be written as


Now, Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to strain in the axial
direction, that is




The initial resistance value R of a strain gauge is typically around 120 Q and the gauge
factor may be from (for Nickel) - 12 to + 6. A gauge factor of 2 is reasonable for most strain
gauges. Semiconductor gauge have higher sensitivities.
If the two resistors R1 and R
2
have negligible temperature coefficients, the bridge retains
its balance under conditions of no-strain, at any temperature within its operating range.
(However, one of the two gauges in mounted so that its sensitivity direction is at right
angles to the direction of strain.)
The resistance of this dummy gauge is not affected by the deformation of the material
and it therefore acts like a passive resistance, with regard to strain measurement.
Since only one gauge responds to the strain causes bridge unbalance just as in the case of
a single gauge.
CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
A linear change in capacitance with changes in the physical position of the moving
element may be used to provide an electrical indication of the element's position.

where K = the dielectric constant
A = the total area of the capacitor surfaces
d = distance between two capacitive surfaces
C = the resultant capacitance.
From this equation, it is seen that capacitance increases (i) if the effective area of the
plate is increased, and (ii) if the material has a high dielectric constant.
The capacitance is reduced if the spacing between the plates is increased. Transducers
which make use of these three methods of varying capacitance have been developed.
With proper calibration, each type yields a high degree of accuracy. Stray magnetic and
capacitive effects may cause errors in the measurement produced, which can be avoided by
proper shielding. Some capacitive dielectrics are temperature sensitive, so temperature variations
should be minimised for accurate measurements.
A variable plate area transducer is made up of a fixed plate called Stator and a movable
plate called the Rotor.
The rotor is mechanically coupled to the member under test. As the member moves, the
rotor changes its position relative to the stator, thereby changing the effective area between the
plates. A transducer of this type is shown in Fig5.19.


Fig. Capacitive Transducer
Such a device is used to detect the amount of roll in an aircraft. As the aircraft rolls to the
left, the plates moves to the relative position shown by dashed lines in Fig. 5.19 and the
capacitance decreases by an amount proportional to the degree of roll. Similarly to the right. In
this case the stator, securely attached to the aircraft, is the moving element. The weight on the
rotor keeps its position fixed with reference to the surface of the earth, but the relative position of
the plates changes and this is the factor that determines the capacitance of the unit.
PIEZO ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCER
A symmetrical crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle salt and Barium titanate
produce an emf when they are placed under stress. This property is used in piezo electric
transducers, where a crystal is placed between a solid base and the force-summing member, as
shown in Fig5.21.



Fig.: Piezo Electrical Transducer
An externally applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies
pressure to the top of a crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of applied pressure.
Since the transducer has a very good HF response, its principal use is in HF
accelerometers. In this application, its output voltage is typically of the order of 1-30 mV per gm
of acceleration. The device needs no external power source and is therefore self generating. The
disadvantage is that it cannot measure static conditions. The output voltage is also affected by
temperature variation of the crystal. The basic expression for output voltage E is given by
E= q/cp
where Q = generated charge
C
p
= shunt capacitances
This transducer is inherently 'a dynamic responding sensor and does not readily measure
static conditions. (Since it is a high impedance element, it requires careful shielding and
compensation.For a piezo electric element under pressure, part of the energy is converted to an
electric potential that appears on opposite faces of the element, analogous to a charge on the
plates of a capacitor. The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical energy, analogous
to a compressed spring. When the pressure is removed, it returns to its original shape and loses
its electric charge. From these relationships, the following formulas have been derived for the
coupling coefficient K.

K = Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy
Applied mechanical energy

K = Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy
Applied electrical energy
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) is a passive inductive transducer .LVDT
is used to translate the linear motion into electrical signal.
Construction and Working Principle
As shown in the Fig , the linear variable differential transformer consists of a single primary
winding P
1
, and two secondary windings S
1
and S
2
wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The
secondaries have an equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the
emfs induced in the coils oppose each other, primary winding is connected to an ac source,
whose frequency may range from 50Hz to 20 kHz. A movable soft iron core slides inside the
hollow former. The position of the movable core determines the flux linkage between the ac
excited nary winding and each of the two secondary windings. The core made up of steel-iron
alloy is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The placement to be measured is
applied to an arm attached to the core. With the core he center, or reference, position, the
induced emfs in the secondaries are equal, and they oppose each other, the output voltage will be
zero volt.


Fig. Linear Variable Differential Transformer
when an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic flux
links the left-hand coil than the right-hand coil. The emf induced in the left hand coil, E
s1
, is
therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand coil, E
s2
. The magnitude of the output
voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in phase with
the voltage of the left-hand coil.similarly, when the core is forced to move to the right,
more flux links the and coil than the left-hand coil and the resulting output voltage, which is
the difference between E
s2
and E
sl
, is now in phase with the emf of the right-hand coil.



Fig. output voltage of LVDT at different core positions

Thus the LVDT output voltage is a function of the core position. The amount of a voltage
change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of
the core. By noting which output is increasing or decreasing, the direction of motion can be
determined. The output ac voltage inverts in phase as the core passes through the central null
position. Further as the core moves from center, the greater is the difference in value between E
sl

and E
s2
and consequently the greater the output voltage. Therefore the amplitude of the output
voltage is a function of the distance the core moves, while the polarity or phase indicates the
direction the motion.
The amount of output voltage of an LVDT is a linear function of the
displacement within a limited range of motion.
INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER
Inductive transducer employs inductive electrical phenomena in transduction elements of
transduction elements of transducers, to convert the physical phenomenon (input) into an output
electrical signal.
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that converts physical motion (position
change) into a change in inductance.
Transducers of the variable inductance type work upon one of the following principles.
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of displacement. The displacement to
be measured is arranged to cause variation in any of three variables
1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
Change in Self inductance with Numbers of Turns





Fig. (a) Linear inductive transducer
The output may be caused by a change in the number of turns. Figure 5.14 (a) and (b) are
transducers used for the measurement Fig. (a) Linear inductive transducer






Transducer Working on the Principle of Change in Self Inductance with
Change in Permeability
Figure 5.15 shows an inductive transducer which works on the principle of the variation of
permeability causing a change in self inductance. The iron core is surrounded by a winding. If
the iron core is inside the winding, its permeability is increased, and so is the inductance. When
the iron core is moved out of the winding, the permeability decreases, resulting in a reduction of
the self inductance of the coil. This transducer can be used for measuring displacement.

Fig. : Variable permeability inductive transducer
PART - B
Static and dynamic characteristics
1. Explain in detail, the static and dynamic characteristics of measurement system with
examples.
(16)
(A/M-10)
2. A voltmeter reads 112.68 V. The true value of the voltage is 112.6 V. Determine the
following:
a) the static error
b) the static correction for the voltmeter
(16)
3. A thermometer reads 92.35
o
C and the static correction given in the correction curves is 0.07.
Determine the true value of the temperature.
(8)
Errors in measurement
4. Explain the various types of errors in measurement. (8)
(N/D-10)
5. Explain in detail, the systematic error.(8)
(N/D-09)
6. What is meant by data acquisition system? Draw the block diagram arrangement of a data
acquisition system and describe the function of each component. (16) (A/M-
10)
7. Explain the construction and working of unbounded and bounded type strain gauges. (8)

(A/M-10)
8. Explain the construction and working of optical encoders with a neat diagram. (8)
(N/D-10)
9. Explain in detail, the LVDT for velocity measurement.
(16)
10. Explain in detail, the various classifications of a transducer.
(16)
Resistive, capacitive & inductive transducers
11. (i) Explain the measurement of resistance using strain gauge.
(8)
(ii) Describe the various factors influencing the type of transducer for a particular
application.
(8) (A/M-11)

UNIT V ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
DVM, DMM Storage Oscilloscope. Comparison of Analog and Digital Modes of operation,
Application of measurement system, Errors. Measurement of R, L and C, Wheatstone, Kelvin, Maxwell,
Anderson, Schering and Wien bridges Measurement of Inductance, Capacitance, Effective resistance at
high frequency, Q-Meter.

UNIT-5
ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Storage Oscilloscope
The conventional cathode ray tube has the persistence of the phosphor ranging from a
few millisecond to several seconds. But some times it is necessary to retain the for much longer
periods, upto several hours. It requires storing of a waveform for certain duration, independent of
phosphor persistence. Such a retention property I to display the waveforms of very low
frequency.
Mainly two types of storage techniques are used in cathode ray tubes which are : Mesh
storage and ii) Phosphor storage
Mesh Storage
Basically mesh storage consists of a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh. This
is called storage target. It is placed between the deflecting plates and the phosphor screen. The
writing beam i.e. normally focused electron beam charges the dielectric material of storage target
positively where hit.
Now the low velocity electrons are bombarded on storage target from the flood he
positively charged storage target material allows these electrons to pass It, to the phosphor
screen. Thus the image stored with the help of storage mesh produced on the screen. Thus the
storage technique has both storage target and a phosphor display target used for storing and
displaying the image.
The construction of storage cathode ray tube is shown in the Fig.

Fig : Mesh Storage CRT
In addition to the standard CRT, this CRT consists of dielectric material deposited on
storage mesh, a collector mesh, a flood gun and a collimator. The dielectric material such
as magnesium fluoride is deposited in a thin layer on the storage mesh. This is called storage
target. This technique uses the principle of secondary emission. An electron gun producing an
electron beam is called the wiring gun.
When the target is bombarded by the stream of primary electrons, an transfer takes place.
This separates other electrons from the surface of the target. This process is called secondary
emission. The number of secondary electrons depend the velocity of the primary electrons, the
intensity of the electron beam, the chemical composition of the target and the condition of its
surface. The ratio of secondary emission current and primary beam current is called the
secondary emission E| denoted as,

=I
s
/I
p

The writing gun produces a beam of electrons which contains the information signal. This
beam hit the storage surface, with secondary emission ratio much greater than unity. Thus the
areas where electron beam hit, loose the electrons due| secondary emission. Thus the write beam
deflection pattern is traced on the storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the
insulation of the dielectric material adequate to prevent charge migration for a considerable
length of time and thus pattern is effectively stored.
Now to make this pattern visible, special electron gun known as flood gun| switched on
even after many hours. The collimator electrodes act like focusing electrodes and thus adjust the
electron paths. The collimator electrodes constitute low voltage electrostatic lens system.
Most of the electrons are slopped and collected by the collector mesh. But electrons can
pass through the positively charged areas of the storage target while ' areas where the image is
not stored are negatively charged and electrons repel fro those areas. Thus the electrons near
stored positive charge only can pass through the post accelerator region and finally upto
the display target phosphor. These electrons hit on the phosphor screen, producing the
image which is stored, display of image remains as long as the flood guns are on. The display
of stored charged pattern on a mesh storage is shown in the Fig



Fig : Display of stored charge pattern on a mesh storage CRT
The function of collimator is to align the flood electrons so that they approach the age
surface perpendicularly.
Phosphor Storage
In this technique of storage, the tube used is a bistable storage tube. The same material is
used for both the storage target and the display phosphor. In fact the thin phosphor layer acts as
storage target as well as the display target hence the name bistable tube.
The material used for both storage and display targets is PI phosphor to achieve good
secondary emission characteristics. The boundary migration of stored should be eliminated
which is achieved by having scattered phosphor particles.! layer may be more than one particle
thick which allows a phosphor viewing 1 continuous manner. But beyond a particular threshold
thickness, the storage is not possible.
The controlling electrode is the conductive backplate. This is the thin layer o metal film
deposited inside the faceplate. This deposition is done before the phosphor material deposition.
The storage characteristics is controlled by the voltage applied the conductive backplate. Below
100 V is the level required for erasing while about 200 V is for uniform writing on the target.
The bistable nature of the tube means that the trace is either stored or it is not| the
brightness is thus on or off. For this purpose, the split screen version is used, independent
conductive plates are depositive, one covering the upper half portion CRT while other the bottom
half portion of CRT. The upper half is operated at about 150 V while the lower half at about 50
V. Hence the upper portion acts as a storage tube while the lower half as a standard refreshed
phosphor display.
The schematic view of a bistable phosphor storage tube is shown in the Fig. 4.20

Fig. : Bistable Phosphor Storage Tube
The flood guns are switched on to provide a stream of low energy electrons towards the
screen. These electrons have low energy and they cannot penetrate phosphor and are gathered
due to collimator. The screen becomes negatively charged until it reaches at a potential where it
repels all further flood gun electrons. When writing gun is switched on, its electrons have very
high energy required to cause the secondary emission from the areas traced on the screen. The
trace is therefore at high positive potential. This is stored due to low leakage of the phosphor.
The low energy electrons from flood gun are now attracted to the positive areas of the screen and
pa through the phosphor to reach the metal film at the back. While passing through the phosphor,
they cause it to glow, displaying the area traced out by the writing electron beam stored image.
The erasing of stored waveform is possible by applying a negative voltage to the metal film
due to which the electrons are repelled back.
Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Fig. : Digital Storage Oscilloscope
As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier a: attenuator
section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the
conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is the applied to the vertical amplifier.
To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used. The output
:
the
vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section. The main requirement of A/D
converter in the digital storage oscilloscope
its speed, while in digital voltmeters accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The
digitised output needed only in the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation
type of A/D converter is most often used in the digital storage oscilloscopes.
The digitising the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic intervals f the
input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as the highest frequency present
in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This ensures no loss of information. The
sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per second is used, his requires very fast conversion
rate of A/D converter. Hence, generally flash to digital converters are used, whose resolution
decreases as the sampling rate
increases.
If a 12 bit converter is used, 0.025% resolution is obtained while if 10 bit A/D converter
is used then resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024) is obtained. Similarly with 10 bit A/D converter,
the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained. The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096
for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each and 24 for four channels each.
The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration and the waveform
to be recorded.
Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitises it. The signal is then
captured in the memory. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as
memory can be read out without being erased.
One important feature of digital storage oscilloscope is its mode of operation called (trigger
view. This modes means that the oscilloscope can display what happened ore a trigger input is
applied. This mode of operation is useful when a failure occurs.
Single shot events, such as the waveform of an explosion are transient in nature very
quickly lost. The observer can not see such events, unless the waveform is photographed or
stored. Such events can be stored in memory of digital storage oscilloscope and reading the
memory rapidly and repetitively the continuous Reform can be obtained.
|The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation:
i) Roll mode: Very fast varying signals are displayed clearly in this mode. In this mode, the
input signal is not triggered at all. The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly,
on the screen in this mode.
ii)Store mode : This is called refresh. In this case input initiates trigger circuit. Memory write
cycle starts with trigger pulse. When memory is full, write cycle stops. Then using digital to
analog converter, the stored signal is converted to analog and displayed. When next trigger
occurs the memory is refreshed.
iii)Hold or save mode : This is automatic refresh mode. When new sweep signal is generated by
time base generator, the old contents get over written by new one. By pressing hold or save
button, overwriting can be stopped and previously saved signal gets locked.

BRIDGES :
The bridges are used for not only the measurement of resistances but also used for
measurement of various component values like capacitance, inductance etc.
Bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance arms of a
closed circuit. A source of current is applied to two opposite junctions. The detector is connected
to other two junctions.
The bridge circuits use the comparison measurement methods and operate on indication
principle. The bridge circuit compares the value of an unknown component with that of an
accurately known standard component. Thus the accuracy as on the bridge components and not
on the null indicator. Hence high degree of accuracy can be obtained.
In a bridge circuit, when no current flows through the null detector which is
galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced. The relationship between component values of
the four arms of the bridge at the balancing is called Pig condition or balancing equation.
This equation gives us the value of the unknown component.
Types of Bridges
The two types of bridges are,
1) D.C. bridges
2) A.C. bridges
1. D.C. bridges:
The d.c. bridges are used to measure the resistances. Here the excitation voltage is D.C. voltage.
The two types of d.c. bridges are,
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge.
2. A.C. bridges:
This types of bridges are used to measure the impedances consisting capacitances and
inductances. The a.c. bridges use alternating voltage as the excitation voltage.
The various types of a.c. bridges are,
1. Capacitance comparison bridge
2. Inductance comparison bridge
3. Maxwell bridge
4. Hay's bridge
5. Sch ering bridge
6. Anderson bridge
7. Wien bridge
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)
Wheatstone's bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and
is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is given in fig.
The source of emf and switch is connected to points A and B, while a sensitive current indicating
meter, the galvanometer, is connected to points C and D. The galvanometer is a micro ammeter,
with a zero centre scale. When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer pointer
rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and current in
the direction to the other side.
When SW
1
is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at A & B i.e. /I
1
and I
2
.
The bridge is balanced when there is no current through galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal, i.e the potential across the galvanometer is zero.

Fig : Whetstones Bridge
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig
I
1
R
1
=I
2
R
2
This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

This is the equation for the to be balanced.
In a practical Wheatstone's bridge, at least one of the resistance is adjustable, to permit
balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normally connected at R
4
) may
be determined from the setting of the adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor
because it is a precision device having very small tolerance.
KELVIN'S BRIDGE
When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact and
lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstones bridge, the Kelvin bridge is employed.
Kelvin's bridge is a modification of Wheatstone's bridge and is used to measure values of
resistance below 1 . In low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads connecting the
unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in fig where R
y
represents the resistance of the connecting leads from R
3
to
R
x
(unknown resistance). The galvanometer can be connected either to point c or to point a.
When it is connected to point a, the resistance R
y
, of the connecting lead is added to the unknown
resistance R
x
, resulting in too high indication for R
x
. When the connection is made to point c, R
y

is added to the bridge arm 7?
3
and resulting measurement of R
K
is lower than the actual value,
because now the actual value of R
3
is higher than its nominal value by the resistance R
y
. If the
galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in such a way that the ratio of
the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the ratio of resistances R
l
and R
2
,

Fig : Kelvins Bridge

and the usual balance equation for the bridge the given the relationship


is the usual Wheatstone's balance equation and it indicates that the effect of the resistance of the
connecting leads from point a to point c has been eliminated by connecting the galvanometer to
an intermediate position, b.

A.C. Bridges
Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means of an ac Wheatstone bridge. The
diagram of an ac bridge is given in Fig. This bridge is similar to a dc bridge, except that the
bridge arms are impedances. The bridge is excited by an ac source rather than dc and the
galvanometer is replaced by a detector, such as a pair of headphones, for detecting ac. When the
bridge is balanced, magnitude and phase angles of the impedance arms to achieve balance.
bridge must be balanced for both the re;


Fig : Basic Ac bridge
CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE


Fig Capacitance Comparison Bridge

The Figure shows the circuit of a capacitance comparison bridge. The ratio arms R
1
R
2
are
resistive. The known standard capacitor C
3
is in series with R
3
. R
3
may also include an added
variable resistance needed to balance the bridge. C
x
is the unknown capacitor and R
x
is the small
leakage resistance of the capacitor. In this case an unknown capacitor is compared with a
standard capacitor and the value of the former, along with its leakage resistance, is obtained.
Hence


Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary terms are
equal. Therefore,

Since R
3
does not appear in the expression for C
x
as a variable element it is an obvious
choice to eliminate any interaction between the two balance controls.


INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE


Fig : Inductance Comparison Bridge
Figure gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison bridge. In this, values of the
unknown inductance L
x
and its internal resistance R
x
are obtained by comparison with the
standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L
3
and R
3
.
The equation for balance condition is
Z
1
Z
x
= Z
2
Z
3
The inductive balance equation
L
x
=(L
3
R
2
/R
1
)
And resistive balance equation
R
x
= (R
2
R
3
/R
1
)
In this bridge R
2
is chosen as the inductive balance control and R
3
as the resistance balance
control. (It is advisable to use a fixed resistance ratio and variable standards). Balance is obtained
by alternately varying L
3
or R
3
. If the Q of the unknown reactance is greater than the standard Q,
it is necessary to place a variable resistance in series with the unknown reactance to obtain
balance.
If the unknown inductance has a high Q, it is permissible to vary the resistance ratio
when a variable standard inductor is not available.
MAXWELLS BRIDGE
Maxwell's bridge, shown in Fig , measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known
capacitor. The use of standard arm offers the advantage of compactness and easy shielding. The
capacitor is almost a loss-less component. One arm has a resistance R
1
in parallel with C
1
, and
hence it is easier to write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the
impedance.

Fig : Maxwells Bridge
The general balance equation for bridge balance is






R
1
=(R
2
R
3
/R
1
) and L
x
=C
1
R
2
R
3
Also Q=(wL
x
/R
x
)=wC
1
R
1

Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1 - 10). The measurement is
independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read
inductance directly. The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there
is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided by varying
the capacitances, instead of R
2
and R
3
, to obtain a reactance balance. However, the bridge can be
made to read directly in Q.
The bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since comparison with a
capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance. Commercial bridges measure from 1 - 1000
H, with 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R
l
becomes excessively large and it is impractical to
obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance in the range of values required).
SCHERINGS BRIDGE
A very important bridge used for the precision measurement of capacitors and their
insulating properties is the Schering bridge. Its basic circuit arrangement is given in Fig. The
standard capacitor C
3
is a high quality mica capacitor (low-loss) for general measurements, or an
air capacitor (having a very stable value and a very small electric field) for insulation
measurement.


Fig : Scherings Bridge
For balance, the general equation





WIEN BRIDGE
It has a series RC combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining
arm. Wiens bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure frequency. It can be also used for
the measurement of an unknown capacitor with great accuracy.

Fig Wien Bridge












The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R
l
and R
3
can
be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C
1
, and C
3
are normally of fixed values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz ranges. In, this case, the
resistances can be used for range changing and capacitors C
1
and C
3
for fine frequency control
within the range.
The bridge can also be used for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of
operation must be known.
Anderson Bridge
It is another important a.c. bridge used for the measurement of self inductance in terms of
a standard capacitor. Actually this bridge is nothing but modified Maxwells bridge in which also
the value of self inductance is obtained by comparing it with a standard capacitor. This bridge is
basically used for the precise measurement of inductance over a wide range of value.
One arm of the bridge consists of unknown inductor L
x
with known resistance in series
with L
x
. This resistance R
1
includes resistance of the inductor. C is the standard capacitor with r,
R
2
, R
3
and R
4
are non-inductance known resistances.

Fig : Anderson Bridge

To find balance equations transforming a star formed by R
2
, R
4
and r into its equivalent as shown
in fig.



Now R
7
shunts the source, hence it does not affect the balance condition. Thus by neglecting R
7
and rearranging a network as shown in fig. we get a Maxwell inductance bridge.

If the capacitor used is not perfect, the value of inductance remains uncharged, but the
value of R
1
changes.
This method can also be used to measure the capacitance of the capacitor C if a calibrated
self inductance is available.
Measurement of Resistance
The measurement of resistance is done by comparing the unknown resistance with the
standard resistance. The circuit used for the measurement is shown in the Fig The unknown
resistance R and the known standard resistance R
s
are connected on secondary of the tapped ratio
transformer.

Fig : Measurement of resistance using Auto transformer

R=(N
1
/N
2
)R
2
Measurement of capacitance

The unknown capacitance can be measured by ratio transformer bridge in comparison
with the standard capacitance.

Fig : Measurement of Capacitance using Ratio transformer
The C
s
is standard perfect capacitor while R
s
is the standard resistance. For balance, the
magnitude and phase of the currents passing through the detector must be same. To achieve this,
the standard resistance is kept variable.
C=(N
1
/N
2
)C
s







PART - B
Static and dynamic characteristics
12. Explain in detail, the static and dynamic characteristics of measurement system with
examples.16 A/M-10
13. A voltmeter reads 112.68 V. The true value of the voltage is 112.6 V. Determine the
following:
c) the static error
d) the static correction for the voltmeter (16)
14. A thermometer reads 92.35
o
C and the static correction given in the correction curves is 0.07.
Determine the true value of the temperature. (8)
Errors in measurement
15. Explain the various types of errors in measurement. (8) (N/D-10)
16. Explain in detail, the systematic error.(8) (N/D-09)
17. What is meant by data acquisition system? Draw the block diagram arrangement of a data
acquisition system and describe the function of each component. (16) (A/M-10)
18. Explain the construction and working of unbounded and bounded type strain gauges. (8)
(A/M-10)
19. Explain the construction and working of optical encoders with a neat diagram. (8) (N/D-10)
20. Explain in detail, the LVDT for velocity measurement. (16)
21. Explain in detail, the various classifications of a transducer. (16)
Resistive, capacitive & inductive transducers
22. (i) Explain the measurement of resistance using strain gauge. (8)
(ii) Describe the various factors influencing the type of transducer for a particular
application. (8) (A/M-11)




UNIT-5
ANALOG AND DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS
Storage Oscilloscope
The conventional cathode ray tube has the persistence of the phosphor ranging from a
few millisecond to several seconds. But some times it is necessary to retain the for much longer
periods, upto several hours. It requires storing of a waveform for certain duration, independent of
phosphor persistence. Such a retention property I to display the waveforms of very low
frequency.
Mainly two types of storage techniques are used in cathode ray tubes which are : Mesh
storage and ii) Phosphor storage
Mesh Storage
Basically mesh storage consists of a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh. This
is called storage target. It is placed between the deflecting plates and the phosphor screen. The
writing beam i.e. normally focused electron beam charges the dielectric material of storage target
positively where hit.
Now the low velocity electrons are bombarded on storage target from the flood he
positively charged storage target material allows these electrons to pass It, to the phosphor
screen. Thus the image stored with the help of storage mesh produced on the screen. Thus the
storage technique has both storage target and a phosphor display target used for storing and
displaying the image.
The construction of storage cathode ray tube is shown in the Fig.

Fig : Mesh Storage CRT
In addition to the standard CRT, this CRT consists of dielectric material deposited on
storage mesh, a collector mesh, a flood gun and a collimator. The dielectric material such
as magnesium fluoride is deposited in a thin layer on the storage mesh. This is called storage
target. This technique uses the principle of secondary emission. An electron gun producing an
electron beam is called the wiring gun.
When the target is bombarded by the stream of primary electrons, an transfer takes place.
This separates other electrons from the surface of the target. This process is called secondary
emission. The number of secondary electrons depend the velocity of the primary electrons, the
intensity of the electron beam, the chemical composition of the target and the condition of its
surface. The ratio of secondary emission current and primary beam current is called the
secondary emission E| denoted as,

=I
s
/I
p
The writing gun produces a beam of electrons which contains the information signal. This
beam hit the storage surface, with secondary emission ratio much greater than unity. Thus the
areas where electron beam hit, loose the electrons due| secondary emission. Thus the write beam
deflection pattern is traced on the storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the
insulation of the dielectric material adequate to prevent charge migration for a considerable
length of time and thus pattern is effectively stored.
Now to make this pattern visible, special electron gun known as flood gun| switched on
even after many hours. The collimator electrodes act like focusing electrodes and thus adjust the
electron paths. The collimator electrodes constitute low voltage electrostatic lens system.
Most of the electrons are slopped and collected by the collector mesh. But electrons can
pass through the positively charged areas of the storage target while ' areas where the image is
not stored are negatively charged and electrons repel fro those areas. Thus the electrons near
stored positive charge only can pass through the post accelerator region and finally upto
the display target phosphor. These electrons hit on the phosphor screen, producing the
image which is stored, display of image remains as long as the flood guns are on. The display
of stored charged pattern on a mesh storage is shown in the Fig



Fig : Display of stored charge pattern on a mesh storage CRT
The function of collimator is to align the flood electrons so that they approach the age
surface perpendicularly.

Phosphor Storage
In this technique of storage, the tube used is a bistable storage tube. The same material is
used for both the storage target and the display phosphor. In fact the thin phosphor layer acts as
storage target as well as the display target hence the name bistable tube.
The material used for both storage and display targets is PI phosphor to achieve good
secondary emission characteristics. The boundary migration of stored should be eliminated
which is achieved by having scattered phosphor particles.! layer may be more than one particle
thick which allows a phosphor viewing 1 continuous manner. But beyond a particular threshold
thickness, the storage is not possible.
The controlling electrode is the conductive backplate. This is the thin layer o metal film
deposited inside the faceplate. This deposition is done before the phosphor material deposition.
The storage characteristics is controlled by the voltage applied the conductive backplate. Below
100 V is the level required for erasing while about 200 V is for uniform writing on the target.
The bistable nature of the tube means that the trace is either stored or it is not| the
brightness is thus on or off. For this purpose, the split screen version is used, independent
conductive plates are depositive, one covering the upper half portion CRT while other the bottom
half portion of CRT. The upper half is operated at about 150 V while the lower half at about 50
V. Hence the upper portion acts as a storage tube while the lower half as a standard refreshed
phosphor display.
The schematic view of a bistable phosphor storage tube is shown in the Fig. 4.20

Fig. : Bistable Phosphor Storage Tube
The flood guns are switched on to provide a stream of low energy electrons towards the
screen. These electrons have low energy and they cannot penetrate phosphor and are gathered
due to collimator. The screen becomes negatively charged until it reaches at a potential where it
repels all further flood gun electrons. When writing gun is switched on, its electrons have very
high energy required to cause the secondary emission from the areas traced on the screen. The
trace is therefore at high positive potential. This is stored due to low leakage of the phosphor.
The low energy electrons from flood gun are now attracted to the positive areas of the screen and
pa through the phosphor to reach the metal film at the back. While passing through the phosphor,
they cause it to glow, displaying the area traced out by the writing electron beam stored image.
The erasing of stored waveform is possible by applying a negative voltage to the metal film
due to which the electrons are repelled back.





Digital Storage Oscilloscope

Fig. : Digital Storage Oscilloscope
As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier a: attenuator
section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as used in the
conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is the applied to the vertical amplifier.
To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used. The output
:
the
vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section. The main requirement of A/D
converter in the digital storage oscilloscope
its speed, while in digital voltmeters accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The
digitised output needed only in the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation
type of A/D converter is most often used in the digital storage oscilloscopes.
The digitising the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic intervals f the
input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as the highest frequency present
in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This ensures no loss of information. The
sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per second is used, his requires very fast conversion
rate of A/D converter. Hence, generally flash to digital converters are used, whose resolution
decreases as the sampling rate
increases.
If a 12 bit converter is used, 0.025% resolution is obtained while if 10 bit A/D converter
is used then resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024) is obtained. Similarly with 10 bit A/D converter,
the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained. The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096
for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each and 24 for four channels each.
The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration and the waveform
to be recorded.
Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitises it. The signal is then
captured in the memory. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as
memory can be read out without being erased.
One important feature of digital storage oscilloscope is its mode of operation called (trigger
view. This modes means that the oscilloscope can display what happened ore a trigger input is
applied. This mode of operation is useful when a failure occurs.
Single shot events, such as the waveform of an explosion are transient in nature very
quickly lost. The observer can not see such events, unless the waveform is photographed or
stored. Such events can be stored in memory of digital storage oscilloscope and reading the
memory rapidly and repetitively the continuous Reform can be obtained.
|The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation:
i) Roll mode: Very fast varying signals are displayed clearly in this mode. In this mode, the
input signal is not triggered at all. The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly,
on the screen in this mode.
ii)Store mode : This is called refresh. In this case input initiates trigger circuit. Memory write
cycle starts with trigger pulse. When memory is full, write cycle stops. Then using digital to
analog converter, the stored signal is converted to analog and displayed. When next trigger
occurs the memory is refreshed.
iii)Hold or save mode : This is automatic refresh mode. When new sweep signal is generated by
time base generator, the old contents get over written by new one. By pressing hold or save
button, overwriting can be stopped and previously saved signal gets locked.
BRIDGES :
The bridges are used for not only the measurement of resistances but also used for
measurement of various component values like capacitance, inductance etc.
Bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of a network of four resistance arms of a
closed circuit. A source of current is applied to two opposite junctions. The detector is connected
to other two junctions.
The bridge circuits use the comparison measurement methods and operate on indication
principle. The bridge circuit compares the value of an unknown component with that of an
accurately known standard component. Thus the accuracy as on the bridge components and not
on the null indicator. Hence high degree of accuracy can be obtained.
In a bridge circuit, when no current flows through the null detector which is
galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced. The relationship between component values of
the four arms of the bridge at the balancing is called Pig condition or balancing equation.
This equation gives us the value of the unknown component.
Types of Bridges
The two types of bridges are,
1) D.C. bridges
2) A.C. bridges
1. D.C. bridges:
The d.c. bridges are used to measure the resistances. Here the excitation voltage is D.C. voltage.
The two types of d.c. bridges are,
1. Wheatstone bridge
2. Kelvin bridge.
2. A.C. bridges:
This types of bridges are used to measure the impedances consisting capacitances and
inductances. The a.c. bridges use alternating voltage as the excitation voltage.
The various types of a.c. bridges are,
1. Capacitance comparison bridge
2. Inductance comparison bridge
3. Maxwell bridge
4. Hay's bridge
5. Sch ering bridge
6. Anderson bridge
7. Wien bridge
WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE)
Wheatstone's bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring resistances and
is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is given in fig.
The source of emf and switch is connected to points A and B, while a sensitive current indicating
meter, the galvanometer, is connected to points C and D. The galvanometer is a micro ammeter,
with a zero centre scale. When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer pointer
rests at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current direction causes the pointer to deflect on one side and current in
the direction to the other side.
When SW
1
is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at A & B i.e. /I
1
and I
2
.
The bridge is balanced when there is no current through galvanometer, or when the potential
difference at points C and D is equal, i.e the potential across the galvanometer is zero.

Fig : Whetstones Bridge
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig
I
1
R
1
=I
2
R
2
This is the equation for the bridge to be balanced.

This is the equation for the to be balanced.
In a practical Wheatstone's bridge, at least one of the resistance is adjustable, to permit
balancing. When the bridge is balanced, the unknown resistance (normally connected at R
4
) may
be determined from the setting of the adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor
because it is a precision device having very small tolerance.
KELVIN'S BRIDGE
When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact and
lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstones bridge, the Kelvin bridge is employed.
Kelvin's bridge is a modification of Wheatstone's bridge and is used to measure values of
resistance below 1 . In low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads connecting the
unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in fig where R
y
represents the resistance of the connecting leads from R
3
to
R
x
(unknown resistance). The galvanometer can be connected either to point c or to point a.
When it is connected to point a, the resistance R
y
, of the connecting lead is added to the unknown
resistance R
x
, resulting in too high indication for R
x
. When the connection is made to point c, R
y

is added to the bridge arm 7?
3
and resulting measurement of R
K
is lower than the actual value,
because now the actual value of R
3
is higher than its nominal value by the resistance R
y
. If the
galvanometer is connected to point b, in between points c and a, in such a way that the ratio of
the resistance from c to b and that from a to b equals the ratio of resistances R
l
and R
2
,

Fig : Kelvins Bridge

and the usual balance equation for the bridge the given the relationship


is the usual Wheatstone's balance equation and it indicates that the effect of the resistance of the
connecting leads from point a to point c has been eliminated by connecting the galvanometer to
an intermediate position, b.

A.C. Bridges
Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means of an ac Wheatstone bridge. The
diagram of an ac bridge is given in Fig. This bridge is similar to a dc bridge, except that the
bridge arms are impedances. The bridge is excited by an ac source rather than dc and the
galvanometer is replaced by a detector, such as a pair of headphones, for detecting ac. When the
bridge is balanced, magnitude and phase angles of the impedance arms to achieve balance.
bridge must be balanced for both the re;


Fig : Basic Ac bridge
CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE

Fig Capacitance Comparison Bridge

The Figure shows the circuit of a capacitance comparison bridge. The ratio arms R
1
R
2
are
resistive. The known standard capacitor C
3
is in series with R
3
. R
3
may also include an added
variable resistance needed to balance the bridge. C
x
is the unknown capacitor and R
x
is the small
leakage resistance of the capacitor. In this case an unknown capacitor is compared with a
standard capacitor and the value of the former, along with its leakage resistance, is obtained.
Hence


Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary terms are
equal. Therefore,

Since R
3
does not appear in the expression for C
x
as a variable element it is an obvious
choice to eliminate any interaction between the two balance controls.
INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE


Fig : Inductance Comparison Bridge
Figure gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison bridge. In this, values of the
unknown inductance L
x
and its internal resistance R
x
are obtained by comparison with the
standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L
3
and R
3
.
The equation for balance condition is
Z
1
Z
x
= Z
2
Z
3
The inductive balance equation
L
x
=(L
3
R
2
/R
1
)
And resistive balance equation
R
x
= (R
2
R
3
/R
1
)
In this bridge R
2
is chosen as the inductive balance control and R
3
as the resistance balance
control. (It is advisable to use a fixed resistance ratio and variable standards). Balance is obtained
by alternately varying L
3
or R
3
. If the Q of the unknown reactance is greater than the standard Q,
it is necessary to place a variable resistance in series with the unknown reactance to obtain
balance.
If the unknown inductance has a high Q, it is permissible to vary the resistance ratio
when a variable standard inductor is not available.
MAXWELLS BRIDGE
Maxwell's bridge, shown in Fig , measures an unknown inductance in terms of a known
capacitor. The use of standard arm offers the advantage of compactness and easy shielding. The
capacitor is almost a loss-less component. One arm has a resistance R
1
in parallel with C
1
, and
hence it is easier to write the balance equation using the admittance of arm 1 instead of the
impedance.

Fig : Maxwells Bridge
The general balance equation for bridge balance is






R
1
=(R
2
R
3
/R
1
) and L
x
=C
1
R
2
R
3
Also Q=(wL
x
/R
x
)=wC
1
R
1

Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (1 - 10). The measurement is
independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the resistance can be calibrated to read
inductance directly. The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there
is an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided by varying
the capacitances, instead of R
2
and R
3
, to obtain a reactance balance. However, the bridge can be
made to read directly in Q.
The bridge is particularly suited for inductances measurements, since comparison with a
capacitor is more ideal than with another inductance. Commercial bridges measure from 1 - 1000
H, with 2% error. (If the Q is very large, R
l
becomes excessively large and it is impractical to
obtain a satisfactory variable standard resistance in the range of values required).
SCHERINGS BRIDGE
A very important bridge used for the precision measurement of capacitors and their
insulating properties is the Schering bridge. Its basic circuit arrangement is given in Fig. The
standard capacitor C
3
is a high quality mica capacitor (low-loss) for general measurements, or an
air capacitor (having a very stable value and a very small electric field) for insulation
measurement.


Fig : Scherings Bridge
For balance, the general equation





WIEN BRIDGE
It has a series RC combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining
arm. Wiens bridge in its basic form, is designed to measure frequency. It can be also used for
the measurement of an unknown capacitor with great accuracy.

Fig Wien Bridge












The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R
l
and R
3
can
be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C
1
, and C
3
are normally of fixed values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz ranges. In, this case, the
resistances can be used for range changing and capacitors C
1
and C
3
for fine frequency control
within the range.
The bridge can also be used for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of
operation must be known.
Anderson Bridge
It is another important a.c. bridge used for the measurement of self inductance in terms of
a standard capacitor. Actually this bridge is nothing but modified Maxwells bridge in which also
the value of self inductance is obtained by comparing it with a standard capacitor. This bridge is
basically used for the precise measurement of inductance over a wide range of value.
One arm of the bridge consists of unknown inductor L
x
with known resistance in series
with L
x
. This resistance R
1
includes resistance of the inductor. C is the standard capacitor with r,
R
2
, R
3
and R
4
are non-inductance known resistances.

Fig : Anderson Bridge

To find balance equations transforming a star formed by R
2
, R
4
and r into its equivalent as shown
in fig.



Now R
7
shunts the source, hence it does not affect the balance condition. Thus by neglecting R
7
and rearranging a network as shown in fig. we get a Maxwell inductance bridge.

If the capacitor used is not perfect, the value of inductance remains uncharged, but the
value of R
1
changes.
This method can also be used to measure the capacitance of the capacitor C if a calibrated
self inductance is available.
Measurement of Resistance
The measurement of resistance is done by comparing the unknown resistance with the
standard resistance. The circuit used for the measurement is shown in the Fig The unknown
resistance R and the known standard resistance R
s
are connected on secondary of the tapped ratio
transformer.

Fig : Measurement of resistance using Auto transformer

R=(N
1
/N
2
)R
2
Measurement of capacitance

The unknown capacitance can be measured by ratio transformer bridge in comparison
with the standard capacitance.

Fig : Measurement of Capacitance using Ratio transformer
The C
s
is standard perfect capacitor while R
s
is the standard resistance. For balance, the
magnitude and phase of the currents passing through the detector must be same. To achieve this,
the standard resistance is kept variable.
C=(N
1
/N
2
)C
s
PART - B
DC and AC bridges
1. Explain in detail, the various types of bridges to determine the unknown inductance a nd
unknown capacitance with suitable diagrams. (16)
(N/D-09)
2. Derive the general equation for bridge balance with a neat A.C bridge diagram.
(16)
(A/M-11)
3. (i) What are the difficulties associated with measurement of a low resistance?
(4)
(ii) How is a low resistance measured accurately by Kelvins double bridge? (12) (A/M-11)
4. (i) Explain the theory and working principle of Kelvin's double bridge method for measuring
a low resistance. Derive the relation for finding unknown resistance. (8)
(ii) How is Hay's Bridge used for the measurement of inductance? (8)
(N/D-10)
5. Draw the circuit diagram and phasor for Anderson bridge. Also derive the expression for
finding the unknown inductance. (16)
6. Explain in detail, the measurements that are made in the following bridge circuits:
a) Wheatstone bridge
b) Deflection Type Bridge (16)
7. Explain in detail, the method of measuring the insulation property of a capacitor by relevant
bridge circuit. (16)
8. Explain in detail, the working of a Schering bridge. Also explain how it is used to measure
the power factor and the dissipation factor of a series RC combination.
9. Describe the various types of instrument errors and instrument faults with neat diagrams.
(16)
10. Explain in detail, the following:
a) Bridge to measure low-Q of a coil
b) Cause and effects of poor grounding in instruments (16)
11. Derive the condition for bridge balance in Maxwell Bridge and Schering Bridge