SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA

P a g e | 1
P-N JUNCTION: - When a P-type crystal is joined with a N-type crystal in such a manner that
crystal structure remains continuous then this structure is called as P-N Junction.
Formation of P-N junction: - Diffusion method is used to form a P-N Junction. In this method an
element of III group (like Boron) is coated on a slice of N-type semiconductor called wafer or
an element of V group (like phosphorus) is coated on P-type semiconductor. When this
semiconductor is heated at a high temperature (about 500C) the impurity is diffused inside
the semiconductor. Diffusion is more at surface and decreases as the depth increases. The
depth up to which the diffusion takes place, a junction is formed which is called P-N Junction.
On the one side of this junction there is P-type semiconductor and on the other side there is N-
type semiconductor.
What happens at the time of formation of P-N Junction (formation of depletion region and
potential barrier): As soon as a junction is formed the holes from p-region diffuse towards n-
region and electron from n- region diffuse towards p-region due to the high concentration of
holes and electron into two different regions. In the vicinity of junction the
















electrons and holes recombines with each other and vanishes, due to which there is a excess of
immobile +ve ions in n-region and ve ions in p-region. Thus an electric field and hence a
potential difference called potential barrier is developed across the junction which stops the
further diffusion of holes and electrons. The region free form charge-carriers on both side of
junction is called depletion region or space charge region.
The thickness of the depletion region is of the order of 10
-6
meter while the potential barrier is
about 0.7 volt. Therefore
Biasing of p-n junction: -
(I) Forward Bias: - When p-region of a p-n junction is
joined to the (+) ve pole of a battery and n-region to -ve
pole then the junction is said to be forward biased.
Action of p-n junction: - When the p-n junction is made
forward bias the (+) ve pole of the battery repels the
holes towards n-region and the (-) ve pole repels the
electron towards p-region. Due to which the electrons
and holes enter the depletion region and the thickness
of depletion region decreases. If the external potential is greater than the potential barrier then
near the junction electrons recombine with holes. For each electron-hole combination that
1 5
6
10 7
10
7 . 0

= = Vm eld ElectricFi
P N
Depletion layer

FORWARD BIASING
A
B
B
P-Type N-Type
Immobile - ve ions
Immobile +ve ions
Depletion region
Holes
majority carrier
Electrons
majority carrier
Potential Barrier
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 2
takes place near the junction, a covalent bond breaks in p-region near the positive pole of
battery. Due to which electrons and holes are produced in pair, the electron is captured by the
(+) ve terminal, while the hole moves towards the junction. At the same time an electrons
enters the n-region from the ve terminal of the battery, thus a forward current flows in the
circuit due to the flow of electrons and hole.
During the forward bias the applied D.C. voltage opposes the potential barrier due to which the
thickness of the depletion layer decreases. Thus p-n junction offers low resistance in forward
bias.
(II) Reverse Bias: - When p-region of a p-n junction is
joined to the (-) ve pole of a battery and n-region to
+ve pole then the junction is said to be reversed biased
Action of p-n junction: - when p-n junction is reversed
biased, the ve pole of the battery attracts the holes
present in P-region, while the +ve pole of the battery
attracts the electrons present in the n-region. Thus the
electrons and holes get away from the junction and the
thickness of depletion region increases. But a very
small current flows through the junction due to the
recombination of minority carriers. This current is
called as reverse current. If the reverse bias voltage is
made very high, all the covalent bonds near the
junction break and a large number of electron-hole pairs are created due to which reverse
current increases abruptly. This phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown and the reverse
voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is called as reverse break down voltage or zener
voltage which depends upon the density of impurity atoms. Due to the over heating at this
voltage, the p-n junction may be damaged.
During the reverse bias the applied D.C. voltage aids the potential barrier due to which
the thickness of the depletion layer increases and hence it offers the high resistance in reverse
bias.

Symbol of p-n junction diode:-


Characteristics of p-n junction: -There is two type of characteristics-

(I) forward bias Characteristics- First of all makes the connection according to the circuit
shown in fig.1. By changing the forward voltage with the help of potential divider note down
the corresponding forward current and plot the graph between forward voltage and forward
current. The graphs so obtained are called as forward characteristic curve of p-n junction.










From the graph it is clear that initially there is no current. When the applied voltage is less than
the potential barrier, the current flow through the junction is very small. As the forward
REVERSE BIASING
P N
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
FORWARD VOLTAGE Vf

Knee Voltage
F
o
r
w
a
r
d

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

I
f

p
n
P N
V
f

I
f

-
+
R
h
B
A
T
T
E
R
Y

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 3
voltage increases above the potential barrier, current increases approximately linearly. When
the forward voltage is equal to voltage of potential barrier then the curve becomes like a knee
and called as knee voltage. At this voltage the thickness of depletion layer becomes negligibility
and the diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction take place easily i.e. the p-n
junction offer low resistance when it is forward bias and the resistance is of the order of 100
ohm.


(II) Reverse Characteristic Curve: -
Make the connection according to the circuit shown in the following figure. Change the reverse
voltage and note the corresponding reverse current. The graph plotted between reverse
voltages and reverse current is called as reverse bias curve. Practically in reverse bias there is
no current if the applied voltage is low but a very small flow due to minority carriers. On
increasing the reverse











Voltage to a very high value, the current increases abruptly, which is clear from graph. It is due
to the fact that at very high voltage, the entire covalent bond near the junction is broken. Due to
which a large number of holes & electrons are liberate and the corresponding voltage is called
as Zener voltage. In reverse bias the thickness of depletion layer increases due to which the
further diffusion of charge carriers stops and no current flows through the junction. Thus in
reverse bias the junction offers very high resistance.

DYNAMIC RESISTANCE: - The ratio of the small change in voltage to the small change in the
current is called as dynamic or a.c. resistance of the junction diode. It is represented by Vd.
The region of the characteristic curve where dynamic resistance is almost independent of the
applied voltage is called the linear region of junction diode.



Junction diode as Rectifier: - An electronic device, which converts a.c. power in to D.C.
power, is called rectifier.

Half wave Rectifier: - A rectifier, which rectifies only one half of each a.c. input supply cycle is
called half wave rectifier.
Principle: - It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when it is forward
bias and high resistance when it is reversed bias i.e. current can flow through the diode when it
is forward biased.
Zener
Voltage
REVERSE VOLTAGE
R
e
v
e
r
s
e

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

I
r

(

A
)

I
V
V
d
A
A
=
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 4













Arrangement:- The p-region of the junction diode is joined to the one terminal of the secondary
coil of a step down transformer and the load resistance is joined between n-region and the IInd
terminal of the secondary coil.
Working:- Let during the first half cycle of the input a.c. upper end i.e. point S1 of secondary is at
+ve potential and the lower end i.e. point S2 is at ve potential. Thus the diode is forward bias.
During first half cycle and current flows through diode in loadresistance from C to D.
During the next half cycle the upper end becomes ve and lower end becomes +ve and
thus the diode gets reverse biased and no current fows through it. In the next half cycle diode
gets forward biased and current flows through it from C to D and this process repeated again
and again. The current obtain in output is discontinuous and pulsating d.c. due to which there
is a huge loss of energy.

Full-wave Rectifier:- A rectifier which rectifies both halves of the a.c. input is called a full wave
rectifier.
Principle:- It is based on the principle that the diode offers low resistance when it is forward
bias and offers high resistance when it is reverse biased.













Arrangement:- The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of a step down transformer. Two
two ends of the secondary coil S of the transformer are connected to the p- regions of the
junction diodes D1 and D2 . A load resistance RL is connected beteen the n-regions of the two
diodes and the ncentral tapping of the secondary coil. The out put d.c. is obtained across the
load reistance.
Working:-Suppose that during first half of the input, the upper end S1 of the secondary is at +
ve pot. and lower end S2 is at () ve pot. So the diode D1 gets forward bias and D2 gets reverse
bias hence current flows through D1 in load resistance from C to D. During the next half cycle S1
A.C.
Input
Voltage
D.C.
0utput
Voltage
A.C.
Input
Voltage
D.C.
0utput
Voltage
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 5
Regulated Output Voltage
Input Voltage (V
i
)
O
u
t
p
u
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e

(
V
O
)

V
Z
V
Z
becomes ve and S2 becomes +ve and hence D1 gets reverse bias and D2 gets forward bias. Thus
the current flows through D2 from C to D in load resistance.
Hence the full wave rectifier, rectifies the both halves of a.c. The output d.c. is
continuous but pulsating. To reduce the fluctuations, filter circits are used in output circits.
Electrolytic condenser and zener diodes are use to reduce the fluctuations of d.c.

Different types of junction diode :-

(I) Zener diode:- A specially designed diode in which P and N region are heavily dopped due to
which the depelation layer junctioin width is small and the junction field ie potential barrier is
high and it can operate continuously, with out being damaged in the region of reverse
breakdown voltage, is called zener diode.

An important application of zener diode is that it can be used as voltage regulator. The
regulating action takes place because of the fact that in reverse breakdown region, a very small
change in voltage produces large change in current. This causes a sufficient increase in voltage
drop across the resistance to lower voltage back to normal. Similarly, when the voltage
across the diode tends to decrease, the current through diode goes down out of proportion so
that voltage drop across the resistor is much less and it raises voltage back to normal.
Hence the output voltage remains constant.








Question-What is a photo diode? Explain its working principle. Also give some uses.
Photo diode: - A junction diode made from light sensitive semiconductor is called a photo
diode.












LIGHT
P



N
LIGHT
R
L

Reverse bias
Volts
mA
A
I
1

I
2

I
3

I
4


I
4
> I
3
> I
2
> I
1


SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 6
Photo diode is always reverse bias. When no light falls on it, a small reverse current flows
through the junction. This current is due to the thermally generated electron-hole pairs and is
called as dark current. When the photodiode is illuminated with light photons of energy h>Eg
then it ejects the valence electrons due to which the current increases and becomes maximum.
This current is called as saturation current. On increasing the light intensity, the saturation
current increases.
A photodiode can turn its current ON and OFF in nanoseconds. So it can be used as a fastest
photo detector.
Uses:
1. In detection of optical signals.
2. In demodulation of optical signals
3. In light-operated switches
4. In speed reading of computer punched cards.
5. In electronic counters.

Light Emitting Diode (LED): - A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased p-n junction
made of gallium arsenide or indium phosphide and emits spontaneous light radiation. When a
LED is made forward bias then the energy is released due to the recombination of electrons
and holes, falls in visible region or infrared region of EM spectrum.
Advantages over conventional incandescent lamps:
1. Low operational voltage and less power consumption.
2. Fast action and no warm up time required.
3. Long life and ruggedness.
4. Light emitted is nearly monochromatic
Uses:
1. Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm systems.
2. In optical communication system.
3. LEDs are used in numeric displays (in watches and calculators).
4. In optical mouses for the computers.
5. In remote controls

Solar cell: - It is a junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy and is based
on photovoltaic effect (generation of voltage due to bombardment of photons).

It consists of a p-n junction made of Si or GaAs. A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor is
grown over a p-type semiconductor by using diffusion method. (So that the energy falling on
the diode not greatly absorbed before reaching to junction)
Working: When light is incident on p-n junction each photon absorbed creates an electron and
a hole. If is because the electron acquires sufficient energy to move from valence to the
conduction band. Due to barrier voltage electrons moves towards n region and holes towards
the p region. As a result the two regions gets opposite potential and emf is developed across
the terminals of the diode.
This photovoltaic emf can be used as ordinary cell in the electrical circuits.
Applications: [1] Solar cells are used in wrist watches and calculators.
[2] They are used to produce power in artificial satellites and space craft.


Transistor: - When a thin layer of one type of semiconductor is sandwiched between the two
thick blocks of another type of semi conductor then obtained structure is called a transistor.
These are used as an amplifier as well as an oscillator. These are of two types: -
LIGHT
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 7
(I) NPN transistor: - A junction transistor in which a thin layer of p-type semiconductor is
sandwiched between two layers of n-type semiconductor is known as NPN transistor.







(II) PNP Transistor: - A junction transistor in which a thin layer of N-type semiconductor is
sandwiched between two layers of P-type semiconductors is known as PNP transistor.






In a transistor base is lightly doped and very thin. The region, which is lightly doped and very
thin, is called as Base. The region, which is highly doped, is called emitter while the remaining
one is called collector. When a transistor is used in a circuit, base emitter junction is always
forward bias while the collector base junction is reverse bias.
Action of Transistor: -

(a) Action of n-p-n Transistor: - The emitter base junction is made forward bias by using a
battery VEE while the collector base junction is made reversed bias by using the VCC. The ve
pole of battery VEE repels the electrons in emitter region (as majority carrier in n-region)
towards base. Since the base is very thin and lightly doped, hence about 95% electrons cross
over the base region and entered the collection region where they are attracted by the +ve
pole of the battery VCC. As soon as an electron enters the +ve pole of the battery VCC, at the
same time an electron enters the emitter region from the ve pole of the battery VEE and this
process is carried out continuously. About 5% electrons recombined with holes in base region.
For each recombination a covalent bond breaks which creates the hole and electron in pair.
Electron enters +ve pole of VEE through B and hence base current IB flows which is very small.
If IE, IC and IB are the emitter, collector and base current then (According to Kirchhoffs 1st law)
IE = IB + IC
It may note that in n-p-n transistor current flows due to the flow of electrons in and outside of
transistor.




B
C
Emitter Collector
N P N
E
C
B
C E
B
P N P
E
Emitter Collector

E C
B
Emitter Collector
C
N P N
E
B
V
EE
V
CC

I
E

I
B

I
C

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 8
Action of P-N-P transistors:-











Characteristics of n-p-n transistor in Common Emitter configuration: - Common Emitter
characteristics of a transistor are the graph plotted between the voltage and the current when
emitter is earthed, base is used as input terminal and the collector as output terminal.


















N-P-N Transistor: -The base emitter circuit is made forward biased by using a battery VBB while
the emitter, collector circuit is made reversed bias by using battery VCC. To draw the
characteristic the circuit arrangement is shown in the above figure in which a n-p-n transistor
is used.
A transistor has two types of characteristics.
D. C. Input characteristics: - Keeping VCE at constant voltage, charge VBE (Base emitter voltage)
and note down the corresponding values of base current. Now for some other value of VCE ,
find out the change in base current for the corresponding change in VBE. Now plot the
graph between VBE and IB at different constant value of VCE. The graphs so obtained are called
as input characteristics.

A.C.I input resistance:- The ratio of the change in the emitter base voltage ( VBE) to the change
in base current ( IB) at the constant VCE is called as a.c. input resistance. It is denoted by Rin.

I
c


C mA
I
B

n-p-n
A B

E
V
CC

V
BB +
+

V
BE
V
CE
_ _







Emitter Collector
C
E
B
V
EE
V
CC

I
E

I
B

I
C

P N P

Legends: - Hole-
Electron-






Holes



Electrons
CE
V
B
BE
in
I
V
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 9
(2) Output characteristics:- The graphs plotted between emitter collector voltage and the
collector current (IC) at different constant values of base current (IB). Following result may be
drawn from the output characteristic curves-
(I) The collector current changes rapidly in beginning but soon it becomes saturated.
(II) The saturation current increases on increasing the base current.
(III) In audio frequency amplifiers the linear part of the output characteristics is used in order
to obtain undistorted output.
Output resistance :-The radio of the change in emitter collector voltage to the change in
collector current at the constant base current. It is denoted by Rout.
Transfer characteristics:-The graph plotted between collector current (IC) and the base current
(IB) at different constant values of collector voltages (VCE).

Current gain :- The ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current at constant
collector emitter voltage is called as current gain. It is also called as current transfer ratio. It
is denoted by: -














TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER:- An amplifier is a device which is used for increasing the amplitude
of variation of alternating voltage or current or power.
A transistor can be used as an amplifier. There are three configurations-
1. Common base amplifier
2. Common emitter amplifier
3. Common Collector Amplifier

Common Emitter Amplifier: - In common emitter configuration emitter is common to both the
base and collector.
I
B

(
m
A
)

(V
BE
)
(V
CE
) = 2v (V
CE
) =3v
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
I
C

(
m

A
)

(V
CE
)
I
B
= 250A
I
B
= 200A
I
B
= 150A
I
B
= 100A
I
B
= 50A




0UTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
I
B
(mA)
I
C

(
m
A
)

(V
CE
) = 3V
TRANSFER
CHARACTERISTICS
B
I
C
CE
out
I
V
R
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
=
CE
V
B
C
I
I
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
A
= |
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 10
Amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor: - The emitter is common to both the input and output.
The emitter is made forward bias by the battery VBB and collector emitter circuit is made

reversed bias by the battery VCC Thus the input resistance is low and the output resistance is
high. The low input voltage signal is plied across emitter base circuit and amplified output
voltage is obtained across collector emitter circuit.
Let IE , IB and IC are the emitter base and collector current so according to Kirchoffs law-

IE = IB + IC ---------------------- (1)

If RL is the load resistance then ICRL will be voltage drop across it. If VCE is the voltage across
emitter collector then

VCE =VCC IC RL ---------------------(2)

The variation in input signal voltage cause the variation in emitter current which produce the
variation in collector current and hence in collector voltage. These variations in collector
voltage appear as amplified output-voltage. The input signal and output signal are in opposite
phase.
Phase relation between input and output signals: - The input signal and the output signal are in
opposite phase, which can be explained as below-
When an a.c. signal is fed to the input circuit, the forward bias increases during positive
half cycle of the input. This results in increase in IC and consequent decrease in VCE , thus
during positive half cycle of the input, the collector becomes less positive.
During negative half cycle of the input, forward bias decreases, therefore, the value of IE
and IC also decreases and VCE would increase making the collector more positive. In common
emitter amplifier, thus there is 180out of phase amplification.

Current Gain: - It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector current to the change in base
current at constant emitter base voltage. It is denoted .
B
C
I
I
A
A
= |
Input Voltage
Signal
Amplified
Voltage Signal
V
CE

V
CC

V
BB

n-p-n
E
C
B
I
C

I
E

I
B

I
C
R
L

R
L

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 11
in
ac m
BE
B
B
C
m
V
BE
c
m
R
g
V
I
I
I
g
V
I
g
CE
1
=
A
A

A
A
=
(

A
A
=
|
Voltage Gain: - It is defined the ratio of the change in the output voltage to the change in input
voltage. It is denoted by AV.







Since > so the voltages gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared to that
in common base amplifier.
A.C. Power Gain:-It is defined as the ratio of change in output power to change in the input
power. It is denoted by AP i.e.-
> so the power gain in common emitter amplifier is very large as compared to that in
common base amplifier.
Trans conductance:- It is defined as the ratio of the change in the collector current (IC ) to the
change in emitter base voltage (VBE) at constant collector voltage. It is denoted by gm i.e.









Relation Between and : -














o
|
o
o
|
o |
| o

=
=
+ =
+
A
A
=
A
A
A
A + A = A
+ =
1
1 1 1
1
1 1
1
1 1
1
sides both on I by divide
or
that know We
C
B
C
E
C
C B E
C B E
I
I
I
I
I I I
I I I
( )
( )
gain resistance
power input in Change
power output in Change
2
2
2
=
A
A
=
A
A
=
=
|
P
i B
O c
P
i
O
P
P
A
R I
R I
A
P
P
A
A
Gain Resistance A
A
A
V
V
V
=
A
A
=
A
A
= =
ac
in B
out C
in B
out C
in
out
R I
R I
R I
R I
V
V
|
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 12
Transistor as an oscillator: -An oscillator is a device which converts direct current into
alternating current and produces high frequency undamped. A transistor can be used to
produce undamped oscillations.
The base oscillatory circuit consists of an inductance and capacitance called tank circuit. Due to
resistance of circuit, a part of energy is dissipated, therefore, amplitude of oscillations goes on
decreasing with time and damped oscillations are produced.
In order to maintain these oscillations, energy is supplied to circuit at the right moment and
in the right direction using a feedback arrangement. The feedback arrangement consists of
primary P and secondary with variable capacitor C of suitable range. The secondary coil of
inductance L. The inductance L and capacitance C constitute tank circuit.
Working: - When the tapping key K is pressed for a moment, a small current starts flowing
through the coil L1 due to the change of current, an emf is induced in inductor L. Due this
induced voltage the emitter current and hence
the collector current increases. Due to the
increase in collector current the magnetic flux
linked with L & L1 increases; thus the voltage
induced in L also increases and hence forward
bias is further increased which increases IC and
IE. This process continues until the induced emf
across the inductor attains a saturation value.
During this process the upper plate of the
capacitor gets +ve charge. When induced emf
attains saturation value the induced emf
becomes zero. Now the capacitor discharges
through L; as a result emitter current decreases
and hence collector current also decreases. The
decreasing collector current will induced emf in inductor L in the reverse direction, which
decrease the emitter current and hence collector current. This process continues till the
collector current reduces to zero. Now the mutual induction stops playing its role. At this stage
the lower plate of the capacitor C will get + ve charge and discharges through L. Thus the
emitter current and hence the collector current again start to increasing i.e. the process gets
repeated and the collector current oscillates between a maximum and zero value. The
repeated process generates oscillations of constant amplitude and the relation gives freq.

= 1/ 2 LC
By changing the value of C the freq. of the oscillations can be changed


TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
A transistor can be used as a switch; the following fig (1) shows the circuit diagram of a base
biased n-p-n transistor in CE configuration states Here RB is a resistor in the input circuit and
Rc in the output circuit.
Applying Kirchhoffs rule to the input and output circuits separately, we get
VBB = IBRB + VBE = Vi -----------------------------(1)
VCE=VCCICRC = Vo ------------------------------(2)
The voltage VBB has been regarded as the dc input voltage Vi and VCE as the dc output voltage
V0.
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 13



Fig. 2 shows typical output voltage (V0) input voltage (Vi) characteristic, called the transfer
characteristic of the base biased transistor. It has three well-defined regions as follows:

1. Cutoff region: When Vi increases from zero to a low value (less than 0.6 V in case of a Si
transistor), the forward bias of the emitter-base junction is insufficient to start a forward
current i.e. IB = 0 and hence Ic = 0. The transistor is said to be in the cutoff region. From
equation (1), the output voltage Vo = Vcc.

2. Active region: When Vi increases slightly above 0.6 V. a current Ic flows in the output circuit
and the transistor said to be in the active state.

3. Saturation region: When Vi becomes very high , a large collector current Ic flows which
produces such a large potential drop across load resistance Rc that the emitter-collector
junction also gets forward biased and output voltage V0 decreases to almost zero. Now the
transistor is said to be in the saturation state because it cannot pass any more collector current
Ic.

Switching action of a transistor: A transistor can be used as a switch if it is operated in its cutoff
and saturation states only. A switch circuit is designed in such a manner that the transistor
does not remain in the active state. As long as the input voltage is low and unable to forward-
bias the transistor, the output voltage V0 (at Vcc) is high. If Vi is high enough to drive the
transistor into saturation, then V0 is low, nearly zero. Thus when the transistor is not
conducting (in cutoff region), it is said to be switched off and when it is driven into saturation,
it is said to be switched on.





SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 14
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
In these electronics circuits, the current or voltages will have only two
values, High (1) and Low (0). In digital circuits, the electrical pulses of two
levels only are used as signal voltages.
Logic Gates:
A gate is a digital circuit which is used to perform certain specific function.
The three basic logic gates are:
a. OR gate
b. AND gate
c. NOT gate
All other logic gates can be formed by combination of these three gates.
Truth Table:
It is table that indicate all possible combinations of input signals and their
output.
Boolean Algebra:
This is the algebra which can be applied to logic gates based on Binary
number system.
OR Gate:
It is a two input single output gate. The output is one if any of the two
inputs or both the inputs are one.
The truth table and symbol of OR
gate are:
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 15
The circuit diagram for OR gate is:
The diodes used are considered to be ideal diodes ie. during forward bias
they offer zero resistance and during reverse bias they offer infinite resistance.
Case I: When A = 0, B = 0: Here both the diodes are in off state. There is
no current that flows through R, thus output voltage is Y=0.
Case II: When A = 0, B = 1: In this case D
1
is in off state and D
2
is forward
biased. The current flows through D
2
and sets up a potential difference of 5V
across it, so Y = 1.
Case III: When A = 1, B = 0: in this case diode D
1
is forward biased and D
2

is reverse biased. Diode D
1
conducts and Y=1.
Case IV: When A=1, B=1: Here both the diodes are forward biased and
hence conduct perfectly. A potential difference of 5V appears across resistance.
Thus, Y = 1.

AND Gate:

It is also a two input single output gate. The output is one if both the inputs
are one.
(a) Suppose A=0 and B=0: The potentials at A and B are forward biased
and offers no resistance. The diode D
1
conducts and net potential difference
appears across R and Y=0.
(b) Suppose A = 0 and B = 1: In this case also A is forward biased and B is
in off state. The diode D
1
conducts and net potential difference appears across
R and Y = 0.
(c) When A = 1 and B = 0: In this case also A is in off state and B is
forward biased. The diode D
2
conducts and Y = 0
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 16

(d) When A = 1 and B = 1: Here both diodes are in off state, hence no
potential drop occurs across R and Y = 1.
NOT Gate:
It is a single input single output gate. The truth table and symbol is
A
0 1
1 0
It is realised with the help of a transistor. Consider an pnp transistor to be
used as NOT gate.
If A = 0, the emitter base junction is reverse biased and no current flows
through it. Correspondingly current through RC is also equal to zero. The
potential Y = 1.
On the other hand, if A is 5V i.e. A =1, the emitter base junction is forward
biased. Potential drop occurs R and Y = 0
NAND Gate:
It is AND gate followed by a NOT Gate.
It is two input single output gate. The truth table and symbol are,
A B X
0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0
A Y =
X Y =
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES ut


PHYSICS DEPARTMENT, V.B.P.S., NOIDA
P a g e | 17

NOR Gate:
It is OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It is a two input single output gate.
The truth table and symbol are,
A B X
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0

Exclusive OR (XOR) Gate:
It is also two input, single output gate. The output is one iff one of the
inputs is one. The truth table and symbol are;
A B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Exclusive NOR Gate:
It is an exclusive OR gate followed by a NOT gate. Output is one either
both the inputs are one or zero. The truth table is,
A B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

X Y =
B A B A Y + =
B A B A Y + =