ENM 233 CourseWork

School of Engineering
COURSEWORK
SUBMISSION SHEET

All sections except the LATE DATE section must be completed and the declaration signed, for the
submission to be accepted.
Any request for a coursework extension must be submitted on the appropriate form (please refer to
http://www.rgu.ac.uk/academicaffairs/quality_assurance/page.cfm?pge=44250), prior to the due
date.
Due Date Date Submitted For official use only
13
th
April 2014

10
th
April 2014 LATE DATE

MATRIC No 1300000
SURNAME ANTOINE
FIRST NAME(S) GERARD
COURSE & STAGE

MSc Oil & Gas Engineering

MODULE NUMBER & TITLE ENM233 Materials & Corrosion
INDIVIDUAL COURSEWORK

ASSIGNMENT TITLE
Corrosiveness of Bottled Mineral Water
(Rusty Nail Experiment)
LECTURER ISSUING COURSEWORK Owen Jenkins

I confirm: (a) That the work undertaken for this assignment is entirely my own and that I have
not made use of any unauthorised assistance.
(b) That the sources of all reference material have been properly acknowledged.
[NB: For information on Academic Misconduct, refer to
http://www.rgu.ac.uk/academicaffairs/assessment/page.cfm?pge=7088]

Signed Gerard Natoine............................ Date ............13
th
/04/2014........................

Markers Comments

Marker

Grade
Materials and Corrosion Science 2014


RUSTY NAIL CORROSION EXPERIMENT

NAME : Gerard Antoine

STUDENT ID : 1300000

COURSE CODE: ENM 233

DATE : 13
th
/04/2014


TABLE OF CONTENTS

GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................ 1
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. 1
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. 1
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................... 2
1.0 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 2
2.0 OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................ 2
3.0 METHOD and MATERIALS ....................................................................................... 3
3.1 Materials ................................................................................................................. 3
3.2 Method .................................................................................................................... 3
4.0 RESULTS ....................................................................................................................... 5
5.0 ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 10
5.1 Still Water (SMW) Corrosion Cell ......................................................................... 11
5.2 Brackish Water Corrosion Cell .............................................................................. 12
5.3 Carbonated Water Corrosion Cell ........................................................................ 13
6.0 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................ 14
APPENDIX 1 THREE (3) DAY INTERVAL PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATIONS GIVEN IN TABLE 1 (A-E) ........................................... 16
APPENDIX 2 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION AND PH OF STILL AND CARBONATED
WATER USED IN THE EXPERIMENT ................................................................................ 17


1
GLOSSARY
BW Brackish Water
SMW Still Mineral Water
CW Carbonated Water
Fe Iron

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.0: Summary of procedure for rusty nail experiment
Figure 2.0: pH changes of brackish, still and carbonated water solutions
Figure 3.0: Pourbaix diagram for iron- water system at 25C and 1 atm.
Figure 4.0: Physical condition of nail after removed from still water
Figure 5.0: Physical condition of nail after removed from brackish water
Figure 6.0: Physical condition of nail from carbonated water
Figure 7.0: Permanent orange stain on glass jar

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.0: Corrosive effects of brackish, still and carbonated water
(a-e) on steel nails
Table 2.0: Initial compositions and pH of the Still Mineral Water solution
Table 3.0: Initial compositions and pH of the Carbonated Water solution


2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report examined the effects of corrosion mechanisms on steel nails
immersed in aqueous environments.
Methods of analysis included visual observations and measurements of
pH and temperature over a fifteen day duration.
The report found that corrosion had occurred in each test solution.
However, due to the parameters measured no definite conclusions with
respect to corrosion rate and overall effect on the steel nail could be
ascertained.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In general, corrosion can be regarded as the degradation of metals via
chemical and electrochemical reactions with its environment (Bardal
2004). The cost of corrosion in the oil and gas industry is high in terms of
prevention and maintenance overheads and can have disastrous effects
on production, people and the environment if not properly controlled. As
a result, acquiring an understanding of the mechanisms which support or
prevent corrosion is important. In this report an experiment was
conducted under controlled conditions in order to ascertain the cause and
effects of corrosion on three mild steel nails placed in different wet
environments.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this report are as follows:
1. Outline and explain the chemical and electrochemical reactions
behind the physical changes observed with the nail and its
environment;
2. Demonstrate the thermodynamics and electrode kinetics involved
in the observed reaction through the use of Pourbaix or Evans
diagrams;
3. Recommend further test that could be implemented to support
deductions and conclusions made.


3
3.0 METHOD and MATERIALS
The following is an overview of the procedures and materials used to
establish three wet environments in which steel nails were submerged,
and monitored.
3.1 Materials Materials used to conduct this experiment were;
1. A 550 ml measuring bottle
2. A graduated tea spoon (5.0 ml)
3. A room temperature thermometer range -40 to +50 C
4. Two 250ml glass jars
5. One 1L glass jar
6. A digital pH meter with acid/alkali calibration solution
range 4.0 to 10 on the pH scale.
7. Three steel nails
8. One jar of sea salt
9. One bottle of carbonated water
10.One bottle of still mineral water
3.2 Method A 500ml bottled sample of carbonated and still
mineral water were obtained randomly from a commercial
outlet. The bottled carbonated water was placed to stand
undisturbed for 24 hours. During this period 550ml of tap
water was measured using a measuring bottle and placed in
the 1L glass jar. One teaspoon of sea salt (5.0ml) was then
added to the jar containing the tap water and mixed vigorously
for five minutes. The 1L jar containing the salt water was then
closed and left to stand. Subsequently, a second test solution
was prepared. Here the still mineral water was used to fill one
of the 250ml glass jars. Both jars were immediately covered
and labelled based on content and date. Finally, after 24 hours
had expired, the remaining 250ml glass jar was prepared with
the carbonated water in a similar fashion to that described for
mineral water. However additional care was taken not to
severely agitate the carbonated water whilst pouring.
With the three solutions prepared the entire surface area of
each of the three steel nails were thoroughly polished using

4
very fine sand paper. Care was taken not to contaminate the
polished surfaces by handling with a tweezers and dry paper
towels.
The pH of each of the three prepared solutions were checked
with a calibrated digital pH meter and recorded. The ambient
room temperature was recorded using a room thermometer
and a freshly polished nail subsequently immersed into each of
the three jars containing the salt, carbonated and still mineral
water test solutions. All three jars were subsequently observed
continuously for 25 minutes and observations noted.
The pH test, observation notes and room temperature
recordings were then repeated daily for eleven days after
which each sample solution was vigorously shaken and re-
observed daily for an additional four days (see figure 1).
At the end of a fifteen day period the contents of each test jar
was poured into large white ceramic bowls and closely
observed to gauge the overall effect of corrosion mechanisms.

Figure 1: Summary of procedure described for the rusty nail experiment

S
H
A
K
E
N

A
F
T
E
R

1
1

D
A
Y
S


5
4.0 RESULTS
In this section the results of all observations made over the fifteen day
duration of the experiment would be presented. The tabulated daily
records shown in table 1.0 revealed that corrosive reactions were not
confined to the surface of the steel nails but also caused changes to the
pH of the solutions and transparency of the glass containers respectively.
See Appendix 1 for the corresponding photographic record.

Table 1a: Corrosive effects of brackish (BW), still (SMW) and carbonated
water (CW) on steel nails.
Date Temp.
(C)
I.D. PH Physical Observations
22/03/14
(Day 1)

25 BW 7.9 After 25 minutes a slight greenish brown tinge
was seen forming on a small are of the nail
surface. Water remained clear.
SMW 7.0 No visible change in nail, water remained clear
CW 5.3 Carbonated water fizzed violently on adding the
nail. Gas bubbles approximately 2mm in
diameter were seen quickly forming on the
surface of the nail before floating up
(Appendix1). After 25 minutes no visible
change was seen, however size of bubbles
decreased to approx. 1.5 mm.
23/03/14
(Day 2)

24 BW 7.6 Water appeared slightly cloudy. A light red
brown oxide layer formed on sides and upward
facing surface of nail with the exception of an
area approximately 5mm below the nail head
which remained silver. A thin brown film was
also seen at the base of the jar surrounding the
nail in an irregular fashion. Directly below the
outer edges of the nail small piles of oxide
flakes were seen deposited. The base of the
nail in contact with the jar did not develop any
oxide film.
SMW 7.2 Water transparency reduced slightly. 50%
upward nail surface covered with a brown oxide
film, sides and base of nail unaffected. A thin
brown film was also seen surrounding nail at
base of jar in a semi-circular shape.
CW 5.3 Oxide film at surface of nail looked dark
grey/black in colour. No film was seen on the
base of jar and bubbles forming on nail surface
was reduced in size to approximately 1 mm.
Water remained clear.
24/03/14
(Day 3)

24 BW 7.5 Thickness of oxide layer on upward side of nail
noticeably thicker. Spread of brown film on jar
had increased and solution transformed from
murky white to slightly brown in colour.

6
Table 1b: Corrosive effects of brackish (BW), still (SMW) and carbonated
Water (CW) on steel nails.
Date Temp.
(C)
24/03/14 24 SMW 7.2 Brown oxide film now spread uniformly
throughout upward nail surface. Sides of nail
showed patches of film developing but silver
surface remained largely visible. The brown
film surrounding the nail at the base had
increased in thickness but had not spread
giving a dark brown appearance.
CW 5.5 Water remained clear. Oxide film colour on
upward nail surface increased in intensity and
seemed black. No film seen at base of jar or
underside of nail. Bubbles forming on surface
of nail had reduced in rate of formation,
quantity as well as diameter.
25/03/14
(Day 4)

24 BW 7.5 Upward and side of nail with the exception of
nail head and strip 5mm below was now
completely covered by a thick oxide layer
(Appendix1). Brown thin film at base of jar no
longer looked uniform in texture but was
speckled by solid oxide flakes. A small pocket
of water condensation was seen on the wall of
the jar.
SMW 7.3 No major change in condition of nail. Water
seemed to have developed a light brown tinge.
CW 5.7 Water seemed slightly murky and had
developed a translucent greenish red slightly
oily film at the surface. No change on the
surface of the nail was observed.
26/03/14
(Day 5)

24 BW 7.5 The region near the nail head remained
seemingly untouched by the surrounding brown
oxide layer had noticeably reduced by the
oxide film. The quantity of oxide flakes present
at the base of the jar however had increased
and a transparent brown film had formed on
the vertical walls of the jar covering a height of
approximately 20mm from the base.
SMW 7.5 The brown oxide layer on the upward surface
of the nail had noticeably increased in
thickness. The sides of the nail were almost
completely covered by patches of oxide film.
CW 5.9 A uniform finely powdered brown oxide film
now covered the top and sides of the nails as
well as the entire base of the jar. Bubbles
resting on the surface of the nail had reduced
in size and quantity. Only very small bubbles
now rose to the surface from around the edges
of the nail. The translucent oily film was still
present but the colour reflected was changing
from light reddish brown to a darker shade.


7
Table 1c: Corrosive effects of brackish (BW), still (SMW) and carbonated
Date Temp.
(C)
27/03/14
(Day 6)

24

BW 7.5 No noticeable change observed
SMW 7.7 No major changes with the exception that the
sides of the nail were now completely covered
with a brown oxide layer.
CW 6.0 Water appeared to now have a distinct orange/
brown colour. The fine uniform brown film on
the nail and at the base of the jar had increase
in thickness. Most of the nail surface was now
bubble free with minor exceptions, Barely
noticeable bubbles were seen rising from the
edges of the nail
28/03/14
(Day 7)

24 BW 7.5 No noticeable change observed
SMW 7.7 No noticeable change observed
CW 6.2 Water appeared to be a darker shade of
orange/brown colour (Appendix 1). Bubbles
now seldomly seen either on the nail surface or
rising.
29/03/14
(Day 8)

25 BW 7.5 Deposition of oxides flakes at base of jar
seemed to increase. The thin transparent
brown film on the walls of the jar had also
increased slightly in height.
SMW 7.6 Water seemed murkier in appearance. Larger
piles of oxide flakes had accumulated directly
below the edges of the nail.
CW 6.3 Brown film at the base of the jar increased in
thickness and became opaque. No noticeable
change in the nail surface.
31/03/14
(Day 9)

24 BW 7.4

No noticeable change observed
SMW 7.7
CW 6.4
1/04/14
(Day 10)

25 BW 7.3
SMW 7.7 Small reddish brown oxide flakes now seen
sparsely scattered on the once uniformly
textured brown film at base of jar
CW 6.5 Increase in the intensity of the orange brown
colour of the water observed.


8
Table 1d: Corrosive effects of brackish (BW), still (SMW) and carbonated
Date Temp.
(C)
3/04/14
(Day 11
Shaken)
24 BW 7.4 Pre-Shake: Noticeable increase in the build-up
of brown oxide layer on upward face of nail and
in the immediate vicinity at an approximate
radius of 3mm.
Post Shake: Water now an opaque light brown
colour nail no longer visible from surface. At
base of jar reddish brown oxide flakes were not
suspended and accumulated in centre of jar.
SMW 7.7 Pre-Shake: No change in water colour but
oxide layer on the nail surface transitioned
from a light brown to a reddish brown colour.
Post Shake: Solution became cloudy with a
substantial amount of dark red oxide flakes
accumulating at the base of the jar. The oxide
layer that previously coated the nail was
completely dislodged and a dull grey gleam
throughout the surface of the nail was seen.
CW 6.4 Pre-Shake: Film at the base of jar had
become completely opaque. Water colour still
appeared to be a dark reddish/brown shade. No
bubbles were observed on or around the nail.
Post Shake: Water colour remained the same.
Solution no longer transparent. Insoluble fairly
big oxide flakes were seen swirling in the
mixture. The opaque brown film at the base of
the jarl had remained intact. As a result the
nail was not visible (Appendix 1)
4/04/14
(Day 12)

24 BW 7.4 Transparency of water had improved and was
now comparable to initial experiment state.
Oxide film looked very similar in composition
and texture to pre-shaken conditions. However
the brown film at the base of the jar had now
been dispersed and replaced by fairly large
quantities of brown flaky crumb like oxide
solids. These brown oxides particle
accumulated in small mounds throughout the
base of the jar. The reddish brown oxides
flakes apparent immediately after shaking the
sample was now sparsely distributed amongst
these mounds.
SMW 7.7 Water seemed cloudier than the pre-shaken
sample reducing the visibility of the nail.
However the nail seemed totally covered by a
loose looking brown oxide layer.
CW 6.5 Visibility of nail was reduced as water became
less transparent. However the nail seemed to
be free of any noticeable oxide layer as a dull
grey gleam was seen throughout the surface.
The reddish brown oily film at the surface of
the water had completely dissipated.

9
Table 1e: Corrosive effects of brackish (BW), still (SMW) and carbonated
Date Temp.
(C)
5/04/14
(Day 13)

25

BW 7.3
No apparent change was observed
SMW 7.6
CW 6.8 A uniform finely textured reddish brown
oxide film had reformed on the exposed
surfaces of the nail. The opaque film at the
base of the jar was no longer uniform but
was speckled with small thin glossy looking
flakes.
7/04/14
(Day 14)

25 BW 7.4

No apparent change was observed

SMW 7.6
CW 7.3
8/04/14
(Day 15)

24 BW 7.3 The height of the transparent brownish film
on the vertical walls of the jar had
increased from 20 to 35mm.
SMW 7.6 The transparency of solution remained
murky however short piles of oxide flakes
was seen on the base of the jar around the
edges of the nail (Appendix 1).
CW 7.9 No apparent change was observed

The observations presented in tables 1(a-d) were taken at fairly
consistent ambient room temperatures which varied mostly between +/-
1C giving a mean temperature of 24.4 C. This allowed trends in the pH
of the three test solutions to be identified.

5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
P
H

No. of Days
BW (pH)
SMW (pH)
CW (pH)
Figure 2: pH changes for the brackish, still and carbonated test solutions
SMW
A
G
I
T
A
T
E
D


10
As shown in figure 2 the pH of the Brackish Water (BW) decreased
steadily whilst the Still Mineral (SMW) and Carbonated Water (CW) pH
values increased. The reasons for this and its relationship to ongoing
corrosion mechanisms would be explained in the following section of this
report.

5.0 ANALYSIS
In this experiment the corrosive mechanisms was largely attributed to
wet corrosion which, according to Garverick 1994, can be defined
typically by electrochemical processes in the presence of water containing
corrosion products of various solubilitys and concentrations.
Another significant consideration was the metallurgy of the material
tested. Here the metal used was steel which consisted primarily of iron
(Fe). In addition, the experiments were conducted at a mean
temperature of 24.4C under atmospheric conditions. As a result, the
Pourbaix diagram for iron at 25C (298K) and 1 atmosphere (see figure
3) was used to predict and explain reactions such as corrosion, non-
corrosion and passivation of the steel nails whilst immersed in their
respective aqueous environments.

Figure 3: Pourbaix diagram for an iron-water system at
1atm and 25C (298K) (Pourbaix and Verink 1971)
ACTIVE
CORROSION
PASSIVITY
IMMUNITY
CORROSION

11
5.1 Still Water (SMW) Corrosion Cell

Figure 4: Physical condition of nail after removed from still water

In describing the corrosion mechanism that resulted in the corroded
effects on the steel nail shown in figure 4, it is best to first examine
the least highly oxidised form of iron given by equation 1.
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
-
(1)
This mechanism whereby iron is dissolved is considered active
corrosion and is outlined in the Pourbaix diagram between line 23,
26, 28 and 20 for ionic Fe concentrations greater than 10
-6
. This
system is analogous to day 1 observations where no physical changes
were evident. However this reaction was affected by the increasing
pH of the SMW shown in figure 2. At the measured pH of 7.2 on day
2 (see table 1a), the reaction reached the region bounded by line 26
on the Pourbaix diagram. Here ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)
3
(rust) was
observed in the form of a red brown film that appeared on the
upward facing surface of the nail and at the base of the jar. The
chemical equation for this reaction is given below.
4Fe + 3O
2
+6H
2
O 4 Fe(OH)
3
(2)
As time progressed during the experiment, the iron in the steel nail
formed a passive Magnetite oxide layer Fe
3
O
4.
3Fe + 4H
2
O Fe
3
O
4
+ 8H
+
+ 8e
-
(3)
Evidence of this reaction was confirmed by the dark grey black
patches shown on the nail in figure 4 which appeared to be greenish
black when initially removed from solution but quickly turned into
black patches when dried of with paper towels (dehydrated Fe
3
O
4
).
This differentiated Magnetite from the other stable passive layer
Haematite (Fe
2
O
3
) which is red brown in colour. In addition, due to

Area with a light
reddish/brown
stain
Black/dark grey
patches spotted
on upper and
lower area of
nail

12
the production of hydrogen ions, this reaction would account for the
decrease in pH values after day 7(see figure 2).
The initial composition and pH of the SMW used in this experiment
was also examined to deduce if any additional passive or corrosive
mechanisms could be identified (see Appendix 2). Two compounds of
interest were identified namely chlorides and bicarbonates in
concentrations of less than 240 and less than 11 mg/l. The chloride
content was thought to have a negligible effect due to the small
quantities, and considering that the pH at source was 7.4, the
possibility that the concentration of carbonic ions from dissolved
bicarbonate was high enough to create acidic conditions was
dismissed.
5.2 Brackish Water Corrosion Cell

Figure 5: Physical condition of nail after removed from brackish water

As shown in figure 5 the steel nail was covered in a passive uniform
layer of Magnetite oxide layer Fe
3
O
4.
The chemical reactions were
similar to that described by equations 1 3. The major difference
was the higher concentration of chloride ions (Cl
-
) which increased
the conductivity of the electrolyte and the rate of corrosive reactions.
This was evident by the large quantities of ferric hydroxide or brown
rust particles that accumulated in the jar over the duration of the
experiment compared to the other test solutions. Another indicator of
the increased reaction rate of reaction was the speed at which
physical changes were observed (see table 1) and the sharp rate of

Uniform
black/dark
grey film

13
initial decline in pH value (see figure 2) before the passive oxide layer
(Fe
3
O
4
) was formed.
5.3 Carbonated Water Corrosion Cell

Figure 6: Physical condition of nail after removed from carbonated water

The carbonic acid theory stipulates that carbonic acid reacts with iron to
form carbonates whilst releasing hydrogen which bonds with oxygen in
the air to breakdown ferrous carbonate to ferric hydroxide (Sang 1910).
The equations describing these processes are given below:
2Fe + 2CO
2
+ 2H
2
O 2FeCO
3
+ 4H
+
(4)
4H + 2FeCO
3
+3O

Fe
2
O
3
+ 2CO
2
+2H
2
O (5)
Fe +2CO
2
+ H
2
O + O
2
Fe(HCO
3
)
2
(6)
2Fe(HCO
3
) + H
2
O + O
2
2Fe(OH)CO
3
+ 2CO
2
+2H
2
O (7)
2Fe(OH)CO
3
+2H
2
O 2Fe(OH)
3
+ 2CO
2
(8)
2CO
2
+ 2H
2
O 2H
2
CO
3
(9)
H
2
CO
3
H
+
+ HCO
3
-
(10)

From examination of equation 5 above, it can be seen that the reddish
brown oxide film on the surface of the nail shown in figure 6 was
Haematite (Fe
2
O
3
). According to Bardal 2004 Haematite is known for its
non-porous stable and good adherence to substrate abilities. These
properties were proven by the fact that the oxide layer which
accumulated on the nail and at the base of the jar did not totally detach
after the sample was vigorously shaken.

Reddish
brown film

14

Figure 7: Permanent orange stain on glass jar that contained the nail
and carbonated water.

The effect of glass corrosion was seen on the surface of glass after the
test solution was poured out. This was attributed to sharp increases in pH
which caused leaching of alkali ions from the surface of the glass into the
carbonated water (Perkoff and Beyers 2001). As a result the
concentrations of silica on the surface of the glass increased changing its
colour to orange as shown in figure 7.

6.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion all three samples showed signs of corrosion and
development of passive layers. However some ambiguity existed with
respect to the determination of the rate and quantity of corrosion that
occurred in each test. From a visual perspective (see Appendix1) the rate
of corrosion seemed to be fastest with the brackish water sample,
however when considering the electrochemical/chemical reactions
reflected in the pH measurements (see figure 2) the carbonated water
test solution seemed to be most active. Therefore a recommendation
could be to include measurements of mass and potentials in future
experiments. This would make the effect of corrosion on each metal
quantifiable as well as allow for the practical use of the Evans diagram in
determining the reaction kinetics.


15

REFERENCES
BARDAL, E., 2004. Corrosion and Protection. London, UK. Technomic
Publishing Company, Inc.
GARVERICK, L., 1994. Corrosion in the Petrochemical Industry. ASM
International.
POURBAIX, M. and VERINK, E., 2011. Pourbaix diagram for Iron and
Water system at 1atm and 25C 1971. In: R. W. REVIE, 2011. Uhligs
Corrosion Handbook: 3
rd
Edition: New York:John Wiley and Sons. P. 107.

PERKOFF and BEYERS, 2001. Destruction of Glass surfaces: Inevitable or
Preventable?. [online]. Ritech International ltd. Available from
http://www.ritec.co.uk/cmsfiles/International_Glass_Review.pdf
[Accessed 5 April 2014].
SANG, A., 1910. The Corrosion of Iron and Steel. New York, USA. Mc
Graw Hill Book Comoany.


16
APPENDIX 1 THREE (3) DAY INTERVAL PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORD OF
EXPERIMENT OBSERVATIONS GIVEN IN TABLE 1 (A-E)

DAY 1
BRACKISH CARBONATED STILL MINERAL
DAY 4
DAY 7
DAY 11 (AGITATED SOLUTION)
DAY 15 (Final Day)

17

APPENDIX 2 ORIGINAL COMPOSITION AND PH OF STILL AND
CARBONATED WATER USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

Original composition and pH of the Still Mineral Water (SMW)
Composition Quantity (mg/litre)
Calcium <55.0
Magnesium <16.0
Potassium <2.0
Sodium <15.0
Bicarbonate <240.0
Sulphate <28.0
Nitrate <6.0
Chloride <11.0
pH at source 7.4

Original composition and pH of the Carbonated Water (CW)

Composition Quantity (mg/litre)
Calcium 55.0
Magnesium 19.0
Potassium 1.0
Sodium 15.0
Bicarbonate 248.0
Sulphate 13.0
Nitrate <0.1
Chloride 37.0
pH at source 7.4

ENM 233 CourseWork

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ENM 233 CourseWork

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

School of Engineering

You might also like