1.

LIMIT OF A FUNCTION AND LIMIT LAWS

1.1 What is Limit

Frequently, when studying a function ) (x f y = , we find ourselves interested in the
functions behavior near a particular point
o
x , but not at
o
x itself. This is due to various
reasons. One of the reasons could be because when trying to evaluate a function at
o
x , it leads
to division by zero, which is undefined! Lets have a look at the following example:

Example 1

Observe the behavior of the following function near 1 = x .

1
1
) (
2

=
x
x
x f
Solution:

Notice from graph 1 that there is actually a
hole at 1 = x . Evaluating f at 1 = x gives:

0
0
1 1
1 1
) 1 (
2
=

= f
But )
0
0
( is indeterminate, meaning, we
cant determine its value. So, ) 1 ( f is not
defined, that is why here is a hole in graph 1.

Graph 1
Instead of evaluating f directly at 1 = x , lets observe the value of ) (x f when we approach
1 = x :

x 0.9999 0.999 0.9 0.5 1 1.0001 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.5
f
(x)
1.99990 1.99900 1.90000 1.50000 ? 2.00001 2.00100 2.01000 2.100 2.5

As seen from the table above, the closer x gets to 1, the closer ) (x f seems to get to 2.
Lets generalize the idea illustrated in Example 1:
Limit (informal definition): If the values of ) (x f can be made as close as we like to L by
taking values of x sufficiently close to
o
x (but not equal to
o
x ), then we write
L x f
o
x x
=

) ( lim ,
which is read the limit of ) (x f as x approaches
o
x is L.
Right side Left side
For instance, in Example 1, we would say that ) (x f approaches the limit 2 as x approaches 1
and write:
2 ) ( lim
1
=

x f
x
or 2
1
1
lim
2
1
=

x
x
x

Remember, to find ) ( lim x f
o
x x
, we should be able to approach as close as we like to
o
x . This
means: the function f should be defined everywhere near
o
x ; otherwise, we would say: the
limit does not exist. Lets have a look at few more examples.



Graph 2: limit exist because x can
approach 2 as close as we like
Graph 3: limit does not exist because x
cannot approach 2 as close as we like
1.2 One -sided Limits: what is right hand limit & left hand limit?

1. If the value of ) (x f approaches the number L

as x approaches c from the right,
we write L x f
c x
=
+

) ( lim (one-sided limit right-hand limit)

or
+
c x as L x f ) (

2. If the value of ) (x f approaches the number M

as x approaches c from the left,
we write M x f
c x
=

) ( lim (one-sided limit left-hand limit)

Theorem A function ) (x f has a limit as x approaches c if and only if it has left-hand and
right hand limits and these one-sided limits are equal:

L x f
c x
=

) ( lim if and only if L x f x f

c x c x
= =
+

) ( lim ) ( lim
If both one-sided limits do not have the same value then ) ( lim x f
c x
does not exist.
x x
f(x)
f(x)
x x
f(x)
f(x)
Note: The limit of a function ) (x f as x approaches c does not depend on the value of the
function at c [limit does not depend on f(c)]
Example 2:

Graph 4
At 1 = x : 0 ) ( lim
1
=

x f
x
even though 1 ) 1 ( = f ,
1 ) ( lim
1
=
+

x f
x
,
) ( lim
1
x f
x
does not exist. The right and left hand limits are not equal.

At 2 = x : 1 ) ( lim
2
=

x f
x
,
1 ) ( lim
2
=
+

x f
x
,
1 ) ( lim
2
=

x f
x
even though 2 ) 2 ( = f ,

1.3 The Limit Laws

Theorem:
If M x g L x f
c x c x
= =

) ( lim , ) ( lim both exist, and k is a constant, then
a) M L x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
+ = + = +

) ( lim ) ( lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
b) M L x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= =

) ( lim ) ( lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
c) LM x g x f x g x f
c x c x c x
= =

) ( lim ). ( lim )] ( ). ( [ lim
d) L k x f k x kf
c x c x
= =

) ( lim ) ( lim
e) 0 ,
) ( lim
) ( lim
) (
) (
lim = = =

M
M
L
x g
x f
x g
x f
c x
c x
c x

f) ( )
s
r
s r
s
r
c x
s
r
c x
L L x f x f = =
|
.
|

\
|
=

) ( lim ) ( lim
g) | | ( )
n
n
c x
n
c x
L x f x f =
(

=

) ( lim ) ( lim
If f is the identity function x x f = ) ( , then for any value of
o
x
0
lim ) ( lim x x x f
o o
x x x x
= =



If f is the constant function k x f = ) ( , then for any value of
o
x
k k x f
o o
x x x x
= =

lim ) ( lim
1.4 Computing Limits
There are various algebraic methods to solve for limits but the first step would always
be substitution. If substitution results in
1. A real number, negative infinity ( ), positive infinity ( + ) limit is found
2. Zero over infinity

0
answer to the limit is zero.
3. A real number over zero
0
3
or infinity over zero
0

Limit does not exist.

Example 3

Evaluate the following limits.

A) ) 5 3 ( lim
3
5
+

x x
x
Substitute x with 5: 115 5 ) 5 ( 3 ) 5 ( ) 5 3 ( lim
3 3
5
= + = +

x x
x

B) 44
) 3 ( lim
) 4 5 ( lim
3
4 5
lim
2
3
2
3
2
=

+
=

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

C)
3
2
5 2
4 6
5
4 3
lim
2
=
+
+
=
+
+

x
x
x

D) ?
0
1
) 2 ( lim
) 1 ( lim
2
1
lim
2
2
2
= =

x x
x
x
x

use the sign graph to determine whether the answer is + , or both.
2
1
lim
2

x
x
does not exist. ( + from the right, and from the left)
E) ) ( lim
3
x f
x
for

> +
s
=
3 , 13
3 , 5
) (
2
x x
x x
x f
From the left, 4 ) 5 ( lim ) ( lim
2
3 3
= =


x x f
x x

From the right, 4 13 lim ) ( lim
3 3
= + =
+ +

x x f
x x

Both one-sided limits are the same 4 ) ( lim
3
=

x f
x


However, if substitution results in indeterminate value such as )
0
0
( , then we have to convert
the function into a suitable form where substitution can give one of the three results
mentioned above. The following examples illustrate how to resolve indeterminacy by using
algebraic methods.

Example 4 - Resolving indeterminate form of )
0
0
( by factorizing:

A) Evaluate
2
4
lim
2
2

x
x
x


Substituting x with 2:
=

0
0
2 2
4 2
lim
2
2 x
indeterminate

Factorizing ) 4 (
2
x into ) 2 )( 2 ( + x x :
) 2 (
) 2 )( 2 (
lim
2
+
=
x
x x
x

Canceling ) 2 ( x in numerator and
denominator, and substituting x with 2:
4 ) 2 ( lim
2
= + =

x
x


B) Evaluate
1 5 4
1
lim
2
3
1
+

x x
x
x

Substituting x with 1:
=
+

0
0
1 5 4
1 1
lim
3
1 x
indeterminate
Factorizing ) 1 (
3
x into ) 1 )( 1 (
2
+ + x x x
and ) 1 5 4 (
2
+ x x to ) 1 4 )( 1 ( x x
) 1 4 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 (
lim
2
1
+ +
=
x x
x x x
x

Canceling ) 1 ( x in numerator and
denominator, and substituting x with 1:
1
) 1 4 (
) 1 (
lim
2
1
=

+ +
=
x
x x
x


Example 5 - Resolving indeterminate form of )
0
0
( by conjugate multiplication:
A) Evaluate
2
2
0
3 9
lim
t
t
t
+

Substitute t with 0:

=
+
0
0
0
3 9 0
lim
2
2
0 t
indeterminate
Multiply with conjugate and simplify:
=
3 9
3 9
.
3 9
lim
2
2
2
2
0
+ +
+ + +

t
t
t
t
t
) 3 9 (
lim
2 2
2
0
+ +
=

t t
t
t

Cancel
2
t in numerator and denominator and substitute x with 0:
6
1
) 3 9 (
1
lim
2 0
=
+ +
=

t
t




Theorem-(The Squeezing Theorem or Sandwich Theorem) Suppose that
) ( ) ( ) ( x f x h x g s s for all x in some open interval containing c (as shown in graph 5), except
possibly at x = c itself. Suppose also that
L x f x g
c x c x
= =

) ( lim ) ( lim

Then, L x h
c x
=

) ( lim

Graph 5 illustrating squeezing theorem
Squeezing theorem helps us to establish several important limit rules such as:

Theorem (limit rules): 0
1 cos
lim 1
sin
lim
0 0
=
u
u
=
u
u
u u


Proof:
This proof is for the limit as 0+. The
case for 0 can be proved in exactly
the same manner.
Consider the graph to the right. Notice that
the area of the triangle OAP is less than
the area of the sector OAP which is in turn
less than the area of the triangle OAT.
Lets estimate each of these areas in turn.

Area of triangle OAP = u = u = sin
2
1
sin ) 1 (
2
1
2
1
height base
Area of sector OAP =
2
) 1 (
2
1
2
1
2
u
= u = u r
Area of triangle OAT = u = u = tan
2
1
tan ) 1 (
2
1
2
1
height base
Using our initial observation, one has
, tan
2
1
2
1
sin
2
1
u s u s u
2
0
t
s u s (1)
From the left hand side of (1) one has u s u sin or 1
sin
s
u
u
if 0 > u . From the right hand side
we have u s u tan or
u
u
s u
sin
cos if 0 > u . In other words, 1
sin
cos s
u
u
s u
At this point, if we take the limit as 0 u and apply squeezing theorem:

1 lim
sin
lim cos lim
0 0 0 u u u
s
u
u
s u
Since the left-hand side and right-hand side has the limit of 1, we can conclude that
1
sin
lim
0
=
u
u
u

Example 7:
1. 1 ) 1 )( 1 (
cos
1
.
sin
lim
tan
lim
0 0
= =
|
.
|

\
|
=
x x
x
x
x
x x

2. 2
2
2 sin
lim 2
2
2 sin
2 lim
2 sin
lim
0 0 0
=
|
.
|

\
|
u
u
=
|
.
|

\
|
u
u
=
u
u
u u u

3.
5
3
5
5 sin
5
3
3 sin
3 lim
5 sin 3 sin
lim
5 sin
3 sin
lim
0 0 0
=
(

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x x


1.5 End behavior of function (limits as x )

The behavior of a function toward the extremes of its domain is sometimes called its end
behavior. In this section, we will use limits to investigate the end behavior of a function as
x . The symbol for infinity ( ) does not represent a real number. We use to
describe the behavior of a function when the values in its domain or range outgrow all finite
bounds.

Finite limits as x (definition):

1. We say that ) (x f has the limit L as x approaches infinity and write L x f
x
=
+
) ( lim
2. We say that ) (x f has the limit L as x approaches minus infinity and write L x f
x
=

) ( lim

Geometrically, if L x f ) ( as + x , then the graph of ) (x f y = eventually gets closer
and closer to the line L y = as the graph is traversed in the positive x-direction (see graph 6).
And if L x f ) ( as x , then the graph of ) (x f y = eventually gets closer and closer to
the line L y = as the graph is traversed in the negative x-direction (see graph 7). In either
case, we call line L y = a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.


Graph 6

Graph 7

horizontal asymptote (definition): A line b y = is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of a
function ) (x f y = if either
b x f
x
=

) ( lim or b x f
x
=

) ( lim

Lets begin by obtaining the limits of some simple functions and then use these as building
blocks for finding limits of more complicated functions.

Theorem: let k be a real number.

k k
x
=
+
lim k k
x
=

lim
(constant function)
+ =
+
x
x
lim =

x
x
lim
(linear function)
0
1
lim =
+ x x
0
1
lim =
x x
(reciprocal function)

Theorem: If 0 > r is a rational number such that
r
x is defined for all x, then
0
1
lim =

r
x
x
and 0
1
lim =

r
x
x

The Limit Laws x

If M x g L x f
x x
= =

) ( lim , ) ( lim both exist, and k is a constant, then
a) M L x g x f x g x f
x x x
+ = + = +

) ( lim ) ( lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
b) M L x g x f x g x f
x x x
= =

) ( lim ) ( lim )] ( ) ( [ lim
c) LM x g x f x g x f
x x x
= =

) ( lim ). ( lim )] ( ). ( [ lim
d) L k x f k x kf
x x
= =

) ( lim ) ( lim
e) 0 ,
) ( lim
) ( lim
) (
) (
lim = = =



M
M
L
x g
x f
x g
x f
x
x
x

f) ( )
s
r
s r
s
r
x
s
r
x
L L x f x f = =
|
.
|

\
|
=

) ( lim ) ( lim

Limits of polynomials as x
,... 3 , 2 , 1 , lim = + =
+
n x
n
x

=
= +
=
,... 5 , 3 , 1 ,
,... 6 , 4 , 2 ,
lim
n
n
x
n
x

Example 8: + = = + =
+
8 5 8
5 lim 5 lim 8 lim x x x
x x x


Note: The end behavior of a polynomial matches the end behavior of its highest degree term.

n
n
x
n
n
x
x c x c x c c
+ +
= + + lim ) ... ( lim
1 0

n
n
x
n
n
x
x c x c x c c

= + + lim ) ... ( lim
1 0


Example 9: = = +
+ +
5 3 5
7 lim 9 2 4 7 lim x x x x
x x

= = + +

8 3 8
4 lim 1 5 17 4 lim x x x x
x x

Limits of rational functions as x

There are two methods to find the limit of rational
) (
) (
) (
x g
x n
x f = functions as x :
Method 1: Use 0
1
lim
1
lim = =
+
n
x
n
x
x x

Example 10: 0
2
0
)
5
2 (
)
1 4
(
lim
5 2
4
lim
3
2
3
2
= =

x
x
x
x
x x
x x

Method 2: Use the end behavior of polynomial at numerator and denominator.
Example 11: 0
2
lim
) 2 (
) 4 (
lim
5 2
4
lim
3
2
3
2
= = =

x x
x
x
x x
x x x


Limits involving radicals x

When a polynomial or rational function is below the radical, we can evaluate the limit of the
function first and then take the radical.

Example 12:

3 3 3
2
1
8 6
5 3
lim
8 6
5 3
lim =

+
=

+
+ + x
x
x
x
x x


When radical appears either at numerator or denominator only, it would be useful to
manipulate the function to powers of 1/x. This can be achieved in both cases by dividing the
numerator and denominator by x and using the fact that x x =
2
.

Example 13:

A)
3
1
3
1
lim
/ ) 6 3 (
/ 2
lim
/ ) 6 3 (
/ 2
lim
6 3
2
lim
6
2 2 2
2
2
2
=

+
=

+
=

+
=

+
+ + + +
x
x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x


B)
3
1
3
1
lim
) /( ) 6 3 (
/ 2
lim
/ ) 6 3 (
/ 2
lim
6 3
2
lim
6
2
2 2
2
2
2
=
+
+
=

+
=

+
=

+

x
x
x x x x x x
x x
x x
x x
x
x

Another simpler method for finding the limit of functions involving radicals is to use the fact
that
m
n
m n
x x = .

Example 14:

0 lim
6 3
2
lim
3
5
2
3
3 5
3
= =

+
+ +
x
x
x
x
x x
, the answer is zero because numerator degree is lower than
denominators one.

1.6 Infinite Limits And Vertical Asymptotes

Infinite Limits (definition)

If the values of ) (x f increase without bound (infinitely) as
+
a x or

a x ,
we write + =
+

) ( lim x f
a x
or + =

) ( lim x f
a x

If the values of ) (x f decrease without bound (infinitely) as
+
a x or

a x ,
we write =
+

) ( lim x f
a x
or =

) ( lim x f
a x

If both one-sided limits are + , then + =

) ( lim x f
a x

If both one-sided limits are , then =

) ( lim x f
a x


Limits as x can fail (or does not exist) when

a) the values of ) (x f increase or decrease without bound.
= + = = + =
+ +
) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( lim ) ( lim x f or x f or x f or x f
x x x x


b) the graph of the function oscillates indefinitely, the values of ) (x f does not
approach a fixed number, we say that ) ( lim x f
x +
and ) ( lim x f
x
does not exist.

Vertical asymptote(definition): A line a x = is a vertical asymptote of the graph of a
function ) (x f y = if either
=
+

) ( lim x f
a x
or =

) ( lim x f
a x


Example15:

1.
( )( )
=
+

=

+ +
2 2
3
lim
4
3
lim
2
2
2 x x
x
x
x
x x

2.
( )( )
=
+

=

2 2
3
lim
4
3
lim
2
2
2 x x
x
x
x
x x

3.
( )( ) 2 2
3
lim
4
3
lim
2
2
2 +

=

x x
x
x
x
x x
does not exist.






2. CONTINUITY

Definition:
Interior point : A function ) (x f y = is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if
) ( ) ( lim c f x f
c x
=

.

Endpoint: A function ) (x f y = is continuous at a left endpoint a or is continuous at a right
endpoint b of its domain if
) ( ) ( lim a f x f
a x
=
+

or ) ( ) ( lim b f x f
b x
=

, respectively.

Continuity Test
A function ) (x f is continuous at an interior point c x = of its domain if and only if it meets
the following three conditions:
1. ) (c f exists [ c lies in the domain of f ]
2. ) ( lim x f
c x
exists [ f has a limit as
c x
]
3. ) ( ) ( lim c f x f
c x
=

[ the limit equals the function value ]

- If one or more of the conditions are not satisfied, then f is discontinuous at c, and c is a
point of discontinuity of f.
- If f is continuous at (a,b)

f is continuous at all points of an open interval (a,b).

- If f is continuous on ) , ( +

f is continuous everywhere.
Types of discontinuity: Removable discontinuity, Infinite discontinuity, Jump discontinuity
and oscillating discontinuity.

Continuous Function
A function is continuous on an interval if and only if it is continuous at every point of the
interval.

Theorem: (Properties of Continuous Functions)
If the functions f and g are continuous at c x = , then the following combination are
continuous at c x = :
1. Sums: g f +
2. Differences: g f
3. Products: g f .
4. Constant multiples: f k , for any number k
5. Quotients:
g
f
, provided 0 ) ( = c g
6. powers:
s
r
f , provided it is defined on an open interval containing
c, where r and s are integers.
A) Polynomials

Any polynomial is continuous everywhere.
) ( ) ( lim c p x p
c x
=

B) Rational Functions
If ) (x P and ) (x Q are polynomials, then the rational function
) (
) (
x Q
x P
is continuous wherever it
is defined ( 0 ) ( = x Q ).
The function is discontinuous at the points where the denominator is zero.
Example:
20
1
) (
2
2
+
+
=
x x
x
x f

Denominator: 5 , 4 0 20
2
= = + x x x

) (x f is discontinuous at points x = 5 and x = 4.

C) Root Functions
Any root function is continuous at every number in its domain.

D) Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are continuous at every number in their domains.

Theorem:
If c is any number in the natural domain of the stated trigonometric function, then
c x c x c x
c x c x c x
c x c x c x
c x c x c x
cot cot lim ; sec sec lim ; csc csc lim
tan tan lim ; cos cos lim ; sin sin lim
= = =
= = =



Note: The functions sin x and cos x are continuous everywhere.

E) Composite Functions ( f g )

Theorem: If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at ) (c f , then the composite f g is
continuous at c
Theorem: If g is continuous at the point b and b x f
c x
=

) ( lim , then
)] ( lim [ ) ( )] ( [ lim x f g b g x f g
c x c x
= =
Examples:
1. 121 ] 11 [ )] 7 ( lim [ ) 7 ( lim
2 2 2
2
2 2
2
= = + = +

x x
x x


2. )] ( cos[lim )] ( cos[ lim )] ( sin[lim )] ( sin[ lim x g x g x g x g = =
e.g. 1
2
sin lim sin sin lim
2 2
=
t
=
(
(

+ t
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ t t t x
x
x
x
x x


--------------------------------------------End of Chapter 1----------------------------------------------