Computer Communication and Networking

CHAPTER 6
Computer Communication
and Networking
6.1 WHAT IS COMPUTER COMMUNICATION ?

The phrase computer communication covers everything from the transfer of data from PC to a
mainframe computer in another country via satellite or vice verse.
A PC, like all other digital computers, stores and processes data as signals that represent 1s and
0s. Each of these 1s and 0s represents a Binary digit (bit) of information. The PC stores these bits
in 8-bit groups called bytes. The PC also stores pairs of bytes (total 16 bits) as words. Although
information may occupy two or more bytes of total storage space in the PC’s memory, it is com-
municated one byte at a time in some IBM PC models and two or more bytes at a time in others
Figure 6.1 (a)

Computer Workstation Workstation Workstation
communication
PC1 PC2 PC3
system with
shared resources
Data "highway"
PC4
Shared hard
Shared laser File server disk
printer
"Public" files
PC1, PC2, PC3, print PC1’s private files
files PC2’s private files
PC3’s private files
 bpbonline all rights reserved

216 Computer Fundamentals
PC/AT models. Data are communicated internally through a high-speed data bus in the PC system
units and in the PS/2 Model 30. A simplified diagram of the major data communications flow
paths of a typical IBM work stations with shared resources is shown in Figure 6.1(a). Figure 6.1(b)
illustrates the software communicating with each other.
Figure 6.1 (b)

Software
communication
Programs talk to each other
A higher speed micro channel is used for internal data transfers in other PS/2 models. For data
communications with the outside world, however, the data streams of all these system units are
broken down into 8-bit bytes by the hardware.
Although all PC data are stored and communicated as bits, rules must be followed during stor-
age and transfer of data. The central processing unit (CPU) and all its peripherals must ‘‘speak the
same language’’. Conventions must be followed otherwise the devices provided for use with the
PC are likely to be incompatible with each other. Rules and conventions must also be followed in
the design and fabrication of devices used for external communications between the personal
computer and other computer systems. These rules and conventions have been primarily devel-
oped by the organizations shown in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Standards Organizations
Organization Description
IEEE: The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) is an American profes-
sional group that establishes electrical standards. The organization has a micro-
processor standards committee that sets electrical and electronic standards for
the design of microcomputer components and systems.
(Contd...)

Computer Communication and Networking 217
EIA: The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) represents American manufacturers.

The EIA publishes standards such as RS-232C and RS-449 that govern the electri-
cal characteristics of connections between the personal computer and external
peripherals such as printers and modems.
CCITT: The Consulting Committee in International Telegraphy and Telephony (CCITT)
is an international Telecommunications Union (ITU) committee. Two study
groups within the CCITT develop data communications standards. The stan-
dards produced by the CCITT study groups are international versions of the
standards produced by the EIA.
ISO: The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a worldwide group composed

of representatives from member nations. The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI) represents the United States. The ISO develops international
standards for data communications. A seven-layer Open Systems Interconnect-
ing (OSI) model was developed by this organization to define a universal archi-
tecture for interconnecting different types of computer systems.
6.1.1 Need for Computer Communication over Distances

Computer communication has become essential for the following reasons:
(a) Computers can send data at a very fast speed over long distances using satellite and micro-
wave links. Therefore, the cost of transfer of documents using computers is cheaper than
other conventional means like telegrams.
(b) Computers can have fax system integrated with them. This allows them to send pictures
along with the text. Thus the newspaper reports can be prepared and sent all over the world
at a very high speed by composing and publishing them from different centres.
(c) The time taken to transmit the messages is very small. Hence different computers can be
connected together and the users can work together as a group. Software packages have
been developed for group working in Data Base Management (DBMS) and graphic works.
(d) Different departments of an organization may be separated physically being at distant places
but their data could be stored on a central computer. This data is accessed by computers
located in different departments. The data at the central computer may be updated from
time to time and accessed by all users. This prevents any bottlenecks in the smooth func-
tioning of the organization. The latest data (say for inventory) will be easily available at all
times to all the users.
(e) Fluctuations of prices in foreign exchange and shares/equities can be communicated instan-
taneously using the medium of computer communications only. The transfer can be accel-
erated and verified at any instant of time.
6.2 COMMUNICATION MEDIA USED FOR DATA TRANSMISSION

There are several types of physical channels (communication media) through which data can be
transmitted from one point to another. Some of the most common data transission media are
briefly described below.

6.2.1 Wire Pairs

Wire pairs are commonly used in local telephone communication, and for digital data transmission
for short distances upto 1 Km. They are usually made of copper and a pair of wires is twisted
together (Figure 6.2) to reduce interference from adjacent wires. Wire pairs are normally used to
connect terminals to the main computer up to short distances from the main computer. Data trans-
mission speed of upto 9600 bits per second can be achieved if the distance is not more than 100
meters. However, for longer distances, local telephone lines are used. In this case, the typical
speed of digital signal transmission is 1200 bits per second.
Figure 6.2
A wire pair
Advantages and Limitations of Wire Pairs

Wire pairs are an inexpensive medium of data transmission. They are easy to install and use.
However, their use is limited because they easily pick up noise signals which results in high error
rates when the line length extends beyond 100 metres.
The twisted wire pairs that are used in networking are of the following types:
(a) Type 1 Two twisted pairs, each 22 gauge, shielded
(b) Type 2 Four pairs of telephone type twisted-pair wires with metallic shield plastic cover
(c) Type 3 Telephone type cable with 24 gauge wire
6.2.2 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables are groups of specially wrapped and insulated wire lines that are able to transmit
data at high rates. As shown in Figure 6.3, they consist of a central copper wire surrounded by a
PVC insulation over which a sleeve of copper mesh is placed. The metal sleeve is again shielded
by an outer shield of thick PVC material. The signal is transmitted by the inner copper wire and is
electrically shielded by the outer metal sleeve.
Advantages and Limitations of Coaxial Cables
Coaxial cables are capable of transmitting digital signals at very high rates of 10 mega bits per
second. They are extensively used in long distance telephone lines and as cables for closed circuit
TV. In many cases, coaxial cables are packaged into a single large cable that can handle over
15,000 telephone calls simultaneously. Furthermore, coaxial cables have much higher noise
immunity and can offer clean data transmission with less distortion or loss of signal. But coaxial
cables are more expensive.
Figure 6.3
A coaxial cable
Central
PVC Insulation Copper wire
Copper mesh
Outer PVC Shield
6.2.3 Microwave Transmission

Another popular transmission medium is microwave. This is a popular way of transmitting data
since it does not require the expense of laying cables. Microwave systems use very high frequency
radio signals to transmit data through space. However, at microwave frequencies the electromag-
netic waves cannot bend or pass through obstacles like hills, etc. Hence microwave transmission is
a line-of-sight method of communication. In other words, the transmitter and receiver of a
microwave system, which are mounted on very high towers, should be in a line-of-sight. This may
not be possible for very long distance transmission due to physical constraints. Moreover, the sig-
nals become weak after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification.
In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak sig-
nals, microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km in between the transmit-
ting and receiving stations (Figure 6.4). The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the
Figure 6.4
Illustrating Transmitting Receiving
Antennas antennas
microwave
communication
from one point to
another
In between
Repeaters
Transmitting station
Receiving station
Line of sight Line of sight Line of sight

transmitting station and the last repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the receiving station. Two
consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-sight of each other. The data signals are received,
amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these stations.
Advantages and Limitations of Microwave Transmission
Microwave systems permit data transmission rates of about 16 Giga (1 giga = 109) bits per second.
At such high frequency, a microwave system can carry 250,000 voice channels at the same time.
However, the capital investment needed to install microwave links is very high and hence they are
mostly used to link big metropolitan cities which have heavy telephone traffic between them.
6.2.4 Communications Satellite
The main problem with microwave communications is that the curvature of the earth, mountains,
and other structures often block the line-of-sight. Due to this reason, several repeater stations are
normally required for long distance transmission which increases the cost of data transmission
between two points. This problem is overcome by using satellites which are relatively newer and
more promising data transmission media.
A communication satellite is basically a microwave relay station placed precisely at 36,000
km above the equator where its orbit speed exactly matches the earth’s rotation speed. Since a
satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, (i.e. the orbit where the speed of the satellite
matches the earth’s rotation speed), it appears to be stationary relative to earth and always stays
over the same point with respect to earth. This allows a ground station to aim its antenna at a fixed
point in the sky. The Indian satellite, INSAT-1B, is positioned in such a way that it is accessible
from any place in India.
Figure 6.5
Illustrating
Satellite in Space
satellite
communication
from one point to
6 GHz 4 GHz
another
Transmitting Receiveing
Station on earth Station on earth
As shown in Figure 6.5, in satellite communication, microwave signals at 6 GHz (read as

gigahertz = 109 Hz) are transmitted from a transmitter on earth to a satellite positioned in space. By

the time this signal reaches the satellite it becomes weak due to distance travelled of 36,000 km.
The satellite amplifies the weak signals and sends then back to the earth at a frequency of 4 GHz.
These signal are received at a receiving station on the earth. It may be noted that the transmitting
frequency is different from the receiving frequency of the satellite in order to avoid interference of
the powerful re-transmission signal with the weak incoming signal.
Advantages and Limitations
The main advantage of satellite communication is that it is a single microwave relay station visible
from any point of a very large area on the earth. For example, satellites used for national trans-
mission are visible from all parts of the country. Thus transmission and reception can be between
any two randomly chosen places in that area. Moreover, transmission and reception costs are
independent of the distance between the two points. In addition to this, a transmitting station can
receive back its own transmission and check whether the satellite has transmitted the information
correctly. If an error is detected, the data would be retransmitted.
A major drawback of satellite communications has been the high cost of placing the satellite
into its orbit. Moreover, a signal sent to a satellite is broadcasted to all receivers within the satelli-
te’s range. Hence necessary security measures need to be taken to prevent unauthorized tampering
of information.
6.2.5 Optical Fibers
In fiber optics, semiconductor lasers transmit information in the form of light along hair-thin glass
(optical) fibers at the speed of light i.e. 186,000 miles per second with no significant loss of inten-
sity over very long distances. As shown in Figure 6.6, the system basically consists of fiber optic
cables that are made of tiny threads of glass or plastic. Towards its source side is a converter that
converts electrical signals into light waves. These light waves are transmitted over the fiber.
Another converter placed near the sink converts the light waves back to electrical signals by pho-
toelectric diodes. These electrical signals are amplified and sent to the receiver.
Fiber-optic transmission systems are already on the market, and their popularity is growing
rapidly.
Figure 6.6
Transmission
through Electrical Electrical
Signal Optical fibre Signal
optical fibers Electrical Light to
to light electrical
wave converter wave converter
Light waves Light waves

6.3 SERIAL AND PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS

Computers communicate with other computers. In addition, they need to send data to peripherals
attached. Thus the communication lines connecting computers have to meet dual needs. Commu-
nication with peripherals is usually done with the help of parallel input/output interfaces. Various
peripherals attached to an IBM workstation are shown in Figure 6.7. Communication between one
computer to another within a short distance may be carried out using parallel communication
channels. But when the distances are large, the communication channels are of serial type. In order
to understand the difficulties experienced in the transmission and reception of data, over the com-
munication channels, it is necessary for us to understand bandwidth, baud rate and other terminol-
ogies which are generally used. The following paragraphs discuss these terms.
Figure 6.7
Typical PC Telephone
system
communication
Internal modem
with peripherals
Monitor
Display
attachment
Random access Modem

memory
Serial port
Printer
Printer
attachment
C.P.U
Disc drive
Disc drive
attachment
Keyboard
Keyboard
attachment
Mouse
Mouse
attachment

6.3.1 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the transmission capacity of a computer or communications channel. For pure digi-
tal transmission, it is measured in bits or bytes per second. When digital data is converted to fre-
quencies for transmission over carrier-based networks, bandwidth is still stated in bits or bytes per
second. However, when frequencies are used as the transmission signal rather than on-off pulses,
bandwidth may also be measured in cycles per second, or Hertz. The bandwidth is the difference
between the lowest and the highest frequencies transmitted. In this case, the frequency will be
equal to or greater than the bits per second.
6.3.2 Baud Rate
Baud rate is the transmission speed of a communications channel. Baud rate is commonly used to
represent bits per second. For example, 4800 baud is 4,800 bits per second of data transfer. In a
typical personal computer transmission, 10 bits are used for each character, thus 4800 baud is
equivalent to 480 characters or bytes of data transmitted per second.
6.3.3 Bits per Second and Baud
Data transmission rates expressed in bits/second are unambiguous and indicate the exact rate of
data transfer. The baud rate, however, refers to the rate of transitions impressed onto a transmis-
sion line. As there are a number of ways to represent a bit (or a series of bits) as transitions on a
transmission path, there is only a loose correlation between the bit rate as expressed in bits/second
and the signalling rate as expressed in baud. Some encoding schemes, such as Manchester encod-
ing, require two bauds per bit. Other schemes, such as a Nonreturn to Zero or NRZ encoding, use a
single baud per bit. However, some schemes encode more than one bit with each baud and, thus, it
may be seen that the baud rate of a data stream can be higher or lower than the bit rate. As a result,
the bandwidth required to transmit at a given rate is a function of the encoding scheme used.
However, the signalling rate rarely differs from the bit rate by more than a factor of 2 or 4 when
wire-line transmission is used.
6.3.4 Digital and Analog Transmission
Data is propagated from one point to another by means of electrical signals which may be in digi-
tal or analog form. As shown in Figure 6.8(a), in an analog signal the transmitted power varies
over a continuous range, as in sound, light and radio waves. The amplitude (V) of analog signals is
measured in volts and its frequency (f) in hertz (Hz). The higher the frequency of the signal, the
more number of times it crosses the time axis. However, a digital signal is a sequence of voltage
pulses represented in binary form (see Figure 6.8(a).
Computer generated data is digital whereas the telephone lines used for data communication in
computer networks are usually meant for carrying analog signals. When digital data are to be sent
over an analog facility, the digital signals must be converted to analog form. The technique by
which a digital signal is converted to its analog form is known as modulation. The reverse process,
that is the conversion of analog signal to its digital form, at a destination device, is called demo-
dulation. An analog to digital signal converter converts analog to digital signal as shown in Figure
6.8(b).
Figure 6.8 (a)

Analog and digital
Voltage
signals
+V
t
0 1/ f 2/f
_V
(a) Analog signal
1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0
t
(b) Digital signal
Figure 6.8 (b)

Analog to digital
converter
Analog In Digital Box
A-D Converter
6.3.5 Modems
The process of modulation and demodulation, that is, the conversion of digital data to analog form
and vice-versa, is carried out by a special device called a modem (modulator/demodulator).
Hence, when an analog facility is used for data communication between two digital devices (say a
terminal and a computer), two modems are required, one near each digital device. As shown in
Figure 6.9(a), the digital signal generated at the terminal is converted to analog form by the mod-
ulator of the modem placed near it. The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone lines
and then converted to digital form by the demodulator of the modem placed near the computer.
This digital data is processed by the computer. The processed digital information is modulated to
analog form and returned via the telephone line to the terminal where the analog signals are
demodulated to digital form for display on the terminal.

Figure 6.9 (a)

Illustrating the use
of modems in data Digital Analog signals Digital
signals on telephone line signals
communications
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Modulator Demodulator
Terminal compute
Demodulator Modulator
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
Why Use Modems ?

There are two main reasons for using modems. They allow higher speeds of transmission on a
given analog line, and they reduce the effects of noise and distortion. Modems can do a lot more
than simply transport data across telephone lines. A good modem can also perform tests and
checks on how it is operating. Some modems are able to vary their transmission rate, commonly
measured in baud. While the typical baud rate is 300, some modems can transmit at 1200 baud or
even 9600 baud. Some of the more expensive modems actually contain microprocessors that allow
them to operate and function under a large number of different circumstances. These modems are
called smart modems.
Acoustic Coupler Type Modem
A large number of portable terminals are now being used by salespersons, managers, engineers,
and others to communicate with distant CPUs. A special type of modem called an acoustic coupler
is used in these situations to provide the necessary interface. The acoustic coupler is attached (or
built into) to a portable terminal, and a standard telephone handset is then usually placed in rubber
cups located on the coupler. The digital pulses produced by the terminal are converted into audible
tones that are picked up by the handset receiver. The signals from these tones are sent to the CPU
location where another modem converts them back to digital pulses. Figure 6.9(b) illustrates an
acoustic coupler type of modem.
The IBM PC uses two methods of data transfer, depending on how close the computer is to the
device with which it is communicating. For distances less than 100 feet, data can be transferred
using parallel communications. But for distances more than 100 feet, data are generally trans-
ferred using serial communications. Although both methods fall under the heading of input/output
(I/O), there are many differences in the ways they are performed. These are described below.
6.3.6 Methods of Data Transfer
In parallel data transfer, eight data bits are moved at a time from one device to another. As illus-
trated with the 8-bit data bus in Figure 6.10, the sending device sends eight data bits through eight
separate data lines, called a data bus. The data are received by the destination device over those
same eight data lines, and are used without modification. IBM PC system units that contain a

Figure 6.9 (b)

Acoustic coupler
type of modem
Figure 6.10
Data lines
Parallel data Data bits
transfer 8
Receiving Transmitting
device 7 device
1
Example Example
memory Parity C.P.U
Less than 100 feet

16-bit data bus, such as the IBM PC AT, contain 16 parallel data lines for communication with
internal devices. Data lines are often round, shielded cables. Such cables are also used with most
dot-matrix parallel printers and the IBM PC computers.
Parallel Input/Output (I/O)
Parallel data transfer requires that a cable containing at least eight data lines be installed between
two communicating computers. At short distances (less than 100 feet), this can be done at an
affordable cost. For long-distance transfers, however, it is more economical to use the existing
telephone equipment than to instal expensive parallel signal amplifiers and parallel cables. Hence
the design of the telephone lines and that of equipment makes it necessary to go to serial data
transfer in order to be able to use this equipment.
6.3.7 Serial Input/Output
In serial data communications, data bits are transferred one at a time between the source and the
destination. Compared to the simultaneous transfer of groups of eight data bits that takes place in
parallel communications, serial data communication does not move data, as fast as parallel data
transfer does . Serial data transfer is chosen when the economics and practicality of hardware
design and installation dictate that it must be chosen.
As shown in Figure 6.11, the transmitting device in the personal computer sends eight simul-
taneous bits of data to the serial conversion hardware, but data bits move sequentially from that
equipment to the receiving station. The parallel data bit stream must be converted to a serial form
by using a high-quality combination of hardware and software for data transfer between one com-
puter and another device.
Figure 6.11
Parallel
Serial data transfer data bits
Receiving 8 Transmitting
device device
Parallel to 7
serial
conversion 6
Serial to 5
parallel
4
conversion
3 3
2 2
Serial data bits
Example
personal 1 4 5 6 7 8 1 Example
computer another
computer

6.3.8 Serial Duplex Configurations

Figure 6.12 shows the three commonly used conventions for serial data lines. The simplex con-
figuration allows data to flow in only one direction and is called a unidirectional data bus. The
half-duplex configuration allows data to flow in either direction and is called a bidirectional data
bus. The half-duplex configuration surpasses the simplex mode in that data can flow both ways,
but the half-duplex design permits data to flow in only one direction at a time. So, half-duplex is
really simplex that switches directions. The third configuration shown is the full-duplex interface
(sometimes just called duplex). It offers the advantage of allowing data to be transmitted in both
directions simultaneously. Thus, full-duplex is a dual-simplex configuration that requires both
communicating devices to have full and independent transmit-and-receive capabilities.
Figure 6.12
Direction of data
flow
Data flow
Transmitter Receiver
Simplex configuration
& &
Receiver Transmitter
Half-duplex
configuration
& &
Receiver Transmitter
Full-duplex
configuration

Local Echo and Duplex Mode

The term local echo is sometimes confused with duplex mode. The confusion arises from the
capability of most communications software to produce a local echo of characters when a duplex
mode mismatch exists between the host’s modem and the modem used with the PC. If the host’s
computer is communicating in full-duplex, it will echo characters back to the PC immediately
after receiving them. This immediate echo, called echo-plex, allows the PC user to verify that the
transmitted characters were proper. The PC user can switch the local modem to the half-duplex
mode, which will cause the modem to echo transmitted characters to the PC’s monitor. He or she
can also instruct the communications software to display transmitted characters on the screen. The
term to describe the latter of these two options is local echo. Thus, the local software echo is a
substitute for switching the local modem to half-duplex.
Timing
Another important factor in serial data transfer is the timing of data transmission and data receipt.
In parallel data transfer, eight or more data bits are transferred simultaneously, leaving no doubt
about which byte each bit is associated with. In serial data transfer, each data bit is sent sequen-
tially, and synchronization is required between the data source and the data destination to segre-
gate bits, characters (bytes) and messages. Without synchronization, the receiving device will
receive a series of signals that have no meaning. Synchronization that tells the start of data
transmission is necessary for the received signals to be interpreted as meaningful information.
Data Link Controls
Synchronization between transmitters and receivers is governed by rules and conventions called
data link controls. Data link control is accomplished by transmitting bits, characters or messages
along with data as it goes from one station to another. This information is added and deleted by
communication hardware or software and is transparent to the user. The information is used to
synchronize the clocks contained in the hardware of both the sending and receiving stations to
enable the receiving station to recognize the bits sent by the transmitting station in the same pat-
tern in which they were sent.
Methods for Data Link Controls
The two methods used to synchronize and control data communications between stations are
called asynchronous (also called start-stop) and synchronous. The asynchronous method of data
link control is used in several protocols, including the teletypewriter (TTY) protocol, used by the
PC’s serial communications port, and the COMM.BAS communications software that comes with
PC-DOS. The synchronous method of data link control is used in three protocols that define the
rules for message exchange: binary synchronous (also called BSC or bisync), Synchronous Data
Link Control (SDLC) and HIgh-Level Data Link Control (HDLC).
Binary Synchronous (Bisync)
Bisync is a major category of synchronous communications protocols used extensively in main-
frame networks. Bisync communications require that both sending and receiving devices are syn-
chronized before transmission of data is started. Then the bit patterns of each data character are
sent in one contiguous stream. This is in total contrast with asynchronous transmission, in which
each data character is preceded and followed by one or more bits signalling the start and stop of
each character.
6.4 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

A communication protocol is a set of hardware and software standards for transmitting data
between peripherals and computers. For this purpose, we need to study the techniques used in data
transmission. Data could be transmitted as asynchronous data or synchronous data. These are
given in detail in the following paragraphs.
6.4.1 Asynchronous Data
Asynchronous data implies that data is not transmitted as a continuous bit stream and contain syn-
chronizing bits added to every byte that is transmitted. As shown in Figure 6.13(a) each asynch-
ronous byte is preceded by a start bit that tells the receiving device to begin measuring the
subsequent data for the presence of 1s and 0s.
Figure 6.13 (a)

High
Asynchronous
voltage
data structure
Low Stop bit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 *
voltage
Marking line
Start
bit Data bits
Data flow
* May be 8th data
bit or parity bit
The start bit is always preceded by a low-voltage signal on the data line, called a marking line
or marking state, that provides a clear contrast for detecting the beginning of a new start bit. At the
end of every train of eight data bits is a caboose called a stop bit. (There may actually be one, one
and one-half or two stop bits at the end of each character, but one stop bit is used for most IBM PC
communications.) The stop bit is a low-voltage marker that tells the receiving device that one
entire byte has been transmitted. It also returns the data line to the marking state. These start and
stop bits frame each transmitted byte so that the 1s and 0s in that byte are clearly segregated from
the 1s and 0s that come down the line later.
6.4.2 Synchronous Data
Synchronous data are transmitted in blocks. Also, synchronization information is either provided

within the blocks for long-distance transmission or provided on a separate data line for local
transmission. Figure 6.13 (b) shows data flags at the beginning and at the end to tell the receiving
device where the blocks of data start and end.
Figure 6.13 (b)

Synchronous
data-link control Data 8-bit 8-bit Cyclic Cyclic Data
(SDLC) start address control Data field redundancy redundancy end
flag field field check check flag
The individual 8-bit groups of 1s and 0s are not framed by synchronizing bits as they are in the
asynchronous communication mode. In fact, synchronous data transfer may not be character-
oriented at all. The data link control of synchronous protocols may be either character-oriented or
bit-oriented. Character-oriented protocols recognize bytes of data as specific characters, whereas
bit-oriented protocols do not impose character assignments to transmitted data bits.
Advantages of Synchronous Communication
The synchronous communication method offers three advantages over the asynchronous method.
These are:
(a) The elimination of synchronizing bits results in a higher ratio of data bits to total bits trans-
ferred.
(b) The synchronous method also allows a user to transmit data that is not made up of 8-bit
characters.
(c) Allows the personal-computer user to communicate with mainframe networks that use syn-
chronous mode communication.
Disadvantages of Synchronous Communication
Synchronous data transfer is normally limited to business applications. The hardware and software
required to support this method of data link control is very expensive for PC users. Many home-
computer owners will have difficulty justifying the high cost. The cost of synchronous hardware
and software combinations can be many times that of asynchronous hardware and software
combinations. With new introductions of products that use increasingly large scale chip integra-
tion, this cost difference should reduce with time.
6.4.3 Serial Data Transfer and Networking
Although most of the IBM PC internal communications are in the parallel mode, most other com-
munications with which the user interacts are in the serial mode. Communication of data between
the PC and other computer systems is typically done over distances greater than 100 feet, making
serial communications the only economically feasible technique to use. It is less expensive to use
the existing telephone lines and the equipment that support serial communications than to install

parallel communication cables and parallel signal-amplifying equipment. Because of the PC’s
heavy dependence on serial data communications for interacting with the outside world, we shall
concentrates on the details of serial data transfer.
6.4.4 Serial Data Transfer Speeds and Baud Rate
In serial communications, data-transfer rates are measured in bits per second (bps). The term used
to describe the total number of binary signal events occurring every second is baud rate. Baud rate
is directly related to the duration of the voltage signal used to represent a binary digit. The follow-
ing formula is an exact mathematical definition of the term:
1
Baud rate =
Bit signal duration
By decreasing the duration of the bit signal (bit time), you can increase the baud rate, and con-
versely, by increasing the duration of the bit signal, you can decrease the baud rate. Baud rates
available for communications are normally discreet values determined by communications
hardware and selected through communications software. For most communications applications
of the personal computer, the baud rate used will also equal the data transfer bit rate. Business
applications that require rapid data transfers may require the use of devices that superimpose sev-
eral binary data signals on each binary signal event, thereby making the data transfer bit rate
higher than the baud rate. For communications at 450 baud and less, the baud rate and bit rate are
the same. For communications above 450 baud, the baud rate and bit rate are usually different.
These terms will always be correct regardless of the transfer technique used. Table 6.2 provides
information regarding communication parameters for different service organizations available on
international networks such as Internet.
Table 6.2 Information utility communication parameters
Parameter The SOURCE Compu Serve NewsNet Dow Jones

Bits per second 300/1200/2400 300/1200/2400 300/1200/2400 300/1200/2400
Data Bits 8 7/8 8 8
Parity None Even/None None None
Stop Bits 1 1 1 1
Duplex\ Full Full Full Full
6.4.5 Serial Data Synchronous Communication

The major distinction between the asynchronous and synchronous serial data transfers is the con-
tinuity of data transmitted. Asynchronous transfer is characterized by discontinuous data trans-
mission, whereas synchronous transfer is characterized by continuous data transmission. Because
of the differences between the protocols necessary to support asynchronous transfer and
synchronous transfer, there are few similarities between these categories of serial transfers. Syn-
chronous communication protocols are more complex than asynchronous communication proto-
cols. The most prevalent of the synchronous protocols and those most likely to be implemented are
reviewed in the following paragraphs. Figure 6.14 illustrates these two types of communication
system.

Figure 6.14
Asynchronous and
synchronous AB C DE F GH I J MN
transmission Asynchronous KL
system Transmission
ABCDEFGHIJK LMN
Synchronous
Transmission
6.4.6 Bisync Protocol

Bisync is an abbreviation for Binary Synchronous Communication and is a product of IBM Cor-
poration. Bisync is a major category of synchronous communications protocols and used exten-
sively in mainframe networks. Bisync protocol requires that both sending and receiving devices be
synchronized before transmission of data is started. Then the bit patterns of each data character are
sent in one contiguous stream. This is unlike asynchronous transmission, in which each data char-
acter is preceded and followed by one or more bits signalling the start and stop of each character.
Table 6.3 gives the description of bisync control characters.
Table 6.3 Bisync control characters
Bisync Hex Value ASCII Value Character Description

Character
SYN 32 22 Synchronous idle
PAD 55 85 Start of frame pad
PAD FF 255 End of frame pad
DLE 10 16 Data link escape
ENQ 2D 5 Enquiry
SOH 01 1 Start of heading
STX 02 2 Start of text
ITB 1F 15 End of intermediate block
ETB 26 23 End of transmission (block)
ETX 03 3 End of text

Bisync protocol is character-oriented, meaning that each character has a specified boundary.
Each character is not provided with synchronizing bits, as is the case with asynchronous data.
Instead, bisync synchronization is performed at the beginning of each data message. The trans-
mitting station sends two or more leading pad characters to the receiving station before data are
transmitted. The leading pad character is an alternating 1 and 0 bit pattern that allows the receiving
station clock to synchronize with the transmitting station clock. The bisync protocol requires that a
data bit be transmitted during every bit interval. Before data transmission can begin, character
synchronization must take place. A signal is required to provide the receiver with the length of
individual data units and a mark that identifies the start of a data unit boundary. The synchronous
idle character (SYN) is used to perform this handshaking. Two or more of these characters are
provided at the start of each bisync data stream.
6.4.7 SDLC and HDLC Protocols
The synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) and High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) syn-
chronous data-transfer protocols are not used by home-computer owners because of their high ini-
tial cost, but they are becoming world standards for business communications. Because of the
business interest in SDLC and HDLC protocols, they will be reviewed briefly in this text.
The actual data transmitted under SDLC/HDLC is called an information field. That field is
simply a serial stream of binary numbers. The field may be any length from zero data bits upto a
maximum that is determined by memory size or the protocol implemented. The data stream is bit-
oriented, meaning that no character boundaries are provided with the data. If the data contains
characters, the receiving device must segregate them after receipt of the data.
Differences between Bisync and HDLC Protocols
(a) Pauses in data transmission are allowed in bisync but not in SDLC/HDLC.
(b) There is no SDLC/HDLC equivalent of the bisync SYN character.
(c) Both SDLC and HDLC require continuous data transmission until the entire information
field is transmitted. If a pause or break occurs in the data transmission, the transmitting
device assumes an error has occurred and aborts the transmission.
Framing of HDLC Fields
SDLC/HDLC data, like bisync data, are provided with only one set of framing data for the entire
stream compared to the framing provided with each character in asynchronous communications.
As shown in Figure 6.15, the SDLC/HDLC information fields are framed by several data fields.
Each information unit begins with a beginning flag and ends with an ending flag. These flags are
01111110 bit patterns and serve as the outside boundaries of each frame of data. The beginning
flag is followed by two fields called the address field and the control field. Both of these fields are
eight bits long for SDLC and HDLC. The HDLC frame has one additional address field called a
packet header that routes the frame through a packet-switched network to its proper destination.
SNA
The IBM System Network Architecture (SNA) used to control communications between many
IBM computer products is based on the SDLC protocol. A PC with the proper SDLC hardware
Figure 6.15
SDLC DATA STRUCTURE
SDLC and HDLC
protocols
Data Address Control Information field Cyclic Cyclic Data
start field field redundancy redundancy end
flag check check flag
Data field
Frame
HDLC DSTS STRUCTURE
Data Address Control Packet Information field Data

start field field header C.R.C C.R.C end
flag flag
Data field
Frame
and software can be used to emulate an IBM 3270 terminal in such a network, besides being used
as a local stand-alone microcomputer to support spreadsheet and word-processing applications.
Combining these two capabilities in one set of hardware would make the PC a powerful executive
workstation for business applications. Typical SDLC networks are shown in Figure 6.16.
As shown in Figure 6.16, the SDLC/HDLC protocols allow only one primary station, but one
or more secondary stations are supported. The address field in an SDLC/HDLC frame identifies
the secondary stations that are the intended recipients of data. The address field of the primary
station’s frame contains a secondary station’s address, whereas the address field of a secondary
station contains its own source address because a secondary station can communicate with only
one destination device, i.e. the primary station.
6.4.8 Speed-Matching In Asynchronous Communication
When the transmitted data can be routed to another device and immediately printed, displayed or
saved on the receiving end, there would be no delays or interruptions in the serial transfer of data.
Differences in the speed of some of these operations, however, result in the need for data transfer
flow controls. The need for data flow control depends a great deal upon the IBM PC system unit
chosen for communications and upon the speed of communications.
All IBM PS/2 and PC system units contain the necessary hardware and operate fast enough to
reduce the need for data flow control. With Direct Memory Address (DMA) devices in these units,

Figure 6.16
Mainframe
Magnetic disk
networks storage
(SNA Networks)
Remote
terminal Printer
controller
Large-scale
CRT terminal devices main frame
computer
Commu-
nications
Stand-alone controll-
terminal er
devices
Local
Small terminal
controller
computer
Magnetic
tape
storage
CRT and printer

Magnetic disk terminal
storage devices
the CPU can continue accepting new data from a remote computer while simultaneously writing
accumulated data to disk. All IBM PS/2 and some PC system units operate above 6 MHz which
allows them to handle data at a much faster rate than the early vintage 4.77 MHz system units.
Data flow speed-matching techniques come in a variety of forms, but most of them can be
categorized as either on/off data flow toggles or temporary data storage mechanisms. IBM PC
asynchronous communication applications of both of these techniques are discussed in the fol-
lowing section.

Communication Buffers
A communication buffer is random access memory set aside to temporarily store data to compen-
sate for differences in the rates at which data are transferred and received. In data communications,
buffers are often provided on both the transmitting and receiving ends of a communication link,
but the term communication buffer is normally used when referring to the buffer on the receiving
end.
Data are transferred from the transmit buffer on a first-in/first-out basis so that they are trans-
mitted in the same sequence in which they were received. When the transmit buffer has been
emptied, more data is loaded into it from the disk file.
The size of the receive buffer is more crucial and the one with which most PC users will be
concerned when performing data communications. If a communications software package’s trans-
mit buffer is too small, data may be transmitted to a remote computer in bursts rather than in a
continuous flow.
Receive buffers act in the same manner as transmit buffers, but the direction of data flow is
reversed. A receive buffer accepts data coming in from the communication line and stores them
until the communication program can display, print or store the data in a disk file or memory
space.
Interrupt Handler
Communication buffers provide a necessary function in speed-matching with remote computers,
but do create limitations for multitasking software. Because of the memory storage space required
for these buffers and the need to place data into the storage space as soon as they are ready for
transmit or receive, a communications software module cannot be swapped from memory to disk
while the buffers are active. These buffers are normally linked directly to the communications
hardware through software interrupt handlers. These interrupt handlers actually become exten-
sions to PC-DOS after they are loaded and have specific transmit and receive buffer memory
locations. When a character is ready to be transmitted to the communications hardware or a
character is received from a remote computer at the communications hardware, the interrupt han-
dler moves the character to the specified memory location regardless of the software currently
occupying that location. If the communications software has been temporarily removed from
memory by a multitasking environment and another software program is loaded in its place, when
the interrupt handler moves the character into memory, the character may get placed in an unde-
sirable location causing the system unit to stop operating. To prevent this occurrence, most multi-
tasking software allows you to designate a program as a communications module, thereby
preventing it from being temporarily removed from memory while it is active. Operating System/2
provides special capabilities that support multitasking communications software to eliminate some
of these problems.
6.5 COMMUNICATONS CHANNEL ALLOCATION OF

A communications channel is a pathway over which data is transferred between remote devices. It
may refer to the entire physical medium, such as a public or private telephone line, optical fiber,
coaxial cable or twisted wire pair, or it may refer to the specific carrier frequency transmitted

within the medium, such as in a microwave or satellite channel or in a broadband local area net-
work. The allocation of a frequency in the communication channel is important to avoid any
interference or mixing up of the systems.
6.5.1 Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a transmission of multiple signals over a single communications or computer
channel. The multiplexor brings together several low speed communications lines, transforms
them into one high speed channel and reverses the operation at the other end. The multiplexers
also perform the concentration functions. Multiplexers are less expensive than concentrators, but
many of the earlier versions were not programmable and thus did not have the flexibility of con-
centrators. However todays microprocessor equipped multiplexers perform much like concentra-
tors.
There are many applications in which several terminals are connected to a computer. If each
terminal is operating at 300 bits per second over a communications line (channel) that can operate
at 9600 bits per second, then we see a very inefficient operation. It has been found that the capacity
of a channel exceeds that required for a single signal. A channel is an expensive resource. Hence,
for its optimal utilization, the channel can be shared in such a way so as to simultaneously transmit
multiple signals over it. The method of dividing a physical channel into many logical channels so
that a number of independent signals may be simultaneously transmitted on it is known as multi-
plexing. The electronic device that performs this task is known as a multiplexer.
A multiplexer takes several data communications lines or signals and converts them into one
data communications line or signal at the sending location. For example, as shown in Figure 6.17,
there may be 4 terminals connected to a multiplexer. The multiplexer takes the signals from the 4
terminals and converts them into 1 large signal which can be transmitted over 1 communications
line. Then, at the receiving location, a multiplexer takes the 1 large signal and breaks it into the
original 4 signals. Without multiplexers, you would have to have 4 separate communications lines.
Figure 6.17
A multiplexed
T1
system
M U L T I P L E X E R
M U L T I P L E X E R
C O M P U T E R
T2
MODEM
MODEM
T3
T4

Thus, with multiplexing it is possible for a single transmission medium to concurrently

transmit data between several transmitters and receivers. There are two basic methods of mul-
tiplexing channels. They are frequency division multiplexing and time division multiplexing.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
The bandwidth or range of a medium exceeds that of any given signal. This fact is utilized for fre-
quency division multiplexing. In FDM, the available bandwidth of a physical medium is split up
(divided) into several smaller, disjoint logical bandwidths. Each of the component bandwidths is
used as a separate communications line (channel). Figure 6.18 illustrates the process of FDM.
Figure 6.18
Frequency division Modulator Demodulator
multiplexing Signal - 1 40 KHz 40 KHz Signal - 1
Signal - 2 50 KHz Sending Receiving 50 KHz Signal - 2

end end
Signal - 3 60 KHz CHANNEL 60 KHz Signal - 3
Signal - 4 70 KHz 70 KHz Signal - 4
Signal - 5 80 KHz 80 KHz Signal - 5
The best example of FDM is the way we receive various stations in a radio. Each radio station
is assigned a frequency range within a bandwidth of radio frequencies. Several radio stations may
be transmitting speech signals simultaneously over the physical channel which is "ether" in this
case. A radio receiver’s antenna receives signals transmitted by all the stations. Finally, the tuning
dial in the radio is used to isolate the speech signal of the station tuned. In FDM, the signals to be
transmitted must be analog signals. Thus, digital signals must be converted to analog form if they
are to use FDM.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
The bit rate of a transmission medium always exceeds the required rate of the digital signal. This
fact is utilized for time division multiplexing. In TDM, the total time available in the channel is
divided between several users and each user of the channel is allotted a time slice (a small time
interval) during which he may transmit a message. The channel capacity is fully utilized in TDM
by interleaving a number of data streams belonging to different users into one data stream.
Streams of data sent through the physical channel must be demultiplexed at the receiving end.
Individual chunks of messages sent by each user are reassembled into a full message at the
receiving end. The process of TDM is illustrated in Figure 6.19 for multiplexing three different
signals. The same idea may be extended for multiplexing several signals.
TDM may be used to multiplex digital or analog signals. For communications of digital data,
it is more convenient to transmit data directly in digital form and thus TDM is more appropriate.

Figure 6.19
Time division Reassembled
Time sliced signals signals
multiplexing
Signal A A3 A2 A1 A3 A2 A1
Sending Receiving
end end
Demulti
Signal B B3 B2 B1 CHANNEL B3 B2 B1
Plexer
C2 B2 A2 C1 B1 A1
Signal C C3 C2 C1 C3 C2 C1
Moreover, communication between computers occurs in short, fast bursts. Each burst would thus
need the full channel bandwidth which is available to a signal in TDM. Besides this, TDM is gen-
erally more efficient as more subchannels can be derived because it is upto the network designers
to allocate time slots to different channels. It is common to have 32 low speed terminals connected
to one high speed line.
Whether or not to use multiplexing usually depends upon economics. The cost of high-speed
modems and multiplexers is very high compared to the cost of low-speed modems. However, if
line costs are high due to long distances, then multiplexing is cost effective. One serious disad-
vantage with multiplexing relates to transmission line failure. If the line goes out, everything is
dead. With individual lines only one terminal is likely to be lost.
6.5.2 Concentrators
A concentrator performs the same function as a multiplexer, but concentrators have the ability to
actually reduce the number of signals. For example, 100 signals from different devices coming
into the concentrator could leave as only 70 or 80. The signals are concentrated to form a fewer
number of signals. This requires intelligence. This intelligence normally takes the form of micro-
processors or even minicomputers. Thus, a concentrator is basically an intelligent multiplexer.
The advantage of using a concentrator is that devices of varying speeds and types are
connected to the concentrator which in turn is connected to the host computer by high speed lines.
Concentrators are especially useful where data communications costs are high, such as long-
distance international communications. In general, concentrators are more expensive than multi-
plexers. For some long-distance and international data communications applications, however, the
use of concentrators is cost justified.
6.5.3 Space-Division
Prior to the advent of electronic switching, the early manual and electro-mechanical PBX utilized
space-division switching networks. These systems established connections between the switching
network’s ports by providing a unique dedicated physical path for each conversation. A single-
source port and a single destination port occupied a full-duplex physical path for the duration of

the call. The physical paths in manual and electromechanical space-switching networks carried
continuous analog signals.
6.6 LOCAL AREA NETWORKS (LANS)

LANs provide the means to move data between stations on the network and to manage the data
path common to the stations. The significance of certain LAN industry ‘‘standards’’ such as
Ethernet, Arcent and IBM Token Ring is more related to communications considerations than to
data processing, and therefore will be discussed in that context.
6.6.1 What are LANs?
Local area networking is a form of computer communications generally used for the internal
transfer of data and information within an organization. ‘‘Internal’’ in this context refers to the
confines of an office, a group of offices, a building or a closely spaced group of two or more PCs
connected together by some type of communications media (wire or cable) to form a data path
between the computers. Once the PCs are physically connected, software designed specifically for
local area network control allows the exchange of program and data files between users connected
to the network. This software also allows any user to access shared data storage and output devices
connected to the network. Examples of shared devices are printers, plotters, imaging devices, hard
disks and tape drives.
Figure 6.20 illustrates the basic physical characteristics, information transfer and shared device
concepts underlying LAN operation. The line printer and magnetic tape storage are ‘‘shared’’
resources, since any of the four set of users attached to the network can access these devices
through PCs acting as the resource manager, or server, as it is commonly called in LAN terminol-
ogy. In some networks, the users could directly exchange data or files from mainframe or mini
computers.
Advantages of LANs
(a) Local area networks allow the sharing of expensive resources such as laser printers and
high-capacity, high-speed mass storage devices among a number of users.
(b) Local area networks allow for the high-speed exchange of essential information between
key people in an organization. If properly managed, this sharing will promote greater effi-
ciency and productivity and will lead to more sophisticated applications such as electronic
mail.
(c) Local area networks provide the catalyst to increase the range of potential applications for
the IBM PC.
(d) LANs are a productivity tool. A LAN purchase should be studied closely in the context of
the proposed LAN’s contribution to the long-range interests of the organization. In the case
of a business, a LAN should be a visible contributor to increased profitability.
Disadvantages of LANs
(a) The financial cost of local area networking is still high in comparison with many other
alternatives. If one plans to use a network to share a laser printer, the user might find it

Figure 6.20
FINANCIAL ENGINEERING
Typical LAN
system with
shared peripherals
LINE PRINTER
SALES
MAINFRAME SERVER
OPERATIONS
SERVER
MINICOMPUTER
PUBLICATIONS
MAGNETIC TAPE
STORAGE

cheaper to purchase another laser printer than to purchase today’s networking hardware and
software.
(b) Local area networking software requires memory space in each of the computers used on the
network. For an IBM PC/AT, with 2 mega byte of main memory, computer in an IBM
Token-Ring Network that has a printer or a disk space shared with other users, almost 20 per
cent of the computer’s memory will be needed to manage the network interface. This
reduces the memory space available for the user’s programs.
(c) Local area networking adds another level of complexity to the computer operation. Users
may have difficulty in learning the network commands. The installation and management of
a LAN requires far more technical and administrative skills than installing and managing
several computers that are not networked.
(d) Some control on the part of the user is lost. You may have to share a printer with other users.
You may face a situation like entire network suddenly locking up because one user has made
a mistake.
(e) Some type of security system must be implemented if it is important to protect private data.
(f) Many current application programs will not run in a network environment. The program
may require too much memory or have other technical constraints. In other cases the pro-
gram may run, but the execution leaves too little memory for data. Memory-intensive pro-
grams, such as spreadsheets and expert systems, are particularly vulnerable to networking.
Table 6.4 LAN vs single user system
Advantages Disadvantages
Economic Less computer memory available
Shared peripherals High cost
(as printers) Greater complexity
Technological flexibility Less user control
Incremental growth Prone to security loss
Organizational
Improved communications
Improved standardization
Better control
Controlled security
Data sharing
6.6.2 Characteristics of LANs

Local area networks are a specialized form of communications systems, However, there are three
primary characteristics of LANs that distinguish them from wide area networks such as Telenet,
Tymnet, CompuServe and the public-switched telephone network (PSTN). These are:
(a) LANs are designed to work in a restricted geographical area.
(b) LANs operate at relatively high speeds when compared to the typical wide area networks
currently in use. LAN data transfer speeds may be as high as 80 million bits per second (80
Mbps), or slightly less than 10 million characters per second (10 Mcps). Compare this to

the maximum data transfer speed of 56 Kbps (7000 cps) for high-grade telephone company
digital trunk lines, or the 1200/2400 bps (120/240 cps) transmission speed used by most
personal computer communications systems.
(c) LANs are private networks, not subject to tariffs or other regulatory oversight.
6.6.3 Differences between Multiuser Systems and LANs
There are obvious physical and design differences between multiuser systems and LANs. These
are illustrated in Figure 6.21. Multiuser terminals are physically connected to serial input/output
Figure 6.21
Shared resource Keyboard and display only
architectures
RS-232-C
terminal I/O
Multiuser computer
LAN
PC PC PC PC
ports on the central computer and the terminal users are assigned segments of main memory for
program execution and data storage. LAN users use local memory in their workstations. Each user
in a multiuser system is typically assigned certain access rights for mass storage on a shared hard
disk.
The most significant operational difference between the two systems, however, is the manner
in which central processor loads are divided. In the multiuser system, each terminal shares a por-
tion of the main CPU’s processing time, whereas in the LAN, each workstation has its own CPU.
The combination of a multiuser terminal, its assigned area of main memory and a share of the CPU
execution time is functionally equivalent to a single workstation on a local area network.
From a general performance perspective, multiuser systems are sensitive to how the central
CPU’s time is allocated to its attached terminals, and to the number of active terminals. LAN per-
formance, on the other hand, is most sensitive to how the shared resources are managed and to the
rules by which workstations share access to the network. The common performance denominator
is the design of the software needed to manage the shared resource, be it CPU or hard disk.
6.6.4 LANs Fundamentals
Network adaptor card
For purposes of illustrating basic concepts, the simplified LAN shown in Figure 6.21 will be
briefly described. The hardware components consist of four IBM PCs all attached to the PC called
‘‘Server.’’ In each PC, an adapter card is required in one of the expansion slots. This card is
referred to by an assortment of names, depending on the particular network vendor. Some of the
more common names are transporter card, network adapter card, network interface card, or
Ether Link. The adapter card has the same purpose in this network as the RS-232-C asynchronous
communications card has in a modem/telephone network. The purpose is to provide an intelligent
conduit for the data to move from the workstation or server computer to the network and from the
network to the computer. This card is designed for the communications function of a LAN and has
a relatively limited role in the LAN’s data processing function.
Once data leaves the computer and passes through the adapter card, it enters the network data
highway. The network’s physical data path is commonly formed by a coaxial cable, similar to that
used on a cable TV installation. Some systems use a cheaper means of data transport, the twisted-
pair wire, similar to that used in telephone installations. Cables can be terminated at both ends,
connected to a central file processor or attached to a hub, like spokes on a wheel. The hub might
contain a ring circuit, or it could contain circuitry to amplify signals on the network. In ring-type
network systems, the data path forms a closed loop. Several common methods of making connec-
tions from PCs to the data path are shown in Figure 6.22.
Two basic types of equipment are attached to a local area network. More numerous are work-
stations, designed to provide a user’s window to the network and to support local data processing
functions. Less numerous, but absolutely essential for any practical network operation, are servers.
Servers, as their name implies, perform some type of service to all the users on a network. Servers
are by definition shared devices, and their performance is most often measured in relation to how
well they accommodate multiple, near-simultaneous requests for service.
Terminology
Nodes: The PCs and the server are known as network devices or network nodes. In general, a
device or node is connected directly to the network cable or data path.
Media: The media, and data bus are collectively used to refer to the data path. Media can be
bounded, such as a cable or wire, or unbounded, such as free space. Most LANs use bounded
media, although there is current interest in developing unbounded radio broadcast LANs.
Server: The term server refers to any device that offers a service to network users. A server can
be hardware, software or both. Servers can be PCs doing double duty, or they can be special-

Figure 6.22
Typical physical
Stub
LAN connections Lan media
Adapter card
Arcnet hub or token ring
Wire
Modular
telco wire
RJ-11
RJ-11
purpose devices. The most common are file servers, print servers and gateways (also known as
communications servers).
Protocol: The set of rules that allows an orderly, reliable transfer of data among all network
devices is collectively known as a protocol. In the context of the seven-layer model developed by
the International Standards Organization, a protocol refers to the rules associated with a specific
layer or set of layers. For example, the Ethernet, Arcnet and IBM Token Ring protocols apply only
to the Physical and Data Link Layers. Ethernet began as a de facto standard but has been adapted
to the ANSI/IEEE 802.3 Local Area Network standard.
Virtual: A process is virtual if it does not exist but appears to; a process is transparent if it exists
but does not appear to. For example, a virtual disk process allocates RAM to simulate the presence
of an extra floppy disk drive. In this case, a virtual disk appears to be a real disk drive to an appli-
cations program, but does not physically exist. The separation of physical aspects of a LAN and

the applications that run on it is a good example of transparency. The underlying communications
methodology of a LAN is transparent to the user’s application. In other words, a database software
package would not operate any differently on an Ethernet, an Arcnet or an IBM Token Ring LAN.
Physical and logical: A physical entity can be seen and touched; a logical entity exists as a
process or an activity, but in general cannot be seen or touched. Hardware is physical; software (in
operation) is logical.
Throughput: The term throughput is a measure that describes the interval from the time a request
is entered at a workstation until the response is received at that workstation.
Data rate: It is a measure of how fast data move between two adapter cards on a network. Data
rate is a useful measure because it provides an upper limit boundary on network communications
capacity.
Bottlenecks: Throughput can be thought of as the data rate minus the sum of the bottlenecks
inherent in a local area network. Typical bottlenecks include network adapter cards, data move-
ment within workstations and servers and access to shared hard disks for data reads and writes.
Throughput depends not only on data rate and design bottlenecks, but also on the manner in which
the network is being used.
Host: The term host refers to the microcomputer attached to a network device. It may also refer to
the native operating system on a workstation. Thus MS-DOS is a host operating system, and an
IBM PC or PS/2 may be host to a server function or to a workstation.
Workstation: A workstation is a computer used as a node on a network primarily used to run
application programs. In the IBM Token-Ring Network, any IBM PC compatible computer can be
used as a workstation.
6.6.5 Working of LAN Systems
The network adapter card plays a major role in determining the performance local area network.
The network adapter card is the most visible evidence that a workstation is attached to a local area
network. It is also the physical and logical link between the host microcomputer and the network
to which it is attached. On one side, the adapter card must exchange data with the host computer’s
microprocessor and internal RAM; on the other side it must transmit and receive data at the speed
and in the format required by the network media. The adapter card may contain significant amount
of firmware in a Read Only Memory (ROM) chip. This software is primarily designed to imple-
ment communications protocol. Adapter cards are designed to communicate with the host com-
puter through Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels, Interrupt Request (IRQ) channels, and/or
Input/Output ports. Figure 6.23 illustrates the basic functions of a network adapter card, including
basic data conversions, encapsulation into packets, access control and network signaling.
6.6.6 Speed of Data on the Network (Data Rate)
One of the major factors that characterizes a LAN is the speed at which data move on the network.
Local area network data transfers are done in a serial mode bit by bit. A mismatch in data rates
between the network and its host processor requires buffering, or temporary data storage, to pre-
vent the loss of data as it goes into the host computer. It is the job of the network adapter card to
manage data rate mismatches. Such mismatches usually occur because the network adapter card

Figure 6.23
Function of a
network adapter Access control
Buffer rules (software)
card Parallel
data Busy
Encode
IBM PC
Clear Data bits

Data Data packets
(serial) (1’s/0’s)
encapsulation
Transceiver
Computer bus/
adapter card
interface
Card cable
interface
Network
cable
processes data packets slower than the speed of movement of data on the network and slower than
the speed of movement if data that the host computer is capable of moving to and from the card. In
other words, the network adapter card becomes a bottleneck between the network media and its
host computer.
How does Data Move on the Network?
The network in Figure 6.23 distribute processing and data-storage tasks among a number of users
who may require near simultaneous access to the server PC. Controlling multiple users requires
structuring of the data flow in a standard manner. Control implies an orderly means of allowing
each device to access the network. It also implies a degree of service that allows data to arrive at
its correct destination with some assurance that transmission errors have been detected. A pre-
requiste to such network control is the placement of serial data streams into formatted packets
which are transmitted in accordance with network protocol. An example of the format of data as it
travels from one network adapter card to another in the Ethenet data packet, is shown in Fig-
ure 6.24.
Differences between Asynchronous Data Flow and LAN Data Travel
(a) Asynchronous data are transmitted one character at a time, while LAN data travel as large
blocks, combining control bits with control and pure data characters.
(b) Except for file transfers to and from shared hard disks, LAN data packets follow a random
pattern that reflects the random nature of user workstation activity.

Figure 6.24
Ethernet packet Keyboard and display only
related to existing
LAN
"John" "Server"
T
CRC Data y Source Destination Preamble
p
e
CRC = Error detection and correction code
6.6.7 Classification of LANs

Four ways of classifying networks as data communications systems are by:
(a) Type of data path
(b) The means used to represent and transmit data
(c) Physical network layout
(d) OSI Layer 1 and 2 protocol
The commonly used terms for these concepts are media, signaling, topology and access protocol,
respectively.
Data Path (Media)
Media is the general term used to describe the data path that forms the physical channel between
local area network devices or nodes. Media can be one of the following:
(a) Twisted-pair wires, telephone line installations
(b) Coaxial cables of various sizes
(c) Fiber optics
(d) Free space, supporting radio waves.
Media differ in their ability to support data rates and communication distances. The data com-
munication capacity of a twisted-pair wire, is limited both in speed and distance. It is however, the
cheapest form of wiring to install. It has the added advantage of ubiquity, since it is the most
common form of wiring installed in offices today. Twisted-pair wiring can take on entirely differ-
ent personalities depending on the type of signaling employed. The gamut runs from RS-232-C,
which is nominally limited to 19,200 bps at for distances upto 50 feet, to AT&T’s Starlan system,
which can support data rates of 1 Mbps over distances of 800 feet.
Coaxial cables of types RG-58, RG-59 and RG-62 are used in many of today’s LAN systems.
The newer Token Ring networks, such as IBM’s Token Ring and Proteon’s ProNET, allow the
selection of special wiring that combines multiple twisted pairs and coaxial-type shielding. Coax-
ial cables support data rates of up to several tens of Mbps at distances upto several thousand feet.
Certain types of signaling will allow high data rates over distances of several miles.
Fiber optics has superior data handling and security characteristics. Fiber optic cables cannot
be tapped and can support data rates of several hundred Mbps. Connection costs for fiber optic
networks are currently high, but are expected to decrease significantly in the next few years.
Data rates supported are dependent on the frequency band used for the network the higher the
frequency band, the higher the maximum possible data rate. A potentially viable technology is the
use of ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio modems operating at very low power levels for office
workgroup LANs.
6.6.8 Categories of Signaling
Signaling is the method by which a network represents data (1s and 0s) on the media during its
movement between the output of the source network adapter card and the input of the destination
network card. It also refers to the manner in which digital 1’s and 0’s familiar to a computer are
transmitted on the network data path.
The two basic categories of LAN signaling are:
(a) Baseband
(b) Broadband
The concepts of baseband and broadband signaling are illustrated in Figure 6.25. Signaling is
generally the responsibility of the network adapter card.
In the baseband system shown in Figure 6.25(a), a single digital signal is sent to the network
media. A serial stream of bits is packed into formatted data packets by the network adapter card
and converted to a form suitable for transmission on the data path. The serial data packets are sent
and received at a specific design data rate typically 1 to 80 Mbps.
In a baseband network system, no signal conversion device is required between the network
node and the data path.
Baseband LANs are generally cheaper and simpler to acquire and install than broadband sys-
tems.
A broadband system like the one shown in Figure 6.25(b) makes efficient use of high-capacity
cable TV (CATV) distribution media. This type of cable can support a bandwidth of 300 mega-
hertz (MHz). The high bandwidths on CATV cables were designed to accommodate fifty 6-MHz
wide TV channels for community video distribution. This high capacity can be fully exploited in
broadband local area networks.

Figure 6.25
Signaling on a
Local Area
Network
Network adapter Network media
Host PC card
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Full capacity of
network media
(a) Baseband
Network Modem Network media

Host PC adapter card
IBM PC Network
1 1 1 1 adapter card
0 0 0 0
1 0 11 0 0
(b) Broadband One of several "channels"

on network media
(similar to one TV channel
out of 50 on CATV)

6.6.9 Frequency Division Multiplexing

The 300 MHz channel capacity of the cable is normally partitioned into individual channels, each
of which is designed for a specific service or function namely point-to-point data, local area net-
work data, video or voice. This technique is known as frequency division multiplexing, or FDM.
FDM allows broadband network users to select channel bandwidths according to the service
desired in each subchannel. Using the TV broadcast analogy, each TV channel is fixed in width
and designed for a specific function. In a broadband LAN, the channel widths vary according to
the desired data rates for various services. One example of channel design on a broadband network
is shown in Figure 6.26.
Figure 6.26
LAN channel
assignment
in a broadband
system
Fixed
frequency
modem
CH-1
CH-2 Partial
bandwidth
CH-3 of
broadband
cable
CH-4
CH-5
Fixed Frequency
frequency agile
modem modem
CH-1 = 9600 BPS point-to-point circuit
CH-4 = 2 MBPS lan
CH-5 = 10 MBPS Lan

Examples of baseband systems are:

(a) 3Com’s version of Ethernet,
(b) Nestar’s PLAN networks,
(c) Gateway Communications’ G-Net,
(d) IBM’s Token Ring network,
(e) Proteon’s ProNET.
Examples of broadband systems are:
(a) IBM’s PC Network
(b) Wang Laboratory’s Wangnet
(c) Sytek’s Localnet
The broadband network is more expensive and more complex than its baseband counterpart. In
some applications this extra cost and complexity is justified by the organization’s need for multi-
ple services on one physical cable. Broadband networks are very popular in educational and
research institutions where widely separated facilities have to be connected. In many practical
LAN installations, broadband and baseband networks have been effectively combined to exploit
the advantages of both.
6.7 TYPES OF LANS

The most popular network types are Ethernet, Arcnet and Token Ring.
Ethernet
Ethernet was originally developed by Xerox and DEC and has been available for over 10 years as
a way to cable networks. The system was originally designed to use co-axial cable, but other
cabling systems are now available. Ethernet has a throughput of 10MB/see. The topology of an
Ethernet cable system is a linear bus with CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection) access method. Workstation are connected to the trunk segment of the cable that is
terminated on both ends. There are two types of Ethernet cable connections, referred to as thick
Ethernet and Thin Ethernet.
Arcnet
Arcnet is a baseband, token passing network system that offers flexible topologies and generally
the lowest price. Transmission speed are 2.5 MB/sec. Arcnet combine the star and linear Bus
topologies to form a hybrid topology. The following rules and limitation apply:
(a) Uses 93 ohm RG-62/U co axial cable as a medium of transmission.
(b) Nodes can be located at a maximum of 2,000 feet from an active hub (active hubs amplifies
the signals).
(c) A passive hub provides no signal amplification and the computers are limited to maximum of
100 feet from the passive hub.
Token Ring
The IBM Token Ring Network is a token passing network with a Star and Ring topology. The
network maintains a token passive ring with a multi-station access unit (MAU) up to eight work-

stations then extend from this unit in a star configuration. Token ring provides the twin advantages
of the ring and star topologies in one design. The following rules and limitations apply:
(a) The maximum, number of station is 96
(b) Eight workstations can be attached to a multi-station access unit (MAU).
(c) Up to 12 MAUs can be included in the ring.
(d) The maximum distance between a node and an MAU is 150 feet.
6.7.1 Topology
Topology is the way networks are physically connected together. The three most common LAN
topologies available for PCs are illustrated in Figure 6.27 star, ring and distributed bus. All are
normally associated with baseband networks. Another very common topology is the distributed
star, as illustrated in Figure 6.28. While all distributed star networks are identical in physically
appearance, the nature of the stars’ connected hubs can be radically different. For example, in
Novell’s S-Net, the connected hubs are active repeaters, responsible for retransmitting data pack-
ets between two stations in a round-robin sequence. The IBM Token Ring hubs are electrical ring
circuits (See Figure 6.28). These are referred to as Media Access Units or MAUs.
Importance of Topology
Topology determines the complexity and therefore the cost of network cable installation. Cable
installation can often be a major cost factor for network system. Topology also determines the
strategy for physically expanding the network.
Star-wired networks such as IBM’s Token Ring, Proteon’s ProNET and Arcnet are particularly
well-suited for multifloor installations. Hubs on star-wired networks are frequently placed in wir-
ing closets, with cable running from the wiring closet to wall outlets at selected office locations.
Although distributed bus networks are not as well-suited for multifloor installations, they are
well-suited to linear expansion.
6.7.2 LANs Protocols
A Local Area Network is a method for passing communications between computers. Whenever a
communication occurs, rules and conventions control the process. Imagine a committee meeting in
which each member wishes to speak. To prevent mass confusion, rules are adopted. If someone
wishes to speak he may raise his hand. The chairperson recognizes the person who wishes to
speak, and then that person has the floor. No one can speak who has not been recognized by the
chairperson. The rules and conventions for the committee meeting are called protocols.
The communications protocol layering concept plays a major role in LAN selection and
design. The significance of a layered communications model is ultimately economic. Figure 6.29
shows the role of currently defined LAN Physical and Data Link protocol in the context of the
entire model. Ehternet has developed from a de facto protocol, supported by DEC, Intel and
Xerox, to the full-fledged ANSI/IEEE Standard 802.3, entitled ‘‘Carrier Senser Multiple Access
with Collision Detection’’ (CSMA/CD). This standard is popularly known as StarLAN and was
developed by AT&T.

Figure 6.27
Common LAN
topologies Star
Ring
Media access
unit (MAU)
Distributed bus
IBM’s Token Ring has prompted the development of ANSI/IEEE Standard 802.5, entitled
‘‘Token Passing Ring’’. Arcnet has not developed into a recognized ANSI/IEEE standard, but has
achieved wide-spread acceptance as a de facto standard.

Figure 6.28
Distributed star
topology
Distributed star
6.7.3 The Seven Layers

Data are packaged by each layer in a certain form. Once packaged, data are sent to the next layer
above or below for processing. At each layer we may add or subtract certain control data to the
basic data for performing the function of that layer. You might think of the basic data being trans-
ferred as the raw data, and many of the layers add additional bytes to the data according to the
standard for that layer. The end result is a ‘‘package’’ of data that is passed to the next layer for
processing. Let’s look at functions and roles of these layers in more detail.

Figure 6.29
Lower-level
LAN protocol
Applications 7 7
layer
Presentation 6 6
layer
Session 5 5
layer
Transport 4 4
layer
Request Network 3 3
for layer
Response
service
Data link 2 2
layer
Physical 1 1
layer
Ethernet
arcnet
token ring
The Application Layer

The Application layer is the one at which the user generally operates. These standards refer to the
application software that functions on the network, including the PC LAN software. For example,
the PC LAN can be used with the new IBM Token-Ring Network or the older PC Network hard-
ware. The commands and user interface are identical.
As another example, you can purchase a network version of dBASE III Plus (an application
software product) and be sure it will run on a wide variety of networks. dBASE III Plus runs on a
wide variety of compatible networks.
The Presentation Layer
The major DOS functions which a programmer uses in this layer were provided in DOS release
3.1, and this release 3.1 of DOS was written for IBM by Microsoft. For the IBM Token-Ring Net-
work, DOS 3.1 was modified slightly and released as DOS 3.2. The network functions are defined
in IBM’s PC Network Technical Manual.
For network operation there is an additional level of functions that must be added to the DOS.
These functions support the redirecting of disk and print requests from workstations to the server
when necessary. For example, suppose the user wishes to load a file stored on the hard disk of the
server. This might be disk C of the server. Assume the user has a hard disk C and has assigned the
server hard disk as disk D on the local workstation. Each time the user requests a file from D on
the local workstation, the request must be redirected to C on the server hard disk.
The software to support these redirecting functions was written by Microsoft and sold as MS-
NET. This redirector shell is loaded into memory as a resident program and actually sits on top of
DOS when the network is active. You do not purchase MS-NET. Vendors selling LAN software
purchase the rights to MS-NET from Microsoft and include this as an integral part of the product.
MS-NET is already included in the IBM PC LAN software. MS-NET is also included as a part of
other network software, such as 3COM’s 3Plus.
At other times, vendors may choose to write their own redirector (and perhaps even DOS),
trying to emulate the Microsoft products. An example of this is Novell’s Netware.
As a user, your main concern at this level is that you have a standard network redirection
interface that will work with your application software. For example, if you are using dBASE III
Plus, you would want to be sure your version of dBASE III Plus works with the DOS and the
redirector that your network will be using. If you plan to purchase a network version of a word
processor in a year or two, can you be sure this will work with the network software you purchase
now? If a future DOS is released that supports more memory, will your network be obsolete?
Using a product that merely emulates the MS-NET function may buy you speed now, but could
cause incompatibility problems with some of your current software or future releases of current
software.
Using the Microsoft products (latest version of DOS namely 6.2 and a LAN that includes the
MS-NET redirector) means that you can be certain of future compatibility, but it may result in
slower throughput and fewer features when compared with other networks. When planning your
network, these are some of the trade-offs you will need to consider whilst making the decision and
purchasing your hardware and software.
In other types of data communication environments, the Presentation layer controls the highest
level of overhead and data formatting external to the raw data itself. For example, in transmitting
data to a printer the presentation layer defines machine control functions, such as tabbing and form
feed codes. In transferring a file between two word processors, the Presentation layer defines the
format of the word processing file.

The Session Layer

The Session layer provides the functions for supporting a particular session. This would include
the user identification, passwords, and priority control. At this level the data are packaged as a
packet, and the packet is assembled in the computer memory using commands for transmission on
the network.
Programmers can work at this level to interface a program to the network, but it is the lowest
level accessible by a programmer writing application programs. The functions needed for this
level are provided in the NETBIOS program provided with the IBM Token-Ring Adapter card. In
other networks (such as the PC Network hardware), the NETBIOS is provided as firmware, i.e. as
a chip on the adapter card. It functions much as an extension to the ROM on the computer
motherboard.
You should use caution when purchasing any application software that interfaces directly at
the NETBIOS level. Although this level has been defined as a standard by IBM, and software
designed to support this standard should be compatible in other networks, there is no guarantee of
compatibility the DOS calls, using ROM directly. A programmer may get by with it for a while,
but sooner or later hardware changes may cause software incompatibility. Just as IBM has
changed their ROM periodically, we can expect the NETBIOS to change and evolve itself in
future versions of network software.
The Transport Layer
Any given message may consist of several packets. In the Transport layer protocol, bytes are
added to the transmission of packets within a single session in order to identify the packets. This
permits multiple packets and sessions to be on the line, and yet the destination computer can reas-
semble the packets of a particular session in the correct order.
The Network Layer
The Network layer controls the flow of the packet through the network or between networks.
Bytes defining the source node and the destination node are added, as well as identifiers defining
the source and destination network. This makes it possible for a packet to be transmitted correctly
even from one network to another through any gateways that may exist.
The Data Link Layer
At the Data Link level the data is defined in frames. Several bytes are added at the end of the frame
to permit error checking in the transmission. The standards at this level provide for re-transmission
if a frame is not received correctly. Bytes indicating the source address and destination address are
added (these are different from the node identifiers added at the Network layer.) It is the destina-
tion address added at this level that is checked by the receiving station to see if the frame is
intended for that station or not. Once the destination station determines that the frame is intended
for it, it uses the source address to determine where to send the acknowledgement.
The Physical Layer
The function of the Physical layer is to provide the means of transmitting the data from the source

node to the destination node. Standards at this level define the cable, the connectors, and topology
constraints.
6.7.4 Data Link Protocol
The data link layer (layer 2 of the OSI model) is the most commonly referenced layer in commu-
nications because it is responsible for packaging the data for transmission and then transmitting it.
Packaging refers to breaking up the data into blocks of a specified length and appending codes to it
for identification and error checking. The data link protocol often includes the electrical and
physical specifications (layer 1 of the OSI model) as well.
The following are the major categories of data link protocols:
Asynchronous Transmission
Originating from mechanical teletypewriters, asynchronous transmission sends one character at a
time out on the communications line with start and stop bits appended to each character. It is the
common form of personal computer communications outside of local area networks, and it is
widely used for connecting terminals to minicomputers and timesharing services. The most ele-
mentary asynchronous protocols, called ASCII or Teletype protocols, provide little or no error
checking and are only acceptable for text messages. The serial port on a personal computer is an
asynchronous transmission channel, and Xmodem, Ymodem and Kermit are typical error check-
ing protocols.
Synchronous Transmission
Developed for higher speeds and higher volumes of transmission than asynchronous protocols,
synchronous transmission sends a block of data out on the line at one time, with both the sending
and receiving stations synchronized to each other. Synchronous protocols provide extensive error
checking. Examples are IBM’s SDLC, Digital’s DDCMP, and the international standard, HDLC.
Local Area Network Protocols
Developed for medium transmission speeds between personal computers, local area networks
interconnect upto thousands of users. The networks typically use collision detection (CSMA/CD)
or token passing methods for gaining access to the network. Examples are IBM’s Token Ring,
Data point’s ARCNET, Xerox’s Ethernet and AT&T’s Starlan. In course of time, fiber optic local
area networks will provide the capacity to handle large volumes of high-resolution graphics as
well as voice and video.
6.7.5 What is a Network Operating System?
The software required to ensure smooth and orderly execution of applications in a LAN multiuser
environment is distinct from software designed to transport data packets within LANs or between
different types of local or wide area networks. It is also different from the software needed to
establish services such as sessions between cooperating applications or the logical naming of users
and resources throughout interconnected networks. LAN operating systems sit at Level 6, the Pre-
sentation Layer (see Figure 6-29). Network utility software and other multiuser applications are
generally considered to be either in Layer 7 or outside the scope of the OSI model, depending on

the type of application. Layer 7 standards for generic applications such as electronic mail and file
transfer are becoming more common. More specific applications would use the services provided
by Level 7.
Operating systems have the responsibility of providing an orderly method for users to interact
with the resources under their control. Like a microcomputer operating system, a network operat-
ing system (NOS) has features that must be evaluated to determine the best match for a particular
combination of applications, hardware and budget.
Some general features in a network operating system are:
Hardware independence
The ability of a NOS to operate in more than vendor’s network hardware environment
Bridging
The ability of a NOS to support the linking of one or more dissimilar hardware LANs under the
same NOS umbrella
Multiple server support
The ability of a NOS to support more than one server and to transparently keep track of which
users are logged in to which server.
Multiuser support
The ability of a NOS to provide adequate protection for applications programs and their data files
in a multiuser environment
Network management
The degree to which the NOS supports network utility and management functions such as archiv-
ing, server directory management, traffic analysis, etc.
Security and access control
The ability of a NOS to provide a high degree of network security and flexible management of
user privileges and file access.
User interface
The degree of human engineering reflected in menus, screens, commands and user control over
network resources. Figure 6.30 shows the relationship between applications software, host operat-
ing system, network operating system and lower-level network communications functions. This
figure is shown from the perspective of a workstation on the network. The user’s view of the
network is through either an applications program, such as dBASE III Plus, or menus and com-
mand lines that provide control of network utilities.
Network utilities are themselves special purpose applications programs. When an
application such as dBase III Plus is running in a workstation, a redirector or shell program runs in
the background, continuously screening requests for files or devices. The redirector knows what
devices and drives are network resources because it has been given this information by a network
configuration utility program.

Figure 6.30
LAN software
relationships Network Network commands Network
program (user) utilities
Configuration
commands
Device/file access
Applications request Redirector/
program shell
Local Remote
file file
calls calls
MS DOS.SYS Netbios
Bios IO.sys
Network
adapter
Hardware adapters
6.7.6 PC Based Network Operating Systems

In summary, the various parts of a network operating system combine to perform a variety of tasks
that makes network activities possible. These tasks consist of:
(a) Shared file support
(b) Archiving
(c) Directory management
(d) Print spooling

(e) Performance monitoring
Shared devices supported by network operating systems include :
(a) Mass storage servers
(b) Output servers
(c) Communication servers
6.8 WIDE AREA NETWORK ARCHITECTURES

6.8.1 What is a WAN?
Wide area networks combine the continuous error detection and correction techniques included in
synchronous communications with robust network problem determination and data routing to
form powerful backbones that ensure high-quality, reliable service for end users. These networks
allow multiple users to access a variety of host computers simultaneously through the same phys-
ical medium, while separating each user’s session so that no user is aware of another on the net-
work. Wide area networks also operate at speeds much higher than the 19,200-bps limit of normal,
voice-grade telephone lines.
6.9 OSI MODEL (OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTING)

The OSI model was developed to standardize the procedures for the exchange of information
between processing systems. The OSI is a communications reference model that has been defined
by the International Standards Organization (ISO). It is a seven-layer communications protocol
intended as a standard for the development of communications systems worldwide. It is similar to
IBM’s SNA protocol layers, but not identical. Most vendors have agreed to support OSI in one
form or another; however, adherence to this standard is vital in order to achieve universal com-
munications.
Layers 1 and 2 are mandatory in order to transmit and receive in any communications system.
Layers 3, 4 and 5 are provided by the controlling network software (network control programs and
network operating systems) and have typically been treated as one layer by vendors. Layers 4, 5
and 6 are often combined into one or two layers in existing communications systems.
Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting at the application layer in one station,
proceeding to the bottom layer, over the communications channel to the next station and back up
the hierarchy.
From top to bottom, the layers of the OSI model are shown in Figure 6.31. These layers are
further described in the following section.
Layer 7 - Application Layer
Layer 7 is the set of message that application programs use to request data and services from each
other. Electronic mail and query languages are examples of this layer.
Layer 6 - Presentation Layer
Layer 6 is used to convert one data format to another, for example, one word processor format to
another or one database format to another.
Figure 6.31
The International
Standards
COMPUTER COMPUTER
Organization’s
A B
seven layers of
control for open
systems
Layer 7 Layer 7 Protocol Layer 7
(Application) (Application)

(Presentation) (Presentation)

(session) (session)

(Transport) (Transport)

(Net work) (Net work)

(Data link) (Data link)

(Physical) (Physical)
Layer 5 - Session Layer

Layer 5 establishes and terminates the session, queues the incoming messages and is responsible
for recovering from an abnormally terminated session.

Layer 4 - Transport Layer

Layer 4 is responsible for converting messages into the structures required for transmission over
the network. A high level of error recovery is also provided in this layer.
Layer 3 - Network Layer
The network layer establishes the connection between two parties that are not directly connected
together. For example, this layer is the common function of the telephone system. When an X.25
packet switching network performs this function, the route that has been established from one
device to another is called a virtual circuit.
Layer 2 - Data Link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for gaining access to the network and transmitting the physical
block of data from one device to another. It includes the error checking necessary to ensure an
accurate transmission. This layer is the communications protocol that is most commonly refer-
enced and often implies the specifications for Layer I as well.
Layer 1 - Physical Layer
The physical layer defines the actual set of wires, plugs and electrical signals that connect the
sending and receiving devices to the network. The RS-422 interface is a common standard in this
layer, and the RS-232 interface is a common standard for personal computers.
6.10 INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK (ISDN)

The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) lines provide two voice and one packet data cir-
cuit over lines previously used for only one voice circuit or one voice-grade data circuit. So far
these tests have been successful. These services are working in Bombay and Poona route in India.
ISDN will allow users to transmit or receive telegraph, telex, music, telephone, facsimile, over the
same pair of wires. Access to large public and private data networks will also be possible from
business or residential locations.
6.11 DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING

Distributed processing is a system of computers connected together by a communications net-
work. The term is loosely used to refer to any computers with communications between them.
However, in true distributed processing, each computer system is chosen to handle its local
workload, and the network is designed to support the system as a whole. A typical distributed star
topology (network) is shown in Figure 6.32. Distributed data processing system enables the shar-
ing of many hardware and significant software resources among several users who may be located
far away from each other.
6.11.1 Advantages of a Distributed Data Processing System
A distributed data processing system attempts to capture the advantages of both a centralized and a
decentralized system. Each computer can be used to process data like a decentralized system. In

Figure 6.32
Distributed data
network using Star
network
Distributed star
addition, a computer at one location can also transfer data and processing jobs to and from com-
puters at other locations.
Flexibility
It allows greater flexibility in placing true computer power at the location where it is needed.
Better Utilization of Resources
Computer resources are easily available to the end users. For example, users can use small mini or

microcomputer systems for processing small jobs. However, for complex jobs they can easily
access large sophisticated computer systems. The same is true for other resources like mass stor-
age devices, plotters, database and even a growing library of application programs.
Better Accessibility
It facilitates quick and better access to data and information especially where distance is a major
factor.
Lower Cost for Communication
Telecommunication costs can be lower when much of the local processing in handled by on-site
mini and microcomputers rather than by distant central mainframe computers.
Disadvantages of a Distributed Data Processing System
There is lack of proper security controls for protecting the confidentiality and integrity of the user
programs and data that are stored on-line and transmitted over network channels. It is relatively
easy to tap a data communication line. One technique used to protect security and privacy over
data communications lines is encryption. Basically, encryption is a coding device placed on either
end of a data communications line, putting a very complex code on the data. This code is
extremely difficult to break. At the receiving end of the data communications line, encryption
device is used to decode the signal into a meaningful message.
Linking of Different Systems
Due to lack of adequate computing/communications standards, it is not possible to link different
equipments produced by different vendors into a smoothly functioning network. Thus, several
good resources may not be available to the users of a network.
Maintenance Difficulty
Due to decentralization of resources at remote sites, management from a central control point
becomes very difficult. This normally results in increased complexity, poor documentation, and
non-availability of skilled computer/communications specialists at the various sites for proper
maintenance of the system.
Difference between a centralized distributed data processing and a
decentralized processing system
In a decentralized processing system different computers process a separate workload without
communication between them. But in a centralized distributed data processing system, one or
more computers are located in one facility and handle the entire workload.
6.12 CLIENT/SERVER PROCESSING

The concept of the client/server processing has emerged as a higher level of shared device pro-
cessing typically found in local area networks (LANs). In a shared-device LAN processing envi-
ronment, PCs are attached to a system device that allows these PCs to share a common
resource a file on a hard disk and printer are typical examples (see Figure 6.33.) In LAN

Figure 6.33
Client/server CLIENT
processing
App
environment l.
CLIENT CLIENT
App LAN l.
l. App
or
WAN
SERVER
Appl.
DATA LINE PRINTER

STORAGE
terminology, such shared devices are called servers. In a typical LAN-based shared-device pro-
cessing, these PC requests are usually limited to services related to shared files or print processing.
For example, a common file can be read by several PCs, and some report pages can be sent by
multiple PCs to the same printer. The obvious drawback of such an approach is that all application
processing is performed on individual PCs. and only certain functions (print, file I/O) are distrib-
uted. Therefore, an entire file has to be sent to a PC that issues a READ request against this file. If
file has to be updated, the entire file is locked by the PC that issued the update request. Examples
of shared device processing that allow a local are network to have a system dedicated exclusively
to the file and/or print services are Novell’s NetWare and Microsoft’s LAN Manager.
The client/server processing concept is an extension of shared device processing. A local area
networks grew in size and number of supported workstations including file server and print server.
Gradually, these servers became capable of serving large numbers of workstations. At the same
time, the role of the workstations was also changing the workstations were becoming clients of
the servers. The main reason for the change was that in a large LAN environment sharing of file
and print services among the workstations in a LAN group represented only a fraction of a typical
application. The significant part of the application functionality was also a good candidate for
sharing among LAN users. Therefore, some of the application processing was distributed to a new
server the server that receives requests from application running on workstation (clients) and
processes them for each of its clients. In this concept, application processing is divided between
client and server. The processing is actually initiated and partially controlled by the service
requester client. Both client and server cooperate to successfully execute an application. Data-
base server such as Sybase or the Microsoft SQL Server are examples of the client/server pro-
cessing environment.
An advantage of the client/server approach can be seen by comparing a file server and a
database server. For example, if a PC application needs particular records from a shared file, it
sends a request to read the entire file to a file server, which makes this entire file available to the
PC. The application running on this PC has to search the file to select requested records. The
computing resources of the file server are used to process the entire file, while the PC’s resources
are used to run an application that reads every record of the file. If every file record is sent to the
PC for processing, a significant portion of the available resources is used inefficiently, and com-
munications lines are overburdened. In the case of a database server, an application running on a
PC sends a record read request to its database server. The database server processes the database
file locally and sends only the requested records to the PC application. Both the client and the
server computing resources cooperate to perform the requested query. Figure 6.33 depicts the
concept of client/server processing described above.
Advantages
Following are real benefits in adopting client/server architecture.
(a) It allows corporations to leverage emerging desktop computing technology better. Todays’s
workstations deliver considerable computing power, previously available only from main-
frames, at a fraction of mainframes cost.
(b) It allows the processing to reside close to the source of data being processed. (Client/server
architecture is a special form of distributed processing cooperative processing.) There-
fore, network traffic can be greatly reduced, and effective throughput and carrying capacity
on a heavily loaded network is increased.
(c) It facilitates the use of graphical user interface (GUI) available on powerful workstations.
These new interfaces can be delivered to customers in a variety of visual presentation tech-
niques.
Disadvantage
If a significant portion of application logic is moved to a server, the server may become a bottle-

neck in the processing of distribution of data to the clients. Server’s limited resources will be in
ever-higher demand by the increasing number of resource consumers.
6.13 THE INTERNET

The Internet is a worldwide network of networks. It is a conglomeration of smaller networks and
other connected machines spanning the entire globe. It consists of over 30,000 networks in 71
countiries. Around the world, each country has at least one backbone network that operates at a
very high speed and carries the bulk of the traffiic. Other smaller networks connect to that back-
bone.
The Internet has no central authority networks on the Internet simply agree to cooperate
with each other. Individual computers on these networks can share files and transmit information.
Various networks connected to the Internet format messages with Internet Protocol (IP). IP is
often used in conjunction with TCP (transmission control protocol). The combination of TCP/IP
have made the Internet robust and flexible.
6.13.1 Why use the Internet?
The Internet has revolutionised the communication methods around the world. Sitting at a work-
station or PC, one can get any kind of information one wants. The latest technological advances
have enabled it to be used as a business tool as well, with the result that companies are today
spending considerable amount of money on Internet reserach. The amalgamation of computer and
communication technologies have resulted in the integration of data, sound and video on the
Internet, which in turn has made it a powerful tool for reengineering business processes the world
over.
One can use the Internet form for the following purpose:
(a) To exchange electronic mail with friends all over the globe for a small price.
(b) To participate in group discussion on topics of interest, through public news groups.
(c) To find educational tools. Universities around the world, book stores, and libraries are shar-
ing online information.
(d) To shop commercial electronic store fronts are growing in number in USA and Europe.
One can order different products over the Internet.
(e) In the case of business one can get technical support for products one is using. One can
publish information such as technical or marketing literature.
(f) Because the Internet is electronic, one can make changes to reflect late breaking news that
would be impossible for printed publications. Change becomes easier, updates are simpler
and information is instant.
(g) The Internet has become the first global venue for publishing information. This network has
enough users now that it is benefitting from the positive feedback loop: the more users it
gets, the more content it gets; and the more content it gets, the more users it gets.
(h) Internet’s main asset is freedom. An alternative to controlling its freedom is to train and
educate the user.

6.13.2 Internet Connection Options

There are several ways to connect to the Internet. The more expensive services provide more fea-
tures, more flexibility, and greater data transfer capacity. Large companies would choose dedi-
cated Internet access or LAN dial-up. Smaller organizations may be happy with PC dial-up access
and terminal emulation, which provides E-mail and other services through a service provider’s
comptuer.
PC Dial-up and Terminal Emulation
This is the simplest and cheapest type of connnection to make. All you need is a computer with a
modem (attached to a phone line) and any of the popular telecommunications packages. The indi-
vidual user dials-in to an Internet provider. Each user has an account on the provider’s Internet
Services host computer to the Internet. (Figure 6.34 illustrates this facility on the Internet in India)
When you use PC dial-up (also called a terminal account), your computer runs a terminal
emulation program to communicate with the service provider’s host computer, and you ask the
host computer to go out onto the Internet to do what you need done. Most host providers will send
and receive E-mail, transfer files from a remote Internet computer to the host which you can then
download to your local computer, and provide access to USENET (the topical bulletin
boards/newspaper/discussion groups on the Internet).
Figure 6.34
Illustrating dial-up Host
access to GIAS Dial-up
User
Host Host
User VSNL Gateway

Requirements Internet Access
TCP/IP Service
PSTN
Dial-up
Internet
Link
VSNL
Internet
Host
IP Router
VT-100XT Team Server

Terminal or
PC with Emulation
Software

Many Internet access providers also allow dial-up users to interactively roam the Internet
in realtime, logging on to remote hosts with TELNET, searching indexed databases with WAIS,
and locating esoteric information with Gopher.
The equipment and software for PC dial-up is essentially the same-whether the user is
dialing from a stand alone computer at home, from a networked computer equipped with a local
modem, or from a networked computer using a communications server and a shared pool of net-
work modems.
The computer uses terminal emulation software, not TCP/IP to talk to the Internet host
computer. The Internet host computer uses TCP/IP to talk to the rest of the Internet. Ordinary
modems and telephone lines provide adequate throughput for PC dial-up access, though fast
modems make the experience more pleasant. If you are trying to connect a NetWare LAN to the
Internet, you have a number of options. Some people use a UNIX computer to connect the LAN to
the Internet. The advantage is that UNIX will interface easily with Internet. Other people prefer to
stick to a NetWare solution. Because NetWare 4.0 is transport independent (it will send data from
workstation to file server using either TCP/IP or Novell’s IPX Protocol). A NetWare 4.0 server
provides a cleaner base for this process, though NetWare 3.11 or 3.12 will also work.
Dedicated Internet Access
The most popular Internet access for companies and institutions is a dedicated phone line con-
necting your LAN to the Internet 24 hours a day. However, a dedicated Internet access also
requires substantial initial investment in equipment. The main continuing cost is a flat monthly fee
for the use of the line. It varies with line capacity, and line capacity determines how many users
can connect simultaneously.
Using the Internet to create an Inexpensive WAN
A company with multiple offices and Internet access can use the Internet to provide a cheap cor-
porate WAN. Using TELNET, an authorized user can log onto another computer physically dis-
tant but also on the Internet. As an alternative to a commercial X.25 connection between two
distant cities, the Internet is unbeatable. It is not secure, but it is cheaper per bit than any of the
alternatives and quite reliable.
Internet Service Providers
After you decide what kind of Internet connection you need, look for a service provider. A wide
variety of providers support a wide variety of Internet connection services. Here are some hints.
If you want to connect an individual PC to the Internet, you can choose a national provider. If
you want to connect several geographically scattered sites, contact one of the major national and
regional Internet providers.
To get a dedicated line into the Internet, contact one of the leased line, the more traffic it can
carry and the more expensive it will be.
A final word of caution before connecting your network to the Internet. A large number of
people have made it their pastime to break into computer networks. There are many stories of
companies that have plugged their networks in to the Internet, not realizing that at that point, any-
one from Russia to the Fiji Islands could look at their files.
Which ever system you choose, make sure it is implemented. It is easy to believe that you are
invisible, but that is not true. Tools are now available to automatically scan for new IP addresses as
well as weak points in your defenses. Set your security properly before you connect for the first
time.
6.13.3 How India is Connected to the Internet?
Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd, India’s international telecom carrier, has also provided backbone net-
work in India known as VSNL’s Gateway Internet Access Services (GIAS) network. This netwrok
is built to provide full range of Internet services on all India basis connecting its main Internet
access node at Bombay to internet node in USA via satellite media and to Internet node in Europe
via submarine cable media.
VSNL has already commissioned remote Internet access modes at Calcutta, New Delhi and
Madras. In addition several cities are likely to be commissioned in the near future. These nodes are
connected to the main Internet access node at Bombay through DoT provided intercity links.
Internet access node at Bombay is also connected to VSNL’s gateway packet switched ser-
vice (GPSS). As DoT remote area business message network (RABMN), domestic packet
switched network, I-Net and high-speed V-SAT network. HVNET are connected to GPSS.
Subscribers of these networks would also have easy access to full range of Internet services. Sub-
scribers from over 4300 STD cities of India would also be able to avail advantage of Internet ser-
vices by subscribing to ‘099’ access of I-Net in addition to subscribing to GIAS.
VSNL plans to provide full rnage of Internet services progressively by March 1996.
VSNL’s Options for accessing Gateway
VSNL has planned the following options for accessing gateway Internet access service (GIAS).
Shell account: Using dial-up access to GIAS HOST the primary level of access for Internet
users one can dial-up access to GIAS HOST computer set up by VSNL, at each of the node. By
connecting to the host computer, the users would be able to use all Internet services. In this mode,
the users would be using a simple terminal emulation from their PCs and will not require any spe-
cial software on their machine.
The limitation of this access mode is that the access is primarily limited to text-based ser-
vices. Figure 6.34 pictorially describes this facility. Figure 6.35 illustrates router connection to
GIAS.
TCP/IP account: VSNL, as the second level of access, provides a direct TCP/IP account. The
subscribers can use transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) software to connect
on a dial-up or leased basis to the GIAS system and access online all services on the Internet.
In this mode of access, the users will be required to use software for E-mail, file transfer,
remote log-in, Mosaic, World Wide Web etc.
Packet switched network access: VSNL, as the third level of access, provide access via packet
switched network, i.e. GPSS, I-Net, RABMN and HVNET. Subscribers of these networks would
be able to avail the full range of Internet services using shell account or TCP/IP account.

Shell account subscribers using terminal dial-up can access GIAS HOST computer and avail
all Internet services, i.e. E-mail, file transfer, remote log-in, etc. primarily limited to text-based
services.
Figure 6.35
Illustrating router
connection in
GIAS
VSNL Gateway
Internet Access
Service
User Router Internet

Link
Host Link
VSNL
Internet
Host
IP Router
Router
Router
TCP/IP account subscribers would required to have router capable of routing TCP/IP over
X.25 and connect to the VSNL GIAS router. In this type of access, users would require to have
software needed for E-mail, file transfer, remote log-in, Mosaic, World Wide Web, etc. Fig-
ure 6.36 illustrates this mode of operation.

Figure 6.36
Illustrating X.25 Internet Host Connect Service
User
TCP/IP routing Host
over X.25 ( IP
Over
X.25 )
VSNL Gateway
User Internet Access
Requirements Service
TCP/IP
IP Routing I-NET/
Over X.25 X.25 Internet
GPSS Link
Port
RABMN
X.25/IP VSNL
Router Internet
Host
IP Router
Term Server
6.13.4 Internet Security

It would be a grave mistake to assume that the Internet is a safe place, and that there is no reason
for one to protect one’s password. Unfortunately, there are a lot of people who would love to break
into others’ accounts and use them as a base for operations.
6.14 NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

The network operating system (NOS) is the software that provides the means for sharing
resources. Some products, such as Novell’s NetWare 3.12 and 4.1x, clearly separate the client and
server software and functions. But one PC can play both roles, as do Microsoft Windows NT.
Windows 95 and IBM’s OS/2 Warp Connect will also include the necessary software to act as a
client or as a server and client simultaneously.
6.14.1 Ideal Network Operating System
The ideal NOS tunes the server by managing memory and allocates tasks across multiple proces-
sors, providing scalability, or the ability to grow. The NOS includes management functions to
improve its reliability and uses disk file formats and caching techniques that give fast access. An
ideal package includes client software that works with server software from different companies
and can flexibly use protocols such as IPX and IP. In networks with multiple servers, the perfect
NOS should offer a single password log on for all services a salability function called a directory
service that is found in NetWare 4.1 and VINES.

An ideal network operating system (NOS) must offer strong connectivity, reliability, sal-
ability, and great file and application service.
Connectivity
The NOS should simultaneously communicate over multiple protocols such as AppleTalk,
IPX/SPX, and TCP/IP. The ideal NOS can use drives formatted with a variety of file systems.
Scalability
From the smallest five person workgroup to the largest network, the NOS must provide consistent
features. Managing the perfect network requires a strong and stale global directory service a
database that maintains all information including users, groups, servers, volumes and printers.
Modular architecture
The ideal NOS should allow you to add hardware and software to your network easily. Additional
network services including telephony, backup, e-mail, mainframe connectivity and remote
access should be easy to install and configure networkwide.
Diversify
The NOS should service requests from client PCs on different platforms. DOS. Macintosh, OS/2,
and UNIX systems must connect easily to the network and share all network resources.
Performance
The ideal NOS provides several key features for servicing file requests and running client/server
application, including advanced memory management techniques, multitasking, preemptive mul-
tithreading and multiprocessing.
Simplicity
The ideal NOS is easy to install and reconfigure. It boots up and installs from a CD-ROM and
auto-detects server hardware. For easy administration from one common interface, a graphic user
interface (GUI) with drag-and-drop function is a must. You should ;be able to add users and
groups easily by granting them access rights to devices. This can be done from one common
interface.
Resource Sharing
Besides sharing files and printer, the ideal NOS can share modems, applications and other
resources across the network. Complete security includes passwords (for files, users, and groups),
with the ability to lock out a suspected intruder.
Reliability
Fault tolerance for the server should; be included. System-disk duplexing, mirroring and striping
offer internal redundancy and complete system duplication to assure total safety for your net-
worked data.

6.14.2 NetWare 4.02 (Network Operating System)

The NetWare’s 4th generation of network operating systems delivers new networking tools and
services based on proven NetWare technology
NetWare 4.02 incorporates all the characteristics of previous versions of NetWare, and adds
new capabilities designed to increase productivity, reduce costs and simplify installing and main-
taining networking. NetWare includes:
(a) Transparent directory service installation option
(b) Faster, easy-to-use administration utilities
(c) New enhancements for increased reliability and stability
(d) New levels of DOS, MS Windows and OS/2 client software
6.14.3 Vines 10, 20 (Banyan’s Network Operating System)
Banyan’s new, user-based versions of VINES software let groups of any size takes full advantage
of the power of the VINES network system. Smaller business do not have to settle for network
solutions with limited functionality Remote offices do not have to settle for transient dial-up solu-
tions. VINES 10 and VINES 20 software deliver robust network support to as few as five, ten or
twenty users.
The software comes bundled with file sharing, print sharing, security and directory services
and can support the full range of VINES mail host connectivity, network management and com-
munications option. There is no limit to the number of local and wide area connections, making
VINES 10 and VINES 20 the best way to deliver the network functions you need tody and ensure
that you can easily add more functionality and capacity in the future.
Workstation Integrators Banyan under stands that users want to feel instantly comfortable
with their network. Access to resources should be simple and intutive. VINES 10 and VINES 20
network solutions fully support DOS Macintosh, OS/2 and Windows clients and their native
interface. Banyan’s advanced technology makes all network resources appear as esxtension of the
user’s workstation. DOS and OS/2 users access network resouces with their familiar operating
system commands. Macintosh and Windows user access nestwork resources through native
graphical interfaces.
TEST PAPER
Time allotted : 3 Hrs.
Max. Marks :100
Note: Answer all questions. All questions carry equal marks.

Q. 1 Differentiate between simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex modes of data transmis-
sion.
Q. 2 Explain the terms bandwidth and baud rate.
Q. 3 Differentiate between analog and digital transmission of data. Give their relative
advantages and disadvantages.
Q. 4 What are modems ? What purpose do they serve in data communication systems?

Q. 5 A company has a computer at its main office in Delhi linked to a terminal in each of
its branch offices situated in the state capitals. It would like to use multiplexing for
these terminals to reduce transmission costs. Is that possible!? Explain your answer.
Q. 6 Describe the asynchronous and synchronous modes of data transmission.
Q. 7 List out the relative advantages and disadvantages of asynchronous and synchronous
modes of data transmission.
Q. 8 What is meant by network topology? Describe three commonly used network topol-
ogies with their relative advantages and disadvantages.
Q. 9 What is a LAN? What are its main objectives?
Q. 10 Differentiate between a LAN and a WAN. Give one example of each.
Q. 11 Describe a method so that a company can use the Internet as a WAN for its different
offices located all over the globe.
Q. 12 Describe the concept of Client/server processing technique used in the Local Area
Networking. How does it differ from distributed processing system?

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CHAPTER 6

6.1 WHAT IS COMPUTER COMMUNICATION ?

Figure 6.1 (a)

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Figure 6.1 (b)

Programs talk to each other

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EIA: The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) represents American manufacturers.

ISO: The International Standards Organization (ISO) is a worldwide group composed

6.1.1 Need for Computer Communication over Distances

6.2 COMMUNICATION MEDIA USED FOR DATA TRANSMISSION

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6.2.1 Wire Pairs

Advantages and Limitations of Wire Pairs

Outer PVC Shield

6.2.3 Microwave Transmission

Line of sight Line of sight Line of sight

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As shown in Figure 6.5, in satellite communication, microwave signals at 6 GHz (read as

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6.3 SERIAL AND PARALLEL COMMUNICATIONS

Random access Modem

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Figure 6.8 (a)

(a) Analog signal

(b) Digital signal

Figure 6.8 (b)

Analog In Digital Box

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Figure 6.9 (a)

Why Use Modems ?

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Figure 6.9 (b)

Less than 100 feet

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6.3.8 Serial Duplex Configurations

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Local Echo and Duplex Mode

6.4 COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

Figure 6.13 (a)

Low Stop bit

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Figure 6.13 (b)

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Parameter The SOURCE Compu Serve NewsNet Dow Jones

6.4.5 Serial Data Synchronous Communication

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6.4.6 Bisync Protocol

Bisync Hex Value ASCII Value Character Description

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HDLC DSTS STRUCTURE

Data Address Control Packet Information field Data

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CRT and printer

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6.5 COMMUNICATONS CHANNEL ALLOCATION OF

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Thus, with multiplexing it is possible for a single transmission medium to concurrently

Signal - 2 50 KHz Sending Receiving 50 KHz Signal - 2