Induction and Deduction

The Role of Induction and Deduction in the Validity

of Scientific Theory






Philosophy Essay Project
Bodhinanda Chandra
1TE12854Y
Civil Engineering
Department of Earth Resources, Marine and Civil Engineering
School of Engineering



induction, deduction, and their role in the validity of scientific theories


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I. Introduction
Science is a system of knowledge that studies about nature and try to explain, predict, and
answer phenomena which appears in human everyday life. Scientists believe that they can
explain the worlds phenomena in a systematical way through observation and experimentation.
They make a hypothesis, do the observation, retest their data and draw a conclusion in every
scientific research. They also like to collect evidence as much as possible through observation to
prove and support their hypothesis. They think the more evidence they obtain, the stronger their
conclusion will be.
Most people think that a scientific theory will always right only if they have enough evidence
to prove and support their conclusion. However, for Karl Popper, the validity of scientific theory
is not just only simply based on its evidence, but its element of induction and deduction. For
instance, there is some scientists hypothesis that Aliens do not exist. People mostly believe
that this statement is right due to their experiences which have never found any evidence of
living alien. However, if there is one single case of a living alien is found, this proves that the
theory is false. From this example, in other words, validity of a single theory could only be
proven right by understanding the context of reasoning or inference.
This essay will discuss and explain the important role of reasoning while looking to the
validity of scientific theory with the example of physics theories of motion by Newton, Einstein,
and Planck. It will be structured as follow: introduction, development of ideas, and closed with
conclusion.

II. Development
Scientific Reasoning
Karl Raimund Popper (1902-1994), the Austrian philosopher of natural and social science, is
one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20
th
century (Thomson Gale 2006). He was
well known with his concept of falsifiability and demarcation of philosophy of science which
explained the central problem in the philosophy of science, the distinction between science and


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non-science. Popper is unusual amongst contemporary philosophers in that he accepts the
validity of the Humean critique of induction, and indeed, goes beyond it in arguing that
induction is never actually used by the scientist (Thornton 2011).
Looking at logical categorizations of different types of reasoning, the traditional main
division made in philosophy is between deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning (Wikipedia
Contributors 2013).
Robert Jeffrey Sternberg, an American psychologist, and psychometrician, in his book titled
Cognitive Psychology define deductive reasoning as:
Deductive reasoning is the process of reasoning from one or more general statements
regarding what is known to reach a logically certain conclusion. (Sternberg 2009)
Deductive reasoning is the process of starting out with one or more general statements or
premises and examining the possibilities to reach a logically certain conclusion. In a deductive
reasoning, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that,
if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false (Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2003).
Here is a simple example of deductive reasoning:
All apples are fruits.
All fruits grow on trees.
Therefore, all apples grow on trees.

From the example above, All apples are fruits and All fruits grow on trees are called the
premises. Consequently, Therefore, all apples grow on trees is clearly the conclusion. If those
two premises are true, thus, people can deduct a conclusion that also guaranteed to be true. It is
impossible to say that the conclusion is false or wrong. However, if the conclusion turns out to
be proven wrong, then the premises are also turns out to be false.
In contrary to deductive reasoning,


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Inductive reasoning is a kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates general propositions
that are derived from specific examples. (Wikipedia Contributors 2012)
Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories.
Inductive reasoning process begin with specific observations and measurement, detect patterns
and regularities, formulate some tentative hypothesis that can be explored, and finally end up
developing some general conclusions or theories (Trochim 2006).
All apples that have been observed are red.
Therefore, all apples are red.
The above example is one of examples of inductive reasoning. The premise provides
evidential support for the conclusion, but does not guarantee its truth. All apples that have been
observed are red does not explain and guarantee that all apples are red. There is some chance,
even it is small, to find and observe that there is another apple which is not red. It would be
reasonable to think that there are some green or yellow apples exist. However, if the conclusion
turns out to be proven wrong by finding a unobserved apple which is not red, the premise is still
sound logically to be true.
Newtons Law of Motion and Universal Gravity
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) formulated the theory of universal gravity, was an inventor of
modern science, and made major discoveries in physics especially in the field of mechanics-
kinetics with his famous laws of motion (Thomson Gale 2006). These three laws of motion
mainly explain the relationship between the forces acting on one body and its resulting motion.
The net forces applied are proportional to the mass of one body and its acceleration, the change
of its velocity. If the net forces are zero, the acceleration will be zero, thus the particle will
remain at rest or continues to move with uniform velocity (Newtons First Law) (University of
Tennessee 2000). Otherwise, if the net forces are not zero, there is an acceleration affected on the
body that changes its velocity (Newtons Second Law). The net forces indeed will be in the same
direction with the bodys acceleration (University of Tennessee 2000). However, in every action
of force, there is an equal and opposite reaction of force (Newtons Third Law).


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Newtons theory of universal gravity is also a famous theory amongst scientists especially
physicists and astronomers. There is a story said that he observed this gravitational law after saw
an apple fall from the tree. He began to think that the apple is accelerated due to the change of its
velocity from zero as it is hanging on the tree and moves toward the ground. Thus, by Newton's
Second Law there must be a force that acts on the apple to cause this acceleration (University of
Tennessee 2005). He called this force as gravitational force and the acceleration as
gravitational acceleration. With the Law of Universal Gravitation which stated that every
object in the universe which has a mass attracts each other (University of Tennessee 2005),
Newton explained and clarified Galileos theory of free fall and Keplers theory of orbit.
Both Newtons law of motion and universal gravity had been recognized as the most
powerful scientific theory in physics especially kinetics. His laws explained deductively and
clearly why body could move and could not. For instance, a weight lifter wants to lift a barbell
with 100 kilogram mass and 300 kilogram mass. Which one is more difficult to be lifted? Refer
to the Newtons Law of Universal Gravity and Second Law; the answer will be the barbell with
300 kilogram mass. His theories explained that everything on earth is attracted with earth
gravitational force and to lift those things and make it accelerate from the rest condition, people
need to give an external force that has to be higher than the gravitational force. Therefore, the
greater its mass, the more difficult for the athlete to move the barbell. Consequently, otherwise,
if the force given by the athlete is lower than its gravitational force, the barbell will not be lifted.
Moreover, when the athlete wants to accelerate the barbell faster, he also has to give more
external force than if he lifts it slowly.
Although Newtons theories are admitted as one of the fundamental theories of mechanics,
there are still some limitations when his theories proven to be wrong in particular circumstances.
Firstly, Newton concluded his theories with an assumption that the time is an absolute quantity
(The Daily Galaxy 2012). However, the time is not an absolute quantity and obviously changing
continuously. Time is one of the main dimension of motion because motion is always changing
true the time. For Newton, while looking at some planets orbit, he assumed that he is not
moving on earth and the particular planet is moving. However, the truth is he with earth is also
moving towards the earths orbit to the sun. That is why, for example, there is a missing of forty-
three seconds in the Mercurys orbit when scientists use Newton understanding of time is an


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absolute quantity while doing calculation (Thomson Gale 2006). Secondly, Newton also
inducted that every bodies on earth are all applied with the same law of motion or gravity by
looking only at the evidences which were observed in the human scale. In other words, he just
used human-scale objects for his experiments and concluded that all objects have been applied
by the same law. However, the truth is, when the speed of an object is too high like the speed of
light or the size is too massive, the equation of motion fails to predict the exact behavior. On the
other hand, when the particles are the size of an atom which is too small and move close to one
another, the equation is also invalid.
Einstein Relativity and Planck Quantum
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was a German-born Swiss and American naturalized physicist
and the twentieth centurys most prominent scientist. He produced the special and general
theories of relativity, which overturned the classical understanding of space, time and gravitation.
(Routledge 1998). On the other hand, Max Planck (1858-1947) was also a German theoretical
physicist and leader of the German physics community in the first half of the twentieth century.
Famous for his introduction of the quantum hypothesis in physics, Planck was also a prolific
writer on popular-scientific and philosophical topics (Routledge 1998). Both Einstein and Planck
received their Nobel Prize in physics on 1921 and 1918 respectively especially because their
contribution in the improvement of physics theory.
Einsteins Theory of Special Relativistic explained that time is one of important dimensions
while looking at one particular bodys motion (Einstein 1920). Einstein said that all things about
motion are actually relative to which points people look at it. For instance, while looking at
planets orbital period, people should consider that the earth is rotating to its rotary axis; it is also
revolving towards the sun and with the sun together rotating the galaxy; it is also expanding
away from other galaxies. Einsteins Theory of Special Relativistic defines that all the things in
the world are influenced and moving true the time dimension. There is actually no thing that is
really stayed at the same place in every single second, or in scientific words, there is no fixed
inertial frame of reference. People are just unable to feel that they are actually moving.
The ordinary matter of tables and chairs, omelets and elephants is made up of particles, like
electrons, protons and neutrons. Quantum Theory provides people their best account of these


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particles (Norton 2013). This theory explained that in the microscopic scale, each different
particles and atoms have totally different properties especially to receive and release energy by
force given. That is why, in the subatomic scale, people cannot predict precisely what kind of
motion is going to happen in the future. Otherwise, they only could determine the probability for
a particle to be in a certain location with a certain velocity at some future time (Timberlake
2007). The properties of particles let them radiate and absorb energy anytime even when they are
at rest and could move everywhere when the energy is enough for moving or separated from the
force of other particles. Shortly, particles are not constant while doing a particular motion.
However, in practice, the level of uncertainty that is required is so small that it is only noticeable
when people are dealing with very tiny things like atoms. This is why people cannot see the
effects of the uncertainty principle in our daily lives (Timberlake 2007).
Einsteins and Plancks Theory of Relativity and Quantum mechanics are both really well
known as the theories which complete Newtons Laws amongst other scientists especially
physicists in 20
th
century. Einsteins logic statement of special relativity is considerably true due
to the deductive reasoning. For instance,
Person A is staying at rest driving the bus B.
B is moving with certain speed vB.
For A his speed is 0.
However, for person C who is standing outside B, A is moving with the speed of vB.
From short examples above, Einsteins theory stated because of time is not an absolute quantity
and always obviously changing, a bodys motion also become relative from which point people
look at it. The same analogy also has to be used while discussing about the universe which is for
human is too massive to be discovered. All particular frames of references have to be considered
to get a good and accurate prediction of motion. On the other hand, Plancks theory also
deductively stated that all particles in the universe are different each other. He explained that
people cannot generalize all the things are the same while looking to the microscopic world. For
instance,


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Particle A has different properties to B.
A and B are given the same energy.
A will not move the same speed or direction with B.
This short example above explains that A and B will certainly move differently due to their
different properties. That is why while looking the microscopic world, although people can only
use one frame of reference, they have to consider a lot of details to get a good prediction of
probability of motion.
Although both Einsteins and Plancks theory could complete and explain the Newtonian
Mechanics limitation, there are still some part that being debated due to its inductive element.
One of the most famous controversies of Einsteins physics is about the speed of light. He said in
his Theory of Special Relativity that light is a particle that has an absolute speed which is
c=299,792,458 m/s and also the highest speed that a particle could reach (Einstein 1920).
However, Einstein made this conclusion base on his observation as there was no particle that he
could found moves faster than the light. By understanding the context of reasoning, people will
say that Einsteins conclusion is simply an induction. All observed particle is slower than light
does not explain and guarantee that the light is the fastest particle. There is some chance to find
and observe from the whole universe that there is another particle that is faster than light. When
this particle found, people simply change the whole Theory of Relativity by Einstein.
Induction, Deduction, and Truth
Induction is a common thing in scientific theory. Even the famous one like Einstein and
Newton, there is still some inductive reasoning found. In other words, the existence of inductive
element has become a nature of scientific discoveries. Those theories were concluded inductively
from evidences that had been observed by many scientific experiments.
However, the inductive validity in a scientific theory was not last for forever. Inductive
element is become valid only for certain period of time and depends in the time, history, or
chronology as well as technology of related scientific discovery. For instance, Newtons
mechanic was accepted to be correct and believed to work for everything for more than 200
years. However, after Einstein and Planck figured their own theories which explained that
Newtons theory only work in human scale, Newtons mechanic was become invalid. Moreover,


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this is something that also applies in Einstein or Planck theories now. If in the future, there is a
theory could correct and complete their theories, their inductive elements will also obviously
become invalid.
In contrast, deductive validity is not depends on time or history. It is recognized and
approved to be universally true for forever. Once invented, a scientific theorys deductive
validity will not be changed or proven to be wrong. For example, Newtons Second Law of
Motion states that the force is proportional to the product of mass and acceleration. It is true that
when the mass of a body or the acceleration is increased, the force needed is also going to be
larger. In addition, the same case is also happens in Einstein relativity of frame reference that
while looking accurately at particular motion, people should consider from which point they look
at it. Those two theories have already been proven universally and apply across history.
Inductive and deductive validity have a different characteristic in the context of scientific
theory. Needless to say, deductive validity by reasoning is more reliable and acceptable than
inductive validity. With deductive reasoning scientists and public know for sure that the premises
are true and that they will end up with a true conclusion of scientific discoveries. Otherwise,
people could not say the same to inductive validity. Clearly, it is because there is chance that
induction can take people to false conclusion of discovery (Cipriani 2012).
The majority of scientists agree with the fact that inductive reasoning is fundamental for
science albeit not sufficient (Cipriani 2012). However, people have to remember that scientists
are actually human being and they have some capacity and limitation especially to explain
clearly certain phenomena which obviously beyond the limits of human ability. For example, the
case of Newton, Einstein and Planck, when in Newtons era there is not enough technology to
calculate the speed of light, measure the planets orbit in details, or see the atoms motion in
details. Otherwise, when people have more technology to observe some details, they also
indirectly improve the knowledge of science such as Einstein and Planck who improve Newton.
However, although the technology has been invented day by day, there are still some phenomena
that could never be explained using the deductive reasoning. Some of the clear examples are the
origin or historical phenomena like the beginning of the universe, the extinction of dinosaur,
or the first human and weather forecast or prediction. All of them are inferred and explained


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nonetheless with induction through the founded evidences and their validity obviously temporary
and depends on time. It will change as long as new evidences are discovered.
III. Conclusion
In summary, knowing deductive and inductive reasoning while looking at the validity of
scientific theory is really important. By understanding those elements, people will become aware
of what is the meaning of valid and invalid or correct and wrong. A valid theory with inductive
validity is believed to be valid or true for a certain period of time, history, or chronology. This
kind of theory is improvable through technology and time by other theory which can complete or
explain it deductively. On the other hand, deductive validity does not depend on time. It applies
across history which eternal and universal. These kinds of theories or conclusions will be proven
correct all the time since the supporting premises correct. Looking back to the first statement
about Aliens existence, normal people will think that it is just correct or speculate with other
possibilities that it is wrong. However, philosophers might think it is inductively correct. It could
be proven wrong someday.
By understanding deductive and inductive reasoning, people will also become aware of what
is called science or non-science. Most people, scientists, or even philosophers think that
induction is never or not sufficient to be used by the scientist. However, Popper interestingly
denied this point of view. He argued that true science is based only on deductive reasoning. For
him, induction is a necessary and important element in the context of deduction in scientific
discovery. If there is no induction, obviously, there will be no science since it will lose its
falsifiability, which for Popper is the fundamental feature of scientific theory. The presences of
inductive element in scientific discovery let scientists think to improve and falsify them by
finding more reasonable conclusions. Logically, the theorys inductive dimension is can be
proven false with the counter to deduction. That is why religion is not a science because people
could not question its evidences through the term of reasoning. The role of induction and
deduction simply let the validity in the scientific theory be questioned and proved which make
the science always changing and developing.



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