Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Muhammad Zahid
and
Reza Kebriaei
Institute of Applied Mechanics
Spielmannstr. 11
38106 Braunschweig
www.infam.tu-braunschweig.de
May 2010
Contents
1 Introduction and mathematical preliminaries
1.1
1.2
Indicial Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
1.4
Coordinate transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5
Tensors
1.6
1.7
Divergence theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8
Summary of chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
26
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.1
Components of Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.1.2
2.1.3
Principal stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1.4
Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.1
Physical principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
I
2.3
2.4
2.5
Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.1
2.3.2
Strain tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3
Linear theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.4
2.3.5
Material behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.1
Uniaxial behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.1
Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.5.2
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5.3
Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.5.4
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.5.5
Material behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.6
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
54
3.1
3.2
Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3
3.4
Viscoelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.5
3.6
3.4.1
Rheological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.4.2
Maxwell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Plasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.1
Phenomenological aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.2
Basic theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.3
3.6.2
. . . . . . . . 76
79
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.2.1
Linear Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.2
Nonlinear Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.2.3
Failure Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.1
OneParameter Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.2
TwoParameter Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.1
Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.4.2
5.2
95
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.1
Effective Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.1.2
Total Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
5.2.2
5.2.3
5.3
5.4
Rate Dependent Model for cohesionless Soil and Bulk Solids . . . . 112
5.4.2
125
6.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
6.3.5
6.3.6
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.2
6.4.3
6.4.4
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
150
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3.2
7.3.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
IV
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
7.4
7.5
7.3.4
7.3.5
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4.1
Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
7.4.2
Basic Idea
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
z
az
a3
P
a
a
y
ez
ay
x2
e3
a2
ey
e2
ex
e1
ax
a1
x1
e.g., it can mean the location of a point P or a force. So a vector connects direction
and norm of a quantity. For representation in a coordinate system unit basis vectors
ex , ey and ez are used with |ex | = |ey | = |ez | = 1.
| | denotes the norm, i. e., the length.
Now the vector a is
a = ax ex + ay ey + az ez
1
(1.1)
(1.2)
(1.3)
(1.4)
. . . A1n
. . . A2n
..
...
.
. . . Amn
(1.5)
0
0
0
and A =
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
1.2
Indicial Notation
Aii =
(1.6)
i=1
and
ai bi = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + . . . + am bm .
(1.7)
(1.8)
free dummy
Further notation:
ai = a1 a2 a3
(1.9)
i=1
ai
= ai,j
xj
with
ai,i =
a1 a2
+
+ ...
x1 x2
(1.10)
or
Aij
Ai1 Ai2
=
+
+ . . . = Aij,j
xj
x1
x2
This is sometimes called comma convention!
(1.11)
1.3
(1.12)
(1.13)
a2 b3 a3 b2
e1 e2 e3
c = a b = a1 a2 a3 = a3 b1 a1 b3
a1 b2 a2 b1
b1 b2 b3
(1.14)
1
i, j, k even permutation (e.g. 231)
0
i,
j,
k
no
permutation,
i.e.
(1.15)
(1.16)
Dyadic product:
C=ab
(1.17)
(1.18)
(1.19)
Inner product of two matrices can be done with Falk scheme (fig. 1.2(a)). To
get one component Cij of C, you have to do a scalar product of two vectors ai
and bj , which are marked in figure 1.2 with a dotted line. It is also valid for
the special case of onecolumn matrix (vector) (fig. 1.2(b))
c = Ab
ci = Aij bj .
Bij
Aij
(1.20)
bj
Cij
Aij
ci
(1.21)
Kronecker delta
ij
1 if i = j
=
0 if i = j
(1.22)
so
ij
0 0
0 0
0 0
for i, j = 1, 2, 3
ij ai = aj
ij Djk = Dik
(1.23)
(1.24)
(orthogonal basis)
1
(Aij Aji )
2
anti-symmetric/skrew symmetric, Shear
(1.25)
(1.26)
1.4
Coordinate transformation
Assumption:
2 coordinate systems in one origin rotated against each other (fig. 1.3).
x3
x3
x2
x2
x1
x1
Figure 1.3: Initial (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and rotated (x1 , x2 , x3 ) axes of transformed coordinate system. [29]
The coordinates can be transformed
x1 = 11 x1 + 12 x2 + 13 x3 = 1j xj
(1.27)
x2 = 2j xj
(1.28)
x3 = 3j xj
(1.29)
xi = ij xj
(1.30)
xj
= cos(ei , ej ) = ei ej .
xi
(1.31)
x.
(1.32)
rotation matrix
Rij = xi,j
(1.33)
x = x (x).
(1.34)
1.5. TENSORS
x = x(x ).
(1.35)
1.5
Tensors
Definition:
Let E be an Euclidian vector space. A linear mapping:
4A : a A(a)
(1.36)
is a second order tensor. If we speak of a tensor we tacitly mean a second order tensor.
If this is not the case it is explicitly said.
A mapping A is called linear if it is compatible with the two linear structures, i.e.
a, b A(a) = a
, a
(1.37)
The set of all tensors on E will be denoted by . The product of two tensors is defined as
the composition of two linear mappings:
A(B(a)) = (AB)(a)
A, B , a
(1.38)
From this follows the statement that the product does not commute, i.e. we have to
consider: AB = BA.
The following rules hold:
comutative
assosiative
distributive
A+B= B+ A
(A)B = (A)B = (AB)
A(B + C) = AB + AC
A,B
, A, B
A, B, C
distributive
zero element
neutral element
of composition
(A + B)C = AB + AC
A0 = 0B = 0
A, B, C
A
AI = IA = A
To simplify notation, it will be assumed in the following that all tensors are element of
, all vectors element of E and all scalars element of .
Further definitions
Due to fact that complicated expressions include different levels of brackets we represent
the linear mapping b = A(a) from now on by means of square brackets: b = A[a].
Transpose of a tensor
Associated with an arbitrary tensor A there is a unique tensor AT , called the transpose
of A, such that:
5a.(AT [b]) = b.(AT [a])
(1.39)
(1.40)
(1.41)
(1.42)
(1.43)
1.5. TENSORS
5A = AT
(1.44)
1
1
5A = (A + AT ) + (A AT )
2
2
(1.45)
The identity
shows that each tensor can be split uniquely into symmetric (Asym ) and skew-symmetric
(Askw ) parts.
Spherical tensors
A tensor A is said to be spherical if
5A = I
=0
(1.46)
(1.47)
(1.48)
Dyadic product
To an ordered pair of vectors (a; b) there corresponds a tensor, denoted by ab and called
the dyadic product or tensor product of a and b which is defined through its action on
an arbitrary vector c by
5(a b)[c] = (b c)a
(1.49)
The notion tensor product can be easily confused with the notion product of two tensors
so that we will here prefer the term dyadic product. with respekting to the main definition
we will find that:
5(a b)(c d) = (b c)a d
(1.50)
10
and so it yields:
5(c d)(a b) = (d a)c b == (b c)a d = (a b)(c d)
(1.51)
It is now more easily understandable that the product of two tensors, i.e. the compositions
of two linear mappings, is not commutative. In the form of index notation we can show
the tensor A as:
5A = Aij ei ej
(1.52)
(1.53)
Cil
(1.54)
In index notation we will show the zero tensor and identity tensor as:
50 = 0ij ei ej
5I = Iij ei ej
0ij = 0
(zerotensor)
(identitytesor)
(1.55)
(1.56)
Trace of a Tensor
The trace of a dyadic product is defined as the scalar product of the two vectors:
5tr(a b) = a.b
(1.57)
If we represent a tensor as usual by means of nine dyadic products we obtain the following:
(1.58)
11
Example
In many material models one differentiates between the so-called deviatoric and the volumetric material response. Accordingly the stress tensor T is split into deviatoric Tdev
and volumetric Tvol parts. This can be done in the following way:
1
1
5T = (T (trT)I) + (trT)I
3
3
Tdev
(1.59)
Tvol
The volumetric part Tvol is a spherical tensor. If the deviatoric part of the stress tensor
vanishes (which is for instance the case for many fluids) we have a hydrostatic stress state.
Tvol is often represented in terms of the pressure p:
5Tvol = pI
(1.60)
Thus the trace operation is e.g. needed to carry out the above described split. The trace
of the deviatoric part vanishes. To show that we first determine the trace of the identity
tensor:
5trI = tr(ei ej ) = 3
(1.61)
(1.62)
1.6
A tensor field assigns a tensor T(x, t) to every pair (x, t) where the position vector x
varies over a particular region of space and t varies over a particular interval of time. The
tensor field is said to be continuous (or differentiable) if the components of T(x, t) are
continuous (or differentiable) functions of x and t. If the tensor T does not depend on
time the tensor field is said to be steady (T(x)).
12
= (xi , t)
vi = vi (xi , t)
Tij = Tij (xi , t)
= (x, t)
v = v(x, t)
T = T(x, t)
xi
2 =
and
==
Laplacian operator
.
xi xi
(1.63)
grad =
= ,i ei
div v = v = vi,i
curl v = v = ijk vk,j
(result: vector)
(1.64)
(result: scalar)
(1.65)
(result: vector)
(1.66)
Tij
T(x)
ei ej ek =
xk
x
(1.67)
The gradient gradT is a third order tensor. As such its basis is represented by the dyadic
product of three vectors. We also introduce the abbreviation
5gradT = Tij,k ei ej ek
(1.68)
(1.69)
13
5divT(x) + f = 0
(1.70)
where T denotes the stress tensor and f a volume force. The derivation of the latter
equation can be carried out as follows. Consider the infinitesimal volume element plotted
in Figure 1.4.
The equilibrium conditions in x1 , x2 and x3 -direction read:
T11
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x1
T12
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x1
T13
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x1
T21
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x2
T22
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x2
T23
dx1 dx2 dx3 +
x2
T31
dx1 dx2 dx3 + f1 dx1 dx2 dx3 = 0
x3
T32
dx1 dx2 dx3 + f2 dx1 dx2 dx3 = 0
x3
T33
dx1 dx2 dx3 + f3 dx1 dx2 dx3 = 0
x3
(1.71)
(1.72)
(1.73)
5Tji,j + fi = 0
Multiplying each equation with ei and summing them up yields the relation 1.67.
(1.74)
14
1.7
Divergence theorem
For a domain V with boundary A the following integral transformation holds for a firstorder tensor g
(1.75)
gi ni dA
(1.76)
ji nj dA
(1.77)
ndA.
(1.78)
n gdA
gdV =
divgdV =
gi,i dV =
V
divdV =
V
dV =
1.8
Summary of chapter 1
Vectors
0
0
1
a1
a = a2 = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 = a1 0 + a2 1 + a3 0
1
0
0
a3
Magnitude of a:
|a| =
is the length of a
Vector addition:
a1
b1
a1 + b 1
a2 + b 2 = a2 + b 2
a3
b3
a3 + b 3
15
a1
c a1
c a2 = c a2
a3
c a3
a2 b3 a3 b2
e1 e3 e3
a1 a2
a1 a3
a2 a3
a b = a1 a2 a3 = e1
= a3 b1 a1 b3
+ e3
e2
b1 b2
b1 b3
b2 b3
a1 b2 a2 b1
b1 b2 b3
Rules for the vector product:
a b = (b a)
(c a) b = a (c b) = c(a b)
(a + b) c = a c + b c
a (b c) = (a c) b (a b) c
Matrices
A11
A21
A=
..
.
A12
A22
..
.
A13
A23
..
.
... A1n
... A2n
..
= Aik
.
c A = A c = c Aik
e.g.: c
A11 A12
A21 A22
c A11 c A12
c A21 c A22
16
B11 B12
B21 B22
Aij Bjk
i = 1, ..., m k = 1, ..., n
j=1
B11
B21
B12
B22
e.g.:
A11 A12
A21 A22
1 ,x2 ,x3 )
1 ,x2 ,x3 )
grad f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = f (xx
17
X
Y
Z
+
+
x1 x2 x3
Z
x
X2
x3
Y
x1
x1
x2
x3
f
x
f1
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x
= grad f (x1 , x2 , x3 )
2
f
x3
v =
e1
e2
e3
x1
x2
x3
X
x1
Y
x2
Z
x3
= div v
= curl v
Laplacian operator
u = = div grad u =
2u 2u 2u
+
+
x21 x22 x23
ai b i =
ai bi
i=1
= a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
Djj = D11 + D22 + D33
Y
x3
Z
x1
X
x2
18
Comma-subscript convention
The partial derivative with respect to the variable xi is represented by the so-called
comma-subscript convention e.g.:
xi
vi
xi
vi
xj
2
vi
xj xk
1.9
= ,i = grad
= vi,i = divv
= vi,j
= vi,jk
Exercises
5
2
8
in the direction of a
x1 + x22
V = ex1 x3 + sin x2
x1 x2 x3
(a)
divV(X(x1 , x2 , x3 ), Y (x1 , x2 , x3 ), Z(x1 , x2 , x3 )) =?
(b)
divV(1, , 2) =?
3
0
4
19
x 1 + x2
V = ex1 +x2 + x3
x3 + sin x1
(a)
curlV(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =?
(b)
curlV(0, 8, 1) =?
5. Expand and, if possible, simplify the expression Dij xi xj for
(a) Dij = Dji
(b) Dij = Dji .
6. Determine the component f2 for the given vector expressions
(a) fi = ci,j bj cj,i bj
(b) fi = Bij fj
7. If r2 = xi xi and f (r) is an arbitrary function of r, show that
(a) (f (r)) =
f (r)x
r
2f (r)
,
r
1.10
Summary of chapter 1
Vectors
a1
1
0
0
a = a2 = a1 e1 + a2 e2 + a3 e3 = a1 0 + a2 1 + a3 0
a3
0
0
1
Magnitude of a:
|a| =
is the length of a
20
Vector addition:
a1
b1
a1 + b 1
a2 + b 2 = a2 + b 2
a3
b3
a3 + b 3
Multiplication with a scalar:
a1
c a1
c a2 = c a2
a3
c a3
Scalar (inner, dot) product:
a b = |a||b| cos = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
a2 b 3 a3 b 2
e1 e3 e3
a1 a2
a1 a3
a2 a3
= a3 b 1 a1 b 3
+ e3
e2
a b = a1 a2 a3 = e 1
b1 b2
b1 b 3
b2 b3
a1 b 2 a2 b 1
b1 b2 b3
Rules for the vector product:
a b = (b a)
(c a) b = a (c b) = c(a b)
(a + b) c = a c + b c
a (b c) = (a c) b (a b) c
Matrices
A11
A21
A=
..
.
A12
A22
..
.
A13
A23
..
.
... A1n
... A2n
..
= Aik
.
... Amn
21
c A = A c = c Aik
A11 A12
A21 A22
e.g.: c
c A11 c A12
c A21 c A22
B11 B12
B21 B22
Aij Bjk
i = 1, ..., m k = 1, ..., n
j=1
B11
B21
B12
B22
e.g.:
A11 A12
A21 A22
22
1 ,x2 ,x3 )
x1
f (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )
x2
f (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )
x3
X
Y
Z
+
+
x1 x2 x3
Z
x2
X
x3
Y
x1
x1
x2
x3
f
x
f1
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = x
= grad f (x1 , x2 , x3 )
2
f
x3
v =
e1
e2
e3
x1
x2
x3
= curl v
X
x1
Y
x2
Z
x3
= div v
Y
x3
Z
x1
X
x2
1.11. EXERCISES
23
Laplacian operator
u = = div grad u =
2u 2u 2u
+
+
x21 x22 x23
ai b i =
ai bi
i=1
= a1 b 1 + a2 b 2 + a3 b 3
Djj = D11 + D22 + D33
Comma-subscript convention
The partial derivative with respect to the variable xi is represented by the so-called
comma-subscript convention e.g.:
xi
vi
xi
vi
xj
2
vi
xj xk
1.11
= ,i = grad
= vi,i = divv
= vi,j
= vi,jk
Exercises
24
5
2
8
in the direction of a
x1 + x22
V = ex1 x3 + sin x2
x1 x2 x3
(a)
divV(X(x1 , x2 , x3 ), Y (x1 , x2 , x3 ), Z(x1 , x2 , x3 )) =?
(b)
divV(1, , 2) =?
4. given: vector field
x 1 + x2
V = ex1 +x2 + x3
x3 + sin x1
(a)
curlV(x1 , x2 , x3 ) =?
(b)
curlV(0, 8, 1) =?
5. Expand and, if possible, simplify the expression Dij xi xj for
(a) Dij = Dji
(b) Dij = Dji .
6. Determine the component f2 for the given vector expressions
(a) fi = ci,j bj cj,i bj
(b) fi = Bij fj
7. If r2 = xi xi and f (r) is an arbitrary function of r, show that
3
0
4
1.11. EXERCISES
(a) (f (r)) =
25
f (r)x
r
2f (r)
,
r
Stress
Components of Stress
Assumption:
Cartesian coordinate system with unit vectors ei infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped;
ti are not parallel to ei whereas the surfaces are perpendicular to the ei , respectively (fig.
2.1). So, all ei represents here the normal ni of the surfaces.
t3
x3
e3
e1
13
e2
11
12
t2
x2
t1
x1
Figure 2.1: Tractions ti and their components ij on the rectangular parallelepiped surfaces of an infinitesimal body. [29]
(2.1)
ti = ij ej .
(2.2)
26
2.1. STRESS
27
11 12
= 21 22
31 32
be defined
13
23 = ij ,
33
(2.3)
2.1.2
(2.4)
= ij ni nk jk = ij nj ni
Tangential component:
ns = tn s = ij ni ej sk ek = ij ni sj
(2.5)
28
2.1.3
Principal stress
2.1.3.1
Question: Is there a plane in any body at any particular point where no shear stress
exists?
Answer: Yes
For such a plane the stress tensor must have the form
(1) 0
0
= 0 (2) 0
0
0 (3)
(2.6)
with three independent directions n(k) where the three principal stress components act.
Each plane given by these principal axes n(k) is called principal plane. So, it can be
defined a stress vector acting on each of these planes
t = (k) n
(2.7)
2.1.4
In general, the stress tensor at a distinct point differ for different coordinate systems.
However, there are three values, combinations of ij , which are the same in every coordinate system. These are called stress invariants. They can be found as under
!
(2.8)
I1 = ii = tr
1
I2 = (ii jj ij ij )
2
I3 = |ij | = det
(2.9)
with
(2.10)
(2.11)
2.1. STRESS
29
(2.12)
(2.13)
(2.14)
the first, second, and third stress invariant is given. The invariance is obvious because
all indices are dummy indices and, therefore, the values are scalars independent of the
coordinate system.
The special case of a stress tensor, e.g., pressure in a fluid,
1 0 0
= 0 0 1 0
ij = 0 ij
0 0 1
(2.15)
is called hydrostatic stress state. If one assumes 0 = 3ii = m of a general stress state,
where m is the mean normal stress state, the deviatoric stress state can be defined
11 m
12
13
S = m I = 12
(2.16)
22 m
23 .
13
23
33 m
In indical notation (I = ij : itendity-matrix (3x3)):
kk
sij = ij ij
3
(2.17)
where kk /3 are the components of the hydrostatic stress tensor and sij the components
of the deviatoric stress tensor.
The principal directions of the deviatoric stress tensor S are the same as those of the
stress tensor because the hydrostatic stress tensor has no principal direction, i.e., any
direction is a principal plane. The first two invariants of the deviatoric stress tensor are
J1 = sii = (11 m ) + (22 m ) + (33 m ) = 0
1
1
J2 = sij sij = [( (1) (2) )2 + ( (2) (3) )2 + ( (3) (1) )2 ],
2
6
(2.18)
(2.19)
30
2.2
Equilibrium
2.2.1
Physical principles
P
r
x2
x1
Figure 2.3: Body V under loading f with traction t acting normal to the boundary of the
body. [29]
In a 3-d body the following 2 axioms are given:
1. The principle of linear momentum is
f dV +
V
t dA =
A
d2
u dV
dt2
(2.20)
(r t) dA =
A
(r
u) dV
(2.21)
(2.22)
r f = ijk xj fk ei
(2.23)
r t = ijk xj tk ei
(2.24)
and further
2.3. DEFORMATION
31
ji nj dA =
A
ui dV
d2
note, that () = 2 ()
dt
(2.25)
ijk xj uk dV,
(2.26)
ijk xj lk nl dA =
ijk xj fk dV +
where the Cauchy theorem has been used. In the static case, the inertia terms on the
right hand side, vanish.
2.3
2.3.1
Deformation
Position vector and displacement vector
Consider the undeformed and the deformed configuration of an elastic body at time t = 0
and t = t, respectively (fig. 2.4).
deformed
undeformed
x3 X 3
P (x)
p(X)
x2 X 2
x
X
t=0
t=t
x1 X 1
Figure 2.4: Deformation of an elastic body. [29]
It is convenient to designate two sets of Cartesian coordinates x and X, called material
(initial) coordinates and spatial (final) coordinates, respectively, that denote the undeformed and deformed position of the body. Now, the location of a point can be given in
material coordinates (Lagrangian description)
P = P(x, t)
(2.27)
(2.28)
32
Mostly, in solid mechanics the material coordinates and in fluid mechanics the spatial
coordinates are used. In general, every point is given in both
X = X(x, t)
(2.29)
x = x(X, t)
(2.30)
or
where the mapping from one system to the other is given if the Jacobian
J=
Xi
= |Xi,j |
xj
(2.31)
exists.
So, a distance differential is
dXi =
Xi
dx
xj j
(2.32)
where ( ) denotes a fixed but free distance. From figure 3.1 it is obvious to define the
displacement vector by
u=Xx
u i = X i xi .
(2.33)
2.3.2
Strain tensor
Consider two neighboring points p(X) and q(X) or P (x) and Q(x) (fig. 2.5) in both
configurations (undeformed/deformed)
x3 X 3
Q(x + dx)
x2 X 2
u + du
ds
P (x)
q(X + dX)
dS
p(X)
x1 X 1
Figure 2.5: Deformation of two neighboring points of a body. [29]
2.3. DEFORMATION
33
which are separated by differential distances ds and dS, respectively. The squared length
of them is given by
|ds|2 = dxi dxi
(2.34)
|dS|2 = dXi dXi .
(2.35)
With the Jacobian of the mapping from one coordinate representation to the other these
distances can be expressed by
|ds|2 = dxi dxi =
xi xi
dXj dXk
Xj Xk
(2.36)
Xi Xi
dxj dxk .
xj xk
(2.37)
To define the strain we want to express the relative change of the distance between the
point P and Q in the undeformed and deformed body. From figure 2.5 it is obvious that
ds + u + du dS u = 0
du = dS ds.
(2.38)
(2.39)
L
=2jk
xi xi
dXj dXk
Xj Xk
(2.40)
E
=2jk
or
ui
Xi
xi
=
= Xi,k ik
xk
xk
xk
Xi,k = ui,k + ik
(2.41)
ui
Xi
xi
=
= ik xi,k
Xk
Xk Xk
xi,k = ik ui,k
(2.42)
34
(2.43)
2.3.3
(2.44)
Linear theory
ui,j
(2.45)
(2.46)
(2.47)
With both assumptions the linear theory is established and no distinction between the
configurations respective coordinate system is necessary. The components on the main
diagonal are called normal strain and all other are the shear strains. The shear strains
here
1
1
ij = (ui,j + uj,i ) = ij
(2.48)
2
2
2.3. DEFORMATION
35
are equal to onehalf of the familiar engineering shear strains ij . However, only with
the definitions above the strain tensor
11 12 13
= 12 22 23
(2.49)
13 23 33
has tensor properties. By the definition of the strains the symmetry of the strain tensor
is obvious.
2.3.4
2.3.4.1
Principal strain
Besides the general tensor properties (transformation rules) the strain tensor has as the
stress tensor principal axes. The principal strains (k) are determined from the characteristic equation
|ij (k) ij | = 0
k = 1, 2, 3
(2.50)
analogous to the stress. The three eigenvalues (k) are the principal strains. The corresponding eigenvectors designate the direction associated with each of the principal strains
given by
(k)
=0
(2.51)
These directions n(k) for each principal strain (k) are mutually perpendicular and, for
isotropic elastic materials, coincide with the direction of the principal stresses.
2.3.4.2
It is sometimes convenient to separate the components of strain into those that cause
changes in the volume and those that cause changes in the shape of a differential element.
Consider a volume element V (a b c) oriented with the principal directions (fig. 2.6),
then the principal strains are
(1) =
a
a
(2) =
b
b
(3) =
c
c
(2.52)
36
c
1
a
Figure 2.6: Volume V oriented with the principal directions. [29]
The volume change can be calculated by
V + V = (a + a)(b + b)(c + c)
= abc 1 +
a b c
+
+
a
b
c
+ O(2 )
(2.53)
(2.54)
and is called Dilation. Obviously, from the calculation this is a simple volume change
without any shear. It is valid for any coordinate system. The Dilation is also the first
invariant of the strain tensor, and also equal to the divergence of the displacement vector:
u = ui,i = ii
(2.55)
Analogous to the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be divided in a hydrostatic part
M 0
0
ii
(2.56)
M = 0 M 0
M =
3
0
0 M
and a deviatoric part
11 M
12
13
D = 12
22 M
23 .
13
23
33 M
(2.57)
The mean normal strain M corresponds to a state of equal elongation in all directions
for an element at a given point. The element would remain similar to the original shape
2.3. DEFORMATION
37
but changes volume. The deviatoric strain characterizes a change in shape of an element
with no change in volume. This can be seen by calculating the Dilation of D :
trD = (11 M ) + (22 M ) + (33 M ) = 0
2.3.5
(2.58)
If the strain components ij are given explicitly as functions of the coordinates, the six
independent equations (symmetry of )
1
ij = (ui,j + uj,i )
2
are six equations to determine the three displacement components ui . The system is
overdetermined and will not, in general, possess a solution for an arbitrary choice of the
strain components ij . Therefore, if the displacement components ui are singlevalued and
continuous, some conditions must be imposed upon the strain components. The necessary
and sufficient conditions for such a displacement field are expressed by the equations
ij,km + km,ij ik,jm jm,ik = 0.
These are 81 equations in all but only six are distinct
2 11 2 22
2 12
1.
+
=2
x22
x21
x1 x2
2
2
2
22 33
23
2.
+
=2
2
2
x3
x2
x2 x3
2
2
2
33 11
31
3.
+
=2
2
2
x1
x3
x3 x1
23 31 12
2 11
4.
+
+
=
x1
x1
x2
x3
x2 x3
23 31 12
22
5.
+
=
x2 x1
x2
x3
x3 x1
23 31 12
33
6.
+
x3 x1
x2
x3
x1 x2
or x E = 0.
(2.59)
(2.60)
(2.61)
38
Even though we have the compatibility equations, the formulation is still incomplete in
that there is no connection between the equilibrium equations (three equations in six
unknowns ij ), and the kinematic equations (six equations in nine unknowns ij and ui ).
We will seek the connection between equilibrium and kinematic equations in the laws of
physics governing material behavior, considered in the next chapter.
Remark on 2D:
For plane strain parallel to the x1 x2 plane, the six equations reduce to the single
equation
11,22 + 22,11 = 212,12
(2.62)
or symbolic
E = 0.
(2.63)
For plane stress parallel to the x1 x2 plane, the same condition as in case of plain strain
is used, however, this is only an approximative assumption.
2.4
2.4.1
Material behavior
Uniaxial behavior
Constitutive equations relate the strain to the stresses. The most elementary description
is Hookes law, which refers to a onedimensional extension test
11 = E11
(2.64)
39
2.4.2
2.4.2.1
(2.65)
W
ij
(2.66)
(2.67)
There, Cijkm is the fourthorder material tensor with 81 coefficients. These 81 coefficients
are reduced to 36 distinct elastic constants taking the symmetry of the stress and the strain
tensor into account. Introducing the notation
= (11 22 33 12 23 31 )T
(2.68)
40
and
= (11 22 33 212 223 231 )T
(2.69)
Hookes law is
K = CKM M
K, M = 1, 2, . . . , 6
(2.70)
or
CKM = CM K
(2.71)
is obvious yielding only 21 distinct material constants in the general case. Such a material
is called anisotropic.
2.4.2.2
Planes of symmetry
Most engineering materials possess properties about one or more axes, i.e., these axes
can be reversed without changing the material. If, e.g., one plane of symmetry is the
x2 x3 plane the x1 axis can be reversed (fig. 2.8),
x3
x3
x3
x1
x1
x2
x2
x1
(a) Original coordinate system
x2
(c) Twosymmetry planes
yielding a transformation
1 0 0
x = 0 1 0 x .
0 0 1
(2.72)
41
(2.73)
ij = ik jl kl
(2.74)
11
11
11
11
22
22
22 22
33
33
33 33
=
= C 2 = C 2 .
12
12
12 12
223
223
23 23
31
231
231
31
(2.75)
and
it is
C44 C45
sym.
C55
C16
C26
C36
C46
C56
C66
(2.76)
but, since the constants do not change with the transformation, C14 , C16 , C24 , C26 , C34 ,
!
C36 , C45 , C56 = 0 leaving 21 8 = 13 constants. Such a material is called monocline. The
case of three symmetry planes yields an orthotropic material written explicitly as
C22 C23 0
0
0
C33 0
0
0
=
(2.77)
C
0
0
44
sym.
C55 0
C66
with only 9 constants. Further simplifications are achieved if directional independence,
i.e., axes can be interchanged, and rotational independence is given. This reduces the
numbers of constants to two, producing the familiar isotropic material. The number of
constants for various types of materials may be listed as follows:
42
We now summarize the elastic constant stiffness coefficient matrices for a few selected
materials.
Orthotropic: 9 constants
C11
C12
C22
C13
C23
C33
0
0
0
C44
sym.
0
0
0
0
C55
0
0
0
0
0
C66
(2.78)
Isotropic: 2 constants
C11
C12
C11
sym.
C12
C12
C11
0
0
0
1
(C11 C12 )
2
0
0
0
0
1
(C11 C12 )
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
(C11 C12 )
2
(2.79)
A number of effective modulus theories are available to reduce an inhomogeneous multilayered composite material to a single homogeneous anisotropic layer for wave propagation
and strength considerations.
2.4.2.3
2 +
0 0 0
11
2 +
0 0 0 22
2 + 0 0 0
33
=
2 0 0
12
sym.
2 0 23
2 31
(2.80)
43
ij kk
ij
.
2 2(2 + 3)
(2.81)
(2.82)
= G=
(2.83)
Youngs modulus
(2 + 3)
,
+
(2.84)
,
2( + )
(2.85)
3 + 2
E
=
.
3(1 2)
3
(2.86)
E=
Poissons ratio
=
bulk modulus
K=
From equation (2.83) it is obvious 1 < < 0.5 if remains finite. This is, however, true
only in isotropic elastic materials. With the definition of Poissons ratio
=
22
33
=
11
11
(2.87)
a negative value produces a material which becomes thicker under tension. These materials can be produced in reality and are called auxetic materials.
The other limit = 0.5 (isochoric) can be discussed as: Taking the 1principal axes as
(1) = then both other are (2) = (3) = (see equation (2.87)). This yields the
volume change
V
= ii = (1 2)
(2.88)
V
Now, = 0.5 gives a vanishing volume change and the material is said to be incompressible. Rubberlike materials exhibit this type of behavior.
44
Finally, using the compression/bulk modulus K and the shear modulus G and further
the decomposition of the stress and strain tensor into deviatoric and hydrostatic part,
Hookes law is a given (eij are the components of D )
kk = 3Kkk
2.5
2.5.1
sij = 2Geij .
(2.89)
Summary
Stress
Tractions
33
t3
32
31
13
ti = ij ej
23
22
12
21
11
t1
2.5.1.1
Stress Tensor
11 12 13
= 21 22 23
31 32 33
t2
11 , 22 , 33 : normal components
12 , 13 , 23
: shear components
21 , 31 , 32
Stress at a point
ti = ji nj
Transformation in another cartesian coordinate system
ij = ik jl kl = ik kl lj
with direction cosine: ij = cos (xi , xj )
2.5. SUMMARY
45
nn = ij nj ni
ns = ij ni sj =
2
ti ti nn
Equilibrium
= T
ij = ji
Principal Stress
In the principal plane given by the principal axes n(k) no shear stress exists.
(1) 0
0
= 0 (2) 0
0
0 (3)
with
|ij (k) ij | = 0
11 (k)
12
13
21
22 (k)
23
31
32
33 (k)
with the Kronecker delta :
ij =
1
0
if i = j
if i = j
= 0
46
(k)
(ij (k) ij ) nj = 0
(k)
(11 (k ) n1 +
(k)
13 n3 = 0
(k)
(k)
23 n3 = 0
(k)
(k)
12 n2 +
(k)
(k)
21 n1 +(22 (k) ) n2 +
(k)
32 n2 + (33 (k) ) n3 = 0
31 n1 +
Stress invariants
The first, second, and third stress invariant is independent of the coordinate system:
I1 = ii = tr = 11 + 22 + 33
1
(ii jj ij ij )
2
= 11 22 + 22 33 + 33 11 12 12 23 23 31 31
I2 =
I3 = |ij | = det
1 0 0
= M 0 1 0
0 0 1
ijM = M ij
with M =
11 M
12
13
S = M I = 21
22 M
23
31
32
33 M
ij = ij
kk
+ Sij .
3
kk
3
2.5. SUMMARY
2.5.2
47
Exercises
2 2
0
ij = 2
2
0 .
0
0 2
Determine the stress tensor ij for the rotated axes x1 , x2 and x3 related to the
unprimed axes by the transformation tensor
1
1
0
2
2
1
1
ik = 12
.
2
2
1
1
1
2 2 2
48
(1 x22 )x1 0
x21 x2
(x32 3x2 )
ij = (1 x22 )x1
0 .
3
0
0
2x23
Determine the principal stress values at the point P (a, 0, 2 a) and the corresponding principal directions.
5. Evaluate the invariants of the stress tensors ij and ij , given in example 3 of chapter
2.
6. Decompose the stress tensor
3 10 0
ij = 10 0
30
0
30 27
into its hydrostatic and deviator parts and determine the principal deviator stresses!
7. Determine the principal stress values for
(a)
0 1 1
ij = 1 0 1
1 1 0
and
(b)
2 1 1
ij = 1 2 1
1 1 2
and show that both have the same principal directions.
2.5.3
Deformations
2.5. SUMMARY
49
u1,1
1
= 2 (u1,2 + u2,1 )
1
(u1,3 + u3,1 )
2
1
(u1,2
2
+ u2,1 )
u2,2
1
(u2,3 + u3,2 )
2
+ u3,1 )
11
1
+ u3,2 ) = 2 21
1
u3,3
2 31
1
(u1,3
2
1
(u2,3
2
1
2
12
22
1
2 32
13
23
33
1
2
1
2
|ij (k) ij | = 0
Principal strain directions n(k) :
(k)
(ij (k) ij ) nj = 0
Hydrostatic and deviatoric strain tensors
A stress tensor ij can be split into two component tensors, the hydrostatic stain tensor
1 0 0
= M 0 1 0
0 0 1
M
ij = M ij
with M =
11 M
12
13
= M I = 21
22 M
23
31
32
33 M
(D)
Compatibility:
lm,ln + ln,lm mn,ll = ll,mn
kk
3
50
2.5.4
Exercises
3x2 4x3
u = 2x1 x3 .
4x2 x1
Determine the displaced position of the vector joining particles A(1, 0, 3) and
B(3, 6, 6).
3. A displacement field is given by u1 = 3x1 x22 , u2 = 2x3 x1 and u3 = x23 x1 x2 . Determine the strain tensor ij and check whether or not the compatibility conditions
are satisfied.
4. A rectangular loaded plate is clamped along the x1 - and x2 -axis (see fig. 2.9). On
the basis of measurements, the approaches 11 = a(x21 x2 + x32 ); 22 = bx1 x22 are
suggested.
x2 , u2
x1 , u1
2.5. SUMMARY
2.5.5
51
Material behavior
K = CKM M
C13
C23
C33
C34
C35
C36
C14
C24
C34
C44
C45
C46
C15
C25
C35
C45
C55
C56
C16
11
C26 22
C36
33
C46
12
C56 23
C66
31
Orthotropic material
11
C11 C12 C13 0
0
0
11
0
0 22
22 C12 C22 C23 0
33
33 C13 C23 C33 0
0
0
=
0
0
0 C44 0
0
12
12
23 0
0
0
0 C55 0 23
31
31
0
0
0
0
0 C66
Isotropic material
11
2 +
0 0 0
11
2 +
0 0 0 22
22
33
2 + 0 0 0
=
33
0
0
0
2 0 0
12
12
23 0
0
0
0 2 0 23
31
0
0
0
0 0 2
31
52
2( + )
E
3(1 2)
3 + 2
3
= G=
E =
=
=
K =
=
Thermal strains:
ij (T ) = (T T0 )ij
ij = 2ij + kk ij ij (3 + 2)(T T0 )
2.5.6
Exercises
1. Determine the constitutive relations governing the material behavior of a point having the properties described below. Would the material be classified as anisotropic,
orthotropic or isotropic?
(a) state of stress:
11 = 10.8;
22 = 3.4;
33 = 3.0;
12 = 13 = 23 = 0
33 = 2 104 ;
12 = 23 = 31 = 0
22 = 2;
corresponding strains:
11 = 10 104 ;
33 = 2;
12 = 23 = 31 = 0
22 = 33 = 12 = 23 = 31 = 0
2.5. SUMMARY
53
0.004
= 0.001
0
0.001
0
0.006 0.004 .
0.004 0.001
3 Foundation of Constitutive
Material Models
3.1
An octahedral plane is defined as a plane where the normal to the plane makes equal
angles to the three principal strain directions. Eight such planes exist and one example
is shown in figure 3.1 where the axes 1, 2 and 3 refer to the principal strain directions.
11
Aquisektrix
33
p
22
Figure 3.1: Deviatoric or Octahedral Plane (plane): Hydrostatic Stress (pressure) p
and Deviatoric Stress q. [5]
For the normal to the octahedral plane shown in the figure, we have n =
1
3
1
1
1
In the coordinate system collinear with the principal strain directions, the strain tensor
54
3.2. DILATION
55
1 0 0
0
=
2
qT q 20 ,
Figure 3.2: The vector q = n and its components after direction m and n. [25]
where 0 is called the octahedral normal strain and 0 is called the octahedral shear strain.
The deviatoric or octhaedral plane shows the possible shear stresses at a specific hydrostatic pressure level. A typical shape of a yield function for i.e. soil can look like figure
3.4
3.2
Dilation
A specific quality of most bulk solids but also other materials as some kinds of artificial
ones show the effect of dilation. Dilation is characterised by a increase of volumetric
extension during deforming with shear strain in case of soil and bulk solids or while
stretching in case of auxetic materials.
56
Figure 3.3: Example: Single Surface Yield Function for Soil, 3D view of stress space.
Figure 3.4: Characteristic Single Surface Yield Function in deviatoric plane for Soil.
[25]
A state of uniform Dilation occurs, if the strain tensor is given by
ij = bij ,
where b is an arbitrary scalar. The deviatoric strain tensor eij becomes zero and the
strain state corresponds to a uniform Dilation, i.e. a volume change, where the extension-
3.2. DILATION
57
Figure 3.5: (left) Uniform dilation; (mid) Auxetic material behaviour, auxetic hexagon;
(right) Dilating package of grains while shearing
u1 (xi , t)
[ui ] =
0
0
is given by
u1 (x1 , x2 , t)
[ui ] = u2 (x1 , x2 , t)
0
58
which implies
11 12 0
[ij ] = 21 22 0
0
0 0
This strain state occurs often in practise when a long prismatic or cylindrical body is
loaded by forces which are perpendicular to the longitudinal elements and which do not
vary along the length. In this case, it can be assumed that all cross sections are in the
same state and if, moreover, the body is restricted from moving in the length direction, a
state of plane strain exists. An example is an internally pressurised tube with end sections
confined between smooth and rigid walls, Fig.3.7.
Figure 3.7: An example of plane strain. Pressurised tube with end sections confined
between smooth and rigid walls. [25]
So-called generalised plane strain or generalised plane deformation occurs if
u1 (x1 , x2 , t)
[ui ] = u2 (x1 , x2 , t)
u3 (x1 , x2 , t)
which leads to
11 12 13
[ij ] = 21 22 23
31 32 0
59
3.3
ij = Dijkl kl ;
(3.1)
where Dijkl is the elastic stiffness tensor. That Dijkl indeed is a tensor of fourth order
follows from the quotient theorem and the fact that ij and ij are second order tensors.
The formulation (3.1) covers both anisotropic and isotropic elastic materials.
60
Figure 3.9: Example of anisotropy. Piece of wood loaded by the same uniaxial tension in
different directions. [25]
3.4
Viscoelasticity
In classic elasticity there is no time delay between the application of a force and the deformation that it causes. For many materials, however, there is additional time-dependent
deformation that is recoverable. This is called viscoelastic or anelastic deformation.
When a load is applied to a material, there is an instantaneous elastic response, but the
deformation also increases with time. This viscoelasticity should not be confused with
creep, which is time-dependent plastic deformation. Anelastic strains in metals and ceramics are usually so small that they are ignored. In many polymers, however, viscoelastic
strains can be very significant. Anelasticity is responsible for the damping of vibrations.
A high damping capacity is desirable where vibrations might interfere with the precision
of instruments or machinery and for controlling unwanted noise. A low damping capacity is desirable in materials used for frequency standards, in bells, and in many musical
instruments. Viscoelastic strains are often undesirable. They cause sagging of wooden
beams, denting of vinyl flooring by heavy furniture, and loss of dimensional stability in
gauging equipment. The energy associated with damping is released as heat, which often
causes an unwanted temperature increase. Study of damping peaks and how they are
3.4. VISCOELASTICITY
61
3.4.1
Rheological Models
(3.2)
where e is the change of length of the spring, Fe is the force on the spring, and Ke is the
spring constant.
248
Spring
Dashpot
(15.2
where ev is the change in length of the dashpot, F v is the force on it, and K v is th
A dashpot models a perfectly
viscous
material. Its behaviour is described by
dashpot
constant.
Series combination
ofv /K
a spring
and dashpot
v = dv /dt = F
v,
(3.3)
The Maxwell model consists of a spring and dashpot in series, as shown in Figure 15.
where v is the change inHere
length
the
dashpot,
Fv F,
is without
the force
on it, will
and refer
Kv to
is the
theoverall elongatio
and inofthe
following,
e and
subscripts,
dashpot constant.
and the external force. Consider how this model behaves in two simple experiment
First, let there be a sudden application of a force, F, at time t = 0, with the forc
being maintained constant (Figure 15.3). The immediate response from the spring
3.4.2 Maxwell Model
ee = F/K e . This is followed by a time-dependent response from the dashpot, ev
Ft/K v . The overall response will be
The Maxwell model consists of a spring and dashpot
in series, as shown in Figure 3.11.
(15.3
e = ee + ev = F/K e + Ft/K v ,
Here and in the following, and F , without subscripts, will refer to the overall elongation
so the strain rate will be constant. The viscous strain will not be recovered on unloadin
and the external force. Consider how this model behaves in two simple experiments.
Now consider a second experiment. Assume that the material is forced to undergo
sudden elongation, e, at time t = 0 and that this elongation is maintained for a period o
time, as sketched in Figure 15.4. Initially the elongation must be accommodated entire
by the spring (e = ee ), so that the force initially jumps to a level F o = K e e. This forc
F
If:
62
Figure 3.12: Strain relaxation predicted by the series model. The strain increases linearly
with time.
3.5. PLASTICITY
63
First, let there be a sudden application of a force, F , at time t = 0, with the force being
maintained constant 3.12. The immediate response from the spring is e = F/Ke .
This is followed by a time-dependent response from the dashpot, v = Ft /Kv . The overall
response will be
= e + v = F/Ke + ft /Kv ,
(3.4)
so the strain rate will be constant. The viscous strain will not be recovered on unloading.
Now consider a second experiment. Assume that the material is forced to undergo a
sudden elongation, e, at time t = 0 and that this elongation is maintained for a period of
time, as sketched in 3.13. Initially the elongation must be accommodated entirely by the
spring (e = e ), so that the force initially jumps to a level Fo = Ke e. This force
Figure 3.13: Stress relaxation predicted by the series model. The stress decays to zero.
causes the dashpot to operate, gradually increasing the strain v . The force in the
spring, F = Ke e = ( v )Ke , equals the force in the dashpot, F = Kv dv /dt,
( v )1 dv = (Ke /Kv )dt. Integrating, ln[( v )/e] = (Ke /kv )t. Substituting
( v ) = F/Ke , Ke e = Fo , and ln(F/Fo ) = t/(Kv /Ke ). Now defining a relaxation time,
= Kv /Ke ,
F = Fo exp(t/ ).
3.5
3.5.1
(3.5)
Plasticity
Phenomenological aspects
The uniaxial behaviour of materials shows that irreversible strain develops in a way which
depends on the type of material. In the case of metals such as mild steel, the observed
64
behaviour in tension is schematised in 3.14(left), where it can be seen that the response
is elastic and linear until a point A is reached, from which plastic or irreversible strain
upon unloading appears. If the specimen is subjected to an increasing strain, the stress
does not change until point E. Along the plateau ABDE, the material behaviour is known
as perfectly plastic. If the specimen is unloaded, both loading and unloading follow the
same path, without irreversible deformation. The level of stress at which plastic strains
appears does not change, and the material does not harden. Once a certain level of strain
has been reached (E), the stress again increases. If we unload at some point F and then
reload again, the material is able to resist a higher load until new plastic strains develop
(hardening). Finally, a maximum load is reached from which the stress decreases until
the material fails. In the case of soft soils such as saturated clays, the stress-strain curve
is different, as plastic strain are present from very early stages of the test
Figure 3.14: (left) Behaviour of mild steel; (right) Behaviour of soft clay. [32]
Finally, some geomaterials such as concrete present degradation due to damage caused by
the loading process to the structure of the material (3.15). Loading and unloading shows
clearly how the apparent elastic modulus of the material degrades as the test progresses.
Full understanding of this behaviour needs to take into account this process of degradation,
and theories such as Damage Mechanics provide a suitable framework. However, plastic
models can be developed to reproduce the observed behaviour with an acceptable degree
of accuracy.
3.5. PLASTICITY
65
3.5.2
Basic theory
If the response of the material does not depend on the velocity at which the stress varies
the relationship between the increments of stress and strain can be written as d = (d)
where , is a function of the increment of the stress tensor d and variables describing
the state (or history) of the material. This is a general relation embracing most nonlinear, rate-independent constitutive laws.
An inverse form is
d = (d)
(3.6)
(3.7)
: d
(d)
(3.8)
66
d = C : d
d = D : d
(3.9)
where
C=
(d)
(3.10)
(3.11)
This kind of constitutive law has been defined by Darve (1990) as incrementally nonlinear. There are several alternatives to introduce the dependence on the direction of the
stress increment, among which it is worth mentioning the multilinear laws proposed by
Darve and co-workers in Grenoble (Darve and Labanieh, 1982), or the hypoplastic laws
of Dafalias (1986) or Kolymbas (1991). However, the simplest consists of defining in the
3.5. PLASTICITY
67
dL = CL : d
(3.12)
dV
(3.13)
= CV : d
n : d = 0.
(3.14)
3.5.3
68
f (, ) = 0,
(3.15)
where we have assumed that there is a set of scalar internal variables accounting for the
material state and characterising the size (and shape) of the yield surface. Sometimes, as
will be discussed later, f depends also on the tensor variable a, as in the case of kinematic
and anisotropic hardening models, for instance. Here we will restrict the discussion to the
isotropic case stated above.
In the interior of the yield surface, there is no plastic deformation, and, consequently, the
plastic modulus is H = .
The loading-unloading direction is given by the normal to the surface
nL/U =
f
|
|
(3.16)
where
|
f f 1/2
f
|=(
:
)
The direction of plastic flow is similarly derived from a plastic potential surface g() = 0
passing through the stress point considered,
ngL/U =
g
|
|
(3.17)
Both surfaces can coincide, and the flow rule is then said to be associative, or can be different in which case there is a non-associative flow rule. Therefore, the material behaviour
predicted by Classical Plasticity models presents a sharp transition from the elastic to
the elastoplastic regime, with a discontinuity in the derivative of stress-strain curves. The
plastic modulus is obtained through application of the so called consistency condition,
i.e., the requirement that during yield the stress point should always remain on the yield
surface. A certain hardening law has to be introduced, relating d to either incremental
plastic work or to the increment of plastic strain.
Yield and failure surfaces
Following experimental evidence, plasticity theories postulate that irreversible or plastic
strain appears whenever the stress reaches a surface f (ij , ) = 0. For all stress states in
3.5. PLASTICITY
69
the interior of this surface, material behaviour is elastic and f (ij , ) < 0. If is constant,
the material cannot sustain a higher stress and failure takes place. This is the reason why
the yield surface is also known as the failure surface. Care should be taken, however, as
in the case of materials with hardening, these surfaces can be different. The scalar K
usually characterises the size of the surface. This is, of course, a simplification, and more
complex descriptions are available, such as
f (ij , ij , ) = 0
(3.18)
or
f (ij , ij , 1 , 2 , 3 , ...) = 0
If the material is isotropic, the representation theorems of scalar functions of tensor variables allows a simpler expression for f
f (I1 , J2 , J3 , ) = 0
or
f (1 , 2 , 3 , ) = 0
which can be further simplified to
f (I1 , J2 , J3 ) Y () = 0
or
f (1 , 2 , 3 )Y () = 0
where Y () is generally some measure of strength. I1 is the first invariant of the stress
tensor,
I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 =
J2 and J3 the second and third invariants of the deviatoric stress tensor s,
1
s = I1 I
3
(3.19)
1
1
J2 = tr(s2 ) = sij sji
2
2
(3.20)
70
1
1
J3 = tr(s3 ) = sij sj si
3
3
(3.21)
1 1 3 3 J3
= sin (
)
3
2 J23/2
(3.22)
with
3.6
= 30o
6
6
It is important to distinguish between the yield surface, inside which behaviour of the
material is elastic, and the failure surface, where failure takes place. To illustrate this,
consider the example given in Figure 3.17 where a specimen of soft clay is being loaded
from an initial state P1 to failure at P3 .There, yield surfaces are the ellipses f () = 0.
The parameter in this case is associated with the (negative) plastic volumetric strain,
i.e.
d = d
(3.23)
and in 3.17 we show the yield surface in the space of two stress invariants, the second or
deviatoric invariant and the first or mean, hydrostatic stress invariant. With each of these
is associated an appropriate strain component n being the component in the direction
of decreasing volumetric strain if plasticity is assumed associated. Thus the three stages
of loading P1 , P2 and P3 correspond to increasing values of as shown in 3.17(b). It has to
be noticed that plastic strain appears from the beginning of the test, as the initial stress
is on the yield surface. If, for instance, we unload at P2 , there will exist a permanent
deformation even when the stress has come back to the original state.
The process of increasing the size of the yield surface in this case is known as hardening.
Comparing the conditions at P1 and P2 , the elastic domain is bigger in the latter, and the
71
Figure 3.17: Typical hardening behaviour of clay. (a) Yield surfaces (b) Stress-strain
curve showing permanent strain upon unloading. [32]
material is harder in this sense. Notice that slopes of the stress-strain curves contradict
this definition, as the incremental response of the material is harder in the first case.
Hardening is not a common feature of all materials. Indeed, in the case shown in Figure
3.18, the size did not change and failure takes place as soon as the yield surface is reached.
In another loading case, the size of the yield surface may decrease, as shown in Figure
3.19, and softening behaviour occurs.
3.6.1
3.6.1.1
von Mises yield criterion assumes that plastic strain appears whenever the second invariant
of the stress tensor reaches a critical value Y 2 , where Y () is generally the tensile strength.
Alternative expressions are
(i) In the principal stress space
f = (1 2 )2 + (2 3 )2 + (1 3 )2 6Y 2 = 0.
(3.24)
72
Figure 3.18: Ideal Plasticity ( = constant). (a) Stress path (b) Stress-strain curve. [32]
Figure 3.19: Softening behaviour. (a) Stress path (b) Stress-strain curve. [32]
Taking into account that the condition J2 = constant, corresponds to stress states
1 , 2 , 3 such that the distance to the hydrostatic axis 1 = 2 = 3 is constant, von
f = (Y 0)2 + (0 0)2 + (0 Y )2 6Y 2 = 0.
(3.26)
73
for which
1
Y = Y .
3
(3.27)
Figure 3.20: von Mises - Huber yield criterion. (a) In the principal stress space (b) Section
by plane. [32]
In plane stress conditions, 3 = 0, and the expression of the criterion in principal stress
axes is
f = (1 2 )2 + (2 )2 + (1 )2 6Y 2 = 0.
(3.28)
which corresponds in the 1 , 2 axes to an ellipse with principal axes at 45 (Figure 3.21).
Tresca criterion: The Tresca criterion, proposed in 1864, is based on the assumption
that plastic straining of a material appears when the maximum shear strain reaches a
critical value Y . This condition, expressed in terms of the principal stresses reads
(max min ) = Y.
(3.29)
Substituting now the maximum and minimum principal stresses by their values in terms
of the invariants I1 , , J2 and Lodes angle
1
1
sin( + 2
)
3
I1 2 J2
2 = 1 + sin()
3
3
3
cos( + 4
)
1
3
(3.30)
74
Figure 3.21: Von Mises criterion for plane stress conditions. [32]
Noting that
max
I1 2 J2
2
+ sin( +
),
=
3
3
3
min
2 J2
2
= I1 + cos( +
)
3
3
(3.31)
2 J2 cos = Y.
(3.32)
When plotted in the space of principal stresses, the Tresca yield criterion is a hexagonal
prism, with its axis coincident with the hydrostatic axis 1 = 2 = 3 Figure 3.22(a). The
section by the -plane is a regular hexagon as can be seen in Figure 3.22(b).
Finally, the plane stress condition 2 = 0 is represented by
1
1 = Y
2
1
3 = Y
2
1
(1 3 ) = Y
2
which are shown in Figure 3.23.
(3.33)
(3.34)
(3.35)
75
Figure 3.22: Tresca Yield criterion. (a) In principal stress axes (b) In the plane. [32]
3.6.1.2
(3.36)
to describe the conditions under which failure takes place in soils. He assumed that failure
occurs on a plane on which the shear stress , and the normal stress n (compression
negative) fulfil the above condition. Although it is not advisable to think of it as a yield
surface, it has been used frequently in engineering practise, and most finite element codes
include it.
In terms of principal stresses or invariants, we will write
1 3
cos .
2
(3.37)
1 + 3 1 3
+
sin .
2
2
(3.38)
=
and
n =
76
1 3
1 + 3 1 3
cos = c {
+
sin .} tan .
2
2
2
(1 3 ) = 2c cos (1 + 3 ) sin
(3.39)
(3.40)
and
(1 + 3 ) sin + (1 3 ) 2c cos = 0.
From above, using the relationships between principal stresses and invariants, it is easy
to obtain
1
I1 sin +
3
1
J2 {cos sin sin } c cos = 0.
3
(3.41)
3.6.2
If we assume that the material hardening is of strain type, there will exist a law relating
the increments of and
77
d = d(dp )
(3.42)
df (, ) = 0.
(3.43)
f
f
: d +
: d = 0
(3.44)
and hence
78
f
f
: d +
:
: dp = 0
(3.45)
HL
(3.46)
f
1
f g 1 f
: d) + f g (
:
)
(
: d) = 0
:
| |.| | p HL
HL =
:
( f
g
)
f
g
|
|.|
|
(3.47)
HL =
( f
. . g )
p
f
g
|
|.|
|
(3.48)
(3.49)
= 0(saturation)
p
(3.50)
or
(b)
g
.
= 0 with
p
= 0.
p
(3.51)
Linear elasticity
Constitutive models
Constitutive models Failure
(cracking and crushing) Criteria
Non-linear elasticity
One-parameter model
Two-parameter model
Linear-perfect plasticity
4.2
4.2.1
Although it has many shortcomings, the linear elasticity theory is the one very commonly
used material model for concrete. One of the most important characteristics of concrete is
its low tensile strength, which result in tensile cracking at low stress compared with compressive stresses. The tensile cracking reduces the stiffness of the concrete and is usually
the major contributor to the non-linear behaviour of concrete structures. The accurate
modelling of cracking behaviour of concrete is undoubtedly the most important factor,
and linear elastic fracture models have been developed and used by many researchers to
study the non-linear response of concrete. The sudden strain softening property of the
elastic brittle-fracture behaviour of concrete is a tensile-stress field induces the cracking
and causes sudden changes in local stress levels.
4.2.2
Nonlinear Elasticity
The linear elastic models can be significantly improved by assuming a non-linear elastic
stress-strain relationship in secant-modulus form. The most used models of this class
is the hyperplastic type of formulation which approximate a path independent reversible
81
process with no memory. The non-linear elastic assumption has better results than linearelastic because the it can at least simulate the compression part of the concrete stressstrain path smoothly. As we know the non-linear response of concrete under compression
forces mainly depend on this path.
4.2.3
For the compressive failure, the material shows an elastic behaviour up to point A (Figure
4.1), after which the material is weakened by the internal micro cracks. The micro cracking
procedure continues in the path of BC with becoming macro cracks. The nonlinear
deformations are basically plastic, in other word upon unloading only the portion of
elastic strain (Ee) can be recovered from the total strain (plastic strain+ elastic strain,
Ep+ Ee)(Figure 4.1). The phenomenon in the region AB and region BC corresponds to
behaviour of a work-hardening and softening solid.
Micro Cracking
Elastic
For the tensile failure, the behaviour is linearly elastic up to the failure load. At the
tension failure zone, the maximum stresses coincide with the maximum strains, and no
plastic strains occur at the failure moment.
4.3
Failure Criteria
The strength of concrete under multiaxial stresses is a function of the state of stress and
cannot be predicted by limitation of simple tensile, compressive and shearing stresses
independently of each other. For example, concrete with a uniaxial compressive strength
of fc and pure shearing strength of 0.08fc would fail under compressive stress of 0.5fc
with the increasing shear stress at 0.2fc . Therefore, strength of concrete elements can be
properly determined only by considering the interaction of the various components of the
state stresses. There are many failure criteria proposed in the past. Here only some of
them will be explained. Although the failure behaviour of concrete is very complex the
well known Coulomb criterion combined with tension cutoff can be appropriate way to
solve some problems. In addition to Coulomb one-parameter and two-parameter simple
failure models can be also used. The more complicated models with four, five, six etc.
parameters can be convenient for high speed computer applications. The tomb of the rule
the increasing complexity in the model increase the cost of calculation but reduce the
inaccuracy.
4.3.1
OneParameter Model
The failure surface of concrete is the three coordinate axes of principal stress has a triangular cross section for small stresses and becomes increasingly more circular for higher
mean compressive stresses. In addition, the failure modes of concrete in these two regions
are different. Under tensile and small compressive type of stresses, concrete will fail by a
brittle fracture with very little plastic flow before failure. Under high hydrostatic pressure,
concrete can yield and flow like a ductile material on the failure. There are several simple
one parameter failure criteria of fracture for brittle materials and of also for yielding of
ductile materials.
4.3.1.1
Rankine Criterion
According to this criterion, brittle failure of concrete takes place when the maximum
principal stress at a point inside the material reaches a value equal to the tensile strength
of the material as found by the simple tension test without applying compression or shear
forces. Similarly, the compression failure occurs if the applied compression force exceed
the compression capacity of material, Figure 4.2.
83
Tension
Pressure
Figure 4.2: Rankine failure criteria, the failure takes place if any principal stress exceed
the strength. [31]
4.3.1.2
For granular materials (rock, concrete, masonry) hydrostatic pressure has a large effect on
the shearing strength of the material. For concrete in the high pressure range, the effect
of hydrostatic pressure on the yield value of material may be neglected. It follows that
shearing stress must be the major cause of yielding of concrete at high pressure. In the
below figure 4.3, two shearing stress criteria are shown, the dashed line is the maximum
shear criteria which is proposed by Tresca. The other circular one is the von Misses shear
criteria. Tresca model is more conservative than the von Misses criteria.
Figure 4.3: One-parameter shear failure criteria, the dashed line is the Tresca criteria and
the outer ellipse line is the von Misses criteria. [31]
4.3.2
TwoParameter Model
In two-parameter criterias the yielding of concrete under hydrostatic pressure in compression zone and fracture property in tension zone are combined, or we can say also the von
Misses yield criterion is extended by including the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the
shearing resistance of the material.
4.3.2.1
Mohr-Coulomb Criterion
According to Mohrs criterion failure of material will occur for the all stress states for which
the largest of Mohr circle is just tangent to the envelope (Figure 4.4). This means that
the intermediate principal stresses have no influence on the failure. The failure envelope
has the formulas
S = k + N tan()
(4.1)
with:
S = shear stress capacity
k = cohesion
N = compression positive, tension negative
= internal friction angle of material
This angle of repose is low when grains are smooth, coarse or
rounded, and, it is high for sticky, sharp, or very fine particles.
Typically, it is between 15o and 45o . Experiments suggest that this
coefficient of friction drops when motions begins, i.e., the kinetic
friction coefficient is less than the static coefficient. However, no
data exist for granular material, and the universal assumption is
that the kinetic and static coefficient of friction are more and less
equal.
4.3.2.2
DruckerPrager Criterion
85
Cracking of Concrete
The tension failure of concrete is characterised by a gradual growth of cracks, which join
together and finally disconnect larger parts of the structure. It is a usual assumption
that forming cracks is a brittle process and the strength in the tension-loading direction
abruptly goes to zero after big cracks or it can be simulated with gradually decreasing
strength as shown in below figure 4.7.
The cracked concrete material is generally modelled by a linear-elastic fracture relationship. Two fracture criteria are commonly used, the maximum principal stress and the
maximum principal strain criterions. When a principal stress or strain exceeds its limiting
value, a crack is assumed to occur in a plane normal to the direction of the principal stress
or strain. Then this crack direction is fixed in the next loading sequences. In the finite
element analysis there are three type of crack models.
1 Smearedcrack model
2 Discretecrack model
3 Fracturecrack model
If overall load deflection behaviour is desired, without regard to completely realistic crack
patterns and local stresses, the smearedcrack model is the best choice. If the detailed
Figure 4.5: Failure surface differences of Druker-Prager and Mohr-Coulomb plastic models. [31]
Figure 4.6: Failure surfaces of Drucker-Prager: (left) 3D stress space; (right) 2D stress
plane (crosssection). [31]
local behaviour is of interest, the discretecrack model can be used. For the special class
of problems in which the fracture mechanisms is the tool, a specialised fracture model may
be more useful. For most structural engineering applications, the smearedcrack model
is chosen.
4.4
Reinforcement
The use of iron in order to reinforce concrete structures dates back to the end of the
last century and marks the birth of reinforced concrete construction. In the beginning,
there were several reinforcement systems, using different shapes and types of iron or steel.
Common reinforcement types today are deformed steel bars of circular crosssection for
4.4. REINFORCEMENT
87
Figure 4.7: Strength of concrete under tension load: Abruptly loss of strength and gradually decreasing strength. [31]
passive reinforcement and steel bars, wires or sevenwire strands for prestressed reinforcement. The deformation capacity of structural concrete elements, an important aspect in
the design of such structures, mainly depends on the ductility of the reinforcement, and
structural concrete elements are generally designed such that failure will be governed by
yielding of the reinforcement. Therefore, ductility of the reinforcement is as essential
to structural concrete as its strength. Much research has been conducted over the past
decades in the field of nonmetallic reinforcement, including glass, carbon and aramid
fibres. Randomly distributed glass fibres result in smaller crack widths and hence, better serviceability. If glass fibres alone are used as reinforcement, very high quantities of
fibres are required in order to achieve desired resistances, and the work ability of the
concrete-glass fibre mix becomes troublesome. Glass fibres are therefore mainly used for
crack-control in prefabricated nonstructural elements; steel fibres can also be applied for
this purpose, but they are less suitable due to corrosion problems. Carbon and aramid
fibres have higher strengths than steel while their weight is considerably lower, and they
do not corrode; such materials are potentially interesting for use in long-span structures,
preferably as prestressing cables. However, such fibres are brittle, i.e., their response in
axial tension is almost perfectly linear elastic until rupture, and they are sensitive to
lateral forces, which complicates their application. In addition, carbon and aramid fibres
are relatively expensive. A 50m carbon or aramid fibre post-tensioning cable, including
anchors, is 3. . . 10 times more expensive today than a steel cable of equal resistance, and
6. . . 25 times more than one of equal stiffness [20].
4.4.1
Reinforcing Steel
Figure 4.8: Stress-strain characteristics of reinforcement in uniaxial tension: (a) hotrolled, heat-treated, low-carbon or micro-alloyed steel; (b) cold-worked or
high-carbon steel; (c) bilinear idealisation.[20]
The yield stress of steels lacking a well-defined yield plateau is often defined as the stress
at which a permanent strain of 0.2% remains after unloading, Figure 4.8 (b); alternatively, the yield strain sy can directly be specified. The modulus of elasticity, Es , is
roughly equal to 205GP a for all types of steel, while yield stresses typically amount to
400...600M P a. Unloading at any point of the stress-strain diagram occurs with approximately the same stiffness as initial loading. The elongation in the strain-hardening range
occurs at constant volume (Poissons ratio = 0.5), resulting in a progressive reduction of
the cross-sectional area. Steel stresses, in particular the tensile strength fsu , are usually
based on the initial nominal cross-section; the actual stresses acting on the reduced area
at the ultimate state may be considerably higher.
4.4. REINFORCEMENT
89
Esh =
fsu fsy
,
su sy
(4.2)
where sy = fsy /Es = yield strain and su= rupture strain of reinforcement. The rupture
strain su and the ratio of tensile to yield strength, fsu /fsy , are measures of the ductility
of the steel. Hot-rolled, low-carbon or micro-alloyed steel exhibiting a stress-strain characteristic as shown in Figure 4.8 (a) typically has higher ratios of fsu /fsy and considerably
larger rupture strains su than cold-worked or high-carbon steel, Figure 4.8 (b).
4.4.2
4.4.2.1
Bond
Figure 4.9: Bond behaviour: (a) pull-out test; (b) bond shear stress-slip relationship; (c)
differential element.[20]
tension splitting. In a simplified approach, the complex mechanism of force transfer between concrete and reinforcement is substituted by a nominal bond shear stress uniformly
distributed over the nominal perimeter of the reinforcing bar. Bond shear stress-slip relationships, Figure 4.9 (b), are normally obtained from pull-out tests as shown in Figure
4.9 (a). The average bond shear stress along the embedment length lb can be determined
from the pullout force as
b =
F
,
lb
(4.3)
where = nominal diameter of reinforcing bar. In a pull-out test, bond shear stresses
increase with the slip until the maximum bond shear stress bmax (bond strength) is
reached, typically at a slip = 0.5, ...1mm if the slip is further increased, bond shear
stresses decrease, Figure 4.9 (b). Equilibrium requires that for any section of a structural
concrete element loaded in uniform tension, Figure 4.9 (c),
N = As s + Ac c ,
N
(1 )
= s +
c ,
As
(4.4)
dc
4b
=
dx
(1 )
(4.5)
4.4. REINFORCEMENT
91
for the stresses transferred between concrete and reinforcement by bond. Furthermore,
the kinematic condition
d
d
=
[us uc ] = s c
dx
dx
(4.6)
is obtained from Figure 4.9 (c) if plane sections are assumed to remain plane. Differentiating Eq. 4.6 with respect to x, inserting Eq. 4.5 and substituting stress-strain relationships
for steel and concrete, a second order differential equation for the slip is obtained. Generally, the differential equation has to be solved in an iterative numerical manner. For
linear elastic behaviour, s = Es s and c = Ec c , one gets
d2
4b
n
=
(1 +
)
2
dx
Es
1
(4.7)
where n = Es /Ec = modular ratio; Eq. 4.7 can be solved analytically for certain bond
shear stress-slip relationships.
4.4.2.2
Tension Stiffening
The effect of bond on the behaviour of structural concrete members loaded in tension is
called tension stiffening, since after cracking the overall response of a structural concrete
tension chord is stiffer than that of a naked steel bar of equal resistance.
Figure 4.10: Tension stiffening: (a) chord element; (b) qualitative distribution of bond
shear stresses, steel and concrete stresses and strains, and bond slip.[20]
4
(1 )
srmo /2
b dx fct
(4.8)
x=0
for the maximum crack spacing srmo in a fully developed crack pattern. The minimum
crack spacing amounts to srmo /2 since a tensile stress equal to the concrete tensile strength
must be transferred to the concrete in order to generate a new crack. Hence, the crack
spacing srm in a fully developed crack pattern is limited by
srmo
srm srmo
2
or, equivalently, 0.5 1 , where
(4.9)
4.4. REINFORCEMENT
93
srm
srmo
(4.10)
For most applications, only the overall response of the chord element is needed, while
the exact distribution of stresses and strains is not of primary interest. Simple stressstrain and bond shear stress-slip relationships can therefore be adopted, provided that
the resulting steel stresses and overall strains of the chord element reflect the governing
influences and match the experimental data.
Figure 4.11: Tension chord model: (a) stress-strain diagram for reinforcement; (b) bond
shear stress-slip relationship; (c) chord element and distribution of bond
shear, steel and concrete stresses, and steel strains.[20]
For this purpose, [33] proposed to use a bilinear stress-strain characteristic for the reinforcement and a stepped, rigid-perfectly plastic bond shear stress-slip relationship, Figs.
4.11 (a) and (b). This idealisation has been called tension chord model. For the bond
Introduction
In its most general sense, soil refers to the un-aggregated or un-cemented granular material
consisting of both mineral and organic particles. In many materials classified as soil,
cementing between grains may exist to some slight degree and therefore may contribute
to the mechanical characteristics. Soils are aggregates of mineral particles, and together
with air and/or water in the void spaces, they form three-phase systems. A large portion
of the earths surface is covered by soils, and they are widely used as construction and
foundation materials. Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering that deals with the
engineering properties of soils and their behaviour under stress.
5.1.1
Effective Stresses
It is obvious that ground movements and instabilities can be caused by changes of total
stress due to loading of foundations or excavation of slopes. What is perhaps not so
95
96
obvious is that ground movements and instabilities can be caused by changes of pore
pressure. For example, stable slopes can fail after rainstorms because the pore pressures
rise due to infiltration of rainwater into the slope while lowering of groundwater due to
water extraction causes ground settlements. (Some people will tell you that landslides
occur after rainfall because water lubricates soil; if they do, ask them to explain why damp
sand in a sandcastle is stronger than dry sand.) If soil compression and strength can be
changed by changes of total stress or by changes of pore pressure there is a possibility
that soil behaviour is governed by some combination of and u. This combination should
be called the effective stress because it is effective in determining soil behaviour. The
relationship between total stress, effective stress and pore pressure was first discovered by
Terzaghi (1936). He defined the effective stress in this way:
All measurable effects of a change of stress, such as compression, distortion and a change
of shearing resistance, are due exclusively to changes of effective stress. The effective
stress is related to the total stress and pore pressure u by = u
=u
(5.1)
97
(5.2)
5.1.2
Total Stress
The total stress is equal to the overburden pressure or stress, which is made up of the
weight of soil vertically above the plane, together with any forces acting on the soil surface
(e.g. the weight of a structure). Total stress increases with increasing depth in proportion
to the density of the overlying soil.
5.2
Although the concept of effective stress in soils is accepted by all soil mechanicians,
practical predictions and engineering calculations are traditionally based on total stress
approaches. The application of numerical approaches (in the early 70th) to the field
of soil mechanics in general and to soil dynamics in particular, it became clear that a
realistic prediction of the behaviour of soil masses could only be achieved if the total
stress approaches were abandoned. The essential model should consider the coupled
interaction of the soil skeleton and of the pore fluid. Indeed, the phenomena of weakening
and of liquefaction in soil when subjected to repeated loading such as that which occurs
in earthquakes (Figure 5.3), can only be explained by considering this two-phase action
and the quantitative analysis and prediction of real behaviour can only be achieved by
sophisticated computation. The simple limit methods often applied in statics are no
longer useful.
The engineer designing such soil structures as embankments, dams, or building foundations should be able to predict the safety of these against collapse or excessive deformation under the various loading conditions which are deemed possible. On occasion he
may have to apply his predictive knowledge to events in natural soil or rock outcrops,
subject perhaps to new, man-made conditions. Typical of this is the disastrous collapse
of the mountain (Mount Toc) bounding the Vajont reservoir which occurred on October
9th 1963 in Italy [32]. Figure 5.4 shows both a sketch indicating the extent of failure
and a diagram indicating the cross-section of the encountered ground movement. In the
above collapse, the evident cause and the straw that broke the camels back was the
filling and the subsequent draw down of the reservoir. The phenomenon proceeded essentially in a static (or quasi-static) manner until the last moment when the moving mass
98
Figure 5.3: Niigata earthquake, Japan 1964. Liquefaction of sand and overturning of
buildings.[32]
of soil acquired the speed of an express train at which point it tumbled into the reservoir, displacing the water dynamically and causing an unprecedented death toll of some
4000 people from the neighbouring town of Longarone. Such static failures which occur,
fortunately at a much smaller scale, in many embankments and cuttings are subjects of
typical concern to practising engineers. However, dynamic effects such as those frequently
caused by earthquakes are more spectacular and much more difficult to predict.
It is evident that the examples quoted so far involved the interaction of pore water pressure
and the soil skeleton. Perhaps the particular feature of this interaction, however, escapes
immediate attention. This is due to the weakening of the soilfluid composite during
the periodic motion such as that which is involved in an earthquake.
5.2.1
99
Figure 5.4: The Vajont reservoir, failure of Mant Toc in 1963 (Oct. 9th): (a) hypothetical
slip plane; (b) downhill end of slid [32]
such procedures is not generally valid. However, for problems of soil dynamics, the use of
such simplified procedures is almost never admissible. The reason for this lies in the fact
that the behaviour of soil or such a rock-like material as concrete, in which the pores of
the solid phase are filled with one fluid, cannot be described by behaviour of a single-phase
material. Indeed to some it may be an open question whether such porous materials as
shown in Figure 5.5 can be treated at all by the methods of continuum mechanics. Here
we illustrate two apparently very different materials. The first has a granular structure of
100
loose, generally uncemented, particles in contact with each other. The second is a solid
matrix with pores which are interconnected by narrow passages.
Using the concept of effective stress, it is possible to reduce the soil mechanics problem
to that of the behaviour of a single phase, once all the pore pressures are known. Then
we can use again the simple, single-phase analysis approaches.
Figure 5.5: Various idealised structures of fluid saturated porous solids: (a) a granular
material; (b) a perforated solid with interconnecting voids. [32]
Figure 5.6: Two fluids in pores of a granular solid (water and air). (a) air bubble not
wetting solid surface (effective pressure p = pw ; (b) both fluids in contact
with solid surfaces (effective pressure p = Xw pw + Xa pa . [32]
5.2.2
101
The following section gives an overview about common tests, to determine soil properties
and to get parameters for the material models. There are tests with dry material samples
and under wet conditions. Some test are performed to determine time dependent material
behaviour. There are some aspects of material behaviour like relaxation, which are not
yet predictable exactly. Another area of time dependent models are the time rate dependent formulations. Some applications, especially the bulk solids handling for process
engineering, are dealing with higher movements of the solids. Aspects like fluidisation
and movement of gas phase through the particles are on interest.
The shear test is the basic test for soil and bulk solid investigations. The test can be
run with wet or dry samples, mostly samples with in situ conditions. One can determine
the friction angle which is the main characteristic value of soil and bulk solids. It is
correlated with the angle of response for dry material like sand and granular material
(pile of sand). In figure 5.7 the Jenicke shear cell is pictured. The lower part of the cell
is a pot (diameter around 10 cm) and the upper part is a ring with the same diameter.
After filling the pot and ring with the sample, a vertical force is applied on the top of
the lid. A force from side on the top of device effects a movement of the ring and lid.
A shear deformation of the sample takes place. One can measure the normal stress, the
shear stress and the displacement of the sample. A typical graph from that standard
shear test for dry soil samples and bulk solids, is figured in picture 5.8.
102
Figure 5.9: Triaxial Test: (left) with fluid pressure; (right) with deformation free walls.
[5]
With the Biaxial Tester it is possible to determine sophisticated and specific parameters for bulk solids in process engineering. The device allows to deform the sample on a
103
104
Cap
Ring Cell
Filter
Soil Sample
Figure 5.12: Pressure (Oedometric pressure) tester, Institute of Process Engineering, TUBraunschweig, Prof. Schwedes, 1998. [5]
e
ep1
Cc1
1
ep2
Cc2
ln(ps1 )
ln(ps2 )
ln(p)
Figure 5.13: Compression Diagram (Oedometric Tester): Determination of Compression Module Cc of Soil with various pressure ps = 13 tr(T). [5]
5.2.3
Stress Path
Results of triaxial tests can be represented by diagrams called stress paths. A stress path
is a line connecting a series of points, each point representing a successive stress state
experienced by a soil specimen during the progress of a test. There are several ways in
which the stress path can be drawn, two of which are discussed below.
105
Rendulic Plot
A Rendulic plot is a plot representing the stress path for triaxial tests originally suggested
by Rendulic (1937) and later developed by Henkel (1960). It is a plot of the state of stress
during triaxial tests on a plane Oabc , as shown in Figure 5.14. Along Oa , we plot 2r ,
and along Oc , we plot a ( r is the effective radial stress and a the effective axial stress).
Line Od in Figure 5.15 represents the isotropic stress line. The direction cosines of this
line are the 1/ 3, 1/ 3, 1/ 3. Line Od in Figure 5.15 will have a slope of 1 vertical to
2 horizontal. Note that the trace of the octahedral plane 1 + 2 + 3 = const will be
at right angles to the line Od .
106
107
If we are given the effective stress path from a triaxial test in which failure of the specimen
was caused by loading in an undrained condition, the pore water pressure at a given state
during the loading can be easily determined. This can be explained with the aid of Figure
5.16. Consider a soil specimen consolidated with an encompassing pressure r and with
failure caused in the undrained condition by increasing the axial stress a . Let acb be the
effective stress path for this test. We are required to find the excess pore water pressures
that were generated at points c and b (i.e., at failure). For this type of triaxial test, we
know that the total stress path will follow a vertical line such as ae. To find the excess
pore water pressure at c, we draw a line cf parallel to the isotropic stress line. Line cf
intersects line ae at d. The pore water pressure ud at c is the vertical distance between
points c and d. The pore water pressure ud(f ailure) at b can similarly be found by drawing
bg parallel to the isotropic stress line and measuring the vertical distance between points
b and g.
5.2.3.2
Lambe (1964) suggested another type of stress path in which are plotted the successive
effective normal and shear stresses on a plane making an angle of 45o to the major principal plane. To understand what a stress path is, consider a normally consolidated clay
specimen subjected to a consolidated drained triaxial test (Figure 5.17(a). At any time
108
during the test, the stress condition in the specimen can be represented by Mohrs circle
(Figure 5.17(b).
1 = 3 + = 1
(5.3)
At failure, Mohrs circle will touch a line that is the MohrCoulomb failure envelope;
this makes an angle with the normal stress axis ( is the soil friction angle). We now
consider the effective normal and shear stresses on a plane making an angle of 45o with
the major principal plane. Thus
1 + 3
2
1 3
Shear stress, q =
2
(5.4)
(5.5)
109
The points on Mohrs circle having coordinates p and q are shown in Figure 5.17(b). If
the points with p and q coordinates of all Mohrs circles are joined, this will result in the
line AB. This line is called a stress path. The straight line joining the origin and point B
will be defined here as the Kf line. The Kf line makes an angle with the normal stress
axis. Now
(1(f) 3(f) )/2
BC
=
OC
(1(f) + 3(f) )/2
tan =
(5.6)
where 1(f) and 3(f) are the effective major and minor principal stresses at failure. Similarly,
sin =
(5.7)
(5.8)
(5.9)
(5.10)
Mohrs circles for the total and effective stress at any time of deviator stress application
are shown in Figure 5.18(b). (Mohrs circle no. 1 is for total stress and no. 2 for effective
stress.) Point B on the effectivestress Mohrs circle has the coordinates p and q . If the
deviator stress is increased until failure occurs, the effectivestress Mohrs circle at failure
110
Figure 5.18: Stress path for consolidated undrained triaxial test [10]
will be represented by circle no. 3, as shown in Figure 5.18(b), and the effectivestress
path will be represented by the curve ABC.
The general nature of the effective-stress path will depend on the value of A. Figure 5.19
shows the stress path in a p versus q plot for Lagunilla clay (Lambe, 1964). In any
particular problem, if a stress path is given in a p versus q plot, we should be able to
determine the values of the major and minor effective principal stresses for any given point
on the stress path. This is demonstrated in Figure 5.20, in which ABC is an effective
stress path.
Figure 5.19: Stress path for Lagunilla clay (after Lambe, 1964) [10]
111
Figure 5.20: Determination of major and minor principal stresses for a point on a stress
path [10]
From Figure 5.19, two important aspects of effective stress path can be summarized as
follows:
1. The stress paths for a given normally consolidated soil are geometrically similar.
2. The axial strain in a CU test may be defined as 1 = L/L as shown in Figure
5.18(a). For a given soil, if the points representing equal strain in a number of
stress paths are joined, they will be approximately straight lines passing through
the origin. This is also shown in Figure 5.19.
5.3
As described above, the material properties of soil and bulk solids mainly depend on the
hydrostatic pressure. So, the idea of describing the valid (stress) states for a material is
evident. The failure surface in 3D stress space gives an illustration of that valid stress
states over a wide range of hydrostatic pressures. Inside the shape are valid states of
the material, the deviatoric cross section in Figure 5.21 shows the valid shear stresses
for three hydrostatic pressures. In the principal stress space, the shape of the failure
surface is conical, with the apex of the cone at the origin of the stress axes, as shown in
the inset of Fig. 5.21. Also shown in this figure are the deviatoric cross sections of the
failure surface. The failure surfaces for different materials and different material models
are given in Figure 5.22 at specific hydrostatic stress levels. There are some differences in
the shape of the yield surface which represents the different material properties and can
show the different qualities of the models.
112
Figure 5.21: General shape and deviatoric cross-sections of the one-parameter failure
model, each line represents a different level of hydrostatic pressure. [27, 28]
Some materials show the ability to take tension stresses, as well. In that cases the origin
of the cone is displaced into the hydrostatic tension space.
5.4
5.4.1
Material Models
Rate Dependent Model for cohesionless Soil and Bulk
Solids
There exist many numerical models for the description of stress dependent behaviour of
bulk solids and soil. The following description gives an example of a rate dependent hy-
113
Figure 5.22: General characteristics of the traces of the failure surface on the deviatoric
planes (Lade and Musante,1977). (a) Monterey No. 0 sand. (b) Grundite
clay. [27, 28]
poplastic model for dry soil and bulk solids. This model is valid for cohesionless materials.
+T
)||D||
T
D) + fd aF (T
F 2 D + a2 Ttr(
T = fb fe
(5.11)
tr(T T)
elastic
plastic
.
Symbol Units Description
T
T
D
D
D
fb
fd
fe
[kPa]
[ kPs a ]
[ kPs a ]
[ 1s ]
[ 1s ]
[ 1s ]
[ 1s ]
[-]
[-]
[-]
114
(5.12)
which describes the stress state with respect to the hydrostatic pressure level and is called
the Chauchy stress tensor.
The deviatoric aspects of that Chauchy stress tensor is given by
=T
1I
(5.13)
T
3
The stress function F interprets the failure criteria (Figure 5.23). The given function
T11
T22
T33
||
Figure 5.23: Yield Surface at specific hydrostatic pressure in deviatoric plane: r = ||T
and Lode-angle . [5]
uses the Lodeangle to determine valid shear stresses at the given hydrostatic pressure
level.
2 tan2
1
1
def
F =
tan2 +
tan
(5.14)
8
2 + 2 tan cos(3) 2 2
def
||
tan = 3||T
T
T
)
tr(T
def
cos(3) = 6
.
3/2
T
)
tr(T
This model is used for simulating the dynamic material behaviour of dry bulk solids during
discharge of silos. For implementation into FiniteElementCode (FEM) see [5]. Important for that application is the stress, and time, and porositydependent behaviour of
the bulk solid. During FEM calculation of that simulation the most calculation cost is
used for determining the valid stress state and valid porosity of the material.
5.4.2
115
There exist many models for different applications in soil and bulk solids handling. To
have another closer view to a specific problem, we look at an advanced model for fully
saturated soil. This kind of soil is very common for substructure design. Aspects of
groundwater flow, and exploitation of oil, and contamination out of rubbish dumps, and
filtration abilities of soil are on great interest for our today human society. Another wide
area of application is noise reduction and insulation of buildings and machines, where
air is the contemplated fluid. The model is used to design materials and for numerically
investigations of the effect of noise reduction under various conditions, where air is the
fluid phase, then.
This section is partly from [11], so for more detailed information and aspects of i.e.
numerical implementation, please refer to that publication. The main goal of that paper
is the wave propagation through full saturated soil skeleton. The TPM is mostly presented
Figure 5.24: Fluid flow through Skeleton of of Particles (full saturated soil skeleton, also
air possible) [11]
in a general non-linear fashion [6], here the focus is given on the linearisation process [11].
All given nonlinear equations are formulated with respect to the reference configuration
of the solid skeleton, therefore, special indication of the reference coordinate system is
skipped. Furthermore, time derivatives are given as material derivatives with respect to
the moving skeleton. But according to the subsequent linearisation no distinction will be
made between the material time derivative and the partial time derivative.
5.4.2.1
Compressible constituents
In order to describe the two different phases of the material the concept of volume fractions
is introduced [6, 7]. Therefore, the given volume element V is divided in two fractions
V S and V F occupied by the solid skeleton (index S) and the interstitial fluid (index F ),
116
Figure 5.25: Deformation and movement of a fluid saturated soil sample: (left) Fast compression wave: in phase deformation, (mid) Slow compression wave: counter
phase movement of soil and fluid , (right) Shear Wave: Deformation without
volume change [11]
respectively. If the whole space is filled with matter, the saturation condition requires
V = V S + V F . The volume fraction nk of each constituent is defined by
nk =
Vk
V
with k = F, S .
(5.15)
The partial densities k of both constituents relate the mass element of the constituents
to the volume element V of the mixture while the effective densities kR relate the same
element of mass to the volume element occupied by the constituent. Therefore, the partial
densities are obtained by the product of the volume fraction and the respective effective
density
k
kR k
with k = F, S .
(5.16)
Changes of the partial density are therefore possible due to changes of the effective density
and of the volume fraction, i.e. the material itself as well as its porous structure allow for
a compressibility.
Within the general framework of compressible constituents, the effective densities are state
variables and the volume fractions are internal variables [6, 7] which may be transformed
to state variables under certain conditions. For an elastic and materially compressible
solid phase, a nonlinear representation of the solid volume fraction is given as [12]
nS =
nS0
.
nS0 (1 det FS ) + det FS
(5.17)
The current value of the volume fraction nS depends on the solid deformation gradient
FS and the initial solid volume fraction nS0 . The expression (5.17) is derived from an
117
evolution equation for the volume fraction by appropriate assumptions. Due to the assumption of a geometrically linear description the determinant of the deformation gradient
is approximated by
det FS 1 + ui,i .
(5.18)
The divergence of the solid displacement ui,i gives the linear expression for the volumetric strain. Inserting the linearised format of the deformation gradient (5.18) into the
expression for the volume fraction (5.17) and a subsequent Taylor series expansion yields
nS
nS0
= nS0 (1 (1 nS0 )ui,i + O(u2i,i )) .
S
1 + (1 n0 )ui,i
(5.19)
The balance equations of momentum of a two-phase continuum give the basis for the
theoretical description within the TPM. They can either be given for both constituents
separately or one of the individual balances may be replaced by the balance of momentum
of the mixture as discussed in detail in [16]. In the present contribution, the mixture
balance of momentum is used in combination with the fluid momentum balance. The
balance equations of momentum for the two-phase mixture read
1. for the mixture
nS
SR
ui +nF
FR
S
F
ui + wi + (ui,j + wi,j )wj = Tij,j
+ Tij,j
+ nS
SR S
bi
+ nF
FR F
bi
convective
Newton
(5.20)
2. and for the fluid
nF
FR
F
ui + wi + (ui,j + wi,j )wj = Tij,j
+ pi + nF
FR F
bi
(5.21)
In Equations (5.20) and (5.21), wi denotes the seepage velocity defined as the relative
velocity of the fluid with respect to the deforming solid skeleton. The stress tensor is
given by Tijk with k = S for the solid skeleton and k = F for the fluid, respectively. The
body force density in the fluid and in the solid is nF F R bFi and nS SR bSi , respectively.
The force density pi results from a momentum production representing the interaction
between both constituents. Therefore, it is obviously not present in the equation for the
mixture (5.20).
Keeping in mind a linear version of the theory, the convective terms on the left hand
sides of Equations (5.20) and (5.21) are of second order (and small) and will consequently
be neglected. Furthermore, inserting the series expansion of the solid volume fraction
118
(5.19) into the balance of momentum (5.20) a consequent linearisation remains only the
constant part nS0 in the final linear equation. Subsequently, due to the saturation condition
1 = nS + nF , both volume fractions are assumed to be constant within the balances of
momenta
(5.22)
nF nF0 = 1 nS0 .
nS nS0
This corresponds to the case called frozen volume fractions [7].
Gathering all the linearisations formulated above the linear balances of momentum are
1. for the mixture
nS0
SR
ui + nF0
FR
F
S
+ bi
+ Tij,j
[ui + wi ] = Tij,j
(5.23)
FR
F
[ui + wi ] = Tij,j
+ pi + nF0
FR F
bi
(5.24)
where no distinction between the partial time derivative and the material time derivative
have to be made. In Equation (5.23), the bulk body force bi with = nS0 SR + nF0 F R is
introduced as an abbreviation for the sum of the solid and fluid body force. Additionally,
the balance of momentum of momentum is fulfilled if the stress tensors are symmetric.
Furthermore, constitutive assumptions must be specified which link the stress tensors and
the momentum production term to kinematic quantities. Neglecting the fluid extra-stress,
the stress tensor of the fluid is governed by the pore pressure p
TijF = nF pij
F
and accordingly Tij,j
= (nF pij ),j = (nF p),i ,
(5.25)
where ij denotes the Kronecker delta (see Equation 1.22). Furthermore, the viscosity of
the fluid is taken into account by the momentum production or by the interaction force
between the solid and the fluid which is given by the linear relation
pi = pnF,i
(nF )2
wi
T
(5.26)
with seepage velocity wi and pore pressure pi , and with the permeability T , ()T =TPM.
S
This permeability depends on the intrinsic permeability k and on the fluid viscosity F
according to the relation T = k S /F . In the balance of momentum for the fluid (5.21)
or (5.24) the stresses and the interaction forces combine to
F
Tij,j
+ pi = (nF p),i + pnF,i
(nF )2
(nF )2
F
w
=
n
p
wi .
i
,i
T
T
(5.27)
119
According to the choice (5.25) and (5.26), the viscous properties of the fluid are modelled
by the momentum exchange term (5.26) while the fluid extra stress is neglected.
For the solid skeleton Hookes law is taken into account assuming a linear elastic behaviour.
Hence, with the extra stress
2
(ES )ij = G(ui,j + uj,i ) + (K G)ij uk,k
3
Shear
(5.28)
Hydrostatic
2
= G(ui,j + uj,i ) + ((K G)uk,k z S nS p)ij ,
3
(5.30)
SR
and is
Helmholtz free energy: Thermodynamic Potential which increases the useful work from a closed
system.
120
(
SR
) +
ui,i = 0
((nS ) + z S nS ui,i ) + nS ((
SR
) + (1 z S )
SR
(5.31)
ui,i ) = 0 .
For arbitrary values of z S , (5.31) is fulfilled if each part of the sum is equal to zero
(nS ) = z S nS ui,i
and
SR
) = (1 z S )
SR
ui,i .
(5.32)
(p) =
FR
0
p0
p=
p
,
R
(5.33)
with absolute temperature , the reference density F0 R and the reference pore pressure
(static pressure) p0 . The alternative second expression uses the absolute temperature
and the specific gas constant R. More complex laws to describe the volumetric behaviour
of the fluid could be included here, however, the linearisation neglects additional effects.
With these preliminaries the continuity equation for the fluid can be formulated. In
general, this equation reads
F
+ ((wi + ui )
t
),i = 0
(5.34)
using the seepage velocity wi = vi ui instead of the fluid velocity. Introducing the
material time derivative
F
( F) =
+ F,i ui
(5.35)
t
and combining (5.34) with the definition of the partial density (5.16) and with the saturation condition in the form (nF ) = (nS ) = z S nS ui,i yields the following representation
nF (
FR
) +
FR
FR
wi ),i = 0 .
(5.36)
Equation (5.36) is the nonlinear form of the continuity equation of the fluid with respect
to the moving solid reference system. This equation is linearised by a formal Taylor series,
121
where in the first term on the left hand side the gas equation (5.33) is substituted. In
the second and third term, the density is multiplicated with the divergence of the solid
velocity or seepage velocity, respectively. Consequently, only the constant factor F0 R of
the series expansion of the density is used. Additionally, according to Equation (5.22),
constant volume fractions are introduced leading to the following linearised form of the
continuity equation of the fluid
nF0
p
+
R
F
FR
0 (n0
FR
0 wi,i
=0.
(5.37)
Gathering all above given linearisations the following set of coupled differential equations
is obtained from the balance equations
0 ui
+ nF0
FR
0 wi
1
= Gui,jj + (K + G)uj,ji (nF0 + z S nS0 )p,i + bi ,
3
(nF )2
nF0 F0 R [ui + wi ] = nF0 p,i 0T wi + nF0 F R bFi ,
p
+ F0 R (nF0 + z S nS0 )ui,i + nF0 F0 R wi,i = 0 .
nF0
R
(5.38a)
(5.38b)
(5.38c)
The primary variables in (5.38) are the solid displacement ui , the seepage velocity wi ,
and the pore pressure p. Note that in Equations (5.38), due to the linearisation, constant
F FR
FR
are used with the exception of the body force
and 0 = nS0 SR
densities SR
0 + n0 0
0 , 0
terms (Boussinesq approximation) where a linear approximation of the density is inserted.
From a physical point of view it is sufficient to describe the problem with only two primary
variables namely the solid displacement ui and pore pressure p instead of three variables.
In the quasi-static case, i.e. ui 0, wi 0, the balance of momentum of the fluid
(5.38b) can be rearranged to express the seepage velocity in terms of the pore pressure
gradient. In this case, Darcys law2 is obtained. Inserting this expression into Equations
(5.38a) and (5.38c) eliminates the seepage velocity as primary variable from the set of the
governing equations. Since in the dynamic case, wi is given as time derivative in (5.38b),
this procedure is only possible in Laplace domain. Before the Laplace transformation3
can be performed the following assumptions are made:
All initial conditions vanish, i.e.
!
ui (xi , t = 0) = 0 wi (xi , t = 0) = 0 .
2
(5.39)
Darcys law: Describes the flow of fluid through porous media (published 1856).
Laplace transformation: Used to transform differential equations into easily solvable algebraic equations.
3
122
The pore pressure p is assumed to be the excess pressure relative to the static
pressure p0 . Therefore, the initial conditions for the pore pressure also vanish
!
p(xi , t = 0) = 0 .
(5.40)
Taking these assumptions into account the transformed Equations (5.38) are
0s
ui + nF0
FR
i
0 sw
nF0
1
uj,ji (nF0 + z S nS0 )
p,i + bi ,
= G
ui,jj + (K + G)
3
(nF0 )2
FR
2
F
s
u
+
s
w
=
n
p
wi + nF0 F RbFi ,
i
i
0
0 ,i
T
s
p
ui,i + nF0 F0 R wi,i = 0
nF0
+ F0 R (nF0 + z S nS0 )s
R
(5.41a)
(5.41b)
(5.41c)
where () indicates the Laplace transform and s is the complex Laplace variable.
Rearranging the Laplace transformed balance of momentum for the fluid (5.41b) the
seepage velocity is obtained
wi =
T
snF0
p,i + s2
FR
0
FR
i
0 u
F RF
bi
(5.42)
snF0 F0 R T
nF0 + sT F0 R
(5.43)
is introduced. Eliminating the seepage velocity wi from the remaining balances (5.41a)
and (5.41c) by use of (5.42), finally, the balance of momentum for the mixture
s2 ( 0 T
FR
ui T
0 )
p,i
F RF
bi
1
= G
ui,jj +(K + G)
uj,ji (nF0 +z S nS0 )
p,i + bi (5.44)
3
s
p
+
R
FR
F
0 (n0
z S nS0
T
T F R F
)s
ui,i
p,ii +
bi,i = 0
s
s
T
(5.45)
are achieved. These operations establish a system of coupled partial differential equations
for the unknowns solid displacement ui and pore pressure p
1
G
ui,jj + (K + G)
uj,ji (nF0 + z S nS0 T )
p,i s2 (
3
FR
ui
0 )
= T
F RF
bi
bi ,
(5.46)
p,ii nF0
T R
s2 F0 R F
(n0
T
+ z S nS0 T )
ui,i =
F RF
bi,i
(5.47)
123
An analytical representation of Equations (5.46) and (5.47) in time domain is only possible
for a constant value T . This is only achieved in the limit T , i.e. F 0.
Consequently, the interaction force pi between the solid and the fluid is proportional to
the pore pressure pi pnF,i and the influence of the seepage velocity on the momentum
exchange vanishes. Evidently, this is only valid under equilibrium conditions where no
fluid motion takes place.
5.4.2.2
Incompressible constituents
Naturally, the balances of momentum (5.20) and (5.21) are not changed due to the assumption of incompressible constituents. So, the linearisation process is performed as
shown in the foregoing section. Also, caused by linearisation, the volume fractions nS and
nF are assumed to be constant within the balance equations. So, the linearised balances
of momentum for the mixture (5.23) and for the fluid (5.24) are valid also in case of
incompressible constituents.
On the other hand, the continuity equation of the solid (5.31) reduces to a balance of
volume. As stated above, the incompressible case is included in the general framework
by the choice z S = 1. The physical interpretation is obviously a constant density SR
resulting in the well-known balance of volume
(nS ) + nS ui,i = 0 .
(5.48)
FR
wi ),i =
FR
(nF wi + ui ),i = 0 .
(5.49)
The constitutive equations for the incompressible solid and incompressible fluid can also
easily be achieved. The stress tensor of the fluid (5.25) and the interaction force (5.26)
are not changed yielding the well known principle of effective stress, but note that the
pore pressure becomes a Lagrangian multiplier in this case which ensures the assumption
of constant density. There is no longer an equation of state linking the density to the
pressure. Finally, the divergence of the total stress is obtained by these assumptions in
combination with the saturation condition nS + nF = 1
1
S
F
Tij,j
+ Tij,j
= Gui,jj + (K + G)uj,ji p,i .
3
(5.50)
124
As in the compressible case, the incompressible model results in three equations for the
three variables solid displacement ui , pore pressure p, and the seepage velocity wi
1
= Gui,jj + (K + G)uj,ji p,i + bi ,
3
F 2
(n )
nF0 F0 R [ui + wi ] = nF0 p,i T wi + nF0 F R bFi ,
F
(n0 wi + ui ),i = 0 .
0 ui
+ nF0
FR
0 wi
(5.51a)
(5.51b)
(5.51c)
Because the balance of momentum of the fluid Equation (5.51b) is equal to Equation
(5.41b) of the compressible case, an extraction of the seepage velocity is only possible in
Laplace domain. The transformation of Equation (5.51b) leads to the same expression as
given in (5.42). Eliminating the seepage velocity from the balance of momentum (5.51a)
and from the balance of volume (5.51c) results in the set of coupled differential equations
for the unknowns solid displacement ui and pore pressure p
1
uj,ji (1 T )
p,i s2 ( 0 T F0 R )
ui = T F0 RbFi bi ,
G
ui,jj + (K + G)
3
s2 F0 R
p,ii
(1 T )
ui,i = F RbFi,i .
T
(5.52)
(5.53)
Introduction
Plasticity theory deals with yielding of materials under complex stress states. It allows
one to decide whether or not a material will yield under a stress state and to determine the
shape change that will occur if it does yield. It also allows tensile test data to be used to
predict the work-hardening during deformation under such complex stress states. These
relations are a vital part of computer codes for predicting crashworthiness of automobiles
and codes for designing forming dies.
6.2
Uniaxial Plasticity
1. Plastic deformations are associated with a dissipation of energy and hence the process is irreversible and history dependent.
2. Plastic deformations are rate-insensitive and time-independent in the theory
of plasticity.
3. Plastic deformation of metals are hydrostatic-pressure-insensitive and plastic
volumetric change is incompressible.
6.3
The concern here is to describe mathematically the conditions for yielding under complex
stresses. A yield criterion is a mathematical expression of the stress states that will cause
yielding or plastic flow. The most general form of a yield criterion is
125
126
f (x , y , z , yz , zx , xy ) = C,
(6.1)
where C is a material constant. For an isotropic material this can be expressed in terms
of principal stresses,
f (1 , 2 , 3 ) = C.
(6.2)
The yielding of most solids is independent of the sign of the stress state. Reversing the
signs of all the stresses has no effect on whether a material yields. This is consistent with
the observation that for most materials, the yield strengths in tension and compression
are equal. Also, with most solid materials, it is reasonable to assume that yielding is
independent of the level of mean normal stress,
m = (1 + 2 + 3 )/3.
(6.3)
It will be shown later that this is equivalent to assuming that plastic deformation causes
no volume change. This assumption of constancy of volume is certainly reasonable for
crystalline materials that deform by slip and twinning because these mechanisms involve
only shear. With slip and twinning only the shear stresses are important. With this
simplification, the yield criteria must be of the form
f [(2 3 ), (3 1 ), (1 2 )] = C.
(6.4)
In terms of the Mohrs stress circle diagrams, only the sizes of the circles (not their positions) are of importance in determining whether yielding will occur. In three-dimensional
stress space (1 vs. 2 vs. 3 ) the locus can be represented by a cylinder parallel to the
line 1 = 2 = 3 , as shown in Figure 6.1.
6.3.1
The simplest yield criterion is one first proposed by Tresca. It states that yielding will
occur when the largest shear stress reaches a critical value. The largest shear stress is
max = (max min )/2, so the Tresca criterion can be expressed as
max min = C.
If the convention is maintained that 1 2 3 , this can be written as
(6.5)
127
Figure 6.1: (left) Tresca Criterion; (right) A yield locus is the surface of a body in threedimensional stress space. Stress states on the locus will cause yielding. Those
inside the locus will not cause yielding. Projection to 1 /2 Plane yield to
eliptical shape. [19]
1 3 = C.
(6.6)
(6.7)
6.3.2
(6.8)
The effect of the intermediate principal stress can be included by assuming that yielding
depends on the root-mean-square diameter of the three Mohrs circles. This is the von
Mises criterion, which can be expressed as
(2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 + (1 2 )2 /3
1/2
= C.
(6.9)
128
Note that each term is squared, so the convention 1 2 3 is not necessary. Again the
material constant, C, can be evaluated by considering a uniaxial tension test. At yielding,
1 = Y and 2 = 3 = 0. Substituting, [02 + (Y )2 + Y 2 ]/3 = C 2 , or C = (2/3)1/3 Y , so
the equation is usually written as
(2 3 )2 + (3 1 )2 + (1 2 )2 = 2Y 2 .
(6.10)
k = Y / 3.
(6.11)
Equation 6.10 can be simplified if one of the principal stresses is zero (plane-stress conditions). Substituting 3 = 0, 12 + 22 1 2 = Y 2 , which is an ellipse (see Figure 6.1).
With further substitution of = 2 /1 ,
1 = Y /(1 + 2 )1/2 .
6.3.3
(6.12)
Hardening Rule
A specification of the dependence of the yield criterion on the internal variables, along
with the rate equations for these variables, is called a hardening rule. In this subsection
we first review in more detail the significance of the two models of hardening isotropic
and kinematic. Afterwards we look at some more general hardening rules.
6.3.4
Isotropic Hardening
The yield functions that we have studied so far in this section are all reducible to the form
f (, ) = F () k().
(6.13)
Since it is only the yield stress that is affected by the internal variables, no generality is
lost if it is assumed to depend on only one internal variable, say 1 , and this is invariably
identified with the hardening variable , defined as either the plastic work Wp or as
the effective plastic strain p . The function h1 corresponding to 1 is given by ij hij or
2
h h ,
3 ij ij
H=
k (Wp )ijhij
p
k ( )
2
h h
3 ij ij
Work
Strain (plastic)
129
(6.14)
6.3.5
Kinematic Hardening
f (, ) = F ( ) k().
(6.15)
then more general hardening behaviour can be described. Isotropic hardening is a special
case of equation 6.15 if 0 and if k depends only on , while purely kinematic hardening
corresponds to constant k but non-vanishing variable . Kinematic hardening represents
a translation of the yield surface in stress space by shifting its reference point from the
origin to , and with uniaxial stressing this means that the the length of the stress
interval representing the elastic region (i.e., the difference between the current yield stress
and the one found on reversal) remains constant. This is in fairly good agreement with
the Bauschinger effect for those materials whose stress-strain curve in the work-hardening
range can be approximated by a straight line (linear hardening), and it is for such materials
proposed the model in which = c p , with c being a constant. A generalisation of it is
1
The Bauschinger effect refers to a property of materials where the materials stress/strain characteristics change as a result of the microscopic stress distribution of the material. For example, an increase
in tensile yield strength occurs at the expense of compressive yield strength.
130
due to Prager [23, 24], who coined the term kinematic hardening on the basis of his use
of a mechanical model in explaining the hardening rule (Figure 6.2).
Figure 6.2: Pragers mechanical model of kinematic hardening: At one stress level on
Plane one can move the yiled locus around that Pin (i.e. hydrostatic pressure,
Aquisektrix).[22]
A kinematic hardening model is also capable of representing induced anisotropy, since a
function F ( ) that depends only on the invariants of its argument stops being an
isotropic function of the stress tensor as soon as differs from zero.
It should be pointed out that, since is a tensor in stress space (sometimes called the
back stress, the equation ij = c pij does not imply proportionality between the vectors
representing and p in any space other than the nine-dimensional space of second-rank
tensors, and particularly not in the six-dimensional space in which symmetric tensors are
represented, since the mappings of stress and strain into this space must be different in
order to preserve the scalar product = ij ij ; consequently, the translation of the
yield surface for a material with an associated flow rule is not necessarily in the direction
of the normal to the yield surface, as was assumed by Prager in constructing his model.
In more sophisticated kinematic hardening models, internal variables other than p and
are included; in particular, the back stress may be treated as a tensorial internal variable
with its own rate equation. Indeed, the MelanPrager model falls into this category when
its equation is rewritten as
ij = c pij
(6.16)
131
here c need not be a constant but may itself depend on other internal variables. In the
model described by Backhaus [4], for example, c depends on the effective plastic strain
p
. Lehmann [21] replaces the isotropic relation 6.16 between and p by a more general
one,
ij = cijkl (, ) pkl
6.3.6
(6.17)
Generalised Hardening
The hardening represented by Equation 6.15 with both and k variable is called combined
hardening by Hodge [18]. The combined hardening model proposed for viscoplasticity by
Chaboche [9], has been applied by Chaboche and his collaborators to rate-independent
plasticity as well.
In these models the yield surface in stress space is constrained to move inside an outer
surface, known variously as bounding surface, loading surface, or memory surface, given
by, f (, ) = 0.
The work-hardening modulus H at a given state is assumed to be an increasing function
of a suitably defined distance, in stress space, between the current stress and a stress
on the outer surface, called the image stress of . When this distance vanishes, the workhardening modulus attains its minimum value, and further hardening proceeds linearly,
with the two surfaces remaining in contact at = .
The various two-surface models differ from one another in the definition of the bounding
surface, in the way the image stress depends on the current state, and in the variation
of work-hardening modulus. In the model of Dafalias and Popov, both surfaces are given
similar combined-hardening structures, with a back stress playing the same role for the
outer surface that plays for the yield surface, and = c( )+, where c is a constant.
H is assumed to depend on = ( ) : ( ) in such a way that H = at initial
yield, producing a smooth hardening curve.
Experiments showed that when yield surfaces are defined on the basis of a very small offset
strain, they undergo considerable distortion, in addition to the expansion and translation
considered thus far. In order to describe such distortion in initially isotropic materials,
Equation 6.15 must be modified to
f (, ) = F ( , ) k(),
(6.18)
132
where F is initially an isotropic function of its first argument but becomes anisotropic as
plastic deformation takes place. An example of such a function is that Mises-type yield
surface:
F ( , ) = 0.5Aijkl ()(ij ij )(kl kl ),
(6.19)
where
1
Aijkl () = ik ij ij kl + A
3
p p
ij kl ,
(6.20)
A being a constant.
6.4
6.4.1
Throughout history there has been a never-ending effort to develop materials with higher
yield strength. However, a higher yield strength is generally accompanied by a lower
ductility and a lower toughness. Toughness is the energy absorbed in fracturing. A high
strength material has low toughness because it can be subjected to higher stresses. The
stress necessary to cause fracture may be reached before there has been much plastic
deformation to absorb energy. Ductility and toughness are lowered by factors that inhibit
plastic flow. As schematically indicated in Figure 6.3, these factors include decreased temperatures, increased strain rates, and the presence of notches. Developments that increase
yield strength usually result in lower toughness.Fractures can be classified in several ways.
A fracture is described as ductile or brittle depending on the amount of deformation that
precedes it. Failures may also be described as inter-granular or trans-granular, depending
on the fracture path. The terms cleavage, shear, void coalescence, etc., are used to identify failure mechanisms. These descriptions are not mutually exclusive. A brittle fracture
may be inter-granular or it may occur by cleavage.
The ductility of a material describes the amount of deformation that precedes fracture.
Ductility may be expressed as the percent elongation or as the percent reduction of area
in a tension test. Failures in tension tests may be classified in several ways (Figure 6.4).
At one extreme, a material may fail by necking down to a vanishing cross section. At
the other extreme, fracture may occur on a surface that is more or less normal to the
maximum tensile stress with little or no deformation. Failures may also occur by shear.
133
Figure 6.3: Lowered temperatures, increased loading rates, and the presence of notches all
reduce ductility. These three factors raise the stress level required for plastic
flow, so the stress required for fracture is reached at lower strains. [19]
Figure 6.4: Several failure modes. (A) Rupture by necking down to a zero cross section.
(B) Fracture on a surface that is normal to the tensile axis. (C) Shear fracture.
[19]
6.4.2
Ductile Fracture
Tension test Failure in a tensile test of a ductile material occurs well after the maximum
load is reached and a neck has formed. In this case, fracture usually starts by nucleation
of voids in the center of the neck, where the hydrostatic tension is the greatest. As
134
deformation continues, these internal voids grow and eventually link up by necking of the
ligaments between them (Figures 6.5). Such a fracture starts in
Figure 6.5: (upper)Development of a cup and cone fracture: (left) Internal porosity growing and linking up, formation of a shear lip; (right) A typical cup and cone
fracture in a tension test of a ductile manganese bronze.(lower) Schematic
drawing showing the formation and growth of voids during tension and their
linking up by necking of the ligaments between them. [19]
the center of the bar where the hydrostatic tension is greatest.With continued elongation,
this internal fracture grows outward until the outer rim can no longer support the load and
the edges fail by sudden shear.This overall failure is often called a cup and cone fracture
fracture. If the entire shear lip is on the same broken piece, it forms a cup. The other
piece is the cone (Figure 6.5). More often, however, part of the shear lip is on one half
of the specimen and part on the other half. In ductile fractures, voids form at inclusions
because either the inclusion-matrix interface or the inclusion itself is weak. Ductility is
strongly dependent on the inclusion content of the material. With increasing numbers
of inclusions, the distance between the voids decreases, so it is easier for them to link
together and lower the ductility. Ductile fracture by void coalescence can occur in shear
135
6.4.3
Brittle fracture
Cleavage 2 : In some materials, fracture may occur by cleavage. Cleavage fractures occur
on certain crystallographic planes (cleavage planes) that are characteristic of the crystal
structure. In most cases these are the most widely spaced planes. It is thought that
cleavage occurs when the normal stress, n , across the cleavage plane reaches a critical
value, c , as illustrated in Figure 6.6 The normal stress across a plane is n = a cos2 ,
where a is the applied tensile stress and is the angle between the tensile axis and the
normal to the plane. Cleavage will occur when n = c , or
a = c /cos2
(6.21)
Figure 6.6: (left) Cleavage plane and an applied stress. Cleavage occurs when the normal
stress across the cleavage plane, n = a cos2, reaches a critical value, c ;
(right) In polycrystalline material, cleavage planes in neighbouring grains are
tilted by different amounts relative to plane of the paper. Therefore they
cannot be perfectly aligned with each other. Another mechanism is necessary
to link up the cleavage fractures in neighbouring grains. [19]
2
Cleavage, in mineralogy, is the tendency of crystalline materials to split along definite crystallographic
structural planes. These planes of relative weakness are a result of the regular locations of atoms and
ions in the crystal, which create smooth repeating surfaces that are visible both in the microscope and
to the naked eye.
136
In three dimensions the cleavage planes in one grain of a polycrystal will not link up with
the cleavage planes in a neighbouring grain, as indicated in Figure 6.6 Therefore fracture
cannot occur totally by cleavage. Some other mechanism must link up the cleavage
fractures in different grains. Figure 6.7 shows a fracture surface in which there is cleavage
of many grains.
Figure 6.7: Cleavage fracture in an Fe3.9% Ni alloy. The arrow indicates the direction
of crack propagation. [19]
Grain boundary fracture: Some polycrystals have brittle grain boundaries (i.e. pure iron),
which form easy fracture paths. Figure 6.8 shows such an intergranular fracture surface.
The brittleness of grain boundaries may be inherent in the material or may be caused
by segregation of impurities to the grain boundary or even by a film of a brittle second
phase. Commercially pure tungsten and molybdenum fail by grain boundary fracture.
These metals are ductile only when all the grain boundaries are aligned with the direction of elongation, as in tension testing of cold-drawn wire. Copper and copper alloys
are severely embrittled by a very small amount of bismuth, which segregates to and
wets the grain boundaries. Molten FeS in the grain boundaries of steels at hot working
temperatures would cause failure along grain boundaries. Such loss of ductility at high
temperatures is called hot shortness. Hot shortness is prevented in steels by adding Mn,
137
6.4.4
Impact energy
138
radius of 0.25 mm. The pendulum s mass and height are standardised. Sometimes bars
with U or keyhole notches are employed instead. Occasionally subsized bars are tested.
Figure 6.9: (left) Charpy testing machine and test bar. A hammer on the pendulum
breaks the bar. The height to which the pendulum swings after the bar is
broken indicates the energy absorbed. (right) Ductilebrittle transition in a
Charpy V-notch specimen of a low carbon low alloy hot rolled steel. [19]
One of the principal advantages of the Charpy test is that the toughness can easily be
measured over a range of temperatures. A specimen can be heated or cooled to the
specified temperature and then transferred to the Charpy machine and broken quickly
enough so that its temperature change is negligible. For many materials there is a narrow
temperature range over which there is a large change of energy absorption and fracture
appearance. It is common to define a transition temperature in this range. At temperatures below the transition temperature the fracture is brittle and absorbs little energy
in a Charpy test. Above the transition temperature the fracture is ductile and absorbs a
large amount of energy. Figure 6.9 shows typical results for steel.
6.5
6.5.1
139
The macroscopic behaviour of crystalline materials under mechanical or thermal loadings is determined by processes in the microregion of the material. By a combination of
models on the basis of molecular dynamics and cellular automata, it seems possible to simulate numerically the formation of internal structures during the deformation processes.
The stochastical character of these mechanisms can be considered by modelling them as
stochastic processes, which result in Markov chains. By a mean value formulation, this
leads to a macroscopic model consisting of non-linear ordinary differential equations. The
determination of the unknown material parameters is based on a Maximum-Likelihood
output-error method comparing experimental data to the numerical simulations. With
Finite-Element methods, it is possible to use the material models for the design of components and structures in all fields of technical application and for the numerical simulation
of their behaviour under complex loading situations.
Metallic materials show, like other crystalline substances, typical macroscopic responses
on mechanical loading, which are caused by processes on the microscale. Figure 6.10 shows
a typical cyclic stress-strain diagram with constant strain amplitude. Cyclic hardening
can be observed as well as the Bauschinger effect, which can be recognised by the fact that
plastic flow occurs after load reversal at significantly lower stresses than those, from which
the load reversal was done. For the technical use of metallic materials, the description of
this kind of processes in material models is of high importance.
Figure 6.10: Cyclic stressstrain diagram for 304 stainless steel [35]
140
The moving of dislocations is the main microscopic mechanism responsible for the plastic
deformations in metallic materials. In the following, a stochastic model is presented,
which is able to consider hardening and recovery processes by means of Markov chains.
During the deformation process, the dislocations arrange in a hierarchy of structures such
as walls, adders or cells. This forming of structures influences the macroscopic behaviour
of the materials considerably. The principle of cellular automata in combination with the
method of molecular dynamics is used for the numerical simulation of these processes.
For the material parameter identification, the minimisation of the Maximum-Likelihood
cost function by hybrid optimisation methods parallelised with PVM is considered. With
a multiple shooting method, additional information about the states can be taken into
account, and thus the influence of bad initial parameters will be reduced.
6.5.2
The movement of dislocations and the connected plastic deformations caused by external
loading is determined by two important activation mechanisms. The stress activation is
caused by the external loads. The thermal activation supports at elevated temperatures
the dislocation movements and therefore the plastic deformations.
141
foreign atoms and grain boundaries can form obstacles. One of the most important reasons
for the hindering of the dislocations, however, are the dislocations themselves. During
plastic deformation, continuously new dislocations are produced. In the beginning, the
ability of the material for deforming plastically is increased. With increasing dislocation
density, a mutual influence of the lattice disturbances occurs, which results in isotropic
hardening. Due to the lattice distortions connected with the plastic deformation, elastic
energy is stored in the material, which also hinders the movements of the dislocations,
which are generating it. This process is called kinematic hardening. The internal stresses,
however, support the dislocation movements in the opposite direction and result in e.g.
the Bauschinger effect 3 . At elevated temperatures above half of the melting temperature
of the material, thermally activated reorganisation processes in the crystals occur, which
reduce the mutual hindering of the dislocations and result macroscopically in recovery.
6.5.3
For unidirectional as well as for cyclic plastic deformation, it is observed that dislocation
structures are developed in the shape of e.g. adders or dislocation cells, which in a typical
manner depend on the loading history and the loading magnitude (Figure 6.12).
The Bauschinger effect refers to a property of materials where the materials stress/strain characteristics change as a result of the microscopic stress distribution of the material. For example, an increase
in tensile yield strength occurs at the expense of compressive yield strength.
142
can result in valuable information for the choice of formulations for the modelling of processes on the microscale. The interaction of a large number of identical particles is the
basic idea for the definition of cellular automata. It is an idealisation of real physical
systems, where space as well as time are discrete.
A cellular automaton is completely characterised by the following four properties: geometry of the cell arrangement, definition of a neighbourhood, definition of the possible states
of a cell, and evolution rules. Each cell can during the evolution in time only assume values (states) out of a finite set. For all cells, the same evolution rules are valid. The change
in state of a cell depends on its own state and those of the neighbouring cells. Opposite to
the usual assumptions for cellular automata, where the state of a cell only depends on the
states of the next neighbours, for the simulation of dislocation movements, it has to be
taken into account that the dislocations possess long-range acting stress fields. With this
model, it is possible to compute the dynamics of some thousand edge or screw-dislocations
on parallel slip planes in areas of arbitrary magnitude. A basic model, for which only one
slip system in horizontal direction was chosen, assumes a grid of rectangular cells, which
can be occupied by edge or screwdislocations with positive or negative sign.
The transition rules are: A positive or negative occupied cell becomes an empty cell if
the dislocation in the cell will move due to the acting forces to a neighbouring cell or
if an annihilation with a dislocation in a neighbouring cell occurs. The step width of a
dislocation is always one cell size per time step. Reachable cells are the cells left, right,
up and down from the actual cell. This characterises a so called v. Neumann neighbourhood. For the calculation of the forces acting on a dislocation, a larger neighbourhood is
necessary due to the long range acting stress of the dislocations. The balance of forces
decides, if and in which direction a dislocation will move. It is computed for each time
step and each dislocation for both degrees of freedom. A much more realistic simulation
for the development of dislocation structures is obtained from models, which consider
several glide planes.
Figure 6.13 shows a two dimensional projection for the glide system for a cubic face-centred
lattice, and modelling of the glide processes on this system with three glide directions under angles of respectively 60o . The simulation results in wall and labyrinthstructures of
the dislocations (Figure 6.14). An extension of the model with consideration of vacancies
and a suitable velocity law is under progress [35].
143
6.5.4
The description of the processes responsible for plastic deformations shows that they
are strongly stochastic. Figure 6.15 shows for a simplified case for processes at high
temperatures, under consideration of kinematic hardening only, the used stochastic model.
Over the state axis, which represents the value of the kinematic hardening kin , and
therefore the strength of the obstacles resisting the dislocation movements, the distribution of the flow units (dislocations, dislocation packages or grain boundaries) is given.
The effect of the external stress is reduced by the hardening stress, therefore only the
effective stress ef f = kin is responsible for the dislocation movements. Depending
144
Probability of
Hardening
Thermaly Activated
V = c1 exp
V kin
sign ef f
RT
ie
(6.22)
is formulated. This transition probability is based on the condition that thermal activation
of the dislocations can be taken as an empirical Arrhenius function. R is the gas constant
and c1 ; ; V are constants, which have to be determined by experiment. It can be seen
that the transition probability from a certain hardening state to the next higher decreases
with increasing hardening. Hardening is opposed by a recovering process according to:
E = c2 exp
F0
RT
|kin |
0
sinh
V kin
RT
(6.23)
which is thermally activated and not dependent on the external stress. The constants
c2 and m have also to be determined by experiment. The strength of the lattice distortions increases with increasing hardening. It supports the recovery process. Therefore,
the transition probabilities for recovery increase with increasing hardening. The model
simulates hardening and recovery by transitions of dislocations at a barrier strength kin,i
to higher barriers kin,i+1 and lower barriers kin,i1 : The probability that a flow unit
remains in the actual position is given by:
B =I V E
The transition probabilities of the model can be arranged in a stochastic matrix:
(6.24)
1 V1 E2
.
V1
B2 . .
0
V2 . . Ei
..
.
S=
. Bi . .
Vi . . Ek1
..
. Bk1
0
Ek
Vk1 1 Ek
145
(6.25)
The change of the structure, which is described by the state vector z, during one time
step t is given by the Markov chain:
z(t + t) = Sz(t)
(6.26)
For constant stress and temperature (homogeneous process), the state vector after n time
steps is given by z(t0 nt) = S n z(t0 ). The stochastic matrix given by Equation 6.25 can
be transformed to principal axes and yields then:
1 0 0 0
0 2 0 0
1
S = M SM =
..
. 0
0 0
0 0 0 n
(6.27)
where M is the modal matrix, i.e. the matrix of the column wise arranged eigenvectors
of the matrix S. Due to the fact that the maximal principal value of stochastic matrices
is 1 and all other eigenvalues have magnitudes < 1, it is visible that their magnitudes
decrease with increasing time, and the eigenvalue connected with the maximal eigenvalue
1 represents a stationary state. The other principal values are responsible for transient
processes.
An extension of the stochastic model, which allows for the simultaneous consideration of
the development of activation volume V and kinematic stress kin is given in Figure
6.16. Thus, isotropic and kinematic hardening spread a state plane, which allows that
with the distribution of the flow units, the state determined by both hardening types can
be considered. The transition probabilities for the description of the development of the
isotropic and kinematic hardening consider mutually the influences given by the other
hardening process.
146
ie =
F0
C exp( RT
)(
|ef f | n
)
0
V ef f
),
RT
|
| m
F0
exp( RT
)( kin
)
0
(6.28)
sinh(
kin
sinh( VRT
),
(6.29)
(6.30)
The material behaviour is described by a relation for the inelastic strain rate, where the actual values for isotropic and kinematic hardening occur as internal variables. This general
form of the constitutive equations is also the basis for the development of a hierarchical
model classification. A concrete model must be chosen with respect to the intended application purpose. The values C, n, H, , R , m, K1 , K2 and V0 are material parameters,
which have to be determined by comparison with experimental results. The parameter
identification, which consists in integrating the non-linear, ordinary differential equations
for varying parameter sets and by appropriate optimisation methods to search for the
optimal parameter sets, deserves special recognition in aspect of the used mathematical
methods. An additional scaling of the functions like exp FR0 T1 T10
is necessary to
improve the parameter identifiability and the macroscopical interpretations.
6.6. EXERCISES
6.6
147
Exercises
Example 4.1
Consider an isotropic material, loaded so that the principal stresses coincide with the
x, y, andz axes of the material. Assume that the Tresca yield criterion applies. Make a
plot of the combinations of y versus x that will cause yielding with z = 0.
Solution
Divide the y versusx stress space into six sectors as shown in Figure 6.17.
The following conditions are appropriate:
1. x > y > z = 0, so 1 = x , 3 = z = 0, so x = Y
2. x > y > z = 0, so 1 = y , 3 = z = 0, so y = Y
3. y > z = 0 > x , so 1 = y , 3 = x , so y x = Y
4. z = 0 > y > x , so 1 = 0, 3 = x , so x = Y
5. z = 0 > x > y , so 1 = 0, 3 = y , so y = Y
6. x > z = 0 > y , so 1 = x , 3 = y , so x y = Y
It seems reasonable to incorporate the effect of the intermediate principal stress into the
yield criterion. One might try this by assuming that yielding depends on the average of the
diameters of the three Mohrs circles, [(1 2 )+(2 3 )+(1 3 )]/3, but the intermediate
stress term, 2 , drops out of the average: [(1 2 )+(2 3 )+(1 3 )]/3 = (2/3)(1 3 ).
Therefore an average diameter criterion reduces to the Tresca criterion.
Example 4.2
Consider an isotropic material loaded so that the principal stresses coincide with the x,
y, and z axes. Assuming the von Mises yield criterion applies, make a plot of y versus
x yield locus with z = 0.
Solution
Let x = 1 , y = 2 , and z = 0. Now = 2 /1 . Figure 6.18 results from
substituting several values of into Equation 6.12, solving for x /Y and / Y = x /Y ,
and then plotting.
148
Figure 6.17: Plot of the yield locus for the Tresca criterion for z = 0. The Tresca criterion
predicts that the intermediate principal stress has no effect on yielding. For
example, in sector I, the value of y has no effect on the value of x required
for yielding. Only if y is negative or if it is higher than x does it have an
influence. In these cases, it is no longer the intermediate principal stress.[19]
6.6. EXERCISES
149
Example 4.3
Show that the Tresca and von Mises criteria in the:
1. 1 2 space are respectively a hexagon and an ellipse, and in the:
2. 1 1 2 2 space are both ellipses.
Solution
(a) The general form of the Tresca criterion in the principal stress space is
[(1 2 )2 4k 2 ][(2 3 )2 4k 2 ][(3 1 )2 4k 2 ] = 0
Substitution of = 0 leads to
[(1 2 )2 4k 2 ][22 4k 2 ][12 4k 2 ] = 0
Figure 6.19: Tresca and von Mises Criteria on the plane. [19]
The most content of this chapter is based on the contents of the book Fluid Mechanics and
introduction to the theory of Fluid Flows by Prof. Franz Durst [14], further references
are [8], [15], and [26].
Flows occur in many fields of our natural and technical environment. Without fluid flows
life, as we know it, would not be possible on Earth, nor could technological processes run
in the form known to us and lead to the multitude of products which determine the high
standard of living that we nowadays take for granted.
Flows are therefore vital. Flows are everywhere and there are flow-dependent transport
processes that supply our body with the oxygen that is essential to life. In the blood
vessels of the human body, essential nutrients are transported by mass flows and are thus
carried to the cells, where they contribute, by complex chemical reactions, to the build-up
of our body and to its energy supply. Similarly to the significance of fluid flows for the
human body, the multitude of flows in the entire fauna and flora are equally important
(see Figure 7.1).
As further vital processes in our natural environment, flows in rivers, lakes and seas have
to be mentioned, and also atmospheric flow processes, whose influences on the weather
and thus on the climate of entire geographical regions is well known.
Other effects on our natural environment are the devastations that hurricanes and cyclones
can cause.
A large part of the energy generated in a combustion engine of a car is used, especially
when the vehicles run at high speed, to overcome the energy loss resulting from the
150
151
Figure 7.1: Flow processes occur in many ways in our natural environment, [34]
flow resistance which the vehicle experiences owing to the momentum loss and the flow
separations. Excellent work has been done in this area of fluid mechanics (see Figure 7.2),
e.g. in aerodynamics, where new aeroplane wing profiles and wing geometries as well as
wing body connections were developed which show minimal losses due to friction and
collision while maintaining the high lift forces necessary in aeroplane aerodynamics.
In the field of chemical engineering are many areas such as heat and mass transfer processes
and chemical reactions are influenced or rendered by flow processes. In this field of
engineering, it becomes particularly clear that much of the knowledge gained in the natural
sciences can be used technically only because it is possible to let processes run in a steady
and controlled way.
In many areas of chemical engineering, fluid flows are being used to make steady-state
processes possible and to guarantee the controllability of plants, i.e. flows are being employed in many places in process engineering. Often it is necessary to use flow media
whose properties deviate strongly from those of Newtonian fluids 1 , in order to optimize
1
Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose stress versus strain rate curve is linear and passes through the
origin. The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity.
152
Figure 7.2: Fluid flows are applied in many ways in our technical environment, [14]
processes, i.e. the use of non-Newtonian fluids2 or multi-phase fluids is necessary. The
selection of more complex properties of the flowing fluids in technical plants generally
leads to more complex flow processes, whose efficient employment is not possible without
detailed knowledge in the field of the flow mechanics of simple fluids, i.e. fluids with Newtonian properties. In a few descriptions in the present introduction to fluid mechanics,
the properties of non-Newtonian media are mentioned and interesting aspects of the flows
of these fluids are shown. The main emphasis of this book lies, however, in the field of
the flows of Newtonian media. As these are of great importance in many applications,
their special treatment in this book is justified.
Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties are not described by a single constant value of
viscosity. Many polymer solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, such as ketchup,
starch suspensions, paint, blood and shampoo. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear
stress and the strain rate is nonlinear and might be time and or velocitydependent.
7.2
153
All substances of our natural and technical environment can be subdivided into solid,
liquid and gaseous media, on the basis of their state of aggregation. This subdivision is
accepted in many fields of engineering in order to reveal important differences concerning
the properties of the substances. This subdivision could also be applied to fluid mechanics,
but, it would not be particularly advantageous. It is rather recommended to employ fluid
mechanics aspects to achieve a subdivision of media, i.e. a subdivision appropriate for the
treatment of fluid flow processes. To this end, the term fluid is introduced for designating
all those substances that cannot be classified clearly as solids.
Hence, from the point of view of fluid mechanics, all media can be subdivided into solids
and fluids, the difference between the two groups being that solids possess elasticity as
an important property, whereas fluids have viscosity as a characteristic property.
When external shear forces are imposed on fluids, they react with the buildup of velocity
gradients, where the build-up of the gradient results via a moleculedependent momentum
transport, i.e. momentum transport through fluid viscosity. Thus elasticity (solids) and
viscosity (liquids) are the properties of matter that are employed in fluid mechanics for
subdividing media.
However, there are a few exceptions to this subdivision, such as in the case of some of
the materials in rheology exhibiting mixed properties. They are therefore referred to as
visco-elastic media. Some of them behave such that for small deformations they behave
like solids and for large deformations they behave like liquids.
A fluid tries to evade the smallest external shear stresses by starting to flow. Hence it
can be inferred from this that a fluid at rest is characterized by a state which is free of
external shear stresses. Each area in a fluid at rest is therefore exposed to normal stresses
only (Hydrostatic Case).
The viscous (or the molecular) transport of momentum observed in a fluid, should not
be mistaken to be similar to the elastic forces in solids. The viscous forces cannot even
be analogously addressed as elastic force. This is the case for all liquids and gases as the
two important subgroups of fluids which take part in the fluid motions considered here.
Hence the present work is dedicated to the treatment of fluid flows of liquids and gases.
On the basis of these explanations of fluid flows, the fluids in motion can simply be seen
as media free from stresses and are therefore distinguished from solids.
The shear stresses that are often introduced when treating fluid flows of common liquids
and gases represent molecule-dependent momentumtransport terms in reality. Neighbor-
154
ing layers of a flowing fluid, having a velocity gradient between them, do not interact with
each another through shear stresses but through an exchange of momentum due to the
molecular motion between the layers.
This can be explained by simplified derivations aiming for a clear physical understanding
of the molecular processes, as stated in the Section 7.3. The derivations presented below
are carried out for an ideal gas, since they can be understood particularly well for this
case of fluid motion. The results from these derivations therefore cannot be transferred
in all aspects to fluids with more complex properties.
For further subdivision of fluids, it is recommended to make use of their response to
normal stresses (or pressure) acting on fluid elements. When a fluid element reacts to
pressure changes by adjusting its volume and consequently its density, the fluid is called
compressible. When no volume or density changes occur with pressure or temperature,
the fluid is regarded as incompressible although, strictly, incompressible fluids do not
exist. Indeed, this subdivision mainly distinguishes liquids from gases.
Liquids and some plastic materials show very small expansion coefficients (typical values
for isobaric expansion are p = 10 106 K 1 ), whereas gases have much larger expansion
coefficients (typical values are p = 1.000106 K 1 ). A comparison of the two subgroups
of fluids shows that liquids fulfill the condition of incompressibility with a precision that
is adequate for the treatment of most flow problems. Based on the assumption of incompressibility, the basic equations of fluid mechanics can be simplified, as the following
derivations (Section 7.3) show; in particular, the number of equations needed for the
general description of fluid flow processes is reduced from 6 to 4. This simplification of
the basic equations for incompressible fluid flows allows a considerable reduction in the
complexity of the requested theoretical treatments for simple and complex geometries,
e.g. in the case of problems without heat transfer the energy equation does not have to
be solved.
The simplified basic equations of fluid mechanics, derived for incompressible media, can
occasionally also be applied to flows of compressible fluids, such for cases where the density
variations, occurring in the entire flow field, are small compared with the fluid density.
For further characterization of a fluid, reference is made to the wellknown fact that solids
conserve their form, whereas a fluid volume has no form of its own, but takes the form
of the container in which it is kept. Liquids differ from gases in terms of the available
volume taken by the fluids, filling only part of the container, whereas the remaining part
is either not filled or contains a gas and there exists a free surface between liquid and the
155
gas. Such a surface does not exist when the container is filled only with a gas. As already
said, a gas takes up the entire container volume.
Finally, it can be concluded that there are a number of media that can only be categorized,
in a limited way, according to the above classification. They include media that consist of
two-phase mixtures. These have properties that cannot be classified easily, and will not
be described here.
7.3
7.3.1
For fluid mechanics considerations, a closed fluid system can always be found or is assumed, i.e. a system whose total mass M = constant. This is easily seen for a fluid mass,
which is stored in a container. For all other fluid flow
Figure 7.3: Different fluid flow cases within control volumes for which M = constant can
be set, [14]
considerations, as shown in Figure 7.3, control volumes can always be defined within which
the systems total mass can be stated as constant. If necessary these control volumes can
comprise the whole earth to reach M = constant. When one subdivides the fluid mass
M within the considered system into fluid elements with sub-masses m , then for the
temporal change of the total mass one obtains:
0=
d
dM
=
dt
(m )
=
dt
(m )
dt
(7.1)
156
This equation expresses that the total mass conservation in the control volume of the fluid
system is preserved when each individual fluid element conserves its mass m . With this
the balance equation for the mass conservation can be stated as follows, in Lagrange
notation:
(m )
dt
(7.2)
and so with some mathematical formulation the continuity equation holds in one of the
following two forms:
Ui
+
=0
t
xi
Ui
=0
xi
7.3.2
(Compressible Flows)
(7.3)
(Incompressible Flows)
(7.4)
The derivations of the momentum equations of fluid mechanics are usually given for the
three coordinate directions j = 1, 2, 3. They express Newtons second law and are
easiest formulated in their Lagrange forms. For a fluid element, it is stated that the
time derivative of the momentum in the j direction is equal to the sum of the external
forces acting in this direction on the fluid element, plus the molecular-dependent input of
momentum per unit time. For the viscous and ideal fluids the momentum equations can
be stated:
Uj
Uj
P ij
+ Ui
)=
+ gj
t
xi
xj
xi
P
Uj
Uj
(
+ Ui
)=
+ gj
t
xi
xj
7.3.3
(Viscous Fluids)
(7.5)
(Ideal Fluids)
(7.6)
These equations are useful because they describe the physics of many things of academic
and economic interest. They may be used to model the weather, ocean currents, water
flow in a pipe, air flow around a wing, and motion of stars inside a galaxy. The Navier
Stokes equations in their full and simplified forms help with the design of aircraft and
cars, the study of blood flow, the design of power stations, the analysis of pollution, and
157
many other things. Coupled with Maxwells equations they can be used to model and
study magnetohydrodynamics.
The NavierStokes equations are also of great interest in a purely mathematical sense.
Somewhat surprisingly, given their wide range of practical uses, mathematicians have not
yet proven that in three dimensions solutions always exist (existence), or that if they do
exist, then they do not contain any singularity (or infinity or discontinuity) (smoothness).
These are called the NavierStokes existence and smoothness problems. The Clay
Mathematics Institute has called this one of the seven most important open problems
in mathematics and has offered a US 1.000.000 dollar prize for a solution or a counterexample.
Uj
Uj
P 2 Uj
+ Ui
)=
2
+ gj
t
xi
xj
xi
(j = 1, 2, 3)
(7.7)
This system of equations comprises four equations for the four unknowns P, U1 , U2 , U3 .
In principle, it can be solved for all flow problems to be investigated if suitable initial and
158
boundary conditions are given. For thermodynamically ideal liquids, i.e. = constant,
a complete system of partial differential equations exists through the continuity equation
and the momentum equations, which can be used for solutions of flow problems.
Properties
Nonlinearity The NavierStokes equations are nonlinear partial differential equations
in almost every real situation. In some cases, such as onedimensional flow and Stokes
flow (or creeping flow), the equations can be simplified to linear equations. The nonlinearity makes most problems difficult or impossible to solve and is the main contributor
to the turbulence that the equations model.
The nonlinearity is due to convective acceleration, which is an acceleration associated
with the change in velocity over position. Hence, any convective flow, whether turbulent
or not, will involve nonlinearity, an example of convective but laminar (nonturbulent)
flow would be the passage of a viscous fluid (for example, oil) through a small converging
nozzle. Such flows, whether exactly solvable or not, can often be thoroughly studied and
understood.
Turbulence Turbulence is the time dependent chaotic behavior seen in many fluid flows.
It is generally believed that it is due to the inertia of the fluid as a whole: the culmination
of time dependent and convective acceleration; hence flows where inertial effects are small
tend to be laminar (the Reynolds number quantifies how much the flow is affected by
inertia). It is believed, though not known with certainty, that the NavierStokes
equations describe turbulence properly.
The numerical solution of the NavierStokes equations for turbulent flow is extremely
difficult, and due to the significantly different mixing-length scales that are involved in
turbulent flow, the stable solution of this requires such a fine mesh resolution that the
computational time becomes significantly infeasible for calculation. Attempts to solve
turbulent flow using a laminar solver typically result in a time-unsteady solution, which
fails to converge appropriately. To counter this, time-averaged equations such as the
Reynolds-AveragedNavier-Stokes equations (RANS), supplemented with turbulence
models (such as the k-e model), are used in practical computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
applications when modeling turbulent flows. Another technique for solving numerically
the NavierStokes equation is the Large-eddy simulation (LES). This approach is computationally more expensive than the RANS method (in time and computer memory),
but produces better results since the larger turbulent scales are explicitly resolved.
Applicability Together with supplemental equations (for example, conservation of mass)
and well formulated boundary conditions, the NavierStokes equations seem to model
159
fluid motion accurately; even turbulent flows seem (on average) to agree with real world
observations.
The NavierStokes equations assume that the fluid being studied is a Continuum not
moving at relativistic velocities. At very small scales or under extreme conditions, real
fluids made out of discrete molecules will produce results different from the continuous
fluids modeled by the NavierStokes equations. Depending on the Knudsen number
of the problem, statistical mechanics or possibly even molecular dynamics may be a more
appropriate approach.
Another limitation is very simply the complicated nature of the equations. Time tested
formulations exist for common fluid families, but the application of the NavierStokes
equations to less common families tends to result in very complicated formulations which
are an area of current research. For this reason, the NavierStokes equations are
usually written for Newtonian fluids.
Example
The NavierStokes equations, even when written explicitly for specific fluids, are rather
generic in nature and their proper application to specific problems can be very diverse.
This is partly because there is an enormous variety of problems that may be modeled,
ranging from as simple as the distribution of static pressure to as complicated as multiphase flow driven by surface tension.
Generally, application to specific problems begins with some flow assumptions and initial/boundary condition formulation, this may be followed by scale analysis to further
simplify the problem. For example, after assuming steady, parallel, one dimensional,
nonconvective pressure driven flow between parallel plates, the resulting scaled (dimensionless) boundary value problem is:
d2 u
= 1;
dy 2
u(0) = u(1) = 0
(7.8)
The boundary condition is the no slip condition. This problem is easily solved for the
flow field:
u(y) =
y y2
2
(7.9)
From this point onward more quantities of interest can be easily obtained, such as viscous
drag force or net flow rate.
160
Difficulties may arise when the problem becomes slightly more complicated. A seemingly
modest twist on the parallel flow above would be the radial flow between parallel plates;
this involves convection and thus nonlinearity. The velocity field may be represented by
a function f (z) that must satisfy:
df
+ Rf 2 = 1; f (1) = f (1) = 0
dz 2
(7.10)
This ordinary differential equation is what is obtained when the NavierStokes equations are written and the flow assumptions applied (additionally, the pressure gradient is
solved for). The nonlinear term makes this a very difficult problem to solve analytically
(a lengthy implicit solution may be found which involves elliptic integrals and roots of
cubic polynomials). Issues with the actual existence of solutions arise for R > 1.41 (approximately. This is not the square root of two), the parameter R being the Reynolds
number3 with appropriately chosen scales. This is an example of flow assumptions losing
their applicability, and an example of the difficulty in high Reynolds number flows.
3
Reynolds number can be defined for a number of different situations where a fluid is in relative
motion to a surface (the definition of the Reynolds number is not to be confused with the Reynolds
Equation or lubrication equation). These definitions generally include the fluid properties of density and
viscosity, plus a velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension is a
matter of convention - for example a radius or diameter are equally valid for spheres or circles, but one
is chosen by convention. For aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe or a
sphere moving in a fluid the internal diameter is generally used today. Other shapes (such as rectangular
pipes or non-spherical objects) have an equivalent diameter defined. For fluids of variable density (e.g.
compressible gases) or variable viscosity (non-Newtonian fluids) special rules apply. The velocity may
also be a matter of convention in some circumstances, notably stirred vessels.
Re =
V L
VL
QL
=
=
(7.11)
where:
V is the mean fluid velocity (SI units: m
s )
L is a characteristic linear dimension, (traveled length of fluid, or hydraulic radius when dealing with
river systems) (m)
is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas or N s/m2 or kg/ms)
is the kinematic viscosity ( = /)(m2 /s)
is the density of the fluid (kg/m3 )
Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3 /s)
A is the pipe cross-sectional area (m2 ).
161
7.3.4
A special form of the mechanical energy equation is the Bernoulli equation, which can be
derived from the general form of the mechanical energy equation:
d( 12 Uj2 + G)
P
ij
=
Uj
dt
xj
xi U j
For ij = 0 and
P
t
(7.12)
(7.13)
This form of the mechanical energy equation can be employed in many engineering applications to solve flow problems in an engineering manner.
7.3.5
When one sets up the energy equation with the total energy balance, the considerations
stated below result, which start from the entire internal, the kinetic and the potential
energies of a fluid element and consider its evolution as a function of time:
de
Uj
q .
Uj
= i P
ij
dt
xi
xj
xi
I
II
III
IV
(7.14)
162
Term
Term
Term
Term
I
II
III
IV
7.4
Energy
Energy is the capacity to do work and transfer heat. Work is performed when an object
or substance is moved over some distance. Energy is needed to carry out processes, such
as boiling water or burning candles. Energy is also the heat that flows from a hot object
or substance to a cold one, when they come in contact. A clear example of this is the
fact that water heats up when you put in a water boiler device. Energy has many forms,
such as light, heat, electricity, chemical energy (stored in chemical bonds) and mechanical
energy (moving matter, such as flowing water).
All energy forms are divided up between two main kinds of energy. The first main kind
of energy is kinetic energy, the energy of motion and action. Heat is a total of kinetic
energy of atoms, ions or molecules. When these chemical compounds are in motion due
to kinetic energy they will warm up. You cannot always detect heat that originates from
kinetic energy, because sometimes the heat of a substance can rise without an additional
rise in temperature. The second main kind of energy is potential energy, energy that
is stored and potentially available for use. Before potential energy can be used it is
transferred into kinetic energy. An example of an object containing merely potential
energy is a dice that you hold in your hand. When you throw the dice the potential
energy is transferred into kinetic energy and this will cause the movement.
Hydroelectric Power Hydroelectric power is electricity that is supplied by generating
energy from falling or streaming water (Figure 7.10). Hydroelectric power is a socalled
renewable energy source. This means that the source, which provides the energy, can be
renewed. This is because, unlike non-renewable energy sources such as crude oil, we will
not run out of water fully. It can be renewed after we have used it for energy generation.
Hydroelectric Power Plant A hydroelectric power plant consists of a high dam that is
built across a large river to create a reservoir, and a station where the process of energy
conversion to electricity takes place (Figure 7.6).
The run-off flows to dams downstream. The water falls through a dam, into the hydropower plant and turns a large wheel called a turbine. The turbine converts the energy
7.4. ENERGY
163
7.4.1
Turbine
A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid or air flow and converts it
into useful work. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is
a shaft or drum, with blades attached (Figure 7.7). Moving fluid acts on the blades, or
the blades react to the flow, so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.
Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels.
7.4.2
Theory of Operation
A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity
head). The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are
employed by turbines to collect this energy:
Impulse turbines (Figure 7.9) These turbines change the direction of flow of a high
velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow
164
7.4. ENERGY
165
or fluids pressure or mass. The pressure of the gas or fluid changes as it passes through
the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it
acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow (such
as with wind turbines).
The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains
the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use
this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages are usually used to
harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newtons third law describes the transfer of energy
for reaction turbines. In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine
applications or for land-based electricity generation, a Parsons type reaction turbine would
require approximately double the number of blade rows as a de Laval type impulse turbine,
for the same degree of thermal energy conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine
much longer and heavier, the overall efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than
the equivalent impulse turbine for the same thermal energy conversion.
166
generate lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor (this is a form of reaction).
Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an
angle.
Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head
applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel.
Turbines with multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam Turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards
reaction designs similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low pressure the operating
fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions
(termed Low Pressure Turbines) blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the
base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed
for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the
blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer
to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip.
7.4. ENERGY
167
exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1 . The rotor rotates
at velocity U . Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor
entrance is Vr1 . The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity
Vr2 . However, in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2 . The velocity triangles are
constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed
at any section through the blading (for example: hub , tip, midsection and so on) but
are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance for the stage can be
calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler equation:
whence:
h = u.w
(7.15)
u
w
h
= ( ).( )
T
T
T
(7.16)
where:
h
T
u
w
h
and
T
168
169
(a) Crosssection and Top View at dif- (b) Flow Channel and Collision of
ferent layers
Molecules
Figure 7.12: Fluid Turbine Design with using negative pressure effects: Accelerated Nozzle (High Speed Flow); Inlet at bottom, Outlet at top; Orange cone is rotating [17]
(a) Negative Pressure Ring Tur- (b) Geometry for Negative Presbine (Ring Wirbel Motor)
sure Pump (Sog Pumpe)
Figure 7.13: Examples of different Turbine Geometries, for including negative pressure
effects, [17]
7.5
FluidStructure Interaction
FluidStructure interaction (FSI) is the interaction of some movable or deformable structure with an internal or surrounding fluid flow[1]. FluidStructure interactions can be
170
stable or oscillatory. In oscillatory interactions, the strain induced in the solid structure
causes it to move such that the source of strain is reduced, and the structure returns to
its former state only for the process to repeat.
7.5.1
Basic Idea
Consider the two-way interaction of two scalar fields, X and Y , sketched in Figure 7.14.
Each field has only one state variable identified as x(t) and y(t), respectively, which are
assumed to be governed by the first-order differential equations
3x. + 4x y = f (t)
y . + 6y 2x = g(t)
in which f (t) and g(t) are the applied forces. Treat this by Backward Euler integration4
in each component:
xn+1 = xn + hx.n+1
.
yn+1 = yn + hyn+1
xn+1
hfn+1 + 3xn
=
yn+1
hgn+1 + yn
(7.17)
backward Euler method is an implicit method, meaning that we have to solve an equation to find
yn+1 . One often uses fixed point iteration or (some modification of) the NewtonRaphson method to
achieve this.
171
Examples
FluidStructure interactions are a crucial consideration in the design of many engineering
systems, e.g. aircrafts and bridges. Failing to consider the effects of oscillatory interactions
can be catastrophic, especially in structures comprising materials susceptible to fatigue.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940), the first Tacoma Narrows Bridge, is probably one of
the most infamous examples of large-scale failure. Aircraft wings and turbine blades can
break due to FSI oscillations. Fluid-structure interaction has to be taken into account
for the analysis of aneurysms in large arteries and artificial heart valves. A reed actually
produces sound because the system of equations governing its dynamics has oscillatory
solutions. The dynamic of reed valves used in two strokes engines and compressors is
governed by FSI. The act of blowing a raspberry is another such example.
172
analysis of a new hydraulic turbine design to power a generator providing between 1.0
and 1.2 kW for remote dwellings not connected to an electrical supply grid. The analysis
was performed by SIMTEC S.A. using ADINA [1].
In the analysis, the turbine was modeled to determine its characteristic curves of torque
and power vs. rotational speed. The figures 7.16 are provided to give an idea of the
general trend of the results.
Figure 7.16(a) shows the geometry of the turbine. The finite element mesh used is shown
in Figure 7.16(b), the results of flow simulation are schown in Figure 7.16(c) and (d) as
radial and tangential velocity in colored plots.
(c) Relative radial velocity band plot along edge of (d) Relative tangential velocity band plot along
blade
edge of blade
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