A PROJECT REPORT ON

FLIGHT SAFETY


SUBMITTED BY
ROLL NO. 24
T.Y.B.Sc (Aviation)


THE BOMBAY FLYING CLUBS COLLEGE OF AVIATION

SUBMITTED TO
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI



ACADEMIC YEAR
(2013-2014)


1

Foreword

Safety is the notion when the risk of causing harm to a person or property is
reduced and supported at acceptable or lower level due to continuous process of
danger and risk management
Hazards pose serious danger to the safety of the flight. Identification, elimination and
more importantly prevention of these various hazards is crucial for safe operations.
This project report is an overview of fundamental safety management concepts and
practices applicable to implementation of safety programmes as well as the
implementation and oversight of safety management systems by product and service
providers and operators.
Safety is a concern of everyone who flies or contemplates it. One can be provided
with volumes of information about the attention to safety given by the airline
industry. No other form of transportation is as scrutinized, investigated and
monitored as commercial aviation.
Everyone who is involved in aviation, regardless of our roles, has always considered
safety to be our first priority. Whether we are air traffic controllers, pilots, dispatchers,
maintenance professionals or other members of the aviation community, our actions
are driven by the principle safety first.




2

Index
The Concept of Safety 3
Onboard 4
Emergency Situations 5
Fire On Board an Aircraft 6
Smoke On Board an Aircraft 11
Fuel Tank Inerting Systems 13
Decompression in Flight 15
Brace for Impact 18
Evacuation 19
Ditching 21
Fuel Jettison 23
Conclusion 25
Bibliography 26









3

The Concept of Safety

Within the context of aviation, safety is the state in which the possibility of harm to
persons or of property damage is reduced to, and maintained at or below, an
acceptable level through a continuing process of hazard identification and safety risk
management.
While the elimination of aircraft accidents and/or serious incidents remains the
ultimate goal, it is recognized that the aviation system cannot be completely free of
hazards and associated risks. Human activities or human-built systems cannot be
guaranteed to be absolutely free from operational errors and their consequences.
Therefore, safety is a dynamic characteristic of the aviation system, whereby safety
risks must be continuously mitigated. It is important to note that the acceptability of
safety performance is often influenced by domestic and international norms and
culture. As long as safety risks are kept under an appropriate level of control, a
system as open and dynamic as aviation can still be managed to maintain the
appropriate balance between production and protection.
One of the most important aspects of flight safety is that all crewmembers should be
aware that it is vital to communicate, cooperate and work together as a team, in both
routine and emergency situations.
The following chain of command should always be respected:
Pilot-In-Command (PIC)
First Officer or Cruise Captain (where applicable)
Flight Engineer or Second Officer (where applicable)
Lead Cabin Crewmember
Cabin Crewmember
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The PIC is responsible for the safety of the passengers, crewmembers, cargo, and
aircraft at the exact point at which the PIC assumes that responsibility in the aircraft
and continues until released from flight duty. Any disagreements relating to this
authority will be handled after the completion of the flight through the proper
authority. In the event both the PIC and First Officer (and other flight deck crew)
become incapacitated, the Lead Cabin Crewmember should take command and
ensure the safety of the passengers.
The Cabin Crew is in charge of the passenger cabin area and should ensure
compliance with all applicable State regulations (e.g., Canadian Aviation
Regulations, Federal Aviation Regulations, J oint Aviation Requirements, etc.)
concerning safety of flight and passenger activity in the cabin.
Onboard
When youre on a plane, you may hear a flight attendant give a speech like this:
Well be taking off momentarily, so please make sure your carryon baggage is
stowed securely, either in an overhead compartment or under the seat in front of
you. Mobile phones and other electronic devices should be turned off. There are six
exits on this plane 3 doors, on each side. All exits are clearly marked with an exit
sign. Please take the time to find the exit nearest you. If youre seated in an exit row,
please review the responsibilities for emergency exit seating, on the back of the
safety information card which is in your seat pocket. If you are unable, or prefer not
to do this, please let us know, and we will be happy to find you another seat. If there
is a loss of cabin pressure, the panels above your seat will open, and oxygen
masks will drop down. If this happens, place the mask over your nose and mouth,
and adjust it as necessary. Be sure to adjust your own mask before helping others.
In the event of a water landing, life vests are under your seat. Whenever the seat
belt sign is on, please make sure your seat belt is fastened. Smoking is not allowed
on our flights, and federal law prohibits tampering with, disabling, or destroying a
smoke detector. Thank you for your attention. We hope you enjoy your flight!
The cabin crew arm the doors, perform necessary cross checks, and notify the Lead
Cabin Crewmember upon completion. A safety demonstration is given to passengers
prior to each takeoff. All cabin crew should instruct the passengers via video or
actual demonstration on the following:
Importance of following crewmember instructions
Restrictions on the use of passenger owned electronic devices
Smoking restrictions
Fastening seat belts
Putting seat backs in the upright position
Stowing tray tables
Opening window shades fully (some Operators procedures)
5

Location of emergency exits
Showing the safety instruction seat pocket card
Use of life vest
Use of oxygen drop-out systems
Note: The items above are listed in the order in which they would occur in flight.

Passenger seat belts are provided on every seat. They consist of two parts to be
secured tightly during take-off, landing and any time the passenger is seated. Seat
belt extensions should also be available. Cabin crew should check them before
every departure.

Life J ackets are used for floatation in a ditching situation. They can be found under
each cabin seat. Passengers' life jackets are normally in yellow colour and a different
colour for the crew. Life J ackets are made up of two buoyancy chambers that can be
inflated by two CO2 cartridges, one for each chamber. Alternatively, two
mouthpieces -one for each chamber- may be used to inflate or deflate them. A water
activated light and a whistle are incorporated for the purpose of attracting rescuers'
attention.
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To don an adult life jacket: Slip it over your head; Fasten the hooks; Pull it tight
around the waist; Pull down sharply on gas release knobs to inflate; Blow into the red
tubes to top up the air if needed; to loosen the belt, squeeze the buckles.
Life jackets for infants are exactly the same as life jackets for adults, except that they
are single chamber jackets. Children up to the age of 4 years or those weighing up to
20 kilograms may use these life jackets.
Emergency Situations
The majority of all emergencies happen on take-off or landing with no prior warning.
These emergencies are sudden and unexpected, leaving minimum time to react.
Whenever a take-off or landing manoeuvre exhibits a definite difference in forces,
sounds, or attitudes from the normal, determine the necessity to prepare the
passengers for a possible impact and if deemed appropriate shout passenger
protective commands repeatedly (e.g., Bend down, stay down).
The key to successful management of an emergency situation, and/or preventing a
non-normal situation from progressing into a true emergency, is a thorough
familiarity with, and adherence to, the procedures developed by the airplane
manufacturer with addition to regulations. The PIC will advise the Lead Cabin
Crewmember of an emergency situation as soon as possible. The Lead Cabin
Crewmember will obtain the necessary information to prepare the cabin
crewmembers and cabin.
Fire On Board an Aircraft
Fire is considered to be the most serious in-flight emergency. A recent study of in-
flight fires carried out by the Transportation Safety Board of Canada, in which 15 in-
flight fires between the years 1967 and 1998 were studied, revealed that the average
length of time between the discovery of an in-flight fire and the actual landing of the
aircraft/CFIT is 17 minutes.
A fire must be brought under control as soon as possible. Considering how time
critical this type of emergency is; it is imperative that not a second is lost in trying to
suppress the fire and minimize the risk to the flight. Due to the nature of a fire, and
its devastating effects on an aircraft, particularly within a confined space, it is
important to know what steps should be taken to prevent the fire, and to stop it from
spreading. Emphasis has been placed on crews taking Immediate and aggressive
action to locate the source of the fire and to immediately put it out. Any fire, no
matter how small, may rapidly become out of control, if not dealt with immediately.
Therefore, at the first sign of any fire, the first priority will always be to put it out.
In-flight fire fighting skills require knowledge, technique and realistic hands on
training for crewmembers.
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While every effort is made by manufacturers, regulatory authorities and Operators to
reduce the risk of fire on board by providing fire resistant material and enforcing rules
designed to minimize fire hazards, fires still occur for various reasons.
Sometimes a fire may not always be obvious and smoke and flames may not always
be visible, but there may be other indications that a potential fire is in progress. Signs
to be aware of include:
Fumes or unusual odours
Electrical malfunctions, for example, circuit breakers tripping
Noises, such as, popping, snapping or crackling, which may indicate electrical
arcing
Hot spots on sidewalls, floors, and panels should be investigated.
The best fire prevention involves continuous vigilance in the application of the
procedures described, and a thorough program that describes the three elements of
fire along with the need to keep these elements separated.
The three elements of fire are:
1. Oxygen (present in the atmosphere, in certain emergency/medical equipment)
2. Ignition source (electric, heat, matches)
3. Flammable solid or substance (material, paper, rubber, fuel, gases, etc.)

The Fire Triangle
Fires can be complex, in order to fight a fire successfully crewmembers need to
know what they may have to deal with, therefore it is important to know a little about
fire chemistry and combustion and the different classes of fire.
8

There are several types of fires that can occur on an aircraft. Crew should be able to
identify each type and determine the most effective extinguishing agent to use.

Fires are divided into four main groups with different characteristics:
Class A Fire - Flammable Solids
Any object that might catch ignition and be set on fire requiring the cooling effect of
water (e.g., material, wood, paper, cushions, etc.) It is safe to use any type of
extinguishers against such fire whenever water is not available.
Smoke: Usually greyish/brown in colour. Can be quite thick depending on the
quantity of fuel.
Class B Fire - Liquid Fire
Liquid fire involves flammable substances that are usually lighter than water (e.g., oil,
fuel, paint, kerosene). Water and water glycol fire extinguishers should not be used
9

to fight such fire, as water will only help it spread and expand. Concentration should
be on the exclusion of oxygen.
Smoke: Usually black in colour, very thick, very distinct oil/petrol-like odour.
Class C Fire - Electrical Fire
Fire involving electrical equipment is usually the result of a short circuit. It is essential
to cut the electrical source of ignition and exclude the oxygen. Beware of using water
against such fire to prevent electric shocks. If there is no other alternative, water
glycol extinguishers could be used in short shots.
Smoke: Usually light grey, nearly white with a bluish tinge. Very fine smoke can
disperse rapidly. Has a distinct acrid odour.
Class D Fire Metal Fire
Metal fire involves certain combustible metals (e.g., magnesium, titanium, potassium,
sodium). These metals burn at high temperatures and give off sufficient oxygen to
support combustion. They may react violently with water or other chemicals and
must be handled with care. Never discharge Halon on Class D fires.
Halon or BCF (chemical name bromochlorodiflouromethane, are member of the
chemical family of Halogenated Hydrocarbons) is a liquefied gas that extinguishes
fires by chemically interrupting a fires combustion chain, as opposed to physically
smothering the fire. This is one of the main reasons why Halon is effective when the
exact source of the fire cannot be positively determined. A small concentration of
Halon in the air as a vapor will prevent a fire from continuing to burn. Halon is toxic,
and crewmembers should take precautions when using a Halon extinguisher in a
confined/unventilated area. A PBE (Portable breathing equipment) should be used.
Fire fighting principles aim at limiting the area of fire by eliminating any one of its
three components: i.e., cutting the source of ignition, cooling the heat (by water
glycol fire extinguishers, liquids) or by smothering the fire by isolating it from oxygen
(halon extinguishers, blankets, pillows)
Fire has three recognized stages:
The Incipient Stage: The preheating stage, when the fire is in slow
progress.
The Smouldering Stage: When the initial combustion begins. This is the
stage were a light haze will appear, or smoke particles may be visible. The
smoke particles can be transported away from the source by convection
and background air movement.
The Flame Stage: When the fire has fully developed, and is spreading
rapidly.

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A fire will continue until:
All the fuel has been consumed
One, or more, element has been removed
The temperature has been reduced
The chain reaction has been broken.
How to Use a Fire Extinguisher:

Engine Fire
Take account of whether the aeroplane is in the air or on the ground. The following
are general considerations and are not specific to type.
Piston Engine Fire:
1. Fuel off
2. Allow the engine to run dry
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3. The system should then be purged of fuel
4. Ignition off
Jet Engine Fire:
1. Close the thrust lever
2. Engine start lever to cut-off
3. Pull the engine fire warning switch
If the warning continues, operate the fire extinguisher system. If this does not work,
after 30 seconds, operate the second fire extinguisher system.
Turboprop Engine Fire
Same as for the J et Engine Fire except that at some stage the propeller needs
feathering.
Smoke On Board an Aircraft
It has been said that: There is no smoke, without fire. This may not always be true;
however, it would certainly be a good indication of an abnormal situation. Many
smoke occurrences are resolved, and do not affect the operation of a flight. All
reports of smoke in the cabin must be regarded as potentially serious. It is important
that crewmembers respond, report, and be aware of the indications of smoke.
Identifying the source of smoke, and taking immediate action, will significantly
minimize the risk of fire onboard the aircraft.
The existence of smoke may impact flight operations, cause flight diversions, and
may result in delays, cancellations, declared emergencies, evacuations. In addition,
the presence of smoke may physically affect passengers and crewmembers, if it is
not dealt with rapidly and efficiently.
It is wise to treat a smoke occurrence as a fire, until it has been proven otherwise.
Keep in mind that the development of an odour, or smoke, takes some time to reach
a level that is easily noticeable.
Another indication may be a surface that is abnormally warm. If the source can be
identified and is connected to an electrical source; the circuit breaker relating to that
coffeemaker should be pulled. If the source of the smoke cannot be identified, and is
coming from the galley area, isolate the area by using the galley shutoff, or by
pulling all of the galley circuit breakers to cut off the power source.
12


Example of Galley Circuit Breaker Panel
Components and Physiological Effects
The nature of smoke, its ability to spread quickly, and its chemical components and
fumes may cause damage rapidly, and lead to death within a relatively short period
of time. Smoke has the ability to impair judgment and affect performance. The
effects of smoke inhalation depend on the individual level of tolerance. Materials that
the used in the cabin, such as curtains, plastic, paper, or carpets, release toxic
fumes when smouldering.
Carbon monoxide (CO): This is produced when carbon-based items burn. Many
items onboard the aircraft are carbon-based.
Effects: Dizziness, headaches, vomiting, impaired alertness, problems of vision and
lack of judgment.
Hydrogen cyanide: This is produced when nitrogen based items burn. These
include items such as, wool, silk and nitrogen-based synthetics.
Effects: The effects are the same as the above-listed for carbon monoxide. However,
because hydrogen cyanide interferes with the way oxygen is carried in the body, and
its effects on the respiratory system, death from cyanide poisoning is relatively quick.
Hydrogen chloride & Acrolein: Both of these chemicals are found in smoke that
is produced, when electrical wires burn.
Effects: These act as a severe irritant to the eyes and the respiratory tract, causing
pain, tears and disorientation.
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In some cases, when smoke and toxic gases have been present in the cabin, some
crews have had difficulty in communicating, due to the effects of smoke inhalation.
The ability to communicate effectively during any abnormal situation is extremely
important.
Some measures to be taken for protection
Do not open the cockpit door, unless it is absolutely necessary. Every effort
should be made to prevent smoke and fumes from contaminating the cockpit
Move passengers away from the area if possible. Otherwise encourage them
to keep their heads as low as possible
The use of wet towels, or wet cloth, filters out acidic gases such as hydrogen
chloride, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen cyanide, as well as smoke particles.
Instruct passengers to breathe, placing the wet towels/cloths over their nose
and mouth
Crewmembers should use Protective Breathing Equipment (PBEs) to protect
themselves.
Cabin crewmembers should immediately advise the PIC of the situation
The PIC should assess the situation and, if required, initiate the smoke
evacuation procedure according to the aircraft type
Continuously observe passengers for signs of incipient panic and take
additional action if required
Administer oxygen via portable oxygen bottle to any passenger experiencing
respiratory difficulties due to smoke and fumes; ensure such passengers are
moved away from the fire area prior to oxygen administration
Smoke in the Cargo Compartment
On the flight deck or in the passenger compartment, smoke is immediately obvious
and the drills can be actioned. Usually unmanned, any smoke present in the cargo
compartment may escape attention until warning devices indicate increased
temperature due to any fire. To overcome this, linked smoke detectors (similar to
domestic smoke detector) are in cargo compartments and crewmembers must visit
the compartment (if possible) at regular intervals.

Fuel Tank Inerting Systems
Fire is the most hazardous occurrence for an aircraft in flight or on ground. Both fire
and smoke have adverse consequences in the cabin. A huge amount of fuel is
sustained in the aircrafts fuel tanks typically located in the wings and centre of
fuselage. Any lapse in the system either electrical or otherwise which may ignite this
fuel will certainly prove catastrophic.
An inerting system decreases the probability of combustion of inflammable materials
stored in a confined space, especially a fuel tank, by maintaining a chemically non-
14

reactive or "inert" gas, such as nitrogen, in such a space. "Inerted" fuel tanks may be
used on land, or aboard ships or aircraft.

Fuel Inerting System (Nitrogen Generators)
Three elements are required to initiate and sustain combustion: an ignition source
(heat), fuel and oxygen. Combustion may be prevented by reducing any one of these
three elements. If the presence of an ignition source cannot be prevented within a
fuel tank, then the tank may be made inert by:
1) Reducing the oxygen concentration of the ullagethe space above a liquid fuel
to below that capable of combustion (the combustion threshold);
2) Reducing the fuel concentration of the ullage to below the "lower explosive limit"
(LEL), the minimum concentration capable combustion; or
3) Increasing the fuel concentration to above the "upper explosive limit" (UEL), the
maximum concentration capable of combustion.
Fuel tank inerting systems improve aircraft safety by reducing the volatility of the
ullage, or air volume above the fuel, in an aircraft fuel tank. As fuel is consumed
during flight, the fuel level in the tank is lowered and the remaining oxygen in the
ullage is replaced by non-flammable inert gas. Reducing oxygen in the fuel tank
prevents combustion in the tank, even if a spark is present.
Advanced system technology includes state-of-the-art membrane gas separators,
which reduces the oxygen concentration of the air entering the fuel tank. Also
precise pressure, temperature and oxygen concentration controls optimize
performance over the various phases of the flight envelope.
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The system greatly enhances flight safety for commercial and military aircraft.
Advances in technology and design enable systems that are highly reliable,
lightweight and efficient.
Decompression in Flight
The pressurization system of the aircraft is used to create a denser atmosphere
within the cabin so that crew and passengers are kept comfortable and continue to
breathe normally. Decompression occurs whenever cabin altitude exceeds the
preset altitude in an uncontrolled way. It could be slow, at which time remedial action
such as descent to a lower level is taken, with little chance of causing damage to the
cabin or its occupants. Cabin crew may be aware of a slow decompression if the
oxygen masks drop down. In this event it is essential for cabin crewmembers to grab
an oxygen mask and put it on regardless of how normal cabin conditions may
appear.
The pressurized cabin protects the occupants from the physiological risks of high
altitude. The external altitude may be 41,000 feet, therefore the difference between
the cabin altitude and the external altitude, creates a pressure differential.
During decompression, the cabin pressure rises rapidly to equalize with the external
environmental pressure. Loss of cabin pressure may be attributed to many causes,
for example: Structural damage, system malfunction at the source of pressurization
(air conditioning packs or bleed air), a faulty door seal, or a cracked window.
There is always a remote possibility of a rapid loss of cabin pressure in any
pressurized aircraft. The signs of rapid decompression are:
A rush of air
Loud bang
Rapid drop in temperature
Cabin filled with dust, debris, loose objects
Noise level will increase considerably
Moisture will condense in the form of fine mist
Occupants will also feel some of the physiological effects such as:
Hypoxia
Hypothermia
Gas expansion
Exposure to windblast.
At decompression flight deck crew should accomplish the emergency procedures for
decompression/emergency descent.
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Slow decompression may occur, however, it may not be obvious: There will be no
fog or sound of air rushing through the cabin, or any visible indication of
decompression. Therefore, cabin crewmembers must be alert to any clues that may
indicate slow decompression.
One of the first physiological indications may be ear discomfort, or popping, joint
pain, or stomach pain as the gas expands.
Oxygen Systems
When the cabin altitude increases above 14,000 feet, the oxygen masks that are
housed above the passenger seats, in the lavatories, galleys, and crew stations will
deploy automatically. The flight crew may
also manually deploy the oxygen mask
system. When the compartments are
open, the masks drop down, and are
suspended by a lanyard. The oxygen
masks are normally in groups, depending
on the seat row configuration of the
aircraft. Each group of masks has a
release pin that is connected to a lanyard.
It is sufficient to pull one mask, to activate
the oxygen for that entire row of seats.
There are two different passenger oxygen
systems that are currently used on
aircraft: Chemical and Gaseous. However,
there are some differences between the
two.
Chemical Oxygen Generator: The chemical system generates a chemical reaction,
when the mask has been pulled down and the release pin has been removed. When
the oxygen begins to flow to the mask, it will continue for either 15 or 22 minutes.
It is not possible to stop the flow of oxygen when it has started. The chemical
generator creates heat and becomes hot, therefore a smell of burning, where dust
has gathered, is not unusual. Passengers may become concerned with the smell of
burning associated with the oxygen generators.
A passenger announcement should be made, when it is considered safe to do so.
Gaseous Oxygen: A number of high-pressure oxygen bottles, contained within the
aircraft, supply gaseous oxygen to the cabin. Unlike the chemically generated
oxygen that works independently from the aircraft altitude, the gaseous system is
activated depending on the cabin altitude. The mask receives pure oxygen under
positive pressure, at a rate governed by the cabin altitude pressure. The lower the
altitude, the less oxygen will flow to the masks. When the cabin altitude reaches
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10,000 feet, the oxygen supply will stop. Unlike the chemically generated oxygen,
there is no burning odour, because there no heat is generated.
Cockpit Oxygen
In the event of depressurization, or emissions of smoke or noxious gases, a fixed
oxygen system in the cockpit supplies adequate oxygen to the flight crew.
Four full-face quick donning facemasks are stowed in boxes that are easy to access,
adjacent to the crewmembers seats (one per seat).
How to use the cockpit oxygen:
1. Remove the mask from the storage box, and then squeeze and pull the two red
grips upwards. Continue to squeeze the red grips, as this causes the oxygen flow to
inflate the head harness.
2. When the mask is in place, release the grips (so that the oxygen flows out of the
harness), and then tie the mask to the face.
3. The mask can be donned with one hand. The microphone is automatically
transferred to the mask.

Donning the Cockpit Oxygen Mask
A mask-mounted regulator supplies a mixture of air and oxygen, or pure oxygen, and
performs emergency pressure control. With the regulator set to NORMAL, the user
breathes a mixture of cabin air and oxygen up to the cabin altitude at which point the
regulator supplies 100% oxygen. The user can select the regulator to 100%, in this
case the regulator supplies pure oxygen at all cabin altitudes.




18

Brace For Impact
An aircraft may make an emergency landing in response to a crisis which either
interferes with the operation of the aircraft or involves sudden medical emergencies
necessitating diversion to the nearest airport. A planned emergency landing may be
precautionary in nature and may not require an evacuation.
The Brace position is one of the most important items in preparing for an
emergency. The Brace position has a dual function. Firstly, it reduces the extent of
body flailing, as passengers must lean or bend over their legs. Secondly, it protects
the head from hitting a surface. Remaining in the Brace position until the aircraft
finally stops will help to protect from injury during primary and secondary impact.
Brace positions vary: Pregnant women and passengers travelling with infants will
need to be shown the correct alternative Brace positions.
When this is a result of aircraft failure or component failure (example landing gear
failure or engine failure) the persons on-board must brace for impact for safety.
There are two reasons for establishing brace positions:
To reduce flailing of the body during an impact
To reduce secondary impact
In planned emergencies, bracing should be under-taken when the command is
announced from the flight deck (e.g., Brace, Brace).
In unanticipated emergencies, it is possible that no command will be announced
from the flight deck. Cabin crew should always be prepared to give passengers
commands (e.g., Heads Down, Stay Down). All bracing positions should be
maintained until the airplane has come to a final stop.



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Evacuation
Crew should be prepared to evacuate the aircraft if an emergency situation
develops. They should also be alert to clues that may signal a emergency, such as
sparks, fire, smoke, unusual noises, impact forces and abnormal aircraft attitude.
Any evacuation requires crew co-ordination, because not all crewmembers may be
aware that a life-threatening situation exists. Therefore, all crewmembers need to be
informed. There are many possible methods, depending on their availability such as
Public Address, Interphone, Megaphone, Evacuation alarm.
The majority of emergencies happen on take-off or landing with no prior warning.
These emergencies are sudden and unexpected leaving minimum time to react.
There are two types of evacuations:
Planned: Those for which sufficient time exists to brief the passengers and
crew
Unplanned: Those for which there is insufficient time to brief the passengers
and crew
Some guidelines to be followed:
Evacuation should not be initiated until the aircraft has come to a complete
stop
Ensure engines are not running before opening door directly forward or aft of
an engine
Cabin crewmembers should begin evacuation immediately upon signal from
the flight deck crew
If there is an emergency and time
permits, notify the flight deck crew
prior to initiating an evacuation; if
time does not permit, notify the flight
deck crew simultaneously upon
commencement of evacuation
Cabin crew should follow any
additional instructions the flight deck
crew may give over the PA system
If one cabin crewmember initiates an
evacuation, all cabin crewmembers
should follow evacuation procedures
immediately
When the aircraft has come to a complete
stop: Release seatbelts on command of the
cabin crew, and follow their directions to the
exit doors.
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Using strong voice commands will act as a beacon for passengers, especially if
visibility is limited, due to smoke being present in the cabin.
It is important to leave your belongings, as baggage carried to the door of the aircraft
has delayed evacuations, and has caused pile-ups at the bottom of the slide in
previous evacuations.
Cabin crew will assess outside conditions: Is it safe to open the door; is the area
below free of smoke, fire, obstacles and debris? If it is safe to do so, open the aircraft
door in the Armed mode.
When the aircraft door is in the ARMED mode the Cabin Pressure Warning Light
does not illuminate to indicate cabin differential pressure.
Indications of cabin differential pressure maybe:
Resistance in the Door Control Handle to lift to the fully open position, using
normal force and/or
A Hissing noise around the immediate door area, if circumstances permit.
Lower the door control handle to the closed position .Notify the flight crew
immediately.
If the slide does not inflate, and the crewmember needs to pull the Manual Inflation
Handle, extra time may be required. Time in an emergency may seem like an
eternity, even though it might only be a few extra seconds. The passengers urgency
to get out will increase with every passing second. The passengers must be held
back until; the slide is fully inflated and ready for use.
Check that the slide is correctly inflated, before sending passengers down the slide.

Example of evacuation slide being used
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Ditching
Ditching is the process of landing an aeroplane on the surface of the sea. During the
design phase of the aeroplane construction, tests on computer and scale models
occur in water tanks to determine the ditching characteristics of the aeroplane. The
effects are included in the aircraft manual and pilots must be well briefed regarding
the methods of ditching the aircraft during the type rating course.
Statistically, 88% of ditchings result in few if any, injuries to crew and passengers.
Unfortunately, a much smaller percentage survives the ensuing 'survival' phase, with
many deaths caused by drowning after a successful ditching. Surviving the 'survival'
phase is all about the speed of rescue. This depends upon the accuracy and extent
of the information conveyed to the ATC authority by the crew during the run-up to the
ditching.
Ditching is a controlled operation, with the aeroplane landing deliberately and
smoothly (or as smoothly as possible) on to the surface of the sea, not dropped onto
the surface during a stall. It is recommended to land the aircraft across the swell
(using a crosswind landing technique). If the wind speed is more than 35/40 kt, wave
height may well exceed 10ft, making it more prudent to land into the wind in this
case. A Significant speed reduction and a definite nose up pitching happens, which
can cause high-G rotations leading to possible structural damage and injuries.

To minimise the risk of injury, everybody on board should be securely strapped into
their seats and those without shoulder restraint harnesses should adopt a position
with the head as far forward (ideally between the knees) and the hands clasped
tightly behind the neck holding the head forward. Life jackets should be donned
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before adopting the position. Cabin crew should ensure that all loose articles are
stowed and the seats are correctly positioned before securing themselves.
After rapidly coming to rest, providing there is no catastrophic fuselage damage, the
aeroplane will float for a considerable time allowing an orderly evacuation via the
over-wing exits into the life rafts or dinghies. These should have been released from
the in-wing stowages, but are still tethered to the aeroplane.
Preparation for an Evacuation on Water:
In a prepared ditching, the cabin, passengers and cabin crew preparation involve the
same procedures as with an emergency landing, except for the following:
Passengers should be informed over PA about the ditching procedure
Cabin crew should demonstrate the donning of life vests, brace positions,
point out the exits, and finally, show the safety instruction cards
Cabin crew should make sure that passengers have correctly donned life
vests (including infants life vests), and understand how to inflate them
Passengers should be reminded to inflate life vests only after leaving the
aircraft
The same basic rules apply for ditching as for crash landing. Water is not a
soft surface and considerable damage to the fuselage should be expected.

US Airways Flight 1549 was an Airbus A320-214 scheduled domestic commercial
passenger flight from LaGuardia Airport in New York City that, on J anuary 15, 2009,
struck a flock of Canada Geese during its initial climb out, lost engine power, and
ditched in the Hudson River off midtown Manhattan with no loss of life. The bird
strike, which occurred just northeast of the George Washington Bridge about three
minutes into the flight, resulted in the rapid loss of thrust from both engines. When
the crew of the aircraft determined that they would be unable to reliably reach any
airfield, they turned southbound and glided over the Hudson, finally ditching the
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airliner near the USS Intrepid museum about three minutes after losing power. All
155 occupants safely evacuated the airliner, which was still virtually intact though
partially submerged and slowly sinking, and were quickly rescued by nearby ferries
and other watercraft. The incident became known as the "Miracle on the Hudson".
The entire crew of Flight 1549 was later awarded the Master's Medal of the Guild of
Air Pilots and Air Navigators. The award citation read, "This emergency ditching and
evacuation, with the loss of no lives is a heroic and unique aviation achievement". It
was described by NTSB board member Kitty Higgins as "the most successful
ditching in aviation history."
Fuel Jettison
In the event of an emergency occurring when the aeroplane mass exceeds the
maximum landing mass, and the decision of the commander to land as soon as
possible, a system is fitted to the aeroplane to dump fuel by a controlled process.
The system used to facilitate this is the fuel jettison system. Every aeroplane must
have a fuel jettison system fitted unless the maximum landing mass exceeds the
maximum take-off mass less the mass of the fuel necessary to carry out a 15 minute
flight consisting of a takeoff, climb to safe height, go-around and landing at the
aerodrome of departure (all
flown in the landing
configuration). The use of a
fuel jettison system in an
emergency is not prohibited by
the Rules of the Air prohibition
on the dropping or spraying of
materials from aeroplanes.
Where a fuel jettison system is
required, the system must be
capable of jettisoning enough
fuel in 15 minutes (starting at
max take-off mass) to reduce
the aeroplane mass to the maximum landing mass. Prior to certification, jettison trials
must demonstrate that the jettison system is free from fire hazards, fuel discharges
are clear of the aeroplane, fuel or fumes do not enter any part of the aeroplane and
that the jettison operation does not affect the controllability of the aeroplane.
Procedure
Pilots of aircraft in flight are permitted to jettison fuel in an emergency. It must be
born in mind that fuel jettison is an emergency procedure to reduce aircraft mass
expeditiously. The decision to jettison rests with the commander alone but the
decision to jettison must be compatible with safety and the ability of the aeroplane to
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continue flying. If possible, it is recommended that fuel jettison should be carried out
either over the sea, or above 10,000 ft agl. Exceptionally (for safety considerations),
fuel may be jettisoned above 7,000 ft agl in winter and above 4,000 ft agl in summer.
If it unavoidable (overriding safety requirement), fuel may be jettisoned anywhere. In
all cases ATC is to be informed before commencing jettisoning.
Safety
Unless there is an overriding requirement to jettison fuel, the aeroplane should be
flown to an allocated area at an allocated height prior to commencing jettison.
Consideration should be given to the weather conditions and areas of electrical
storm activity should be avoided, as should areas of excessive turbulence. The no
smoking light is to be illuminated and passengers briefed. ATC is to be informed that
jettison is about to commence. Once jettison has begun, electrical switching should
be restricted to essential use only, HF radio transmission suspended and VHF
transmissions restricted to further emergency/flight safety communications only. The
flow of fuel from the jettison vents is to be visually monitored (where possible)
confirming flow started and flow stopped as required. During jettison manoeuvres
should be smooth and the operation of flaps, slots or slats restricted to essential use
only. Once the jettison is complete, ATC should be informed.















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Conclusion
The establishment of a consistent, well-researched standard of aviation safety
practices, applicable to the needs of all aviation service providers, will benefit the
entire aviation industry and the public in the years to come. Improved air
transportation safety will no doubt contribute to the projected increase in air traffic, as
well as further improving public perception of such travels safety. And the refinement
of Safety Management Systems will of course continue to be an ongoing process,
building on established best practices and industry standards and moving forward as
new information is acquired and applied in the field of aviation safety.
The evolution of safety is a continuous process, not a means to an end or a static
goal to be reached; a healthy culture of safety should maintain its stability while
constantly reaching toward new heights, never stopping in place and saying, Thats
good enough, we dont need to do any more. And through this continuous process
the aviation industry, and other industries as well, can proactively expect to reach a
goal where safety truly will become just the way we do business.
















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Bibliography
Cabin Safety Compendium - A Companion to the Operators Flight Safety Handbook
Global Aviation Information Network (GAIN) Program (December 2001)
Safety Management Manual Doc 9859, Third Edition ICAO (2013)
Flight Safety Information J ournal Curt Lewis & L. Christopher (October 2008)
Getting to Grips with Cabin Safety Airbus Industrie (February 2005)
Enhancing Safety www.SKYbrary.aero