Airfoil

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about airfoils. For other types of foil, see Foil (disambiguation). For the kite, see Foil
kite.


Examples of airfoils in nature and within various vehicles. Though not strictly an airfoil, the dolphin fin obeys the same
principles in a different fluid medium.
An airfoil (in American English) or aerofoil (in British English) is the shape of a wing or blade (of
apropeller, rotor, or turbine) or sail as seen in cross-section.
An airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces an aerodynamic force. The component of
this force perpendicular to the direction of motion is called lift. The component parallel to the
direction of motion is called drag. Subsonic flight airfoils have a characteristic shape with a rounded
leading edge, followed by a sharp trailing edge, often with asymmetric curvature of upper and lower
surfaces. Foils of similar function designed with water as the working fluid are called hydrofoils.
The lift on an airfoil is primarily the result of its angle of attack and shape. When oriented at a
suitable angle, the airfoil deflects the oncoming air, resulting in a force on the airfoil in the direction
opposite to the deflection. This force is known as aerodynamic force and can be resolved into two
components: liftand drag. Most foil shapes require a positive angle of attack to generate lift,
but cambered airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack. This "turning" of the air in the vicinity of
the airfoil creates curvedstreamlines which results in lower pressure on one side and higher
pressure on the other. This pressure difference is accompanied by a velocity difference,
via Bernoulli's principle, so the resulting flowfield about the airfoil has a higher average velocity on
the upper surface than on the lower surface. The lift force can be related directly to the average
top/bottom velocity difference without computing the pressure by using the concept of circulation and
the Kutta-Joukowski theorem.
[1][2][3][4]

Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Airfoil terminology
3 Thin airfoil theory
4 Derivation of thin airfoil theory
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
Introduction[edit]

Streamlines around a NACA 0012 airfoil at moderate angle of attack


Lift and Drag curves for a typical airfoil
A fixed-wing aircraft's wings, horizontal, and vertical stabilizers are built with airfoil-shaped cross
sections, as arehelicopter rotor blades. Airfoils are also found in
propellers, fans, compressors and turbines. Sails are also airfoils, and the underwater surfaces of
sailboats, such as the centerboard and keel, are similar in cross-section and operate on the same
principles as airfoils. Swimming and flying creatures and even many plants and sessileorganisms
employ airfoils/hydrofoils: common examples being bird wings, the bodies of fish, and the shape
ofsand dollars. An airfoil-shaped wing can create downforce on an automobile or other motor
vehicle, improvingtraction.
Any object with an angle of attack in a moving fluid, such as a flat plate, a building, or the deck of a
bridge, will generate an aerodynamic force (called lift) perpendicular to the flow. Airfoils are more
efficient lifting shapes, able to generate more lift (up to a point), and to generate lift with less drag.
A lift and drag curve obtained in wind tunnel testing is shown on the right. The curve represents an
airfoil with a positive camber so some lift is produced at zero angle of attack. With increased angle of
attack, lift increases in a roughly linear relation, called the slope of the lift curve. At about 18 degrees
this airfoil stalls, and lift falls off quickly beyond that. The drop in lift can be explained by the action of
the upper-surface boundary layer, which separates and greatly thickens over the upper surface at
and past the stall angle. The thickened boundary layer's displacement thickness changes the airfoil's
effective shape, in particular it reduces its effective camber, which modifies the overall flow field so
as to reduce the circulation and the lift. The thicker boundary layer also causes a large increase
in pressure drag, so that the overall drag increases sharply near and past the stall point.
Airfoil design is a major facet of aerodynamics. Various airfoils serve different flight regimes.
Asymmetric airfoils can generate lift at zero angle of attack, while a symmetric airfoil may better suit
frequent inverted flight as in anaerobatic airplane. In the region of the ailerons and near a wingtip a
symmetric airfoil can be used to increase the range of angles of attack to avoid spinstall. Thus a
large range of angles can be used without boundary layer separation. Subsonic airfoils have a round
leading edge, which is naturally insensitive to the angle of attack. The cross section is not strictly
circular, however: the radius of curvature is increased before the wing achieves maximum thickness
to minimize the chance of boundary layer separation. This elongates the wing and moves the point
of maximum thickness back from the leading edge.
Supersonic airfoils are much more angular in shape and can have a very sharp leading edge, which
is very sensitive to angle of attack. A supercritical airfoil has its maximum thickness close to the
leading edge to have a lot of length to slowly shock the supersonic flow back to subsonic speeds.
Generally such transonic airfoils and also the supersonic airfoils have a low camber to reduce drag
divergence. Modern aircraft wings may have different airfoil sections along the wing span, each one
optimized for the conditions in each section of the wing.
Movable high-lift devices, flaps and sometimes slats, are fitted to airfoils on almost every aircraft. A
trailing edge flap acts similarly to an aileron; however, it, as opposed to an aileron, can be retracted
partially into the wing if not used.
A laminar flow wing has a maximum thickness in the middle camber line. Analyzing the Navier
Stokes equations in the linear regime shows that a negative pressure gradient along the flow has the
same effect as reducing the speed. So with the maximum camber in the middle, maintaining a
laminar flow over a larger percentage of the wing at a higher cruising speed is possible. However,
with rain or insects on the wing, or for jetliner speeds, this does not work. Since such a wing stalls
more easily, this airfoil is not used on wingtips (spin-stall again).
Schemes have been devised to define airfoils an example is the NACA system. Various airfoil
generation systems are also used. An example of a general purpose airfoil that finds wide
application, and predates the NACA system, is the Clark-Y. Today, airfoils can be designed for
specific functions using inverse design programs such as PROFOIL, XFOIL and AeroFoil. XFOIL is
an online program created by Mark Drela that will design and analyze subsonic isolated airfoils.
[5]

Airfoil terminology[edit]


Airfoil nomenclature
The various terms related to airfoils are defined below:
[6]

The suction surface (a.k.a. upper surface) is generally associated
with higher velocity and lower static pressure.
The pressure surface (a.k.a. lower surface) has a comparatively
higher static pressure than the suction surface. The pressure
gradient between these two surfaces contributes to the lift force
generated for a given airfoil.
The geometry of the airfoil is described with a variety of terms :
The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has
maximum curvature (minimum radius).
[7]

The trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of maximum
curvature at the rear of the airfoil.
The chord line is the straight line connecting leading and trailing
edges. Thechord length, or simply chord, , is the length of the
chord line. That is the reference dimension of the airfoil section.


Different definitions of airfoil thickness


An airfoil designed for winglets(PSU 90-125WL)
The shape of the airfoil is defined using the following geometrical parameters:
The mean camber line or mean line is the locus of points midway
between the upper and lower surfaces. Its shape depends on the
thickness distribution along the chord;
The thickness of an airfoil varies along the chord. It may be
measured in either of two ways:
Thickness measured perpendicular to the camber line.
[8][9]
This
is sometimes described as the "American convention";
[8]

Thickness measured perpendicular to the chord line.
[10]
This is
sometimes described as the "British convention".
Some important parameters to describe an airfoil's shape are its camber and its thickness. For
example, an airfoil of the NACA 4-digit series such as the NACA 2415 (to be read as 2 - 4 - 15)
describes an airfoil with a camber of 0.02 chord located 0.40 chord, with 0.15 chord of maximum
thickness.
Finally, important concepts used to describe the airfoil's behavior when moving through a fluid are:
The aerodynamic center, which is the chord-wise length about
which the pitching moment is independent of the lift coefficient and
the angle of attack.
The center of pressure, which is the chord-wise location about
which the pitching moment is zero.
Thin airfoil theory[edit]


An airfoil section is displayed at the tip of this Denney Kitfox aircraft, built in 1991.


Airfoil of Kamov Ka-26 helicopters
Thin airfoil theory is a simple theory of airfoils that relates angle of attack to lift for incompressible,
inviscid flows. It was devised by German-American mathematician Max Munk and further refined by
British aerodynamicist Hermann Glauert and others
[11]
in the 1920s. The theory idealizes the flow
around an airfoil as two-dimensional flow around a thin airfoil. It can be imagined as addressing an
airfoil of zero thickness and infinite wingspan.
Thin airfoil theory was particularly notable in its day because it provided a sound theoretical basis for
the following important properties of airfoils in two-dimensional flow:
[12][13]

(1) on a symmetric airfoil, the center of pressure and aerodynamic center lies exactly one quarter of
the chord behind the leading edge
(2) on a cambered airfoil, the aerodynamic center lies exactly one quarter of the chord behind the
leading edge
(3) the slope of the lift coefficient versus angle of attack line is units per radian
As a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a symmetric airfoil of infinite wingspan is:

where is the section lift coefficient,
is the angle of attack in radians, measured relative to
the chord line.
(The above expression is also applicable to a cambered
airfoil where is the angle of attack measured relative to
the zero-lift line instead of the chord line.)
Also as a consequence of (3), the section lift coefficient of a
cambered airfoil of infinite wingspan is:

where is the section lift coefficient when the angle of attack
is zero.
Thin airfoil theory does not account for the stall of
the airfoil, which usually occurs at an angle of
attack between 10 and 15 for typical airfoils.
[14]

Derivation of thin airfoil
theory[edit]


From top to bottom:
Laminar flow airfoil for a RC park flyer
Laminar flow airfoil for a RC pylon racer
Laminar flow airfoil for a manned propeller aircraft
Laminar flow at a jet airliner airfoil
Stable airfoil used for flying wings
Aft loaded airfoil allowing for a large main spar and
late stall
Transonic supercritical airfoil
Supersonic leading edge airfoil

Colors:
Black = laminar flow,
red = turbulent flow,
grey = subsonic stream,
blue = supersonic flow volume
The airfoil is modeled as a thin lifting mean-line
(camber line). The mean-line, y(x), is considered to
produce a distribution of vorticity along the
line, s. By the Kutta condition, the vorticity is zero at
the trailing edge. Since the airfoil is thin, x (chord
position) can be used instead of s, and all angles
can be approximated as small.
From the BiotSavart law, this vorticity produces a
flow field where

where is the location where induced velocity
is produced, is the location of the vortex
element producing the velocity and is the
chord length of the airfoil.
Since there is no flow normal to the curved
surface of the airfoil, balances that from
the component of main flow , which is locally
normal to the plate the main flow is locally
inclined to the plate by an angle
. That is:

This integral equation can by solved
for , after replacing x by
,
as a Fourier series
in with a modified lead
term
That is

(These terms are known as
the Glauert integral).
The coefficients are given by

and

By the KuttaJoukowski
theorem, the total lift force
F is proportional to

and its moment M
about the leading
edge to

The calculated Lift
coefficient
depends only on
the first two terms
of the Fourier
series, as

The moment
M about the
leading edge
depends only
on a
nd , as

The
moment
about the
1/4 chord
point will
thus be,
.
From
this it
follow
s that
the ce
nter
of
press
ure is
aft of
the
'quart
er-
chord'
point
0.25
c, by

T
h
e
a
er
o
d
y
n
a
m
ic
c
e
nt
er
,
A
C
,
is
at
th
e
q
u
ar
te
r-
c
h
or
d
p
oi
nt
.
T
h
e
A
C
is
w
h
er
e
th
e
pi
tc
hi
n
g
m
o
m
e
nt
M
'
d
o
e
s
n
ot
v
ar
y
w
it
h
a
n
gl
e
of
at
ta
c
k,
i.
e.
,

S
e
e

a
l
s
o
[
e
d
i
t
]
A
q
u
a
n
a
t
o
r

C
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

c
o
n
t
r
o
l

w
i
n
g

H
y
d
r
o
f
o
i
l

K
l
i
n
e

F
o
g
l
e
m
a
n

a
i
r
f
o
i
l

K

s
s
n
e
r

e
f
f
e
c
t

P
a
r
a
f
o
i
l

N
o
t
e
s
[
e
d
i
t
]
1. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

"
.
.
.
t
h
e

e
f
f
e
c
t

o
f

t
h
e

w
i
n
g

i
s

t
o

g
i
v
e

t
h
e

a
i
r

s
t
r
e
a
m

a

d
o
w
n
w
a
r
d

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
.

T
h
e

r
e
a
c
t
i
o
n

f
o
r
c
e

o
f

t
h
e

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
e
d

a
i
r

m
a
s
s

m
u
s
t

t
h
e
n

a
c
t

o
n

t
h
e

w
i
n
g

t
o

g
i
v
e

i
t

a
n

e
q
u
a
l

a
n
d

o
p
p
o
s
i
t
e

u
p
w
a
r
d

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t
.
"

I
n
:

H
a
l
l
i
d
a
y
,

D
a
v
i
d
;

R
e
s
n
i
c
k
,

R
o
b
e
r
t
,

F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
s

o
f

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

3
r
d

E
d
i
t
i
o
n
,

J
o
h
n

W
i
l
e
y

&

S
o
n
s
,

p
.

3
7
8
2. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

"
I
f

t
h
e

b
o
d
y

i
s

s
h
a
p
e
d
,

m
o
v
e
d
,

o
r

i
n
c
l
i
n
e
d

i
n

s
u
c
h

a

w
a
y

a
s

t
o

p
r
o
d
u
c
e

a

n
e
t

d
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
r

t
u
r
n
i
n
g

o
f

t
h
e

f
l
o
w
,

t
h
e

l
o
c
a
l

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

i
s

c
h
a
n
g
e
d

i
n

m
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
,

d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
,

o
r

b
o
t
h
.

C
h
a
n
g
i
n
g

t
h
e

v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

c
r
e
a
t
e
s

a

n
e
t

f
o
r
c
e

o
n

t
h
e

b
o
d
y
"

"
L
i
f
t

f
r
o
m

F
l
o
w

T
u
r
n
i
n
g
"
.

N
A
S
A

G
l
e
n
n

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

C
e
n
t
e
r
.

A
r
c
h
i
v
e
d

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

o
r
i
g
i
n
a
l

o
n

5

J
u
l
y

2
0
1
1
.

R
e
t
r
i
e
v
e
d

2
0
1
1
-
0
6
-
2
9
.
3. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

"
T
h
e

c
a
u
s
e

o
f

t
h
e

a
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c

l
i
f
t
i
n
g

f
o
r
c
e

i
s

t
h
e

d
o
w
n
w
a
r
d

a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

a
i
r

b
y

t
h
e

a
i
r
f
o
i
l
.
.
.
"

W
e
l
t
n
e
r
,

K
l
a
u
s
;

I
n
g
e
l
m
a
n
-
S
u
n
d
b
e
r
g
,

M
a
r
t
i
n
,

P
h
y
s
i
c
s

o
f

F
l
i
g
h
t

r
e
v
i
e
w
e
d

4. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

"
.
.
.
i
f

a

s
t
r
e
a
m
l
i
n
e

i
s

c
u
r
v
e
d
,

t
h
e
r
e

m
u
s
t

b
e

a

p
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

g
r
a
d
i
e
n
t

a
c
r
o
s
s

t
h
e

s
t
r
e
a
m
l
i
n
e
.
.
.
"
B
a
b
i
n
s
k
y
,

H
o
l
g
e
r

(
N
o
v
e
m
b
e
r

2
0
0
3
)
,

"
H
o
w

d
o

w
i
n
g
s

w
o
r
k
?
"
,
P
h
y
s
i
c
s

E
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
5. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

X
F
O
I
L

6. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

H
u
r
t
,

H
.

H
.
,

J
r
.

(
J
a
n
u
a
r
y

1
9
6
5
)

[
1
9
6
0
]
.

A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

f
o
r

N
a
v
a
l

A
v
i
a
t
o
r
s
.

U
.
S
.

G
o
v
e
r
n
m
e
n
t

P
r
i
n
t
i
n
g

O
f
f
i
c
e
,

W
a
s
h
i
n
g
t
o
n
,

D
.
C
.
:

U
.
S
.

N
a
v
y
,

A
v
i
a
t
i
o
n

T
r
a
i
n
i
n
g

D
i
v
i
s
i
o
n
.

p
p
.

2
1

2
2
.

N
A
V
W
E
P
S

0
0
-
8
0
T
-
8
0
.
7. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

H
o
u
g
h
t
o
n
,

E
.

L
.
;

C
a
r
p
e
n
t
e
r
,

P
.
W
.

(
2
0
0
3
)
.

B
u
t
t
e
r
w
o
r
t
h

H
e
i
n
m
a
n
n
,

e
d
.
A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

f
o
r

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s

(
5
t
h

e
d
.
)
.

I
S
B
N

0
-
7
5
0
6
-
5
1
1
1
-
3
.

p
.
1
8
8. ^

J
u
m
p

u
p

t
o
:
a

b

H
o
u
g
h
t
o
n
,

E
.

L
.
;

C
a
r
p
e
n
t
e
r
,

P
.
W
.

(
2
0
0
3
)
.

B
u
t
t
e
r
w
o
r
t
h

H
e
i
n
m
a
n
n
,

e
d
.
A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

f
o
r

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s

(
5
t
h

e
d
.
)
.

I
S
B
N

0
-
7
5
0
6
-
5
1
1
1
-
3
.

p
.
1
7
9. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

P
h
i
l
l
i
p
s
,

W
a
r
r
e
n

F
.

(
2
0
1
0
)
.

M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
s

o
f

F
l
i
g
h
t

(
2
n
d

e
d
.
)
.

W
i
l
e
y

&

S
o
n
s
.
I
S
B
N

9
7
8
-
0
-
4
7
0
-
5
3
9
7
5
-
0
.

p
.
2
7
10. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

B
e
r
t
i
n
,

J
o
h
n

J
.
;

C
u
m
m
i
n
g
s
,

R
u
s
s
e
l

M
.

(
2
0
0
9
)
.

P
e
a
r
s
o
n

P
r
e
n
t
i
c
e

H
a
l
l
,

e
d
.
A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

f
o
r

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
s

(
5
t
h

e
d
.
)
.

I
S
B
N

9
7
8
-
0
-
1
3
-
2
2
7
2
6
8
-
1
.

p
.
1
9
9
11. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

A
b
b
o
t
t
,

I
r
a

H
.
,

a
n
d

V
o
n

D
o
e
n
h
o
f
f
,

A
l
b
e
r
t

E
.

(
1
9
5
9
)
,

T
h
e
o
r
y

o
f

W
i
n
g

S
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
,

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

4
.
2
,

D
o
v
e
r

P
u
b
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
s

I
n
c
.
,

N
e
w

Y
o
r
k
,

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d

B
o
o
k

N
u
m
b
e
r

4
8
6
-
6
0
5
8
6
-
8
12. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

A
b
b
o
t
t
,

I
r
a

H
.
,

a
n
d

V
o
n

D
o
e
n
h
o
f
f
,

A
l
b
e
r
t

E
.

(
1
9
5
9
)
,

T
h
e
o
r
y

o
f

W
i
n
g

S
e
c
t
i
o
n
s
,

S
e
c
t
i
o
n

4
.
3
13. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

C
l
a
n
c
y
,

L
.
J
.

(
1
9
7
5
)
,

A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
,

S
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

8
.
1

t
o

8
.
8
,

P
i
t
m
a
n

P
u
b
l
i
s
h
i
n
g

L
i
m
i
t
e
d
,

L
o
n
d
o
n
.

I
S
B
N

0
-
2
7
3
-
0
1
1
2
0
-
0

14. J
u
m
p

u
p
^

A
e
r
o
s
p
a
c
e
w
e
b
'
s

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

o
n

T
h
i
n

A
i
r
f
o
i
l

T
h
e
o
r
y

R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
s
[
e
d
i
t
]
A
n
d
e
r
s
o
n
,

J
o
h
n
,

D

(
2
0
0
7
)
.

F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
s

o
f

A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
.

M
c
G
r
a
w
-
H
i
l
l
.
D
e
s
k
t
o
p
a
e
r
o

U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y

o
f

S
y
d
n
e
y
,

A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

f
o
r

S
t
u
d
e
n
t
s

B
a
t
c
h
e
l
o
r
,

G
e
o
r
g
e
.

K

(
1
9
6
7
)
.

A
n

I
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

t
o

F
l
u
i
d

D
y
n
a
m
i
c
s
.

C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e

U
P
.

p
p
.

4
6
7

4
7
1
.
E
x
t
e
r
n
a
l

l
i
n
k
s
[
e
d
i
t
]

Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Airfoils.
U
I
U
C

A
i
r
f
o
i
l

C
o
o
r
d
i
n
a
t
e
s

D
a
t
a
b
a
s
e

D
a
t
a
b
a
s
e

w
i
t
h

a
i
r
f
o
i
l
s

A
i
r
f
o
i
l

&

H
y
d
r
o
f
o
i
l

R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

T
h
e

J
o
u
k
o
w
s
k
i

A
i
r
f
o
i
l

C
h
a
r
d

M
u
s
e
u
m

T
h
e

B
i
r
t
h

o
f

P
o
w
e
r
e
d

F
l
i
g
h
t
.
F
o
i
l
S
i
m

A
n

a
i
r
f
o
i
l

s
i
m
u
l
a
t
o
r

f
r
o
m

N
A
S
A
.
N
A
C
A

P
r
o
j
e
c
t

A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

t
o

d
r
a
w

a
i
r
f
o
i
l

s
e
c
t
i
o
n
s

i
n

A
u
t
o
c
a
d

a
n
d

D
r
a
f
t
S
i
g
h
t
.
C
a
t
e
g
o
r
i
e
s
:

A
e
r
o
d
y
n
a
m
i
c
s

A
i
r
c
r
a
f
t

w
i
n
g

d
e
s
i
g
n

Navigation
menu
Create account
Log in
A
r
t
i
c
l
e

T
a
l
k

Read
Edit
View history
Go

Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Donate to Wikipedia
Wikimedia Shop
Interaction
Help
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact page
Tools
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Permanent link
Page information
Data item
Cite this page
Print/export
Create a book
Download as PDF
Printable version
Languages
Afrikaans

Catal
Deutsch
Espaol

Franais
Gaeilge


Hrvatski
Italiano

Magyar

Nederlands

Polski
Portugus
Romn


Simple English
/ srpski
Suomi
Svenska

Trke


Edit links
T
h
i
s

p
a
g
e

w
a
s

l
a
s
t

m
o
d
i
f
i
e
d

o
n

5

J
u
n
e

2
0
1
4

a
t

2
0
:
4
3
.
T
e
x
t

i
s

a
v
a
i
l
a
b
l
e

u
n
d
e
r

t
h
e

C
r
e
a
t
i
v
e

C
o
m
m
o
n
s

A
t
t
r
i
b
u
t
i
o
n
-
S
h
a
r
e
A
l
i
k
e

L
i
c
e
n
s
e
;

a
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l

t
e
r
m
s

m
a
y

a
p
p
l
y
.

B
y

u
s
i
n
g

t
h
i
s

s
i
t
e
,

y
o
u

a
g
r
e
e

t
o

t
h
e

T
e
r
m
s

o
f

U
s
e

a
n
d

P
r
i
v
a
c
y

P
o
l
i
c
y
.

W
i
k
i
p
e
d
i
a

i
s

a

r
e
g
i
s
t
e
r
e
d

t
r
a
d
e
m
a
r
k

o
f

t
h
e
W
i
k
i
m
e
d
i
a

F
o
u
n
d
a
t
i
o
n
,

I
n
c
.
,

a

n
o
n
-
p
r
o
f
i
t

o
r
g
a
n
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
.
P
r
i
v
a
c
y

p
o
l
i
c
y

A
b
o
u
t

W
i
k
i
p
e
d
i
a

D
i
s
c
l
a
i
m
e
r
s

C
o
n
t
a
c
t

W
i
k
i
p
e
d
i
a

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
e
r
s

M
o
b
i
l
e

v
i
e
w