CENTRE OF GRADUATE STUDIES

FACULTY OF EDUCATION




JANUARY 2013



HMEF5123


MODELS OF TEACHING AND LEARNING





NAME OF STUDENT : JULIANA BT JUSOP@JAFFAR
MATRICULATION NO : CGS00593506
IDENTITY CARD NO. : 780509035274
TELEPHONE NO. : 012-9554695
E-MAIL : julia_na95@yahoo.com
NAME OF FACILITATOR : DR. SHARMINI GHANAGURU
LEARNING CENTRE : KUALA LUMPUR
LEARNING CENTER





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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT pg 2

TASK 1 : Extended Readings pg 3

TASK 2 : Planning & Designing A Teaching-Learning Model pg 12

TASK 3 : Reflection pg 18

APPENDIX

REFERENCES












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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I am grateful to The Almighty God for establishing me to complete
this assignment.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to En. Zulkipli Bin Sarbini, Headmaster of
SK Kampong Soeharto, for providing me with all the neccessary facilities.
I also thank Dr. Sharmini, Lecturer, Models of Teaching and Learning
(HMEF5123) course. I am extremely grateful and indebted to her for her expert, sincere
and valuable guidance and encouragement extended to me.
I take this opportunity to record my sincere thanks to all my friends for their help
and encouragement and support. I also thank my family for their unceasing
encouragement and support.
I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or
indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this venture.
















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TASK 1: Extended Readings
I have choose the Behavioral Family of Models for the task 1. In this model, there
are three learning strategies which are Mastery Learning, Direct Instruction and Learning
from Simulations. Among these three strategies, I will focus on the Mastery Learning and
Learning from Simulations. I have choose two articles about these two strategies. The
articles are :
1. Thomas R. Guskey (2005). A Historical Perspective on Closing Achievement Gaps.
NASSP Bulletin. Vol. 89 No. 644 September 2005. pg 76-89
2. Bradford S. Bell, Adam M. Kanar, Steve W. J. Kozlowski (2008). Current Issues and
Future Directions in Simulation-Based Training. Cornell University. pg 2-33

In these two articles, I have to highlight the key points raised in the articles and
present the key points for each articles in the form of graphic organizer. Graphic
organizers are a visual representation of the material a student is learning. The organizer
assists the student in brainstorming and/or organizing information to make it easier to
understand how ideas connect. Organizers create a connection between different ideas,
allowing a student to grasp how large concepts work together. There are endless varieties
of graphic organizers that can meet any classroom need. Organizers can be selected by
the subject they are created for, such as Writing or English or by type and function, such
as Compare/Contrast or Sequencing. Organizers give students the opportunity to see how
concepts or ideas are connected. In doing so, this will assist the student in gaining a fuller
grasp of the content. Research has demonstrated that the use of graphic organizers in the
classroom helps students improve reading and comprehension skills, retention of
information, and thinking and learning.









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The Behavioral Systems Family Model
Behavioral Systems Family also known as social learning theory or behavior
modification, behavior therapy and cybernetics. Human beings are self-correcting
communication systems that modify behavior in response to information about how
successfully tasks are navigated. These models concentrate on observable behavior and
clearly defined tasks and methods for communicating progress to the student and has a
firm research foundation. Behavioral models include programs that are used for
reducing phobias, learning to read and compute, developing social and athletic
skills, replacing anxiety with relaxation and learning the complexes of intellectual, social
and physical skills necessary to pilot an airplane or a space shuttle. This family has three
models as describe below:

Mastery learning and programmed instruction
Material to be learned is divided into units ranging from the simple to the
complex. The material is presented to the students, generally working systematically as
individuals, through appropriate media. They are tested and if they haven't mastered any
given unit they can repeat it until they have mastered the material. Instructional systems
based on this model have been used to provide instruction to students of all ages in areas
ranging from the basic skills to highly complex material.

Direct instruction
Direct statements of objectives, sets of activities clearly related to the objectives,
careful monitoring of progress and feedback about achievements and tactics for achieving
more effectively are linked with sets of guidelines for facilitating learning.

Simulation
Theory-to-practice model mixes information about a skill with demonstrations,
practice, feedback and coaching until the skill is mastered. Simulations are constructed
from descriptions of real life situations. A less than real life situation is created for the
instructional situation. The student engages in activity to achieve the goal of the
simulation and has to do with realistic factors until the goal is mastered.


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Unit 1
Article 1
Blooms Mastery Learning



The Mastery-Learning Instructional Process











Mastery
Learning
organize
concepts &
skills
initial
instructions
formative
assessment
feedback &
corrective
information
Formative
Assessment
A
Correctives Formative
Assessment
B
Enrichment
Activities
Unit 2


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Summary of Article 1
Bloom (1968) outlined a specific instructional strategy to make use of this
feedback and corrective procedure, labelling it "learning for mastery," and later
shortening the name to simply "mastery learning" (Bloom, 1971a). teachers first organize
the concepts and skills they want students to learn into instructional units that typically
involve about a week or two of instructional time. teachers administer a brief formative
assessment based on the unit's learning goals. This formative assessment's purpose is to
give students information, or feedback, on their learning. Paired with each formative
assessment are specific corrective activities for students to use in correcting their learning
difficulties. In other words, the correctives are individualized. With the feedback and
corrective information gained from a formative assessment, each student has a detailed
prescription of what more needs to be done to master the concepts or skills from the unit.
It gives teachers a practical means to vary and differentiate their instruction to better meet
students' individual learning needs. students learn well, master the important learning
goals in each unit, and gain the necessary prerequisites for success in subsequent units.
Bloom recommended they take a second formative assessment. This second, parallel
assessment covers the same concepts and skills as the first, but is composed of slightly
different problems or questions, and serves two important purposes. First, it verifies
whether or not the correctives were successful in helping students overcome their
individual learning difficulties. Second, it offers students a second chance at success and,
hence, has powerful motivational value. Some students, of course, will perform well on
the first assessment, demonstrating that they have mastered the unit concepts and skills.
The teacher's initial instruction was highly appropriate for these students and they have
no need of corrective work. To ensure their continued learning progress, teachers provide
these students with special enrichment or extension activities to broaden their learning
experiences. Enrichment activities are often self-selected by students and might involve
special projects or reports, academic games, or a variety of complex, problem-solving
tasks. Through the process of formative classroom assessment, combined with
systematic correction of individual learning difficulties, all students could be provided
with a more appropriate quality of instruction than is possible under more traditional
approaches to teaching. As a result, nearly all might be expected to learn well and truly


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master the unit concepts or learning goals. This, in turn, would drastically reduce the
variation in students' achievement levels, eliminate achievement gaps, and yield a
distribution of achievement. Teachers who use mastery learning provide students with
frequent and specific feedback on their learning progress, typically through regular,
formative classroom assessments. This feedback is both diagnostic and prescriptive. It
reinforces precisely what students were expected to learn, identifies what was learned
well, and describes what needs to be learned better. Providing feedback, correctives, and
enrichments, and ensuring instructional alignment takes little time and effort, especially if
tasks are shared collaboratively among teaching colleagues. the systematic use of these
elements helps many more students learn well, significantly reduces variation in student
learning outcomes, and closes gaps in the achievement of different groups of students at
any level of education (Walberg, 1986). The positive effects of mastery learning are not
limited to cognitive outcomes. The process also yields improvements in students'
confidence in learning situations, school attendance rates, involvement in class lessons,
attitudes toward learning, and a host of other affective measures.














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Article 2
Instructional Features and Potential Benefits of Simulation-Based Training
Information
Richness
Distributed Learning
System Features
Specific Instructional
Benefits of
Simulation-Based
Training
Relevant Technologies
Employed in
Simulation Design

Low




High
Content:
Text
Still images/graphics
Images in motion
Sound: voice, music,
special effects
Simulations typically
include several
multi-media features
which can
optimize learners
ability to make
sense of material
Video-game quality
graphics
Supplementary
training materials
online or in CDROM
(e.g., case
studies)
Stories/narratives
Customized content



Low



High
Immersion
Psychological fidelity
Constructive forces
Stimulus space or scope
Fidelity of context/ops
Motion and action
Real time
Adaptive to trainees
Prompt psychological
processes
relevant to performance
in real-world
settings.
Enable emotional
arousal.
Knowledge
integration.
Enhance feelings of
presence and
engagement.
Safe practice
environment
Real-time interactions
Motion and action
Realism of
environment


Low



High
Interactivity
Single participants
Individual oriented
Multiple participants
Team oriented
Simulations have
potential to offer
high degree of
interactivity with other
users or the system
Use of characters or
agents to
simulate competitors,
colleagues, or
customers
Decision trees
Virtual agents
Pre-programmed
Artificial intelligence

Low



High
Communication
One- way
communications
Two-way
communications
Asynchronous
communications
Synchronous
communications
Audio only
Audio & video
At high bandwidth
trainees can
interact in real-time.
Communication with
the system
Natural language
processing.
Voice recognition
technology.


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Costs and Challenges Associated with Simulation-Based Training
Challenge Summary of
challenge
Implications
for learning
Industry
trends
Research
needs
Managing
development
costs
Simulation-based
training
has large fixed
costs.
Simulations are
underutilized in
practice,
especially for
smaller
businesses.
Canned
simulations are
becoming more
easily
customizable
which can
reduce fixed
costs.
Understanding
key
elements of
design that
must be
customized.
Leveraging
learner control
Greater learner
control
places
responsibility for
learning
decisions on the
trainee.
Learners do not
accurately assess
their
current
knowledge levels
and often make
poor
learning
decisions.
On-demand
models are
making learner
control
more pervasive.
Effects of
incorporating
guidance and
support in
simulation
design
Understanding
individual
differences
Simulations
often do not
consider
individual
differences in
learning
styles.
A one-size fits
all
approach results
in lesseffective
training designs.
A one-size fits
all model is
still the dominant
industry
model.
Examining
which
individual
differences are
important and
understanding
how
simulations can
be
adapted to
learners.
Shaping the
social
environment
Social interaction
is
considered a key
element
for learning but
simulations often
fail to
take advantage of
possibilities.

Feedback, sense
of
learning
community are
lacking in
solitary
simulation
designs.
Communication
technologies are
being
incorporated
more
frequently in
simulations.
Understand how
social
environment and
technology
jointly shape
instructional
experience.






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Summary of Article 2
Simulations are generally defined as artificial environments that are carefully
created to manage individuals experiences of reality. Cannon-Bowers and Bowers (in
press) note that an essential feature of simulations and other synthetic learning
environments (e.g., virtual reality) is, the ability to augment, replace, create, and/or
manage a learners actual experience with the world by providing realistic content and
embedded instructional features. Simulations can serve as effective training tools. The
use of simulations improved learning. Simulations have been shown to be effective in a
variety of contexts, including the training of pilots, clinicians, military personnel,
fireman, and survey interviewers. Individuals generally report positive reactions (e.g.,
satisfaction) to the use of simulations in training and education (e.g., Mitchell, 2004;
Romme, 2004). Simulations promote experiential, discovery learning, they may create
knowledge that is more implicit than explicit and, therefore, difficult to measure using
traditional knowledge tests. Simulations possess unique instructional capabilities that
have the potential to enhance training effectiveness. It is important to understand how the
instructional capabilities of simulations in the areas of content, immersion, interactivity,
and communication can be leveraged to deliver the instructional experiences necessary
to accomplish different types of training objectives. It provides greater insight into the
technological components that influence learning in distributed environments. This
approach can aid instructional designers and trainers in developing or selecting a training
system that integrates the technology components essential to achieve desired learning
outcomes. Recent research by Bell and Kozlowski (in press) suggests that active or
experiential learning approaches impact learning and performance through three
relatively distinct process pathways. The first pathway is cognitive in nature and concerns
how trainees focus their attention during learning. The second pathway focuses on
important motivational processes, such as goal orientation, intrinsic motivation, and self-
efficacy. These processes influence the orientation (e.g., focus on learning or
performance) individuals take toward a training task, the amount of effort they devote to
learning, and the extent to which they persist through challenges and failure (Bell &
Kozlowski, in press).


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The final pathway focuses on the extent to which trainees use self-regulatory processes to
control their emotions during training. Since active learning can often be a difficult or
stressful process, it is important for trainees to control negative emotions, such as anxiety
or frustration, so that they can focus their attention and effort on learning (Kanfer,
Ackerman, & Heggestad, 1996). It is important to identify effective guidance and support
strategies that can be embedded in the design of simulation based training. It is important
to understand how much and what type of support trainees need to leverage the learner
control offered by simulation learning environments. Three types of support in
simulations that provide them with an exploratory or discovery learning environment.
The first is interpretive support, which helps learners analyze the problem and activate
relevant, prior knowledge. The second, experimental support, helps learners engage in
meaningful discovery learning activities. scaffolds learners in the systematic design of
experiments, prediction and observation of outcomes, and the drawing of reasonable
conclusions. Finally, reflective support increases learners self-awareness of the
discovery processes and helps them integrate the discovered rules and principles. Bell
and Kozlowski (2002a), for example, provided learners in a simulation-based training
environment with adaptive guidance, which provided diagnostic feedback and
personalized study and practice recommendations based on trainees performance
improvement across practice sessions. adaptive guidance had a positive effect on the
nature of trainees study and practice, quality of their self-regulatory processes,
knowledge acquired, performance, and performance adaptation. Adopting a learner-
centered perspective. It is important to recognize that even the most well designed
training simulation will not be effective for all trainees. There exist a number of
individual differences that have the potential to moderate the effectiveness of simulation-
based training.








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TASK 2 : Planning & Designing A Teaching-Learning Model
(a) Description of the learners
Im teaching English Language at SK Kampong Soeharto in Kuala Kubu Bharu
area. The school are located in the FELDA area. I teach English year 2, 4 and 6. For this
task, I choose the year 2 pupils. It consists of 31 pupils in the classroom (15 boys and 16
girls). These pupils are in the advanced level. Their proficiency in English is good. They
are quite active in the classroom especially the boys. They love to do the Total Physical
Response (TPR) activities in the classroom. I choose the topic Around Us and I use the
picture of a school environment.

(b) Description of the selected model
I choose the Picture-Word Inductive Model in the Information-Processing Family.
I beliefs that,this model is suitable for my pupils. Using picture for these learners is the
effective way to deliver the knowledge to them. Picture is very good in capturing their
attention in the classroom.
The Picture Word Inductive Model (PWIM) is an instructional approach for the
teaching of reading that uses pictures containing familiar objects, actions and scenes, to
draw out familiar words from students listening and speaking vocabularies. This strategy
helps students add words to their sight reading vocabulary, as well as their writing
vocabulary, and to examine and categorize phonetic and structural principles present in
those words.
The purpose of using PWIM is to develop students vocabulary, concepts about
words, and sentence and paragraph structures through reading and content areas such as
math, science, social studies, and health. As an inductive instructional strategy, it has
been researched and proven to be highly successful with both beginning readers and
over-aged beginning readers.
Words are shaken out or listed by a photograph by the students. The words are
then categorized by students and read as a class over a series of days. Each class writes
and reads sentences using the words. Then, depending on the grade level, the sentences
are categorized and formed into paragraphs.



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The Picture Word Inductive Model is a complex strategy that takes much study
and training on the part of the teacher. It is through training, coaching with colleagues,
and practice that teachers learn how to select the best photographs that will draw out
appropriate vocabulary that will then lead to the study of the appropriate structural
principles and increased reading proficiency.
The following list of advantages of the Picture Word Inductive Model is drawn from
Calhoun (1999).
The strategy emphasizes phonics, grammar, mechanics, and usage of Standard
English.
Pictures provide concrete visuals for the learning of new words, phrases, and
sentences.
Because students are using pictures related to content material under study, they feel
a part of the classroom community and can participate in class activities.
The picture word chart serves as an immediate reference, or picture dictionary, that
enables students to eventually add the words to their own sight vocabulary. The
teacher can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship
(introduced or taken to mastery).
Students are assisted in seeing the patterns and relationships of the English
language, enabling them to apply this learning to newly encountered words.
Students hear and see words spelled correctly and participate in correct spelling and
writing.
Learners benefit from the teacher modelling of the key words and concepts. With
extensive practice, students begin to learn how to create sentences and paragraphs
related to the subject under study.

The strategy can be used with a whole class, small groups, pairs, or individually
to lead students to inquiry about words and adding them to their vocabularies,
discovering phonetic and structural principles, and engaging in other reading and writing
activities. Skills are taught explicitly using PWIM. The strategy is designed to capitalize
on a students ability to think inductively.



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Steps of the PWIM
1. Select a picture.
2. Ask students to identify what they see in the picture.
3. Label the picture parts identified. (Draw a line from the identified object or area, say
the word, write the word; ask students to spell the word aloud and then to pronounce
it.)
4. Read and review the picture word chart aloud.
5. Ask students to read the words (using the lines on the chart if necessary) and to
classify the words into a variety of groups. Identify common concepts (e.g.,
beginning consonants, rhyming words) to emphasize with the whole class.
6. Read and review the picture word chart (say the word, spell it, say it again).
7. Add words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks.
8. Lead students into creating a title for the picture word chart. Ask students to think
about the information on the chart and what they want to say about it.
9. Ask students to generate a sentence, sentences, or a paragraph about the picture word
chart. Ask students to classify sentences; model putting the sentences into a good
paragraph.
10. Read and review the sentences and paragraphs.

Strengths of the PWIM.
The basic steps of the PWIM stress these components of phonics, grammar,
mechanics, and usage:
Students hear the words pronounced correctly many times and the picture word chart is
an immediate reference as they add these words to their sight vocabulary. The teacher
can choose to emphasize almost any sound and symbol relationship (introduced or taken
to mastery).
Students hear and see letters identified and written correctly many times.
Students hear the words spelled correctly many times and participate in spelling them
correctly.
In writing the sentences, the teacher uses standard English (transforming student
sentences if necessary) and uses correct punctuation and mechanics (e.g., commas,


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capital letters). As different mechanical and grammatical devices are used, the teacher
describes why the device is used. After several lessons and experience with the teacher
modeling the devices, the students learn how to use them, too.

The instructional environment created by the teacher through the PWIM is
probably closest to the position articulated by Ramey and Ramey (1998). These
professors and researchers offer six developmental priming mechanisms repeatedly
associated with positive cognitive, social, and emotional outcomes of children (Ramey
& Ramey, 1998, p. 115) (and probably also with the continuing development of adults):
Encouragement of exploration,
Mentoring in basic cognitive and social skills,
Celebrating new skills,
Guided rehearsal and extension of new skills,
Protection from inappropriate punishment or ridicule for developmental advances, and
Stimulation in language and symbolic communication. (Ramey & Ramey, 1998, p. 115)


















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Class : Year 2
Level : Advanced
No. Of Pupils : 31
Subject : English Language
Time : 8.45 9.45 am
Topic : Around Us ( School Environment )
Theme : World of Knowledge
Lesson Objective : 1. To identify the features of a school environment
2. To construct sentences with correct word order
3. To construct complete sentences
Activities :
1. Teacher views an image onto the board. Pupils take time to view the picture of the
school.
2. Pupils think of 3-4 words that they see in the image that they want to share. Pupils
raise their hands when ready to share with the class.
3. Pupils stay seated and direct the teacher to the word using verbal directions (up, down,
left, right, etc). Draw a line from the identified object or area, say the word, write the
word; ask pupils to spell the word aloud and then to pronounce it.
4. Every few words, read and review the picture word chart aloud.
5. Teacher directs pupils to find something interesting about the words: plural words,
number of letters, compound words, nouns, vowel patterns etc, then compare the words
to others in the picture.
6. Teacher asks pupils to read the words (using the lines on the chart if necessary) and to
classify the words into a variety of groups. Identify common concepts (e.g., beginning
consonants, rhyming words) to emphasize with the whole class. Pupils may classify
according to content, structure, phonetic or other similarities. Allow pupils 5 minutes
to quietly create categories.
7. Teacher asks a pupil to share one of their created categories with the class. Write the
category on the board.
8. Teacher asks a pupil to come to the board and drag appropriate words into the category
heading.


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9. Pupils read and review the picture word chart (say the word, spell it, say it again).
10. Teacher adds words, if desired, to the picture word chart and to the word banks.
11. Teacher leads the pupils into creating a complete sentence that describes the entire
picture. Ask pupils to think about the information on the chart and what they want to
say about it.
12. Teacher asks pupils to create sentences using the words from the picture word chart.
13. Teacher asks pupils to generate sentences using words from the word banks
14. Read and review the sentences.
15. Teacher gives a few examples of an incomplete sentence and have pupils to re-write
completed versions on board.
16. Teacher gives a few examples of sentences with incorrect word order. Pupils come to
the board and make corrections.
17. Independent Practice: Pupils construct 2 complete correct sentences on their own
using words from picture and word banks.



Picture of a school







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TASK 3 : Reflection
This course introduces me in the field of education to a variety of models and
strategies of teaching. Essentially, three families of teaching models are introduced in this
course: information-processing models, social learning models and behaviourist models.
It gives me an exposure to research that helps me to develop professional teaching
practice in the classroom. After completing this course, I will be able to do the following:
1. Compare and contrast a variety of models and strategies of teaching
2. Design and develop lesson plans and instructional units for a particular subject using
appropriate models and strategies
3. Develop a personal understandings of best practice in teaching by exploring and
evaluating the effects of a number of models and strategies of teaching
4. Engage in reflective practice and enquiry before, during and after an instructional
event
I realize that all these models and strategies I have use it in the classroom and still
using it until now but I do not know the specific names for each of the strategies that I
used. Now, I can clearly differentiates each of the models and strategies. Based on the
readings, I know the effects of the models and when I used it in the classroom, I realized
that I also experience the same effect. There are many benefits that I get when I complete
this course :
Improves the quality of instruction
Systematic approach to planning for instruction
Facilitates awareness about students learning needs.
Assess impact of instruction
Offers alternative ways of representing content/skills
Develop learning experiences that yield successful outcomes.
Facilitates student engagement in more meaningful ways






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When I implement these models and strategies in the classroom, I can see the changes
experience in the classroom. The pupils also gain the benefits such as :
Increases aptitude for learning and retention
Learn more rapidly.
Facilitates different kinds of learning
Builds academic self-esteem.
Acknowledges characteristics and aptitudes.
Promotes student awareness of how they will be taught and what changes are
sought.
The challenges that I may face if I want to implement the models in my classroom are:
Behavior management
Planning and programming new learning experience
Report writing assessment on students performance
Selecting assessment tools
Differentiation in students interest, abilities, skills and knowledge

Classroom management is a challenge that all teachers face. Implementing effective
strategies such as building quality relationships with students, making learning more
student-based, and maintaining consistent classroom expectations helps one overcome
this challenge. Making the decision to integrate these strategies in my own teaching will
increase the day-to-day efficiency of my classroom and allow my students learning to
become more deeply enriched.

Developing lesson plans for students is very challenging. Teachers not only have to think
about what their state department of education requires of them, but they also have to
think about the learning needs and abilities of their students. Finding a balancing point
between all of these factors is not easy to do, but there are ways of overcoming the most
common problems associated with the modern classroom.




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One problem that a lot of teachers face, particularly teachers who have diverse student
populations with varying skill levels, is trying to find a way to deliver the required
curriculum in a manner that will make it accessible to all of the student skill levels in the
classroom. This problem develops when students in a classroom do not all have the same
abilities to process information that the teacher is delivering. This difference in skill level
can be caused by teaching a classroom made up of students of different grade levels or
teaching a classroom of students that may not all be at grade level in terms of reading and
writing.
The solution that I use to overcome this problem is needs to be innovative. I design
educational activities that incorporate elements that can help those with lower skill levels
understand and complete their lessons is one option. For example, written words can be
paired with graphics that represent the word. Other elements can be included in the main
lesson to also provide learning opportunities and challenges for those students that may
be more advanced than their peers. For example, I include a challenge question or
project for those students that get done early or who have already mastered the basic
concepts of the activity.
Keeping students interested in what is being taught is another common problem that
teachers face. When students lose interest in what the teacher is talking about they engage
in disruptive behavior or they stop paying attention all together. This limits both how
much they are learning and how much other students in the class are learning.
To correct this problem I need to find ways to engage students in what they are teaching.
For example, when I teach science I develop lesson plans to teach science fair projects.
Active learning projects keep students focused and actively engaged while they are
learning basic skills and concepts.








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APPENDIX

REFERENCES
Joyce, B., Weil, M. and Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of Teaching, Boston, MA: Allyn &
Bacon

Lang, H. & D. Evans (2005). Models, Strategies and Method for Effective Teaching, NY,
USA:Allyn & Bacon

Thomas R. Guskey (2005). A Historical Perspective on Closing Achievement Gaps.
NASSP Bulletin. Vol. 89 No. 644 September 2005. pg 76-89

Bradford S. Bell, Adam M. Kanar, Steve W. J. Kozlowski (2008). Current Issues and
Future Directions in Simulation-Based Training. Cornell University. pg 2-33

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). The Picture Word Inductive Model: Developing
Literacy across the Curriculum Models of Teaching (pp. 125-157): Pearson Education, Inc.

Swartzendruber, K. (2007). The Picture Word Inductive Model and Vocabulary Acquisition.
Retrieved from Wichita State University, Proceedings of the 3rd Annual GRASP Symposium:
http://soar.wichita.edu:8080/dspace/bitstream/10057/850/1/grasp+178.pdf

Wood, K. D., & Tinajero, J. (2002). Using Pictures to Teach Content to Second Language
Learners. Research into Practice. Middle School Journal, 33(5), 47-51.

http://journalseek.net/educ.htm