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Modeling of Dynamic Systems

Ref: Control System Engineering
Norman Nise : Chapters 2 & 3
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Chapter objectives :
Review the Laplace transform
Learn how to find a mathematical model, called a transfer
function
Learn how to find a mathematical model, called a state
variable representation
How to convert between transfer function and state space
models
How to linearize a non-linear system
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Laplace Transforms Review
1. Standard notation in dynamics and control (shorthand
notation)
2. Converts mathematics to algebraic operations
3. Advantageous for block diagram analysis
1. Solution of differential equations (linear)
2. Analysis of linear control systems (frequency response)
3. Prediction of transient response for different inputs
Laplace transforms can be used in process control for:
Modeling in Frequency Domain
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Examples Examples
-st st
0
0
-bt -bt -st -(b+s)t ( s)t
0
0 0
-st
0
a a a
L(a)= ae dt e 0
s s s
1 1
L(e )= e e dt e dt -e
b+s s+b
df df
L(f ) L e dt
dt dt
b

(
( = = =
(

( = = =

| |
= = =
|
\

Usually define f(0) = 0 (e.g., the error)

f(0) sL(f)

-
0
st -
dt (t)e f = (t)) L(f
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Table Laplace Transforms for Various Time-Domain Functions
f(t) F(s)
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f(t) F(s)
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f(t) F(s)
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LT Example 1
Solve the ODE,
( ) 5 4 2 0 1 (3-26)
dy
y y
dt
+ = =
First, take L of both sides ( ) ( ) ( )
2
5 1 4 sY s Y s
s
+ =
Rearrange,
( )
( )
5 2
(3-34)
5 4
s
Y s
s s
+
=
+
Take L
-1
, ( )
( )
1
5 2
5 4
s
y t
s s

(
+
=
(
+

L
From LT Table, ( )
0.8
0.5 0.5 (3-37)
t
y t e

= +
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Partial fraction expansion
1. Case 1. Roots of the denominator of F(s) are real and
distinct
2. Case 2. Roots of the denominator of F(s) are real and
repeated
3. Case 3. Roots of the denominator of F(s) are complx or
imaginary
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system at rest (s.s.)
Step 1 Take L.T. (note zero initial conditions)
3 2
3 2
6 11 6 4
0 0 0 0
d y d y dy
y
dt dt dt
y( )= y ( )= y ( )=
+ + + =

3 2
4
6 11 6 ( ) s Y(s)+ s Y(s)+ sY(s) Y s =
s
+
To find transient response for u(t) = unit step at t > 0
1. Take Laplace Transform (L.T.)
2. Factor, use partial fraction decomposition
3. Take inverse L.T.
LT Example 2
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Rearranging,
Step 2a. Factor denominator of Y(s)
Step 2b. Use partial fraction decomposition
Multiply by s, set s = 0
3 2
4
( 6 11 6)
Y(s) =
s s s s + + +
) )(s+ )(s+ )=s(s+ s+ + s + s(s 3 2 1 6 11 6
2 3
3 1 2 4
4
1 2 3 1 2 3

s(s+ )(s+ )(s+ ) s s s s
= + + +
+ + +
3 2 4
1
0 0
1
4
1 2 3 1 2 3
4 2
1 2 3 3
s s

s
(s+ )(s+ )(s+ ) s s s

= =
(
= + + +
(
+ + +

= =

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For a
2
, multiply by (s+1), set s = -1 (same procedure
for a
3,
a
4
)
2 3 4
2
2 2
3
, , = = =
2 3
2 2
2 2
3 3
2
0 (0) 0.
3
t t t
y(t)= e e e
t y(t) t y

+
= =
Step 3. Take inverse of L.T.
You can use this method on any order of ODE, limited only by
factoring of denominator polynomial (characteristic equation)
Practice Matlab ..
2 2 2 2/3
( + )
3 1 2 3
Y(s)=
s s s s

+ + +
(check original ODE)
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Mathematical model a description of a system in term of
equations
Types of model
Models of dynamics system can be of many kinds, including the
following:
Mental, intuitive or verbal models
Graphs and tables
Mathematical models
Constructing a model:
Mathematical modeling or first principle modeling.
Process or system identification.
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One example
of dynamic
system
automobile
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The procedure of deriving models :
Understand the physics and interaction of the elements
Construct a simplified diagrammatic rep of the system
Apply element and interconnection laws
Draw the FBD
Identify or define the inputs, outputs and state variables
Establish the system equations
Obtain the desired form of the system model
If the model is non-linear, determine the equilibrium
conditions and obtain a linearized model.
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1. Mechanical Systems translational & rotational
Translational mechanical systems
can have only horizontal or vertical motion
a. State variables
Variables of trans mechanical systems are :
x, displacement in meters (m)
v, velocity in meters per second (m/s)
a, acceleration in meter per second square (m/s
2
)
f, force in Newton (N)
w, energy in Joule (J)
p, power in watts (W)
all variables are functions of time
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b. The element laws include in trans systems are mass, friction and
stiffness.
They relate the external force to the acceleration, velocity and
displacement associated with the element.
Mass
Friction when two bodies slide over each other there is a frictional
force f between them that is a function of the relative velocity between the
sliding surface
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Stiffness when a mechanical element is subjected to a force f and goes
through a change in length x, it can be characterized by a stiffness element.
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c. Interconnection Laws
DAlemberts law is developed from Newtons law for translational system.
For a constant mass :
( )

=
i
i ext
dt
dv
M f
( ) 0 =

i
i ext
dt
dv
M f
0 =

i
i
f
where the summation over the index i includes all the external forces (f
ext
)
i
acting on the body.
The sum of the forces is zero provided -Mdv/dt is thought of as an additional
forces this fictitious force is called inertial force or DAlembert force.
DAlemberts law
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The law of reaction force accompanying any force of one element on
another, there is a reaction force on the first element of equal magnitude and
opposite direction (Newtons third law : reaction forces)
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The law for displacements if the ends of two elements are connected, those
ends are forced to move with the same displacement and velocity.
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d. Obtaining the system model FBD
Example 1
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Example 2
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Example 3
Example 4
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Series and parallel combination
2 1
k k k
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
k k
k k
k
eq
+
=
2 1
b b b
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
b b
b b
b
eq
+
=
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Rotational mechanical systems
are modeled using the same techniques as those for
translational mechanical systems
a. State variables
Variables of trans mechanical systems are :
, angular displacement in radians (rad)
, velocity in radians per second (rad/s)
, angular acceleration in radians per second squared (rad/s
2
)
, torque in Newton-meters (N.m)
all variables are functions of time
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b. The element laws include in rotational systems are moment of
inertia, friction, stiffness, levers and gears.
Moment of Inertia J in kilogram-meters
2
(kg.m
2
)

= dm r J
2
2
0
ma J J + =
( ) J
dt
d
= where J is the angular momentum of a body.
The net torque applied about the fixed axis of rotation is given by
where r is the distance from the axis of reference and
dm is the mass of the small element.
Parallel axis theorem states
where a is the distance between the parallel axes and J
0
is the moment of inertia about the principal axis
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Friction A rotational friction element is one for which there is an algebraic
relationship between the torque and the relative angular velocity between two
surfaces.
Rotational viscous friction arises when two rotating bodies are separated by a
film of oil.
( )
1 2
= = b b
Rotational devices characterized by viscous friction
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Stiffness is usually associated with a torsional spring, such as the mainspring
of a clock, or with a relatively thin shaft.
For a linear torsional spring or flexible shaft,
2
2
1
k W =
where k is the stiffness constant with units of newton-
meters (N.m) and =
2
-
1
(a) Rot stiffness el with one end fixed. (b) Rot stiffness el with =
2
-
1
Potential energy is stored in a twisted element and for a linear spring or shaft
is given by
= k
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The Lever an ideal lever is assumed to be a rigid bar pivoted at a point
and having no mass, no friction, no momentum and no stored energy.
Let be the angular displacement of the lever from the horizontal position.
For small displacements
1
1
2
2
x
d
d
x =
1
1
2
2
f
d
d
f =
1
1
2
2
v
d
d
v =
The lever
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Gears an ideal gear is assumed to have no moment of inertia, no friction,
no stored energy, and a perfect meshing of the teeth.
1
2
1
2
n
n
r
r
N = = where r and n denote the radius and number of teeth
N is a gear ratio

1
and
2
are the angular displacements for the
gears
A pair of gears
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2 2 1 1
r r = N
r
r
= =
1
2
2
1

N
r
r
= =
1
2
2
1

0
2 2 1 1
= +

1
and
2
are the angular
displacements for the gears
Ideal gears (a) ref position, (b) after rotation
; ;
FBD for a pair of ideal gears
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c. Interconnection Laws
DAlemberts law for a body with constant moment of inertia rotating about
a fixed axis,
( )

=
i
i ext
J 0 &
where the summation over i includes all the torques acting on the body, and the
term J can be considered an inertial torque.

=
i
i
0
the torque J is directed opposite to the positive sense of , and
DAlemberts law
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The law of reaction force for bodies that are rotating about the same axis,
any torque exerted by one element on another is accompanied by a reaction
torque of equal magnitude and opposite direction on the first element.
The law for angular displacements
The reference marks on the rims are at the top of the two disks when no torque
is applied. The net angular displacement for the shaft K
2
with respect to its
unstressed condition is
2
-
1
.
( )

=
i
i
0 around any closed path
Rot sys to illustrate the law of ang disp
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d. Obtaining the system model FBD
(a) Rotational system, (b) & (c) Its corresponding FBD