Environmental Auditing-Day 2

AIR POLLUTION
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
In order to understand topics related to the effects and control of air pollution, it is first
necessary to know something about the composition and physical behaviour of the
atmosphere itself. hat does the !pure" atmosphere consist, of, and how do
meteorological or weather conditions affect the mi#ing and dispersion of pollutants$
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
%he atmosphere comprises of a mi#ture of many different gases, but mostly it consists of
molecular nitrogen and o#ygen. About &' percent of dry air is nitrogen, and bout 2(
percent is o#ygen. %his is e#pressed on a column basis. In other words, a container
holding ())) * of air +at standard pressure, would include about &') * of nitrogen and
2() * of o#ygen.
%he nitrogen and o#ygen add up to only --).())) or -- percent of the total volume. %he
remaining () *, or ( percent of the !pure" atmosphere, normally includes several other
gases. /ost of that ( percent +roughly ).- percent, is the inert gas Argon. %he rest
includes carbon dio#ide, methane, hydrogen, helium, neon, o0one, and other gases in
trace amounts. 1igure illustrates the relative amounts of atmospheric gases in graphic
form.
%he relative amounts or concentrations of gases in air can be e#pressed in terms of parts
per million +ppm,, as well as in terms of percentage. 1or e#ample, since () ))) ppm 2 (
percent the o#ygen concentration of 2( percent in air can also be e#pressed as 2( )))
ppm. 3bviously, it is more convenient to simply e#press that concentration in percent. 3n
the other hand, the average global concentration of carbon dio#ide, ).)45) percent, may
be more conveniently e#pressed as 45) ppm. 6atural o0one concentrations can be as low
as ).)2 ppm.
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1igure /olecular nitrogen and o#ygen are the main constituents of the atmosphere, but
!clean" air also contains argon, carbon dio#ide, and farce amounts of several other gases.
Source: 9asic Environmental %echnology by :E77; A. 6A<A6=36. >3/
(For private circulation only)
ater vapor is also a normal component of the atmosphere, but the amount may vary
significantly over time and location. *ocal climate is a ma?or factor that affects the
amount of atmospheric moisture. In humid regions, the water or moisture content of air
may be as high as @ percent.
Atmospheric Layers
%he full atmosphere e#tends upward roughly (A) km +()) miles, above the surface of the
earth. 9ut the relative composition of gases ?ust outlined pertains only to the troposphere,
which is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. %he troposphere is only about (2 km +'
miles, thick. It is in this relatively thin layer of air that o#ygen-dependent life is
sustained, clouds are formed, weather patterns develop, and most of our air pollution
problems occur.
%he density of air decreases significantly with an increase in altitude or distance above
the earthBs surface. >onseCuently, most of the total air mass of the atmosphere is
contained within the lower layer or troposphere. %he !skin of the apple" mentioned
previously refers to this life-supporting layer. Above the troposphere, there is not enough
o#ygen to support life.
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%he layer of air above the troposphere, called the stratosphere, is a stable layer that
e#tends upward to an altitude of about 4) km +2) miles,. Even though it is deeper than
the troposphere, the stratosphere contains only a small fraction of the total air mass,
because of the lower air density. It does, however, contain much more o0one, )4, than the
troposphere.
%he o0one in the stratosphere plays an important role in protecting live organisms on the
earth from the sunBs harmful ultraviolet +8D, radiation. %he 8D rays are absorbed by
o0one molecules and are then converted into heat energy. %he o0one in effect, acts as a
protective filter. It is conceivable that an accumulation of certain pollutants +e.g., freon
from aerosol cans, in the stratosphere could react with o0one, diminishing its 8D filtering
capacity. %here is concern that this may lead to an increase of skin cancer and other
health problems in humans.
*ayers of the atmosphere above the stratosphere include the mesosphere, the ionosphere,
and the thermosphere. %hese portions of the atmosphere are essentially unaffected by air
pollution.
THE EFFECT OF WEATHER
Air pollutants are mi#ed, dispersed, and diluted in the atmosphere by movement of air
masses, both hori0ontally and vertically. %his air movement, and therefore air Cuality, is
very dependent upon local meteorological or weather conditions.
<ori0ontal dispersion of air pollutants depends upon wind speed and direction. %he
concentration of pollutants decreases with decreases with increasing wind speed, because
as the pollutants are discharged from the source, they are more rapidly separated and
dispersed by the swiftly moving air. Enowledge of prevailing wind speed and direction in
a given locality makes it possible to select sites for new industrial facilities or power
plants so as to minimi0e local air pollution effects. *ocating such sites downwind of
residential areas is preferable, naturally, to upwind location.
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Temperature I!ersio
In addition to wind, another important meteorological factor that has a significant effect
on the dispersion of pollutants is atmospheric stability. %he atmosphere is said to be
stable when there is little or no vertical movement of air masses. As a conseCuence there
is little or no mi#ing or air pollutants in the vertical direction, and pollutants tend to
accumulate near the ground. 8nder such conditions of stability, air pollution problems
may become severe.
An unstable atmosphere, on the other hand, is one in which air masses move naturally in
a vertical direction, and carry pollutants upward, away from the ground. A condition of
instability then is preferable to conditions of stability in the atmosphere, with regard to air
Cuality.
Atmospheric stability depends on the relationship between air temperature and altitude
that prevails at a particular time and location. 6ormally, in the troposphere, air
temperature decreases with increasing altitudes as you go higher, it gets cooler. %he
lower-most layer of the atmosphere is warmed by heat energy reradiated from the earthBs
surface. 9ut the relatively warm air near the surface then tends to rise, as it is displaced
by cooler and denser air from above. %his may result in an unstable condition with
constant vertical mi#ing of air masses, if the rate of temperature decrease with altitude is
sufficient to sustain the mi#ing process. %he rate at which temperature actually changes
with increasing altitude at any given time is called the environmental lapse rate, or simply
the lapse rate. %he specific lapse rates the represents the separation or boundary between
a stable and unstable atmosphere is called the adiabatic lapse rate. It is eCual to ()>.())
m +-@.5'1.()) ft., %he negative sign indicates that air temperature decreases as the
altitude increases.
As long as the environmental lapse rate e#ceeds the adiabatic lapse rate the atmosphere
will be unstable and vertical mi#ing of air masses will occur. %he colder air from above
will descend as the warmed air rises in a manner similar to the !turnover" of a stratifies
lake in the fall. %his condition is illustrated in figure.
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>ertain weather patterns can cause the environmental lapse rate to be less than, and other
make it greater than, the adiabatic lapse rate. In fact, under some circumstances, it is
possible for the lapse rate to change direction entirely, that is to represent an increase
rather than a decrease in temperature will altitude. =uch a condition is called a
temperature inversion, and it is a most undesirable condition with respect to air Cuality.
Environmental lapse rate

*ine A shown the adiabatic lapse rate, and line E shown an environmental or prevailing
lapse rate. hen the air temperature decreases faster than the adiabatic rate, as shown
here, air pollutants are dispersed and diluted in the atmosphere.
hen local weather conditions temporarily cause air temperatures to increase with
altitude, an inversion has occurred. %he atmosphere is stable during an inversionF air
pollutant levels build up because of the lack of mi#ing and dispersion in these air.
An inversion is illustrated in 1igure. %he denser, colder air is trapped below the warmer
air, and vertical motion of air masses is restricted. =ince vertical motion is restricted there
is essentially no mi#ing or dispersion of air pollutants in an upward direction.
In an urban area, air Cuality will decreases rapidly during this period of stability or
stagnation, until the weather conditions change and the normal lapse rate is restored.
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%emperature inversions can be caused by variety of local meteorological conditions, and
they can occur ?ust about anywhere. 9ut there are certain geographical conditions that can
increases the freCuency and duration of these inversions. %he situation can be particularly
severe, for e#ample, for a community located in a valley, which acts as a holding basin or
sink for cold, dense air masses near the ground. %he surrounding hills also tend to block
hori0ontal air motion, thus adding to the stagnation problems. %he city of *os Angeles,
for e#ample, lies in a mountain-rimmed !bowl" that traps air pollutants during freCuent
temperature inversion.
=ometimes a temperature inversion will begin at a certain elevation above the ground
surface, leaving a relatively thin lyre of unstable air below. =uch a condition is illustrated
in 1igure. %his type of inversion forms a !lid" in effect, that traps pollutants and prevents
further vertical mi#ing. %he plume are mi#ed in the thin but unstable layer near the
ground, causing a condition of fumigation for surrounding communities.
1igureG - hen a temperature inversion begins above the ground, because of local
weather conditions, it acts as a lid or ceiling that prevents further vertical mi#ing and
traps pollutants below it.
T"PES AN# SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Air pollution may be simply defined as the presence of !foreign" substances in the
atmosphere in high enough concentrations, and for long enough durations, to cause
undesirable effects. hat are these so-called foreign substances, where do they come
from, and what are the undesirable effects$ In this section, the nature and sources of
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common air pollutants will be discussed, and in the following section, some of the most
undesirable effects will be considered.
1irst though, we should make a distinction between so-called natural air pollution, and
pollution caused by industry, transportation and other human activities. 6ot all air
pollution is caused by human activity. In fact, at certain times the pollution from natural
sources can be far more severe and long lasting than pollution from human activity.
Herhaps the most dramatic and recent e#ample of natural air pollution in the 8nited =tates
was caused by the (-') eruption of /ount =t. <elens, in the state of ashington. Dast
Cuantities of gases and dust were spewed into the atmosphere in a relatively short period
of time. *ocal communities, including the city of Hortland, 3regon, were blanketed with
volcanic ash for Cuite a while, In addition to discharges such as those from /ount =t.
<elens and other active volcanoes around the world, natural air pollutants include smoke
and gases from forest fires, windblown dust from deserts, salt seaspray pollen grains, and
other naturally occurring substances.
%hose substances that are generally recogni0ed to be of ma?or concern as air pollutants
from human activity include the following.
(. Harticulates
2. =ulfur dio#ide
4. 6itrogen dio#ide
5. >arbon mono#ide
@. <ydro carbons
A. 30one
&. *ead
%he principal sources of these air pollutants are considered to be either mobile +e.g.,
automobiles., or stationary +e.g. coal fired electric power generating stations., %he
distinction between mobile and stationary sources of air pollutants is important because
of the different dispersion patterns and pollution control technology applied to each type.
>hemical manufacturing, fuel combustion for heat, and solid waste incineration are
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additional stationery sources, but electric power generation is the most significant with
respect to total emissions.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1or discussion, we classify or group the effects of air pollution into five general
categories, according to its effects onF
(. <uman health
2. /aterials
4. Degetation, agricultural crops, and livestock
5. Atmospheric conditions
@. ACuatic and terrestrial ecosystems
HUMAN HEALTH
3f primary concern are the adverse effects air pollution has on human health. Ienerally,
air pollutionBs is most harmful to the very old and the very young. /any elderly people
already suffer from some form of lung or heart disease, and their weakened condition
makes them very susceptible to additional harm from pollution. %he sensitive respiratory
systems of newborn infants are also susceptible to harm from dirty air. 9ut it is not ?ust
the elderly or the very young who sufferF healthy people of all ages can be adversely
affected by high concentrations of air pollution. In general, ma?or health effects include.
(. Acute +short-term but severe, illness, or death
2. >hronic +long-term, respiratory illness, including bronchitis, emphysema, asthma,
and possibly lung cancer.
4. %emporary eye and throat irritation, coughing, chest pain and malaise or general
discomfort
%he intermittent occurrence of e#ceptionally high air pollutant concentrations in a
community and the acute public health problems that manifest themselves during the
same period is called an air pollution episode. 3ne of the most severe episode of record
occurred in *ondon, is (-@2. During a one-week period of very high sulfur dio#ide and
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particulate levels, about 5))) !e#cess deaths" +more than ordinarily would be e#pected in
that time period, were noted.
In the 8nited =tates, the first ma?or air pollution episode on record occurred in Donora,
Hennsylvania, in (-'5. In only a few days during 3ctober of that year, 2) e#cess death
and about A)) illnesses were attributed to air pollution from local industry. 9ecause of
the relatively small population of (5))) people in Donora, the !per capital death rate"
was actually the highest ever recorded during an air pollution episode.
/any other pollution episodes have occurred in the recent past in many different
countries, and we cannot yet rule out the possibility of their recurrence. In general, a
typical episode lasts about two to seven days and is characteri0ed primarily by stagnant
air and unusually high concentration of =32 and particulates. %he stagnant air results from
temporary weather conditions, including a temperature inversion and negligible winds
speeds. Illness and e#cess deaths occur in all age groups, but mostly the very old, the
very young, and previously ill persons are affected.
It is difficult for public health e#perts to match up any specific air pollutant with a
specific disease or health effect, with absolute certainty. 9ut some general conclusions
can drawn from available data. 8sually sulfur dio#ide, nitrogen dio#ide, or o0one cause
eye and throat irritation, coughing, and chest pain. %hese pungent gases can harm lung
tissue when inhaled into the respiratory tract, and are associated with bronchitis,
emphysema, and other lung diseases.
Inhalation of particulates also affects the breathing process adversely. Although particles
larger that about (um tend to be captured by the protective mucus lining and cilia +very
small hairs, in the nose and throat, smaller particles can penetrate deep into the lungs.
>ertain particulate are especially dangerous because of their to#ic or carcinogenic
propertiesF lead fumes in automobile e#hausts and asbestos fibers are only two such
e#amples.
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>arbon mono#ide is a colorless and odorless gas that is virtually unnoticeable to our
senses. 9ut this makes it all the more dangerous because it can be inhaled without
causing irritation or immediate discomfort. It is e#tremely to#ic because it readily
combines with hemoglobin in the blood, and takes up the place ordinarily occupied by
o#ygen, which the body needs continuously. %he inhaled >3 reduces the ability of the
blood to transfer o#ygen to body cells, leading to asphy#iation or suffocation.
A >3 concentration of about ())) ppm can cause unconsciousness in a healthy person, in
one hour of e#posureF death by asphy#iation will occur in about four hours at that
concentration. Even much lower concentrations can cause illness or reduced mental
awarenessF a ma#imum allowable eight-hour e#posure limit for workers in the 8nited
=tates has been set at @) ppm. 8nder certain circumstances, particularly in the immediate
vicinity of heavily congested highways, atmospheric >3 levels may reach one-hour
peaks as high as 5)) ppm.
MATERIALS
Damage to materials, due to air pollution, occurs continuously in urban areas. It includes
the soiling and deterioration of building surfaces, public statues and other outdoor works
of art, the corrosion of metals, and the weakening and deterioration of te#tiles and leather,
as well as rubber, nylon, and other synthetic products.
Deposition or settling of particulates on materials is the cause of soilingF the freCuent
cleaning of-soiled surfaces and clothing leads to more rapid deterioration. Abrasion,
caused by particulates carried in the wind at high speeds, eventually erodes and wears
away solid surfaces. E#amples of direct and irreversible chemical attack include the
cracking of rubber that is e#posed to o0one, and the severe discoloration of leaded house
paint that is e#posed to hydrogen sulfide gas. *eather becomes brittle when e#posed to
sulfur dio#ideF the =32 is absorbed into the leather materialF and is converted to sulfuric
acid in the presence of moisture.
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%he damage of material by air pollution is not merely an aesthetic problem, but also an
economic problem of ma?or proportions. Although this is not immediately apparent to the
casual observer, it should be noted that the total cost of cleaning and repairing damage
caused by air pollution is estimated to e#ceed ( billion per year in the 8nited =tates.
PLANTS$ ANIMALS AN# THE ATMOSPHERE
Air pollutants can damage fruits, vegetables, trees and flowers in various ways. =ome
pollutants cause collapse of the leaf tissueF others bleach or discolor the leaves. %he total
cost of air pollution damage to agricultural hundred million dollars per year in the 8nited
=tates. >ertain air pollutants also cause harm to cattle and other livestock, but this is
usually a locali0ed problem on farms near specific industrial plants that cause the
pollution.
%o the general public, the most noticeable effect of air pollution is on the atmosphere
itself. =pecifically, it is the ha0e and reduction of visibility due to the scattering of light
by suspended particles. Harticulates can also affect weather conditions by increasing the
freCuency of fog formation and rainfall.
%REENHOUSE EFFECT
At the present time, it seems that any increase in the earths reflectively is being
counterbalanced by a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. %he greenhouse effect is
caused by carbon dio#ide, >32 which is not ordinarily considered to be an air pollutant.
In fact, it is a normal although minor component of the atmosphere, with an average
concentration of about ).)45 percent or 45) ppm. And it does not cause any adverse
effects on human health.
9ut carbon dio#ide is released into the atmosphere in vast Cuantities as a by-product of
fossil fuel combustion +foal, oil, gas,, which is used in industrial activity and power
generation. It is estimated that the average worldwide concentration of carbon dio#ide is
increasing at a rate of almost ( ppm per year. %his does not cause a public health ha0ard,
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nor does it cause damage to plants, animals, or materials. hat, then, is the problem with
atmospheric carbon dio#ide, and why is it called the greenhouse effect$
>arbon dio#ide molecules in the air absorb the heat energy reradiated from the earthBs
surface. %he energy coming from the sun is able to penetrate the atmosphere. 9ut when
the warmed surface of the earth radiated some of the energy back into space, it is trapped
by the carbon dio#ide in the troposphere, as if it were a blanket of insulation, or the glass
enclosure of a greenhouse. %his is illustrated in 1igure. As the >32 concentration
increases, less heat will escape through the troposphere, and average global temperatures
will increase.
%he greenhouse effect should not be dismissed as an e#ample of scientific speculation or
environmentalistsB ! doomsday" propaganda. %wo independent federal studies published
in (-'4, one by the Environmental Hrotection Agency and the other by the 6ational
Academy of =ciences, concluded that the warming trend is both imminent and inevitable.
It is e#pected that global temperatures will increase by about 2 > +4.A 1, within the ne#t
@) years, and by as much as (@ > +2& 1, by the year 2()).
Fi&ure' Energy from the sun can penetrate the atmosphere to warm the earth. 9ut the
type of heat energy radiated back from the earth is absorbed by carbon dio#ide from
combustion will lead to an increase in atmospheric temperatures, called the greenhouse
effect.
9oth studies also concluded that even if the use of fossil fuel was banned as of today, the
greenhouse effect would not be halted or reversed, there is no known strategy that will
mitigate the problem. %he only alternative is to plan for ways to cope effectively with the
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changes in climate that are e#pected to accompany the warming of the atmosphere. =ome
of these changes may be beneficialF for e#ample, agricultural production may be
improved in certain regions because of a longer growing season and more efficient
photosynthesis. 3n the other hand, the melting of the Arctic ice packs is e#pected to raise
the sea level by about ( m +4 ft,B this will cause e#tensive economic and social hardship
in coastal areas all over the world.
ACI# RAIN
A current environmental issue of ma?or public concern is the problem knows as acid rain.
%he description !acid rain" refers to the fact that the average p< of rainfall has been
decreasing significantly below its normal value, in recent years. %he strength of an acidic
solution is measured by its p< value. 9riefly, values of p< range between ) and (5. ith
a p< of & representing a neutral condition. Dalues less than & indicate acidic conditionsF
the lower the p< is, the stronger the acid is.
!Hure" rain, in rural areas far removed from human activity, has some natural acidity,
with a p< of bout @.@. %his is primarily from the formation of carbonic acid, <2>34, by
the reaction of moisture and carbon dio#ide in the atmosphere. 9ut recent scientific
studies show that in urban and industrial areas of the 8nited =tates, and in other
countries, the average p< of rain is less than 5.@. +A p< of 2.2 as acidic as vinegar, was
recorded during a rainfall in =cotland in (-&5., 3n the logarithmic p< scale, a drop of
one p< unit represents an increase in acidity by a factor of (). hat is the relationship
between acid rain and air Cuality, and what are the adverse effects of acid rain$
%he fact that sulfur dio#ide reacts with water vapor to form a mist of sulfuric acid was
already discussed. 6itrogen dio#ide also reacts with atmospheric moisture to form nitric
acid. 3#ides of sulfur and nitrogen are among the ma?or air pollutants and their primary
source is power-generating stations. %he atmospheric mists of sulfuric and nitric acid
eventually reach the surface of the earth in the form of rainfall, dew. or snow. %here are
several environmental problems attributed to this e#cessively acidic precipitation,
including contamination and damage ofF
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(. 1resh water lakes
2. 1orests
4. Agricultural crops
5. Drinking water
@. /aterials
/any species of fish, trees and agricultural crops are very sensitive to p< values and do
not thrive under acidic conditions <undreds of lakes in certain regions of the 8nited
=tates as well as in many other countries, no longer support fish life, most scientists agree
that the death" of these once productive lakes is directly attributable to acid rainfall Acid
rain also accelerates the rate at which minerals leach out of the soil. %his reduces soil
fertility, diminishing the growth and productivity of forests and agricultural crops.
*eaching of certain metals from the soil into the groundwater may also contaminate some
drinking water supplies. 1inally, acid rainfall undoubtedly speeds up the physical
deterioration of concrete, metal, and other e#posed material.
A factor that complicates the acid rain problem is that most of the sulfur and nitrogen
dio#ide is emitted from the tall smokestacks or chimneys at power generating plants. %he
purpose of the tall stacks is to increase the dispersion and dilution of the stack gases and
to protect the surrounding community from high levels of air pollution. 9ut discharge
from these tall chimneys allows the pollutants to be carried long distances in the
atmosphere. %he pollution is, in effect, transferred by !air mail" to other regions of the
country. 1or e#ample, most of the acid rain falling in the north-eastern region of the
8nited =tates is believed to be the result of fossil fuel combustion by industries and
power plants located in the /idwestern section of the nation. About (A million tons of
sulfur emissions each year come from the /idwest. Also, acid rain the 6orway is
believed to come from industrial areas in England and in continental Europe.
Acid rain is one of the most controversial environmental issues in recent times. In (-'5,
several northeastern states petitioned the Environmental Hrotection Agency to order the
reduction of emissions from coal-burning power plants in the /idwest. %he reCuest was
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denied by the EHA, on the basis that the e#isting reCuirements of the >lean Air Act were
not being violated.
%he political atmosphere of the early (-') was one that generally supported further
research rather than immediate +and possibly e#pensive, control of the problem. It was
thought by some that acidity in lakes is not simply caused by acid rain. In some cases,
though, corrective action was initiated on a statewide basis. 1or e#ample, in (-'5 6ew
;ork =tate was the first to reCuire a 4) percent reduction of sulfur emissions by industry
and power utili0es, specifically to help mitigate the acid rain problem. 1inally, in (-'A, a
@ billion program to develop cleaner coal-burning technology was endorsed by the
federal governmentF this was part of a ?oint >anadian-8nited =tates effort to control acid
rain.
AIR SAMPLIN% AN# MEASURMENT
In order to evaluate air Cuality and to design appropriate air pollution control systems, it
is necessary to measures the amount or concentration of the various pollutants. 1irst, of
course, an appropriate sample must be collected. %here are basically two different
approaches for sampling and measuring air pollutants 3ne involves the sampling and
analysis of surrounding !outdoor" or ambient air Cuality. %he other involves the sampling
and analysis of specific emissions at their point of generation, and may be referred to as
source sampling or emissions analysis.
Am(iet Air )ua*ity
Ambient samples are collected from the open atmosphere, after pollutants form various
sources have been dispersed and mi#ed together under natural meteorological conditions.
Ambient, or atmospheric sampling, as it is sometimes called, serves several purposes. It
provides ! background" air Cuality data in urban or rural areas and a basis for dev eloping
and updating ambient air Cuality standards.
/onitoring ambient air Cuality also provides data of determine if established standards
are being met or e#ceeded. Impending air pollution episodes or emergencies can be
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predicted in advance, by e#amining ambient air Cuality along with meteorological dataF
this provides time for health officials to warn the public.
Even though samples are taken from the !open air" it is most important that the sampling
duration and location be representative of the particular study area and type of pollutant
being e#amined.
Source Samp*i&
=ource or emissions sampling is performed right at the point or pollutant discharge such
as at a vehicle tailpipe or a smokestack. In fact, it is often called stack sampling at power
plants where discharge is from a chimney. A basic purpose of source sampling is to
evaluate the pollution discharged from a specific generator and to use the results to
determine if the so-called emission standards are being met or compiled with. 3ther
purposes of emissions sampling are to provide data for designing and operating air
cleaning eCuipment and to measure the working efficiency of that eCuipment.
1or accurate and meaningful results, stack samples must be isokineticF that is, collected
by a probe at the same rate at which the gas leaves the stack. %he eCuipment used for this
purpose is called a sampling train, and it includes several interconnected devices. %he
basic components are a pitotube probe, a vacuum pump to pull the sample out of the
stack, a flow meter, and a meter to measure the weight or mass of a specific pollutant in
the sample. %he temperature of the gas must also be determined. A typical sampling train
is illustrated in 1igure.
PARTICULATES
/easurement of particulate air pollutants may be accomplished by several methods,
including a gravity techniCue, and an inertial techniCue.
%he gravity techniCue is the simplest method, but it can only measure the amount of
settable particulates +dust and fly ash, in the air. A simple device called a dust fall bucket
has been used for this purpose. %he open bucket, containing water to trap and hold the
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particles, is left e#posed in a suitable location, often on a building rooftop. After a
collection period of 4) days the water is evaporated and the dust is weighed.
%he measurement results for settable particulates may be e#pressed in terms of grams per
sCuare mile per month +g.m2 month,, or more typically, as tons per sCuare mile per month
+tonsmile2.month,, based upon the open top area of the collecting bucket. %he total
amount of dust that will settle out of the atmosphere in an urban area can be Cuite highF as
much as @) tons.mile 2.month of dustfall have been observed in some cities.
=uspended particles that are too small to settle out of the air by gravity can be collected
using the filtration techniCue. A common filtration apparatus, called the high-volume
sampler, is shown in 1igure. It acts basically as a vacuum cleaner, e#cept that the air
stream first passes through a special leak-proof, glass-fiber filter before it reaches the fan.
All the suspended particulates in the air stream are trapped on the filter. hich is
weighed before and after the sampling period. %he difference represents the weight of the
total suspended particulate +%=H,.
%he sampling duration is typically 25 hours, in which time about 2))) m4 +&) ))) ft4, of
air is pulled through the filter. %he air flow rate, which gradually decreases as particulates
accumulate on the filter, is metered and recorded. %he measured %=H concentration is
typically e#pressed in terms of micrograms per cubic meter, ug.m4, although peak values
may reach several hundred ug.m4, out in the !country" %=H levels are generally about 4)
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ug.m4. E#pressing %=H levels in terms of micrograms can give erroneous impression that
the Cuantities of material are e#ceedingly small or negligible. It should be noted that a
%=H value of 2)) ug.m4 is roughly eCuivalent to almost one ton of particles per cubic
mile.
Another filtration-type instrument used to collect and measure suspended particulates is
called the paper tape sampler. =ampling durations with this device are relatively short,
typically two hours. A vacuum pump pulls the air stream through a filter tape, which
moves automatically on a reel is illustrated in 1igure.
1igureG- A sheltered high-volume +hi-vol, air sampler, used top analy0e suspended
particulate levels. +Ieneral /etal orks, inc., A =ubsidiary of Andersen =amplers, inc.,
%rapped particulate form a dark spot on the tape, and the amount of particulate correlates
with the darkness of the spot. %he relative darkness of the spot is measured by an optical
device called a transmissometer, which gives a reading in terms of the percentage of light
that can pass through the tape. 1inal results are then e#pressed in terms of a coefficient o
ha0e +>3<,. A value of ( >3< unit is eCuivalent to an !optical density" of ).)(.
=ay, for e#ample, that after a 2-hr sampling period, the amount of light passing through
the clean tape in three times more than the light passing through the spot for trapped
particulates. %hat ratio is called the !opacity" of the spot. %he optical density is eCual to
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Environmental Auditing-Day 2
the logarithm of the opacity. In this e#ample, the logarithm of 4, or ).5&& is the optical
density of the spot.
=ince a >3< of ( is eCual to an optical density of ).)(, the >3< of the air sample in this
case is 5'. %his can be converted to >3<.())) linear feet, depending on the area of the
spot and the volume of the sample. At a particular location, >3<())) ft values can be
used to monitor hourly fluctuations in particulate air pollution, throughout the day.
<owever, there is no definite relationship between >3<.())) ft and ug.m4 of
particulates. An advantage of the paper tape sampler is that it is portable and yields
Cuicker results than the high-volume sampler.
Fi&ure:+ A paper tape sampler. Air is pulled through a strip of filter paper that traps
particulates. Harticulate levels are measured by a light transmissometer. +7A> Division,
Andersen =amplers, Inc.
%he third method of sampling, referred to as the inertial techniCue, makes use of an
obstacle, placed in the path of the air stream. %he air flows around the obstacle, but
because of inertia, the particulates collide with it and become trapped in the device. 3nce
of the simplest such device is the so-called sticky tape sampler, illustrated in figure. It can
be used to collect and measures %=H, as well as to give an indication of prevailing wind
direction, the particles collide with and stick on the tape as they are carried by the wind.
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Fi&ure: + A sticky tape sampler is a simple inertial device for sampling and measuring
particulates and for obtaining results as a function of wind direction.
3ther types of inertial devices are used to collect and analy0e specific particulates, such
as pollen grains or bacteria. %he cascade impactor, for e#ample, traps particles on a series
of slides that are placed in the air stream. %his is illustrated in 1igure. %he orifice
openings through which the air flows are decreased, thereby increasing the velocity.
Harticles of different si0es are captured on each slide, because of their inertia, the sudden
change in direction of flow, and the different flow velocities. %he particulate can be
observed on the slides with a microscope.
Smo,e Rea-i&s
Disual evaluation of smokes plumes that are discharged from a stack or chimney are
made with a so-called 7inglemann >hart, such as the one illustrated in 1igure. %he
density or darkness of the smoke is compared to the five standard shades of gray on the
chartF 7inglemann smoke readings range from all white +), to all black +@,.
Even though pollutant concentrations are not necessarily correlated e#actly with the
shade or darkness of a smoke plume. 7inglemann readings are of value in monitoring air
pollution, and some air Cuality regulations are still based on smoke density. It should also
be noted that the ability to obtain accurate and consistent readings is not an easy task. At
least one day of special training is reCuired for a technician to be able to use the
7englemann chart.
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Fi&ure: + A cascade impactor for collecting and analy0ing particulate air pollutants.
+1rom Desilind H.A. and :.:. Heirce, Environmental Hollution and >ontrol, with
permission of Ann Arbor =cience Hublishers.
Fi&ure: + A 7inglemann type smoke chart. +Hlibrico >ompany, >hicago, llinois,
%ASEOUS POLLUTANTS
%he physical properties and behavior of gases differ markedly from those of particulates.
3ne important e#ample is the fact that gas molecules are small enough to pass through
the finest filter.
%wo techniCues for sampling and measuring the amounts of gases in the atmosphere
involve either absorption or adsorption. %he process of absorption involves the contact
and trapping of the gas molecules throughout the volume of a liCuid, usually by chemical
reaction. %he process of adsorption, on the other hand, involves the contact and trapping
of the gas molecules on the surface of a solid substance.
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Absorption of a specific gas from the air may be accomplished with a simple device
called a bubbler, as illustrated in 1igure. %he air is pumped through a small diffuser and
bubbled up through a liCuid, which will either dissolve the gas under study, or react with
it chemically. 1or e#ample, if a measured volume of air containing sulfur dio#ide is
bubbled through hydrogen pero#ide, <2 32 then sulfuric acid is Cuickly formed, as
described by the following chemical eCuation.
<2 32 J =32 ------ <2=35
%he amount of sulfuric acid that is formed in the reaction can be measured by standard
chemical techniCuesF from that, the amount and concentration of the sulfur dio#ide in the
air sample can be computed.
1igureG - A glass !bubbler" or absorber may be used for sampling specific gaseous
pollutants. 1or e#ample, hydrogen pero#ide will absorb sulfur dio#ide from the air,
forming sulfuric acid. %he level of sulfur dio#ide in the air can be computed after
measuring the amount of sulfuric acid in the bubbler.
An absorption instrument called a twenty-four hour bubbler, shown in 1igure, can be
used to test for three different gases at the same time. =eparate sampling trains with
suitable collecting liCuids in the bubbler are connected in parallel to a vacuum pump. %he
rate of airflow can be controlled and measured. A similar device, called a seCuential
sampler, can be used to collect up to (2 samples in seCuence for fi#ed periods of time,
typically 2 hours. %he seCuential sampler allows peak concentrations of a specific
pollutant to be determined on a daily basis.
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In adsorption instruments, the gas molecules are attracted to the surface of a solid and
held there by molecular bonding forces. Activated carbon is usually used as the adsorbent
materialF it is a porous solid with a very high surface-area-to-volume ratio. 3ther
materials, such as silica gels and alumina are also sometimes used as adsorbents. %he
adsorbent is percolated with a chemical that reacts with and changes color in proportion
to the amount of gas adsorbed. 1or e#ample, the adsorbent in a carbon mono#ide detector
tube will change from yellow to blue-green, as air containing > 3 passes through the
tube. %he > 3 concentration can be measured by comparing the tube color to a calibrated
color chart.
Fi&ure: + +a, A three-gas sampler, and +b, the sampler in an all-weather shelter, +7A>
Division, Anderson =amplers Inc.,
=ometimes it is necessary to collect a small sample of air at a particular location for
subseCuent analysis in a laboratory. %his may have to be done using a minimum of
eCuipment, by an ine#perienced technician. 3ne way of collecting a grab sample, as it is
called, is to utili0e an evacuated flackF when the flask is opened at the sampling location,
the air sample is drawn into it by the vacuum.
Another type of grab sampling device that is effective if the gas under study is insoluble
is the liCuid-displacement collector, illustrated in 1igure. An air sample is drawn in at the
top of the container, displacing the liCuid that is drained out at the bottom. In general,
grab samples are present in the air, since the collected volumes are not large enough for
accurate analysis.
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3n the other end of the spectrum are the modern and sophisticated continuous monitoring
+>/, instruments. %hese instruments combine collection and automatic analysis for
many different air pollutants. Electronic detectors, meters, and recording devices are part
of the sampling train of this eCuipment. >ontinuous graphs showing the hourly change in
pollutant levels or concentrations can be obtained. E#pensive >/ eCuipment is used in
heavily polluted urban areas, as part of an episode warning system.
Fi&ure: + A liCuid displacement collector may be used to obtain a grab sample of air for
later analysis in a laboratory analysis in a laboratory. %he gaseous pollutant to be
measured should not react or dissolve in the liCuid that is used.
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